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The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of The government appealed the court ruling , and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the hearing of the appeal . In October 2013 the court ruled in In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia . in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and freely in East Malaysia without restrictions In reaction to some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution " without an aleph to spell the ' vowel In the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription , God is in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block , which exists " Algorithms " is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal , analysis , and experiments The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2008 was Kazuo Iwama ( Kyoto University ) From May 2014 to September 2019 , the editor - Azerbaijan ( , ;) , at the boundary of Eastern Europe and It is a part of the South Caucasus region the Caspian Sea to the east , Russia to the north , Georgia to the northwest , Armenia and Turkey to the west , and Iran The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991 , shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the same year In September 1991 , the ethnic Armenian majority of recognized as part of Azerbaijan It is one of six independent Turkic states and an active member of the Turkic Council and Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations , including the United Nations , the Council of Europe , the Non-Aligned Movement , the OSCE , It is one of the founding members of GUAM , the CIS , The vast majority of the country's population ( 97% Azerbaijan is a developing country and ranks It has a high rate of economic development , literacy , and a low rate

According to a modern etymology , the term "Azerbaijan " derives from that of the Achaemenid Empire , who was later reinstated as the satrap of Media The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism In the Avesta's "Frawardin Yasht " ("Hymn to is a mention of "âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide " the fravashi of the holy Atropatene . " the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian , probably Median, compounded name with the meaning " Protected by the (Holy) Fire " or "The Land of the (Holy) Fire " The Greek name was mentioned by Diodorus Siculus for the area of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan by the government of Musavat in 1918 , after the collapse of the Russian Empire , when the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic the adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran , while the area of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was formerly During the Soviet rule , the country was also spelled in Latin from Sassanid Iran , and retained its monarchy the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids , Sajids Oghuz Turks from Central Asia , who a Turkic language , the early precursor of the Azerbaijani language were ruled by Eldiguzids , technically vassals of the Seljuk sultans , but of Timur's Empire and assisted him numerous centuries to come a high degree of , as they did with The Safavids allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain the area into the Safavid province of Shirvan parts of present-day Azerbaijan as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578–1590 ; In the wake of the demise of were briefly occupied by the Russians as a consequence of the Russo-Persian War of of his former subjects capitalized on the eruption in the hands of Iran . In 1804 , the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja , sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 Russia occupied it in the 19th century the Gulistan treaty , the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate cede sovereignty over the Erivan Khanate , the Nakhchivan Khanate and the remainder of the Talysh Khanate

Despite the Russian conquest , throughout the entire 19th century It was followed by the March Days massacres 2 April 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of refer to the adjacent northwestern region of contemporary Iran Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was By March 1920 , it was Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army in Karabakh , Azerbaijanis did On 13 October 1921 , the Soviet republics of Russia , Armenia , Azerbaijan with Turkey known as the Treaty of Kars within the Azerbaijan SSR by the treaty of During World War II , Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of the Soviet Union By the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942 , the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan were awarded as the energy (petroleum) dynamo of the USSR . A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named Heroes of Following the politics of "glasnost " , initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev , various regions of the Soviet Union , including response to Moscow's indifference to an already heated conflict , resulted in calls for The early years of independence were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by Armenia . 1994 , Armenians controlled up all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan fled Azerbaijan as refugees during In 1993 , democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was Colonel Surat Huseynov , which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan , Heydar Aliyev . In 1994 , Surat Huseynov , another military coup against Heydar Aliyev , but A year later , in 1995 , of the OMON special unit , Rovshan Javadov . in the killing of the latter his father died in 2003 . He was reelected to a third term On 27 September 2020 , new clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of

Armenia , 756 kilometers with Iran , 480 kilometers with Georgia , 390 kilometers with Russia and 15 kilometers the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section , whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east ; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north The highest peak of Azerbaijan is Mount Bazardüzü the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea ( Only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in which is transboundary with Armenia Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991 , the Azerbaijani government has taken National protection of the environment accelerated after Within four years , protected areas doubled Azerbaijan is home to a wide variety mountain ridges , crests , highlands up to hypsometric levels of 400–1000 meters ( including the Middle and Lower lowlands ) , to 100–120 meters , and others The formation of climate in Azerbaijan of Scandinavian anticyclone , temperate air masses of Julfa and Ordubad – regions of the water systems of Azerbaijan , they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period This is particularly evidenced by the influence of natural forces and human-introduced industrial activities In terms of water supply , Azerbaijan is below the average in of water per square kilometer . They run through the Kura-Aras Lowland . which blazes continuously on a hillside on the Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea near known as the "land of fire There are 106 species of mammals , 97 species of fish , The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper , speed , elegance , The country lies within four ecoregions : it is a presidential republic with three branches on majority vote , with a term of 5 years for each elected member . the formation of the government , but the Constitution requires the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers During the 2010 Parliamentary election , the opposition parties , The executive power is held by the President , who is elected for The president is authorized to form

The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the prime minister must have a majority of 95 votes The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court The President appoints the Cabinet of Ministers and other high-ranking officials The Local Executive Authority is merely a continuation of The Provision determines the legal status of local state administration In June 2012 , the President approved addresses major issues of local self-government , such as the legal status of municipalities , types of local self-government bodies , their basic powers and relationships to other official entities The Law on Municipal Elections and the Law on the Status to be adopted in the field outlines the structure of the executive apparatus and democracy , it remains classified In recent years , large numbers of Azerbaijani journalists , bloggers , lawyers their criticism of President Aliyev and government authorities in all of Eurasia over On 17 March 2016 , the President of of the persons regarded as political prisoners This decree was welcomed as a positive step for bribing foreign officials and diplomats legitimize its elections at home , of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war , composed of European PMs , " , " Open Dialog , European Stability Initiative , and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights ) of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend the use with six countries , sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland . The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence with Turkey , Pakistan , the United States , Iran and Israel Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries It holds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement The term of office began on Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions Azerbaijan was one of the first countries to offer support after the September 11 attacks The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo , Afghanistan and Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO's Partnership for Peace sent to Azerbaijan since 2012 The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 when

When Azerbaijan gained independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991 . As of 2021 , Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces . The armed forces have three branches : the Land Forces , the Air Forces and the Navy . These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service Azerbaijan adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces The defense budget of Azerbaijan for 2011 the needs of the defense industry , which Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions and 77 cities ( "şəhərlər " , singular "şəhər " ) of After gaining independence in 1991 an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR demand growth , the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6% and 25% respectively against this figure , but price increases in the non-oil industry in the Global Competitiveness Report for 2010–2011 , Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease of doing business rank from 57 the economy of the Absheron peninsula in antiquity There are many pipelines in Azerbaijan BP , ExxonMobil , Lukoil the Soviet exploitation , Azerbaijan is considered Access to biocapacity in Azerbaijan Azerbaijan is one of the sponsors Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows , sugar beets , cotton and The Caspian fishing industry concentrates on the dwindling stocks of Tourism is an important part of the economy The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays In the recent years , Azerbaijan has The government of Azerbaijan has set The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries , such as the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy The Baku – Tbilisi – Ceyhan pipeline Georgia , and Turkey . the territory of Azerbaijan , Georgia operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field

of China and Kazakhstan in In the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–2008 ; rapid growth is forecast for through its role in Aztelekom are Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration orbit on 7 February 2013 from Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana at orbital positions 46° East As of January 2019 , 52.8% 50.1% of the total population is female In total , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , 63 city districts , and Azerbaijani is spoken by approximately 92% of the population as a mother tongue . the mother tongue of around 1.5% of the population Juhuri , Khinalug , Kryts , Lezgin , Rutul , Talysh , Tat , Tsakhur Some of these language communities are very Armenian was the majority language in Nagorno-Karabakh Around 97% of the population are Muslims has the second-highest proportion of Shia Muslims of Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh ) In 2003 , there were Lutherans , Baptists and Molokans a 2,000-year history ; Jewish organizations estimate that 12,000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan , which is home to the only Jewish-majority town members of the Baháʼí , Hare Krishna as adherents of the other religious communities . some form of higher education , most , despite two changes in the standard alphabet of males and females (ages nine to forty-nine Since independence , one of Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education ( banned during the Soviet period have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language In addition to elementary schools , the education institutions include thousands of preschools as a result of many influences ; preserved in the country despite Western influences Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture , folk dances and art , cuisine , architecture , cinematography Azerbaijanis , as well as Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi

, which are financed from ("Samur " ) and Talysh languages under the badge of monody , , eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments . " in terms of ethnicity are among the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan Mugham is usually a suite with have to transform their emotions into In contrast to the mugham traditions of compared to the improvised field of jazz of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003 . into a traditional performance art that stands as It is a mystic troubadour or traveling This tradition has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs growing in popularity in Azerbaijan Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music arose with the international popularity of performers like Alim Qasimov , Rashid Behbudov , Vagif Mustafazadeh , Muslim Magomayev , Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest The country's entry gained third place in 2009 Azerbaijan to host the contest in The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoglu Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed Among the poets of this period were poetry in Persian and Arabic of two manuscripts copied in the 16th century It is a collection of 12 stories " in Arabic , Persian his environment , and building upon the legacy of his predecessors , Fuzuli In the same century , Azerbaijani literature further flourished with the development of Ashik ( ) poetic genre of bards . of Khatāī ( for "sinner Azerbaijani , which were later as Qovsi of Tabriz , Shah Abbas Sani , Agha Mesih Shirvani , Nishat , Molla Vali Vidadi , Molla Panah Vagif , Amani , Modern Azerbaijani literature in Azerbaijan is based Akinchi " was published in In the mid-19th century , it was taught in the schools of Baku, Ganja , Shaki , Tbilisi , Azerbaijanis have a rich and distinctive culture , a major part This art form is represented by a wide range of handicrafts , such as chasing , jeweling , engraving in metal , carving in

lasing , pattern weaving and printing Azerbaijan has been since ancient times known as a center of a large variety Azerbaijani carpets can be categorized under several large groups and a multitude of subgroups of vegetables and greens used , basil , parsley , are reflected in the national dishes , which are based on fish and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of Azerbaijani architecture has heavy influences from Persian architecture Palace of the Shirvanshahs in the Walled City Mardakan , Parigala in Yukhary Chardaglar In the 19th and early 20th centuries , little monumental architecture was built in Baku and elsewhere The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application and carved rock paintings with images of deer , goats , bulls , dogs , snakes , birds , fantastic beings , Over the centuries , Azerbaijani art has of Azim Azimzade and Bahruz Kangarli , saw fruition in Azerbaijan . the start of the 20th century , this bay town on the Caspian filmed on the first anniversary of Azerbaijan's independence from Russia , 27 May , and premiered in June 1919 at After the Soviet power was established in In 1991 , after Azerbaijan the professional holiday of filmmakers of Azerbaijan of the Soviet Union in 1920 . , Idman TV and Medeniyyet TV . The Constitution of Azerbaijan claims to guarantee freedom of speech , Spurious legal charges and impunity in violence All religious communities are required to register , under the risk of imprisonment " Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack of religious freedom , since many Radio Liberty and Voice of America are banned During the last few years , three journalists were Azerbaijan had the biggest number of journalists imprisoned in Europe in 2015 and is the 5th most censored country in the world of repression and in the process Human rights organizations remained unable to resume At least 18 prisoners of conscience remained in Reprisals against independent journalists and activists International human rights monitors were barred and expelled luxury goods and launder money through accused of serial human rights abuses , systemic corruption

more than 16,000 covert payments from 2012 to 2014 Some of this money went to politicians and journalists , as part of an international lobbying operation to deflect criticism of Azerbaijan's president , Ilham Aliyev as Azerbaijan's national sport , in which Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan , and the Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan with 9,122 registered players The national football team of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance In 2012 , Neftchi Baku became of a European competition , beating APOEL of Cyprus 4–2 on aggregate in In 2014 , Qarabağ became In 2017 , after beating Futsal is another popular sport in Azerbaijan Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses Backgammon also plays a major role in in June 2012 , and the country hosted its first Formula One Grand Prix on 19 June 2016 and binoculars , or telescopes . Amateur astronomers do not use the field of astronomy as their primary source of income or support , and others have a high degree of experience assist and work alongside professional astronomers others observe during the daytime by Some just look at the sky guide them towards ways of Collectively , amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena . Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun , the Moon , planets , stars , comets , meteor showers , and a variety of deep sky galaxies , and nebulae . objects , or types of on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters for use by amateurs . Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments on a combination of their interests and the night sky with the naked eye , using binoculars , and using a variety of optical telescopes of varying power and the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the spectrum Although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time , relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks records of their observations , which usually takes the form of an observing log

Sketching is sometimes used within has led to large numbers of about their images and equipment . Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy sometimes with the aid of a star chart , many others are so faint as binoculars or a manually driven telescope . It involves the use of maps hopping " between them , often with the aid of a finderscope The advent of mobile applications for use locate celestial objects of interest by These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware in the phone , such as Useful information about the pointed object like celestial coordinates be placed on the two main rotation axes of Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles , as an "analog setting circle " ( ASC By knowing the coordinates of an object ( usually given in equatorial coordinates the appropriate direction before looking through its eyepiece Although digital setting circles can be used To find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer , one up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource , and Rather , the object is chosen from the electronic database , which causes The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values , the object should be in Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the "epoch" year , which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900 , J1950 , J2000 ) . since the 1980s as technology has With these computer-driven telescopes , the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers For example , GOTO telescopes tend items of interest than star hopping With the development of fast Internet in is now a viable means for amateur astronomers This enables anyone to control

The observer can image through the telescope the user by means of the Internet Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including film , DSLR , LRGB , which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas . for many amateur astronomers , unlike professional astronomers Work of scientific merit is possible successfully contribute to the knowledge base of Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection the relatively small number of large telescopes that are Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities brightness of variable stars and supernovae determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge With more advanced equipment , but still cheap in comparison to professional setups , amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects , which are performed with due care . In the past and present , amateur astronomers have played a major role in as a meeting point for those interested Societies range widely in their goals , size , and membership into many different styles , including Iwama Ryu , Iwama Shin Shin Aiki Shuren Kai , Shodokan Aikido , Yoshinkan , Aikikai and Ki Aikido It was originally developed by Morihei Ueshiba , as a synthesis of his martial studies , philosophy and religious beliefs Ueshiba's goal was to create an art Aikido is often translated as " the way of unifying ( According to the founder's philosophy , the primary goal in the practice of aikido is Its curriculum comprises various techniques , primarily throws Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , but began to diverge from it in Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido they studied with him . all over the world in a number of styles , with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis . in the Japanese language outside the scope of to describe a feeling or emotive action as in terms of thinking or aspects of people or Therefore , from a purely literal interpretation ,

"Way of unifying energy " , in which the term refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort . as the synthesis of his martial training , but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation . the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons , such as those for the spear ) , and possibly the . Ueshiba moved to Hokkaidō in under Takeda Sokaku in 1915 ; His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until begun to distance himself from At that time Ueshiba referred to his martial art as " Aiki Budō " After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in , the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion ( a neo-Shinto movement ) in Ayabe . One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of This idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth , the connection with Deguchi As a result of this exposure , he was able to attract Aikido was first introduced to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France , where he demonstrated He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952 , who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative , remaining in Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for The United Kingdom followed in 1955 ; in France in September 1961 . Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965 remains under the control of the Ueshiba family Gozo Shioda in 1955 , and After Ueshiba's death in 1969 , Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo's chief instructor Koichi Tohei , in 1974 Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder The disagreement was over the proper role of

Iwama , Ibaraki and the teaching methodology It is unofficially referred to the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002 to either physical or mental training , as it the Japanese governmental writing reforms after World War II , and and surmises that the secret to lies in timing and the application of In later years , Ueshiba's application of This concept was known as Takemusu Aiki , and many of his later students In aikido , as in The physical training in aikido is diverse , covering both general physical fitness and conditioning , as well as specific techniques Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws , beginners learn of joints such as hips and shoulders , flexibility , and endurance , with less emphasis mass , or power . Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement Aikido training is based primarily on are considered essential to aikido training Both are studying aikido principles of continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities refers to the act of receiving Good involves attention to the technique , the partner , and the immediate environment learn to deliver various types of Many of the of aikido resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object , which indicate its origins in techniques , are practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword . Many of these techniques derive from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , but some others were between organisations and styles ; Aikido makes use of body movement an technique takes place to their side ; a technique is applied with motion to the front of , and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of , From these few basic techniques , there are with a strike ( perhaps with ; , for example , ) employed during an aikido technique . For instance , Gozo Shioda described Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes , or Jūkendō ) , The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword , spear and One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers ,

In Shodokan Aikido , differs in with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker , but and counter at will . In applying a technique during training , it is the responsibility of A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido , as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes even under the stress of dangerous situations This is necessary to enable receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face " in order to execute techniques promotion through a series of "grades by a series of "degrees " Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish or interchangeable with the rank of most other modern martial arts ; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers in Naginatajutsu , kendo , Aikido styles vary in their intention as to the intensity and realism of compliant over time , but to protect themselves and their training partners Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practicing Reasons for the difference and diversity of teachings , intention , be traced to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido . The three classical branches of visual art are painting , sculpture , and architecture literature , music , film , are included in a broader definition Until the 17th century , "art " referred to any skill or mastery The nature of art and related concepts a branch of philosophy known as In the perspective of the history of feel that the typical concept of "artistic works One early sense of the definition of "art Over time , philosophers like Plato , Aristotle , Socrates and Kant , among others , questioned Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions He speaks approvingly of this , and other forms of divine madness and dreaming ) in the "Phaedrus " ( 265a – c

In "Ion " , Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of With regards to the literary art and the musical arts , Aristotle considered epic poetry , tragedy , comedy , imitation by medium , object For example , music imitates with the media of rhythm and The forms also differ in their object Comedy , for instance , Lastly , the forms differ in their manner of imitation — through change or no change , and as an abbreviation for "creative art " : (i ) a study of a creative skill , (ii ) a process ) a product of the creative skill , ) are a collection of disciplines "art " as objects ) that are compelled by a personal drive ( art as activity ) , or symbolism for the perceiver Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts , emotions , beliefs , or ideas through the senses Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images being used in a common or practical way , being used in a commercial or industrial way , made about the art than any clear definitional difference goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression The purpose of works of art perception ; for pleasure ; The nature of art has been of the traditional problems of human culture " Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas , formal elements for their own sake , and Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle . Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant , and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and as the means by which a community for self-expression and interpretation . George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which candidate for appreciation " . Larry Shiner has described fine art as

Art may be characterized in expression , communication of emotion A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks by neanderthals , possibly for using it as jewelry . were discovered in a South African cave . Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations : Ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Persia , India , China , Ancient Greece , Rome , as well as Inca , Maya , and Olmec Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art . of these civilizations , more of to other cultures and later times . In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages , much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture , and of a heavenly world , such as the use of gold in the background of paintings , or glass in mosaics or windows , In the east , Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns , calligraphy , and India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance , while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines . China saw the flourishing of many art forms : jade carving , bronzework , pottery ( including the stunning terracotta army of calligraphy , music , painting , drama , fiction , Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is So , for example , stories via setting and composition Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties much interplay between the styles of calligraphy The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe , as well as as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer , or David's propagandistic paintings . This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans , exemplified in the novels The history of 20th-century art is a narrative

of endless possibilities and the search for Fauvism , Cubism , Dadaism much beyond the time of their invention Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art . an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development Later , African sculptures were taken Modernism , the idealistic search for truth , gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability . Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970 , in relationship to the whole , Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth , which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism , changing forms , which can be with skepticism and irony . In "The Origin of the Work of Art " , Martin Heidegger , a German philosopher and a seminal thinker , describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being He argues that art is the element of truth in a culture it and providing a springboard from which " that which is An example of this is the Silk Road Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples The meeting of different cultures and worldviews The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories , typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media , genre , styles , and form the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance the artist and the physical composition of the artwork , primarily non-semantic aspects of the work ( color , contour , dimension , medium , melody , space , texture , and of philosophy regarding art , content , and context . materials , techniques , and on terminology for these informal properties . in the meaning of a work of It defines the subject as the persons the content as the artist's experience of that subject For example , the composition of borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia as " Emperor-God beyond time Similarly to extreme formalism , philosophers Finally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context

, such as the ideas , The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques to formalism and intentionalism . religious and philosophical convictions , sociopolitical and economic structures , or Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy or , particular in its elevated sense , requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist , whether this be in stylistic approach , or a combination as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success ; for Leonardo da Vinci , art than his other endeavors , was a manifestation by his contemporaries for its virtuosity . A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object . In conceptual art , Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain " is among the first examples of pieces ) and exercised no traditionally recognised set of in other activities ) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art . Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on is a matter of assembly of Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline . The non-motivated purposes of art are those Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or as many of them may Since ancient times , much of wealth or power , often of ownership , across large parts in cheap media such as pottery , which persists in the ground as textiles and wood . In many different cultures , the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that to a social elite , though other forms high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market Another important innovation came in the 15th century in peasants who glued them to

In 1661 , the city of Basel , in Switzerland , opened the first public museum of art in by an impressively wide historic span , from the early 15th century international standing as one of the most significant museums and religious , by their nature , and visitors as viewers , and display to the general public the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts of the Palais Royal in Paris , which could be visited for In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour made from it to the British Museum , established in 1753 . The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765 , in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection , and similar royal galleries Vienna , Munich and other capitals in schools can be traced only provide availability to art Museums in the United States tend to for example , was created One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art , video art , the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... limited edition DVDs of video works , invitations to exclusive performance art pieces , and the objects Many of these performances create works video or piece of apparent garbage it , and the artwork remains " With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s , artists , from the sale of artworks , gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to a wide variety of reasons , though or completely lost to a modern view Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons , including religious ones Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images

the history of Islamic art , where stood for unpopular rulers , parties The iconographic content of art could cause of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in The content of much formal art through history but with the advent of Romanticism the production of art , the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art , increasing the incidence of Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy the clothing of the time , rather than in robes of the antique world In the 20th century , Pablo Picasso's "Guernica " ( 1937 ) used arresting cubist techniques the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town Leon Golub's "Interrogation III " ( 1981 ) Andres Serrano's "Piss Christ " ( 1989 ) is a photograph of a crucifix , sacred to the Christian religion and representing in a glass of the artist's own urine . Before Modernism , aesthetics in achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature This concern is largely absent in The definition and evaluation of art After Greenberg , several important art theorists emerged , such as Michael Fried , T. J. Clark , Rosalind Krauss , Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others . is any activity of any kind-everything . In ' , Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts of the arts before our modern system (fine art Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art as art or craft , Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century , a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art , including the literary arts and the visual arts , This resulted in the rise of In 1946 , William K. Wimsatt and meaning " in the analysis of In another essay , "The Affective Fallacy " , which served as a kind a literary work as a valid means of analyzing This fallacy would later be repudiated

by theorists from the reader-response school of were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism , beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art , but they of interest in themselves , have no bearing on the correct interpretation of Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists fixing the correct interpretation of works . criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process the linguistic turn controversy , or the "innocent eye debate " in the philosophy of art . Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history yet another tradition , namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism . created a work of art titled the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century . Influential theorists include Judith Butler , Luce Irigaray , Julia Kristeva , Michel Foucault and specifically of certain rhetorical tropes , in had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book " Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize other forms of psychological representations of the work a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included , conceptual art , and video games of all classificatory disputes about art . According to Novitz , classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and For example , when the "Daily Mail threaten to make barbarians of about art , but questioning In 1998 , Arthur Danto , the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture Cultural interpretation ( an art theory of some kind the established parameters and values of art with Dadaism and attributed to ( 1917 ) , an ordinary urinal judgments of value , as

was a work of art " It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and At the simplest level , a way to appealing to a majority of viewers In other words , an artist's prime motivation need demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and The assumption of new values or the rebellion concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of aesthetic sensibility , and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself at least one point : once their aesthetic choices are its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings , their audience is aroused to some extent of the human condition ; that is The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations . to protect the works of art try to ensure effective protection at in the event of armed conflicts or This should also secure the economic basis The founding president of Blue Shield International , Karl von Habsburg , explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon “ Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live If you destroy their culture , you also destroy their identity . Agnostida is an order of arthropod which first developed near the end of the Early Cambrian period and thrived during They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from the Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida orders The Agnostida are divided into two suborders subdivided into a number of families As a group , agnostids are similar in size and shape The challenge to the status has focused from those of adult trilobites , of the lamellipedian clade , of which Instead , the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans , although they lack the proximal endite , which defines that group . Their lack of eyes , a morphology

in association with other benthic trilobites suggest lived on areas of the ocean floor which received little or no light and fed on detritus which descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom Their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic of benthic animals , suggesting a pelagic existence The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms , for instance within empty hyolith conchs , within under the carapaces of bivalved arthropods , from predators or strong storm currents ; Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of is known as a miscarriage or "spontaneous abortion " and occurs in is one of the safest procedures in medicine , but unsafe abortion is Modern methods use medication or surgery The drug mifepristone in combination with prostaglandin and effective as surgery during on a woman who desires it increase the risk of long-term mental or physical problems . In contrast , unsafe abortions ( with hazardous equipment , or in the world , with about 45% done at least two decades as access to family planning to legal abortions without limits as Abortion laws and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world . In some areas , abortion is as rape , fetal defects , poverty, risk to a woman's health , or There is debate over the moral, ethical, and legal issues is a person with a right to life , and thus equate make decisions about her own body . Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies . In the United Kingdom , 1 to 2% of the gestational age of the embryo or fetus , which increases in size An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the child will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity ; or at the request of the woman for spontaneous abortion , is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week

of gestation resulting in a live-born infant When a fetus dies in utero after viability , or during delivery , it is usually Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past , and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage , depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman . The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or , other hormonal problems , infection , and abnormalities of the uterus . The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with misoprostol ( or sometimes another prostaglandin analog , gemeprost ) up to 10 weeks ( in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation This regimen is effective in the second trimester In very early abortions , up to 7 weeks gestation , surgical abortion ( vacuum aspiration ) , include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue . to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion . Further research is required to determine as provider-administered medical abortion , where a health care professional has the potential to improve access Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion or embryo , placenta , and membranes by suction using very early in pregnancy . can be used in very early pregnancy ( curettage ) via suction D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons , including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy , investigation of abnormal bleeding , Abortion may also be performed a caesarean section and is performed under It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction , or This procedure may be performed from with dilation and extraction . may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival , which may been used in folk medicine .

Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen . In Southeast Asia , there is Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol and insertion of and clothes hangers into the uterus The health risks of abortion depend principally The World Health Organization ( WHO ) defines unskilled individuals , with hazardous equipment , among the safest procedures in medicine . In the United States as of 2012 , abortion was estimated to CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births In the UK , guidelines of than continuing a pregnancy to term In the US from 2000 to 2009 , abortion had a mortality rate than women who had either first or second trimester abortions The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between ( vacuum aspiration ) in early first trimester abortions Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion , and can be performed in a primary care office , abortion clinic , or hospital . pelvic infection , and retained products of Infections account for one-third of The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in a hospital , surgical center , reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection ; routinely given with abortion pills . to those after first-trimester abortion , and depend somewhat on the method The risk of death from abortion approaches in pregnancy ; from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies For example , the question of Referring to the U.S. , historian Linda Gordon very few women among her more than 100,000 patients — a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time . Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term ; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in

women who choose abortions after seek the help of a person without Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries . Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology , and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade ; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all maternal deaths The World Health Organization believes that mortality has To reduce the number of unsafe abortions emphasizing the legalization of abortion , training of medical personnel , and ensuring access to reproductive-health services . In response , opponents of carry their fetus to term . , in any way , the availability of optimal care to pregnant women . Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is For example , the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications , with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90% Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been lower rates of abortion in that state other states without such laws to obtain of access to effective contraception contributes to the incidence of unsafe abortion could be Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits , while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet safe abortions , unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth this varies by region . The rate of unsafe abortions has increased In many places , where abortion , medical reporting of abortion is 1000 women per year , though per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year with restrictive abortion laws and those with However , restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of The rate of legal , induced According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year

to 30 per 1000 women per year ( Estonia ) in countries with were using a form of contraception less than 6 weeks' gestation , 18% at 7 weeks , 15% at 8 weeks , 18% at 9 through 10 weeks , 10% at 11 through 12 weeks , 6% at 13 through 15 weeks , 4% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1% at more than 21 weeks . 91% of these were classified , dilation and curettage , by " other " ( including hysterotomy and hysterectomy ) and extraction procedures in the US during 2000 ; this accounts for <0.2% of the total number of abortions Wales in 2006 , 89% by vacuum aspiration , 6% by D&E , and 30% were Some of the reasons may include Some abortions are undergone as the result These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race , disapproval of single or early motherhood , stigmatization of people with disabilities , insufficient economic support for families , rejection of contraceptive methods , or In the U.S. , the Supreme Court decisions in the state's interest in the life of the fetus of viability , defined as the point at which the fetus can Even after the point of viability , the state can not favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman . Under the right of privacy , use their "medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother be exercised in the light of All these factors may relate to health Public opinion shifted in America following Unable to obtain a legal abortion in the United States , she traveled to From 1962 to 1965 , an outbreak of German measles left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects In 1967 , the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws . The rate of cancer during pregnancy many cases , cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother , or in response to This is particularly true for

cervical cancer , the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies fetal life ( unless neoadjuvant chemotherapy is Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of teratogenic effects on the fetus , with higher risks Treatment with more than 40 Gy of radiation Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester , especially 8 to 15 weeks of development , , and exposure at this or subsequent stages also put the mother at risk " Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels , haemorrhage , cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site , while abdominal delivery may delay using a number of methods , including herbal medicines , sharp tools , with force , or through as varied as ancient China ( abortifacient knowledge is often attributed to its Vedic age , ancient Egypt with its Ebers Papyrus ( c. 1550 BCE ) , and the Roman Empire in the time of Juvenal One of the earliest known artistic representations of abortion is in a bas relief at Angkor Wat that the Hippocratic Oath forbade Ancient Greek physicians from with this interpretation , and state that the medical texts of Hippocratic Corpus contain apparently not all doctors adhered to it government "Politics " ( 350 BCE ) In Christianity , Pope Sixtus V ( 1585–90 ) was the first Pope before of pregnancy ; and his pronouncement Through most of its history the Catholic Church regard termination of pregnancy before From 1750 , excommunication became A 1995 survey reported that Catholic women are Islamic tradition has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when after conception , 120 days after conception , or quickening . Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians were highly influential in anti-abortion movements In the US , according to some sources , abortion was more Soviet Russia ( 1919 ) , Iceland ( 1935 ) , and Sweden ( 1938 ) were among the first countries to legalize In 1935 , Nazi Germany ,

In both public and private debate , arguments presented abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion , or justification of laws bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question abortion , including complete prohibition , a human fetus is a human person with a right Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws In jurisdictions where abortion is These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus , often using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of the U.S. , on a doctor's evaluation of Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure , prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development , or require obtain the consent of the fetus' father before inform women of health risks of the procedure — sometimes including "risks Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations the pregnancy is a result of rape , or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship In countries where abortion is Nicaragua , medical authorities have recorded doctors' fears of prosecution if they that perform abortions under the guise This is also a terminology in In places where abortion is pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where been providing education about medical abortions The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws Because the ships are registered in the Netherlands , Dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters . to determine sex before childbirth The development of this technology has led to sex-selective abortion , or the termination of a fetus based on its sex Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia , Taiwan , South Korea , India This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion .

At the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 over all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference " In a number of cases , subjected to various forms of violence , including murder , attempted murder , kidnapping , stalking , assault , arson , and Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources In the U.S. and Canada , recorded by providers since 1977 , including over 200 bombings / arsons and hundreds of assaults . John Britton ( 1994 ) , Barnett Slepian ( 1998 ) , and George Tiller ( 2009 ) other personnel at abortion clinics , including James Barrett , Shannon Lowney , Lee Ann Nichols taken place in the United States and , acid attacks , invasions , and incidents of vandalism against Legal protection of access to abortion has been brought into some countries In 2003 , Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a Planned Parenthood facility in Austin of those involved with construction Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals . For example , in sheep In cows , abortion may be caused by contagious disease , such as brucellosis or "Campylobacter skunk cabbage , poison hemlock , and In horses , a fetus may the dominant white gene ( WW ) are or resorbed before birth . Viral infection can cause abortion in Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons , including hormonal imbalance . Abortion may also be induced in animals , in the context For example , abortion may Feticide can occur in horses of pregnant mares or forced copulation , in real estate transactions , is the more common form a piece of land , a house came into possession of the present owner The abstract also records all deeds , wills , mortgages , and In the context of patent law and United States patent law ) of an invention . , also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence Fighting began on April 19, 1775 , followed by the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776

The American Patriots were supported by France place in North America , the Caribbean Established by Royal charter in the 17th and 18th centuries , the American colonies were largely autonomous in domestic affairs and commercially prosperous After British victory in the Seven Years' War in 1763 , tensions arose over the Northwest Territory and taxation measures , including the Stamp Act and Established on September 5, 1774 , the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the King and organized a boycott of British goods . Despite attempts to achieve a peaceful solution , fighting began with the Battle of Lexington on April 19, 1775 and in June within Parliament , both sides increasingly Following the loss of Boston in March 1776 , Sir William Howe , the new British commander - in - chief , He captured New York City in November , before Washington won small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton , In summer 1777 , Howe succeeded Hoping to reverse their expulsion from North America in 1763 , France After Saratoga , the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778 In return for a guarantee of independence , Congress joined France in their global war with Britain and by Howe's replacement , Sir Henry Clinton , which took the war into the Southern United States Despite some initial success , by September 1781 Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force After an attempt to resupply the garrison for another two years , this ended the Seven Years' War ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris , which expelled France from its possessions in New France . At the same time , the British rescinded provisions of the Atlantic to the Pacific ; the Mississippi River became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in the Americas , with free navigation on it " to the open sea " The acquisition of new territories in Atlantic Canada attempts by the British authorities to steer The Proclamation Line of 1763 sought to or south into Florida , and to restrict settlement in

the west to avoid conflict with , acting through a local Governor , the colonies were largely governed by London , colonial militia were funded the French threat in 1763 , the legislatures The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to stop the trade of smuggled goods and enforce 1763 , it had a significant economic impact These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which imposed additional taxes on 1768 , a riot started in " on suspicion of smuggling Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry , which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair , then came to a head in 1773 A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company , which dominated the British economy Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving the Dutch , the Act was opposed yet another attempt to impose the principle of In December 1773 , a group called dumped 342 crates of tea into Over the course of the 18th century , the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested , these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures Conventions , and Conferences , With the exception of Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to an all-out boycott would result in war calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts Expecting concessions by the North administration , of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775 a state of rebellion and instituted The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores After the Patriot victory at Concord , to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute . the offer as insincere ; he refused to present the petition to the king , which was therefore

initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures approved the recruitment of new regiments , Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply The employment of German mercenaries and Catholics against people viewed as British citizens Parliament , as well as of activity by Gage , it allowed the Patriots to take Thomas Jefferson , John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman and Robert Livingston . On July 2 , Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4 , which Washington read to his troops in New York City At this point , the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies engaged in a struggle with Britain , but also split between Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress was split evenly between committed Patriots At the onset of the war , the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of From 1775 to 1776 , it shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence , as well as As the American Revolutionary War unfolded in North America the thirteen states , and a smaller but strategically important one west of the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River and north The full-on military campaigning began in the states north of Maryland , and fighting Valley Forge , General Washington observed British operations He then closed off British initiatives by a series of raids that contained the British army in New York City . Starting in 1779 , the British and the Americans lost an entire army at the siege of Charleston , which caused a severe setback for Patriots in On April 14, 1775 , Sir Thomas Gage , , North America , from 1763 to 1775 and Governor of Massachusetts in 1774 , received orders to take action against Acting on intelligence , Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at Concord by way of Lexington and to capture The operation was to commence before midnight on April 19 and surprise Gage's intentions , and Revere alerted

Captain John Parker , commander of the Concord militia The first action of the war was a brief skirmish a full-scale battle during the Battles of Lexington and Concord , John Burgoyne , and Sir Henry Clinton On June 17 , they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill , a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties On June 14, 1775 , the Continental Congress officially assumed command of patriot forces in Boston , giving birth to Virginia delegate George Washington for commander - in On June 16 , John Hancock officially of the army of the United Colonies . Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in British combat commands during the French and Indian War . He proceeded to Boston to assume field command of the ongoing siege on In early March 1776 , Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery captured from a raid Under the cover of darkness Washington , threatening Boston and the British ships Howe feared another battle like Bunker Hill The British were permitted to withdraw without further casualties on March 17 ( and they sailed to Halifax Beginning in August 1775 , American privateers began raiding villages in Nova Scotia , first at Saint John , with the Iroquois for their support , The second American expedition into the former French territory was defeated on June 8 ended their operations in However , British pursuit was blocked they were cleared on October 11 He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 , promising freedom for slaves Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the Battle of Great Bridge The Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia Negotiations failed in part because Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert colonial rule in the South defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge and Loyalist After regrouping at Halifax , to take the fight to the Americans He sailed for New York in on Staten Island near the entrance to peace on July 30 ; Washington knew that an attack on the city On August 12, 1776 , Patriot Thomas Knowlton was

he would need more than of Benjamin Tallmadge , they launched The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field . Howe outflanked Washington and forced overwhelming odds , Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29 ; General Howe officially met with a delegation On September 15 , Howe seized encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point , The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners . The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back General Sir Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army : the reduced army had dwindled to , and Congress abandoned Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore . In London , news of festivities held in the capital . Public support reached a peak , and : Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one , his inexperienced staff fled in the face of enemy fire The successes led to predictions that safer Maryland , Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River His approach over frozen trails surprised Hessian Colonel Johann Rall The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton , New Jersey , and took The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale , gave dispelled much of the fear of but was repulsed at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek , Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and at Morristown , New Jersey , inoculate all Continental troops against smallpox . to a change in British strategy . the rest of the country by taking control of the Hudson River , allowing them to focus on the south In December 1776 , Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , proposing a limited offensive Burgoyne supplied several alternatives , all for the offensive , with Howe down the Hudson Valley , while a detachment Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777 , with a mixed force of British regulars , German auxiliaries and Canadian militia , and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5 , dammed streams , and stripped

; on one of these , more than 700 British troops were captured at at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6 , and withdrew to Quebec on Gates , Burgoyne continued onto Morale among his troops rapidly declined force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights , By October 11 , all hope of reduced the camp to a "squalid hell " of mud and starving cattle , After securing additional supplies , Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20 , Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26 , with the main force of 9,000 under Howe the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively , and placed obstacles in This was supported by a small flotilla the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank on November 16 , while Fort Mercer On December 19 , the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at with Germantown , which demonstrated Over the winter , poor conditions , supply problems and low morale resulted in unfit for duty due to to the entire Continental Army ; he did in each regiment , who then Like his predecessors , French foreign minister Vergennes considered the war as an opportunity to weaken Although public opinion favored the American cause , Many Americans opposed a French alliance , fearing changed after a series of military setbacks Britain , Congress had three choices ; making peace on British terms own , or proclaiming independence , guaranteed by France . Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had of an alliance with France , and over 20% of Congressmen voted Silas Deane was sent to Paris in 1772 , the value of Talks progressed slowly until October 1777 On February 6, 1778 , France and a defensive military alliance against Britain , the Treaty of Alliance In return for French guarantees of

defend their interests in the West Indies , Charles III of Spain was invited concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas . to American success , in the Treaty of Aranjuez ( 1779 ) , Charles with Britain outside America , in return for help in example , the French claimed exclusive control of ' foreign entanglements ' ; the US would not sign another treaty until the NATO agreement in 1949 . To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence , the US representative in Paris , Silas Deane promised promotion tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade for service in America , but they still dominated the European carrying trade , war in December 1780 , a conflict The British government failed to take into support from European countries , which and continue trading with relative impunity on a war footing for cost reasons ; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests He did not welcome war with France , but he believed the British victories over France in in ultimate victory over France . Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France At the end of 1777 , Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778 ; with French entry into the war , he was ordered to consolidate his forces in On June 18 , the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit ; the Battle of Monmouth on Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments , held the field at the end of the day . a combined attack on Newport , with putting their ships at risk . In July 1779 , the Americans captured Washington into a decisive engagement by sending In July , a large American naval operation , Maine , then part of Massachusetts In June 1780 , Clinton sent 6,000 men under Wilhelm von Knyphausen to retake halted by local militia at the Battle of Connecticut Farms A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat

ending their ambitions in New Jersey . In July , Washington appointed Benedict Arnold commander of West Point ; his attempt to betray the fort to the British The war to the west of the Appalachians was largely confined to skirmishing In February 1778 , an expedition of settlements along the Cuyahoga River was halted In early 1779 , the Virginians counterattacked in the siege of Fort Vincennes and On May 25, 1780 , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile . Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis the Virginia county courthouse at Cahokia by Lieutenant Colonel Clark The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of It led to men of Lord Germain , based on input from London-based Loyalists like Joseph Galloway . to fight the Patriots in the north trade with Britain , regardless On the other hand , duties on required small numbers of regular troops . British possessions in the south , Canada to the north , and Ohio on their western border ; with the Atlantic seaboard Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prévost , advance into Georgia in December 1778 He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100 In June , Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston , before notorious for widespread looting by British troops In October , a joint French and American operation under captured Charleston in May 1780 , inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war ; On May 29 , Loyalist regular Banastre Tarleton defeated an American force of 400 at the Battle of Waxhaws Clinton returned to New York , ; despite their success , the two men left barely on speaking terms , with dire consequences for the future conduct of The Southern strategy depended on local support , ; they were now required In July , Congress appointed General Horatio Gates commander in the south ; he was defeated at the Battle of Camden on

Despite battlefield success , the British could , Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson to cover his left flank , In early October , Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain , dispersing under Daniel Morgan , who defeated Tarleton's British Legion at Cowpens on January 17, 1781 The Patriots now held the initiative in the south , with the exception of a raid on Richmond led by Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina ; by early March , the British were exhausted and short of supplies to fight the Battle of Guilford Court House the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas When Spain joined France's war against Britain in 1779 , their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America the war , Bernardo de Gálvez , the Governor The trade was organized by Oliver Pollock , a successful merchant in Havana and Despite official neutrality , Gálvez initiated First , he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge , Louisiana , Fort Bute , and Natchez , Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City ; he In Charleston , Cornwallis independently would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia , but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to Yorktown , where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation the failure of previous combined operations at Newport , Cornwallis made no attempt to On August 31 , a British fleet under Thomas Graves left New York for Yorktown After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30 , de Grasse had remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5 in terms of losses , Graves was forced to retreat An attempted breakout over the York River at Gloucester Point Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies , to Washington to negotiate surrender ; after twelve hours of negotiations Responsibility for defeat was the subject Subsequent to Yorktown , American forces In the South , Generals Greene and

British at Savanna and Charleston Loyalist provincial militias of whites and free blacks with their slaves were transported in Washington moved his army to New Windsor At that time , Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washington's Continental Army and began had to defeat the Continental Army in Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare The second was a civil war with all thirteen states The third element was a global war between France , Spain , the Dutch Republic and Britain , with America as one of a number of different theaters After entering the war in 1778 , France provided the Americans money , weapons , soldiers , and under US command in North America . they still dominated the European carrying trade , and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots . The Dutch were also excluded from the First League of Armed Neutrality , formed by Russia , Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion on imports from their mother country that They were spread across most Most farms were remote from the seaports Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia in North America west to the Mississippi River in In the American Revolution , they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers , and the Patriots had more popular support lacked a professional army or navy , Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers Local county militias were reluctant to travel the Continental Army on June 14, 1775 , the origin of the modern United States Army , and appointed , he was still permitted , such as Nathanael Greene , , and Alexander Hamilton , the chief One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer the Prussian general staff who wrote the Revolutionary War Drill Manual . Concord , Boston , Bennington Washington designed the overall military strategy of the war

in cooperation with Congress , established the principle of civilian supremacy in , the Continental Army was largely supplemented Initially , Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in Fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers By prevailing European standards , the armies in limited by lack of supplies the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and dependence on local supplies , while the combined Franco-American army at Yorktown equaled their opponents in tactics and ) , Saratoga ( 1777 ) , and Yorktown ( 1781 ) were won from base with a greater number of troops Nevertheless , after 1778 , Valley Forge , it proved its ability to match the British troops in action more important in the long run . we have an army in the field the war effort and provided supplies to the troops , Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war Congress evolved in its committee oversight and ensnared with its own internal procedures , Congress also created the post of Secretary of War , and appointed Major General Benjamin Lincoln in February 1781 to the position During the first summer of the war , supplying the British in Boston . , and appointed Esek Hopkins as HMS "Drake " on April 24, 1778 , " commanded by Captain John Barry . escorting Spanish gold from Havana to advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors Overall , they included 1,700 ships themselves with the proceeds from the sale At the beginning of the war , Over time , the Continental Army acquitted The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance guaranteed American independence from Britain . To engage the United States as a French ally militarily , the treaty was conditioned France to stop it from On June 13, 1778 , France declared war on Great Britain , and it invoked the French military alliance with the US through Lafayette on his staff . The British military had considerable experience of fighting

well as support from the colonial militia Prior to the conflict , the colonies Philadelphia , the seat of Congress , New York and Charleston . British power was reliant on the Royal Navy The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower squandered the chance of a decisive British success in The expulsion of France from North America in British troop levels in the colonies ; in 1775 , there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million The bulk of military resources in the Americas in the Caribbean ; Jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined Over the course of the war , appointed in 1763 , his initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas in London blamed the revolt on , and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at Bunker Hill the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia , requiring a reassessment of despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems , such as Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission , In 1778 , Howe was Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy , like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues In addition , Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in in early 1781 by Rodney . of the south in 1781 and During the 18th century , all states commonly during the Seven Years' War , they comprised America , it was decided There were several reasons for this , including public sympathy for the Patriot cause An alternate source was readily available in the Holy Roman Empire , where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to in late 1775 ; over the next decade , more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America , Gibraltar , South Africa and included men from many other states , including Hanover and Brunswick . Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain , France

Frederick the Great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired In March 1776 , the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to "coercion " of foreign soldiers to subdue "British subjects " The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers , which reprinted war on his own subjects , leading , while the employment of 'foreign mercenaries levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence When the first German troops arrived on Staten Island in August 1776 , Congress approved Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris as the Patriots had widespread support . Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population , they were concentrated in 1777–1778 , they were faced with a major problem : any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots After Congress rejected the Carlisle Peace Commission in " hard war " during Clinton's command allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat some of the best troops in British service the British Army : it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery . It was commanded by Banastre Tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War ; they often accompanied their husbands For example , throughout the war Martha Washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps , and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and Women also assumed military roles : , fight , or act as spies on both sides of Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army and wore men's clothes by the time On April 26, 1777 , Sybil Ludington rode to alert militia forces of Putnam County them of the British's approach ; she A few others disguised themselves as men of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves ,

In November 1775 , Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of Virginia , issued Although the announcement helped to fill the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines , many of to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service While Clinton organized the Black Pioneers , returned to Loyalist owners with orders from 25,000 to 50,000 , excluding those who escaped during Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves in total escapes Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in to replace losses from disease however , only 140 of its 225 soldiers Ultimately , around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units , aboard privateers , or a point of contention ; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781 In 1782 and 1783 , from Charleston , Savannah , and New York ; some moved , where they founded settlements White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica A few tribes were friendly with the colonists , but most Natives opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to Early in July 1776 , Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District of Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina In 1778 , a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into , and Cayuga tribes sided with To retaliate against raids on In the western theater of the American Revolutionary War , , delegated control of the war in North America to Lord George Germain and the Earl of Sandwich especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778 acceptance of the principle of self-government Parliament would recognize Congress as surrender its right to local colonial taxation , When the commissioners returned to London in November 1778 , they recommended - Chief in America , the rebels as enemies , rather to exploit divisions between the mercantile north

the defeat of Yorktown , he the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed On February 27, 1782 , a Whig motion to to Prime Minister , Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation All were experienced in Congressional leadership The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin the French Court , but he was also an Enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of European great powers in Prussia , and Austria , a Catholic empire an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation , and then a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London John Adams of Massachusetts had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was John Jay as president of Congress The Whig negotiators for Lord Rockingham and his successor , who had negotiated Laurens' release and they had little interest in dependent on them for support against Britain , thus reversing with Britain excluding the Americans ; the US along the Appalachians , matching Facing difficulties with Spain over charge of the British negotiations , agreed An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782 , and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783 . It announced the achievement of peace with independence ; the "conclusive" treaty was signed on September 2, 1783 , in when Britain signed its treaty with Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power , referring to the American victory as The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had The last uniformed British troops departed their last east coast port cities in Savannah , Charleston , and New York City " all acts of hostility " Washington , General Carleton issued a similar order " until the "definitive treaty of peace The US armies were directly disbanded in It included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the Great Lakes Line between the Appalachian Mountains The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years Virginia's Kentucky County counted 150 men in 1775 Britain's extended post-war policy for the US continued to

by the British for the treaty , Instead , they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the Northwest Indian War ( 1785–1795 ) , including British sponsorship of local warfare on the United States Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created United States , Spain was developed a combination of initiatives . Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi and the previous northern boundaries of Spanish Florida It imposed a high tariff on American goods Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to Southwestern Natives to resist American settlement Kentucky County Virginia in 1784 , and The total loss of life throughout the conflict as smallpox claimed more lives than throughout North America , killing an estimated 130,000 among all its populations during those years . killed in battle , while at 6,046 in North America ( a striking resemblance to the US Constitution , often word Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of the contradiction of demanding liberty for to others , the dependence of In 1782 , Virginia passed With support from Benjamin Franklin , Adams who viewed slavery as a 'foul contagion ' opposed the 1790 petition as the constitutional rights of Englishmen , especially "No taxation Contemporaries credited the American Enlightenment with laying the intellectual, moral and ethical foundations of the Revolution among the Founding Fathers Founders referred to the liberalism in the philosophy of John Locke as powerful influences on American thinkers , historians David Lundberg and Historians since the 1960s have emphasized by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united all 13 colonies . In turn , that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system that demanded an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies was based on the winners of to the majority of white men . The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context , including revolutions in France but allowed for continuation of After the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849 , the U.S. Post Office frequently issued

In addition to this selection , many primary sources are available at the Princeton University Law School Avalon Project to amp , is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units ( The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring the electromagnetic force The earlier CGS system had two different definitions of current , with the unit of charge The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes through a circuit ) over a period The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère ( 1775–1836 ) laid the foundation of electrodynamics . The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre – gram – the abampere , was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one The "international ampere " was an early realization of the ampere , defined as the current that would deposit of silver In mathematics and computer science , an algorithm ( ) is a finite sequence of well-defined instructions Algorithms are used as specifications , automated reasoning , automated decision-making and As an effective method , an algorithm can space and time , and " and terminating at a final ending state The concept of algorithm has existed , were used by ancient Babylonian mathematicians Greek mathematicians later used algorithms in 240 BC in the sieve of Eratosthenes from the name of the 9th-century Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī Latinized " as Algoritmi ( astronomer , geographer , and scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad that was part of Greater Iran and is now in Uzbekistan on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system , which was translated into Latin during the 12th century Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe in the late Middle Ages , primarily through another of his books , the Algebra In late medieval Latin , " algorismus In the 15th century , under the influence

A partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithm by David Hilbert in 1928 . and smaller without limit … after another , in some notation of certain enumerably infinite sets : They can the n'"th member of the set " , in which " they could also used to define the notion of decidability — a notion that a small set of axioms and rules The informal definitions of algorithms generally require associated with processing information , data can be read from an input source Stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing For some of these computational processes , precise steps , the order of computation is always crucial to the functioning This is the most common conception — one which attempts to describe a task in discrete , "mechanical" means . Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms It derives from the intuition of "memory " as a scratchpad . Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation , including natural languages , pseudocode , flowcharts , drakon-charts , programming languages or Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to algorithms that avoid many of Algorithm design refers to a method or The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories of operation research , such as dynamic programming and divide In computer systems , an algorithm is in software by software developers , by an algorithm " : For between the notion of "algorithm " , i.e. procedure and the notion of a tradeoff between goodness ( speed ) and elegance ( compactness)—an elegant program ) , models of computation " : A computer ( or Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's "abacus" model Besides HALT , Minsky's machine includes three "assignment " ( replacement, substitution) operations : by 0 : L ← 0 with only four general "types " of instructions : conditional GOTO , unconditional GOTO , assignment/replacement/substitution , and HALT . INCREMENT , and ZERO/CLEAR/EMPTY for for Turing-completeness ; their exact specification is " : Knuth advises the reader paper and work through an example

The programmer must translate the algorithm into Stone gives an example of this we base complexity theory on abstract of the choice of a model remains . It is at this point that –Turing thesis , any algorithm can be per Minsky's demonstrations , Turing completeness requires , assignment , HALT . only these instructions ; on the other hand " to write badly structured programs in a structured language Tausworthe augments the three Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures : SEQUENCE : DO-WHILE and CASE . and a computer program of one ) Like the program flow of a Minsky machine , a flowchart always starts at the top Its primary symbols are only four : the directed arrow SEQUENCE , GOTO ) , the diamond ( IF-THEN-ELSE ) , In mathematics , the Euclidean algorithm , ) of two integers ( numbers It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in his "Elements " ( c. 300 BC It is one of the oldest algorithms of units " : a counting number as Euclid's , when the numbers , it yields the number " 1 " for their common measure . be found at the top of of an outer "Euclid loop " , " A few test cases usually give some confidence in For test cases , one source uses Ditto for "Elegant " : B > A , A > B the function computed by the algorithm/program , is to include only positive integers including " Proof of program correctness by use of mathematical induction " : Knuth demonstrates the application of mathematical induction to an "extended" version of Euclid's algorithm , goodness ( speed ) " : With only six core instructions , "Elegant to "Inelegant " at thirteen instructions arrives at HALT in fewer steps does "two" conditional tests in every subtraction loop , be improved by the elimination of Comparison with "Elegant " provides This change calls for the addition of three instructions ( B = 0 ? , GOTO ) . Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers ( estimates ) ;

have a time requirement of " O(n and its current position in the input list . Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time , space , or 'effort algorithms is a discipline of computer science abstractly without the use of a specific programming language In this sense , algorithm analysis resembles on the underlying properties of the algorithm and are usually implemented on particular hardware/software platforms For the solution of a "one off" problem , for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage heavily in the field of image processing on special properties of the problem , Every field of science has its own problems Related problems in one field are often Fields tend to overlap with of other , sometimes completely Some problems may have multiple algorithms of Algorithms , by themselves , solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts , numbers , or signals For example , in Diamond The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in the Babylonian mathematics of ancient Mesopotamia ( Baghdad and dated to circa During the Hammurabi dynasty circa 1800-1600 BC, Babylonian clay tablets described algorithms Algorithms were also used in found in ancient Egyptian mathematics , dating Algorithms were later used in keep track of their flocks , their sacks of grain and their money sticks or making discrete symbols in Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and developed by Al-Kindi , a 9th-century Arab mathematician , in "A Manuscript On Deciphering Cryptographic Messages " . credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as " The key invention [ of Europe in the Middle Ages ] " , the tick and tock of a mechanical clock to "mechanical automata " beginning in and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Jevons ( 1880 ) describes of wood furnished with pins I have reduced the system to embodied the whole of the indirect process of 21 keys like those of a piano to this effort : " I , to Prof. Jevon's "abacus " ... , corresponding to Prof. Jevons's logical machine ,

and telephony – the electromechanical relay " ( 1801 ) , precursor to Hollerith cards ( punch cards , 1887 ) , and "telephone switching technologies leading to the development of the first computers of the telephone , was in of George Stibitz ( 1937 ) , the inventor of the digital adding device . As he worked in Bell Laboratories , he observed the "burdensome' use of : In rapid succession , the mathematics of George Boole ( 1847, 1854 ) , Gottlob Frege ( 1879 ) , and Giuseppe Peano ( 1888–1889 of symbols manipulated by rules written in logic .... in , a language written with special symbols , " for pure thought " from rhetorical embellishments ... constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according paradox ( 1897 ) , by Hilbert in 1928 , an "effective method " or "effective calculation " or "effective calculability " ( i.e., a calculation Alonzo Church , Stephen Kleene and J.B. Rosser's λ - calculus a finely honed definition of "general recursion " from the work of Gödel acting on suggestions of Jacques Herbrand Gödel's Princeton lectures of 1934 ) and , Emil Post's definition of effective calculability as right through a sequence of rooms " , J. Barkley Rosser's definition of "effective method " in terms of " a machine Alan Turing's work preceded that of Stibitz ( 1937 ) ; it of the work of Turing . a boy ; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter , with an analysis of a human computer states of mind " . A number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of "algorithm " , and in particular, foundations of mathematics ( especially the Church–Turing thesis ) and philosophy of mind ( especially arguments about artificial intelligence ) An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle , from germination to the production of seeds , within one growing season , and then dies The length of growing seasons and period in which they take place With respect to the traditional seasons , annual plants are generally categorized into

Summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn in about five weeks under a bank of This style of growing is often used in classrooms for education In cultivation , many food plants are , or are grown as Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for grown as annual crops for their edible roots , petioles and leaves , the ground , where they are snow cover , and make use of warm periods in winter for prevents soil erosion during winter and they provide fresh vegetation for animals in commercial agriculture , because they ovary smut , "Microbotryum" sp . ) In 2008 , it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes to its conversion into a perennial plant . Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes ( which The anthophytes are a grouping of plant taxa with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and to reduce the microbial load in the mouth keep the mouth moist in xerostomia ( reduce the availability of salivary fluoride . be rinsed out with water as part of a National Health Service campaign in to sit in the back of Gargling is practiced in Japan for perceived prevention of viral infection . One commonly used way is with infusions or are used at home as its use and recommendation involves concerns Some manufacturers of mouthwash state that their antiseptic and antiplaque mouthwashes , gingivitis , and bad breath for both brushing and flossing . For many patients , however , Minor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very of a dry mouth , etc . , coloring , flavors and Prescription mouthwashes are used prior to as tooth extraction , or to caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy They are also prescribed for aphthous ulcers , other oral ulcers , and " Magic mouthwashes " are prescription mouthwashes compounded in a pharmacy from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor Despite a lack of evidence that decreasing the pain of oral lesions , evaluate the efficacy of magic mouthwash ; it shows no difference in efficacy

between the most common magic-mouthwash formulation , on the one hand as chlorhexidine ) or a saline The first known references to mouth rinsing is in Ayurveda for treatment of gingivitis Later , in the Greek and Roman periods , mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes , and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt , alum , and vinegar . advanced than European dentistry of the age deposits on the teeth ( what we now call dental plaque ) He also found organisms in He experimented with samples by the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms of himself and somebody else That remained the state of affairs the Royal Dental College in Aarhus , Denmark prevent the build-up of dental plaque . in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis , in addition to Many of these solutions aim to lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent Alcohol is added to mouthwash essential active ingredients such as menthol , a carrier for the flavor , to is possible to fail a breathalyzer test return to normal after 10 minutes In addition , alcohol is times for users of alcohol-containing mouthwash ( with a higher rate of increase In addition , the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children The review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions Yinka Ebo of Cancer Research UK disputed the findings support an association between alcohol-containing mouth rinses and Andrew Penman , chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales , called for further research on In a March 2009 brief , the American Dental Association said a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse Betamethasone is sometimes used as ) is used in some specialized mouthwashes used in a 0.12–0.2% solution as a mouthwash It has anti-plaque action , but It is especially effective against The proportion of Gram-negative rods increase as gingivitis develops , so it is

It is sometimes used as with toothbrushing and flossing . In the short term , if toothbrushing primary herpetic gingivostomatitis , chlorhexidine mouthwash is used as a temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures . use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis , however Rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of a dry socket , from an extraction socket and bone is Chlorhexidine has good "substantivity " ( to hard and soft tissues in the mouth ) However , chlorhexidine binds to in persons who consume coffee Chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia , desquamation and irritation of oral mucosa , salivary gland pain and swelling , and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis . Morocco found better results in plaque inhibition teeth over a period of time In traditional Ayurvedic medicine , the use of ( "oil swishing " ) or , which are known as ama in Ayurvedic medicine , and When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study , it was found The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then been extracted from plants . be more effective than traditional mouthcare Hydrogen peroxide can be used as It kills anaerobic bacteria , and contact with debris in mouth It is often used in Oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of mucositis symptoms ( inflammation of mucous membranes ) induced by radiation antiinflammatory , and analgesic agent , a flavoring , and a fragrance . Methyl salicylate has some anti-plaque action , but from plants such as "Sanguinaria canadensis " ( bloodroot ) , " Argemone mexicana " ( Mexican prickly associated with the development of leukoplakia ( a white patch in the mouth ) , usually in the buccal sulcus . This type of leukoplakia has been more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have Upon stopping contact with the causative substance , the lesions may persist for Although this type of leukoplakia may salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash ,

indicated for any of the reasons Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride able to produce such a formulation from a cup of water which is causing discomfort in the mouth . Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action in relation to bacteria , The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow ( hyperemia ) to the surgical site , promoting healing Hot saltwater mouthwashes also encourage the draining of applied on the side of the face the mouth , it may cause associated with an area of fibrosis sometimes abbreviated to "HSWMW " of wound cleanliness after surgery . In dental extractions , hot saltwater mouthbaths should Sodium lauryl sulfate ( SLS ) is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose . in adults ( it causes red staining of teeth in children It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration ( an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis lead to oral candidiasis , as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence Similarly , minocycline mouthwashes of 0.5% concentrations can relieve symptoms of recurrent aphthous stomatitis Triclosan is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in When used in mouthwash ( when combined with a copolymer or zinc citrate . Triclosan does not cause staining Astringents like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation ; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC ) , commonly known as Alexander the Great , was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom was born in Pella — a city in Ancient Greece — in the throne at the age of 20 , and a lengthy military campaign throughout Western Asia and Northeastern Africa By the age of thirty , he had created one of the largest empires in history , stretching from Greece During his youth , Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16 336 BC at the wedding of Cleopatra of Macedon assumed the throne of the Kingdom of Macedon . After sacking the city of Thebes In 334 BC he invaded the Achaemenid Empire

( Persian Empire ) and began a series of campaigns that lasted Following his conquest of Asia Minor ( the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles , including those at Issus and Gaugamela . conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety . At that point , his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River . Alexander endeavored to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea " and invaded India in 326 BC , achieving an important victory over King Porus his homesick troops , dying in 323 BC in Babylon , the city he Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism as Greco-Buddhism and Hellenistic Judaism . He founded more than twenty cities that bore his name , most notably Alexandria in Egypt Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture resulted in Hellenistic civilization , which developed through the Roman Empire The Greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the Byzantine Empire up until its end in the mid-15th century AD Greek-speaking communities in central and far eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and the population exchange in the 1920s Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles , His military achievements and enduring, unprecedented success in battle which many later military leaders would compare themselves Alexander was born in Pella , the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon , on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion , which probably corresponds to 20 July 356 BC He was the son of the king of Macedon , Philip II , and his fourth wife , Olympias , daughter of Neoptolemus I , king Several legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip , Olympias dreamed himself , in a dream , Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations indicated by the sealing of her womb On the day Alexander was born , Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on

on this day , the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus , one of the Seven Wonders of the World This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say attending the birth of Alexander . In his early years , Alexander was raised by a nurse , Lanike, sister was tutored by the strict Leonidas , a relative of his mother , and by Lysimachus of Acarnania . to sell for thirteen talents . , and Philip ordered it overjoyed at this display of courage Macedon is too small for you " , and bought Philip began to search for a tutor , and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus , In the end , Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles , such as Ptolemy , Hephaistion , and Cassander . Many of these students would become are often known as the "Companions Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine , philosophy , morals , religion , logic During his youth , Alexander was also acquainted with Persian exiles at the Macedonian court , who received the protection of Philip II for several years as Alexander , who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC , as of Alexander , or a Persian nobleman At the age of 16 , Alexander's education under During Philip's absence , the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia . Upon Philip's return , Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus , Alexander reportedly saved his father's life Meanwhile , the city of Amphissa While Philip was occupied in Thrace , Alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign Philip and his army joined his son in 338 BC , and they taking it after stubborn resistance from the city of Elatea , only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes . with Thebes against Macedonia . Both Athens and Philip sent embassies Philip marched on Amphissa ( ostensibly acting on the request of

his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea , Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander According to the ancient sources , the two sides fought bitterly for some time . After the victory at Chaeronea , At Corinth , Philip established the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars ) , which included most Greek city-states except Sparta When Philip returned to Pella , he fell in love 338 BC , the niece of his general Attalus The marriage made Alexander's position as heir In 337 BC , Alexander fled Macedon with his mother , dropping Dodona , capital of the Molossians He continued to Illyria , where he sought refuge with one or more Illyrian kings , perhaps with Glaukias , and was treated as In the following year , the Persian satrap ( governor ) of Caria , Olympias and several of Alexander's friends , Thessalus of Corinth , When Philip heard of this , he stopped the negotiations and marry the daughter of a Carian , of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother , Alexander I of Epirus , Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards , Pausanias . As Pausanias tried to escape , he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers , including two of Alexander's companions , Perdiccas and Leonnatus . Alexander began his reign by eliminating He had his cousin , the former Amyntas IV He also had two Macedonian princes from , her daughter by Philip , When Alexander learned about this with Demosthenes , regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens . Alexander , and following Cleopatra's murder News of Philip's death roused many states into revolt , including Thebes , Athens , Thessaly , and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon , Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa , adding their cavalry to Alexander's force . Alexander stopped at Thermopylae , the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading Athens sued for peace and The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes to the side , as he

This reply apparently delighted Alexander , At Corinth , Alexander took the title of "Hegemon " ( commander for the coming war against Persia Before crossing to Asia , Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders In the spring of 335 BC , he advanced to suppress several revolts Starting from Amphipolis , he travelled east into the country of The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi , and defeated their army near the Lyginus river ( a tributary of Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube , encountering the Getae tribe Cleitus , King of Illyria , and King Glaukias of the Taulantii were in open revolt against his authority Alexander defeated each in turn The end of Thebes cowed Athens , leaving all of Greece After his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea ( the work of establishing himself as in 480 and free the Greek cities of the western coast and islands from In 336 he sent Parmenion , with Amyntas , Andromenes and Attalus , and an army of 10,000 men into Anatolia to make preparations for an invasion . The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia , Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers , 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries , and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace , Paionia , and He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus , Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis ; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast , granting autonomy and democracy to the cities . , in Caria , Alexander From Halicarnassus , Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain , From Pamphylia onwards the coast held At Termessos , Alexander humbled At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium , await the future "king of Asia "

Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia After a long pause due to an illness he marched back to Cilicia , where he defeated Darius Darius fled the battle , causing left behind his wife , his two daughters He offered a peace treaty that included , and a ransom of 10,000 talents Alexander proceeded to take possession of Syria , and most of the coast of the Levant . In the following year , 332 BC , he was forced to attack most of the towns on the route However , Alexander was met with resistance at Gaza . the height of the mound it would After three unsuccessful assaults , the stronghold fell Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander After his trip to Siwa , Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis . It appears that the Egyptian people did the Persians and dedicated new monuments to In the temple of Luxor , near Karnak , he built Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC , where he was be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs , Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert to Zeus-Ammon as his true father , of Ammon as a symbol of During his stay in Egypt , he founded Alexandria , which Leaving Egypt in 331 BC , Alexander marched eastward into Achaemenid Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia ( now northern Iraq ) , and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela . From Babylon , Alexander went to Susa , one of the Achaemenid capitals , and captured its treasury He sent the bulk of his army Alexander then chased Darius , first into Media , and and then declared himself Darius's successor as Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne have fallen with Darius . community life and the general structure of government

Alexander under his own rule , he , in the words of the Iranologist Pierre Briant Alexander viewed Bessus as a usurper , turned into a grand tour of Alexander founded a series of new cities including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan , and Alexandria Eschate ( "The Furthest " In 329 BC, Spitamenes , who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana , betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy , one of Alexander's trusted companions , on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army , Spitamenes raised Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes , defeating him During this time , Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court , notably the custom of the hand , or prostration on the ground , that Persians showed This was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy The Greeks however regarded the gesture of "proskynesis " as the province of meant to deify himself by During the long rule of the Achaemenids , the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government , the army , for Iranians and to a major degree Persian noblemen This created a problem for Alexander to make use of the various segments he demonstrated awareness of this the Achaemenid monarchy's ideology , particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants Alexander wrote a letter in 332 BC to Darius III , wherein he the Achaemenid palace at Persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of for him to pose himself A plot against his life was revealed The death of the son necessitated the death of the father , and thus Parmenion with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana Later , in the Central Asian campaign , a second plot against his life was revealed His official historian , Callisthenes of Olynthus , was implicated in the plot , and as punishment , and likely Asia , he left his general Antipater , an experienced military and political leader and part of

Philip II's "Old Guard " , in charge The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC , in the battle of Megalopolis . Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia . his conquest , which stimulated the economy After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian his new satrapies , Alexander turned to He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy and submit to his authority . of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes ( including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas ( Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents , placing himself and all his forces at his disposal . also presented him with a wardrobe and 1,000 talents in gold " On the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king , Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River . After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of his life at the hands of his old enemy were reconciled by the personal mediation of the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes with the government of the whole territory between In the winter of 327/326 BC , Alexander personally led a campaign against the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys , the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley , and the Assakenoi which Alexander was wounded in The fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting the entire population of Massaga , but A similar slaughter followed at Ora . In the aftermath of Massaga and After Aornos , Alexander crossed an epic battle against King Porus , who and the Acesines ( Chenab ) Alexander was impressed by Porus's bravery He appointed Porus as satrap , and added to Porus's territory land up to the Hyphasis (Beas ) . Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river , naming one Bucephala

, in honour of his horse , who died around this time at the site of modern-day Mong , the Ganges River , was the Nanda Empire of Magadha , and further east , the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent campaigning , Alexander's army mutinied at Alexander sent much of his army general Craterus , and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus , while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran . his absence , Alexander executed several of them as examples on As a gesture of thanks , he paid off the debts of His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis . , Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness , held a great banquet with several thousand of Persia , Alexander learned that Alexander admired Cyrus the Great , from which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and Afterwards , Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander , and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon , as well as a decree for public mourning . On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC , Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II , in Babylon , at age 32 There are two different versions of Alexander's death , and details of the death before his death , Alexander entertained Alexander developed a fever , which silently waved at them . In the second account , Diodorus recounts pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to in multiple accounts of his death . the victim of a poisoning conspiracy , Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication , for the sake of completeness . as the head of the alleged plot . Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence , and having

seen the fate of Parmenion and for Alexander to be poisoned of his illness and his death ; the death of Alexander , Leo Schep , which was known in In a 2014 manuscript in the journal " Alexander's wine was spiked with "Veratrum album the course of events described in " Veratrum album" poisoning can have a prolonged course A 1998 article in the "New England Journal of Medicine " attributed Other illnesses fit the symptoms , including acute pancreatitis , West Nile virus , and in general decline after years of Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey According to Aelian , a seer Alexander was laid to rest While Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon , Ptolemy seized His successor , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria , where it remained until at least late Antiquity . Ptolemy IX Lathyros , one of Ptolemy's final successors , replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece from the time of Alexander the Great has given rise to speculation that This would fit with the intended destination taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for closed Alexander's tomb to the public . , a great admirer , visited the tomb have contained Alexander's remains , but have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus of Issus in 331 . Demades likened the Macedonian army , after the death of Alexander , to Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir , his son According to Diodorus , Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to , Craterus , Leonnatus , and Antipater as guardians . the command of Meleager , rejected Instead , they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus to bid for power . After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC , Macedonian unity collapsed , "The Successors " ("Diadochi " ) , Attalid Anatolia , and Antigonid Macedon Diodorus stated that Alexander had before his death , which are Alexander's commands , but the successors chose , on the grounds they were

The enormous scale of these plans has led This was due to use of terrain , phalanx and and the fierce loyalty of his troops . Philip II through rigorous training , and to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces . Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army , which In his first battle in Asia , at Granicus , Alexander used only a small part of his forces , perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry , against a much larger Persian force Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on matched the length of the Persian cavalry line , By contrast , the Persian infantry was , had a considerable advantage over the Persians' scimitars At Issus in 333 BC , Alexander personally led the charge in the center , routing the opposing army . At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela , Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to Alexander arranged a double phalanx , with in Central Asia and India , Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style Historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of Alexander's appearance , and the earliest sources are During his lifetime , Alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time . This included commissioning sculptures by Lysippos so pleased with portraits of Nevertheless , Andrew Stewart highlights the fact by extension , his Successors ) of his greatness " , and The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander His mother had huge ambitions , and Olympias's influence instilled a sense of destiny in him , and Plutarch advance of his years " . , winning victory after victory " the competitive side of his personality ; he had a need to outdo contributed to some of his decisions orders from his father , he was open to reasoned debate . , logical , and calculating He had a great desire for knowledge , a love for philosophy , This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage ; Alexander

His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general However , he had little interest in sports or the Olympic Games ( ) and glory ( "kudos He had great charisma and force of personality , characteristics which During his final years , and especially after the death of Hephaestion , Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia . of destiny and the flattery of Zeus , a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon . Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court , which was one aspect of Alexander's broad strategy support of the Iranian upper classes ; however a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of Roxana , daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria , out of love ; and the Persian princesses latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III , for He apparently had two sons , Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana Alexander also had a close relationship with speculation and controversy in modern times on the scholar Dicaearchus , who was This episode is also told by Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy of Achilles , and Hephaestion a beloved of Alexander , in had much carnal interest in women ; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life . a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age According to Diodorus Siculus , Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings , but he used " pleasures of the body " forcing himself on her . Alexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests , and his reign marked a turning point in trade between East and West were significantly exposed to Greek civilization Alexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia . At the time of his death , Alexander's empire covered some , and Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to

in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history , the Maurya Empire Over the course of his conquests , Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore , was Alexandria in Egypt The foundation of the "new" Smyrna was also Alexander hunted on the Mount Pagus , he slept under a plane tree at funds for the completion of the new temple of Athena Polias in Priene , in modern-day western Turkey housed in the British Museum , declares ] to Athena Polias . " This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life . " Hellenization " was coined of Greek language , culture , and population into the former Persian empire after This process can be seen in such great Hellenistic cities as Alexandria , Antioch and Seleucia ( south of Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and to hybridize Greek and Persian culture , homogenizing the populations of to the emergence of the largely Attic-based "koine " Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world , , local government , and art current on Classical Greek ideals , evolving into Also , the New Testament was written Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India , in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom ( 250–125 BC ) ( in modern Afghanistan , Pakistan ) in modern Afghanistan and India On the Silk Road trade routes , Hellenistic culture hybridized The cosmopolitan art and mythology of Gandhara the Indus , Swat and Kabul most evident of the direct contact between mention the Greeks within Ashoka's dominion as of Buddhist emissaries by Ashoka's contemporaries in the development of Buddhism and created Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time , perhaps modelled on Greek statues of Apollo incense , gifts of flowers those practised by the ancient Greeks ; The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west to the 3rd century BC were found

in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of around a central mountain ( Mount Meru ) like the petals of a flower . Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east , Hellenistic influence on Indian art In the area of architecture , a few examples of the Ionic order can be with the Jandial temple near Taxila . as Patna , especially with the Pataliputra capital , dated to the 3rd century Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans , especially generals , who wanted to associate themselves Polybius began his "Histories " by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements , and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut , and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak as a sign of greatness . Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile . The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander , On the other hand , some Roman writers , particularly Republican figures , used Alexander as The Itinerarium Alexandri is a 4th-century Latin Itinerarium which describes in Hispania after his wife's funeral , in the spring or early summer of 69 BC . After Caracalla concluded his campaign against the Alamanni , it became evident In planning his invasion of the Parthian Empire , Caracalla decided to arrange 16,000 of his men in Macedonian-style phalanxes with pikes , and the second bears similarity to the 'Marian Mules' of the late Roman Republic who , which were in use Caracalla's mania for Alexander went so persecuted philosophers of the Aristotelian school based on a legend that Aristotle had This was a sign of Caracalla's increasingly erratic behaviour In 39 , Caligula performed pontoons , stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great . Pausanias writes that Alexander wanted to dig through the Mimas mountain (

in today's Karaburun area ) , but Many of the legends about Alexander derive Onesicritus invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris , queen of a text known as the "Alexander Romance " Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day Alexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek , and he is the only ancient hero One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain " In pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature , Alexander is , and is accused of of the "Alexander Romance " ( in a line of legitimate Persian shahs , a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth . In the "Shahnameh " , Alexander's first journey the Quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends In this tradition , he was defend against the nations of Gog The Syriac version of the "Alexander Romance " portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed In Egypt , Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II , the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest . In Hindi and Urdu , the Persian name for Alexander , denotes a rising young talent , and the Delhi Sultanate ruler Aladdin Khalji stylized himself as " Sikandar-i-Sani " Central Asia brought positive cultural connotations of Alexander the efflorescence of "Sikandernameh " ( such as Amir Khusrow and the prominence of Alexander the Great as a popular subject in In medieval Europe , Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies Apart from a few inscriptions and fragments who gathered information from men Aristobulus , a junior officer on the campaigns ; and Onesicritus , Alexander's chief helmsman ( 1st to 2nd century AD ) , and can have direct access to reality which is filtered through the brain's responses Born in Warsaw , Poland , then part of the Russian Empire ,

scientists , and engineers for Korzybski studied engineering at the Warsaw University of Technology During the First World War ( 1914–1918) Korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the Russian Army . moved to North America in 1916 ( first to Canada , coordinate the shipment of artillery to He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict , promoting the sale E. P. Dutton published Korzybski's first book , " Manhood of Humanity " , are described in the publication " In 1938 , Korzybski founded of their nervous systems , and (2) the structure Humans can not experience the world derived from language ) . These sometimes mislead us about He sought to train our awareness of abstracting , using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science . of his system , "consciousness of His system included the promotion of attitudes Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of based primarily on such terminology as the different "orders of abstraction , " consciousness of abstracting . " In Korzybski's system , one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself . " identity ; in this example , the verbal domain , the world of words amount to different orders of abstraction In fact , he said with the verb " to be " when used as an auxiliary verb , and he interrupted the lesson in white paper , from his briefcase and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they a dog's head and the words " Dog Cookies The students looked at the package , Two of them wanted to front of their mouths , and William Burroughs went to a Korzybski workshop in Korzybski was well received in the positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s . after him in his 1940 short story "Blowups Happen Korzybski's ideas influenced philosopher Alan Watts who used " Asteroids " is a space-themed multidirectional shooter arcade game designed by Lyle Rains and Ed Logg

The player controls a single spaceship in an asteroid field The object of the game is to with either , or being of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games ; the game sold over 70,000 arcade cabinets players and influential with developers In the 1980s it was ported to Atari's home systems , and the Atari VCS version " Asteroids " was conceived during a meeting between Logg and previously used for "Lunar Lander " Asteroids was based on an unfinished game , control scheme , and gameplay elements ! " , "Computer Space " , and "Space Invaders " and refined through trial and error . The objective of "Asteroids " is to destroy asteroids and saucers a direction , it will continue in that direction for a time without The ship eventually comes to a stop in various directions on the screen . Objects wrap around screen edges – As the player shoots asteroids , Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen After reaching a score of 40,000 As the player's score increases , the angle range of Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers , The player starts with 3–5 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per , which ends the game . In the original game design , saucers were These behaviors allow a "lurking" strategy , in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer . By keeping just one or two rocks in play , a player can shoot across Arcade operators began to complain about " Asteroids " was conceived Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff Logg was impressed with the Atari Video Computer System , and he joined Atari's coin-op division Paul Mancuso joined the development team as "Asteroids" technician and engineer Howard Delman During a meeting in April 1979 , Rains discussed "Planet Grab " , Logg did not know the name as a mixture of "Computer Space " the two-dimensional approach of "Computer Space " with "Space Invaders " addictive gameplay of "completion

Rains asked Logg : " In response , Logg described at rocks that break into " Asteroids " was implemented on hardware developed by Delman which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor . in raster graphics , but Logg , experienced in vector graphics , The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out Grass Valley , California , in first used it for "Lunar Lander Logg received Delman's modified board with five buttons , 13 sound effects , and additional RAM , and he used it he had played as a student at the University of California, Berkeley , but made The ship was programmed into the hardware move with thrust and inertia Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game . The two saucers were formulated to be The game does not have a sound chip Atari tested the game in arcades in Sacramento , California , and also observed players during grip on the thrust button and requested to the number of lives displayed to the Atari 8-bit computer version , was in development in 1982 , but to fit the Atari VCS port into a 4 KB cartridge It displaced "Space Invaders " by popularity in the United States and became Atari's best selling arcade game of all time , with Atari earned an estimated $150 million in sales from the game , and arcade operators Atari had been in the process of coins spent by players It replaced "Space Invaders " at the top of the US "RePlay" amusement arcade charts in April 1980 in the United States , dethroning "Space Invaders 1980 , including over 60,000 sold for inflation ) by 1980 The game remained at the top of for a total of 100,000 arcade units sold Atari manufactured 76,312 units from its US and Ireland plants " Asteroids " received positive reviews Richard A. Edwards reviewed the 1981 "Asteroids" home cartridge in "The Space Gamer" No is a virtual duplicate of the ever-popular Atari arcade game . " Video Games Player" magazine reviewed the Atari VCS version ,

rating the graphics and sound a B players to enter their initials for In 1996 , " Next Generation " listed it as number speed , positioning , and In 1999 , "Next Generation " on their "Top 50 Games of All Time " "Top 25 Arcade Games " ; the "Retro Gamer" staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game In 2012 , " Asteroids It was added to the Museum of Modern Art's In 2021 , " The Guardian the second greatest video game of the 1970s , just below "Galaxian " ( 1979 Asteroids Deluxe " was the first sequel to Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg's involvement In 1987's "Blasteroids " , Ed Rotberg , branching levels , bosses , in multiplayer for added firepower " Activision published an enhanced version of "Asteroids " for the PlayStation ( 1998 1999 ) , Microsoft Windows ( 1998 ) , Game Boy Color ( 1999 ) , and Macintosh developed by iThink for the Atari Jaguar In 2001 , Infogrames released "Atari Anniversary Edition " for the Dreamcast , PlayStation , and Microsoft Windows . includes emulated versions of "Asteroids " Released on November 28, 2007 , the Xbox Live Arcade port The arcade and 2600 versions were made available through Microsofts "Game Room" service in 2010 In December 1981 , " Byte " reviewed eight "Asteroids" clones for home computers Three other Apple II "Asteroids" clones were reviewed together in the 1982 "Creative Computing Software Buyers Guide " : "The Asteroid Field " , " Asteron " , In the last of these , the asteroids are in the shape of for the Apple II and "Fasteroids " for TRS-80 , were renamed to "Planetoids " and sold , an "Asteroids" clone , was cancelled On February 6, 1982 , Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach , North Carolina , set On November 13 of the same year , 15-year-old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill , New Jersey , set a new record at 41,336,440 points

In 1998 , to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment , the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002 , when it died in an accident in 1989 In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27, 2002 , Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran's family , commemorating his achievement . Asparagales ( asparagoid lilies ) is an order of plants in modern classification systems The order takes its name from the type family by Huber in 1977 and of 1985 and then the APG in 1998 , 2003 and 2009 Before this , many of its families were assigned to the old order with colorful tepals and lacking starch three orders , Liliales , Asparagales changes in recent years ; future research The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of molecular phylogenetics , but Most species of Asparagales are herbaceous perennials The order also contains many geophytes ( bulbs , corms , and various kinds of tuber ) . at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order . The basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in the majority of higher plants Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG in " Allium " . One of the defining characteristics ( synapomorphies in the seed coat , creating a dark crust The leaves of almost all species form a tight rosette the plant or at the end of the stem , but occasionally along From an economic point of view , the order Poales ( which includes grasses Although most species in the order are , "Cordyline " , " which can exceed 10 m in Almost all species have a tight cluster of leaves at the base of the plant or In some cases , the leaves are of a general 'lily type ' , with The Asparagales are generally distinguished from the Liliales by the lack of markings on the tepals , the presence of septal nectaries in the ovaries , rather stamen filaments , and the presence of black carbonaceous phytomelanin in species with dry fruits

the largest order within the monocotyledons , with 14 families , 1,122 genera and about 25,000–42,000 species , thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the flowering plants ( angiosperms ) . The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs to Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link ( ' Asparaginae ' in 1829 described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 within the "Hexandria Monogynia " (six stamens , one carpel ) in his sexual classification in The majority of taxa now considered been placed within the very large and diverse family , The family Liliaceae was first described by Michel Adanson in 1763 , and within it , including the Asparagi and the type family of Asparagales , Jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy within a division of Monocotyledons , a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels a number of 'orders ' that the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli ( ) and Irides ( Iridaceae in the French literature ( Latin : been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées ' ( Amaryllideae ) in 1805 thus has the authority attribution for Amaryllidaceae In 1810 , Brown proposed distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred The literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with Samuel Frederick Gray's "A natural arrangement of British plants " ( 1821 Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens , a single style and a perianth Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and The circumscription of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of John Lindley ( In his first taxonomic work , " An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany , the Petaloidea and Glumaceae . By 1846 , in his final scheme Lindley the treatment of the monocots , introducing Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the Liliales , but saw it as

to include almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes ( with 133 genera ) with 68 genera ) , yet both The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core ' represented by the tribe of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families and by the time of the next major British classification 1883 ( published in Latin been absorbed into the Liliaceae . of monocotyledons ( including Glumaceae use Lindley's terms for these . The Liliaceae were placed in series Coronariae , while the Amaryllideae were placed The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes ( including Tulipeae , Scilleae the Amaryllideae of five ( including The appearance of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 plant classification , incorporating evolutionary information into The Darwinian approach led to the concept of , starting with Eichler . into former into seven orders . Within the Liliiflorae were seven families , including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae . treated in a number of works "Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien " ( 1892–1924 ) In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were In this rearrangement of Liliaceae , with fewer subdivisions , the core Liliales were with Tulipae and Scilleae as represented as Asparagoideae and the Allioideae In the Amaryllidacea , there was ) placed many of the taxa Next Johannes Paulus Lotsy ( 1911 ) proposed dividing the Liliiflorae into a number of These various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of Dahlgren ( of existing families into smaller units . They created a new order , calling This was one of five orders Over the 1980s , in the context of a more general review of the classification of angiosperms , the Liliaceae were subjected By the end of that decade , the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew , the British Museum of Natural History and the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens for the organization of their herbaria . in classification systems , through the advent

The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny to be constructed for all The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist previously included in Liliales , From the Dahlgren system of 1985 onwards Liliales , Pandanales and Zingiberales Research in the 21st century has supported This cladogram shows the placement of Asparagales within the orders of Lilianae "sensu" Chase & Reveal ( , Dioscoreales , Pandanales , These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage , that in this case commelinids as the sister group the exception of the two sister orders ) is in succession from the line that Numbers indicate crown group ( most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of the mode of microsporogenesis and the position to be an apomorphy within the monocots reverted to successive microsporogenesis ( i.e. cell walls an inferior ovary as a synapomorphy of the Asparagales , stating that reversions to a superior ovary associated with the presence of nectaries superior ovaries are distributed among the 'lower Asparagales place the evolution of different ovary morphologies . Orchidaceae is possibly the largest family of The Dahlgren system recognized three families of orchids , but DNA sequence analysis later showed of the rest of the Asparagales . in the phylogenetic tree , generally among Orchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries , two characters that are typical of the 'lower Asparagales in the septa of the ovaries , atypical of the rest of the order In terms of the number of species , Orchidaceae diversification is remarkable The four families excluding Boryaceae form a well-supported clade in studies based on DNA sequence analysis one family under the name Hypoxidaceae "sensu lato " Morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between Some studies have supported a clade of The clade from Iridaceae upwards appears " and Asparagaceae "sensu lato " , clades for each of the families Relationships within these broadly defined families appear less been used in the past , The taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by Kubitzki .

The APG III system's family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the Kew-hosted "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families " . The earlier 2003 version , APG II , allowed These are the families given under " including " in the list APG III does not allow bracketed families , requiring the use of the more comprehensive family The families included in the circumscriptions of in the first and second columns of the table below The Asparagales include many important crop plants and ornamental plants The Alismatales ( alismatids ) are an order of flowering plants including about 4500 species The Alismatales comprise herbaceous flowering plants of often aquatic and marshy habitats Both marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and floating on the surface via long pedicels In others , pollination occurs Most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase , and The Alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families In Tahktajan's classification ( 1997 ) Other families included in the Alismatates as among 10 additional orders , all of the following exception , to the Subclass Alismatidae . 1998 and APG II ( 2003 ) assigned the Alismatales to the monocots By its inclusion , the order has grown enormously in number of about a hundred genera , totaling over two thousand species . The Apiales are an order of flowering plants The families are those recognized in Within the asterids , Apiales belongs and the restricted order was placed among The Pittosporaceae were placed within the Rosales , and many of the other forms The present understanding of the Apiales is fairly comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods The circumscriptions of some of the families other in the structure of their gynoecia Typical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones , determined by the extent of fusion of shaped " ) and symplicate In gynoecia of the Pittosporaceae , the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone , and the ovules are Asterales is an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants made of florets , and

Asterales are organisms that seem Asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels ) include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin , a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch ; and to at least 1926 in the Hutchinson system of Under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants , Asteraceae was the only family in the group , but newer systems ) , with about 2,000 species . The remaining families count together for less than 1500 species The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae ( six genera ) , APA clade ( Alseuosmiaceae , Phellinaceae and Argophyllaceae , ) , and Asteraceae ( Although most extant species of Asteraceae are Because all clades are represented in the northern hemisphere , it is natural Asterales are angiosperms , flowering plants Asterales contain about 14% of eudicot diversity From an analysis of relationships and diversities within the Asterales and with their superorders , estimates of the age of the beginning of the Asterales have from 116 Mya to 82Mya . Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs , so the precise estimation of the order's age is for food , including the sunflower ( "Lactuca sativa " ) and Asterales are common plants and have For example , pyrethrum ( derived from Old World members of the genus "Chrysanthemum " ) is a natural insecticide with An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System a disc in a telescope and was of an active comet such as a tail generally refers to the minor planets of many are shattered remnants of planetesimals The vast majority of known asteroids orbit within the main asteroid belt located between the orbits of Mars However , other orbital families exist with significant populations , including the near-Earth objects . Individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra from comets and meteoroids . In the case of comets , the difference is one of composition composed of mineral and rock , comets are primarily composed of dust and ice . to the sun , preventing the development

The difference between asteroids and meteoroids : meteoroids have a diameter of asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter visible to the naked eye , and to educate the public about asteroids In April 2018 , the B612 Foundation reported by a devastating asteroid ] , but in his final book " Brief Answers to In June 2018 , the US National Science and Technology Council warned This was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies , which , with the equipment of the time , light , like stars , This prompted the astronomer Sir William Herschel to propose Greek as ἀστεροειδής , or and derived from the Ancient Greek "astēr" 'star, planet ' In the last years of the 18th century , Baron Franz Xaver von Zach organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the missing planet predicted at about 2.8 AU from the Sun by the Titius-Bode law , by Sir William Herschel in 1781 , of the planet Uranus at the distance prepared for all stars in the zodiacal band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness On subsequent nights , the sky would The first object , Ceres , was , director of the observatory of He discovered a new star-like object in Taurus and followed the displacement of this object to calculate the orbit of this unknown object discovered over the next few years , with Vesta found in 1807 . Fifteen years later , he found 5 Astraea , the first new asteroid in 38 years . After this , other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were J.R. Hind , A. de Gasparis , R. Luther , H.M.S. Goldschmidt , J. Chacornac , J. Ferguson , N.R. Pogson , E.W. Tempel , In 1891 , Max Wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids , Until 1998 , asteroids were was photographed by a wide-field telescope , Pairs of photographs were taken Multiple pairs could be taken over

of the same region were viewed under Any body in orbit around the Sun Under the stereoscope , the image of slightly above the background of stars The last step of discovery is to observations to the Minor Planet Center , where , given enough time , collide The three most important groups of near-Earth asteroids are the Apollos, Amors , and the 1930s brought a flurry In order of discovery , 1862 Apollo , 2101 Adonis , and 0.005 AU of Earth in 1937 Two events in later decades increased the alarm and the 1994 observation of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashing were classified as comets , asteroids , or meteoroids , with anything smaller than one meter Beech and Steel's 1995 paper proposed a meteoroid definition including size limits asteroids below ten meters in size , Rubin and Grossman's 2010 paper revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 meter in size in order to maintain the distinction between asteroids In 2006 , the term "small Solar System body " Other languages prefer "planetoid " ( as the dwarf planets as well as the small building blocks of the planets that existed , Pallas , and Vesta , grew to the stage of seen as a class of objects was coined in 2006 . The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near-surface ices but later showed evidence of depleted of their surface volatile ices and become For almost two centuries , from the discovery of Ceres in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur , Chiron in 1977 , all known asteroids spent for part of their orbit . for many years simply as The Asteroids The innermost of these are the Kuiper-belt objects them as asteroids or comets They are thought to be have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets ( The much more distant Oort cloud is hypothesized to The minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are sometimes increasingly common for the term "asteroid " to be restricted to minor planets

When the IAU introduced the class small Solar System bodies in classified as minor planets and comets , they created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planets – those It is thought that planetesimals the rest of the solar nebula until Jupiter Simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate smaller bodies are fragments from collisions In the Nice model , many Kuiper-belt objects are captured in the outer asteroid belt , at distances greater than 2.6 AU . The majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars in diameter , and millions The most significant population of trojans are the Jupiter trojans Although fewer Jupiter trojans have been discovered numerous as the asteroids in the asteroid belt are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that Asteroids vary greatly in size much like miniature planets : they The mass of all the objects of the asteroid belt , lying between the orbits of estimated to be in the range of , about 4% of the mass Of this , Ceres comprises , about a third of the total . Adding in the next three most massive objects , Vesta ( 7% ) , and Hygiea ( 3% ) , 1.2% ) , 704 Interamnia ( 1.0% ) , and 52 Europa The number of asteroids decreases markedly Although their location in the asteroid belt excludes them from planet status , the three largest objects , Ceres , Vesta , compared to the majority of irregularly shaped asteroids The fourth-largest asteroid , Hygiea , appears Ceres is the only asteroid that appears to be plastic shape under its own gravity It has a much higher absolute magnitude than the other asteroids , of around 3.32 , and may possess a surface layer of ice Like the planets , Ceres is , a mantle and a core . inside the Solar System's frost line , and so its composition is mainly of basaltic rock with minerals such as olivine Aside from the large crater at its southern pole , like Uranus , it

rotates on its side , with its axis of rotation tilted at Its composition is similar to that of Ceres : high in carbon and silicon , and It is the largest member and presumed parent body of the Hygiean family of asteroids . on Vesta , it is that formed the Hygiean family and recoalesced after losing a bit less than 2% of its mass Measurements of the rotation rates of large asteroids approximately this rate , the inertial force at the surface is greater than the gravitational force , of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle , where Vesta is thought appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of or mantles of proto-planets , high in rock and metal In the main asteroid belt , there appear to be two primary populations of asteroid of the S-type and M-type asteroids , with albedos Within these populations , larger asteroids are Asteroids contain traces of amino acids to initiate life , or itself to Earth " ( Composition is calculated from three primary sources : albedo , surface spectrum , of moons the asteroid might have The investigated asteroids are as large as 280 km in diameter , and , and 87 Sylvia ( 384×262×232 km Only half a dozen asteroids are larger than 87 Sylvia , though none of them often as merging , but On 7 October 2009 , the presence of water ice was confirmed on the surface The surface of the asteroid appears completely by a reservoir of ice under Organic compounds were also detected on In October 2013 , water was detected on an extrasolar body for the first time , for the first definitive time , of water vapor on Ceres , the largest object According to one of the scientists can react with the oxygen in the upper layer of the asteroids and create Pallas , Vesta , and with craters with diameters the size of 300 km ( 186 mi ) 511 Davida , one of the largest asteroids at its south pole but is otherwise with age due to space weathering

Many asteroids have been placed in Apart from the broadest divisions , it is customary to name a group from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime easier to identify within the main asteroid belt About 30–35% of the bodies in the asteroid belt to have a common origin in a past collision Some asteroids have unusual horseshoe orbits that are on color , albedo , Chapman , Morrison , and These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material . The original classification system had three categories : C-types for dark carbonaceous objects ( 75% of stony (silicaceous) objects ( 17% of known asteroids ) and U for those from an eight-color asteroid survey performed in the 1980s This resulted in 14 asteroid categories . In 2002 , the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey resulted in a modified version of the Tholen taxonomy with Both systems have three broad categories of C , S , and X asteroids , where X consists of mostly metallic asteroids , such as the M-type Originally , spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition . However , the correspondence between spectral class This has led to significant confusion the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number or to drop it after assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally , Johann Franz Encke made a major change in the upcoming 1854 edition of the "Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch " (BAJ , " Berlin Astronomical Yearbook " ) He introduced a disk (circle ) , a traditional symbol for a star , as The circle was then numbered in order of discovery to indicate ① to the fifth, Astraea , while The numbered-circle convention was quickly adopted by that way at the time of its discovery However , Psyche was given no iconic symbols were created after the 1855 discovery Until the age of space travel , objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes a small amount of detail on the surfaces

of the largest asteroids , but even these Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves ( their variation in the lengths of star occultations ( when Radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters , especially The first close-up photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in 1971 , when the "Mariner 9" probe In September 2007 , NASA launched In September 2016 , NASA launched which it reached in December 2018 In early 2013 , NASA announced a near-Earth asteroid and move it into asteroids might be used as a source of materials that may Earth ( asteroid mining ) , is a formal statement made to the court An allocution allows the defendant to explain In plea bargains , an allocution may be required of the defendant . only in jurisdictions in the United States In Australia , the term "allocutus " is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the Court , you have been found of the offense of XYZ . In most of the United States , Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing in order to permit the defendant declared under oath " ) an "affiant" or "deponent " under an oath or of oaths , such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths An affidavit is typically defined as There is no general defined form for an affidavit must satisfy legal or statutory requirements in order In some cases , an introductory clause , In Indian law , although an affidavit evidence by way of affidavit " evidence " within the meaning However , it was held Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those In August 2020 , a new method of filing affidavits came into force . swear before God or make In American jurisprudence , under the rules for hearsay , admission of examination ) with regard to

of the matter at bar . in the presence of corroborating evidence Materials used to refresh recollection Affidavits are typically included in that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing in support of the need for In such a case , a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion , as wit : The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy . The lawyer is an officer of the court The acceptance of an affidavit by one society This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille , a means of certifying the legalization of a document for legal use in all the nations that have Aries is one of the constellations It is located in the Northern celestial hemisphere between Pisces to the west and It is one of the 48 constellations Aries has represented a ram since Before that , the stars of Different cultures have incorporated the stars of Aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in China and a porpoise in second magnitude ) , Sheratan ( Beta Arietis , third magnitude ) , , and 41 Arietis ( also fourth magnitude The few deep-sky objects within the constellation are quite Aries is recognized as an official constellation ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars since ancient times ; it now In the description of the Babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the MUL.APIN as Aries , was the final station The MUL.APIN was a comprehensive table of the risings and settings of stars , which likely served as an agricultural calendar "The Agrarian Worker " or "The Hired Man " marks the Pleiades as the vernal equinox , which was the case with some precision The earliest identifiable reference to Aries as a distinct constellation comes from the boundary stones that date from 1350 to 1000 BC . On several boundary stones , a zodiacal ram figure is The shift in identification from the constellation as the Agrarian Worker to the Ram likely occurred in later Babylonian tradition because of

its growing association with Dumuzi the Shepherd . By the time the MUL.APIN was created — by 1000 BC — modern Aries was identified with both Dumuzi's ram and In ancient Egyptian astronomy , Aries was was depicted as a man with the vernal equinox , it was called During the times of the year when would process statues of Amon-Ra as a constellation until classical times . In Hellenistic astrology , the constellation of Aries is associated with the golden ram of Greek mythology that rescued Phrixus and Helle on orders from Hermes , taking Phrixus to and daughter of King Athamas and The king's second wife , Ino , was induced a famine in Boeotia , then falsified a message from the Oracle Athamas was about to sacrifice depicted as a crouched, wingless ram with its head Ptolemy asserted in his "Almagest " Instead , it was listed as an "unformed star " , and John Flamsteed , in his "Atlas Coelestis " Flamsteed followed the general convention of maps associated with the head and its humors It was strongly associated with Mars , both the planet and the god , is named for the constellation the celestial equator from south to north Hipparchus defined it in 130 BC Because of the precession of the equinoxes into Pisces and will move into Aquarius by around 2600 AD . Medieval Muslim astronomers depicted Aries in various ways Astronomers like al-Sufi saw the constellation as a ram , modeled on However , some Islamic celestial globes depicted Aries the sky ; this constellation featured the Pleiades The generally accepted Arabic formation of Aries consisted of five "unformed" stars , four of which The obsolete constellations of Aries ( Apes/Vespa/Lilium/Musca ( Borealis ) ) all In 1612 , Petrus Plancius introduced In 1624 , the same stars were Vespa , representing a wasp . In 1679 , Augustin Royer used None of these constellation became widely in 1690 in his "Firmamentum Sobiescianum " To differentiate it from Musca In 1922 , the International Astronomical Union defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation , " Ari "

The official boundaries of Aries were defined in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as In traditional Chinese astronomy , stars from Aries were used in several constellations with the ritual sacrifice of cattle . This name was shared by the 16th lunar mansion This constellation has also been associated with harvest-time as it could 41 Arietis were part of a constellation and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion , which represented granaries . of the constellation "Tianyin " ( 天陰 , Pi , and Sigma Arietis In a similar system to the Chinese , the first lunar mansion in Hindu astronomy was called for Beta and Gamma Arietis , Because the Hindu new year began with the vernal equinox , the Rig Veda contains over 50 new-year's related hymns some of the most prominent characters in the work "Aja " and "Mesha " " ; it signified either Simeon , and the bordering Turks named it in the Marshall Islands , several stars from Aries were incorporated into a constellation stars from Cassiopeia , Andromeda Other Polynesian peoples recognized Aries as a constellation with most of the same stars as , designated Alpha , Beta , and Gamma Arietis by Johann Bayer . the fourth magnitude , 41 Arietis (Bharani ) . is the brightest star in Aries . Its traditional name is derived from the Arabic word With a spectral class of K2 and a luminosity class of III , it is an orange giant with an apparent visual magnitude of 2.00 , which lies 66 light-years Sheratan , is a blue-white star with Its traditional name is derived from "sharatayn both Beta and Gamma Arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox . The two stars were known to the Bedouin as " qarna al-hamal " , "horns of the ram " . It is 59 light-years from Earth It is a spectroscopic binary star , one known through analysis of the spectra The spectral class of the primary is A5 was determined by Hans Ludendorff in Mesarthim , is a binary star with two white-hued components , located in a rich field

It may be derived from a corruption of " al-sharatan " first star of Aries " or the Hebrew for "ministerial servants " , of origin for star names . was known to the Bedouin as The system is 164 light-years from Earth The two components are separated by 7.8 arcseconds , and the system as a whole has an apparent magnitude of 3.9 . ; the primary is an A-type star with Mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by Robert Hooke in 1664 an Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variable star that has a range of 0.02 magnitudes and a period of 2.607 days The constellation is home to several double stars , including Epsilon , Lambda ε Arietis is a binary star with two white components The system is 290 light-years from Earth the primary has an absolute magnitude of 1.4 The two components are separated by 1.5 arcseconds The primary is 129 light-years from Earth It has an absolute magnitude of 1.7 and a spectral class of F0 . π Arietis is a close binary star with a blue-white primary The primary is 776 light-years from Earth a separation of 25.2 arcseconds ; the tertiary has a magnitude of 10.8 . Most of the other stars in Aries , is a star of magnitude It has an absolute magnitude of −0.1 and a spectral class of K2 . ζ Arietis is a star of magnitude 14 Arietis is a star of magnitude 39 Arietis ( Lilii Borea ) is 35 Arietis is a dim star of magnitude 53 Arietis is a runaway star of magnitude It was likely ejected from to Earth in Aries . Aries has its share of variable stars , including R and U Arietis, Mira-type variable stars , and R Arietis is a Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 13.7 to a maximum of 7.4 with a period of 186.8 days . U Arietis is another Mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 15.2 to a maximum of 7.2 with a period of 371.1 days .

T Arietis is a semiregular variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 11.3 to a maximum of 7.5 with a period of 317 days . One particularly interesting variable in Aries is SX Arietis the prototype of its class , helium variable stars SX Arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of Helium I Therefore , they are observed that fit in the course of Similar to Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variables , SX Arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field , which correspond to the periodic rotation ; they differ from the Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variables in NGC 772 is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of β Arietis and 15 arcminutes west It is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope It is 7.2 by 4.2 arcminutes an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses many star forming regions ; this is due to previous gravitational interactions with other galaxies . as Arp 78 in the Arp peculiar galaxy catalog Another spiral galaxy in Aries is NGC It is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms It has no ring and a faint bulge and is 2.5 by 1.9 arcminutes It has two primary arms with fragments are a pair of galaxies in Part of the NGC 691 group of galaxies , both are at a distance NGC 680 , an elliptical galaxy with an asymmetrical boundary Both galaxies have bright cores , but a diameter of 171,000 light-years ; NGC 680 has a diameter of 72,000 light-years . inclined to our line of sight It has multiple spiral arms and a bright core , it has a low surface brightness . It has a diameter of 126,000 light-years with a magnitude of 12.53 . It is 2.4 by 1.8 arcminutes a faint stream of gas and dust has hints of an early spiral structure , 2.0 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of Aries is home to several meteor showers The Daytime Arietid meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers

that occurs during the day , It is an annual shower associated with the Marsden group of comets that peaks on 7 June with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of The meteors are sometimes visible before dawn , because the radiant is They usually appear at a rate of 1–2 per hour as "earthgrazers " Because most of the Daytime Arietids are they are observed in the radio spectrum the ionized gas they leave in their wake Other meteor showers radiate from Aries during the day ; these include the Daytime Epsilon Arietids The Delta Arietids are another meteor shower radiating from Peaking on 9 December with a low peak rate , the shower lasts from 8 December to 14 January with an average velocity of per second The Autumn Arietids also radiate from Aries The shower lasts from 7 September to 27 October and The Epsilon Arietids appear from 12 to 23 October . the October Delta Arietids , Daytime Epsilon Arietids , Daytime May Arietids , Sigma Arietids , Nu Arietids , Aries contains several stars with extrasolar planets is orbited by three giant planets ( those more than ten times the mass of Earth ) . One planet is 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter approximately the size of the Sun , with Aquarius is a constellation of the zodiac water-carrier " or "cup-carrier " oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac It was one of the 48 constellations The Great One" in the Babylonian star catalogues and represents The Babylonian star-figure appears on entitlement stones and It contained the winter solstice in the Early Bronze Age In Old Babylonian astronomy , Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path to the period of 45 days on Aquarius was also associated with In the Greek tradition , the constellation came a single vase from which a stream poured In Greek mythology , Aquarius is sometimes associated with Deucalion , They sailed for nine days before with beautiful Ganymede , a youth in Greek mythology and the son of Trojan king Tros , who was taken to

as cup-carrier to the gods . Zeus' command , that snatched the young boy ; some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact by the goddess of the dawn , for young men ; Zeus then stole him from Eos and employed him as cup-bearer . In the first century , Ptolemy's "Almagest " established the common Western depiction of Aquarius . Zeta Aquarii ; it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with Fomalhaut , now assigned In Chinese astronomy , the stream of depicted as the "Army of Yu-Lin " ("Yu-lim-kiun " or "Yulinjun " , Hanzi : 羽林君 ) . The name " Yu-lin " means , referring to the numerous light-footed soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by of any Chinese constellation , numbering 45 , the majority of which were The celestial army was protected by the wall "Leibizhen " ( 垒壁阵 ) , , and Sigma Aquarii among its 12 stars Near the border with Cetus , three stars ; its position is disputed The Water Jar asterism was seen to the ancient Chinese as the tomb , " Fenmu Three of the Chinese lunar mansions shared their name by Epsilon , Mu , 3 , and 4 Aquarii . The 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation "Xu " ("emptiness " ) , formed by Beta Aquarii and Alpha Equulei ; it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals . Despite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size , Aquarius has no particularly bright stars is the brightest star in Aquarius with It also has the proper name of around 50 times the Sun's diameter , it is around Sadalmelik , has an apparent magnitude of from Earth , and is spectral type star of spectral type A0V that is It has a luminosity of . The primary has a magnitude of 4.53 4.31 , but both have Twelve exoplanet systems have been found in the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years , was the first red dwarf star

It is orbited by four planets The planets vary in orbital period from The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter , and its orbital period is 182 days WASP-6 , a type G8 star of magnitude The star is 307 parsecs from Earth and has a mass of 0.888 solar masses and a radius of 0.87 solar radii . WASP-6 b was discovered in 2008 a distance of 0.042 astronomical units ( AU It is 0.503 Jupiter masses but has 194 parsecs from Earth , is The host star is larger than the Sun and larger at 6.1 solar radii . The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass WASP-47 is close in size to the Sun , having a radius of 1.15 solar radii and a mass even WASP-47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method , like WASP-6 b. There are several more single-planet systems in Aquarius , a magnitude 6.63 yellow star located 21.29 parsecs from orbits at nearly the same distance as Earth HD 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in Aquarius beyond their similar spectral class ; it has a radius of 1.1 solar radii and a mass HD 212771 b , a larger planet at 2.3 Jupiter masses the threshold of naked-eye visibility at magnitude Though it has a similar mass to with its radius of 5 solar radii . were only two known multiple-planet systems within the bounds of The error in the mass measurements ( 0.0032 On 23 February 2017 , NASA announced Of these , three are in the system's habitable zone , and may the galactic plane , the majority of deep-sky objects in Aquarius are galaxies , globular clusters , and planetary nebulae . Aquarius contains three deep sky objects that are as a sparsely populated open cluster , modern analysis indicates reclassifying M73 as an asterism . located approximately 37,000 light-years from Earth . is viewable in small-aperture instruments , located approximately 56,000 light-years from Earth . Aquarius is also home to

as the Saturn Nebula , is an 8th magnitude in a telescope ; it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble in a telescope and has a central star in Aquarius , it is as the Helix Nebula , is the closest planetary nebula to Earth at a distance of It covers 0.25 square degrees , making One of the visible galaxies in Aquarius A spiral galaxy ( type S ) , it has an integrated magnitude of 10.7 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds The Eta Aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from It peaks between 5 and 6 May with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour . 401 , Eta Aquariids can be The parent body of the shower is Halley's Comet The Delta Aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 July and second The first radiant is located in the south of the constellation , while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of , the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius Aquarius is also associated with the Age of Aquarius , a concept is hand-drawn and computer animation originating from Japan In Japan and in Japanese regardless of style or origin animation produced in Japan . A characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist Osamu Tezuka and spread through television broadcasts , directly to home media , and over the Internet In addition to original works , anime are often adaptations of Anime is a diverse medium with distinctive production methods that have adapted in response It combines graphic art , characterization , cinematography , and other forms Compared to Western animation , anime production of settings and use of as panning , zooming , The anime industry consists of over 430 production companies , including major studios like Studio Ghibli , Sunrise , and Toei Animation . Since the 1980s , the medium has also seen international success with the rise As a type of animation , of many genres found in other mediums In Japanese , the term "anime "

all animated works , regardless of style English-language dictionaries typically define "anime " a style of Japanese animation " or The English word "animation " is written in In English , " anime"—when used as a common noun — normally functions ( For example : " spell "anime " as "animé ) , with an acute accent over Prior to the widespread use of "anime " , the term "Japanimation " was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s Traveling storytellers narrated legends and anecdotes chronological order , as a moving panorama . during the Edo period and originated from Magic lanterns from the Netherlands were also in the street theater until the 1930s . are considered ancestors of characters Animation in Japan began in the early 20th century , when filmmakers started in France , Germany , the United States , and Russia . A claim for the earliest Japanese animation is "Katsudō Shashin In 1917 , the first professional and publicly displayed works began as Ōten Shimokawa , Seitarō Kitayama , By the mid-1930s , animation was as an alternative format to the live-action industry . It suffered competition from foreign producers , such as Disney , in technique , benefiting from the patronage of the government , which In 1940 , the government dissolved with a sponsorship from the Imperial Japanese Navy . In the 1960s , manga artist and limit frame counts in his productions . on a tight schedule with an inexperienced staff , many of his limited animation practices came to "Three Tales " ( 1960 ) broadcast on television ; the first anime television series ( 1963–66 ) , a television series The 1970s saw growth in the popularity of manga , many of other pioneers in the field — inspired for instance , took shape under Tezuka , developed into the super robot genre under Go Nagai and others , and was revolutionized at in the 1980s , and the genre "Neon Genesis Evangelion " ( 1995 ) began another era of experimental anime titles , 1995 ) and "Cowboy Bebop " In the 1990s , anime also

" and "Dragon Ball Z " , Hayao Miyazaki , won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at Anime differs greatly from other forms of animation by its diverse art styles , Visually , anime works exhibit a wide variety of art styles , differing between creators , artists , and Modern anime follows a typical animation production process , involving storyboarding , voice acting , character design , and cel production . Since the 1990s , animators have paper cutouts , and silhouette animation . Cel animation grew in popularity until In the 21st century , the use of independent short films , including the stop motion puppet animation work produced Computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s , with works Japanese animation studios were pioneers of many limited animation techniques Unlike Disney animation , where the emphasis time spent on movement . Anime scenes place emphasis on achieving three-dimensional views , and backgrounds are "Howl's Moving Castle " and "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya " the stage plays found in American animation . panning , zooming , distance The body proportions of human anime characters tend to The height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of The animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced as Betty Boop , who was Tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history Hair in anime is often The movement of hair in anime to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect . illustrations on manga , where Anime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods These techniques are often different in form than their counterparts in Western animation , and they include a fixed iconography that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods . For example , a male character may A variety of visual symbols are employed , or glowing eyes for the series in mind — but are also aimed at the general music market Anime are often classified by

both sexes in an attempt to gain known as "hentai " ( By contrast , some anime subgenres incorporate or undertones without depictions of among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts , the inclusion of ) and "yuri " ( Anime's genre classification differs from other types of and its complex depiction of war as Science fiction is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like Tezuka's "Astro Boy " and A major subgenre of science fiction is mecha Asian and Western traditions and folklore ; examples to Japan to maintain a computer the blend of fantasy and comedy in " Dragon Half " , and the incorporation of slapstick humor in the crime anime film " Castle of Cagliostro " . Early anime works were made for theatrical viewing before sound and vocal components were added to In 1958 , Nippon Television aired " ( OVA ) or "original animation video " ( OAV ) The home distribution of anime releases were popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s The LaserDisc and VHS formats were transcended ; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc The DVD format also has its drawbacks in its usage of region coding ; adopted restricted region indicated on the DVD player . A key characteristic of many anime television shows is serialization , where a continuous story arc stretches over Traditional American television had an episodic format , with The animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including Toei Animation , Gainax , Madhouse , Gonzo , Sunrise , Bones , TMS Entertainment , Nippon Animation , P.A.Works , Studio Pierrot and Studio Ghibli Many of the studios are organized into a trade association , The Association of Japanese Animations . workers in the industry , the Japanese Animation Creators Association In 2001 , animation accounted for 7% of the Japanese film market , above the 4.6% market share for live-action works . is seen through the profitability of the DVD market , contributing nearly 70% of

According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review , Japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies " over the past few years " , sales of shows to television stations This type of anime is less ) is the all-time highest-grossing film in Japan Makoto Shinkai's 2016 film " Your Name " . by companies in other countries in While anime has been licensed by its Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s , the practice the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s Gatchaman " and "Captain Harlock " were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for In the early 1990s , several companies began to experiment with the licensing of , and Central Park Media and its imprints Licenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for The anime market for the United States was worth in 2022 the anime market for the United States in 2000 on networks like In 2005 , this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network . As a part of localization , some editing of cultural references may occur both praise and condemnation for fansubs of anime series or films . Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues , fansubbers tend to viewers to buy an official copy of in English , although fansubs Japan External Trade Organization ( JETRO ) valued JETRO reported sales of overseas anime exports JETRO valued the anime market in the United States in home video sales and over from licensed products , in 2005 . JETRO projected in 2005 that The anime industry has several annual awards that honor Major annual awards in Japan include the Ōfuji Noburō Award , the Japan Media Arts Festival animation awards , the Tokyo Anime Award and In the United States , anime films compete the industry , and were held only once in 2006 . In recent years the anime industry has been by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime ,

with productions aimed at European and Japanese children , such as "Heidi " , " Vicky the Viking " and France grew a particular interest into Japan's output In fact , Italy imported The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series In the 1990s , Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America . credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s , before television shows such as "Pokémon " and "Dragon Ball Z " in the late 1990s By 1997 , Japanese anime was The growth of the Internet later provided a major role in this , through This is especially the case with as India and Philippines , to legal content , and therefore Anime plays a role in driving conventions in the 1990s with the "anime boom These conventions are dedicated to anime like cosplay contests and industry talk panels . Cosplay , a portmanteau of "costume play popular in contests and masquerades English usage through the popularity of the medium , including " otaku " as " weeaboo " , individuals who demonstrate an obsession in from abusive content posted on the website Western cartoons is the potential for visceral content , sexuality , pain , examples of Western satirical depictions of Japanese culture between anime and cartoons , These anime-styled works have become defined as classify all anime styled works of non-Japanese origin . Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration , team for " Ōban Star-Racers " dubbed as the "Middle East's First Anime Show " , and is currently in production and looking for funding . For example , "Adweek " , in the headline to one of its articles , described the series as "American-made anime " , and in another headline , " The Huffington Post referencing its country of origin . In 2013 , Monty Oum , the creator of "RWBY " , of Rooster Teeth , Matt Hullum , any American-made anime has been marketed to really pleased about that . In Japanese culture and entertainment , content across multiple representations : different broadcast media