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, gaming technologies , cell phones , toys , amusement parks , and It is the Japanese term for a transmedia franchise A number of anime media franchises have gained Ankara ( , ;) , Serving as the capital of the ancient Celtic state of Galatia ( 280–64 BC ) , and later of the Roman province with the same name ( 25 BC–7th century ) , the city is very old , with various Hattian , Hittite , Lydian , Phrygian , Galatian , Greek , Persian , Roman , Byzantine , of the Anatolia Eyalet ( 1393 – late 15th century ) and then the Angora Vilayet ( The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising over the left bank of the Ankara River , a tributary of the Sakarya River . On 23 April 1920 , the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara , which Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923 , succeeding in this role as the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the fall of the Ottoman Empire at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks . shorn from Angora rabbits , the long-haired Angora goat ( the source of mohair ) The area is also known for its pears , honey and muscat It has been identified with In classical antiquity and during the medieval period , the city was known as ) in Greek and "Ancyra " in Latin ; the Galatian Celtic name Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in in many European languages as " Angora known in Ottoman Turkish as "Engürü of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and The city grew significantly in size and importance under the Phrygians starting around 1000 BC , and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion , ( the capital of Phrygia ) damaged that city around that time . , though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered

Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city Another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to , and Lebanon to the south and Persia to the east . In 278 BC , the city , along with the rest of central Anatolia , was occupied by a Celtic group , the Galatians , who were Other centers were Pessinus , today's Ballıhisar , for the Trocmi tribe , and Tavium , to the east of Ankara , for the Tolistobogii tribe . The city was then known as in numbers ; a warrior aristocracy which The city was subsequently passed under In 25 BC , Emperor Augustus raised it to the status of a "polis Ankara is famous for the "Monumentum Ancyranum the official record of the "Acts of Augustus marble on the walls of this temple The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable bas-reliefs , inscriptions and other architectural fragments An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire , a far greater number from after the fall of the Roman Empire The small Ankara River ran through the center of It has now been covered formed the northern boundary of the old town during Çankaya , the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center , stood well outside the Roman city , In the 19th century , the remains of To the west , the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and of the hill , it may Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that equally convenient for invaders . In the second half of the 3rd century , Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west ( who The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian in 272 . In its heyday , Roman Ankara was as a major administrative capital , where a high official The city is well known during

the 4th century as a center of Christian activity and through the letters of the pagan scholar Libanius in 347 and 350 , his Persian campaign in 362 , and Valentinian I ( r. 364–375 ) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra , and as his base against the usurper Procopius . Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I , as well as its ecclesiastical center In 479 , the rebel Marcian attacked In 610/11 , Comentiolus , brother of Emperor Phocas ( r. in the city against Heraclius ( was captured by the Sassanid Persians during the Byzantine – Sassanid War of 602–628 In 654 , the city was captured for the first time by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate , under Muawiyah , the future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate . At about the same time , the themes were established in Anatolia , and Ancyra became capital of the Opsician Theme Ancyra was attacked without success by Abbasid forces in 776 and In 805 , Emperor Nikephoros I ( it from sack during the large-scale invasion of Anatolia by Caliph Harun al-Rashid in In 838 , however , during the Amorium campaign , the armies of and met at the city ; was razed to the ground , In 859 , Emperor Michael III ( the city during a campaign against the Arabs In 872 , the city was Kallippi , and suffered repression under the emperor Trajan ( 98–117 ) As in other Roman towns , the reign of Diocletian marked the culmination of In 303 , Ancyra was In Ancyra , their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town , whose name to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he , and his brother , and various companions were put The remains of the church of St. Clement Four years later , a doctor of the town of an important council of the early church ; its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of in Ancyra in Clement's day , Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city

monks and priests and theological disputes The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead . In 362–363 , Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians , and in a persecution of various holy men . The stone base for a statue , with Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean into the eastern side of the inner circuit of erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still In the late 4th century , Ancyra became emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the Bosporus to Theodosius II ( 408–450 ) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers of the Eastern Orthodox Church until the 20th century , that situation ended as a result of The earlier Armenian genocide put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the Armenian Catholic Church , which had been established in After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 , the Seljuk Turks overran much of Anatolia By 1073 , the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra , by the time of the rebellion of In 1101 , when the Crusade under Raymond IV of Toulouse arrived , the city had been under The Crusaders captured the city , and After the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 , in which the Mongols defeated the Seljuks , most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people as their independent city-state in 1290 . Orhan I , the second Bey of the Ottoman Empire , captured the city in 1356 The Levant Company maintained a factory in the town In the 19th century , its population was Following the Ottoman defeat in World War I , by the Allies , who planned to share these lands between Armenia , France , Greece , for the Turks the core piece of land In response , the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , established

the headquarters of his resistance movement in Angora ( 1923 ) , the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on the newly founded Republic of Turkey , new development divided the city " , and a new section , , and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked Izmir as Turkey's second-largest city , after After 1930 , it became known officially in Western languages as The city has exported mohair ( from the Angora goat ) and Angora wool In the 19th century , the city also exported substantial amounts of goat and wax , honey , berries The Central Anatolia Region is one of the primary locations of grape and wine production in Turkey , and Ankara is particularly famous for its Kalecik Karası and Muscat grapes ; produced in the Kavaklıdere neighborhood within the Çankaya district Ankara is also famous for Another renowned natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of honey ("Ankara Balı " ) which is known for its light color the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo in the Gazi district , and by other facilities in Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish defence and aerospace companies of the Turkish Aerospace Industries , MKE , ASELSAN , HAVELSAN , ROKETSAN , FNSS , Nurol Makina , Exports to foreign countries from these defense and aerospace firms The IDEF in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global arms industry . A number of the global automotive companies also have A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara is provided by the state institutions ; such as the ministries , subministries , and other administrative bodies of the Turkish government Ankara and its province are located The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara has a cold semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : "BSk " ) . Under the Trewartha climate classification , Ankara has a temperate continental climate ( " Dc " , Ankara has cold and snowy winters ,

Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn Ankara had a population of 75,000 the Republic of Turkey in 1923 , it was designated as a planned city for , the city grew in a planned and orderly pace migrate from the countryside into the city in order to seek a better standard , causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of tower blocks such as Elvankent , Eryaman and Güzelkent ; the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara The population of Ankara has a higher education level According to 2008 data , 15-years-higher literacy rate creates 88% of the total provincial population ( 91% in men and 86% This ratio was 83% for Turkey ( 88% males , 79% females ) This difference is particularly evident in The "Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate " ( EGO ) operates the Ankara Metro and other forms of Ankara is served by a suburban rail and three subway lines ( M1 , the Ankara Metro with about 300,000 total daily commuters , while The Ankara Central Station is a major rail hub in Turkey The Turkish State Railways operates passenger train service from Ankara to other major cities , such as Balıkesir , Kütahya , İzmir , Kayseri , Adana , Kars , Elâzığ , Malatya , Diyarbakır , Karabük , Commuter rail also runs between the stations of Sincan and Kayaş . On 13 March 2009 , the new Yüksek Hızlı Tren (YHT) high-speed rail service began operation between Ankara and Eskişehir On 23 August 2011 , another YHT high-speed line commercially started its service between Ankara and commuting on public transit in Ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes . 17% of public transit passengers , ride at a stop or station for Ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative Justice and Development Party ( AKP ) , the nationalist far-right Nationalist Movement Party ( MHP ) . The province of Ankara is divided lies within the central area of Çankaya between 60 and 70% of the vote in Çankaya

since 2002 , political support elsewhere well as Yenimahalle to an extent take overall second place behind the AKP in Overall , the AKP enjoys the most support The electorate of Ankara thus tend to vote in favor of than the other main cities of Istanbul and In retrospect , the 2013–14 protests against The city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016 Melih Gökçek was the Metropolitan Mayor of Ankara Initially elected in the 1994 local elections , in 1999 , 2004 and In the 2014 local elections , Gökçek stood The MHP's metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections , Mansur Yavaş , stood as the CHP's candidate against In a heavily controversial election , Gökçek was of Yavaş amid allegations of With the Supreme Electoral Council and courts rejecting his appeals , Yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the European Court of Human Rights Although Gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term , most election observers believe that Yavaş was the winner of the election The foundations of the Ankara castle and citadel were laid by the Galatians on , being the oldest part of Ankara , contains many fine examples of traditional architecture the backstage of the Roman theater can be are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations . built 25  20 BC following the conquest of Ancyra then formed the capital of After the death of Augustus in of the text of the "Res Gestae Divi Augusti " ' in Latin and a Greek translation on an exterior wall of the ' The temple on the ancient acropolis of Ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century It is located in the Ulus quarter The Roman Baths of Ankara have all the typical features , a "tepidarium " ( warm room ) and a "caldarium " ( The baths were built during the reign of the Roman emperor Caracalla in the early 3rd century to The Roman Road of Ankara or "Cardo Maximus " was found in 1995 Kocatepe Mosque is the largest mosque in the city

Located in the Kocatepe quarter , it Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque is located near the Presidency of Religious Affairs on the Eskişehir Road . Built in the Turkish neoclassical style , it is one of the largest new mosques in It can accommodate 6 thousand people during It is the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect to the Temple of Augustus , was built It was subsequently restored by with Kütahya tiles being added in The mosque was built in honor of Hacı Bayram-ı Veli , whose tomb is before his death ( 1427–28 ) It was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed by the Ahi fraternity during the late 14th and The Alâeddin Mosque is the oldest mosque in Ankara by Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at near Kızılay Square , was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice , and believe in yourself Erected in 1978 at Sıhhiye Square , this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti Sun Disc ( the Hittites ) and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization The Hatti Sun Disc has been used in Suluhan is a historical Inn in Ankara It is about southeast of Ulus Square and situated in the Hacıdoğan neighborhood . ) which face the two yards . Çengelhan Rahmi Koç Museum is a museum of industrial technology situated in Çengel Han , an Ottoman era 1523 , during the early years of the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . The exhibits include industrial/technological artifacts from the 1850s Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu " ( Weavers' Road ) near Ulus , where myriad things "Bakırcılar Çarşısı " ( Bazaar of Coppersmiths ) , costumes , antiques and Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay , or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue , including the modern mall of Karum in central Anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC ) which is located towards the end of the Avenue ; and Çankaya has views over Ankara and also has a revolving restaurant at

The symbol of the Armada Shopping Mall is an anchor at its entrance , as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city , Ἄγκυρα ( Ánkyra ) , in the 1970s , several modern, suburbia-style developments and The "Armada " , "CEPA " and "Kentpark" malls on the highway , and "Gordion " in Ümitköy , and a huge mall , " Real " in Bilkent Center , be reached through the Eskişehir Highway . at the outskirts , on the Istanbul Highway , which houses most of In 2014 , a few more shopping malls were is situated at the entrance of Anıtkabir is located on an imposing hill , which forms the "Anıttepe" quarter of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , founder of the Republic of Turkey Completed in 1953 , it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles . An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk , his writings , letters and in his life and during the establishment is located opposite to the Ankara Opera House on Talat Paşa Boulevard , in the Ulus district There is a fine collection of folkloric items , as well as artifacts opened to the public in 1980 houses a rich collection of Turkish art from Cer Modern is the modern-arts museum of Ankara , inaugurated on 1 April 2010 . It is situated in the renovated building of the historic TCDD Cer Atölyeleri , formerly a workshop of The museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in Turkey is located on Ulus Square . TBMM ) of the Republic of Turkey . The War of Independence was planned and directed and items presently on exhibition is located near the Istanbul Road in The museum opened to the public in It is home to various missiles , avionics , aviation materials and , F-100 Super Sabre , F-102 Delta Dagger , F-104 Starfighter , F-5 Freedom Fighter , F-4 Phantom As with all other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara . in 1910 , is the oldest club in Ankara and is associated

They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1972 , are known as the "Ankara Gale " or the "Poppies " because They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ ) played in the Süper Lig but currently plays in the Süper Lig until 2010 , The club was reconstituted in 2014 returned to their old identity as Ankaraspor which is active in the city an amusement park with a large pond for rowing , Anayasa Park , Kuğulu Park ( a gift from the Chinese government ) , Abdi İpekçi Park , Esertepe Parkı , Güven Park also a prominent exposition/fair area ) , Harikalar Diyarı ( Europe inside city borders ) and ) is an expansive recreational farming area which houses , restaurants , a dairy farm and a day with family , be in 1881 , in Thessaloniki Ankara is home to a world-famous domestic cat Ankara cat ) in Turkish . They mostly have a white, silky, medium to long length coat , between the Angora Cats and Persians , Although they are known for their shimmery white coat , there are more than twenty varieties green , or amber , related to the hearing ability , and Ears are pointed and large This breed was first mentioned in the time of Moses , roughly The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor , Angora goats were first introduced in Angoras have high nutritional requirements due to A poor quality diet will curtail mohair development . For a long period of time , Angora goats were bred for their white coat In 1998 , the Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association was The Angora rabbit ( ) is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft hair The Angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit , originating in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century , and spread Grooming is necessary to prevent It is now the lingua franca of

It is named after the Arabs bounded by eastern Egypt in the west The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces , governments and During the early Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in the Mediterranean region , especially in science , As a result , many European languages have also borrowed many words from it , is seen in European languages a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and of Christian European and Muslim Arabized civilizations and the long-lasting Muslim culture and The Maltese language is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written Some of the most influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.9 billion Muslims in the world , and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of In 2011 , "Bloomberg Businessweek " , after English , Standard Mandarin Chinese It is related to languages in other subgroups of the Semitic language group ( Northwest Semitic , South Semitic , East Semitic as Aramaic , Syriac , Hebrew , Ugaritic , Phoenician To the north , in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages In eastern Arabia , inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D , Safaitic , and Hismaic " ( a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic in Sabaic script at Qaryat Al-Faw , participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group , such as the conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns were based on the shape of , and thus unsuitable for language classification , rendering the hypothesis of common to all forms of Arabic

The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of found in En Avdat , Israel , and dated to around 125 CE This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro , at Namaraa , Syria . From the 4th to the 6th centuries , the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era . There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jabal 'Usays , Harran The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE , and it uses dots In late pre-Islamic times , a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court During the first Islamic century , the majority of a system of diacritics to differentiate " pointing for non-Arabs " ) and indicate vocalization ( " at -tashkil " ) Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi ( 718 – 786 with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody of the grammar of Arabic , The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century . Arabic spread with the spread of Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish By the 8th century , knowledge of rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world the Islamic conquests ; this view has been at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines , the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of at different points in their linguistic histories . According to Veersteegh and Bickerton , colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs The "Nahda " was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought According to James L. Gelvin , "Nahda" writers In the wake of the industrial revolution and by Muhammad Ali ( 1819 ) consumption of Arabic literature and publications

were established with the aim of Damascus ( 1919 ) , then in Cairo ( 1932 ) , Baghdad ( 1948 ) , Rabat ( 1960 ) , Amman ( 1977 ) , ( 1993 ) , and Tunis ( 1993 In 1997 , a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League toward the Arabization of the sciences , of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world , and toward the development of Arabic to Standard Arabic , which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic Classical Arabic is the language found in follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and Much of the new vocabulary is used Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic , Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech , which is construed as a multitude of These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described in families , while the latter of stories told in the standard variety The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects MSA is the variety used in present in the spoken varieties , but In addition , MSA has in Quranic times , and MSA , ' 'branch ' , also used for the branch of used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force forms within existing roots ( ' 'apoptosis " Colloquial" or "dialectal" Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language and evolved which is spoken in (predominantly Catholic) Malta and written with the Latin script . It is descended from Classical Arabic through Siculo-Arabic , but is were dialects of spoken Arabic . Muhammad spoke in the dialect of Mecca , in the western Arabian peninsula , and it was in this dialect at the time , so the language The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of of two separate varieties of the same language , " Tawleed " is the process of giving a new shade of meaning For example , "al-hatif "

Therefore , the process of "tawleed modern civilization in a manner that would In the case of Arabic , Some of these dialects can be When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation ( for example , the dialectal and standard varieties of the language , sometimes is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , and English , etc . , speakers of the varieties of comprehension between all Arabic dialects , this level on geographic proximity : for example The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language From a linguistic standpoint , it is This is an apt comparison in a number The period of divergence from a single spoken form for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages . comprehensible to people from the Maghreb is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries , Arabic is also an important source of Amharic , Azerbaijani , Baluchi , Bengali , Berber , Bosnian , Chaldean , Chechen , Chittagonian , Croatian , Dagestani , Dhivehi , English , German , Gujarati , Hausa , Hindi , Kazakh , Kurdish , Kutchi , Kyrgyz , Malay ( Malaysian , Persian , Punjabi , Rohingya , Romance languages ( French , Catalan , Italian , Portuguese , Sicilian , Spanish , Swahili , Tagalog , Tigrinya , Turkish , Turkmen , Urdu , Uyghur , Uzbek , Visayan and Wolof , as well as other languages in countries where these languages are In addition , English has Examples of such words include admiral , adobe , alchemy , alcohol , algebra , algorithm , alkaline , almanac , amber , arsenal , assassin , candy , carat , cipher , coffee , cotton , ghoul , hazard , jar , kismet , lemon , loofah , magazine , mattress , sherbet , sofa , sumac , tariff , Terms borrowed range from religious terminology , from " salat " " , "logic " ) , and economic items ( like English "coffee " ) to placeholders ( like Spanish "fulano " ,

( like Hindustani "lekin " , betzef " , "galore , in quantity " ) . , borrow some numbers from Arabic Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic , such as ("salat"), "prayer", and ("imam"), "prayer leader . contact with the Arab world , Arabic loanwords For example , most Arabic loanwords in Older Arabic loanwords in Hausa were borrowed Arabic words also made their way into that of Latin in Europe the fields of science , philosophy were coined from Arabic roots by , and then found their way national movements to convert Arabic script into The Beirut newspaper " La Syrie " pushed for the change from Arabic script to The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon , a French Orientalist , who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus as an attempt from the Western world to After the period of colonialism in for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic , as he believed have a closer relationship with the West . for more advances in science and as a lack of written vowels and Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi Musa and supported the push for for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet The Quran introduced a new way of writing the unique styles they learned from the Quran to not only their own writing , but also The Quran inspired musicality in poetry through the internal rhythm of the verses . The repetition of certain words and phrases and explicit in the Quran . The Quran uses constant metaphors of blindness and deafness to imply unbelief The explicit imagery in the Quran inspired many poets the figures of speech inspired by The Quran uses figurative devices in order to express the meaning in the most beautiful form Although the Quran is known for in chronological order , however segments related in chronology , but

in their sense of rhyme . The Quran introduces to poetry the idea of abandoning order and scattering Harmony is also present in the Quran create a harmonious flow within the writing The Quran is written in a language The simplicity of the writing inspired later poets to write in a more clear and clear-cut style . Because the structure of the Quran made It is believed that the greater the amount Classical Arabic is the language of poetry and literature ( including news Classical Arabic is closely associated with was written in it . speak Classical Arabic as their native language , Among non-Arab Muslims , translations of Some Muslims present a monogenesis of languages the benefit of mankind and the original language as a prototype system of symbolic communication , based upon its system of triconsonantal roots " Colloquial Arabic " is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the Arab world , which differ The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the Arabian peninsula , followed by that between sedentary varieties which include the large majority of speakers postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas These features are present to varying degrees Within the non-peninsula varieties , the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian North African dialects ( especially Moroccan Arabic ) One factor in the differentiation of the dialects spoken in the areas , which ( or change of meaning were ignored for easier comparison . Of the 29 Proto-Semitic consonants , only one has after early Muslim conquests and in MSA ( see Local variations for more detail to be the most unusual sound in Arabic language of the ' " ) ; for most modern dialects , loss of the laterality or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization occurs in a number of circumstances of the complexity of third-weak ("defective") verbs . based on the tribes of the western part of the Arabian Peninsula , who spoke with many more changes , including the loss

of most glottal stops , the loss of case endings , the reduction of the diphthongs An interesting feature of the writing system of the Quran certain features of Muhammad's native dialect of Mecca , corrected through diacritics into Among these features visible under the corrections a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences is now used in Quran , its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country The "colloquial" spoken dialects of Arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages school ; although many speakers have a native-like command of the language , it and to some extent between speakers and communication between speakers of , as in a normal discussion among people ) , speakers tend in the direction of the colloquial varieties . In fact , there is from nearly pure Modern Standard Arabic ( MSA ) of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in MSA , to a form that the level of formality of the speech situation from nearly pure MSA to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview , as somewhat from country to country and from region to region in the colloquial speech of the speakers in It is important in descriptions pronunciation of a given colloquial (spoken) dialect and the pronunciation of MSA by these same speakers . in the modern spoken varieties , e.g. , Another reason of different pronunciations is influence for a type of vowel harmony in allophones of nearby vowels ( especially of the low vowels , which are In many spoken varieties , the backed or "emphatic" vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant ; in some varieties ( most notably Egyptian Arabic the entire word , usually including prefixes a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant Speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into The pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker , in fronted , or in most situations

, but a back in the neighborhood as those of the Hejaz region , Listen to the final vowel in the recording have a very wide range of allophones . , with generally more back or centralized allophones , but " and " neighborhood " vary in ways that reflect Many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel , depending on the particular nearby consonants . In a non-emphatic environment , the vowel in The phoneme is represented by the Arabic letter is characteristic of north Algeria , Iraq , and most of in some positions ; occurs in most of the Levant and most of North Africa ; and is used in most of Egypt and some regions in Yemen and In some regions in Sudan and in some Sudanese and Yemeni dialects , it may , mainly depending on the regional spoken variety of Arabic or the commonly diacriticized Arabic letter . الله , the name of God ā " , "u " The medieval Arabs actually termed their language ' ( depending on the region ) This simultaneous articulation is described as "Retracted Tongue Root doubled in Latin transcription ( i.e. bb In actual pronunciation , doubled consonants are Arabic has two kinds of syllables : open syllables ( CV ) CVC ) , (CVVC ) of time ) , i.e. CVC with three morae , i.e. CVVC and Superheavy syllables in Classical Arabic occur in only two places : at the end of , ' 'desks', ' 'library ' ( ' = ' (dialect ) more than two syllables from the end of a word Modern Standard Arabic is pronounced in Egypt In the Arabic of Sanaa , ' their table ' , ' through adjacent syllables , pharyngealizing all nearby consonants For example , in Moroccan Arabic a long vowel or diphthong ) on either side ; in many Levantine dialects , , including prefixes and suffixes Many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred except directly before a single final consonant ) In Moroccan Arabic , on the other hand nearby consonants ( especially velar consonants and uvular consonants

interpreted as an underlying phoneme . ) Most spoken dialects have monophthongized original to in most circumstances , including adjacent them as the original diphthongs in others be more or fewer phonemes than those listed For example , is considered Levantine dialects like Syrian or Lebanese Egyptian and a number of Yemeni and Omani dialects the dialects of Egypt , Sudan , the Levant and the Hejaz , in most dialects of the Arabian Peninsula , more prevalent in some dialects than Early in the expansion of Arabic , the separate emphatic phonemes and coalesced into , Levantine , and much Pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to In addition , the "emphatic" allophone automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in As a result , it may As in other Semitic languages , Arabic has a complex and unusual morphology ( i.e. method of constructing words from a basic root ) consists of a set of bare consonants which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern For example , the word for Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical cases and three "states " ( indefinite , definite , and construct The feminine singular is often marked by endings ( the sound plural ) or internal modification ( the broken plural ) . Definite nouns include all proper nouns , all nouns that end in long ā ) the case-marking vowels , giving /-un/ , Adjectives in Literary Arabic are marked for case , number , Pronouns in Literary Arabic are marked for person , number and Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb , noun or Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person ( first , second , or third ) , gender , and number They are conjugated in two major paradigms imperative , subjunctive , jussive a combination of tense and aspect and also use completely different sets of and gender are fused into of prefixes ( primarily encoding person ) For verbs , a given root can and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems , active and passive participles , and

and so on through "Form XV , and each is the basis The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb This is similar to the process by which , for example a noun referring to a particular type of the use of prefixes ( most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive ) The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through Nabatean , to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of in use mainly in the Quranic schools ( zaouias ) of West Africa the languages with the Ge'ez script ) , is written from right to of only "rasm " without diacritical marks between letters such as b , t , th , of use as calligraphy has in the Western world , and is a major art form ; calligraphers are held unlike the Latin script , Arabic script is of the Quran , a hadith , into an actual form such as that There are a number of different standards for the romanization of Arabic , representing Arabic with the Latin script . which leads to multiple systems . Some are interested in transliteration of Arabic , while others , for example , the same letter is used to represent both a consonant These systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as "š " Other systems ( e.g. the Bahá'í orthography ) are intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases These less "scientific" systems tend to avoid diacritics "sh " and "kh " of the scientific systems , and may lead to ambiguities , e.g. as a single sound , as in "gash " , or a combination of two sounds , as in the 1990s , Western-invented text communication technologies have become as personal computers , the World Wide Web , email , bulletin board systems , IRC , instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging . Most of these technologies originally had the Latin script , numerals and other characters used to represent the Arabic letter . There is no universal name for this type of transliteration , but some capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of

For instance , using capitalization In most of present-day North Africa , , 2 , 3 , , 7 , 8 , Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it When representing a number in Arabic , the lowest-valued position is placed on to right , but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion , with units and tens reversed Academy of the Arabic Language is the name of a number of language-regulation bodies formed They review language development , monitor new words and approve inclusion of in many elementary and secondary schools , especially Muslim schools . Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , to learn Arabic outside the academic world There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world Because the Quran is written in Arabic , millions of Muslims Software and books with tapes are also important part of Arabic learning , as many of Arabic learners Radio series of Arabic language classes are also In modern times , the educated upper classes in Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that or French in most of a badge of sophistication and modernity , weakness or lack of paraded as a sign of status , class , and perversely Known as the "Master of Suspense well known as any of " ( 1955–65 ) . Hitchcock initially trained as a technical clerk the film industry in 1919 as a title card designer ) and "The Lady Vanishes " ( 1938 ) are ranked among By 1939 , he had to move to Hollywood . including "Rebecca " ( 1940 1940 ) , "Suspicion " Shadow of a Doubt " ( " Rebecca " won the Academy Award for Best Picture Best Director ; he was also 1944 ) and "Spellbound " After a brief commercial lull , he returned to form with " Strangers on a Train " ( 1951 ) and "Dial M for Murder " ( " ( 1954 ) , " Vertigo " ( 1958 and last of these garnering The "Hitchcockian" style includes the use of camera movement

turning viewers into voyeurs , in the method , in the progression Hitchcock made multiple films with some of the biggest stars in Hollywood , including four with Cary Grant in Ingrid Bergman in the last half of the 1940s , four with James Stewart over a ten-year span commencing in 1948 , and three with Grace Kelly in the mid-1950s . based on its world-wide poll of hundreds of film critics . , nine for preservation in the United States National Film Registry , including his personal favourite , "Shadow of Hitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in the flat above his parents' leased grocer's shop at 517 High Road , Leytonstone , on the outskirts of east London ( then part of Essex ) , the youngest of three children : William Daniel ( 1890–1943 ) , Ellen Kathleen ( "Nellie " ) ( 1892–1979 ) , and Alfred Joseph ( 1899–1980 with maid , cook , Describing himself as a well-behaved boy — One of his favourite stories for interviewers to the local police station with a note when looked at the note and locked him in a cell for a few minutes leased two stores at 130 and 175 Salmon Lane , which they ran as a fish-and-chips shop 1907 , at age 7 . According to biographer Patrick McGilligan , he stayed at Howrah House for at most two years He also attended a convent school , the Wode Street School " for the daughters of to Stepney , and on St Ignatius College in Stamford Hill , Tottenham ( now in the London Borough of The priests used a hard rubber cane on the boys , always at the end of the day , at the top of the class " ; at the end of his first year English , French and religious He told Peter Bogdanovich : " He also had a particular interest in An overwhelming majority of his films include rail or tram scenes on a Train " and "Number Seventeen A clapperboard shows the number of the scene and the number of takes ,

the two numbers on the clapperboard and whisper Hitchcock told his parents that he In a book-length interview in 1962 , he told François Truffaut that he electricity , acoustics , and To support himself and his mother , as a technical clerk at the Henley Telegraph and Cable Company in Blomfield Street near London Wall . , economics , and political science reached the required age of 18 in He joined a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers and took part in theoretical briefings , weekend drills , and exercises one session of practical exercises in Hyde Park After the war , Hitchcock took In June 1919 , he became the advertising department , where he wrote copy and drew graphics for examine the proofs ; he told , he read in a trade paper for the title cards and sent his work , but the English workers were encouraged to try their hand at anything writer , art director and production manager February 1922 about the studio's "special art title department under the supervision " ( 1923 ) , was in charge of the property room London in 1922 , Hitchcock was hired as an assistant director by a new firm run in the same location by Michael Balcon , later known as Gainsborough Pictures He also worked as an assistant to Cutts on " The White Shadow " ( 1924 ) , "The Passionate Adventure " ( 1924 ) , " The Blackguard " ( 1925 ) , and "The Prude's Fall " ( 1925 ) . " The Blackguard " was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam , where Hitchcock watched part of the making of F. W. Murnau's film "The Last Laugh " In the summer of 1925 , Balcon asked at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich . to Brenner Pass , he failed to declare his film stock to customs for a scene because she was on her period ; budget overruns meant In Germany , Hitchcock observed the nuances of German cinema and filmmaking which had a big influence on him , he would visit Berlin's art galleries

, concerts and museums . actors , writers , and Balcon asked him to direct a second film in Munich , " The Mountain Eagle " ( 1926 ) to his name , Elliot Stannard assisted When he returned to England , Hitchcock was one of the early members of the London Film Society , newly Through the Society , he became fascinated by the work by Soviet filmmakers : Dziga Vertov , Lev Kuleshov , Sergei Eisenstein , and Vsevolod Pudovkin . Hitchcock's luck came with his first thriller , ' ( 1927 ) , about the hunt for a serial killer , wearing a black cloak and carrying a black bag A landlady suspects that her lodger is heard from an upper floor , Hitchcock Hitchcock told Truffaut : " later with Cary Grant in "Suspicion " ( 1941 ) . The Lodger " was a commercial and critical success in Hitchcock told Truffaut that the film : " In truth , On 2 December 1926 , Hitchcock married the English screenwriter Alma Reville at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington in a leased flat on the top two floors of In 1928 , when they , the Hitchcocks purchased "Winter's Grace " on Stroud Lane , Shamley Green , , was born on 7 July that year The Hitchcock touch had four hands , and When Hitchcock accepted the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1979 , he said that , appreciation and encouragement , is the mother of my daughter , Hitchcock began work on his tenth film , "Blackmail " ( 1929 ) this followed the rapid development of sound films in the United States , from the use of brief sound segments in "The Jazz Singer " ( 1927 ) to the first full sound feature "Lights of New York " ( 1928 ) " Blackmail " began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences , with the climax taking place on the dome of It also features one of he reads a book on the London Underground In the PBS series " The Men Who Made The Movies "

used early sound recording as a special element of " in a conversation with the woman During this period , Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP revue , " Elstree Calling " ( 1930 ) , and directed a short film , "An Elastic Affair " ( 1930 ) In 1933 , Hitchcock signed a multi-film contract with Gaumont-British , once again working for Michael Balcon . The Man Who Knew Too Much " ( 1934 ) for his succession of ice-cold, elegant leading ladies . Hitchcock released two spy thrillers in 1936 At this time , Hitchcock also became notorious for pranks against These jokes ranged from simple and For instance , he hosted Young and Innocent" in 1937 , a crime thriller 1938 ) , " one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era " , according to Philip French , a governess , disappears on a train journey through the fictional European country of Bandrika . Benjamin Crisler of the "New York Times " wrote , the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock , the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world that he had reached his peak He had received numerous offers from producers in the United States , but a concrete proposal to make a film based on the sinking of RMS "Titanic " , but Selznick persuaded Hitchcock to come to Hollywood . In July 1938 , Hitchcock flew to New York , and found ; he was featured in In Hollywood , Hitchcock met Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in April 1939 , and The Hitchcocks lived in a spacious flat on Wilshire Boulevard , and slowly acclimatised Hitchcock discovered his taste for fine food in West Hollywood , but still carried on his way of life He was impressed with Hollywood's filmmaking culture , expansive budgets and efficiency , Selznick suffered from constant financial problems , about Selznick's creative control and interference over Selznick was also displeased with in the script , and nothing and remade differently at a later time Hitchcock on a possible contract , only

In a later interview , Hitchcock said his first American film was set in England in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Selznick insisted on a faithful adaptation of the book , and disagreed with Hitchcock with the use of humour She lives in his large English country house , and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife Rebecca , who died under The film won Best Picture at the 13th Academy Awards ; the statuette was given to Europe , based on Vincent Sheean's book "Personal History " ( 1935 ) It was nominated for Best Picture in Hollywood while Britain was at war ; his concern resulted Filmed in 1939 , it was inspired by the rapidly changing events in an American newspaper reporter played by Joel McCrea . In September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley , California , Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air , purchased in 1942 . "Suspicion " ( 1941 ) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer and It is set in England ; Hitchcock used the north coast of four in which Cary Grant was Grant plays Johnnie Aysgarth , an English conman whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife , Lina McLaidlaw ( In one scene , Hitchcock placed a light inside a glass of milk Grant is bringing to his wife ; the light ensures that the audience's attention Francis Iles , but the studio felt that Grant's image would be tarnished Hitchcock therefore settled for an ambiguous finale "Saboteur " ( 1942 ) that Hitchcock made for Universal Studios Hitchcock was forced by Universal to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane with the studio , both known for their work in comedies and The story depicts a confrontation between a suspected saboteur ( Cummings ) and a real saboteur ( Norman Lloyd ) atop the Statue of Liberty Hitchcock took a three-day tour of New York City the dangers of rumours during wartime

Back in England , Hitchcock's mother she died on 26 September 1942 at his mother , but his assistant said Four months later , on 4 January 1943 , to William , but his death His New Year's resolution in 1943 was to had fond memories of making . In the film , Charlotte "Charlie" Newton (Teresa Wright ) , bread , vegetables , relishes , salad , dessert , a bottle of wine and consisted of black coffee for breakfast and lunch , and steak and salad for dinner , Hitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944 1944 ) and "Aventure Malgache " ( 1944 ) , for In June and July 1945 , Hitchcock served as "treatment advisor " on a Holocaust documentary that used Allied Forces footage of the liberation The film was assembled in London the Ministry of Information , who brought Hitchcock ( a friend of his ) Instead , it was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to 1985 , when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of PBS "Frontline Hitchcock worked for David Selznick again ( 1945 ) , which the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson ( Ingrid Bergman For added novelty and impact , the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies Hitchcock told François Truffaut that Selznick Cary Grant , and Ben Hecht's screenplay , to RKO Radio Pictures as a "package " both Hitchcock collaborators , and features a plot about Nazis , uranium and His prescient use of uranium as a plot device Hecht consulted Robert Millikan of the California Institute of Technology about the development of a uranium bomb . Hitchcock formed an independent production company , Transatlantic Pictures He made two films with Transatlantic marshalling suspense in a confined environment , as The film appears as a very limited number of continuous shots , but it was from 4- to 10 minutes each Some transitions between reels were hidden Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut , and began the next take

with the camera in the same place . The film features James Stewart in the leading role It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case " Under Capricorn " ( of long takes , but to He again used Technicolor in Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after the last two films Hitchcock filmed "Stage Fright " ( 1950 ) at Elstree Studios in He paired one of Warner Bros.' most popular stars , Jane Wyman , with the expatriate German actor Marlene Dietrich Michael Wilding , Richard Todd and Alastair Sim ( 1951 ) was based on the novel of the same name by Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films He approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue , but Raymond Chandler took In the film , two men casually speculates on a foolproof method to murder ; he suggests that two people Farley Granger's role was as the innocent victim of " I Confess " was followed " Dial M for Murder " ( 1954 ) , "Rear Window " ( 1954 ) , and Ray Milland plays the villain who tries She kills the hired assassin in self-defence Her lover , Mark Halliday ( Robert Cummings ) , and Police Inspector Hubbard ( John Williams ) save her from Hitchcock moved to Paramount Pictures and ( based on Robert Capa ) Out of boredom , he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard one of them ( Raymond Burr his girlfriend ( Kelly ) . depicted in confined or cramped quarters , in From 1955 to 1965 , Hitchcock was With his droll delivery , gallows humour and iconic image , the series made of his profile ( he drew composed of only nine strokes ) , His introductions always included some sort of wry humour , such as the description He directed 18 episodes of the series in 1962 , and NBC broadcast the final episode on 10 May 1965 . of short-story collections in his name ; Me Do on TV , " and " Tales My Mother Never Told Me " In 1956 , HSD Publications also

crime and detective fiction . In 1955 , Hitchcock became In the same year , his third Grace Kelly film , in the French Riviera , and stars Grant plays retired thief John Robie , who " Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly ; she married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956 , and Hitchcock then remade his own 1934 film " The Man Who Knew Too Much " in 1956 . ) , Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros. , is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in This was the only film of Hitchcock a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief , " during the summer of 1957 , Hitchcock was admitted to hospital for hernia and gallstones , and Following a successful surgery , he immediately returned to work to prepare "Vertigo " ( 1958 ) He told Oriana Fallaci : " of dollars on it , In "Vertigo " , Stewart from acrophobia , who becomes Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy , Some critics , including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert , the "Pygmalion"-like obsessions of a man who moulds a woman into the person he desires " Vertigo " contains a camera technique zoom , which has been The film premiered at the San Sebastián International Film Festival , mixed reviews and poor box-office receipts at the time ; the critic from "Variety" magazine opined Bosley Crowther of the "New York Times " thought The picture was also the last collaboration between After "Vertigo " , the rest of 1958 was a difficult year for " North by Northwest " was diagnosed with cancer . While she was in hospital with his television work and would visit Hitchcock followed up with three more successful films " North by Northwest " , "Psycho " ( 1960 ) and "The Birds " ( 1963 In " North by Northwest " , Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill He is pursued across the United States by enemy agents , including Eve Kendall

learns that she is working During its opening two-week run at Radio City Music Hall , , setting a non-holiday gross record for that theatre "Psycho " ( 1960 ) which was inspired by the case of Ed Gein , the film was 800,000 ( equivalent to $ million on a spare set using crew members from The unprecedented violence of the shower scene , the early death of the heroine , and the innocent lives excess of $15 million ( equivalent He subsequently swapped his rights to "Psycho " and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA , making began a 50-hour interview of Hitchcock , , during which Hitchcock agreed it was published as a book in 1967 , which Truffaut The audio tapes were used as the basis of a documentary in 2015 . Truffaut sought the interview because it It was obvious from his films to the potential of his art than any of his colleagues " . and "Marnie " ( 1964 Monaco since 1956 , would 1963 or 1964 , he recruited Evan Hunter , author of "The Blackboard Jungle " ( 1954 ) on a Daphne du Maurier short story , " The Birds " ( 1952 ) , his "My Favorites in Suspense " ( 1959 ) He hired Tippi Hedren to play in October 1961 , in an NBC television advert for Sego , a diet drink : Movies do n't have them ( Rod Taylor ) in a bird shop ; Jessica Tandy plays his possessive mother . Hedren visits him in Bodega Bay of lovebirds as a gift . Hitchcock made the film with equipment from the Revue Studio , which made , using a combination of trained and mechanical birds against a backdrop of wild ones . An HBO/BBC television film , " The Girl " Hedren's experiences on set ; she with her and sexually harassed He reportedly isolated her from the rest of the crew , had in "Marnie " , said Toward the end of the week , to stop of each bird was attached by

nylon thread to elastic bands sewn inside In June 1962 , Grace Kelly announced Hedren had signed an exclusive seven-year, $500-a-week contract with Hitchcock in October 1961 , and in the lead role opposite Sean Connery . In 2016 , describing Hedren's performance greatest in the history of cinema on the character played by Hedren He suffered all his life from furious sexual desire its gratification , suffered from the inability to transform fantasy into reality by way of his art . In the film , Marnie Edgar ( from her employer and goes on She applies for a job at Mark Rutland's (Connery) company in Philadelphia and steals a panic attack during a thunderstorm and fearing She explains that she does , but during the "honeymoon " fighting with a client during a thunderstorm Hitchcock told cinematographer Robert Burks that the camera The Birds " who was writing it in her , I Failing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades , partly set in Cuba Both were spy thrillers with Cold War-related themes of the 12-year collaboration between Hitchcock and Hitchcock was unhappy with Herrmann's score and replaced him with John Addison , Jay Livingston and Ray Evans . Hitchcock returned to Britain to ( 1972 ) , based " ( 1966 ) . After two espionage films , the plot marked Richard Blaney ( Jon Finch ) , a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger , becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the "Necktie Murders " , which Bob Rusk ( Barry Foster ) . In "Frenzy " , Hitchcock allowed nudity for the first time . and strangled ; Donald Spoto called the most repellent examples of a detailed murder in the history Hitchcock would add subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until "Family Plot " ( 1976 ) It relates the escapades of "Madam" Blanche Tyler , played by Barbara Harris , ( 1972 ) , the novel's tone Toward the end of his life , Hitchcock was working on the script for a spy thriller , " The Short Night

, Ernest Lehman and David Freeman . Despite preliminary work , it was Having refused a CBE in 1962 , Hitchcock was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) in the 1980 New Year Honours . given cortisone injections for his arthritis — him with the papers at Universal Studios Asked by a reporter after the ceremony was a matter of carelessness . His last public appearance was on 16 March 1980 , when he introduced the next year's winner of , on 29 April , in Donald Spoto , one of Hitchcock's biographers , celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home , and Sullivan heard his confession Hitchcock was survived by his wife His funeral was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April , after which his body was cremated Hitchcock's film production career evolved from small-scale silent films to , but also included melodramas the silent era , even after the arrival of sound , Hitchcock still relied on visuals in cinema ; Hitchcock referred to this emphasis on visual storytelling as "pure cinema " In Britain , he honed he moved to Hollywood , was the "sensation of cinema " "The Pleasure Garden " and "The Mountain Eagle " Afterward , he discovered Soviet cinema Although Hitchcock's work in the 1920s found some success , several British reviewers criticised Hitchcock's films to generate tension in his work 're being led to the electric chair During filming of " North by Northwest " , Hitchcock explained his reasons for recreating the set of Mount Rushmore : " The audience One of the dramatic reasons for this type of photography is to get up there on the screen . to the sound era , contained a number His films explored audience as a voyeur " , "Marnie " and "Psycho He understood that human beings enjoy in it through the character's actions . Of his fifty-three films , eleven revolved around stories of mistaken identity , In most cases , it is an ordinary, everyday person who finds themselves in

Hitchcock told Truffaut : " to identify with him than with a guilty man on the run . According to Robin Wood , Hitchcock had mixed feelings towards homosexuality despite working with gay actors in his career Donald Spoto suggests that Hitchcock's sexually repressive childhood may have contributed to his exploration of During the 1950s , the Motion Picture Production Code prohibited was known for his subtle references , and pushing the boundaries of the censors Moreover , "Shadow of a Doubt " has a double incest theme through the storyline drawn to both conventional and unconventional sexual expression in his work was usually presented in a "bleak and skeptical" manner after his mother's death in 1942 , that Hitchcock portrayed motherly figures as In Hitchcock's depiction of villains and viewers to identify with them led to his distrust of authoritarian figures such as policemen and politicians Also , he used the "MacGuffin"—the use of an object , person or Hitchcock appears briefly in most Hitchcock's portrayal of women has been the snitch , the witch , the slink of all , the demon mommy . In a widely cited essay in 1975 , Laura Mulvey introduced the idea of the male gaze ; the view of the spectator in They were imprisoned in costumes They mesmerised the men , who In "The 39 Steps " , Madeleine Carroll is put in handcuffs . " Under Capricorn " ) In "Rear Window " , Lisa (Grace Kelly ) , Kim Novak and Eva Marie Saint play In "Psycho " , Janet Leigh's character the attacks in " The Birds " In "Marnie " , the title character , the mistress was played by Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in "Family Plot " ( 1976 in their relationships with their mothers , In " North by Northwest ) is an innocent man ridiculed by the Rod Taylor character , an innocent man , finds his world under attack by vicious birds himself from a clinging mother ( Jessica Tandy has a loathing of women but

but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother be treated like cattle " During the filming of " Mr. ) , Carole Lombard brought three cows Lombard, Robert Montgomery , and Gene Raymond , In an episode of "The Dick Cavett Show " , originally broadcast on 8 June 1972 , Dick Cavett stated as fact , at one time , he " I said that I Hitchcock believed that actors should concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters . He told Bryan Forbes in 1967 with a method actor how he was his reputation as a man who disliked He used the same actors in many of his films ; Cary Grant and James Mason said that Hitchcock regarded actors as "animated props " . For Hitchcock , the actors were He told François Truffaut : " Hitchcock's films were extensively storyboarded to He also used this as change his films from his initial vision . This view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre Bill Krohn , the American correspondent of French film magazine storyboards in relation to Hitchcock of commentators on his films , For example , the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of " North by Northwest " Krohn's analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics to change a film's conception during its production of " The Man Who Knew Too Much , " whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and on many of Hitchcock's films , including " Strangers on a Train " and "Topaz " . Krohn's work also sheds light on sent many films over budget and of Hollywood in the Studio System Era . shoot alternative takes of scenes . This differed from coverage in and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers , Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films , whose vision of his films did Both his fastidiousness and attention to detail also found their way into each film poster Hitchcock was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame

on 8 February 1960 with two stars : one for television and a second In 1978 , John Russell Taylor described In 2002 , " MovieMaker David Gritten , the newspaper's film critic , wrote , Hitchcock did more than His flair was for narrative , and engaging the emotions of the audience In 1992 , the "Sight & Sound" Critics' Poll ranked in its list of "Top 10 Directors " In 2002 , Hitchcock was 5th in the directors' top ten poll in the list of "The Greatest Directors of All Time " compiled by Hitchcock was voted the "Greatest Director of 20th Century " in a poll conducted In 1996 , " Entertainment Weekly " ranked Hitchcock at No Hitchcock was ranked at No He won two Golden Globes , eight Laurel Awards , and five lifetime achievement awards , including In 2012 , Hitchcock was selected by artist Sir Peter Blake , author in a new version of the cover , a BBC Radio 4 series , " The New Elizabethans " , as someone " whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in The Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the Academy Film Archive in Hollywood , California . shot on the set of "Blackmail " ( 1929 ) and "Frenzy " ( 1972 ) , and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock The Academy Film Archive has preserved many of The Alfred Hitchcock Papers are housed at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin , Texas Hitchcock's work on the production of "The Paradine Case " , "Rebecca " , " Spellbound " , " North by Northwest " and of large snakes of the genus "Eunectes " They are found in tropical South America were suggested in an account by the name of a snake from Ceylon (Sri Lanka Latin in his "Synopsis Methodica Animalium " ( Ray used a catalogue of snakes from the Leyden museum supplied by Dr. Tancred Robinson their bodies and crushing their bones . Speakers of these languages are currently

scattered over most of Asia north of 35 °N and in some eastern parts of Europe , extending in longitude from Turkey to The Altaic family was first proposed in It was widely accepted until in many encyclopedias and handbooks . Since the 1950s , many comparative linguists have Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean . A common ancestral Proto-Altaic language for the "Macro" family has been Micro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages , to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean , Jeju , Japanese , and the Ryukyuan languages , for a total of about 74 ( depending on The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the Orkhon inscriptions They were deciphered in 1893 It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD , in 1228 ( see Mongolic languages The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the Memorial for Yelü Yanning in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in Classical Chinese from the 5th century AD which dates from 712 AD . The most important text for the study of early Korean 25 poems , of which some in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg , while a prisoner of war after , which included Turkic , Mongolian , and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic ) as an "Altaic" branch , and also the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages as the "Uralic" branch ( though Castrén in East-Central Asia , which are approximately the center of the geographic range of , and similar general references , after In the 1920s , G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov advocated the inclusion of Korean Decades later , in his 1952 book , included Korean in Altaic , supporters of the theory ) to In 1960 , Nicholas Poppe published of Ramstedt's volume on phonology that However , many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to In 2017 , Martine Robbeets proposed the Turkic , Mongolic , and migrated south into the modern Liaoning province ,

directly evaluate the validity of the Altaic hypothesis , Yurayong and Szeto ( and Japonic the stages of convergence to the Altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model , which resulted in the present typological similarity between Koreanic and Japonic They state that both are speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences between languages of the Altaic typology , our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages . In 1962 , John C. Street proposed an alternative classification , with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu in another The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 1956 ) , Gerhard Doerfer ( 1963 ) , and Alexander Shcherbak A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been of the Altaic languages in 1991 . since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's "Einführung " in 1952 . With fewer speakers than Mongolic or across most of Eastern Siberia ( including the Sakhalin Island ) , northern Manchuria and extending into some parts of Some Tungusic languages are extinct or endangered languages as a consequence of language shift to Chinese and Manchu ) and North Tungusic ( Mongolic languages are spoken in three geographic areas : Russia ( especially Siberia ) , China and Mongolia . explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to For example , although most , various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic , Mongolic , Tungusic , Korean Starostin claimed in 1991 that of apparent cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list ; Korean 17% , Mongolic – Tungusic 22% , Mongolic – Korean 16% , and Tungusic – Korean The 2003 "Etymological Dictionary " includes a list of 2,800 proposed cognate sets , as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic loans between Turkic and Mongolic from cognates ; and suggest words that occur in Turkic All other combinations between the five branches also occur Martine Robbeets ( 2020 ) argues

in northeastern China , only becoming , Mongolic , and Tungusic languages time : the earlier forms are more of Turkic , Mongolic , Tungusic , Korean , and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic a relationship between Altaic and Japanese than the relationship of any two Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC , but today at around 5000 BC (ASG ) , Standard Austrian German ( ) , or Austrian High German ( ) , is the variety of in the media and for other formal situations German in Austria ( Austria German ) has its beginning in the mid-18th century of administration in their multilingual Habsburg empire . At the time , the written standard was by the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects of Austria . Another option was to create a new standard Austrian German is one among several varieties Distinctions in vocabulary persist , for example , in culinary terms , to Austria's exclusion from the development of a German nation-state in the late 19th century and its manifold particular traditions Until 1918 , the spoken standard in spoken by the imperial Habsburg family and the nobility For many years , Austria had a special form of the language for official government documents It is a very traditional form of the language , probably derived from medieval deeds and documents , and has For most speakers ( even native speakers ) , this form of the language is as it contains many highly specialised terms for that reduced the number of traditional civil servants the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and in as well as verbs of , in parts of Carinthia In Germany , the words " ) and "gestehen " ( While strong forms of the various dialects are northern Germans , communication is much , is seen for many Simple words in the various dialects are very after listening to a few spoken words , the dialects of the deeper valleys of the Tyrol , other Tyroleans are often unable

Speakers from the different states of Austria ) , those of Carinthia , Styria , Vienna , Several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups of the state , many still Slovene , and the dialect of Vienna , which has been In mathematics , the axiom of choice , or AC , to make a selection of exactly one object In many cases , such a selection can of choice ; this is An illustrative example is sets picked from From such sets , one may In this case , " select from the natural numbers , it will However , no choice function is known for the collection of all non-empty subsets of any (even infinite) collection of pairs of shoes of choice is now used without reservation by most mathematicians , and it is included in the standard form of axiomatic set theory , Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC require the axiom of choice for of choice , such as Thus, the negation of the axiom of choice states nonempty sets that has no choice function . There are many other equivalent statements of the axiom speak of the "choice function on A A " ( with the empty set makes sense for any set "A " elsewhere in this article , the domain of a choice function on a "collection of for sets of sets . The statement of the axiom of choice that every finite collection of nonempty sets has of the Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of is easily proved by mathematical induction In the even simpler case of a collection of to an element , so this instance Until the late 19th century , the axiom of the members of " s " Not every situation requires the axiom of choice the axiom of choice follows from In that case , it is we have several (a finite number of ) boxes go to the second box , choose The result is an explicit choice function : a function that takes the first box to the first element

( A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of mathematical induction to that every countable family of nonempty sets has by the axiom of countable choice . The nature of the individual nonempty sets in the collection no natural choice of elements from each set If we can not make of all non-empty subsets of the real numbers . If we try to choose an element from each set , then For example , the open interval ( on "S " by a group Using the axiom of choice , we could pick a single point from each orbit , obtaining an uncountable subset "X " of "S " with the property the circle into a countable collection of disjoint sets to select a point in each orbit requires the axiom of choice . to choose least elements from subsets : every nonempty subset of the natural numbers has a different ordering of the real numbers which is of every set under our unusual ordering . may establish the existence of an object For example , while the axiom is a well-ordering of the real numbers , there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in The axiom of choice proves the existence Another argument against the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of objects that may seem One example is the Banach – Tarski paradox possible to decompose the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into into two solid balls each with the same volume Despite these seemingly paradoxical facts , most mathematicians accept the axiom of choice as a valid principle for proving new results in mathematics be true in any model of ZF , regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of relies on either the axiom of choice For example , the Banach – it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in ZF plus the axiom of choice , Tarski paradox can be rephrased as conditional statements , for example , ZFC , the axiom of choice still formalized in classical logic .

been thoroughly studied in the context of constructive mathematics , where non-classical logic of the axiom of choice is ( depending on approach ) included as an axiom or provable In constructive set theory , however , middle ( unlike in Martin-Löf type theory Some results in constructive set theory use the axiom of countable choice or the axiom of imply the law of the excluded middle in In 1938 , Kurt Gödel showed of ZF by constructing an inner model ( the constructible universe ) which satisfies In 1963 , Paul Cohen employed for this purpose , to show choice ( or its negation ) made by appeal to other axioms in a maximal ideal , every vector space has The proof of the independence result also shows including all statements that can be phrased in the language of Peano arithmetic Statements in this class include the statement problems in this class , it For example , the generalized continuum hypothesis ( independent of ZF , but The axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis In class theories such as Von Neumann the axiom of choice for sets The axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size assuming the axioms of ZF but equivalent to the axiom of choice There are several results in category theory which invoke the axiom of choice stronger than the axiom of choice , depending on the strength of For example , if one defines categories in terms of no category of all sets , and a category-theoretic formulation to apply to all sets One example is the axiom of dependent choice A still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice ( ACω or CC ) exists for any countable set of nonempty sets One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it the axiom of choice in the sense from ZFC ( ZF plus cited by Zermelo as a justification In 1906 , Russell declared , and the equivalences of the other statements If we abbreviate by BP

has the property of Baire , of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of ( the existence of an inaccessible cardinal ) has the property of Baire , three of these results are refuted New Foundations " ( NF ) , takes its name from the title ("New Foundations for Mathematical Logic " ) of the 1937 article which introduced it There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice the negation of the axiom of choice on sets ( in the sense of descriptive set theory ) one can often prove restricted versions of the axiom of choice from axioms incompatible from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example Attila ( , ;) , was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453 He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns , Ostrogoths , Alans and Bulgars , among others , in During his reign , he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires His unsuccessful campaign in Persia was followed in 441 by an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire , the success of which He subsequently invaded Italy , He planned for further campaigns against the Romans , but died in After Attila's death , his close adviser , Ardaric of the Gepids , led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule , after the physical type of people from Eastern Asia Attila derives from East Germanic origin ; " Attila " is formed from the Gothic or Gepidic noun "atta " , " of the diminutive suffix " -ila " The Gothic etymology was first proposed by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm in the early 19th century Other scholars have argued for a Turkic origin Omeljan Pritsak considered "Ἀττίλα " ( in form of " attíl- horseman, cavalier ) , or Turkish " at " (horse ) and "dil " ( tongue Maenchen-Helfen argues that Pritsak's derivation is or other etymologies for Attila , , and Süleyman the Magnificent had a name

of Arabic origin , yet that The historiography of Attila is faced the only complete sources are written in Greek Attila's contemporaries left many testimonials of his life , but only fragments of these Priscus was a Byzantine diplomat and historian who wrote in Greek , of Attila , as a member of the embassy of Theodosius II at He was obviously biased by his political position , but his writing is a major source for information on the life of Attila , and he recorded a physical description of him . 6th-century historians Procopius and Jordanes , especially in Jordanes' "The Origin and Deeds of the Goths " , which contains numerous references to Priscus's history , of information about the Hunnic empire and He describes the legacy of Attila and the Hunnic people for a century after by means of epics and down from generation to generation Indirectly , fragments of this oral history have reached us via the literature of the Scandinavians and Germans , Archaeological investigation has uncovered some details about the lifestyle , art , and The Huns were a group of Eurasian nomads , appearing from east of The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate According to some theories , their leaders One scholar suggests a relationship to Yeniseian kings Octar and Ruga , who This form of diarchy was recurrent with the Huns , but historians His family was from a noble lineage , Attila grew up in a rapidly changing world They crossed the Volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the Alans had acquired a reputation for invincibility Germania into the Roman Empire in the west and south , and along the banks of the Rhine and Danube In 376 , the Goths crossed in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 . , Suebi , and Burgundians crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman Gaul on December 31 , 406 to The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was based in Ravenna in the West The Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders

determined by the will of a constellation Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality , whereas many retained their own identities of the king of the Huns . The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems , driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory , yet mercenaries against the Germans and even to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against Valentinian III in They exchanged ambassadors and hostages to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military victories the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered known as Rua or Ruga ) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk , Attila and Bleda , in control of the united Hun tribes met with the imperial legation at Margus (Požarevac horseback in the Hunnic manner , and The Romans agreed to return the fugitives 350 Roman pounds ( c. 115 kg ) of to Hunnish traders , and to pay a ransom of eight "solidi " returned to their home in the Great Hungarian Plain for the next few years while they invaded They were defeated in Armenia Crossing the Danube , they laid waste to the cities of Illyricum and forts on the river , , a city of Moesia . Their advance began at Margus , While the Huns attacked city-states along of Africa and its capital of Africa was the richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for The Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces , sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa . This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium , and then took Singidunum ( Belgrade ) and Sirmium During 442 , Theodosius recalled his troops from Sicily and ordered Attila responded with a campaign in For the first time ( as far were equipped with battering rams and successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and only a few sick persons lay in the churches . We halted at a short distance from

the river , in an open space , men slain in war . Advancing along the Nišava River , the Huns ) , Philippopolis ( Plovdiv outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital . Their demands were met for a time , and the Hun kings withdrew into In 447 , Attila again rode south into the Eastern Roman Empire through The Roman army , under Gothic "magister militum" Arnegisclus , met him in the Battle of the Utus and In 450 , Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the Visigoth kingdom of Toulouse by making an alliance with good terms with the Western Roman Empire and its influential general Flavius Aëtius Aëtius had spent a brief exile among the Huns in 433 , and a plea for help — and escape her forced betrothal to a Roman senator in a proposal of marriage , but He also wrote to Attila Attila interfered in a succession struggle after subject to conjecture . ) Attila gathered his vassals — Gepids , Ostrogoths , Rugians , Scirians , Heruls, Thuringians, Alans , Burgundians , among others — and On April 7 , he captured slaughtered before the altar of his church in Rheims ; Servatus is with his prayers , as Saint Genevieve Aëtius moved to oppose Attila the Franks , the Burgundians , and A mission by Avitus and Attila Aëtius gave chase and caught to be near Catalaunum ( The two armies clashed in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains , the outcome of which is commonly Theodoric was killed in the fighting Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy , because he feared as he did a defeat . Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with Honoria , a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the Venetian Lagoon His army sacked numerous cities and razed Attila finally halted at the River Po Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys , the high civilian officers well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I , who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua

Italy and negotiate peace with Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting , but gives Italy had suffered from a terrible famine Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy returned to his palace across the Danube , he planned to strike In the midst of the revels , however , he suffered severe bleeding and choked to death in to internal bleeding , possibly due the nations should be divided among to them by lot like noted for great loyalty to Attila the Huns in Pannonia in the Battle of Nedao Attila at the Catalaunian Plains ) , Scythia ( probably those of Ernak the Danube in 468 AD , but Attila's many children and relatives are known by deeds , but soon valid genealogical sources This has not stopped many genealogists of descent for various medieval rulers . By the end of the 12th century the royal court of Hungary proclaimed their descent from Attila . the exiled queen of Hungary , Anastasia An anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting to meet the taste of the time Some histories and chronicles describe him as a great and noble king , and he plays major roles in three Norse sagas : " Atlakviða " , " Volsunga saga " , and "Atlamál Frutolf of Michelsberg and Otto of Freising This refers to the so-called historical poems about Dietrich von Bern ( Theoderic ) , Etzel is most prominent in In 1812 , Ludwig van Beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about In World War I , Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "Huns " , based on a 1900 speech by In modern Hungary and in Turkey In Hungary , several public places are The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia . It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia , and covers In the north , the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea and the Black Sea by the straits of the Dardanelles and The Aegean Islands are located within the sea

and some bound it on its southern periphery , including Crete and The sea reaches a maximum depth of 3,544 meters , to the east of Crete The Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups , including the Dodecanese , the Cyclades , the Sporades , the Saronic islands , includes the islands of Rhodes , Kos , and Patmos Lesbos is part of the North Aegean Islands , is located in the Aegean the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea , along with the Turkish provinces of Edirne , Canakkale , Balıkesir , Izmir , Aydın and Muğla to the east of the sea . , especially in regards to the civilization of Ancient Greece , who inhabited the area around the coast of Along with the Greeks , Thracians The Romans conquered the area under the Roman Empire it against advances by the First Bulgarian Empire The Fourth Crusade weakened Byzantine control of the area the exception of Crete , which The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards volcanic activity that has convulsed the region Of particular interest are the richly coloured sediments in the region of the islands of Santorini and Milos , in the south Aegean Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include Athens , Thessaloniki , Volos , Kavala and Heraklion in Greece , and İzmir and Bodrum within the Aegean Sea are disputed between The Aegean dispute has had a large effect on to Aegeus , who was that sea to drown himself ( He was the father of Theseus , the mythical king and founder-hero of The sea was known in Latin as "Aegaeum mare " under the control in the High and Late Middle Ages , popularized the name "Archipelago " ( Greek : αρχιπέλαγος In the South Slavic languages , the Aegean is The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea The Aegean Islands are found within its waters on the south , generally from west to east : Kythera , Antikythera , Crete , Kasos

, Karpathos and Rhodes . The Anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea , while the Greek mainland marks the west in alphabetical order , are Attica , Central Greece , Central Macedonia , Crete , Eastern Macedonia and Thrace , North Aegean , Peloponnese , South Aegean , and Thessaly . Many of the Aegean islands or island chains , are geographically extensions of the mountains The Aegean sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont . The Dardanelles are located to the northeast It ultimately connects with the Black Sea through the Bosphoros strait , upon which a counterclockwise gyre , with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at The climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey of the Aegean is classified as with hotter and drier summers along with milder However , high temperatures during summers high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean , and Numerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast , as well as on towns on the Aegean islands The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Greece has established several marine protected areas along According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean ( MedPAN ) , four Greek MPAs The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC Before that time , at the peak of the last ice age ( about 18,000 years ago ) instead of much of the northern Aegean The subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term "Aegean civilization The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands , 1450 BC before a period of decline

, finally ending at around 1100 BC It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe , leaving behind massive building complexes , The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean , and Mediterranean settlements , particularly the Near East The most notable Minoan palace is that of Knossos The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland , It is believed that the site of Mycenae , which sits The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering , architecture and vast areas of the Mediterranean , including Their syllabic script , the Linear B , offers Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems . The civilization of Mycenaean Greeks perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean The Archaic period followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century Greece became divided into small self-governing communities , and adopted the Phoenician alphabet , : Athens , Sparta , Corinth , and Thebes , Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control to form colonies in Magna Graecia ( Southern Italy and Sicily ) The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history , when on September 20 , 480 B.C. the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the Xerxes II of Persia at briefly , of the Kingdom of Macedonia . a series of conquests that led the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule , but also was divided among his generals . Cassander became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon , which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean The Kingdom of Lysimachus had control over the sea's eastern coast The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the Roman Republic and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms . They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern Mediterranean basin , including

the Aegean , in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the Punic Wars by Muhammad in the 7th century . Although the Rashidun Caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean sea , its conquest of During the 820s , Crete was conquered by a group of Berbers Andalusians exiles The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took 842 and 843 under Theoktistos For the approximately 135 years of its existence , the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium . Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and Meanwhile , the Bulgarian Empire threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast . Simeon I of Bulgaria led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion , and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts The Byzantines later regained control . The Seljuq Turks , under the Seljuk Empire , invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068 , of Anatolia , including the east coast of the Aegean Sea , during the reign of Alp Arslan , the second Sultan of After the death of his successor , , and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by Kilij Arslan I , who founded the Sultanate of Rum Western European and Venetian forces during the Fourth Crusade , the area around the Aegean sea was fragmented into multiple entities , including the Latin Empire , the Kingdom of Thessalonica , the Empire of Nicaea , the Principality of Achaea , and the Duchy of Athens The Venetians created the maritime state of the Duchy of the Archipelago , which included all the Cyclades except The Empire of Nicaea , a Byzantine rump state , managed to effect the Recapture of Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus ; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast , but before all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could exercise power around The Greek War of Independence allowed a Greek state on the coast

The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following World War I , when it was During the war , Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast In the Italo-Turkish War of 1912 , Italy captured the Dodecanese islands , and as part of the Balkans Campaign of World War II . The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek puppet state , which would permit the Italian annexation of the Sporades and the Cyclades islands in as a part of the Italian Aegean Islands . The German invasion resulted in the Axis occupation of The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944 , and by the end of the month , Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays . In ancient times , navigation through across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland , Many of the islands are volcanic are mined on other islands . The Armenian king dynasty Achaemenids made one of the greatest highways " its length was 2400km , and it was situated between Of the main islands in the Aegean Sea , – Bozcaada ( Tenedos ) and Gökçeada ( Imbros ) ; the rest belong to Greece Between the two countries , there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space , including the size of territorial waters , air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf Multiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts The port of Piraeus in Athens is the chief port in Greece , With a throughput of 1.4 million TEUs , Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and Piraeus is also the commercial hub of the focus for a major shipping convention , known as Posidonia , which attracts Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods As of 2007 , the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus , making

it one of the busiest ports in In 2007 , the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 TEU There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones ; with respect to pelagic fisheries , the catches from , by anchovy , horse mackerels The Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in Greece , Greece is one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018 , and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product , Delos , and Mykonos Alongside Greece , Turkey has resort areas and attracting large number of tourists , contributing to tourism The phrase " Blue Cruise " refers to recreational voyages along the Turkish Riviera , part in the Blue Flag beach certification programme of the Foundation for Environmental Education The certification is awarded for beaches and 9 marinas in Greece . " A Clockwork Orange " is a dystopian satirical black comedy novel by English writer Anthony Burgess , published in It is set in a near-future society that has a youth subculture of extreme violence The teenage protagonist , Alex , narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities The book is partially written in which takes its name from the Russian suffix In 2005 , " A Clockwork Orange Time" magazine's list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923 , and it was as one of the 100 best English-language novels of Alex is a 15-year-old gang leader living in His friends ( " droogs " as the droogs indulge their taste for milk laced with the customer's drug of Joyriding through the countryside in a stolen car , they break into an isolated cottage In a metafictional touch , the husband is Back at the Korova , Alex strikes Dim for his crude response to a woman's singing of an operatic passage , and Alex feigns illness to his parents Following an unexpected visit from P.R. Deltoid ,

finds his droogs in a mutinous mood , Georgie challenges Alex for leadership they focus on higher-value targets in Alex quells the rebellion by slashing Dim's hand and fighting with Georgie , to Georgie's plan to rob the home strikes him in payback for Alex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in has obtained a job in one of the prison chapels , playing music on the stereo to accompany the Sunday Christian services The chaplain mistakes Alex's Bible studies for stirrings of faith ; in reality After his fellow cellmates blame him for beating a troublesome cellmate to death , he is chosen to undergo The technique is a form of aversion therapy in which Alex is injected The effectiveness of the technique is demonstrated to a group of VIPs , before a bully and abases himself Alex returns to his parents' flat , are letting his room to a lodger Two policemen come to Alex's rescue , They take Alex outside town , brutalise him , and abandon him she sustained in the rape . He does not recognise Alex plan to use Alex as a symbol of state brutality and thus was the ringleader of the home invasion ; he is removed from the cottage and locked in an upper-story bedroom as Alex wakes up in a hospital , where he is courted that the hospital doctors have undone the effects As photographers snap pictures , Alex daydreams of orgiastic violence and reflects In the final chapter , Alex — preparing for yet another night of crime After a chance encounter with Pete taking less and less pleasure in acts of The book has three parts , each as a milestone in human maturation . The 21st chapter was omitted from the editions At the American publisher's insistence , Burgess allowed their editors to cut the redeeming final chapter from " and appealing to a US audience , is based on the American edition of the book ( which Burgess " A Clockwork Orange " was written around coffee bars , pop music and teenage gangs .

England was gripped by fears Burgess stated that the novel's inspiration was drunk American servicemen stationed in England during " ... a four-speed walking stick " or This title alludes to the protagonist's negative emotional responses to feelings of evil which prevent subsequent to the administration of the Ludovico Technique is forced to watch scenes of violence on a screen that , contains many words in a slang argot which Burgess invented for the book It is a mix of modified Slavic words For instance , these terms have the following meanings in Nadsat : " " ( молоко ) = milk ; "gulliver " ( голова ) = head ; " malchick " ( мальчик ) or "malchickiwick " = boy ; "soomka " ( ) = good ; "prestoopnick ; "rooker " ( рука ) = hand ; " cal " ( кал ) = crap ; "veck " ( guy ; " litso " ( лицо ) = face One of Alex's doctors explains the language to a colleague as " odd bits of gypsy talk , too . anything , but merely easy Additionally , slang like "appypolly loggy " ("apology " ) seems to derive from school boy slang . In the first edition of the book , Burgess in the book , which In 1976 , " A Clockwork Orange " was removed from an Aurora, Colorado high school removed from high school classrooms in Westport , Massachusetts over similar concerns with In 1982 , it was removed from two Anniston , Alabama libraries acclaimed the novel as " cheerful horror has written a fine farrago of outrageousness as a comic writer , which are If you can stomach the horrors , you ’ll enjoy the manner Many reviewers praised the inventiveness of the language , but expressed unease at " The Spectator " praised Burgess's "extraordinary technical feat " New Statesman " acclaimed Burgess our time " but called the book as " a somewhat clumsy experiment with science fiction In 1985 , Burgess published "Flame into Being : The Life and Work of D. H. Lawrence "

" in his biography , Burgess three weeks , it became known as the raw material for a film which The best known adaptation of the novella to other forms In 1987 , Burgess published In 1988 , a German adaptation of "A Clockwork Orange " at the intimate theatre of Bad Godesberg featured a musical score by the German punk rock band orchestral clips of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and "other dirty melodies on the album " Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau In February 1990 , another musical version was produced at the Barbican Theatre in London of "The Sunday Times " of London by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2 , the director of the production , Ron Daniels the band's experimental mix of hip hop , liturgical Lise Hand of "The Irish Independent " reported and being served with a Big Mac In 1994 , Chicago's Steppenwolf Theater put The American premiere of novelist Anthony Burgess's own adaptation of his "A Clockwork Orange " starred K. Todd Freeman as Alex In 2002 , Godlight Theatre Company presented the New York Premiere adaptation of "A Clockwork Orange " at at the SoHo Playhouse ( 2002 ) the Edinburgh Festival Fringe ( 2005 ) . received rave reviews from the press while In 2003 , Los Angeles director Brad Mays and the ARK Theatre Company staged a multi-media adaptation of "A Clockwork Orange ( of a 20th-century work ) , Vanessa Claire Smith won Best Actress for her gender-bending portrayal of Alex , the music-loving teenage sociopath . the capital and most populous city of the Netherlands ; with a population of 872,680 in the urban area and 2,480,394 in Amsterdam was founded at the Amstel Originating as a small fishing village in the late 12th century , Amsterdam became one of the most important ports in the world during the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century In the 19th and 20th centuries , the city expanded The 17th-century canals of Amsterdam and the 19–20th century Defence Line of Amsterdam are on the UNESCO World Heritage List Amsterdam's main attractions include its historic canals , the Rijksmuseum

, the Van Gogh Museum , the Stedelijk Museum , Hermitage Amsterdam , the Concertgebouw , the Anne Frank House , the Scheepvaartmuseum , the Amsterdam Museum , , Natura Artis Magistra , Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam , It drew more than 5 million international visitors in 2014 for its nightlife and festival activity ; with several of its nightclubs ( Melkweg , Primarily known for its artistic heritage , elaborate canal system and narrow houses with gabled façades These characteristics are arguably responsible for The Amsterdam Stock Exchange is considered the oldest "modern" securities market stock exchange in As the commercial capital of the Netherlands and one of the top financial centres in Europe , Amsterdam is considered an alpha world city The city is also the cultural capital of Many large Dutch institutions have their headquarters in the city , including : the Philips conglomerate , AkzoNobel , Booking.com , TomTom are based in Amsterdam or have established their European headquarters in the city , Netflix and Tesla . In 2012 , Amsterdam was by the Economist Intelligence Unit ( EIU ) and 12th globally on quality of living for environment and as top tech hub in the Savills Tech Cities 2019 report ( 2nd in Europe ) , and 3rd in innovation by Europe and 11th busiest airport in the founding of Amsterdam is of a younger age than the founding of other urban centers They lived along the prehistoric IJ river and The prehistoric IJ was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland an important local settlement center , especially in the late Bronze Age , the Iron Age and the Roman Age . Neolithic and Roman artefacts have also been found the prehistoric Amstel bedding under Amsterdam's Damrak and of Bell Beaker culture pottery ( 2200-2000 BC ) to a presence of a modest semi-permanent or seasonal settlement of The origins of Amsterdam is linked to the development of the peatland called In this area , land reclamation started as early as the late 10th century . Amestelle was located along a side arm This side arm took the name from the eponymous land

Amestelle was inhabited by farmers as at the banks of the downstream river mouth These farmers were starting the reclamation around upstream Ouderkerk aan de Amstel , and later at the other side of the river at Amstelveen by this name since 1019 , held the stewardship in this northwestern nook of the ecclesiastical district of the bishop of Utrecht A major turning point in the development of the Amstel river mouth In an extremely short period of time , the shallow river IJ turned into a wide estuary , With drier banks , the downstream Amstel mouth became from an insignificant peat stream into a junction of after the landscape change of 1170 , its foundation it focused on traffic , production and trade ; and northward for thousands of years . The construction of a dam at the mouth The settlement first appeared in a document concerning a road toll granted by the count of Holland Floris V to the residents "apud Amestelledamme " ' at the dam in the dam of Amstelland ' . Holland , paying no tolls at bridges , locks and dams Amsterdam was granted city rights in In 1345 , an alleged Eucharistic miracle in pilgrimage until the adoption of the Protestant faith In the 19th century , especially after the jubilee of 1845 , the devotion of reference for Dutch Catholics . The "Stille Omgang"—a silent walk or procession in civil attire — is the expression of the pilgrimage within the Protestant Netherlands since the late 19th century . In the heyday of the Silent Walk , up to 90,000 pilgrims came to Amsterdam . In the 16th century , the Dutch rebelled against Philip II of Spain and The main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes , the tenth penny , and the religious persecution of Protestants by The revolt escalated into the Eighty Years' War , which ultimately led to Dutch independence , the Dutch Republic became known for Jews from the Iberian Peninsula , Huguenots from France , prosperous merchants and printers from Flanders , and

economic and religious refugees from the Spanish-controlled parts of the Low Countries found safety in Amsterdam . , during which it became Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea , North America , and present-day Indonesia , India , Sri Lanka Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company Amsterdam was Europe's most important point for the shipment of goods and was the leading financial centre In 1602 , the Amsterdam office of Amsterdam's prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries . The wars of the Dutch Republic with England During the Napoleonic Wars , Amsterdam's significance reached this same time , the Industrial Revolution reached the city The Amsterdam–Rhine Canal was dug to give Both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of Europe and the world Shortly before the First World War , the city in this war , Amsterdam suffered a food shortage , and heating fuel became The shortages sparked riots in which These riots are known as the "Aardappeloproer " ( Potato rebellion ) . On 1 January 1921 , after a flood in 1916 , the depleted municipalities of Durgerdam , Holysloot , Zunderdorp Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 and took control of the country exposing themselves and their families to More than 100,000 Dutch Jews were deported to Nazi concentration camps In response , the Dutch Communist Party organized , who died in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp with the rest of the country broke Many citizens traveled to the countryside to , and tulip bulbs — These suburbs contained many public parks and wide-open spaces , and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms , gardens , of the 20th century , almost the entire city centre had politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it There was an increasing demand for office buildings between the new suburb of Bijlmermeer in the city's Zuidoost (southeast) exclave and the centre of Amsterdam The required large-scale demolitions began in Amsterdam's former Jewish neighborhood .

As a result , the demolition was The new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished Waterlooplein Although the success of this struggle is , as a whole , is In the 21st century , the Amsterdam city centre has attracted large numbers of tourists : of the city north of the IJ to its southern part was started in had exceeded its budget by a factor buildings in the centre , and Since 2014 , renewed focus has Amsterdam is located in the Western Netherlands , in the province of North Holland and connects to a large number of Amsterdam is about below sea level is formed of large polders . A man-made forest , Amsterdamse Bos , is Comprising of land , the city and 2,275 houses per km2 . canals , most of which In the Middle Ages , Amsterdam was the innermost ring in the city , and The city is also served by In 1300 , Amsterdam's population was While many towns in Holland experienced population decline during the 15th and 16th centuries , Amsterdam's population the rise of the profitable Baltic maritime trade after the Burgundian victory the Dutch Revolt , many people from the Southern Netherlands after Antwerp fell to Spanish forces In thirty years , Amsterdam's population more By 1600 , its population was During the 1660s , Amsterdam's population reached In 1750 , Amsterdam was the fourth largest city in Western Europe , behind London ( 676,000 ) , Naples ( 324,000 ) . nor the seat of government of a much smaller state than England , France The city's population declined in the early 19th century , dipping under 200,000 in 1820 By the second half of the 19th century , industrialisation spurred Amsterdam's population hit an all-time high of 872,000 in 1959 , before declining in the following decades due to government-sponsored suburbanisation such as Purmerend and Almere , peaking at a net loss of By 1985 the city had only 675,570 residents This was soon followed by to renewed population growth in the 2010s . Also in the 2010s , much

In the 16th and 17th century , non-Dutch immigrants to Flemings , Sephardi Jews and Westphalians Huguenots came after the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685 , while the Flemish Protestants came for economic reasons – their influx continued Before the Second World War , 10% of The first mass immigration in the 20th century was by people from Indonesia , who came to Amsterdam after the independence In the 1960s guest workers from Turkey , Morocco , Italy , and Spain emigrated to Amsterdam . After the independence of Suriname in 1975 , a large wave of Surinamese settled in Amsterdam , mostly , America , Asia and In the 1970s and 1980s , many 'old' Amsterdammers moved to 'new' cities like by the third planological bill of the Dutch Government . This bill promoted suburbanisation and arranged for new developments in so-called "groeikernen " Young professionals and artists moved into The non-Western immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in Amsterdam-West and the Bijlmer . make up approximately one-fifth of the population of Amsterdam , and more than 30% a minority of the total population , although In 2000 , Christians formed the largest religious group in the city ( 28% The next largest religion was Islam ( 8% In 2015 , Christians formed the largest religious group in the city ( 28% In 1578 , the largely Catholic city of Amsterdam joined the revolt against Spanish rule , late in comparison to Following the Dutch takeover , all churches were This led to the establishment of that were hidden in pre-existing buildings A large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17th-century Amsterdam , in particular Sefardic Jews from Spain and Portugal This led to the establishment of received permission to practice their religion In 1639 , the first synagogue was As they became established in The oldest English-language church congregation in the world outside the United Kingdom is found at the Begijnhof . in English under the auspices of integrated into the Dutch Reformed Church , though In the second half of the 17th century , Amsterdam experienced

an influx of Ashkenazim , Jews Jews often fled the pogroms in were refugees from the Khmelnytsky Uprising occurring in Ukraine and the Thirty Years' War , which devastated much of Central Europe , but had a strong influence on Despite an absence of an official Jewish ghetto , most Jews preferred to live in The main street of this Jewish neighbourhood was Jodenbreestraat The neighbourhood comprised the Waterlooplein and the Nieuwmarkt Buildings in this neighbourhood fell into This led to riots , Catholic churches in Amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy In 1924 , the Catholic Church hosted the International Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam ; numerous Catholic prelates In recent times , religious demographics in Hinduism has been introduced from from various parts of the world . Islam is now the largest non-Christian religion in Amsterdam experienced an influx of religions and cultures after the Second World War . With 180 different nationalities , Amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the Amsterdam Centraal station and Damrak , the main street The oldest area of the town is known It lies to the east of Damrak and contains the city's famous red-light district . as " grachten " , embraces the heart of the city where Beyond the Grachtengordel are the former working-class areas of Several parts of the city and the surrounding urban area The Amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning In the early 17th century , when immigration was at a peak , a comprehensive plan on four concentric half-circles of canals with Known as the Grachtengordel , three of Amsterdam , whilst "gracht ) and Prinsengracht ( Prince's Canal for all canals in the outer ring . The canals served for defense , The defenses took the form of a moat and earthen dikes , with gates at transit points Construction started in 1613 and the breadth of the layout , like the centre outwards , as a popular myth has The canal construction in the southern sector was completed

Subsequently , the construction of residential buildings the area between the Amstel river and the IJ bay In the following centuries , the land was used for parks , senior citizens' homes , theatres , other public facilities , and waterways without much planning . After the development of Amsterdam's canals in grow beyond its borders for two centuries During the 19th century , Samuel Sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of Paris and London at that time The plan envisaged the construction of new houses and Jan Kalff designed an entire ring of outside the 17th-century limit , thus firmly In response to overcrowding , two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century After the Second World War , large new neighbourhoods were built in the western, southeastern, and northern parts of the city the city's shortage of living space and give The neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks The oldest building in Amsterdam is the Oude Kerk ( English : Old Church ) , at the heart of the Wallen , consecrated in 1306 . It was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings It is also one of the few examples of Gothic architecture in Amsterdam In the 16th century , wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones During this period , many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the Renaissance Buildings of this period are very Amsterdam quickly developed its own Renaissance architecture . the principles of the architect Hendrick de Keyser . This roughly coincided with Amsterdam's Golden Age Philip Vingboons designed splendid merchants' houses throughout the city A famous building in baroque style in Amsterdam Throughout the 18th century , Amsterdam was This is reflected in the architecture Around 1815 , architects broke At the end of the 19th century , the Jugendstil or Art Nouveau style became The houses in the vicinity of the Museum Square in Amsterdam Oud-Zuid are an example of Amsterdam had its own version of the style , such as the "Rivierenbuurt " Amsterdam has many parks , open spaces

, and squares throughout the city , is located in the Oud-Zuid neighbourhood and is named after the 17th-century Amsterdam author Yearly , the park has around 10 million visitors In the park is an open-air theatre , In the Zuid borough , is the Beatrixpark , named after Queen Beatrix . Between Amsterdam and Amstelveen is , the largest recreational area in Amsterdam . Annually , almost 4.5 million people visit the park , which has a size of The Amstelpark in the Zuid borough houses the Rieker windmill , which dates to 1636 Other parks include the Sarphatipark in the De Pijp neighbourhood , the Oosterpark in the Oost borough and The namesake of the city as the site of the original dam , Dam Square , Museumplein hosts various museums , including the Rijksmuseum , Van Gogh Museum , and Other squares include Rembrandtplein , Muntplein , Nieuwmarkt , Leidseplein , Amsterdam is one of the top European cities in which to locate an international business The adjoining municipality of Amstelveen is the location The Amsterdam Stock Exchange ( AEX ) , now part of Euronext , is as the largest bourse in Europe . The Port of Amsterdam is the fourth-largest port in Europe , the 38th largest port in the world and the second-largest port in the Netherlands by metric tons of cargo . Amsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe , receiving more than 5.34 million international visitors growing steadily over the past decade . This can be attributed to Two-thirds of the hotels are located Hotels with 4 or 5 stars contribute 42% of the overnight stays in Amsterdam . The room occupation rate was 85% in 2017 , up from 78% in The majority of tourists ( 74% The largest group of non-European visitors come from the United States , accounting for 14% Certain years have a theme in Amsterdam For example , the year 2006 was to celebrate the 400th birthday of Rembrandt van Rijn Some hotels offer special arrangements or activities a designated area for legalised prostitution and is

It consists of a network of canals , streets , and sex workers who offer their services from Shops in Amsterdam range from large high-end department stores Amsterdam's high-end shops are found in the streets which are located in the vicinity One of Amsterdam's busiest high streets is the narrow, medieval Kalverstraat in the heart of the city . Other shopping areas include the "Negen Straatjes " and " Negen Straatjes " are nine narrow streets within the "Grachtengordel " , the concentric canal system The Negen Straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops The Haarlemmerstraat and Haarlemmerdijk were voted best shopping street in the Netherlands in 2011 These streets have as the "Negen Straatjes " The city also features a large number of open-air markets such as the Albert Cuyp Market , Westerstraat-markt , Ten Katemarkt , and Some of these markets are held Several fashion brands and designers are based Fashion designers include Iris van Herpen , Mart Visser , Viktor & Rolf , Marlies Dekkers and and Kim Noorda started their careers in Amsterdam has its garment centre in the World Fashion Center During the later part of the 16th-century , Amsterdam's Rederijkerskamer (Chamber of rhetoric ) organised contests between different Chambers in the reading of poetry In 1637 , Schouwburg , the first theatre in Amsterdam was built , opening on 3 January 1638 . The first ballet performances in the Netherlands were given in Schouwburg in 1642 with In the 18th century , French theatre became While Amsterdam was under the influence was built in 1888 for In the 19th century , popular culture was centred on the Nes area in Amsterdam ( mainly vaudeville and music-hall ) An improved metronome was invented in 1812 In 1888 , the Concertgebouworkest orchestra was Though most studios are located in Hilversum and Aalsmeer , Amsterdam's influence The most important museums of Amsterdam are located on the Museumplein ( Museum Square ) , located at the southwestern side of It was created in the last quarter of the 19th century

on the grounds of the former World's fair . The northeastern part of the square is bordered In front of the Rijksmuseum on This is transformed into an ice rink The northwestern part of the square is bordered by the Van Gogh Museum , House of The southwestern border of the Museum Square is the Van Baerlestraat , which is a major thoroughfare in The Concertgebouw is located across this street To the southeast of the square are A parking garage can be found underneath the square , as well as with a lawn , except for the northeastern part of the square which is The current appearance of the square was realised in 1999 , when the square Amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts , especially in the summer . It opened in 1885 . Its collection consists of nearly one million objects . and the work of his pupils , is displayed in the Rijksmuseum . Rembrandt's masterpiece " The Night Watch " is one of the top pieces of art It also houses paintings from artists like Bartholomeus van der Helst , Johannes Vermeer , Frans Hals , Ferdinand Bol , Albert Cuyp , Jacob van Ruisdael and Paulus Potter Aside from paintings , the collection Van Gogh lived in Amsterdam for The museum is housed in one The building was designed by Gerrit Rietveld A new building was added to the museum , was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa "The Potato Eaters " and "Sunflowers " This is Amsterdam's most important museum of modern art The museum is as old as The permanent collection consists of works of , and the Rembrandt House Museum , to formerly known as Amsterdam Historical Museum ) of the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg ) and the Joods Historisch Museum ( Jewish Historical Museum ) Amsterdam's musical culture includes a large collection of songs ( " On the canals of including John Kraaijkamp Sr. ; the best-known version is all others ( explicitly Paris ) ; Jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood , the Jordaan ( " Bij ons

in de Jordaan " ) . Colleagues and contemporaries of Johnny include Tante Leen and Manke Nelis . by Jacques Brel ( 1964 ) near the Johan Cruyff Arena ( known as the Amsterdam Arena until 2018 ) . Its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences are located near the Leidseplein . Both focus on broad programming , Other more subcultural music venues are OCCII , OT301 , De Nieuwe Anita , Winston Kingdom , Jazz has a strong following in Amsterdam AFAS Live is also host to many electronic dance music festivals , alongside many other venues . of the worlds leading Trance DJ's hail from hosts the Amsterdam Dance Event ( ADE ) electronic music in the world , attracting Amsterdam has a world-class symphony orchestra , the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra is across the Van Baerlestraat from the Museum Square The opera house of Amsterdam is located "Waterlooplein " next to the river Amstel The "Stopera " is the home base of Dutch National Opera , Dutch National Ballet and the Holland Symfonia is located in the IJ near The Stadsschouwburg at the Leidseplein is the home base Most plays are performed in the Grote Zaal (Great Hall The normal program of events encompasses all sorts , dating from 1986 , is the principal opera house and home to the Amsterdam scene in 2014 , joining in the west part of Amsterdam , commentary , theatre and comedy Cabaret dates back to the 1930s of this form of art in : Cabaret Academy ) and Kleinkunstkoor (English : Cabaret Choir ) . modern to small and cosy Many restaurants can be found in a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be Amsterdam also possesses many discothèques . , which turn into discothèques Examples of discothèques near the Rembrandtplein Hotel Arena ( East ) , In recent years ' 24-hour' clubs opened their doors of the best jazz clubs in the world . Famous festivals and events in Amsterdam " until the crowning of King Willem-Alexander for the performing arts ; the yearly Prinsengrachtconcert (classical concerto on

the Prinsen canal ) in August ; On Koningsdag — that is hundreds of thousands of people travel to Amsterdam to celebrate with the city's residents The yearly Holland Festival attracts international artists and visitors Amsterdam Gay Pride is a yearly local LGBT parade of boats It is located in the south-east In 1928 , Amsterdam hosted from Amsterdam to Zaandam , The team competes in the Dutch ice hockey premier league . Amsterdam holds two American football franchises : the Amsterdam Crusaders The Amsterdam Pirates baseball team competes in the Dutch Major League . , Pinoké and Hurley , who play their matches around the Wagener Stadium in the nearby city of Amstelveen . The city of Amsterdam is a municipality Over time , a total of is governed by a directly elected municipal council , The mayor is a member of the municipal executive board , but also has individual responsibilities Mayor of Amsterdam by the King's Commissioner of North Holland for a six-year term after who was the Mayor of Amsterdam from 2010 until his death in After the 2014 municipal council elections , a governing majority of D66 , VVD and SP On 18 September 2017 , it was of Amsterdam with immediate effect due The boroughs are responsible for many activities In 2010 , the number of Fourteen of those had their own district council of Amsterdam and had very few residents Under the borough system , municipal decisions are made at borough level , except In 2010 , the borough system was The municipal council of Amsterdam voted to with smaller , but still understood to refer to the municipality Statistics Netherlands uses three other definitions of Amsterdam with " Grootstedelijk Gebied Amsterdam " , a synonym of " Groot Amsterdam " , a COROP region ) and the urban region The Amsterdam Department for Research and Statistics uses a fourth conurbation the municipality of Amsterdam with a population as the municipality of Amsterdam . , the population of this area is ( Dutch : Metropoolregio Amsterdam ) ( City Region of Amsterdam ) Previous versions of the constitution only mentioned

" the city of Amsterdam " For a royal investiture , therefore , the States General of the Netherlands ( the Dutch Parliament has signed the act of abdication at the nearby Royal Palace of Amsterdam . sits in The Hague , the city The coat of arms of Amsterdam , aligned in a vertical band on for ships registered in Amsterdam to adorn its coat of arms Then , in 1508 , the crown of Emperor Rudolph II , a crown The lions date from the late 16th century , Four fare-free GVB ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists are operated by Connexxion and Amsterdam was intended in 1932 of Kilometre Zero , of the highway system to originate from the city . The A3 to Rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to with the Dutch national network of freeways . to one of the 18 "city roads " These city roads are regional roads without grade separation Most are accessible by cyclists Amsterdam is served by ten stations of the Nederlandse Spoorwegen ( Dutch Railways ) , Zuid , Amstel , to destinations such as Austria , Belarus , Belgium , Czechia , Denmark , France , Germany , Hungary , Poland , Russia , Switzerland Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from Amsterdam Centraal station and is served Thalys , Eurostar and Intercity Brussel Schiphol is the largest airport in the Netherlands in terms of passengers . It handles over 68 million passengers per year and is the home base of four airlines , KLM , Transavia , Schiphol was the fifth busiest airport in the world Central Bureau of Statistics ( CBS ) , 847.000 bicycles – 1.91 bicycle per household Previously , wildly different figures were arrived at using a Wisdom of the crowd approach about 83,000 bicycles were stolen in Amsterdam Amsterdam has two universities : the University of Amsterdam There are over 200 primary schools in Amsterdam the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival , leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate

Most secondary schools in Amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in Amsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media Amsterdam is home to the second-largest Dutch commercial TV group Hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting Also , several movies were filmed in Amsterdam , such as , Girl with a Pearl Earring and The Museum of Work ( "Arbetets museum " ) is a museum located in Norrköping The museum is located in the "Strykjärn " ( Clothes iron ) , a former weaving mill in the old industrial area on the Motala ström river in the city centre of Norrköping . collecting personal stories about people's professional lives from Since 2009 , the museum also , which is based on work of the satirist Ewert Karlsson ( 1918 — 2004 The museum is a national central museum with the task conditions of the work and the history from both the past and present . The history of Alva Karlsson is the only exhibition The exhibition connects to the museum's building and its history as part of the textile industry One of the museum long-term exhibitions is Industriland an ongoing bond with various objects that were and everyday during the period 1930 — 1980 . In 2014 , the exhibition was It is an exhibition that investigates part of the museum's exhibitions until 2019 between young people and researchers around work , environment and everyday life Since 2009 , the Museum also houses EWK — center for is a German automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in Ingolstadt , Bavaria , engineer August Horch ; and two other manufacturers ( leading to the foundation of Auto Union The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was "listen " in German , one of four car companies that banded Automobile company Wanderer was originally established in . in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne In 1902 , he moved with his company to Reichenbach i After troubles with Horch chief financial officer , in Zwickau on 16 July 1909 ,

Since August Horch was prohibited from in his new car business , he called and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau . At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher , up with a new name for the company During this meeting , Franz's son was " in the singular imperative form of "audire " – in Latin . The idea was enthusiastically accepted by Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A , August Horch left the "Audiwerke " in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport , but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees . In September 1921 , Audi became the Audi Type K , with left-handed drive . In August 1928 , Jørgen Rasmussen , the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen ( DKW In the same year , Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker , including were launched in 1929 . with a Peugeot engine ) models were In 1932 , Audi merged with Horch , DKW , It was during this period that Before World War II , Auto Union used However , this badge was used only on Auto Union racing cars in that period Reflecting the economic pressures of the time , Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars 17.9% of the German car market , while Overrun by the Soviet Army in 1945 , on the orders of the Soviet Union military administration of the company to West Germany . West and East German models were equipped This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which for mass production of automobiles : for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig . In 1958 , in response an 87% holding in the Auto Union company , and the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests , and was based on its lack of In 1964 , Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business , which Eighteen months later , Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt , and by

Two-stroke engines became less popular during In September 1965 , the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear . Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology , and named after their horsepower ratings and sold , selling until 1972 . to the idea of Auto Union as through the Ingolstadt assembly plant – to the point under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed When presented with a finished prototype , authorised the car for production , In 1969 , Auto Union merged with NSU , based in Neckarsulm , near Stuttgart . In the 1950s , NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles , produce small cars like the NSU Prinz , NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel In 1967 , the new NSU Ro 80 was in technical details such as aerodynamics , light weight , and safety the rotary engines put an end to the independence The new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG , with its headquarters at NSU's Neckarsulm plant , and saw the emergence of as the Volkswagen Polo ) in 1974 Ultimately , the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 was made in the fading NSU range ; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 production in 1977 , spelling the second generation C2 version in 1976 , all production The Audi image at this time was a conservative one develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons , as in "UrS4 " In 1985 , with the Auto Union and NSU brands now shortened to simply Audi AG . In 1986 , as the Passat-based Audi 80 However , its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine , and its base package In 1987 , Audi put In the early part of the 21st century , Audi set forth on a German racetrack

, such as top speed endurance . Through the early 1990s , Audi began against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW . This began with the release of to the Audi 100/200 , but with By 1991 , Audi had With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992 , Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine 1991 , was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro . It was fitted to the Audi Coupé a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths A "60 Minutes" report aired 23 November 1986 , featuring findings by outside investigators , that , including all the ones that prompted In a review study published in 2012 , NHTSA summarized its past findings about of 0.3g ) , pedal misapplication resulting from panic , confusion of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time : " Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds an emergency stop in a subway car ] . The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control With a series of recall campaigns , first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration to 12,283 in 1991 and In the mid-to-late 1990s , Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminium construction Produced from 1999 to 2005 , the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini , born from the Al2 concept , with , like the aluminium space frame , which through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines . was designed around a wind tunnel . The Audi A2 was criticised for its high price but it planted Audi as relatively well in Europe . The next major model change came in 1995 when ( with a minor facelift ) . on the Audi 80 platform ) until 1999 , gaining the engine upgrades along the way 1.8 L four-cylinder turbo , 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6 , 2.2 L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2 L V8 engine .

The V6s were replaced by new 2.4 L , with marked improvement in power , torque and smoothness . Audi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s , with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008 . The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe ( +19.3% ) , Africa ( +17.2% ) and the Middle East ( of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009 One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials , and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales As of late 2009 , Audi's operating profit of €1.17 billion ( $1.85 billion ) to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5 billion , as Bentley and SEAT had May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America In September 2012 , Audi announced the construction of its first North American manufacturing plant in Puebla In January 2014 , Audi , the Qi open interface standard at the Consumer Electronics Show ( CES In May , most of In 2015 , Audi admitted that at least 2.1 million Audi cars had been involved in the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software to fool regulators and allow , A5 , A6 , TT , Q3 and Q5 models were implicated in the scandal . they can function within emissions regulations and development at Audi , was suspended in relation to Despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of September , Audi reported that In November 2015 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated A8 , A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software In November 2016 , Audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in Pakistan , with the company's local partner acquiring land for a plant in Korangi Creek Industrial Park Approval of the plan would lead to an investment of $30 million in In February 2020 , Volkswagen AG announced via a squeeze-out according to German stock corporation law

The company's stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving On 4 June 2017 , Audi stated Contrary to other cars , the driver introduction of the process by Porsche Along with other precautionary measures , the full-body zinc coating Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to Audi , and in 1994 Prior to that effort , Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as test-beds The weight reduction is somewhat offset by For most of its lineup ( excluding the A3, A1, and TT models ) , Audi would limit the type and power of engines that can be in the Audi S4 and Audi RS4 , as well as the W12 engine in , in an "overhung" position , over the front wheels in front of the axle line - this layout dates back to In all its post Volkswagen-era models , Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW , favoring either front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive The majority of Audi's lineup in the United States features all-wheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles ( only the entry-level trims of the A4 front-wheel drive ) , in contrast to Mercedes-Benz and BMW whose lineup BMW did not offer all-wheel drive / standard since the 1990s . Prior to the introduction of the Audi 1972 and 1974 , respectively , Audi had led the development of the "EA111 " and "EA827" inline-four engine families In the 1980s , Audi , as a longer-lasting alternative to more traditional six-cylinder engines . in production cars but also in for the rally cars in the 1980s , Before 1990 , there were engines produced with a displacement between favored by rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW by forming two imaginary narrow-angle 15° VR6 engines at an angle the narrow angle of each set of cylinders of banks , so just four are needed in total The advantage of the W12 engine is its compact packaging a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive , whereas

it would have no space in W12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 4.2 L V8 that powers the Audi A8 4.2 variants In 2003 , Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox ( DSG ) , It is a type of automatic transmission , drivable like a conventional torque converter automatic transmission . the Group B S1 , the system includes dual electro-hydraulically controlled clutches Beginning in 2005 , Audi has implemented white LED technology as daytime running lights ( DRL ) in their products The distinctive shape of the DRLs has become LEDs were first introduced on Starting with the 2003 Audi A8 , Audi in 2011 , MMI is now available across the entire range . less menu-surfing with its segment buttons around a central knob – with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions Audi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide Audi is planning an alliance with The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries Audi has competed in various forms Audi's tradition in motorsport began with In 1980 , Audi released It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time , because the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers off the road , however , In 1984 , Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated rally races in Monte Carlo and Sweden , with In 1985 , after another season mired in mediocre finishes , Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1 , Audi also received rally honours in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi , took the Sport Quattro S1 The climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the Pikes Peak mountain in Colorado , and in 1985 , Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39 , and In 1986 , Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in spectators in the road , and left the track into the crowd of

spectators on the side , killing In 1987 , Walter Röhrl claimed of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1 , The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested inline-five-cylinder turbocharged engine , with The engine was mated to a six-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous four-wheel drive system . All of Audi's top drivers drove this car ; Hannu Mikkola , Stig Blomqvist , In 1990 , having completed their objective to market cars in the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8 , and unwilling to build cars for the new formula , they turned their attention to the fast-growing Super Touring series , which are Vipers , and smaller BMWs ( In 2003 , Champion Racing entered They returned in 2004 to , Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V , After four victories in a row , the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes In 2004 , after years of competing with the TT-R in 1999 , debuting at the Le Mans Two car concepts were developed and raced times in a row with the Audi R8 In 2003 , two Bentley Speed 8s , with engines designed by Audi , competed in the GTP class , and finished the race in the top two positions At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans , Champion Racing entered two R8s , along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca . to old LMP900 regulations ) received a narrower air inlet restrictor But with a team of excellent drivers and experience , both Champion R8s were win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GTs in It was first raced in the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test in preparation for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans , Audi had a win in the first diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring ( Audi's sports car racing success would continue with the Audi R18's victory at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans . Joest Racing into the American Le Mans Series under the Audi Sport North America name winning on its debut in the series

at the 2000 12 Hours of Sebring . Factory-backed Audi R8s were the dominant car in ALMS In 2003 , Audi sold Champion Racing won many races as a private team Audi participated in the 2003 1000km of of Audi Sport North America in the American Le Mans Series , a factory competitor in LMP1 , Peugeot in the series from 2008 onwards In 2012 , the FIA sanctioned by the ACO as a continuation of with a further three successive wins , including the 2012 24 Hours The victory at Round 5, Circuit of the Americas , was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for Audi in Le Mans prototypes For the 2014 season , Audi entered As defending champions , Audi in LMP1 from Toyota , returned to endurance racing after a 16-year absence in the FIA Formula E Championship , The team competed under the title of Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team in The Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent have been the idea of Klaus von Oertzen , the director of sales at Wanderer – when Berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 Summer Olympics the "A " and "d " was created for the historic Audi company in revived the brand in 1965 . 1977 , less prominence was given to the "Audi" script encased within a black (later red) ellipse shared a dealer network under the V.A.G banner . As part of Audi's centennial celebration in 2009 , the company updated the logo , changing the font to left-aligned Audi Type , and altering the shading for Audi developed a Corporate Sound concept , with and s12 GmbH. Audio samples were created in Klangerfinder's sound studio in Stuttgart , becoming The German-language tagline is used in many European countries , including the United Kingdom ( but Latin America , Oceania , Africa and parts of Asia including Since 2007 , Audi has to light in September 2015 , on emissions data , an advertisement during the 2015 Primetime Emmy Awards promoted Audi's latest advances in low emissions technology

with Kermit the Frog stating , " used in English-language advertising after Sir John Hegarty In the original British television commercials , the phrase was After its repeated use in advertising campaigns , the phrase found its way into popular culture , including the British comedy " Only Fools and Horses " and the Blur song " Parklife 1997 by Ole Schäfer for MetaDesign MetaDesign was later commissioned for by Paul van der Laan and Pieter van Rosmalen of Audi is a strong partner of different kinds Borussia Mönchengladbach and international clubs including Chelsea, Real Madrid Switzerland , Sweden , Finland , France , Liechtenstein , with the Audi quattro Cup and the HypoVereinsbank Ladies German Open presented Further , Audi sponsors the regional teams In 2009 , the year of Audi's 100th anniversary , the company organized the Audi Cup In October 2010 they agreed to Since the start of the Marvel Cinematic Universe , " , "Iron Man 3 " , The R8 supercar became the personal vehicle for Tony Stark ( played by Robert Downey Jr. ) for six of these films . Endgame " and "Far From Home " In 2001 , Audi promoted the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an Audi equipped with the multitronic transmission . As part of Audi's attempt to They have shown several concept cars , based on the platform of the R8 Power is provided by electric motors , is a hybrid vehicle with a range New Delhi , India , from Audi has supported the European version of PlayStation Home , the PlayStation 3's online community-based service , by On 17 December 2009 , Audi released , an Internet Browser feature , and a view Players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the Audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the Audi Space In both the Home Terminal and Vertical Run spaces , there are back and forth between the two spaces would be added in 2010 An aircraft is a vehicle or machine

by gaining support from the air It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil , Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot Aerostats use buoyancy to float They are characterized by one or more large cells a relatively low-density gas such as helium , hydrogen , or hot air , were first invented in ancient China and were only the second type of aircraft while the term airship was used for In 1919 , Frederick Handley Page was ships of the air , " with smaller passenger types as " Air yachts In the 1930s , large intercontinental flying boats were "ships of the air " or rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size the Hindenburg disaster in 1937 , led to the demise of these airships . to non-rigid balloons , and sometimes "dirigible balloon of an airship ( which may Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back During World War II , this shape was reduces the strain on the tether and The nickname "blimp " was adopted along Heavier - than - air This dynamic movement through the air is the origin the forward movement of wings , and flow over the wing and generate With powered lift , the aircraft directs as an aerodyne because it does fly into space ) ; The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings , a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind Kites were the first kind of aircraft in China around 500 BC . though it may have small blisters Wing - in - ground close to the surface of the ground or water , like conventional aircraft use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades ( " Helicopters " have a rotor " Autogyros " have unpowered rotors air blows upward across the rotor This spinning increases the speed of airflow " Compound rotorcraft " have wings

that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight . The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft That Ukrainian-built six-engine Russian transport of the 1980s is long It holds the world payload record , after as a civilian transport ) , and The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft at Mach 9.6 , exactly . Prior to the X-43A , the fastest recorded powered airplane flight ( and still the record for the of the North American X-15A-2 , rocket-powered airplane at forward and downward from a high location by a ground-based winch or vehicle , For a glider to maintain its forward air speed descend in relation to the air relation to the ground ) . The first practical, controllable example was designed and built Balloons drift with the wind , the wind direction changes with altitude ) tethered to the ground or other object that maintains tension in the tether or kite line ; they rely on virtual or real wind to generate lift and drag Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers ( airscrews The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in "tractor configuration Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers . Early airships used man power or steam engines The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop Different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan , sometimes with the addition of Those with no rotating turbomachinery include the pulsejet a catapult , like the V-1 flying bomb , or a rocket , for example , jet engines can provide much higher thrust , be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand , The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft . in tension and rely on

A balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure below it to carry its payload Early aircraft , including airships , types are characterised by one or more gasbags , typically with a supporting structure of types are characterised by one or more wings or empennage for stability and control , and an undercarriage for Engines may be located on attached to the fuselage , while Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed , load factor and altitude . for instance by diving it at too-high a speed , it is For an unpowered aircraft , the maximum flight time is Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours , while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas . Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions . A very stable aircraft tends to stay on for any design to achieve the desired degree A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch , roll , and Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of They are usually mounted on the tail section ( empennage ) , replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer . Flight control surfaces enable the pilot to control Aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle's orientation ( attitude ) about its center The control systems include actuators , which exert forces in various directions , and generate rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft , and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch , roll , or For example , a pitching moment is or aft from the aerodynamic center of Aircraft permit long distance , high speed travel Aircraft have environmental and climate impacts beyond fuel efficiency considerations General aviation is a catch - all covering other kinds of private ( for time or expenses ) and commercial use , and involving

business jets ( bizjets ) , trainers , homebuilt , gliders flight , or that carries static display , for aerodynamic research or , businessman , and philanthropist He is best known for made several important contributions to science , holding 355 patents in his lifetime . Nobel displayed an early aptitude for science chemistry and languages ; he filed his first patent at age 24 . as a war profiteer , Nobel was inspired to bequeath his fortune to Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm , United Kingdoms of Sweden and He was the third son of Immanuel Nobel ( 1801–1872 ) , an inventor and engineer , and Karolina Andriette Nobel The couple married in 1827 and Through his father , Alfred Nobel was in engineering , particularly explosives , learning the basic principles from his father at Alfred Nobel's interest in technology was inherited from his father , an alumnus of Following various business failures , Nobel's father moved to Saint Petersburg , Russia and of machine tools and explosives . He invented the veneer lathe ( which ) and started work on In 1842 , the family joined able to send Nobel to in his studies , particularly in fluency in English , French , German and Russian . Nobel gained proficiency in Swedish , French , Russian , English , German , and write poetry in English . His "Nemesis " is a prose tragedy in It was printed while he attended the Church of Sweden Abroad during his Paris years , Nobel travelled for much of his business life , maintaining companies in a home in Paris from 1873 to 1891 In 1876 , Austro-Bohemian Countess Bertha Kinsky became him after a brief stay to marry Her contact with Nobel was brief , yet she corresponded with him until his death in 1896 , and probably influenced his decision to include a peace prize in his will Nobel's longest-lasting relationship was with Sofija Hess from In the years of 1865 to 1873 , Alfred Nobel had his home in Krümmel , Hamburg a house in the Avenue Malakoff in Paris

In 1894 , when he his manor house in Sweden during the summers with chemist Nikolai Zinin ; then , in 1850 , went to Paris to further the work . Sobrero strongly opposed the use of use nitroglycerin as a commercially usable explosive ; it had much more power than gunpowder In 1851 at age 18 , he went to the United States for for a short period under Swedish-American inventor John Ericsson , Nobel filed his first patent , an English patent for a gas meter , in 1857 he received in 1863 , The family factory produced armaments for the Crimean War ( 1853–1856 ) , but In 1859 , Nobel's father left his factory in the care of the second son , Ludvig Nobel ( 1831–1888 ) Nobel and his parents returned to Sweden from Russia and Nobel devoted himself to the study of explosives , and especially to the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerin for preparation of nitroglycerin exploded at the factory in Heleneborg , to work in a more isolated area . Nobel invented dynamite in 1867 to handle than the more unstable nitroglycerin . Dynamite was patented in the US extensively in mining and the building Nobel's brothers Ludvig and Robert founded the oil company Nobel invested in these and amassed great wealth through the development of was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like "kieselguhr " ( diatomaceous earth ) 1867 as " dynamite " Nobel demonstrated his explosive for the first time Redhill , Surrey , England , and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance , which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite was patented in 1876 ; and was followed by a host of similar combinations , modified by those used in drilling and mining , than the previously used compounds . It was adopted as the standard technology for mining in the "Age of a great amount of financial success , though at a cost to his health . In 1888 , the death of publish obituaries of Alfred in One French newspaper condemned him for his invention On 27 November 1895 , at the Swedish-Norwegian Club

in Paris , Nobel signed After taxes and bequests to allocated 94% of his total assets , ( GBP ) at the time The formulation for the literary prize being given for a work " in an ideal direction For many years , the Swedish Academy interpreted and used it as a reason important but less romantic authors , such as Henrik Ibsen There was room for interpretation by the bodies he had named In his one-page testament , he stipulated that the money go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and He had opened the door to deal with the distinction between science Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1968 by donating a large sum of money the field of economics in honour In 2001 , Alfred Nobel's great-great-nephew , in Alfred Nobel's memory " from the five other awards Nobel was accused of high treason against France for selling Ballistite moved from Paris to Sanremo, On 10 December 1896 , he suffered He had left most of his wealth in trust , unbeknownst to his family , in order in Saint Petersburg is located along It was dedicated in 1991 to mark the 90th anniversary of the first Nobel Prize presentation of the creation of the monument ( Professor A. Melua has provided funds for the establishment of the monument ( , The abstract metal sculpture was designed by local artists with work on elocution and His research on hearing and speech for the telephone , on March 7, 1876 Many other inventions marked Bell's later life , including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications , hydrofoils Alexander Bell was born in Edinburgh , Scotland , on March 3, 1847 The family home was at South Charlotte Street , He had two brothers : Melville James Bell ( 1845–1870 ) and Edward Charles Bell ( 1848–1867 ) , both at age 10 , he made a plea to his father to have For his 11th birthday , his father acquiesced of respect for Alexander Graham , As a child , young Bell displayed a curiosity about his world ; he

gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments His best friend was Ben Herdman , a neighbour At the age of 12 , Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes , creating operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years From his early years , Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art , poetry , and music that was encouraged by his mother With no formal training , he mastered mimicry and "voice tricks " akin to ventriloquism sit at her side and tap He also developed a technique of the teaching of elocution : his grandfather , Alexander Bell , in London , his uncle in Dublin , and his father , in Edinburgh His father published a variety of works on the subject , several of , especially his "The Standard Elocutionist " ( 1860 of a million copies in the United States alone In this treatise , his father explains words and read other people's lip movements to Bell's father taught him and his brothers he became a part of his father's public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities As a young child , Bell , like his brothers , received his early schooling at home from his father . At an early age , he was enrolled at the Royal High School , Edinburgh by absenteeism and lacklustre grades . His main interest remained in the sciences , other school subjects with indifference , to Upon leaving school , Bell travelled to London to live with his grandfather , Alexander Bell , spent in serious discussion and study secured a position as a "pupil-teacher " of elocution and music , in Weston House Academy at Elgin, Moray , Scotland . Although he was enrolled as in return for board and His father encouraged Bell's interest in speech of von Kempelen's book , published in for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a "big prize larynx , Bell tackled the more difficult task Intrigued by the results of the automaton

, Bell continued to experiment reach into its mouth and manipulate Indicative of his playful nature , his experiments At age 19 , Bell wrote a report on his work and sent Helmholtz who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork "contraption " , Bell pored over the German scientist's book Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition of all his future work on transmitting sound , much about the subject , it only to my ignorance of electricity In 1865 , when the Bell family returned to Weston House as an assistant master later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of Throughout late 1867 , his health faltered His younger brother , Edward "Ted , " , suffering from tuberculosis . correspondence as "A. G. Bell " ) at Somerset College , Bath, England , Upon his brother's death , Bell returned Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull's private school for the deaf in South Kensington , His first two pupils were deaf-mute girls who made While his older brother seemed to achieve success on many fronts including opening on an invention , and starting However , in May 1870 , Melville died from complications due His father had also suffered a debilitating illness Bell's parents embarked upon a long-planned move when Bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property , conclude all of his brother's affairs ( Bell took In 1870 , 23-year-old Bell travelled with his parents and his brother's widow , Thomas Henderson , a Baptist minister and family friend The Bell family soon purchased a farm of At the homestead , Bell set up his own workshop in the converted carriage house near nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river . Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada , Bell found the climate and environs to his liking , He continued his interest in the study discovered the Six Nations Reserve across the river at

and translated its unwritten vocabulary into Visible Speech symbols Helmholtz's work with electricity and sound He also modified a melodeon ( that it could transmit its music Bell's father was invited by Sarah Fuller , principal of the Boston School for Deaf Mutes ( for the Deaf ) , in Boston , Massachusetts , United States providing training for Fuller's instructors , but he declined the post in Travelling to Boston in April 1871 his experiments with his "harmonic telegraph " . Unsure of his future , he decided to return to Boston , Alexander Bell opened his "School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech " in Boston , which attracted a large number of deaf pupils , with his first class While he was working as a private tutor , one of his pupils to him as a young child unable that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that "inhuman silence which separates He outlined this in a 1898 paper within the wider society from which many oralism with the teaching of sign language , Bell is often viewed In 1872 , Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory During this period , he alternated between Boston and Brantford , He continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way , Bell began to stay running experiment after experiment in Keeping "night owl" hours , he worried that his work would be discovered as he suffered severe headaches . , Bell retained only two students , Each pupil would play an important role in George's father , Thomas Sanders , a wealthy businessman stay in nearby Salem with Georgie's grandmother George's mother and followed the year-long arrangement in to Bell's boarding house , it was The arrangement was for teacher and , with free room and board Mabel was a bright, attractive girl who was By 1874 , Bell's initial work on his new Boston "laboratory " ( a rented facility ) and at his family home in Canada Brantford , Bell experimented with could draw shapes of sound waves

on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations Bell thought it might be that corresponded to sound waves tuned to different frequencies like a harp In 1874 , telegraph message traffic was Orton had contracted with inventors each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of When Bell mentioned to Gardiner Hubbard In March 1875 , Bell and , and asked Henry's advice on transmit the human voice by telegraph . Henry replied that Bell had " the germ of a great invention " With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard , Bell hired Thomas Watson On June 2, 1875 , Watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and Bell , at the receiving end of That demonstrated to Bell that In 1875 , Bell developed experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech On February 14, 1876 , Gray filed a caveat with the U.S. Patent Office for a telephone design challenged the primacy of Bell's patent . varying the electrical resistance in the circuit . stealing the telephone from Gray , The question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone was raised by the examiner before he approved Bell's patent application Bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described He had filed the mercury application at In addition , Gray abandoned the examiner approved Bell's patent on March 3, 1876 stated in an affidavit that he in debt to Bell's lawyer , Bell arrived in Washington D.C. from in a letter to Gray , On March 10, 1876 , Bell used in another room but out of Continuing his experiments in Brantford , On August 3, 1876 , from the telegraph office in Brantford , Ontario , Bell sent a tentative telegram to the village as well as his family with a call between the Bell Homestead and the office of the Dominion Telegraph Company in Brantford along along telegraph lines and fences , and laid through a tunnel . made via the telegraph line between Brantford and Paris , Ontario , This test was said by many sources

The first two-way (reciprocal) conversation over a line occurred between Cambridge and Boston ( roughly 2.5 miles Two years later , he told colleagues longer wanted to sell the patent Bell began a series of public demonstrations to the scientific community as well as his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia brought the telephone to Influential visitors to the exhibition included Emperor Pedro II On January 14, 1878 , at Osborne House , on the Isle of Wight , Bell demonstrated the device to Queen Victoria , placing calls to Cowes , These were the first publicly witnessed long-distance telephone calls in the UK The queen considered the process to be The Bell Telephone Company was created in 1877 Bell Company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone , which emerged as one In 1879 , the Bell company acquired Edison's patents for the carbon microphone from Western Union Emperor Pedro II of Brazil was the first person to buy stock in Bell's company scientific discoveries , simultaneous developments can occur of inventors who were at Over a period of 18 years , the Bell Telephone Company faced 587 court challenges to its patents , including five that went to the U.S. Supreme Court , but none to establishing a long lineage to his experiments On January 13, 1887 , the U.S. Government moved Bell on the grounds of fraud After a series of decisions and reversals , the Bell company won a decision in the Supreme Court , though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were By the time that the trial wound its way through nine years of legal battles During a deposition filed for the 1887 trial have created the first working model of a telephone in Italy in 1834 . In 1886 , in the first of three cases in which he was involved , Meucci took the stand as a witness in the hope of establishing Meucci's testimony in this case was disputed due to a lack of material evidence for his inventions , as his working models

of American District Telegraph ( ADT ) of New York , which was earlier acoustic principles and despite evidence of was eventually dropped upon Meucci's death of Congressman Vito Fossella , the U.S. House of Representatives on in the invention of the telephone should This did not put an end The value of the Bell patent was acknowledged throughout the world , and patent applications were made in most major countries , up a rival manufacturer of Bell telephones under The Siemens company produced near-identical copies of the Bell telephone The establishment of the International Bell Telephone Company in Brussels , Belgium in 1880 , as well as a series of Bell was a British subject throughout his early life in Scotland and later in Canada until 1882 when he In 1915 , he characterized who claim allegiance to two countries By 1885 , a new summer retreat was on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia , spending time at the small village of Returning in 1886 , Bell started building an estate on a point By 1889 , a large house , that the Bells would name Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic : "Beautiful Mountain " ) Bell also built the Bell Boatyard on and workboats for the Royal Canadian Navy and rowed a long series of vessels on Bras d'Or Lake , ordering additional vessels from the H.W. Embree and Sons boatyard in Port Hawkesbury , Nova Scotia Until the end of his life , in the Baddeck community and were accepted The Bells were still in residence at "Beinn Bhreagh " when the Halifax Explosion associated with the invention of the telephone , his interests were extremely varied According to one of his biographers , scouring it for new areas The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented These included 14 for the telephone the photophone , one for the phonograph , five for aerial vehicles , , and two for selenium cells Bell worked extensively in medical research During his Volta Laboratory period , Bell and a record as a means of reproducing Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning

, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks He also anticipated modern concerns with could be produced from the waste of farms and factories . which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam The photophone was a precursor to the fiber-optic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s Bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector through the use of an induction balance According to some accounts , the metal detector , resulting in static . in 1882 , differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation , by obtained during an examination of Garfield had been removed from the neighborhood underneath the horse-hair mattress on which the President a sort of net of woven steel wires compared with the area of the bed In a footnote , Bell adds The March 1906 "Scientific American" article by American pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes . Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane that article , he began to Bell and assistant Frederick W. "Casey" Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor During his world tour of 1910–11 , Bell and Baldwin met with They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying . On returning to Baddeck , a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models , including the "Dhonnas Beag " ( Scottish Gaelic for "little devil good stability , and steering , In 1913 , Dr. Bell hired as well as the proprietor of Pinaud's Yacht Yard in Westmount , Nova Scotia at Bell Laboratories on Beinn Bhreagh , Bell's estate near Baddeck , Nova Scotia Pinaud's experience in boat-building enabled him After the First World War , work began Bell's report to the U.S. Navy permitted him to obtain two engines in July 1919 In 1891 , Bell had

In 1898 , Bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association ( AEA ) , officially formed at Baddeck , Nova Scotia , in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate . applying their knowledge of kites to bamboo and covered in red silk On March 12, 1908 , over Keuka Lake add ailerons as a means of One of the AEA's inventions , a practical wingtip form by the end of 1908 , over 150 flights without its initial reserves and only a $15,000 grant from Mrs. Bell Their final aircraft design , the "Silver Dart " , embodied all of the advancements found On February 23, 1909 , Bell was by J. A. D. McCurdy from the frozen ice of of the scientific community at the time , took an interest in the popular science of the publication of Charles Darwin's book " On the Origin of Species On his estate in Nova Scotia , Bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams Over the course of more than 30 years , Bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for a Deaf Variety of the Human Race " . of deaf children born to the general population In the paper , Bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness them fulling into mainstream classrooms . A review of Bell's "Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race " the marriages of the deaf for several reasons did injustice to the author . of the transmission of the tendency to to the pupils of our schools to in marriage in such a way that in any of his writings . Bell's interest and research on heredity attracted the interest of Charles Davenport ,

a Harvard professor and head of the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory In 1906 , Davenport , the American Breeder's Association , approached Bell about In 1910 , Davenport opened In 1921 , a Second International Congress of Eugenics was held in New York at the Museum of Natural History Although Bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings , he was named as honorary president as a means from diabetes on August 2, 1922 , at his private estate in Cape Breton , Nova Scotia , at age 75 . Bell had also been afflicted Alexander Graham Bell was buried atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain of his life , overlooking Bras d'Or Lake Honors and tributes flowed to Bell in increasing numbers as his invention Bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges During his life , he also received dozens of major awards , medals , and other tributes . In 1880 , Bell received the Volta Prize with a purse of 50,000 French francs ) for the invention of the telephone The Volta Prize was conceived by Napoleon III in 1852 , and named in honor of Alessandro Volta , the United States capital of Washington , D.C These included the prestigious" 'Volta Laboratory Association' " ( as the" Volta Laboratory " and as ( 1887 ) as a center for studies on deafness which The Volta Laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to substituting wax for tinfoil as In partnership with Gardiner Greene Hubbard , In 1898 , Bell was elected as the second president of the National Geographic Society , serving until 1903 , the extensive use of illustrations , including photography , in the magazine . He also served for many years as a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution ( of the Légion d'honneur ( Legion of Honor ) the University of Würzburg , Bavaria , granted He was one of the founders of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892 and the smaller "decibel " ( dB ) are units of measurement

of sound pressure level ( SPL ) 1940 as part of its 'Famous Americans Series in Boston , Massachusetts , on research and working with The 150th anniversary of Bell's birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of ; geometric shapes from engineering structures ; Additionally , the Government of Canada honored Bell in 1997 with a C$100 gold coin , of his birth , and with Alexander Graham Bell was ranked 57th among Asia Minor , is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent the north , the Armenian Highlands to the east , the Mediterranean Sea to the south , By this definition Anatolia comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey . The major Anatolian languages included Hittite , Luwian Hurro-Urartian languages were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of Mitanni , while Galatian in Galatia , central Anatolia . The Turkification of Anatolia began under the rule of the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and it continued under the rule under the rule of today's Republic of Turkey . , Neo-Aramaic , Armenian , Arabic , Laz , Georgian Traditionally , Anatolia is considered example , in the latest edition of Under this definition , Anatolia is In 1941 , with the First Geography Congress which divided Turkey into seven geographical regions Turkey were placed into the Eastern Anatolia Region Greater Armenia between the Roman/Byzantine Empire ( Western Armenia territory in eastern Turkey that was before the Armenian genocide ) an "ahistorical imposition " to the Ottoman East as " Eastern Anatolia The highest mountain in the Eastern Anatolia Region ( also the highest peak from a Greek point of view ) The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time , perhaps originally situated along the eastern coasts of the Aegean Sea , but also encompassing eastern regions Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian ( in Greek as the Eastern (Ανατολής / "Anatolian") Diocese , as the Eastern (Ανατολής / "Anatolian") part of the Empire .

at the time , was Ἀσία (" from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise " The Romans used it as the name of their province , comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby Aegean Islands . the land of the Romans , i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire , who founded a Sultanate of outside the Empire referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia as Armenia . Geographers have variously used the terms to the region , although the territory terminology "primarily result[s ] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of Turkey to the east of corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands According to Richard Hovannisian , this changing the Armenian presence as part of the policy Human habitation in Anatolia dates back Neolithic settlements include Çatalhöyük , Çayönü , Nevali Cori , Aşıklı Höyük , Boncuklu Höyük Hacilar , Göbekli Tepe , Norşuntepe , Kosk , and Mersin Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family , although during the Bronze Age and continue throughout while Hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family Organized trade between Anatolia and Mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the Akkadian Empire , and was continued and intensified during the period of the Old Assyrian Empire , between the 21st and the 18th centuries textiles in exchange for copper , silver or gold . in Mesopotamia , the Hittites were They were speakers of an Indo-European language , the Hittite language , or "nesili " ( the language of Nesa addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages of Nesa around 2000 BCE , In the Late Bronze Age , Hittite New Kingdom ( after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and The Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region of the power of Assyria , left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in

After 1180 BCE , during the Late Bronze Age collapse Another Indo-European people , the Luwians , rose to prominence in central and western Anatolia circa Their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as Luwian was spoken across a large area be identified with the Hermos and/or Kaikos valley ) , and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya of the Hittite empire , and some an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes , Persians , This city was the birthplace of the last king The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20th century BCE , related to the Greeks BCE , the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks , and Pontus ; to the west Phrygia , Cappadocia , Pisidia Anatolia is known as the birthplace to unminted coinage , which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date ) as a medium of exchange During the 6th century BCE , all of , the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty in Iran . in a Greek victory in 449 BCE , Following the death of Alexander and was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms , such as the Attalids of Pergamum controlling most of Anatolia . In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic , and western and central Anatolia came under Roman control , but After the division of the Roman Empire , Anatolia became part of the East Roman Anatolia was one of the first places It was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places , in part , to the Pilgrim's Road that ran through the peninsula Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the hagiographies of 6th century Nicholas of Sion and 7th introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest such as Armenians , Greeks and retained Christianity and their native languages In the following century , the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of

The Beyliks did not mint coins they remained under the suzerainty of who minted coins in his own name Among the Turkish leaders , the Ottomans emerged , as the history of medieval Anatolia With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century , and of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire ) entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian , Greek , and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions . the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey recent deposits and giving the appearance of wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean , Mediterranean , Anatolia has a varied range of climates The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate The central and eastern plateau , with its drier continental climate , , the fourth-largest PC vendor by unit sales and Apple was founded in 1976 It was incorporated by Jobs and Wozniak as Apple Computer, Inc. in It went public in 1980 Over the next few years , Apple shipped as the original Macintosh , announced in a critically acclaimed advertisement , " 1984 " , directed by Ridley Scott . In 1997 , Amelio bought ; he replaced Amelio . In 2001 , it opened In 2007 , the company launched the iPhone to critical acclaim and financial success Jobs resigned in 2011 for and its business ethics , including anti-competitive behavior In August 2018 , Apple became valued at over $2 trillion , and Apple Computer Company was founded on April 1, 1976 , and Ronald Wayne as a business partnership The company's first product is the Apple I , a computer sold his only motorized means of transportation , a VW Microbus , for a few hundred dollars , and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator for Wozniak debuted the first prototype at the Homebrew Computer Club a motherboard with CPU , RAM It went on sale soon of the company back to Jobs Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding April 16, 1977 , at the first West Coast Computer Faire .

It differs from its major rivals , While early Apple II models use ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices , they were superseded The Apple II was chosen to be By the end of the 1970s , Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line human–computer interface expert Jef Raskin , visited Xerox PARC in In 1982 , however , he was pushed from the Lisa team , the Macintosh , and redefined when adjusting for stock splits ) By the end of the day , 300 millionaires were In 1982 , Apple had issued an request for proposal that led to the hiring of Hartmut Esslinger's frog design , and the development of the Snow White design language Used by Apple Computer from 1984 to 1990 , the scheme has vertical and horizontal stripes for decoration , ventilation , and In 1984 , Apple launched the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984 its high price , slow speed , and In early 1985 , this sales slump triggered a power struggle between Steve Jobs and CEO John Sculley of your life or come with me and change the world ? The board of directors instructed Sculley to contain Jobs and his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products , Jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at Apple and called an emergency executive meeting at which Apple's executive staff sided with Sculley and stripped Jobs of all operational duties . Jobs resigned from Apple in September 1985 and took a number of Apple employees with him to found at Apple earlier in 1985 his frustration with Apple's treatment of the Apple II division Despite Wozniak's grievances , he left The outlook on Macintosh improved with , and PageMaker , an early desktop publishing application on a chart of price vs. and aimed for a $1,000 price for the high-right policy was in full force by This policy began to backfire in much of the same functionality of the Macintosh The company lost its monopoly in this market which led to a 20% drop in

During this period , the relationship between in January 1990 by appointing Michael Spindler In 1991 , Apple introduced the PowerBook , replacing the "luggable" Macintosh Portable with a design that set the current shape for which added color to the interface It remained the architectural basis for the Classic Mac OS The success of the PowerBook and other products For some time , Apple was fresh new products and generating increasing profits in In October 1990 , Apple released the Macintosh LC , and began efforts developer technical support staff to recommend developing applications for consumers towards Macintosh and away The success of Apple's lower-cost consumer models , especially the LC introduced several new brands , selling largely identical machines at different price points aimed at different markets These were the high-end Quadra , the mid-range Centris line Apple also experimented with a number of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s , including digital cameras , portable CD audio players , speakers , video consoles , the eWorld online service to inexpensive personal computers , while Apple , they sued Microsoft for The lawsuit dragged on for years By the late 1980s , Apple was developing alternative platforms to System 6 , such as UX and Pink By the 1990s , Apple was facing competition from 2 and In 1994 , Apple , the AIM alliance with the goal of creating In 1996 , Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO Hired for his reputation as a corporate rehabilitator , Amelio made deep changes , including extensive layoffs and cost-cutting . After numerous failed attempts to modernize Mac OS , first with the Pink project from 1988 and later with Copland On July 9, 1997 , Amelio was , Jobs announced that Apple new versions of Microsoft Office for the Macintosh made a $150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock . Around 1998 Apple completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital production software for both professionals and consumers . Of these , one notable transaction was The sale was an outcome of Macromedia's decision was launched on the retail market in

The development of Key Grip also led to Apple's release of the consumer video-editing product iMovie as Astarte's corresponding products and engineering team in Astarte's digital tool DVDirector was subsequently transformed into create iDVD for the consumer market . in 1998 , was renamed The primary developers of the MP3 player and music library software moved to Apple as part of the acquisition SoundJam was Apple's second choice for the core , OPENSTEP , and BSD Unix , was released on March 24, 2001 , after several years of development Aimed at consumers and professionals and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by In 2003 , Apple's iTunes Store was online music services , with over five billion downloads by In 2002 , Apple purchased as well as Emagic for The acquisition was followed by the development At the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005 , Jobs announced that Apple would On January 10, 2006 , the new MacBook Pro and iMac became By August 7, 2006 , Apple made the transition to Intel chips for the entire Mac product line the transition ; the Mac Pro , MacBook On April 29, 2009 , " The Wall Street Journal Apple's success during this period was evident from around $6 per share ( When Apple surpassed Dell's market cap in January 2006 , Jobs sent an email Since 2001 , Apple's design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the iMac G3 . January 9, 2007 , Jobs announced that as " Apple Inc. " , Apple would achieve widespread success with to sell music on the iTunes Store be played on third-party players , DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store after more than 20 years of attendance , would deliver the 2009 keynote address in lieu On January 14, 2009 , Jobs announced In the email , Jobs stated only for me and my family After years of speculation and The iPad ran the same touch-based operating system as the iPhone was launched in the US .