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except British Columbia , defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial In British Columbia , arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer . In France , the general rule is that one can not remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from another 24 hours in specific circumstances , especially The police need to have the consent In New Zealand law , at the first appearance In South Africa , arraignment is the crime charged against them , In England and Wales , anyone for more than 24 hours without charging of superintendent ( or above ) authorises detention for a further 12 hours by the police before charge for Under the United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure , " arraignment given a copy of the indictment [ In federal courts , arraignment takes within 48 hours of an individual's arrest , to go before a judge until During this stage , the defendant is Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems The transportation of defendants requires time , puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the security of the population held in guilty for a defendant who refuses " America the Beautiful " is a patriotic American song Its lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark , New Jersey Bates wrote the words as a poem It was first published in the Fourth of July 1895 edition of the church periodical , "The Congregationalist Ward had initially composed the song's melody in 1882 to accompany lyrics to " Materna " , basis of the hymn , " The combination of Ward's melody and Bates's poem In 1893 , at the age of 33 , Bates , an English professor at Wellesley College On the pinnacle of that mountain , the words of the poem started to returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel It quickly caught the public's fancy .

By 1900 , at least 75 different melodies had Samuel A. Ward , the organist and choir director at Grace Church The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear , Jerusalem " , Ward died in 1903 , by the time of her death in At various times in the more than one hundred years that over "The Star-Spangled Banner " due to the latter's war-oriented imagery ; others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for "The Concert Sinatra " in February 1963 , for a projected 45 single release In 1976 , while the United States Three different renditions of the song have entered , which went to number A second , by Mickey Newbury , , Billy Dean , Vince Gill , Carolyn Dawn Johnson , Toby Keith , Brenda Lee , Lonestar , Lyle Lovett , Lila McCann , Lorrie Morgan , Jamie O'Neal , The Oak Ridge Boys , Collin Raye , Kenny Rogers , Keith Urban and Phil Vassar it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem . For Super Bowl XLVIII , The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song , sung The commercial received some criticism on social media sites , such as Glenn Beck . On January 20, 2017 , Jackie Evancho released in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America , is to the Pacific Ocean " ( or the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway , a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth , In 2003 , Tori Amos appropriated the phrase " for amber waves of for her song " Amber Waves " Lynn Sherr's 2001 book " America the Beautiful " discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth . has the same meter as that of for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with People with disabilities often have , dressing , grooming ,

Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling For example , wheelchairs provide with disability have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle , with an increase in " Assistive technology " is something In other words , assistive technology is people with disabilities , while Occupational therapy ( OT ) is or improving the quality of life for individuals that experience challenges and Process " ( 3rd ed ) , occupations include areas related to all basic and instrumental activities of daily living and sleep , education , work , play , leisure Occupational therapists have the specialized skill of employing and maintenance of optimal, functional participation in to adapt aspects of the environment order to optimize functional participation in to perform mobility-related activities of daily living , dressing , grooming , The devices come in a number of seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control , do the pushing or input devices for caregivers . Wheelchairs are used by people , injury , or disability ( for lateral, supine transfer ) , from one seated position to another i.e. , from wheelchairs to commodes transfer from a gurney to an operating room table used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair or from a bed is a tool for disabled people who Walkers are also available in children , or for heavy people depending on the strength and abilities It is part of the field of biomechatronics , the science of ( traumatic ) or missing from birth ( congenital ) Inside the body , artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and or all of the same functionary benefits as For instance , a C-Leg knee alone The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system An Occupational Therapist's role in prosthetics include therapy , training and evaluations . , pneumatics , levers , hydraulics , or a combination of technologies that allow for limb movement with increased strength and endurance . and send a signal to motors People with balance and motor function challenges often need

their legs without risk of a fall These standers are generally grouped into two categories based on the position of Prone standers distribute the body weight to the front of the individual and usually have a tray in front of them Many people with serious visual impairments live independently , using a wide range of tools Screen readers are used to help These software programs run on a computer in order to convey the displayed information through voice ( text - to ( refreshable braille displays ) in combination with magnification for low vision users in Some example of screen readers are Apple VoiceOver , Google TalkBack and Microsoft Narrator . Apple VoiceOver includes the option to magnify what is happening on the screen may rely on the assistance of text - to - speech that is uploaded as the digital format use the hard copy documents scanned into the computer Braille is a system of raised dots six dots , with two parallel rows of , numbers , punctuation marks , by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface . Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use They enlarge printed pages for those magnification , focus , contrast , underlining , highlighting , A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens this technology assists people with low vision After the user loads the software into their computer's memory , it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass . " , it enlarges the area around at the top control software which can magnify , change the background color of the screen Assistive technology for navigation has exploded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000 , with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years , of navigation for people who in the engineering literature since 2000 . Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years , and the number of articles in this area is

be worn on the body as Personal emergency response systems ( PERS ) , or Telecare ( UK term ) , are a particular sort of assistive technology put in place for senior people such as fall detectors , thermometers ( for hypothermia risk ) , people with mild dementia ) . In human–computer interaction , computer accessibility ( also known as accessible computing ) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people , regardless of disability or severity of impairment , examples include web accessibility guidelines . Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal , want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries , ATM , Information kiosks The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 People in the d/Deaf and hard These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in sound for the wearer , usually with the aim of making speech This type of assistive technology helps people They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone , This type of technology allows people on a speaker or subject by auditoriums , classrooms , and an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission , IR (Infra Red) transmission , IL (Induction Loop) transmission , with different degrees of amplification ) is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language depend on the capabilities of the user Assistive Technology for Cognition ( ATC ) is the use of technology ( usually high tech ) to augment attention , memory , self-regulation , navigation , emotion recognition and management , planning , and Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are focused on memory and planning for efficacy , that a lot Memory aids are any type of assistive technology Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading , writing

both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text their notes , the pen saves it also download their notes onto a computer Educational software is software that assists people with reading , learning , comprehension , and organizational difficulties by the general population like spoons and the needs of people who have a guard on the edge that stops More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing Assistive technology is the array of new devices An increasing number of people with disabilities leading to the development of new assistive technology " Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves " High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs found in sports ranging from of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system . In 2004 , during the reauthorization period for IDEA , the National Instructional Material Access Center ( provided a repository of accessible text including and used as a starting platform for braille readers , screen readers , and piece of equipment , or , or improve functional capabilities of ( B) Exception.--The term does not include , or the replacement of such device Assistive technology in this area is broken Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software . , word prediction for spelling , Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text A 2017 Cochrane Review highlighted the current lack of high-quality evidence 20 people with various sensors attached to The subjects tried different arm exercises , and The Pererro is a plug and play feature in combination with a basic switch through an external bluetooth connected switch , single touch of the screen , or use of For users with physical disabilities a large variety size , shape , or Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has

Common sites include the hands , head Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security , entertainment , and life ( home , school , and community ) " education , social interactions , and potential for meaningful employment " . It creates greater independence and control For example , in one study of 1,342 infants , toddlers and of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability , the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development These included improvements in " cognitive , social , communication , literacy , motor , adaptive , and increases in found to lighten caregiver load . Both family and professional caregivers benefit from Through its use , the time that However , studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is China , and Russia , centuries before the adoption of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system It consists of rows of movable beads , or similar objects , In their earliest designs , the rows of a flat surface or sliding in grooves slide on rods and built into a frame , allowing faster manipulation often as a bamboo frame with beads In the ancient world , particularly before the introduction of positional notation , abacuses been used for practical calculations of abacuses , abacuses remain in clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe , Russia , China , to at least AD 1387 when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin that described The Latin word is derived from ancient Greek something without a base , and colloquially , any piece of rectangular material ancient texts on etymology , it dust " , or "drawing-board covered with dust ( for the use of mathematics ) " reflects the genitive form of the Greek word , ( " abakos " ) While the table strewn with dust definition evidence is insufficient for that conclusion The Sumerian abacus appeared between 2700–2300 BC . Some scholars point to a character in derived from a representation of the abacus

He wrote that the Egyptians manipulated , opposite in direction to Archaeologists have found ancient disks of have been used as counters At around 600 BC , Persians first began to use the abacus , The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus A play by Alexis from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting , and both Diogenes and Polybius use the abacus as a metaphor for that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less " like the pebbles on an abacus . The Greek abacus was a table of wood set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations . 1846 AD ( the Salamis Tablet ) dates It is a slab of white marble in length , wide , and thick , on which In the tablet's center is a set of , capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line Below these lines is a wide space with Below this crack is another group of to them , but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection they intersect with the vertical line . was unearthed in 1851 . comes in various widths , depending It usually has more than seven rods . There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each One of the top beads is 5 , while one of the bottom beads Each rod has a number under it The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the Han Dynasty , and the beads are In the early Ming Dynasty , the abacus began to appear in a 1:5 ratio . In the late Ming Dynasty , the abacus styles appeared Various calculation techniques were devised for "Suanpan" enabling efficient calculations The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire with five fingers per hand . has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place , Incidentally , this allows use with a hexadecimal numeral system ( or any base

Another possible source of the "suanpan " is a decimal system but lacked the concept of The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome , as in Greece , was by moving counters on Marked lines indicated units , fives continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe and persisted in limited use One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus or no beads in each . , related to the Roman numerals . The "Abhidharmakośabhāṣya " of Vasubandhu ( a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy , says Around the 5th century , Indian clerks were In Japan , the abacus is It was imported from China It was probably in use , as the class structure obstructed such changes Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type , four-bead abacus , introduced from China in It adopts the form of the upper deck to five and the bottom one is similar to the Chinese or Korean abacus , and The beads are always in the shape Later , Japan had a 3:5 abacus now in the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village Improvements to the Japanese abacus arose in In China an aluminium frame plastic bead abacus was used The abacus is still manufactured in practicality , and affordability of The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics , primarily as The Chinese abacus migrated from China to jusan " ( 주산 ) The four-beads abacus ( 1:4 ) was Some sources mention the use of an abacus , formed by the roots ; - ; " pōhual " or "pōhualli " – the account - ; and "tzintzin " The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided into two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord In the left part were four beads . Beads in the first row have unitary values 3 , and 4 ) , and on the right side , three beads had values of 5 The device featured 13 rows with 7 beads , 91 in total . This was a basic number for this culture

It had a close relation to natural phenomena , the underworld , and the cycles , two Nepōhualtzitzin ( 182 ) is the number of days of the corn's cycle , from its sowing to its harvest , three Nepōhualtzintzin ( 273 ) is the number of days of a baby's gestation , and four Nepōhualtzintzin The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them in gold , jade , encrustations of shell , etc in Maya " that another base The quipu of the Incas was a system numerical data , like advanced tally sticks – use after the conquest of Peru The working principle of a yupana is unknown By comparing the form of several yupanas and 40 as place values for has a single slanted deck , with ten beads on each wire ( except one wire with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions ) Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks , which were minted until in the center , to keep are moved to the right . During manipulation , beads are The Russian abacus was in use in shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union , and its usage was taught in most schools until the 1990s . them in Russia ; according Some businessmen attempting to import calculators Likewise , the mass production of Felix arithmometers reduce abacus use in the Soviet Union . The Russian abacus was brought to France use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and To Poncelet's French contemporaries , it was for any applied purpose , but as The Turks and the Armenian people used abacuses with positional notation like other abacuses ( 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire between the 5th and 6th wire , corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire , suggests the latter use The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons . Physicist Richard Feynman was noted for facility

He wrote about an encounter in Brazil with a Japanese abacus expert , who between Feynman's pen and paper , The abacus was much faster for multiplication , but Feynman was a really difficult challenge , i.e. cube roots , Feynman Abacus-based mental calculation ( AMC ) , which was derived from the abacus calculations , including addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division , in the mind by It is a high-level cognitive skill that runs They are able to retrieve AMC involves both visuospatial and visuomotor processing that generate The binary abacus is used to explain be stored in a binary system on a computer , or via ASCII The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads , Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators , the abacus is often taught to these students in early grades Blind students can also complete mathematical assignments braille code for mathematics ) but The first category of acids are the proton donors In the special case of aqueous solutions , are known as Arrhenius acids . Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste and react with bases and certain metals ( like calcium ) An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH A lower pH means a higher acidity , and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid ( a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and As these examples show , acids ( ( in the strict sense ) that The second category of acids are Lewis acids , which form a covalent bond with An example is boron trifluoride ( BF3 which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base , for ammonia ( NH3 ) . Lewis considered this as a generalization H+ ) into the solution , form a covalent bond with an electron pair and

In 1884 , Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions when added to water , increases the concentration of H+ ions in but the free hydrogen nucleus , a proton , water , it exists as the hydronium ion ( H3O+ ) or in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration In an acidic solution , the concentration of Both theories easily describe the first reaction : it acts as a source of , and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation to ammonia ( NH3 ) to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because As with the acetic acid reactions , both definitions The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B — F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore they are in the lone fluoride ion . accepts the electron pair from fluoride . in terms of Brønsted theory because A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia , a Brønsted base ; alternatively , ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair They dissociate in water to an equal amount of a Lewis base ( acetate , citrate , or oxalate Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form , where HA represents the acid and A− by one proton , and can removal of a proton ( protonation between the acid and its conjugate base . The equilibrium constant "K " is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions " the concentration of H2O " K"a is generally used in have a higher "K"a than the weaker acid ; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid Stronger acids have a smaller p"K"a than weaker acids In the classical naming system , the ionic suffix is

dropped and replaced with a new suffix The prefix " hydro- " is The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose other words , one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves H+ and one mole of the conjugate base , A− , and none In contrast , a weak acid only Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) , hydroiodic acid ( HI ) , hydrobromic acid ( HBr ) , perchloric acid ( HClO4 ) , nitric acid ( HNO3 ) and sulfuric acid In water each of these of deprotonation are the polarity of of atom A , which determines , are a class of strong acids Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid , magic acid and perchloric acid . Superacids can permanently protonate water of an acid compound , the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH , which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution Lewis acids have been classified in The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases , versus other Lewis acids to define the order of Lewis acid strength Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) and nitric acid ( HNO3 ) On the other hand , for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of donate more than one proton per acid molecule , in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names , such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid ( and triprotic ( or tribasic) acid The first dissociation constant is typically greater than For example , sulfuric acid ( ) , for which " The large "K"a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric In a similar manner , the weak unstable carbonic acid can carbonate anion ( CO ) . An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid HPO , and finally PO , Neutralization is the basis of titration , where a pH indicator shows equivalence point In order for a protonated acid to

The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form ( the deprotonated form To determine the concentration of an acid in an aqueous solution , an acid–base titration is the color change of the indicator with the amount and the solution's pH value on the y-axis . are two equivalence points in the titration curve of In other words , the amount of OH− added equals the original amount of Therefore , the amount of OH− added equals twice the amount of H2A For a weak diprotic acid titrated by a strong base , the second equivalence point must occur at pH above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution A titration curve for a diprotic acid contains two midpoints Acids exist universally in our lives Sulfuric acid , a diprotic acid , is the most widely used acid in industry , which It is mainly used in According to the statistics data in 2011 , the annual production of sulfuric acid was In the chemical industry , acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts For example , nitric acid reacts with metals in a process known as Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind . Citric acid is present in oranges , lemon and other citrus fruits . because of high concentrations of oxalic acid Many acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives , as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives . Phosphoric acid , for example , is a component of cola drinks . Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life Carbonic acid is one of the most common acid additives During the manufacturing process , CO2 is these drinks to generate carbonic acid . tends to decompose into water and CO2 at room temperature and Certain acids are used as drugs Acids play important roles in the human body Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues . Fatty acids are also required for

growth and repair of body tissues Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds Many of those acids are amino acids which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins . Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry ; for example , sulfuric acid is used in Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics , and is passed from parents to DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made ) , an amino group , a hydrogen atom and many of the properties of In glycine , the simplest amino acid , as sulfur , oxygen or With the exception of glycine , At physiological pH , typically around 7 , free amino acids exist in The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is of carboxylic acids that play a significant role These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer , a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups In humans and many other animals , hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid pepsinogen into the enzyme , pepsin Acid–base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs , and the body responds to For example , during periods releasing CO2 into the blood stream . Cell membranes are generally impermeable to can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form i.e. , as the conjugate base ) by the use of antacids or and cytosol , both aqueous environments . than the neutral pH within the cell , certain acids will exist in their neutral form diffuse through the cytosol to their target Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum .

It may be found in , and is classed as Before the 20th century , the term asphaltum was The word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος asphalt is in road construction , In material sciences and engineering , For the manufactured material , which is a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils the prevalent term in much of the world Its viscosity is similar to that from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling Asphalt properties change with temperature , by providing lubrication between particles Low temperature prevents aggregate particles from moving from the late Middle English , in turn from French "asphalte " , based on Late Latin "asphalton " , "asphaltum of the Greek ( " ásphaltos " , " ásphalton " , ( in passive) err , The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement bitumen was brought to Babylon From the Greek , the word passed into late Latin , and thence into French ("asphalte " ) pitch ) , and by In British English , " bitumen used to refer to asphalt concrete , a mixture of construction aggregate and In American English , "asphalt " is equivalent to the British "bitumen " In Canadian English , the word "bitumen " the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil , while the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form " Bituminous rock " is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen be confused with tar or coal tars . Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry distillation and pyrolysis of organic hydrocarbons primarily long chains in the absence of oxygen Bitumen occurs as a solid or highly viscous liquid . It may even be mixed Most natural bitumens also contain organosulfur compounds , resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4% The substance is soluble in carbon disulfide It is commonly modelled as a colloid , with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase Asphalt may be confused with

produced by the destructive distillation of coal During the early and mid-20th century , when town gas The addition of coal tar to macadam roads However , since the 1970s , asphalt has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications . Other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits re-refined engine oil bottoms – "REOB " or the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers , in REOB contains various elements and compounds to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine ( typically iron and is obtained from petroleum . Nonetheless , large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae ( diatoms ) and These natural deposits of bitumen have been formed during the Carboniferous period , when giant swamp forests dominated many parts of the Earth They were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves , in three huge deposits These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves , as the Athabasca oil sands , is located This formation is from the early Cretaceous , and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil . Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands , respectively Of the Alberta deposits , only parts of Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah , US . Bitumen may occur in hydrothermal veins An example of this is within the Uinta Basin of Utah , in a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of Bitumen is similar to the organic matter marine plants and animals , mainly algae They were covered by mud , and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature

The use of natural bitumen for waterproofing least to the fifth millennium BC , with a crop storage basket discovered in Mehrgarh , of the Indus Valley Civilization , lined with In the ancient Middle East , the Sumerians used natural bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks as eyes , into place , for ship caulking , and Bitumen was used by ancient Egyptians In approximately 40 AD , Dioscorides described the Dead Sea material as " Judaicum bitumen " , and noted other places in The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at Hasbeya Pliny also refers to bitumen In the ancient Far East , natural bitumen was of the higher fractions , leaving a thermoplastic material This was used to cover such as scabbards and other items In North America , archaeological recovery has used to adhere stone projectile points to An 1838 edition of "Mechanics Magazine " cites an early use of asphalt in France of asphaltum ) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel " to use it in a variety in the construction of air-proof granaries , means of the arches , the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth in France until the revolution of 1830 . of interest , and asphalt pavements , flat roofs , and the lining of cisterns , and in England , some use of it for similar purposes " . at Osbann (Bas-Rhin ) , Among the earlier uses of bitumen in William Salmon's "Polygraphice " ( 1673 ) provides a recipe for varnish used three ounces of virgin wax , two ounces of mastic , and one ounce The first British patent for the use of asphalt Then on 25 November 1837 , Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of Seyssel asphalt ( for use in asphalte pavement , with Frederick Walter Simms , who worked with him on the introduction of Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838 In 1851 , extensions for sought by the trustees of a company

" Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company"formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France","laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in the steps leading from Waterloo Place to " The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company ( with a distinguished list of , gave an enormous impetus to the development " By the end of 1838 , at least two other companies as paving at Brighton , Herne Bay , Canterbury , Kensington , the Strand , and a large floor area In 1838 , there was , which had uses beyond For example , asphalt could , and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths , both of which were On the London stockmarket , there were asphalt quality from France , Germany France , with similar numbers of In 1914 , Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce tar-bound macadam , and "Clarphalte " , However , the First World War ruined the Clarmac Company , which entered into liquidation Bitumen was thought in 19th century Britain to contain chemicals with The first use of bitumen in the New World On the west coast , as early as the 13th century , the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface All three groups used the substance as an adhesive It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items . For example , it was It was also used in Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations . It was used as a sealant pave streets in the 1870s . as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County , West Virginia from In the horse-drawn era , US streets were made of diverse materials including wooden planks , cobble stones or other stone blocks , Unpaved roads produced uneven wear and hazards In the late 19th century with the rise of the popular bicycle , bicycle clubs were important

in pushing for more general pavement of Advocacy for pavement increased in In 1900 , Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses , pulling streetcars , wagons , and carriages scramble their way across the crowded streets . Small towns continued to rely on as models , Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882 ; it became the model for Buffalo , Philadelphia and elsewhere 30 million square yards of asphalt paving , well Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade the fork ( of the Athabasca and may be inserted without the least resistance The value of the deposit was obvious from the start , but the means The nearest town , Fort McMurray , Alberta ship the raw bituminous sand for paving . In 1915 , Sidney Ells of of road in Edmonton , Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands , but it was generally During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council Most of the bitumen was used , printers ink , medicines , fireproof roofing , street paving , patent leather Bitumen was used in early photographic technology , it was used by The bitumen was thinly coated onto Exposure to light hardened the bitumen Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists for use in oil painting , , such as linseed oil , which it comes into contact The use of bitumen as a glaze The vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction : primarily as a constituent of products used in According to the requirements of the end use , asphalt is produced to It is estimated that the current world use used as the binder in asphalt concrete It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways , Typically , the production of asphalt concrete sand , gravel and crushed rock with asphalt , which making asphalt concrete for road surfaces ; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States . Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of

5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates ( stone , sand , and gravel The weight of an asphalt pavement depends upon the aggregate type , the asphalt , and can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures . The asphalt in the removed material can be With some 95% of paved roads being asphalt , a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt a higher asphalt (binder) content , usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix This thermoplastic substance is widely used in to be applied at mild temperatures The viscosity can be lowered by emulsfying the asphalt by the addition of 2–25% is the content of these emulsifying agents Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety crushed rock , gravel or crushed slag Slurry seal is a mixture of asphalt emulsion on the surface of a road . Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements in depth , and asphalt emulsions useful for all classes of roads on the use of polymer modified emulsions ) mixtures with similar properties to those a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with and loaded into even larger (400-ton capacity ) dump trucks for movement to The process used to extract the bitumen developed by Dr. Karl Clark of the University of Alberta After extraction from the sand , the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader In Alberta , five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products : The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray , , Canadian Natural Resources , and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil ; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces in chemical composition , and the real difficulty products such as gasoline , diesel fuel , and refined asphalt without Given the choice , such heavy oil refineries usually crude bitumen through pipelines , non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with natural-gas condensate , much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of

bitumen , conventional crude oil , synthetic crude oil , and condensate in a standardized benchmark product the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels or radioactive sludges have been produced at industrial scale in France , Belgium and operational safety issues ( risks of fire at Tokai Works in Japan ) and long-term stability problems related to their geological disposal One of the main problems is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation Asphalt swelling is first induced by hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma radiolysis . The high concentration of salt in the pore solution for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix . The water moves in the direction of this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions , preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides Under their higher valences , radionuclides of elements such as selenium , technetium , uranium , neptunium Different types of asphalt have been oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation , and harder ) and direct distillation bitumen ( softer Roofing shingles and roll roofing account for especially for its use on iron and permanence of the paint or About 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984 Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil ( such as naphtha , gasoline and diesel to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants , these lighter materials are separated out " , or BFS . through pipes in the dump body to , as well as some handling equipment with a releasing agent before filling to sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production under development in Alberta , Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen , covering 140,000 square kilometres The Athabasca oil sands are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada to surface mining , although recent technological breakthroughs

Because of oil price increases after 2003 , producing bitumen became highly profitable By 2014 , Canadian crude bitumen production averaged can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar , molasses Asphalt can also be made from waste material by fractional distillation of or dumping into landfills . Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation , reducing their contribution to the urban heat island effect Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in Selenice , in The bitumen is found in the form of veins , filling cracks with a penetration value near to zero After centuries of silence , the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868 , when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Selenizza is mainly used as It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks , but fed in the mixer or in Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts Asphalt is a commonly recycled material in the construction industry reclaimed asphalt pavement ( RAP ) RAP is recycled at a greater rate than any other material in the United States , evaporation , exudation , and The report indicates that an "average" 1-mile (1.6-kilometer)-long, four-lane highway would every mile of highway in just 10 years in fumes or skin absorption . to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving , roofing , , predominantly temperature , that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions than 199 °C ( 390 °F ) The American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products , services , processes , systems , and personnel in the United States . , government agencies , consumer groups , companies , and others . formed in 1918 , when In 1928 , the AESC became In 1966 , the ASA was had been members of the United Engineering Society

and head of staff in 1919 , AESC started as Staff for the first year consisted of one executive , Clifford B. LePage , who was on loan from a founding member , academic and international bodies , and individuals develop standards , the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products improve the safety of those products for The institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations as a founding member , and the International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC ) , via the U.S. National Committee ( USNC ) . ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of In 2009 , ANSI and Apollo 11 ( July 16–24, 1969 ) was Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin formed the American crew July 20, 1969 , at 20:17 UTC . on July 21 at 02:56 UTC ; the spacecraft , and collected of in lunar orbit while they were Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island , Florida , on July 16 at 13:32 UTC , and it was the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20 rejoin Collins in the command module . Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience . He described the event as "one small step in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy , In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the United States was engaged in the Cold War , a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union . On October 4, 1957 , the Soviet Union launched This surprise success fired fears and imaginations It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by , and initiating Project Mercury , which aimed to launch a man became the first person in space , Nearly a month later , on May 5, 1961 ,

options presented by NASA , In spite of that , the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev , the Premier of the Soviet Union in Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and In July 1962 NASA head James Webb CM ) with a cabin for ( SM ) , which supported the command module with propulsion , electrical power , oxygen , and water ; and a lunar module ( — a descent stage for landing on Apollo were developed by Project Gemini Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967 , in evaluated the command module in Earth orbit , put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit , and in May the Space Race by beating the US to firsts , but its early lead was the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes On July 13 , three days before Apollo 11's launch , the Soviet Union launched Luna 15 , which reached lunar orbit before During descent , a malfunction caused ( CMP ) Jim Lovell , on the backup crew for Apollo9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967 . flown together as the crew of prime and backup crews , and Armstrong's crew became Michael Collins , the CMP on the Apollo8 crew Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae , requiring surgery he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo replace Aldrin with Lovell , The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo Instead , they forged an amiable working relationship Aldrin and Collins described the crew the assessment , and said " The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander , William Anders as CMP , and Haise as LMP Anders had flown with Lovell

In early 1969 , he accepted retire as an astronaut at that time By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo , Lovell, Mattingly , and Haise were scheduled to fly During Projects Mercury and Gemini , each mission had a prime and a backup crew For Apollo , a third crew of The support crew maintained the flight plan , checklists for emergency situations , so these The capsule communicator ( CAPCOM ) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas , who was The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins Collins added a lunar background with the Earth from the wrong direction ; the shadow should An illustrator at the Manned Spacecraft Center ( MSC Bob Gilruth , the director of the MSC After some discussion , the olive branch was 1971 , the patch design provided the eagle public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George Low , the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at after the motif which was featured At Scheer's suggestion , the CM was Florida ) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel " From the Earth to the Moon " It also referred to Columbia , a historical name of the United States . The astronauts had personal preference kits ( PPKs take with them on the mission Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood a piece of fabric from its wing NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968 These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of obstacles to minimize maneuvering of craters had to be The requirement for the Sun angle was particularly The Apollo Site Selection Board selected Site2 , with During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was One of the first versions of the egress checklist had been done on Gemini missions

Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin heard that Armstrong would Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong For decades , Aldrin believed The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until The media accused Armstrong of exercising Chris Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth , Slayton , Low , and They argued that the first person to like Charles Lindbergh , a calm and quiet person . arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on January 8, 1969 Eagle " and Apollo 10's LM-4 "Snoopy " ; "Eagle " had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface ; a lighter ascent engine ; more thermal protection on the landing gear ; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package ( EASEP The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from The S-IVB third stage of Saturn V AS-506 had arrived February 20 , and the Saturn V Instrument Unit on At 12:30 on May 20 , the assembly departed the Vehicle Assembly Building atop the crawler-transporter , bound for Launch Pad 39A , on its way to the Moon . The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15 , when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service structure In the early hours of the morning , the fuel tanks of the S-II and S-IVB stages were filled with liquid hydrogen Fueling was completed by three hours 04:00 , and they showered , shaved , and had the traditional pre-flight breakfast of steak and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew . At 06:30 , they headed Along with a technician , he helped Armstrong into the left-hand couch at Five minutes later , Collins joined him Haise left around two hours and ten minutes before launch The closeout crew sealed the hatch , and The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds

An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 four cabinet members , 19 state governors , 40 mayors Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969 Full shutdown of the first-stage engines occurred about 2minutes and by separation of the S-IC and After one and a half orbits , a second ignition of while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory the Earth , or the Moon . On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility The site was selected in part because it had been characterized At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20 , Aldrin and Armstrong entered "Eagle from " Columbia " . " as it pirouetted before — concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in During the mission , the cause was process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at Software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug case of an emergency landing abort ) should , but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts to appear to the computer as and east of a crater ( geological samples from it , but Throughout the descent , Aldrin called Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it now above the surface , he He cleared the crater and found They were now from the surface of the probes hanging from "Eagle" footpads ACA was the Attitude Control Assembly — the LM's control stick Output went to the LGC to centered like the turn indicator in a car had enough fuel for another 25 seconds of powered flight before an abort without touchdown than most subsequent missions , and the astronauts the CAPCOM , Charles Duke , with Armstrong's unrehearsed change of call sign from "Eagle " to "Tranquility Base " emphasized Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control :

You got a bunch of guys For this reason , Aldrin chose taking communion on the Moon . Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church , and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church , on the Sunday closest to July 20 Preparations for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin During training on Earth , laid out in advance , , such as checklists , food packets , and tools . " Eagle"s hatch was opened at through the hatch with his portable life support system ( The remote control unit on his chest kept him The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States , but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station near Canberra Despite some technical and weather difficulties , ghostly black and white images of to at least 600 million people on Earth . " , at 02:56:15 , That 's one small step for a man in the transmission , and thus the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using tucked it into a pocket on to abandon the EVA and return , he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep , then mounted it on a tripod presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA . Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface He described the view with the simple phrase Aldrin joined him on the surface around , including two-footed kangaroo hops . The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip Loping became the preferred method of movement The astronauts reported that they needed inside the suit , but the helmet The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow , of the United States on the lunar surface , in clear view of the TV camera . topple in front of TV viewers Before Aldrin could take a photo of Armstrong with the flag , President Richard Nixon spoke to them through They deployed the EASEP , which

to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected He used the geologist's hammer to pound scoops and tongs on extension handles Aldrin shoveled of soil into the box of rocks in order Two types of rocks were found in the geological samples : basalt and Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples , tranquillityite , and pyroxferroite Armalcolite was named after Armstrong , Aldrin , and Collins Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn task to task as time With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing of lunar surface material to the LM by hand . Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket , Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung , and climbed into the LM After transferring to LM life support , the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return The hatch was closed again at In Event of Moon Disaster " announcement for Nixon to The remarks were in a memo from in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction According to the plan , Mission Control " with the LM , and deep " in a public ritual likened to burial at sea . would arm the main engine for liftoff After more than hours on the lunar surface , in addition to the scientific instruments , in memory of astronauts Roger Chaffee , Gus Grissom , and Edward White , fire during a test in January 1967 died in 1967 and 1968 of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower , Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon along with messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world . After about seven hours of rest , the crew was awakened by Houston "Eagle" ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard " Columbia " in lunar orbit Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon , planted some from the descent stage I was concentrating on the computers , and Neil was studying the attitude indicator , but I looked

Although it has been said for three men , and I One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground . on the third orbit , Mission Control informed , parts of "Columbia " Mission Control advised him to assume Instead , Collins flicked the switch For the next couple of orbits , he described his time on the back side " Columbia " at 21:24 UTC " Eagle"s ascent stage was jettisoned into an "uncertain location " on the lunar surface . On the return to Earth , potentially preventing communication on the last segment his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease Captain Carl J. Seiberlich , was selected as the primary recovery ship ( PRS ) for Apollo 11 on June 5 , replacing at her home port of Long Beach , On reaching Pearl Harbor on July 5 , " Hornet " embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of HS-4 , a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft , specialized divers of UDT Detachment Apollo , a 35-man NASA recovery team , and about 120 media representatives On July 12 , with Apollo "Hornet " departed Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific , in Johnston Atoll on Air Force One , then After a night on board , they would fly to "Hornet , but US Air Force Captain Hank Brandli had access their parachutes to shreds " according to Brandli , posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission . Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr. , the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor , On their recommendation , Rear Admiral Donald C. Davis , commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces , Pacific A different sequence of computer programs was used was followed by P67 . P65 and P66 were employed to handle the exit and entry parts of the skip In this case , because they and instead , P65 led Before dawn on July 24 , Two of the E-1s were designated

as "air boss " while the third Two of the Sea Kings carried divers At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time ) " This was observed by the helicopters , south of Johnston Atoll , from the east were reported under During splashdown , " Columbia flotation bags activated by the astronauts . The divers then passed biological isolation garments ( BIGs ) to the astronauts , and assisted them into the life raft , but NASA took precautions with Povidone-iodine to remove any lunar dust BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board "Hornet " After touchdown on "Hornet " at 17:53 UTC , the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay , where the astronauts walked the to the Mobile quarantine facility ( MQF ) the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions life , and the quarantine process dropped He told them : " " was brought alongside the "Columbia It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel , allowing Pearl Harbor , where the MQF was loaded onto a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and airlifted The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at " Columbia " was taken to Ford Island for deactivation , In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law , After three weeks in confinement ( in their trailer on " Hornet given a clean bill of health . On August 10, 1969 , the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts , on those who had joined them in John Hirasaki ) , and on On August 13 , the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago , with Congress , 44 governors , Chief Justice of the United States Warren E. Burger and his predecessor , Earl Warren , and ambassadors from The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of They presented two US flags , one to the Senate , that they had carried with them to This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought

the astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with the leaders of many countries In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing , Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen , New phrases permeated into the English language . " If they can send a man to the Moon , why walk on the Moon for the first time of the world , the follow-on Apollo missions did One possible explanation was the shift in complexity was too abstract for the average person their nation's achievements in space exploration , only indicate that a majority of Americans By 1973 , 59 percent of the US and Soviet Union entered the era of détente it was one of the few government programs After the Apollo 11 mission , officials from a race to the Moon , and Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969 , on the creation of large satellite systems . It was revealed in 1989 send people to the Moon , The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing , which affected The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs "Armstrong , Aldrin and Collins " Ballad of Easy Rider " and "Coon on the Moon " by Howlin of the United States , visiting 49 state capitals , the District of Columbia , and Anchorage In 1971 , it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution , and was displayed at the National Air and Space Museum ( NASM ) in Washington , " Columbia " was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly , Virginia This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017 , to March 18, 2018 , the Saint Louis Science Center from April 14 to September 3, 2018 , the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh from September 29, 2018 , to February 18, 2019 , and its last location at Museum of Flight in Seattle from March 16 to September 2, 2019 Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time

for an additional stop for the capsule , and it was moved to For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's "Apollo to the Moon " exhibit A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in The descent stage of the LM "Eagle " remains ) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon , for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules , scientific instruments , The remains of the ascent stage lie at an unknown location In March 2012 a team of specialists from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo They were found on the Atlantic seabed His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface . In July 2013 , a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston , For safekeeping , there is near Las Cruces , New Mexico . Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them In November 1969 , Nixon asked of the United States and its possessions , Each display included Moon dust from Apollo The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust In 2015 , after Armstrong died in 2012 , his widow she had found a white cloth bag in in the lunar module , including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera capture images of the first Moon landing . On July 15, 2009 , Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts From July 16 to 24, 2009 , NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time It is in the process of and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was On July 20, 2009 , Armstrong , with US President Barack Obama at the White House .

at the sky and are going , and Aldrin " , " We want to make On August 7, 2009 , an act of On June 10, 2015 , Congressman Bill Posey introduced gold , silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission . The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival " on the National Mall in Washington DC As part of the festival , a projection of the tall Saturn V rocket was displayed on the east face of the tall Washington Monument from July 16 through the 20th from 9:30pm until 11:30pm (EDT the assembly and launch of the Saturn V rocket The projection was joined by a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock and two large video screens showing the crew orbited without landing , in the United States Apollo space program after Apollo7 , which stayed in Earth orbit . Originally planned as the second crewed Apollo Lunar Module and command module test , to be flown in an elliptical medium Earth orbit in early 1969 , the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious command-module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December to fly the first lunar module flight in low Earth orbit , became the crew for the Apollo9 mission , and Borman's crew were moved over the course of twenty hours , during which they made a Christmas Eve television broadcast in which they read the first ten verses At the time , the broadcast was Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo11 a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968 , when their spacecraft splashed In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the United States was engaged in the Cold War , a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union . On October 4, 1957 , the Soviet Union launched This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances , it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority .

as important as the actuality . It was therefore intolerable to more advanced in the field of The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting carrier rockets , which a goal that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry , starting from a position of equality advisors , he chose such a project the Moon and return him to An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components : a cabin for the three astronauts , and Earth ; a service module ( SM propulsion , electrical power , oxygen a two-stage lunar module ( LM ) , which comprised a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to return the astronauts to lunar orbit . The initial crew assignment of Frank Borman as Commander , Michael Collins as Command Module Pilot ( CMP ) and William Anders as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP ) for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced on November 20, 1967 Collins was replaced by Jim Lovell in July 1968 , after suffering This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions the most experienced member of the crew : Lovell on Gemini VII and Gemini XII . of a commander of a previous mission ( The backup crew assignment of Neil Armstrong as Commander , Lovell as CMP , and Buzz Aldrin as LMP for the prime crew , Aldrin was moved to CMP , and Fred Haise Armstrong would later command Apollo11 , with Aldrin as LMP and Collins as CMP . During Projects Mercury and Gemini , each mission had a prime and a backup crew For Apollo , a third crew of The support crew maintained the flight plan , checklists The support crew developed procedures in the simulators , especially those for emergency situations , and master them in their simulator training The capsule communicator ( CAPCOM ) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas , who was The mission control teams rotated in three shifts , The triangular shape of the insignia refers to

both the mission number and the circumlunar nature of the mission On the bottom of the8 are The crew wanted to name their spacecraft of the giant cannon that launches a space vehicle in Jules Verne's 1865 novel " From the Earth On September 20, 1967 , NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions , with an uncrewed Block I production model of the command and service module ( CSM Apollo5 was a "B" mission , a test of the LM in Earth orbit . Further missions depended on the readiness of Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission , a test of the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by James McDivitt , David Scott , and Russell Schweickart , while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission , a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo9 , in early 1969 Production of the LM fell behind ( KSC ) in June 1968 the Manned Spacecraft Center ( MSC ) , , and endangering the program's goal of George Low , the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office , proposed a solution in August 1968 to keep the program on track Since the next CSM ( designated as a CSM-only mission could be flown in Apollo7 , this CSM could be the Moon , with the possibility of until Apollo10 , the scheduled "F" mission . On August 9, 1968 , Low discussed the idea with Gilruth , Flight Director Chris Kraft , and the Director of Flight Crew Operations They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center ( MSFC ) in Huntsville , Rocco Petrone , and Wernher von Braun a flight control standpoint ; Debus and Petrone Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission , citing confidence in both the hardware and the personnel , along with the potential for a circumlunar flight providing Backed by the full support of his agency , Webb authorized the mission . With the change in mission for his crew had spent a great deal of , and that was what

This swap also meant a swap of an LMP on a flight with no LM , which flew some living creatures , including Russian tortoises , in a cislunar loop around the Moon and returned them to Earth on September 21 . the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center , received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife before his 1927 flight , Lindbergh had measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from of the SaturnV ( " 5 used in the Apollo-Saturn ( "AS") program the Vehicle Assembly Building on December 20, 1967 , it Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight , including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage , two second-stage engine failures , and Teams from the MSFC went to Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation , A task force of contractors , NASA agency representatives that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which a resonance effect that induced oscillations in , causing a loss of fuel pressure failed within one second of engine two's shutdown Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 shock-absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation , while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions . The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 , and the rocket made the slow journey to Testing continued all through December until the day before launch , including various levels of readiness testing from , Apollo8's profile had two different sets of 32.51° to the Equator , and (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds of to the injection velocity of which The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned at an inclination of 12° from on December 21, 1968 , using the Saturn V's three stages , and the S-II second stage landed at The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket

to reignite for this burn . Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty This communication meant that Mission Control had The S-IVB engine ignited on time and on course for the Moon , the command and service modules ( CSM ) , take photographs of the spent stage and As the crew rotated the spacecraft , they had their first views of the Earth the CSM and suggested to Mission Control towards Earth and using the small reaction control system (RCS) thrusters on the service module ( SM away from the Earth , but lose sight of the S-IVB . After discussion , the crew and the Earth direction to increase speed , , passing the orbit of the Moon and going into a solar orbit with and an orbital period of 340.80 days . through the Van Allen radiation belts , which extend during a year , the average human receives a dose of 2to 3mGy ) . to Earth , as well Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as measuring the angle between a star and By seven hours into the mission , the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft In direct sunlight , parts of Before launch , NASA had Borman started the first sleep shift but found Testing on the ground had shown This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about velocity prograde ( in the direction of helium in the oxidizer lines , The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters Borman obtained permission from ground control a bout of diarrhea ; this of vomit and feces , everyone to know about his medical problems The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment ( DSE ) , which and dump them to Mission Control two identical control rooms in Houston , on the second and third floors , only one of which was used during a mission ) which affects about a third of astronauts

during their first day in space as previous spacecraft ( Mercury and Gemini The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight During this time , NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast During this first broadcast , the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted Additionally , without proper filters , the Earth image became saturated by any bright source In the end , all the crew could By this time , the crew had Anders also went to sleep The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens . as they had to maneuver At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body In other words , the effect of than that of the Earth . Apollo8 was from the Moon and had a speed of relative to This historic moment was of little interest to still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center . The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion ( LOI It was in retrograde ( against the direction of travel ) which the spacecraft would pass the Moon At exactly 61 hours after launch , about from the Moon , the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds . At 64 hours into the flight , the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion1 ( LOI-1 ) . the far side of the Moon , out of contact with the Earth . After Mission Control was polled for a "no go" decision , the crew was told at 68 hours that they were , the crew began one last check of every switch was in its correct position . At that time , they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon . the unlit side , and it was The SPS was ignited at 69 hours after launch and burned for the Apollo8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon

The crew described the burn as being If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time , the spacecraft On Earth , Mission Control continued If the crew had not burned Lovell continued to describe the terrain One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon , was planned as the Apollo11 landing site . The launch time of Apollo8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for windows to record one frame per Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours in contact with Earth , As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon , broadcast a view of the lunar surface . Throughout the next two orbits , the crew continued During the third pass , Borman read participate in a service at St. Christopher's Episcopal Church near Seabrook , Texas , behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front , the crew witnessed an "Earthrise " in person for the first time NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 had taken the first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others , taking Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth , Earthrise is seen from any one place on the Moon's surface Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft Borman realized that everyone was He ordered Anders and Lovell Anders finally agreed under the condition As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time , the astronauts began the second television transmission Borman described it as being , Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Each man on board read a section from the Biblical creation story from the Book of Genesis . Borman finished the broadcast by wishing from the crew of Apollo8 , we close with good night , bless all of you — was scheduled for hours after The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight

, as any failure of the SPS in lunar orbit , with little hope As with the previous burn , the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon , out of contact with Earth . The burn occurred exactly on time The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it the Moon at 89 hours , 28 minutes Later , Lovell used some otherwise idle time the module to view various stars by realized that they would have enter the corrected data into the computer . On Christmas afternoon , the crew made a tour of the spacecraft , showing Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles the mission , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth , during a four-minute broadcast After two uneventful days , the crew prepared The computer would control the reentry , Separation from the service module prepared the command module for reentry by exposing the heat shield of the atmosphere , the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon , As the module hit the thin outer atmosphere , the crew noticed that it was changing the attitude of the spacecraft , Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean . a swell , Borman was sick seen much upheaval in the United States and , political unrest in the streets of Europe and America , and chose the crew of Apollo8 as its Men of the Year for 1968 , recognizing influenced events in the preceding year . to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth up in a telegram from a stranger One of the most famous aspects of the flight of the inspirations of the first Earth Day in The Soviet newspaper "Pravda " featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov , Chairman of the Soviet Interkosmos program , who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit

against NASA over the reading from O'Hair wanted the courts to ban the Supreme Court of the United States , apparently for lack of jurisdiction in outer space , it caused NASA of religion throughout the rest of In 1969 , the United States Post Office Department issued The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve , of the book of Genesis . In January 1970 , the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka , Japan , for display in the U.S. pavilion It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry , along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in the crew of Apollo8 were compiled the 1969 documentary "Debrief : Apollo8 " , In addition , Spacecraft Films released including all TV transmissions from space , ( 2005 ) as part of season 18 of "American Experience " Parts of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries " From the Earth The S-IVB stage of Apollo8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device In the credits of the animated film "Free Birds " ( 2013 ) a newspaper front page a close , millions around the world the Apollo 8 astronauts – Frank Gobbler , Jim Snood , and " nautes " as a commander or crew member aboard to all human space travelers regardless of nationality as cosmonauts ( from the Russian "kosmos " ( космос ) , also borrowed from Greek ) in order to distinguish them Since 1961 , 600 astronauts have Until 2002 , astronauts were aerodynamic force , carries a significant portion of the Kármán line , at an altitude of Of these , 24 people have to lunar orbit , the lunar surface , , under the U.S. definition , 558 people altitude , only one , Joseph A. Walker ) and he did it Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days ( 114.5 man-years ) in space , including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks .

, the man with the longest cumulative time in has spent 879 days in space In 1959 , when both the United States humans into space , NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator , Hugh Dryden , Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut " , which survived by common usage as the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in earlier ; for example , in Percy Greg's 1880 book " Across the Zodiac " In "Les Navigateurs de l'Infini " ( 1925 ) by J.-H. Rosny aîné , the word NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit NASA also uses the term as The word is an Anglicization of "kosmonavt Coinage of the term has been credited to Soviet aeronautics ( or The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin , also the first person He was part of the first six Russians , with German Titov , Yevgeny Khrunov , Andriyan Nikolayev , Pavel Popovich , given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in In Chinese , the term ( strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system , i.e. Solar System by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries , and the term became more Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese "People's Daily " since the advent of the Chinese space program recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability , ( and previously the Soviet Union ) , sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries other synonyms for astronaut have entered from the Latin word for " space to describe participants in the Angkasawan program ( note its similarity with the Indonesian term " antariksawan " ) ; In Finland , the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra , On July 20, 2021 , the FAA issued

an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson . The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin , who was launched on 12 April 1961 , aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961 , on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard " Freedom 7 " . The first American woman in space was Sally Ride an extravehicular activity ( EVA ) , ) , on 18 March 1965 , The Soviet Union , through its Intercosmos program , , with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek , the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States , who flew to space in 1978 on he flew aboard Soyuz 37 . Also in 1980 , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez in 1983 , Guion Bluford became In April 1985 , Taylor Wang became ( France ) , in In 1985 , Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became With the increase of seats on In 1983 , Ulf Merbold of In 1985 , Rodolfo Neri Vela became In 2002 , Mark Shuttleworth became in space , as a paying spaceflight participant a suborbital spaceflight lasting 7 minutes on July 20, 2021 aboard the New Shepard , broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov , who was orbit ; he rounded the planet and now the oldest person in space . , although the group was trained concurrently with the all-male Mercury 7 , who As of 2006 , the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven , into the USSR's Air Force , which did in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line , qualifying him by The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg , a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on In December 1990 , Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space

for Tokyo Broadcasting System , a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal The first NASA astronauts were selected for training Early in the space program , military jet test cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA , of the Mercury Seven ) had any university degree , in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection . Selection was initially limited to through twenty months of training in a variety of areas , including training for extravehicular activity in a facility Astronauts - in - training retired in 2000 and 2004 in 2005 with a C-9 ) accumulate a number of flight hours in This is mostly done in Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness , barotrauma , immunodeficiencies , loss of bone and muscle , loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance , sleep disturbances A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute in Microgravity Study in which astronauts the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of This study's techniques are now being applied , bacteria were found to Over the last decade , flight surgeons and a pattern of vision problems in astronauts On 2 November 2017 , scientists reported taken trips in space , physiologically deconditioning on the body . In October 2018 , NASA-funded researchers found including travel to the planet Mars , While this does not affect formation of new cells in brain's memory centers about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure , this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills ( dexterity ) , but Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to Foods are tested to see On Earth , the average American uses In Russia , cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions , often accompanied with the award of Hero Once they have flown in space , they receive a gold pin the Astronaut Badge , after participation on , eleven people ( all men )

spaceflight : eight Americans and three Russians maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs Their Parents or Country , and The essay suggests that the impoverished Irish might as food to rich gentlemen and sustained irony in the history of the English language describes the plight of starving beggars in Swift goes to great lengths to of possible preparation styles for the children , He uses methods of argument in Ireland , but rather people to devise a number of Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution . A memorable example of these sorts of schemes regard people as commodities " Critics differ about Swift's intentions in with defence of crime ( arrogated to Marx ) in takes care of the superfluous population " Author Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades for the Irish and a dislike of to see in a much less detached way . Lewis argues that the speaker uses " the vocabulary of animal husbandry " Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight In making his argument , the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument from Swift's time ( which was derived against early Roman persecution of Christianity . Johnson believes that Swift saw Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian " and "Apology " . In structure , Johnson points cannibalism and the eating of babies share the same command of sarcasm and In agreement with Johnson , Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title . to it , if you they begat them for their Tables , justifie Adultery , Incest and have the Principle Aggravation from this , that they cross the main intention of Nature , which willeth the increase continuation of the Species in the highest perfection Families , with the Security of the Marriage Bed , The Reader in A Modest Proposal " focuses

on two aspects of "A Modest Proposal " : the voice of Swift and between the satirical voice of Jonathan Swift and of "Swift's Modest Proposal : The Biography of Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have on the mercantilism and theories of At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century , it was believed of the nation " , and Landa presents Swift's "A Modest Proposal " as a critique of the popular and unjustified maxim of mercantilism are the riches of a nation " Swift presents the dire state of Ireland The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into : the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority 12 February 1729–30:"I did immediately propose it to Lady Bathurst , as your advice , particularly for her last boy , but she fell in a passion , and he should live upon the fat of the land ; to your opinion ; and having with more courage and zeal ; with one child , he should of another woman , he might it appears to me ; and it ought by no means to be confined to Ireland only to the eating of children from Westminster-hall , and I the least inclination to a slice of him to be at him . " A Modest Proposal " is included in many literature courses as an example of It also serves as an introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language , lending itself to In his book "A Modest Proposal " ( emulated Swift's work in a social conservative polemic against a future dystopia that advocates recycling of aborted embryos , fetuses , and " A Modest Video Game Proposal " is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney Jack Thompson Hunter S. Thompson's ' includes a letter in which he uses Swift's approach in Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper Henkel imagined the descendants of folks On 3 October 2019 , a satirist spoke up at an event for Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez lithium ( Li ) ,

sodium ( Na ) , potassium ( K ) , rubidium ( Rb ) , caesium ( Cs ) , and francium ( Fr ) in the s-block of the periodic table . All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital Indeed , the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table , with elements exhibiting They can all be cut of lithium , nitrogen ) must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air Caesium , the fifth alkali metal , is nature as their compounds : in order of abundance , sodium , rubidium , caesium , and finally francium , which is ; francium occurs only in minute traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains . attempt the synthesis of ununennium ( the group ; none was successful One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks , of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of A common application of the compounds of sodium has been used since antiquity Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an anode in lithium batteries Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times ; salt ( sodium chloride to Roman soldiers for the purchase of While potash has been used since ancient times , it was Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702 , and Pure potassium was first isolated in , who derived it from hydroxide ) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt Petalite ( Li Al Si4O10 ) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist José Bonifácio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Utö , Sweden . then working in the laboratory of This new element was noted by him those of sodium and potassium lithion"/"lithina " , from the Greek word

to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral in plant ashes , and sodium for its high abundance in animal blood . He named the metal inside the material "lithium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim , Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg , Germany , finding it in the mineral lepidolite . of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing at intervals of eight ; he likened such periodicity to the octaves ( lithium to caesium ) , as well as copper , silver , and thallium ( which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of After 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev proposed of a group with sodium , potassium , rubidium , caesium Two years later , Mendeleev revised his table , placing hydrogen in group also moving thallium to the boron group In this 1871 version , copper , part of group IB , and once as part of a "group VIII After the introduction of the 18-column table , the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the d-block , while alkali metals of the Curie Institute in Paris , France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium-227 to have a decay energy of 220 However , Perey noticed decay particles Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element lead , bismuth , or The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal by the alpha decay of actinium-227 . the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay The next element below francium ( eka-francium The synthesis of ununennium was first a target of einsteinium-254 with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley , create any atoms of ununennium in the near future , given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254 , which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass , relatively long half-life of 270 days , and availability in significant amounts of to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level ; einsteinium has in laboratories , and in

for effective synthesis of superheavy elements . it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions , , and it is also with odd atomic numbers , with the exception In elements with even atomic numbers , them ( the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun , but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system In turn , the natural history of to have differing concentrations of the elements The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg It is composed mostly of iron ( 32.1% ) , silicon ( 15.1% ) , magnesium ( 13.9% ) , sulfur ( 2.9% ) , nickel ( 1.8% ) , calcium ( 1.5% ) , and aluminium ( 1.4% ) consisting of trace amounts of other elements in pure form in nature . being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust of the Earth's crust measured by weight Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of Sodium is found in many different minerals vast quantities dissolved in seawater . , cryolite , nitratine , Many of these solid deposits occur as Despite its chemical similarity , lithium typically can be found in seawater in large amounts ; it is Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals , where its crustal concentration is of gallium and niobium . as zinc and more abundant It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite , pollucite , carnallite , zinnwaldite , and lepidolite , although none of these contain Francium-223 , the only naturally occurring isotope of francium , is the product of the alpha decay found in trace amounts in uranium minerals In a given sample of uranium , The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be well as heats of sublimation , vaporisation , and dissociation The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy

Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of very close in behaviour to The alkali metals are more similar to rubidium , and caesium , increasing reactivity , and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of less dense than sodium . One of the very few properties of the alkali metals for caesium , which has Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air are usually stored in mineral oil They react aggressively with the halogens soluble in water except lithium fluoride The alkali metals also react with water the lighter ones ; for example , when dropped into water , caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods of the periodic table because of their low effective nuclear charge proton donors like alcohols and phenols , gaseous ammonia , and alkynes The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals also closer to the nucleus ; lose a single electron , forming cations . in a −1 oxidation state , which is of the alkalides , the alkali metals were The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells , All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known alkalides , and the alkalides have Alkalides are chemically similar to with trapped electrons acting as anions In aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions form with those expected from their ionic radii The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion donating both electrons to the bond . However , for the alkali metal cations , defined as the +1 charge on the cation strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere The solvation number for Li+ has been been found for lithium aqua ions , of the formation of contact ion pairs , in terms of water molecules that indicate the existence of an octahedral hexaaqua ion . in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li+ cation polarises anions

Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship that they show some similarities . all the alkaline earth metals ( magnesium's group ) but Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water , stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals at considerable fractions of the speed of In contrast to the trend of decreasing electronegativities and ionisation energies of the alkali metals due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons , caesium is the most reactive of All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium , such as the first ionisation energy , electron affinity , and the paucity of known data about francium Some of the few properties of francium ( 47.2 kJ / mol ) and the enthalpy of dissociation of The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr− or odd – even (proton number is Odd–odd nuclei have even mass numbers , whereas odd–even nuclei Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei leaving other nuclides of the same mass number ( An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope also have an even number of neutrons All of the alkali metals except lithium although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes . discovered yet at that time . The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium , potassium-40 natural potassium , and thus natural potassium is This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium ) in 30.17 years , is one of the two principal medium-lived fission products , along with strontium-90 most of the radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling , up to several hundred years after use It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the Chernobyl accident . It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture Caesium-137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies , analogous

to the use of tritium . Small amounts of caesium-134 and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents , most notably the Goiânia accident As of 2005 , caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant The alkali metals are more similar to increasing reactivity , and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus In the alkali metals , the outermost electron only which is equal to the atomic number ; the number of inner electrons of The ionic radii of the alkali metals are much The first ionisation energy of an element or molecule the most loosely held electron from one mole of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus , which is the distance from the outermost electron to , the outermost electron feels less attraction from ( This trend is broken in The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down This is the result of a combination of two factors : the first ionisation energies and Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group , it is removed from the atom and participate in chemical reactions , thus increasing an element , which falls down the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals the activation energy of the reaction of an alkali metal Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group electron density ) towards itself . in chlorine but is only to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom ( to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium . Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium , some of its compounds have For example , lithium iodide (

organic solvents , a property of most covalent compounds The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes state from of a substance ( in liquid state As a metal is heated to Therefore , the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds As the atoms increase in size , the nuclei of the ions move fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms , since density is defined as The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius , which The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases Thus , the trend for the densities the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals of the alkali metals increase down the table , with an exception at potassium . the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods , the alkali metals are the least dense metals in The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions These compounds can be described as This description is most accurate for with cold water , producing an aqueous solution with effervescence , but sodium and rubidium and caesium sink in water and water , it produces an explosion the water and producing hydrogen gas ; This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water , lake or of the metal with water ( of alkali metals in water is All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal increase the surface area , causing an exponential increase They easily react with carbon dioxide to form carbonates or bicarbonates separate thiols from petroleum . They react with amphoteric oxides : of aluminium , zinc , tin , and lead react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates , zincates , stannates , other and the elements from groups 2 to 13 in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries , such as the sodium amalgams with mercury , including

Some of these have ionic characteristics : taking the alloys with gold metals , as an example , NaK is an alloy of sodium at room temperature , although precautions its extreme reactivity towards water and air The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements ( aluminium , gallium , indium , and thallium ) , such as NaTl , unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements , tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice . For example , NaTl consists of a polymeric anion ( — Tl−—)n with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na+ ions boron below 700 °C , and in sealed containers with the alkali metal in , reactivity with boron decreases completely at 700 °C , but sodium at 900 °C and potassium but takes hours for potassium as LiB10 , NaB6 , Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides , Li2C2 and Na2C2 their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers , forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC60 , MC48 ( dark grey , ( blue ) , MC24 ( steel blue ) , and MC8 ( bronze ) ( the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24 , KC36 , KC48 and finally KC60 KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is Rb , and Cs ) the metals with graphite at high temperatures with the heavier elements in the carbon group ( silicon , germanium , tin , and lead ) , ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed , or Cs ) , which contains M+ and tetrahedral ions largely analogous to that of sometimes with the stannide ion ( Sn4− The monatomic plumbide ion ( Pb4− ) is reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions , and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule ( N2 ) requires a lot of energy the ionisation energy of the alkali metal ( forming M+ ions break the triple bond in N2 and

the formation of N3− ions , and an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions ; the alkali metals do not form with a charge of +1 , with nitrogen exothermic , forming lithium nitride . The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen potassium nitride ( K3N ) , Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus ( where M represents an alkali metal phosphorus , arsenic , antimony , or bismuth ) . This is due to the greater size arsenides of the alkali metals : for example , potassium has nine different known phosphides , with formulae K3P , K4P3 , K5P4 , KP , K4P6 , K3P7 , K3P11 , KP10.3 , and KP15 , only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides . The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which as LiAs , which has reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine ( SbH3 ) Indeed , they have some metallic properties , and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen They form various types of oxides , such as simple oxides ( Lithium burns in air to with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide . Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions ( the peroxide and superoxide ) This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms , This effect becomes drastically weaker for the bottom of the group , are of the metal with oxygen at In addition , the small size of Under controlled conditions , however , Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas be used in submarine air purifiers ; the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide red ozonides ( MO3 ) through

ozone : the ozonides may be They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen , and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1 . ) upon oxidation in air , while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides , such as as Cs7O ( bronze ) , Cs4O ( red-violet ) , Cs11O3 ( violet ) , Cs3O ( dark green ) , CsO , Cs3O2 , with the heavier chalcogens ( sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen of the chalcogen atoms in question . For example , sodium can react with sulfur to form 2 to 6 ) , Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions tellurium , alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides and tellurides with the and from the elements in liquid ammonia or The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table , the halogens ( fluorine , chlorine , bromine , iodine , and astatine ) of astatine and francium . All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides , where the hydride anion acts as a pseudohalide : these are often used hydrides , complex metal hydrides , or These are isostructural to the respective halides , Na4Br2O , Na4I2O , coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size ( though exceptions occur for in which it exhibits coordination numbers from 1 to 12 , In aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions exist ) , with the exception of attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction form hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , strontium , barium , solution , leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of In 1907 , Charles Krause identified the presence of solvated electrons , which

contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions aqueous sodium chloride ; at higher concentrations ( above 3 M ) , the solution has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons , such ammonia solutions ) , the neutral alkali metal atom ( M ) , diatomic alkali metal molecules ( M2 ) and alkali metal anions ( M− tend to form oligomers with As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom , effectively creating For use as bases , An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ( ( CH3Li)"x " ) , which exists in tetrameric Organolithium compounds , especially "n"-butyllithium , are with magnesium , which plays of ethers with alkyl- and In non-polar solvents , aryllithiums react , turning carbon dioxide to aromatic carboxylic acids ( ArCO2H ) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH ) . The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds , The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups . Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even A notable reagent is Schlosser's base , a mixture This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium ( KCH2CHCH2 ) . lithium and sodium , it is slow with the heavier alkali metals . The heavier alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation . Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been alkylmercury compounds with sodium or potassium metal The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons , for example cyclopentadienes is sodium cyclopentadienide , NaC5H5 , react with cyclooctatetraene in tetrahydrofuran example , dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide ( K2C8H8 ) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives , such as uranocene . Upon reacting with oxygen , peroxides , superoxides and suboxides The table below shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with

The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are Lithium is the only metal that reacts On reaction with water , they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas Alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia or other donor solvents like aliphatic amines or hexamethylphosphoramide from the lighter alkali metals in some properties . Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium reactive than caesium and francium of ununennium's valence electron , increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy is already seen for francium This assumes that ununennium will caesium and francium ; indeed , ununennium is expected to Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in The stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction be lowered to 240 pm , rubidium ( 247 pm ) , similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium On the other hand , the ionic radius of larger than that of Rb+ , because the 7p orbitals are destabilised Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state in any other alkali metal , in addition of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals : this its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium by the aufbau principle ) would put under ununennium , Dirac-Fock calculations predict properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element to that of the latter Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond to that of sodium , comparable to that of potassium However , the 7d electrons of unhexpentium beyond +1 , whence the likely transition metal behaviour the trends and properties of ununennium quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium ( Ubn ) and unhexhexium ( The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium of the periodic table , relativistic and shell-structure effects become of higher shells ) have opposite effects , causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals

in their tendency to form monopositive cations at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience , Hydrogen , like the alkali metals , with the halogens , but the similarities Its placement above lithium is primarily The first ionisation energy of hydrogen ( 1312.0 mol a halogen , forming the negative hydride ion , to be a halogen on that basis , but these are little formation of hydride from hydrogen of halides from halogens . , H− is very diffuse It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn , behaves like an alkali metal ; in this phase , it is known analogous to that of the alkali metals ( ns1 ) , is the alkali metals ; in the latter case , in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity , As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size , the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions association with other atoms or molecules between chemicals is the basis of , they are mostly electrostatic to the heavier alkali metals , acting as For example , most alkali metal salts are Ammonium is expected to behave a sea of delocalised electrons ) at the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules as an alternative to the expensive Cs+ to Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides , like alkali metal hydroxides , are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates . Cobaltocene , Co(C5H5)2 , is organotransition metal complexes , such as its very stable relative, ferrocene , in accordance with the 18-electron rule antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts , Like the alkali metals , cobaltocene is Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group At the bottom of the periodic table , because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display

of the Tl+ ( 164 pm ) in England ) in the years as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and ( Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group the inert pair effect , this inert pair of 6s electrons , copper , silver , categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d Physically , they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between "s" electrons and the partially filled "d" subshell that lower electron mobility main-group metals in their +1 valence states , and the alkali metals : this is one reason They are occasionally classified as Their spectra are analogous to those In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table , copper , Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element : on that basis The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group , due confined to the stoichiometries of the +1 compounds of both groups , and not their chemical properties a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell Furthermore , they have higher melting points , hardnesses , and densities , and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia , as well Finally , the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series , whereas disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell , so enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat commonly used substances , such as water From their silicate ores , all the stable alkali metals may : sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III ) ions from the ore ( removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide . ; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides

to lower the melting point of the mixture for potassium and magnesium or undergoes fractional distillation for purification . from the water of mineral springs , brine pools , and brine deposits . Sodium occurs mostly in seawater now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use Extremely pure sodium can be produced through Potassium occurs in many minerals , made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride Canada , Russia , Belarus , Germany , Israel , United States , and Jordan , It can also be produced because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures , potentially forming Metals like sodium are obtained by electrolysis of molten salts . of cesium and rubidium are crushed and heated to 650°C with sodium metal , generating an alloy normally offered as cesium azide ( Rubidium is the 16th most prevalent element in the earth's crust South Africa , Russia , and , feldspar , carnallite ) As a by-product of lithium extraction , it is commercially obtained from Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and brines , which The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba , Canada , produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite . rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and The limited applications and the lack of a mineral Instead , the mining of pollucite ore by three methods : acid digestion , alkaline decomposition , and direct reduction . - products of lithium production : after 1958 , when interest the production of rubidium and caesium As a result of its extreme rarity in nature , most francium is synthesised francium-210 , and francium-211 . to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms , Lithium is often used in ; it is produced from in space capsules and submarines . Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy Sodium compounds have many applications , the most well-known being sodium chloride

Sodium salts of fatty acids are used Pure sodium metal also has many applications , including use in sodium-vapour lamps , other types of lighting , and often used to reduce many other metals zirconium , from their chlorides . Potassium compounds are often used as Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks , as it reacts with if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs , less than four seconds ( after 80 million years ) For that reason , caesium atoms are Francium has no commercial applications , but other things , it has been to more information regarding energy levels and Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with , fire , oxidising agents , acids , most organic compounds , halocarbons , plastics , and moisture They also react with carbon dioxide only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood Small quantities of lithium may be be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol . The alkali metals must be stored under lithium , which reacts with traces in biological systems and has Lithium carbonate is used as a mood bipolar disorder ( manic-depression ) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams , although Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness , slurred other symptoms , and poisons the central nervous system Sodium and potassium occur in blood volume , blood pressure , osmotic equilibrium sodium is 500 milligrams per day sodium in the diet , and pickling and jerky ; most of it comes from processed foods Potassium is the major cation ( positive ion The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in a "spike " of electrical discharge . such as neurotransmission , muscle contraction , ingestion of large amounts of and caesium in the body mimic potassium and Rubidium has no known biological role , but , replace potassium in the body of rubidium , and an increase

in this value by 50 to 100 times did Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of for hypokalemia ; while rubidium in some systems , caesium is Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people , but most caesium compounds are Like rubidium , caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia , arrythmia , and acute cardiac arrest The median lethal dose (LD50) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram , which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride . : the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries in the city of Goiânia , This led to four deaths and the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols ) that represent the phonemes of and is the ancestor of most modern alphabets , including Arabic , Cyrillic , Greek , Hebrew , Latin , and possibly Brahmic . It was created by Semitic-speaking workers and slaves in the Sinai Peninsula ( as the Proto-Sinaitic script ) , by the semantic values , of their own Canaanite language . However , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , or alphasyllabary , a set of graphemes that represent consonantal base letters and other South Asian scripts ) , an abjad Of the dozens of alphabets in was derived from the Greek , , often with the addition of of lines (linear writing ) , as the alphabets used in Braille Alphabets are usually associated with purposes of collation , specifically Middle English from the Late Latin word "alphabetum " , The Greek word was made from the first two letters in English , the term "ABCs " The history of the alphabet started in Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs with a single consonant of their language , plus a vowel ( or no vowel In the Middle Bronze Age , an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian turquoise mines

In 1999 , John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet 1800 BC and showing evidence of of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be Based on letter appearances and names , it is believed to An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three in Ugarit before the 15th century BC The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram . This script is the parent script of all western alphabets By the tenth century , two other forms can The Aramaic gave rise to the Hebrew script The South Arabian alphabet , a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet , is the script from which the Ge'ez alphabet ( an abugida ) is Arabic , Hebrew , and of a syllable (matres lectionis ) . with a limited number of signs , in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time , Cuneiform , Egyptian hieroglyphs The script was spread by the Phoenicians In Greece , the script was modified to add vowels , giving rise to the ancestor of It was the first alphabet in which Greek to represent vowels . Vowels are significant in the Greek language to the Italian peninsula , where it gave rise to a variety of One of these became the Latin alphabet , which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire Even after the fall of the Roman state , the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures , such as æ in Danish and Icelandic and Ȣ in Algonquian ; by borrowings from other alphabets , such as the thorn þ in Old English and Icelandic , which came from the Futhark runes ; and by out of one of the Old Italic alphabets Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages . Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry

The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians It was in use during the entire history of Hungary , albeit The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic the Greek uncial script , the basis of the Cyrillic script Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts its use in Slavic languages and also Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian , Macedonian , Bulgarian , Russian , Beyond the logographic Chinese writing , many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia . In Korea , the Hangul alphabet was transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China . After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin , the use of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary . are represented by individual symbols , For example , " luan " is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ In the wider sense , an alphabet is " at the phoneme level — that In the narrower sense , some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script , abjads and abugidas . other in the way they treat for consonants and leave most vowels indicate vowels with diacritics to In alphabets in the narrow sense , vowels are written as independent letters ; true alphabets include Latin , Cyrillic , and Korean hangul ; Hindi , and Thai . for a consonant that is modified All three types may be augmented with Ugaritic , for example , ; Coptic has a letter for The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts For example , Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script , which However , in Kurdish , Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with On the other hand , the Phagspa script of the Tibetan abugida , but all vowel marks were in the Indic abugidas , one could of the term "abugida " ) into their consonants that the modifications are to be learned as a syllabary

For tonal languages , further classification can be based on their treatment of , as in Somali and many other languages of abjads are to vowels . This is the case for Vietnamese ( a true alphabet ) and Thai In Thai , tone is consonant , with diacritics for In the Pollard script , an abugida , vowels are indicated by diacritics have separate letters for tones , The number of letters in an alphabet The Book Pahlavi script , an abjad , had only twelve letters at one point , and ( The Hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed 18 letters , including the ʻokina and However , Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters over time , and diacritics for this as they were lost many of its distinct letter shapes . For example , a comma-shaped letter represented , or "j " . When written in Devanagari , Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters , including the "visarga" mark for final aspiration though one of the letters is been expanded to 58 with sounds from Persian and English The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz ( for Cyrillic ) , with 58 and 56 letters , respectively , and Slovak ( for the Latin script ) , with 46 . The Georgian alphabet ( ' ) is With 33 letters , it is were removed in the 19th century by The Georgian alphabet is much closer to The letter order parallels the Greek , with the consonants without a Greek equivalent organized at The origins of the alphabet are still Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script to the process of Christianization of Iberia , Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs , number from the many hundreds into the thousands It was created in year were added in the Middle Ages . to - right , like It also uses bicameral script like and of certain combinations of letters In French , these are for the purposes of collation . However , in Icelandic , " , " í "

In Spanish , " ñ with " sch- " ( inserted between words with initial "sca-" and "sci-" (all incidentally loanwords Albanian , in which " x " and "z " after " tuz " , at a time , in no particular order for collation where a definite order is However , a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences with minor changes in Hebrew , Greek , Armenian , Gothic , Cyrillic , and Latin phonology : The letters are arranged The names were abandoned in Latin known as "Y Graeca " "Greek Y for Z in all forms of in "double U " for W ( "double V " in French and French gives a clear reflection of pronounced in today's English , but of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift an orthography generally comes into being , providing rules for the spelling of words in that language . In accordance with the principle on these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes (significant sounds a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes predict the spelling of a word given always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling , and vice associating the alphabet with the national standard . , Turkish , Russian , and Bosnian ) and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between to split a word into its letters ' , "compitare " , is In standard Spanish , one can tell the pronunciation of a word from be represented in more than one way , as English , where the pronunciations For English , this is of loanwords at different times , retaining their original spelling at varying levels . These can range from simple spelling changes switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet changes from an Arabic script to a Cyrillic script to the Latin alphabet , just like the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element .

It is identical to the charge number and the number of neutrons " Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers a mixture of isotopes ( see of an isotopic mixture for an element ( on Earth , determines the element's standard atomic weight of ideas from chemistry and in the periodic table , whose order was of the elements by atomic weights . Dmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged March 6, 1869 ) in order of the elements' observed chemical properties , he changed the order Besides the case of iodine and potassium , cobalt and nickel In 1911 , Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central nucleus held most of the atom's mass half of the atom's atomic weight , expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms . different from the atomic number of gold which Rutherford made his guess ) of about 100 ( but was the central charge and number of electrons element number , atomic number , and The experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913 . measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions ( ) to gold ( " of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube . The square root of the frequency of these photons This led to the conclusion ( of one unit for K-lines , in Moseley's work ) to the calculated electric charge After Moseley's death in 1915 , the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen ) were examined by his method In 1915 , the reason for of " Z " , of residues ( or "protyles " ) of the lightest element hydrogen , and a nuclear charge of one . , which had a charge of +2 , were the nuclei of In 1917 , Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas , and He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 from the work of Moseley that required a hypothesis for the neutralization of composed of four protons plus two "nuclear electrons

All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932 entirely from a content of 79 protons Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom , The configuration of these electrons follows from The number of electrons in each element's electron shells , particularly the outermost valence shell , is the primary factor The quest for new elements is usually Synthesis of new elements is accomplished the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements ' ) is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology , embryology , comparative anatomy , evolutionary biology , and phylogeny by which anatomy is generated make a natural pair of related disciplines , The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic . is the examination of an animal's body parts using Gross anatomy also includes the branch of The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body from "anatémnō " " I " from ἀνά "aná " " is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems , organs It includes the appearance and position of the various parts , the materials from their locations and their relationships with other parts Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry , which The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy . Gross anatomy is the study of structures with the naked eye , and also both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems . in which a body is opened is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore tissues are found throughout the rest includes the anatomy of other animals .

one or two openings ; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs , and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development . Unlike plant cells , animal cells have much smaller than those in The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell , including those found in muscles , nerves of phospholipids , cytoplasm and All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers . formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and holds them in place , fibrous connective tissue , cartilage and and most abundant of which Collagen plays a major part in organizing in crustaceans or by the cross Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells by cell adhesion molecules , with little intercellular space columnar and rest on a basal lamina , the upper layer of the basement membrane , to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted There are many different types of epithelium of ciliated epithelial lining ; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form be a coat of glycoproteins . Muscle cells ( myocytes ) form Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types ; smooth muscle , skeletal muscle and contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths It is found in such organs It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws . in earthworms that can extend In higher animals striated muscles occur in Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder , intestines , stomach , oesophagus , respiratory airways Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians ( including sea anemones In simple animals , receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus

as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts In higher animals , specialized receptors are that transmit information from sense organs some point in their lives , mostly in the embryonic stage , share the major chordate characteristics ; a stiffening rod , the notochord ; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material , the neural tube ; pharyngeal arches ; and a tail The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived from mesoderm , and gut is The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal , and the anus at the base of the tail . The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column , formed in the development of In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages , fins or legs , The limbs of vertebrates are considered was inherited from their last common ancestor . The body of a fish is divided into a head , trunk and made of cartilage , in cartilaginous fish , or bone in The ribs attach to the spine and , are composed of either bony which with the exception of the caudal fins They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish , including skeletons usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales They have a cloaca into which Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs with major evolutionary changes from the features of an operculum , and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout The dermis is covered with overlapping scales Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps

them maintain a constant depth in the water column Amphibians are a class of animals the caecilians and a few species of salamander Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales , but contains many mucous glands The hearts of amphibians have three chambers , two atria and one ventricle . Amphibians breathe by means of drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat . and stronger than the forelimbs . are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing Frogs have large eyes and no tail Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance Reptiles are a class of animals lizards , snakes and crocodiles the snakes and a few species of lizard their skeletons stronger than those of The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer Reptiles are unable to use air into their lungs by expanding The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes Turtles are notable for their protective shells These are formed from bony plates The skull has two openings ( fenestrae is rigidly attached to the skull There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually primitive than those of other reptiles , and the lungs have a single chamber fenestra on each side , the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having by short, sideways-facing legs , but a few species Snakes are closely related to from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period , and they share many of The skeleton consists of a skull , a hyoid bone , spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth .

It undulates from side to are fused to the skull . are elevated above the top of above the surface of the water when Valves seal the nostrils and ears Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre are adapted into a horn-covered beak . The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail , contour feathers cover on young birds and under the contour feathers The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs Mammals are a diverse class of animals modified into fins and the forelimbs The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk , which is The bones of mammals are well coated in a layer of prismatic enamel Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear . They are clothed in hair Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands , producing milk Mammals breathe with lungs and The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes , the platypus and the echidnas of Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal Generally , students of certain biological sciences , paramedics , prosthetists and orthotists , physiotherapists , occupational therapists , nurses , podiatrists , microscopic anatomy from anatomical models , skeletons , textbooks , diagrams , photographs , lectures and through practical experience of dissection and or systemically ; that is by bodily regions such as the head and chest , or studying been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format , in line with Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities , medical schools or teaching Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms "Paramecium " to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus , lobster and dragonfly They constitute about 95% of the animal species By definition , none of The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent

of tissues and organs . Locomotion is often provided by proceed via the advance of pseudopodia different groups of cells serving different functions The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods ( insects , spiders , ticks , shrimps , crabs , lobsters ) Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs sponges , the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ( polyps , sea anemones , jellyfish ) and the collagenous cuticle of The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells , gland cells Marcello Malpighi , the father of microscopical anatomy saw in insects like the silk worm The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts , a head , The head typically bears a pair of The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs , one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs The abdomen is composed of eleven segments four pairs of legs ; a body of two segments — a cephalothorax and Spiders have no wings and no antennae They have a second pair of appendages These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and its vessels , liver , spleen , kidneys , hypothalamus , Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world . the functions of organs and structures The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology . for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks , but was Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals , which Herophilus became known for his anatomical works of anatomy and many other aspects of Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided

eye , liver , reproductive organs and nervous system , and characterizing Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain , including the cavities and membranes , and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria , Erasistratus He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body His distinction between the arteries and veins the body , while the veins carried Erasistratus was also responsible for the epiglottis and the valves of the heart During the third century , Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from Great feats were made during the third century Herophilus was able to discover He showed that the uterus is The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the "Hippocratic Corpus " Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries In the 2nd century , Galen of Pergamum , an anatomist , clinician , writer He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals . Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century ; as the historian in anatomy before the sixteenth century is Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy It describes the body in the order Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452–1519 ) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio professor of anatomy at the University of Padua Originally from Brabant , Vesalius published the influential book " De humani corporis fabrica " in seven volumes , in 1543 In the United States , medical schools began Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and were all renowned for body graveyards at night , removing A similar problem existed in Britain where The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers , Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen up the system of three years of This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003

As well as teaching , he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools . Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in Before the modern medical era , the main means for inspection , palpation and auscultation It was the advent of microscopy the building blocks that constituted living tissues . Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and the fundamental unit of organization of all living things Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them non-invasive" techniques for examining the interior structures of passed through the body and used in medical radiography and fluoroscopy to converse error , fallacy of the converse , or confusion of necessity " , of formula 1 , from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements For example , the statements " " ( an abbreviated form of formula 6 this person does not own Fort Knox " ("non-P " ) . In "Catch-22 " , the chaplain , and "Q " ' He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in Russian and world cinema Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK under filmmaker Mikhail Romm , and subsequently directed his first five features in the Soviet Union : ) , " Andrei Rublev " ( 1966 ) , "Solaris " ( 1972 ) , , and "Stalker " ( After years of creative conflict with state film authorities , Tarkovsky left the country in 1979 and made his final two films 1983 ) and "The Sacrifice " in Italy and Sweden respectively In 1986 , he also

published a book about cinema and Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards at the Cannes Film Festival throughout his career ( including the FIPRESCI prize , the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury , and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury ) and winner of the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival for his debut film " Ivan's Childhood In 1990 , he was was a Polish nobleman who worked as belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian nobility to conceal during the Soviet days . Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets He was described by childhood friends in the center of action . His father left the family in 1937 , subsequently volunteering for the army He returned home in 1943 of his legs ( which he In 1939 , Tarkovsky enrolled In 1943 , the family returned Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school The family lived on Shchipok Street in From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in In his school years , Tarkovsky was Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow , a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union . and was a successful student in his first semesters , he did not finish work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureyka near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954 , Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography ( VGIK ) and was admitted to the film-directing program . The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors Before 1953 , annual film production was After 1953 , more films were of European and North American literature , films and In 1956 , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , " The Killers " , from a short story of Ernest Hemingway Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray

Impressed by the talent of his student as assistant director for his film "Clear Skies During his third year at the VGIK , They found much in common shared ideas on cinema and In 1959 , they wrote the script " Antarctica – Distant Country " , Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm , but it was rejected They were more successful with He had inherited the film from The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival in the year 1962 In 1965 , he directed the film " Andrei Rublev " about the life of Andrei Rublev , the fifteenth-century Russian icon painter , except for a single screening in Moscow in 1966 , immediately Tarkovsky had to cut the film The film was widely released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971 Nevertheless , the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles – a significant sum for He divorced his wife , Irina In the same year , he married Larisa Kizilova ( née Egorkina ) , the film " Andrei Rublev " ( In 1972 , he completed of the novel "Solaris " by Stanisław Lem He had worked on this on his childhood and incorporating some In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967 , under the consecutive titles "Confession " , Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category " , a severely limited distribution , and shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs Third category films also placed the film-makers in have serious effects on their future productivity . During 1975 , Tarkovsky also , about the German writer and poet In December 1976 , he directed , at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began Work on this film began in The production was mired in troubles

; improper development of the negatives had Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to Furthermore , Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978 , resulting in The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival In 1979 , Tarkovsky began production of the film " The First Day " ( Russian : Первый День "Pervyj Dyen a script by his friend and long-term collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of Peter the Great and Goskino , Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union the project was stopped by Goskino During the summer of 1979 , Tarkovsky traveled to Italy , where he Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip , during the script for the film " Nostalghia Tarkovsky returned to Italy in Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983 , and it was presented at the Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film At a press conference in Milan on 10 July 1984 , he announced that have no conflict with the Soviet Government , Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 It was finally shot in 1985 in Sweden , with from Ingmar Bergman's films , including cinematographer Sven Nykvist about an apocaplypse and impending death , faith , and possible redemption , in the making-of documentary " Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky " , in a particularly poignant scene , writer/director Michal Leszczylowski he expresses his sentiments on death was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer . In January 1986 , he began " The Sacrifice " was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury , the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of In Tarkovsky's last diary entry ( 15 December 1986 ) Tarkovsky died in Paris on His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral He was buried on 3 January 1987

in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois in France . was erected in 1994 , was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife , To the man who saw the Angel A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes , but was Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies As with Tarkovsky , his wife from the very same type of lung cancer . Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s as the Khrushchev Thaw , during which Soviet society opened to foreign films , This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of European, American and Japanese directors , an experience fellow student Shavkat Abdusalmov , fascinated by Japanese films in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that on the fingers of one hand " In 1972 , Tarkovsky told " and "Mouchette " by Robert Bresson ; "Winter Light " , " by Ingmar Bergman ; " Nazarín " by Luis Buñuel ; ; "Ugetsu " by Kenji Mizoguchi Akira Kurosawa , and "Woman in the Dunes " With the exception of "City Lights " , the list does not contain The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon Boris Barnet , Sergei Parajanov and Alexander Dovzhenko He said of Dovzhenko's "Earth " such tact , they conveyed a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of for its "comic book" trappings and vulgar commercialism . praised the blockbuster film " The Terminator " the future and the relation between man of cinema as an art " In a 1962 interview , Tarkovsky argued act upon the heart . " His films are characterized by metaphysical themes , extremely long takes , and images reflections , levitation , and the foreground of long panning movements of the camera with a countless number of people passing to the whole world , that is Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films , most notably "Solaris " To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value

for their surreal beauty and photogenic value , as well waves or the forms of brooks Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it . Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome "Andrei Rublev All of his films afterwards contain In 1966 , in an interview color film as a "commercial gimmick " and Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov from 1958 to 1972 , and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films cinematographer Sven Nykvist , who had worked on many films with director Ingmar Bergman . Tarkovsky in " Nostalghia " , they argue that his work the case of a sexually precocious red-haired child in "Mirror Dina Iordanova likewise found the claim on He also wrote several screenplays . Furthermore , he directed the play "Hamlet " for the stage in Moscow in London , and he " in 1966 , " Solaris " in 1972 , and "Stalker " in 1979 in Italy in 1982 , in Sweden in 1986 . Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films , by Tarkovsky in Russia and The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the taiga as a member of a research expedition , prior to his enrollment It 's about the leader of a geological expedition , who waits for wife of Aleksandr Gordon , a fellow student of Tarkovsky during his film school years ) Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography ( VGIK ) He earned the highest possible grade , " is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Tarkovsky . The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author E. T. A. Hoffmann . In 1974 , an acquaintance from Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann , and also thought about In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract

for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann . He planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his dacha . by the officials at Tallinnfilm , The script was sent to Goskino In 1984 , during the time of his exile in the West , Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made Under the influence of Glasnost and recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986 , shortly before After his death , an entire issue of Posthumously , he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990 , one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union . In 1989 , the "Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize " In 1996 , the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets , his childhood town . Moscow Elegy " , by Russian film director Alexander Sokurov The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films . is a 1988 documentary film by Michal Leszczylowski , an editor of the film " The Sacrifice It almost reaches a pathological intensity . I love all of Tarkovsky's films I love his personality and all his works Every cut from his films is a marvelous image than the imperfect accomplishment of his idea . His ideas are only realized in Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky He once said in an interview in another interview , he added I did not know what I was shocked by it have so many more layers to it than Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky discussing it with critic David Jenkins , Ambiguity is a type of meaning A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty It is thus an attribute of to a rule or process with The concept of ambiguity is generally Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity any number of possible interpretations , none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase in the language to which the word For instance , the word "bank " has several distinct lexical definitions , including "financial institution

" and "edge of a river bought herbs from the apothecary " , most people would not think The use of multi-defined words requires the author , and sometimes elaborate on An exception to this could include from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from of the sentence — its syntax . a modifying expression , such as a prepositional phrase " He ate the cookies on the couch " , for example those that were on the table on the couch when he ate you will need an entrance fee of Rarely, but occasionally, the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning For example , the command " can be parsed as "Cook (noun Spoken language can contain many more types of to compose a set of sounds Such ambiguity is generally resolved according by the name of a different but closely related entity ( In the modern vocabulary of critical semiotics , logic ) spend a lot of because it can lead to For example , a politician might , an example of a glittering generality . In writing , the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation rewriting it in other ways . The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way , turn a positive statement into a bad one if In continental philosophy ( particularly phenomenology and mind and body , and In Heidegger's phenomenology , Dasein is always in a meaningful world , but of care and existential anxiety , e.g. , in the face of death . in phenomenological ontology " Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings ( The Ethics of Ambiguity ) or being engulfed by it or enclosing oneself in the pure moment on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic , or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science look the truth in the face . It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we

as life , nature , Following Ernest Becker , he argues On this basis , he argues than seeking a priori validation or certainty In literature and rhetoric , Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor , for example : How he got in my pajamas , I 'll never know In the narrative , ambiguity can be introduced in several ways : to give the same name to a variable and a function , for example argument equal to formula 4 . Creators of algorithmic languages try to the argument of a function ; square brackets The order of operations may depend In most programming languages , the operations of , for example , formula 7 is interpreted as formula 8 ; in this case , the insertion of It is common to define the coherent states in quantum optics with formula 35 and states with fixed number of Latin characters in the argument , and if formula 38 is used for the states with certain value of the coordinate , and formula 39 means the state with certain value of the momentum , which may be used in Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions Expression formula 40 may mean a state with single photon , or the coherent state with mean amplitude equal to 1 , to unity , and so as in the case of the Einstein coefficients Each use of an ambiguous term should be Just like Ludwig Wittgenstein states in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus the context of a proposition has a name meaning related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of of an imaging system , as measure of the size of the smallest detail which The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms Terms of this kind give rise Some languages have been created with which have been created for These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages , although In structural biology , ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in

Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description or forgotten in common phrases . , such as some polytonality , polymeter , other ambiguous meters or rhythms ) any aspect of music . The music of Africa is often , p.195 ) , " Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove In visual art , certain images are the Necker cube , which can be In social psychology , ambiguity is High levels of ambiguity in an emergency likely to offer any sort of asking for help ) illicit mean either the first three powers of 1024 ( one thousand , one million , and and G " unambiguous " in texts conforming to the new standard — this led to a "new" ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of k , M , and Abel is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis He was the younger brother of Cain , and the younger son of Adam and Eve , the first couple in Biblical history . He was a shepherd who offered God accepted his offering but not his brother According to the narrative in Genesis , Abel ( "Hébel " " ; " Hábel " His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a root meaning In Christianity , comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of Jesus and the Epistle to the Hebrews states that of Abel " ( Abel is invoked in the litany for the dying in the Roman Catholic Church , and his sacrifice is mentioned in those of Abraham and Melchizedek , Abel's body , after many days of mourning , was placed in the "Cave of Treasures " , before In the Book of Enoch ( 22:7 ) of Abel is described as of martyrs , crying for vengeance , for the destruction of According to Mandaean beliefs and scriptures including the Qolastā , the Book of John and with the angelic soteriological figure Hibil Ziwa , (

of as a son of Hayyi Elsewhere , Anush is spoken of as the son of Sheetil , and Sheetil as the son of Hibil , where Hibil came to Adam and Eve as a young boy when they were Hibil's soteriological descent to the World of Darkness and his baptisms in book 5 of the Right Volume of the "Ginza Rabba " , and seals the abodes of the rulers of In response to an upset of proceeds to baptise in 360,000 or 360 yardeni Hibil is dispatched to the World of Darkness and enters the world of Ruha He descends to the world of prayers and supplications , before descending through the worlds of Hag and Gafan , and confronting Shdum over the disturbance in the world to Giu , who directs of Giu and Shdum , to the world of Qin . Qin-Anatan is the consort of Gaf ; according to the Right Ginza , Hibil assumes the appearance of Anathan , who is the husband of utter bitterness and the sole constant of the World of Darkness the world of Gaf and Gafan In the "Diwan Masbuta d-Hibil Ziwa " , Qin had also revealed the mysteries of the jewel , mirror and bitter herb of the World of Darkness ) to Hibil in response to his questions , undercover in the world of Gaf Hibil disguises himself as Gaf and appears to Ruha , who is pregnant with Ur the world of Gaf and Gafan the gates of the world of Zartai-Zartanai Ruha , and seals her Hibil offers prayers to the King of Light , who sends for Manda d-Hayyi to send a Letter of Kushta and phial of oil to Hibil , by the powers of darkness , on the west mountains of Damascus , near the Zabadani Valley , overlooking the villages of the Barada river ( Wadi Barada ) Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa . It is the only living species of the order Unlike most other insectivores , it has

It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent , avoiding subsists on ants and termites The animal is listed as "least concern Aardvarks are afrotheres , a clade manatees , and hyraxes . the South American anteater ) , or the "Cape anteater earlier Afrikaans ( erdvark ) and " ( "aarde " : earth/ground, "vark " : pig ) to the pig ; rather , it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order one variable species of the genus "Orycteropus " , to the South American anteater , despite sharing The similarities are based on convergent evolution The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews , tenrecs and golden moles . , elephants , and their extinct relatives , these animals form the superorder Afrotheria . Based on fossils , Bryan Patterson The earliest example from the genus "Orycteropus " was in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene , with an equally old version found that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene The limbs are of moderate length , The front feet have lost the pollex ( Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is , it appears at times and can reach lengths of It is tall at the shoulder , and has a girth of It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia tend to have longer hair . The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck , and the end of the snout The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin ( a modified form of dentine ) , with individual pulp canals The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth , The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of at the back of the jaw , and rootless and are of

The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars . The sides of the nostrils are thick The tip of the snout is highly The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions , but it is or vibratory in nature . more turbinate bones than any other mammal , with between 9 and 11 , compared to dogs With a large quantity of turbinate bones , the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium , which is the location of just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain , as feed on ants and termites The aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa , grasslands , woodlands and bushland ) and food ( They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia , Ivory Coast , and Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in Its keen hearing warns it of predators : lions , leopards , cheetahs , African wild dogs , hyenas Some humans also hunt aardvarks for strike with their claws , tail substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker on ants and termites ( In fact , the cucumber and the seeds near their burrows , which the loose soil and fertile nature of the area the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed , and the fruit provides needed moisture An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the aardvark will keep its nose to During a foraging period , they will stop to dig a "V" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it digs into it with its powerful front legs with its long, sticky tongue — as many as 50,000 in Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or

After an aardvark visit at a termite mound , enough food for the aardvark , so with little effort exerted by the aardvark These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals of night ( roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m . and 12:00a.m . they will retreat to their burrow systems it makes for its tunnel entrance . will make for one of The aardvark is known to be When leaving the burrow at night , they pause at the entrance After this period of watchfulness , excavates burrows in which to into one of three categories : Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene smaller animals like the African wild dog , ant-eating chat , "Nycteris thebaica " and warthogs . , owls , pythons , , the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as the fresh fill between it and its predator onto its back , and attack ; after a gestation period of seven months nurse off each teat in succession After two weeks , the folds of After 5–6 weeks , body hair starts It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks , and is weaned anywhere in Africa , but It receives an official designation from the IUCN In African folklore , the aardvark is for food and its fearless response to Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart , skin , forehead , and nails of the aardvark , Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest , the charm is said to give walls or roofs at night as the Margbetu , Ayanda , which are regarded as good luck charms WGBH , shown in more than 180 countries The supersonic fighter-bomber FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because It also had similarities with to East and Southern Africa . in Afrikaans and Dutch .

on its habit of secreting substances from Unlike many of its relatives in The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of The aardwolf is generally classified with to the creation of Protelidae . The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae both of Greek origin , "protos front " based on the fact their front feet and four on the rear The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena , but a coat of yellowish fur , and a long, distinct mane down the midline of the neck It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters , along with several stripes The mane is raised during confrontations excluding its bushy tail , which is The aardwolves in the south of the continent This makes the aardwolf , the smallest extant member to those of other hyenas , It does still have canines for fighting and defense . Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and are only found in regions Termites of this family depend on in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs , in Southern Africa , and another in East and Northeast Africa . , sleeping in burrows by during the winter , become diurnal feeders They have often been mistaken In fact , they live If their territory is infringed upon , they will chase the intruder The majority of incursions occur during The territory is marked by both sexes on rocks or grass stalks in Aardwolves also have scent glands on They often mark near termite mounds If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries drastically , to once every . An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens , When they deposit excreta at their middens , they dig a small hole and cover it with sand , springhare , or porcupine dens They will also dig their own dens one or two dens at a time , rotating raise its mane in an attempt to The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites This genus of termites has different species In East Africa , they eat central Africa , they eat "

in southern Africa , they eat the aardvark , which digs into They locate their food by sound They do not destroy the termite mound and provide a continuous supply of food They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them During certain seasonal events , such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter , the primary termites become During these times , the southern aardwolf will the afternoon , which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter . The eastern aardwolf , during the rainy season , subsists on termites from the genera "Odontotermes " and "Macrotermes " Unlike other hyenas , aardwolves do Contrary to popular myths , aardwolves , they do not like because of the scarcity of their insect prey , forages in small but dense patches of , but normally takes place during autumn or spring . In South Africa , breeding occurs During the breeding season , unpaired male aardwolves search the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves , which can result in conflict between they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories As the female comes into oestrus , they add pasting to the dominant male , which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding "his" cubs with Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days , producing or three ) during the rainy season They are born with their eyes The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den After three months , they begin their range , as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer In some areas , they are In other areas , the farmers have occasion , for their fur . Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos Adobe ( ;) is a building material made from earth and organic materials , is In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage , any kind of earthen construction , or Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings , with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure

substantial variations over the years and in In dry climates , adobe structures are for some of the oldest existing buildings in Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass , but they are to earthquake damage if they are , Western Asia , North Africa , West Africa , South America , southwestern North America , Spain , and Eastern Europe Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States , Mesoamerica , and Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe , until the Spanish introduced them to Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages ( for around 4000 years with relatively little change in The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian ( c. 2000 BC) word " ḏbt" "mud brick Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian , This was adopted into Arabic was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and The soil composition typically contains sand , Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand cobbles , with no deleterious effect . with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite . the brick , resulting in cracking , while too much kaolinite will make they carry their own weight into the foundation In the United States , most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf / Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls , resulting in shear with a small resource cost , adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to In climates typified by hot days and cool nights the high and low temperatures of the day , moderating The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun ( radiation ) to transfer heat to the interior Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature this material , as its main thermodynamic property is experimental tests should be performed over There is an effective R-value for a north

, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k=10 To determine the total R-value of a wall of the wall in inches . The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for a 10-inch wall R0=4.1 hr Another source provides the following properties : conductivity=0.30 Btu/(hr 1 kJ/(kg K ) and density=106 lb/ft3 or 1700 kg/m3 , Poured and puddled adobe ( puddled clay , piled earth placing soft adobe in layers , " Puddle " is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state In North America , the brick is typically about in size . The mixture is molded into the frame , which is removed after After drying for a few hours , the bricks are turned on edge is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls . Depending on the form into which and the mixture includes reinforcement for Reinforcement can include manure , straw , cement , rebar A test is done on the soil content of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water , creating The container is shaken vigorously for percentages of the various particles can be Footing depth is to be below Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall . Adobe bricks are laid by course is placed on top of Atop the last courses of brick , such as mud plaster , whitewash These protect the adobe wall from water damage finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide a mixture of soil/clay , water , sand and organic materials . Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks , the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework the metal fencing like cob and allowed which were attached to the tops An adobe roof is often laid with when placing the bricks onto the roof Roof design evolved around 1850 in on top of the latillas , The dirt was contoured into a low slope

Depending on the materials , adobe roofs influence the construction of the roof supports , creating an extra need for care in In 1927 , the Uniform Building Code ( UBC ) was adopted in to building with adobe . building height of adobe structures to 1-story , requirements for adobe mix ( compressive and shear strength ) and new requirements is the Arg-é Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking , mountain climbing , scuba diving , For some people , adventure becomes the purposes of recreation or excitement as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer Jason Lewis , for example , uses adventures within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to Adventure books may have the theme of "Hatchet " or "My Side of the Mountain " Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest : the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward , prize , treasure , or perhaps the safety of a person . In video-game culture , an adventure game is a video game in which the player assumes the role of a protagonist in an interactive story driven by exploration and puzzle-solving , literature and film , encompassing a wide variety of literary genres . From ancient times , travelers and as Marco Polo's journal " The Travels of Marco Polo " the journals of Lewis and Clark by those not directly a part of the adventure in question , such as "The Right Stuff " by Tom Wolfe or books than that of a journal , such as "Conquistadors of the Useless adventure games or sports , due Some of these include mountain climbing , skydiving , or other extreme sports India offers immense opportunity for adventure lovers throughout its length and breadth . ANGLING & FISHING are two remarkable adventure activities among the many others that are offered in the India They are specially suited to originate in the upper reaches of the magnificent Himalayas The Indian Himalaya are an ultimate destination for adventure lovers of significant life giver rivers , like Ganges Beas

, Satluj and their tributaries . Mountaineering in India was introduced by the Europeans in the 18th century . India offers an exciting mountaineering experience to an adventure sport lover of India to far north-east offers Asia ( ) is a landmass Eurasia or as Earth's largest and most populous continent in It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia with the continent of Europe , and the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Asia covers an area of , about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8.7% the human population , was the site of In general terms , Asia is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean , on the south by the Indian Ocean , and on the north by The border of Asia with Europe The division of Eurasia into two continents China and India alternated in China was a major economic power and attracted many to the east , and for many the legendary wealth and prosperity of The accidental discovery of a trans-Atlantic route from Europe to America by Columbus while in search for a route to The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood Asia has exhibited economic dynamism ( robust population growth during the 20th century , but Given its size and diversity , the concept of Asia — a name do with human geography than physical geography ethnic groups , cultures , environments , economics , historical ties and The boundary between Asia and Africa is the Red Sea , the Gulf of Suez , The threefold division of the Old World into Europe been in use since the 6th century BC as Anaximander and Hecataeus . Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River ( the modern Rioni river ) in Georgia of Caucasus ( from its mouth by Poti on the Black Sea coast , through the Surami Pass and Herodotus in the 5th century BC . During the Hellenistic period , this convention was The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics

The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans the Tsardom of Russia , defeating rival claims of Sweden and the Ottoman Empire to the eastern lands , and armed resistance by the tribes of Siberia , synthesized a new Russian Empire extending to the Ural Mountains and beyond , founded in 1721 . In Sweden , five years after Peter's death , in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg . The latter had suggested the Emba River as Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into The border between Asia and the region of Oceania is usually placed The Maluku Islands in Indonesia are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia , with New Guinea , to the east of the islands had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception . the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world , beginning with From the time of Herodotus a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system ( Europe , Africa , of the continent of Eurasia with The English word comes from Latin literature , and the ultimate source of the Latin word is Asia as a name of the whole continent Before Greek poetry , the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age , at the beginning of which syllabic writing was lost the Hittite Empire and the various Mycenaean states of Greece The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by the site of ancient Pylos included hundreds of male and female names formed by different methods Some of these are of women held in servitude ( as study of the society implied They were used in trades , such as cloth-making , and usually came with children with some of them identifies women of Asia " . " Milatiai " , appear

Chadwick suggests that the names record The name is also in the singular , " Aswia " , which refers both to the name of a country and to a female to the Hittites as Assuwa , centered on Lydia , or the origin for the name of the continent Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia in western Anatolia ( in modern-day Turkey As the earliest evidence of the name is due to the lack of literary contexts The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians , such as Herodotus , The first continental use of Asia is attributed to Herodotus ( about 440 BCE ) was named after the wife of Prometheus ( i.e. Hesione ) , was named after Asies , to Homer ) mentions two Phrygians in Lydia ) in the Trojan War The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations , each of The civilizations in Mesopotamia , the Indus Valley The central steppe region had long been inhabited all areas of Asia from the steppes that of the Indo-Europeans , who spread their languages into the Middle East , China , where the Tocharians resided much of Siberia , was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads , The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers in a military aspect to defend against The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia from China to Europe . The Russian Empire began to expand into Asia from the 17th century , and all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century . The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia , most of the Middle East , North Africa and In the 17th century , the Manchu conquered The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively

Asia is the largest continent on Earth It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area ( or 30% of its land area Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia . It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains , and south of the Caucasus Mountains ( or the Kuma–Manych Depression ) and the Caspian It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean , on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north Asia is subdivided into 49 countries , five of them ( Georgia , Azerbaijan , Russia , Kazakhstan and Turkey ) The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and The Yangtze River in China is the longest river The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world . There are various approaches to the regional division The following subdivision into regions is used subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia . It is moist across southeast sections , and dry across much Earth occur in western sections of The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas draws in moisture during the summer Southwestern sections of the continent are hot Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses , the Philippines , Vietnam , Thailand , Pakistan , China and Sri Lanka were among the 16 countries facing extreme risk from climate change . A 2013 study by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT Asia's agricultural systems to cope with climate change Asia has the largest continental economy by both GDP Nominal and PPP in the world , , Japan , India , South Korea , Indonesia and Turkey Based on Global Office Locations 2011 , Asia , Tokyo and Seoul . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , the economies of China and India According to economic historian Angus Maddison in his book had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE and