Patent Number: 051606950
Section: description

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The current invention of apparatus is based on the use of the ICC effect, which can be created or reached only by operation at or above a certain set of conditions of the primary ion flow system. The invention of the ICC effect, itself, is derived from a new understanding of the dynamics of ion flow and interaction in the flow regime around the central core of a converging colliding-flow system. Its principles will work as well for cylindrical converging flow as for spherical flows, but attention here is limited to the spherical case, as this will always yield the largest degree of density increase and the most favorable conditions for the attainment of fusion reactions of interest for power generation. Finally, the ICC effect can be attained in ANY system of spherical converging flow of charged particles or of an ion/electron mixture, in which the ions are injected or caused to move radially inward at high energies (e.g. at energies &gt;1 keV) by some means, whether this is achieved by the use of ion guns (as in the method of Hirsch/Farnsworth.sup.4,6), or by electric grids (as by inversion of the electric fields from those of Elmore et al.sup.2), or by acceleration by virtual cathodes (as from well formation by electron injection, as in the method of Bussard.sup.1). The attainment of the desired ICC method of operation requires that conditions for ion acoustic oscillations be achieved at small radius in the core, where the ion density increases naturally due to geometric convergence of the cross-cavity flow of ions through the spherical system. In the normal flow of ions with non-zero transverse (or angular) momentum in such a system, conservation of total momentum and total energy of the ions results in increasing deviation from purely radial motion as the ions move to smaller radii. At some finite radius, the ion radial velocity (v.sub.r) will reach zero, and the ion will orbit around the center and proceed out the other side of the system, if no resonant oscillatory effects (of the type of interest here) are present. The only deviation from single particle motion will result from Coulomb collisions with other ions similarly orbiting past the core region. In order that these be sufficient to create useful fusion reaction rates it has been shown.sup.1 that ion flow recirculation through the core must be the order of 1E3 to 1E4 times the ion injection current, and corresponding electron recirculation ratios must be in the range of 1E5 to 1E6. With the ICC method, these recirculation ratios may be greatly reduced, typically to values of one-hundredth to one-ten-thousandth of those required for useful operation without the ICC effect. This is a result of the unique compaction of ion density that occurs in the central core of the system when the conditions for initiation of the ICC effect are obtained. For initiation of resonant coupling of ion flow motion with radial ion acoustic waves (here called "S" waves), and thus with other ions resonantly coupled with (or trapped in) such waves, these conditions require that the rate of change of mean free path for ion acoustic wave/particle collisions be small over one wavelength in the radial direction. For resonance with azimuthal-tangential (transverse) motion (here called "T" waves) it is necessary that the fractional rate of change of ion/wave collisional mean free path be equal to the fractional rate of change of radial position of the ions trapped within the collisiondiffusion core set up by these wave structures. The collision mean free path (.lambda..sub.pi) will be the distance traveled by an ion at maximum speed (v.sub.i) in the core region over one cycle of oscillation at ion acoustic wave frequency (f.sub.pi), thus .lambda..sub.pi =(v.sub.i /f.sub.pi). Pure ion/ion oscillations can occur in regions where the ion density exceeds the electron density. Since this will frequently be the case in the core boundary of such converging spherical ion flows, oscillations of this type will appear at the ion/ion acoustic wave frequency and ion particle speed of EQU v.sub.i =(2E.sub.w /m.sub.i).sup.0.5 and f.sub.ii =(n.sub.i Z.sup.2 e.sup.2 /.pi.m.sub.i).sup.0.5 (1) In addition, hybrid ion/electron oscillations will occur in the core and at the core boundary, where electron radial speeds are comparable to ion speeds. These ion/electron oscillations, also called ion-acoustic waves, will occur at a modified electron plasma frequency, f.sub.ie of EQU f.sub.ie =(n.sub.i Z.sup.2 e.sup.2 /.pi.m.sub.e).sup.0.5 =f.sub.ii (m.sub.i /m.sub.e).sup.0.5 (2) Defining a.sub.ij =1 for ion/ion waves and a.sub.ij =(m.sub.e /m.sub.i).sup.0.5 for ion/electron waves, allows both of these ion-acoustic oscillation frequencies to be written simply as f.sub.pi =f.sub.ii /a.sub.ij. Here E.sub.w is the energy of ions in the core region, m.sub.e is electron mass, m.sub.i is the ion mass, n.sub.i is ion particle density, and Z is the ionic charge in units of the electronic charge e, given by e=4.8E-10 cgs units (statcoulombs). Using these, the ion/wave collision mean free path at the core surface can be written as ##EQU1## where the ion density at the collisional core boundary has been written as n.sub.c, and the numeric form is for E.sub.w in eV and n.sub.c in ions/cm.sup.3. Now, the conditions for coherency of resonant oscillation (described above) are just EQU (d.lambda..sub.pi /dr).sub.c &lt;&lt;1 (4a) for S-wave radial resonant coupling, and EQU (dLN.lambda..sub.pi /dLNr).sub.c =1 (4b) for T-wave azimuthal-tangential coupling where LN denotes the natural logarithm (log to the base e=2.71828), and the expressions are to be evaluated at the boundary (r.sub.c) of the acoustic wave core, within which the particles are constrained in their motion by collision diffusion processes between wave-trapped ions with each other and with the resonantly-driven ion acoustic waves. In addition, a fundamental requirement for existence of any ion acoustic waves within the core boundary is simply that the mean free path be less than the boundary radius, thus (.lambda..sub.pi).sub.c &lt;r.sub.c, which gives equivalent conditions to those of Eq. (3), above. Applying these to the functional forms given above for the mean free path gives the conditions for ion/wave coherency and oscillation-initiation in terms of the ion energy, charge state, core boundary density, and radius of the acoustic wave core boundary. The minimal condition for acoustic S-wave initiation requires that the ion density be EQU n.sub.c &gt;(2.pi.E.sub.w /Z.sup.2 e.sup.2 r.sub.c.sup.2)(a.sub.ij) (5) at the core boundary. Indeed, this condition determines whether or not and where such a boundary will be (i.e. at what r.sub.c it will be found, given other parameters). With this it is possible to determine the minimum input ion injection power (P.sub.inj) required to produce the desired ICC condition. The total power is just the injected surface ion current density (j.sub.io) taken over the injection surface at radius (R), and the ion energy (E.sub.w). For purposes of comparison, it is convenient to write this in terms of an equivalent electron injection power, based on an injection surface electron density (n.sub.eo) with current density (j.sub.eo =n.sub.eo v.sub.eo), where v.sub.eo is electron velocity at energy E.sub.w. The injection ion density at this surface is less than the electron density by the factor G.sub.j, the electron recirculation ratio. Thus the injection power can be written as P.sub.inj =4.pi.R.sup.2 (E.sub.w v.sub.eo n.sub.io /k.sub.s G.sub.j), where the power is in watts for E.sub.w in eV, and k.sub.s =6.28E18 charges/sec per amp of current. In order to use this in the S-wave criterion of Eq. (5), it is necessary to write the surface ion density in terms of ion density in the core region. This can be done by use of the (1/r.sup.2) geometric scaling of spherically convergent flow, n.sub.io =n.sub.c (r.sub.c /R).sup.2. With this the S-wave condition leads to a minimum requirement on injection power for resonant wave initiation as EQU P.sub.inj .gtoreq.(a.sub.ij) (2.pi.E.sub.w k.sub.e /Z.sup.2 e.sup.2)* (4.pi.E.sub.w /G.sub.j k.sub.s) (2E.sub.w k.sub.e /m.sub.e).sup.0.5 (watts) (6) for E.sub.w in eV. Here m is electron mass in gm, and k.sub.e is a conversion constant for energy (k.sub.e =1.6E-12 erg/eV), and other parameters are as before. Reducing this numerically gives EQU P.sub.inj .gtoreq.5.21E-3(a.sub.ij)(E.sub.w.sup.2.5 /Z.sup.2 G.sub.j) (watts) (7) which is independent of the core radius, r.sub.c. Thus, S-waves can be initiated at any core radius at which it is possible to do so, if sufficient driving power is supplied to the system. Note that the electron recirculation ratio (G.sub.j) is related to the ion recirculation ratio (G.sub.i) for ion-injection-driven systems simply by the square root of the ratio of ion to electron mass; i.e. G.sub.i =G.sub.j (m.sub.e /m.sub.i) =G.sub.j (a.sub.ij). Typically, ion current recirculation ratios will be less than electron ratios by a factor of the order of 70-100. As an example, for the mode a.sub.ij =1, if G.sub.j =1E4 (so that typically G.sub.i .apprxeq.100-130), Z.sup.2 =2, and E.sub.w =1E4 eV, the injection power required would be only P.sub.inj =2.6 kwe. At E.sub.w =1E5 eV, this becomes P.sub.inj =82.2 kwe. And, if G.sub.j =1E3, G.sub.i .apprxeq.10-13, the power levels would be only ten-fold higher. These power levels are all very much smaller than those required to drive ion- or electron-driven spherically convergent flow systems without the ICC process. In reference to FIG. 4a, these S-waves involve exchange of energy between ion radial kinetic energy 700 (whether or not ion motion is purely radial or is partially tangential) and radial wave electric fields 720 (E.sub.r), resulting from and associated with the ion acoustic wave fields, with wavelength .lambda..sub.pic 710. Such oscillations 720 are shown in FIG. 4a along the radial path of an ion 730 inside the critical core radius r.sub.c 740. In reference to FIGS. 4b and 5a, the second type of waves are azimuthal-tangential T-waves 750, with wavelength .lambda..sub.pic 760, set up by exchange of energy between ion tangential kinetic energy 770 and azimuthal-tangential wave E.sub..theta. fields 750. These waves appear as quasi-hexagonal-conical cellular repetitive structures 800 of width .lambda..sub.pic 810 on the surface 820 of the core sphere at r.sub.c, as shown in FIG. 5a (which also shows a cross-section 830 of two such cells), because the ion motion azimuthally is isotropic in angle in any given surface shell. The cells are not rigid as suggested in the figure, but are formed of ion density concentrations due to the ion-acoustic oscillations. These waves are then like an array of azimuthal honeycomb cells extending over that radial depth of core over which the criterion for their generation is satisfied. This criterion is that the fractional change in coupling length (mean free path, or wavelength is .lambda..sub.pic) is identically equal to the fractional change in radial position with decreasing radius into the core. This condition preserves azimuthal coherency with changing radial position and allows the establishment of the shell-like honeycomb E.sub..THETA. field structures, in which ions collide with electric fields due to acoustic waves azimuthally, and scatter off each other. Here, as for S-waves, if the density outside the ICC core scales as the inverse square of radius, the initiation condition is also independent of radius, as before. However, to create these waves it is necessary to have an azimuthal driver. The only driver available is that due to conservation of transverse momentum in ion flow to and through the potential well, as indicated in FIG. 4b. As previously discussed, this limits the ion motion so that ions can not approach the system center closer than a momentum-limited radius (r.sub.o) given by the square root of the ratio of mean transverse energy (E.sub.t) at the system injection surface (R) to the maximum radial energy (E.sub.r) at injection or at the deepest point of the potential well, (r.sub.o /R)=(E.sub.t /E.sub.r).sup.0.5. The ICC effect will be initiated at a radius comparable to or larger than that of the transverse-ion-momentum convergence limit &lt;r.sub.o &gt;=(r.sub.o /R). Ions approaching the central core region will all arrive with paths which lie between the two extremes of pure radial motion (transverse momentum is zero), or of pure azimuthal motion (with no radial component). Ions moving along radial paths can initiate radial (S) waves, while those following the second limiting path can initiate transverse or azimuthal (T) waves. Of course, ions with a combination of both motions (radial and azimuthal, as indicated in FIG. 4a) are capable of initiating either or both types of resonant acoustic waves in the core region. In either case, if the conditions of this process are met in accordance with the invention, the ions will drive resonantly-coupled acoustic oscillations in the core and will be trapped in the core by the acoustic wave structures thus produced. This process can be seen by imagining a core made of surface-packed quasi-conical honeycomb ion density structures 840 over the entire core surface at the acoustic wave initiation radius r.sub.c 850, as shown in cross-section in FIG. 5b. An ion 860 entering one of the honeycomb "cells" will be scattered internally from the cell "walls" (which are actually the ion density waves associated with the acoustic wave resonant structure) and will be internally reflected 870 to the opposite wall, or may pass through a wavefront, being deflected into an adjoining cell 880, in which it is again reflected or scattered into still another cell region. The mean free path of such scattering collisions/deflections is exactly the ion acoustic wavelength at the local conditions of ion density and energy. This is always very small compared to the Coulomb scattering collision mean-free-path (mfp) for ion/ion energy exchange and, in systems of interest, small compared to the core dimension. In these circumstances, it is evident that the motion of particles inside the ICC core will be of a diffusive character, with each particle undergoing many collisions before it can traverse the core and exit again to the extra-core region, and thence return to the radial circulating flow of the overall device. Since the particles are thus trapped by short (mfp) collisions, their density will build up inside the core to values very much larger than those that would be expected from simple Coulomb-collisional interactions without acoustic wave resonant coupling (i.e. without the ICC process and effect). Exact analysis of the motion and density distribution of such wave-trapped particles within the core is complex, as the deposition of ions within the core, from the external flow system, is approximately given by an ion source term of the form S(r).apprxeq.j(r)/.lambda..sub.s (r) where the uncollided deposition current density is given crudely by EQU j(r)=j.sub.c (r.sub.o /r).sup.2 EXP[-(r.sub.o -r)/.lambda..sub.s (r)] (8) Here j.sub.c =(nv).sub.c is the ion flux (radially) incident on the acoustic wave ICC core surface at r =r.sub.c, .lambda..sub.s (r) is the average scattering mfp of ions to radius r within the core, and r is the ion-momentum-limited convergence radius, as before. Use of this expression as a source term in the normal wave equation is further complicated by the fact that the scattering mfp is, itself, a function of radial position, and should be written as an integral expression over the range r.sub.o .fwdarw.r. It varies with the density variation of the ions across the ICC core, and will act to trap particles increasingly as their density increases within the core (due to the decrease in .lambda..sub.s (r) as density increases with decreasing r). A simpler model that gives an approximation to the particle density distribution can be invoked by treating the incoming particles as being deposited from the external ion flow into the critical core with a volumetric source term distribution given more simply by S(r).apprxeq.(j.sub.c /.lambda..sub.pic) [n(r)/n.sub.c ].sup.0.5 within this core. This model ignores the increasing trapping effect mentioned above, and will give results generally less favorable (i.e. less density increase) than the real situation. However, it is useful to illustrate the nature of behavior of the system and to provide some lower bounds on the performance potential of the ICC process. With this model the description of ion density follows from the conservation equation EQU D.sub.r .gradient..sub.r.sup.2 [n(r)V.sub.i ]+S(r)=0 (9) where the diffusion coefficient is D.sub.r (r)=.lambda..sub.pr /3=(1/3)[2.pi.E.sub.w /Z.sup.2 e.sup.2 n(r)].sup.0.5. Using S(r) as above, this reduces to the simple wave equation EQU .gradient..sub.r.sup.2 [n(r)]+B.sup.2 [n(r)]=0 (10) Here the constant is defined in terms of density and energy parameters in the system as B=(.sqroot.3/.lambda..sub.pic), and the density variation is found to be EQU n(r)=nSIN(Br)/(Br) (11) where the density (n.sub.o) is that at the center of the ICC core. This variation 900 is shown across the core region in FIG. 6a. Matching boundary conditions at the edge of the core with the ion density variation 910 outside the core requires that the ion density, in this diffusion model, go to zero at some hypothetical "extrapolation distance" (.delta.) 920 outside the core radius, r=r.sub.c, as shown in FIG. 6a. This condition requires that the wave equation constant, above, be also defined geometrically as B=[N.sub.R .delta./(r.sub.c +.delta.)], where N.sub.R is an integer equal to the number of core surface acoustic wavelengths contained in the core radius. The offset .delta. can be shown to be approximately .delta..apprxeq.(.pi./6).lambda..sub.pic =0.52 .pi..sub.pic. Equating these two expressions for B gives a simple relationship between ICC core dimension, extrapolation distance and ion density and energy as EQU .delta.=(N.sub.R .pi./3).lambda..sub.pic -r.sub.c from which (12a) EQU r.sub.c =[(N.sub.R .pi./3)-0.8][.lambda..sub.pic ] (12b) Since the onset conditions for S-waves are independent of radius, this simply shows that any radius r.sub.c &gt;.lambda..sub.pic is capable of sustaining such waves. In actual fact, however the N.sub.R =1 condition is favored as the fundamental mode of density variation across the core. This will be attained at a radius as small as r.sub.c .gtoreq.1.29 .lambda..sub.pic, or for a density such that EQU n.sub.c .gtoreq.2.pi.(a.sub.ij).sup.2 /(Zer.sub.c).sup.2 =7.27E7(a.sub.ij)[E.sub.w /(Zr.sub.c).sup.2 ] (13) for n.sub.c in ions/cm.sup.3, E in eV and r.sub.c in cm. For example for E.sub.w =1E5 eV, Z.sup.2 =2, and r.sub.c =1.0 cm, then n.sub.c .gtoreq.3.63E12/cm.sup.3 for ICC operation if a.sub.ij =1 (ion/ion) or n.sub.c .gtoreq.8.43E10/.sqroot.A /cm.sup.3 for ICC if (ion/electron) acoustic oscillations with ions of mass number A dominate the core. The core convergence radius is determined by transverse momentum considerations external to the core, and is generally greater than the minimum r.sub.c cited above. However, for this condition the critical density for onset of ICC acoustic waves still is as given by Eq. (13). If this density is attained at this radius, the ICC effect will appear; and conversely. Once initiated, the actual ion acoustic wavelengths found within the core r&lt;r.sub.c will decrease with increasing density as r.fwdarw.0, so that many such spherical waves will be found within the core envelope, under the N.sub.R =1 fundamental mode. Higher mathematical order core density wave modes are possible, in principle, but practically only as small amplitude superpositions on the fundamental mode. Note that, if n(r) varies as 1/r.sup.m in the region external to the ICC core and internal to the surface at radius R at which ions enter the system with energy E.sub.w, the system surface ion density must be EQU n.sub.io .gtoreq.7.27E.sub.7 (a.sub.ij)[E.sub.w r.sub.c.sup.m-2 /Z.sup.2 R.sup.m .pi. (14) for initiation of ion acoustic waves and the ICC effect. For a typical variation with m=2 in the previous example case, for R=100 cm this yields n.sub.io .gtoreq.3.63E8/cm.sup.3 for a.sub.ij =1, or N.sub.io .fwdarw.8.43E6/.sqroot.A /cm.sup.3 otherwise. If n(r) varies as m=3 these values are all lowered by a factor of 100. Initiation of T-waves follows a slightly different criterion (as given in Eq. (4), above), that leads to the result that the critical radius for onset of ion acoustic T-waves depends upon the functional form of the ion density variation in the region just outside the ICC core. It is found that this critical radius is as follows ##EQU2## Thus T-waves will be created as the ion current density azimuthal flow reaches a critical value. This is set both by the level of recirculating ion current flow outside the core and by the fractional transverse momentum of ions converging to the core region. Using a (typical) inverse-square geometric convergence the azimuthal ion acoustic wavelength is found to be ##EQU3## where .lambda..sub.pio is the acoustic wavelength calculated for conditions at the internal cavity outer radius, R, where the ion density is n.sub.io. Since the ion density at the surface is related to the injection power and the ion recirculation ratio (G.sub.i), and thus to the equivalent electron recirculation ratio, G.sub.j, it is possible to write the T-wave acoustic wavelength in terms of injection power, for E.sub.w in eV, P in watts, and all dimensions in cm, as EQU .THETA..sub.p.THETA. =7.22E-2 (E.sub.w.sup.2.5 /P.sub.inj G.sub.j).sup.0.5 (a.sub.ij)(cm) (17) The number of surface cells must fit within the core circumference, thus the condition to be satisfied is N.sub.T (.lambda..sub.p.THETA.)=2.pi.(r.sub.c), where N.sub.T is the (integer) number of cells around the core circumference. It is readily shown that the total number (N.sub.o) of quasi-hexagonal cells that can be fitted on the surface of the spherical core is given by the formula N.sub.o =0.3675 N.sub.T.sup.2 ; so that N.sub.T =16 gives a total number of cells of N.sub.o .apprxeq.72, for example. The smallest practical tangential cell number for resonant fundamental modes is N.sub.T =8, with N.sub.o =24. (It is noted that this simple formula for N.sub.o breaks down at N.sub.T =4; geometric considerations for tetrahedral symmetry gives N.sub.o =8 for such a resonant surface structure, but discreteness argues against coherency.) Using this and the simple integer condition above, the injection power can be related to the recirculation factor, the ion energy, and the acoustic wavelength, as previously in Eq. (6) for S-waves. The critical equation giving the power injection criterion for onset of T-waves is then EQU P.sub.inj =5.9E-3(a.sub.ij)(E.sub.w.sup.2.5 /Z.sup.2 G.sub.j) (watts) (18) which is seen to be closely comparable to the criterion for S-wave initiation, as given by Eq. (7). Thus, T-wave-trapped ions can serve to supply the core, as discussed above in connection with the wave equation description of the in-core ICC diffusion process. Once started, such acoustic waves will readily propagate into the core and will be maintained by resonant coupling with the stream of inflowing ion momentum, both azimuthal and radial. Incoming particles will be trapped in acoustic wave structures, and will diffusively move through the core, building up density until a level is reached at which their outward diffusion-limited flow exactly balances the inooming flux. Ions esoaping from this inertial-collisional-compression (ICC) core will be emitted isotropically into the extracore region. Thus azimuthally-isotropic incoming ions will be replaced by azimuthally-isotropic emitted ions, with no net change in transverse momentum content of the ion population. Ion energy within the core will remain sensibly the same as that at entry, since little energy is stored in the oscillating ion acoustic wave fields (as previously shown). The net flux into the core must be equal to that leaving from the ICC effect region at r.apprxeq.r.sub.c. This latter is just D.sub.c .gradient..sub.r [v.sub.i n(r)].vertline..sub.rc while the former is the average flow of ions into radius r.sub.c from the flow system outside the ICC core. Taking a cosinusoidal distribution of transverse momentum at the core boundary gives an average radial in-flow speed of (2/.pi.)v.sub.i. With this, equating ion fluxes from both sides of the core boundary surfaoe r.sub.c yields the ratio of core maximum (central) density to surface density as given approximately by EQU (n.sub.o /n.sub.c)=(r.sub.c /D.sub.c)=3r.sub.c /.pi..sub.pic (19) where the subscript c indicates parameters evaluated at boundary conditions of the ICC core, at r=r.sub.c, and .lambda..sub.pic is given by Eq. (3) for each choice of a.sub.ij. The functional form for n(r), given by Eqs. (3) and (11), can be integrated over the core volume, from which approximate (for .nu..sub.pic &lt;&lt;r.sub.c) integrated average &lt;n.sub.o &gt; and mean-square &lt;n.sub.o.sup.2 &gt; values of core ion density are found to be EQU &lt;n.sub.o &gt;/n.sub.c =(3/.pi..sup.2)(n.sub.o /n.sub.c) (20) and EQU &lt;n.sub.o.sup.2 &gt;/n.sub.c.sup.2 =(3/2.pi..sup.2)(n.sub.o /n.sub.c).sup.2 ( 21) The mean-square value is of interest in estimating fusion reaction rate densities and core power, since the fusion reaction density is given by EQU q.sub.f =(b.sub.ij)(&lt;n.sub.o.sup.2 &gt;)(.sigma.v.sub.i) (22) where b.sub.ij =0.25 if the reacting particles are alike, and is 0.5 if they are of different species, with equal density in the system. The fusion power is this rate density times the energy released per fusion (E.sub.f), over the core volume EQU P.sub.f =(q.sub.f E.sub.f)(4.pi./3)(r.sub.c) (23) The increase in fusion rate due to the ICC process, over that expected from conventional Coulomb collisions and geometric convergence in spherical flow systems, is then just the density enhancement factor given by Eq. (21), above. This is shown in FIG. 6b for typical parameter ranges of interest. In this the variation across the core is shown for successively larger values 930, 940, 950 of .lambda..sub.pic. The ICC process thus can yield greatly increased output from any spherical flow system, by design for operation at the appropriate density, current, and input power and voltage conditions, as required to initiate the ICC effect. The magnitude of this increase in potential output is suggested by the data in Table 1, following. This shows the range of ratios of integrated average density and of mean-square density normalized to core boundary density, n.sub.c, and to ICC core radius r.sub.c, for an ion collision energy of E.sub.w =1E5 eV, an average charge of Z.sup.2 =2, and for a.sub.ij =1 and with a.sub.ij =(1/61) as for D ions. The lower values given have been corrected slightly for approximations used in obtaining Eqs. (20, 21). TABLE 1 __________________________________________________________________________ POTENTIAL INCREASE IN AVERAGE AND MEAN-SQUARE DENSITY DUE TO ICC Core Boundary Average Core Density Mean-Square Density Density (&lt;n.sub.o &gt;/n.sub.c) (1/r.sub.c), (1/cm) (&gt;n.sub.o.sup.2 &gt;/n.sub.c.sup.2) (1/r.sub.c.sup.2), (1/cm.sup.2) n.sub.c, (1/cm.sup.3) aij = 1 aij = (1/61) aij = 1 aij = (1/61) __________________________________________________________________________ 1E9 -- 1.0-1.9 -- 2.2-4.5 1E10 -- 3.5-5.0 -- 22.3-44.6 1E11 -- 8.7-16 -- 223-446 1E12 1.3-2.0 23-45 0.6-1.2 2.2-4.5E3 1E13 3.0-5.0 73-147 6-12 2.2-4.5E4 1E14 7.4-15 230-460 60-120 2.2-4.5E5 1E15 20-40 730-1470 600-1200 2.2-4.5E6 1E16 62-120 2.3-4.6E3 0.6-1.2E4 2.2-4.5E7 1E17 195-400 0.7-1.5E4 0.6-1.2E5 -- __________________________________________________________________________ Note that the ion/ion mode (a.sub.ij =1) yields no useful increase for densities below about 1E12, and that the formulae give unrealistic values for the highest densities in the ion/electron mode (a.sub.ij =1/61). It is also important to note that the average density would be higher by the square root of the ratio (1E5/E.sub.w), and the mean-square density by the ratio, itself, if ion energy less than 1E5 eV were used. Thus, if the ion energy sought were only 1E4 eV (10 keV), for example, the mean-square values, and the comparative fusion rate densities would all be larger by a factor of ten than the tabulated values. Also, larger charge will yield larger densities in direct proportion to the ratio Z/.sqroot.2, thus multiply-charged fuels (e.g. .sup.11 B) will be ICC compressed more than will those with single charges (e.g. D,T). Finally, it is possible to show conditions for net power generation in fusion systems operating under the ICC concept. A lower bound criterion for net power generation is given by comparison of minimum required injection P.sub.jmn of the system from Eqs. (7,18) and fusion power generation capability from Eqs. (22,23). Combining these (using the S-wave criterion of Eq. (7)) gives a (maximum) "base power gain potential" (G.sub.o) for the system of ##EQU4## for cgs units, as before, with E.sub.f in MeV and E.sub.w in eV, .sigma..sub.f in cm.sup.2. Here the function F(A)=[(A.sub.1 +A.sub.2)/A.sub.1 A.sub.2 ] a factor near unity to account for fuel ions of differing mass number, A.sub.1,A.sub.2 (for DD, F(A)=1, for D.sup.3 He or DT, F(A)=0.91, and for p.sup.11 B, F(A)=1.04). As an example of the potential of the ICC process consider a case using D and T (b.sub.ij =0.5, F(A)=0.91) as the fusion fuels ) in an (ion/electron) ion-acoustic mode (a.sub.jj 1/61) system with core at r=0.5 cm, Z.sup.2 =2, n.sub.c =1E14/cm.sup.3, E.sub.w =2E4 eV, a fusion cross-section .sigma..sub.f =2.0E-24 cm.sup.2, E.sub.f =17.6 MeV, and an electron recirculation ratio of G.sub.j =300, equivalent to an ion recirculating current ratio of only about G.sub.i =4.4. For these conditions, Eq. (24) gives the base power gain as G.sub.o =(P.sub.fus /P.sub.jmn) =184. Such a device could be operated in a pulsed mode to attain high peak power densities, if continuous ICC operation requires excessive input power. As a second example, consider an ion-acoustic mode case using fuels p and .sup.11 B (a.sub.ij =1/143), with r.sub.c =1.8 cm, Z.sup.2 =5.5, core boundary ion density n.sub.c 4E13/cm.sup.3, ion energy of E.sub.w =3E5 eV, .sigma..sub.f =0.2E-24 cm.sup.2, E.sub.f =8.7 MeV, and G.sub.j =2E3 (ion current recirculation ratio G.sub.i =20-26). For this case the base power gain is still as high as G.sub.o =112. Note that the equivalent electron current recirculation ratio in each of these cases is less than that of conventional spherically-converging flow schemes.sup.1,4-10 by a factor of the order of 100- 1000, for the same general level of potential power gain performance. This can be rewritten in terms of the ion energy, system momentum convergence limit and size, current recirculation ratio, and injection (or ion accelerating drive) power, for any given fuel combination, as EQU G.sub.o =3.45E23(G.sub.j.sup.4 P.sub.inj.sup.3 /&lt;r.sub.c &gt;R)* (Z.sup.4 E.sub.f .sigma..sub.f b.sub.ij A.sup.1.5 F(A)/E.sub.w 7.5) (25) where &lt;r &gt;=(r.sub.c /R) and R is the major radius of the inner cavity of the ICC machine. For fixed injection power P.sub.inj, G.sub.o varies inversely with radius R. However, if the ion injection surface power density p.sub.inj =P.sub.inj /4.pi.R.sup.2 is kept fixed, the system base gain varies with the fifth power of the radius, R, as EQU G.sub.o =6.84E26(b.sub.ij)(R.sup.5 G.sub.j.sup.4 p.sub.inj.sup.3 /&lt;r.sub.c &gt;)* (Z.sup.4 E.sub.f .sigma..sub.f b.sub.ij A.sup.1.5 F(A)/E.sub.w 7.5) (26) For this constraint condition and any specified parameter values, there is then always a value of R at which the base gain can be made unity or greater. For the case of DT fuel at ion energy of E.sub.w =2E4 eV, with Z.sup.2 taken to be 2, the system base gain becomes ##EQU5## If R=100 cm, G.sub.j =2E3 (G.sub.i =28), P.sub.inj 32 2E6 watts, and &lt;r.sub.c &gt;=1E-2, the base gain is then G.sub.o (DT)=61.8. Reducing the radius to 25 cm and decreasing the equivalent electron recirculating current ratio to G.sub.j =1000, holding the other parameters at their original values, still yields a base gain of 15.5. All of these levels of potential performance are 100-1000 times better, higher, or more readily attainable than for their counterparts in conventional spherical electrostatic well systems; a direct result of employing the novel ICC effect and process in their design and description. It is of some interest to note that the results of the experiments of Hirsch, which yielded anomalously high neutron production rates from a system using six opposed ion injection beams, might be a result of the phenomena described above. The parameters that characterized Hirsch's experiments.sup.5 (beam energy and current, beam diameter, ion energy in the central core region, and system core dimensions) were not all well known, and neither Hirsch.sup.5, nor Black.sup.8, nor Baxter and Stuart.sup.9 were able to explain these results. However, a liberal interpretation of Hirsch's reported data can be made that yields conditions in the central quasi-spherical core (formed at the intersection of the six ion beams) that are slightly beyond those minimally required for the onset of the ICC process effect. The regimes of operation of the ICC process and the probable regime of the Hirsch experiments are depicted in FIG. 7. The ICC allowed region, labeled 1000, occurs between the "V" defined by any one of a selected vertical line corresponding to different critical radii r.sub.c, and any one of the positive sloping straight lines 1, 2, . . . 5. The allowed region thus extends to the right of the vertical line, for a given vertical line choice r.sub.c, (a more positive X value), and to the upper portion, (corresponding to more positive Y value), of the selected positively sloped line, 1, 2, etc. The vertical lines corresponding to a selected value of r.sub.c are plotted on the X axis from constraint equation (5) above and represent density per unit well depth. The parameter Y, in units of power per cm.sup.5, is taken from combining constraint equations (5) and (7), and is evaluated for exemplary values of E.sub.w and G.sub.j as seen in the bottom block portion of FIG. 7. The lines 1, 2, etc are defined using selected combinations of the ion energy at the core or well depth E.sub.w and the electron current recirculation ratio G.sub.j. In some cases, there are more than one pair of values for E.sub.w and G.sub.j in a given block, e.g., line 3, and in such cases the graphic results do not differ significantly from one pair to the next as represented by the small circles next to the lines labeled 3 and 4. Thus, a representative allowed regime for the ICC process, could be that defined by the "V" between line 1 and r.sub.c =1cm. In accordance with equations (5) and (7), the appropriate values of density and injection power may be calculated to produce the ICC operation for any point selected within the "V". ine 1015, defining region 1020 in the upper right protion of the graph, has been drawn in FIG. 7 to represent a reasonable choice of an operation regime not too close to the boundary regions where small pertubations may result in instability. FIG. 7 also indicates the range 1010 over which Hirsch's experiments might have operated. The slight overlap shown over a restricted range of parameters is far from the range of conditions desired for ICC effective operations, as shown at 1020 in FIG. 7. Electrode Arrangements It will be understood that any means of accelerating ions radially inward in a manner that minimizes transverse motion may be employed to provide a densification of ions towards the center of a spherical (or cylindrical) geometry, and that such acceleration at current and voltage (particle energy) conditions described here as required for the initiation of the collisional-diffusion processes of the ICC effect, can result in the onset of this effect. However, the nature of this effect allows the invention of special apparatus for the achievement of the process and conditions required for its attainment that are uniquely simple and devoid of extensive complex structure. These are all based on use of minimal wire frame or sheet conductor or distributed point conductor electrode grid systems, g1, g2, 1100 (FIG. 8) to provide spherical (or cylindrical) radial electric field gradients for acceleration of ions to the system center, g0, the whole being surrounded by and contained within a concentric outer electron-reflective bounding wall or surface 1110, as shown in cross-section in FIG. 8. (It is noted that FIG. 8 represents a cross sectional view for either a spherical or cylindrical system). In this circumstance, a system of spherical colliding flow of ions (and electrons) can be devised in which the ion-accelerating fields are provided by simple grids of large transparency, and system power consumption is kept small by avoiding the use of electric currents to create high magnetic fields. FIG. 9 shows an example of one such electrode system for ion acceleration, using a minimal curvilinear tetrahedral wire frame geometry with two nested grids, g1 1200 and g2 1210. FIG. 10 shows a nested set of three orthogonal circles 1300, 1310 (a curvilinear octahedron or "great circle" geometry), FIG. 11 indicates a set of "tennis ball seam" continuous curvilinear electrodes, 1400, 1410, and FIG. 12 shows (in cross-section) a concentric array of point conductor "buttons", 1500, 1510 acting as electrodes. Note in each figure that there are two concentric spherical surfaces at radii rg1 and rg2, on which the inner g1 and outer g2 electrodes are located, around a central point g0, and that the electrodes in one surface match those in the other in angular position. This is always so in order to minimize curvature in the electrostatic field that is maintained between the two electrodes, in order that the accelerating force on ions in the interelectrode space be made as nearly perfectly radial as possible. The closer the ions can be made to follow exact radial motion, the less will be their transverse momentum content and the smaller will be their minimum convergence radius, r (related to the ICC core radius r.sub.c by Eqs. (15), which show that r.sub.o .ltoreq.r.sub.c .ltoreq.2r.sub.o). This is important in achieving conditions for onset of the ICC effect, which requires that the surface current density at r.sub.c exceed certain levels (previously described and defined) in order to initiate collisional phenomena that cause ion density to increase within this radius. If the ions have large transverse momentum content, the total current required for ICC onset will be excessively large, and the system will not practically reach the appropriate conditions. Thus, the choice of means to accelerate ions inward is critical; pure radial acceleration is the preferred mode. One such means is to make use of the minimal wire frame or button electrode structures discussed above, in which spherical symmetry of the field is maintained by the rapid azimuthal flow of electrons around the spherical surface, on surfaces of equipotential. Transverse (angular) electron flow will occur naturally along equipotential surfaces containing these grid structures, as observed in experiments of Litton and vanPassen.sup.14 on wire-frame hollow cathodes with highly non-uniform electron injection means. Alternatively, inner and outer (first and second) grids can be made of mesh screening (e.g. in the fashion of "chicken wire" screening), if of reasonable transparency. Note, in this regard, that ion current recirculation ratios required to provide net base gain above unity with the ICC effect, are only on the order of 10-100. Thus, screen grids with 1-10% solidity can be used for this function. However, the loss of electrons circulating in the system will also be governed by the solidity/transparency of these grids, and by losses due to collisions with the external boundary surface of the system, outside the ion-accelerating-grid region. Electron losses constitute a power loss to the system, which may exceed that due to requirements of ion injection power to initiate the ICC effect. There is thus an incentive to construct high-transparency grid systems, in order to minimize internal electron losses. Electron losses external to the ion-accelerating-grids may also be reduced by use of a third (outer) grid provided around the inner two, in order to decelerate electrons escaping outward from the ion-accelerating region of the inner two grids. If this outer grid is biased at negative potential relative to the next inner grid it will prevent or reduce electron losses from the system due to their collision with external wall/boundary structures. This is not necessary for initiation of the ICC effect, but is useful for conservation of electrons (and thus for preserving electron recirculating current). The fractional solidity (f.sub.s) of the wire frame grids is determined by the total area on the grid frame sphere at radius R subtended by the total length (L) of wire structure, divided by the spherical area, itself; this is just f.sub.s =Ld/4.pi.R.sup.2, where d is the diameter of the wire, or width of the grid frame sheet if metal sheet conductors are used. The total length of conductor in each of the three wire frame geometries of FIGS. 9, 10, and 11 is found as L=3.84(.pi.R), 6(.pi.R) and .sqroot./2(.pi.R) for the curvilinear tetrahedron, octahedron, and "tennis ball seam", respectively, and their corresponding solidity fractions are f.sub.2 =0.96(d/R), 1.5(d/R) and 0.708(d/R). Thus, if d=0.1 cm is the grid wire or sheet thickness, and the inner grid surface radius is at R=100 cm, the solidity fraction will be of the order of 1E-3, and the allowed ion and electron current recirculation ratios can be G.sub.i .apprxeq.(1/f.sub.s ).apprxeq.1E3. Larger wires or closer spacing will reduce the allowable recirculation ratios. The transparency of rod or button electrode arrays is generally greater than that attainable with continuous wire frame or sheet electrode systems, for the same degree of "stiffness" of the overall structure. For example, the solidity fraction of an array of N buttons, each of radius r.sub.b, is f.sub.s =Nr.sub.b.sup.2 /4.pi.R.sup.2 ; for N=6 (at the vertices of an octahedron) and r.sub.b =0.2 cm, the solidity fraction will be f.sub.s =3.2E-6 in a system with R=100 cm. Within the two inner grids the electron current flow should be at approximately the same speed (although somewhat larger) as that of the ions, so that the usual factor of (m.sub.i /m.sub.e).sup.0.5 .apprxeq.70-100 increase in electron current above the ion current flow is not present. Outside the outermost grid (of the inner two comprising the ion acceleration grid system), electron current reflux will tend to the higher value ratio. It is here that wall and grid collision losses (with an outer third grid or external wall) can result in excessive power losses to the system, as mentioned above. These can be inhibited in a variety of ways, such as by the use of electron-reflective surface magnetic fields, as proposed by Limpaecher.sup.15, or by polyhedral fields as proposed by Bussard.sup.1,12, or by "magnetic insulation" as proposed by Hirsch.sup.10, or by an electrostatic potential bias of sufficient magnitude on the wall surface, or by any other means well known in the art. If necessary, by these means the external electron losses may be suppressed and electron recirculation ratio may be kept high enough to allow net power to be generated from such devices as limited only by the base gain (G.sub.o) limits of the ICC process, itself. It is important to note that no net current flow paths should be allowed on or in the two ion accelerating grid structures, in order to ensure that there be no magnetic fields around these wires. The reason for this is that the motion of ions (and electrons) through the grid spacing can be affected by any significant fields due to grid wire currents, in such a way as to introduce curvature and non-radial motion to the ion paths, and thus to reduce their ability to converge to the smallest possible core radius. This can be avoided by utilizing dual parallel grid conductors, electrically connected in counter-current fashion, so that any grid wire current flows (from particle collisions with the grid structure) will yield cancelling magnetic fields from each grid conductor pair. With such an array of grid wires, the device can be started by applying the ion accelerating voltage across the inner two grid conductor systems. The innermost grid must be biased negatively relative to the outer accelerating grid, so that ions will be attracted towards the system center. Conversely, electrons in the inter-grid space will be accelerated away from the center, and will collide with neutral atoms within this space, thus ionizing them. The ions so produced will be accelerated through the innermost grid and will converge towards the core region, while the electrons so produced will be accelerated outward through the outer accelerating grid. The energy of the ions created in this manner will vary from near zero energy (those created by collisions very near to the inner grid) to the maximum energy of the full grid accelerating potential (those created by collisions very near to the outer grid). The energy distribution from this inter-grid volume will be weighted by the square of the ratio of the radius of birth position to the inner grid radius, so that more ions will be found at high energy, above the mean, than at low energy. Even though the ions have differing energy and radial momentum, the spherical flow geometry ensures that all collisions will occur very near to the system geometric center, with the result that such two-body ion/ion collisions between ions of differing energies can not distort the ion energy distribution from that imparted in the initial inter-grid ionization and acceleration process. Neither slow nor fast ions can be collided with in a manner to make their energy change in the system frame of reference. The mean ion energy in the system will be less than the inter-grid accelerating potential energy, thus, if a mean ion energy of E.sub.w is desired in the core region of the system, the grid potential difference should be set higher than E.sub.w. Electrons must be made available to the ions entering the space within the innermost grid, in order to prevent the buildup of an excessive virtual anode potential by ion compaction at the system center. This can be done by allowing electrons to be emitted from the inner grid, in the fashion of Hirsch.sup.5,6, which then follow the ions in their inward path; attracted by their space charge. Alternatively, electrons recirculating in the region external to the ion accelerating grids, and within the accelerating grid space will likewise be attracted by the space charge induced by ion motion, and can thus provide a source for the central region. By these means the ion kinetic collisional energy, which is preserved within the ICC collision-diffusion core--and forms the basis for the fusion reaction collisions therein--can be kept to a reasonable (large) fraction of the ion injection energy, thus maintaining efficient use of the injection power required for ICC initiation. Fuel ions which undergo fusion will disappear from the system, as their fusion products are too energetic to be captured by the ion accelerating fields that drive the ICC machine in the first place. These fusion products will escape from the active core region and will travel radially outwards until intercepted by structure or decelerated by externally-provided electric fields. Fuel ion makeup can be accomplished by injection of neutral atoms of the fuel, by use of neutral-particle beams or by supersonic gas injection nozzles, so that they are directed towards a region of the system where it is desired that they be ionized by collisions with in-situ ions or with electrons already oscillating in the system. This method is simple, readily controllable, and allows adjustment of the ion density and energy distribution to levels somewhat different from those which arise naturally at and during startup of the device. For example, placement of the injected fuel into the outer sections of the ion accelerating grid space will cause the mean ion energy to rise from its natural half-accelerating-potential value, because nearly all of the injected atoms will be ionized near the outer accelerating grid, and thus will gain maximum energy from the ion accelerating grid potential system. As was seen in the previous discussions, it is possible to create base system gain values well in excess of 30-100 by use of the ICC effect with very modest ion current recirculation ratios in systems of reasonable size (R.ltoreq.100 cm). It was further shown that the minimum power required for ICC process onset could be as low as 20-800 kw. Thus small devices with large fusion power output (e.g. 1 m radius, 100 kw in, 10 Mw out) appear possible by this novel invention. And, as for other electrostatic confinement concepts, the ICC machine can work as well with non-radiative fuels (fusion fuels that do not produce neutrons) as with the easier-to-burn neutron-producing fuels, so is well-suited to use in normal radiation-free human environments. In addition, since the fusion products from such non-radiative fuels are all charged particles with very high particle energies, they can all be slowed down by electric potentials provided by additional grid systems external to the ion accelerating grids and the core, and thus create electrical energy in external circuits by direct conversion within the ICC machine. Such direct conversion can be made very efficient (above 70% of the particle energy can appear directly as electricity), thus such devices offer promise for use in a wide array of civil, industrial, urban, airborne, and space-based systems. The ICC effect and process allows any spherically-convergent ion and electron flow system to work at performance levels vastly greater than heretofore imagined. This fact allows the conception of new and novel means for exploitation of this effect, which employ minimal grid conductor structures in simple geometries, capable of high power gain, with small power input and large power output from fusion reactions between ions supplied to the system. REFERENCES 1. R. W. Bussard, "Method and Apparatus for Controlling Charged Particles," U.S. Pat. No. 4,826,646, issued May 2, 1989 2. W. C. Elmore, J. L. Tuck, and K. M. Watson, "On the Inertial-Electrostatic Confinement of a Plasma", Phys.Fluids, Vol.2, No.3, pp.239-246 (May-June 1959) 3. H. P. Furth, "Prevalent Instability of Nonthermal Plasma", Phys. Fluids, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 48-53 (January 1963) 4. P. T. 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James Litton, Jr. and H. L. L. van Paassen, "Electron Beam Production From Perforated Wall Hollow Cathode Discharges," in the Proceedings of the 23rd Conference on Physical Electronics, pp. 185-194 (1963) 15. Rudolf Limpaecher, U. S. Pat. No. 4,233,537, "Multicusp Plasma Containment Apparatus," issued Nov. 11, 1980