Patent Number: 
Section: claims

1. A voltaic cell, comprising:a radioactive layer comprising a radioactive material, said radioactive layer having first and second sides oppositely disposed;a first n-type semiconductor layer overlying said first side of said radioactive layer;a first p-type semiconductor layer overlying said second side of said radioactive layer;a first dielectric layer overlying said first n-type semiconductor layer, said first dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;a second dielectric layer overlying said first p-type semiconductor layer, said second dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;a first conductor layer overlying said first dielectric layer; anda second conductor layer overlying said second dielectric layer. 2. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, further comprising:a second n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said first conductor layer and said first dielectric layer; anda second p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said second conductor layer and said second dielectric layer. 3. The voltaic cell according to claim 2, wherein said second p-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 4. The voltaic cell according to claim 3, wherein said second p-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and combinations thereof. 5. The voltaic cell according to claim 2, further comprising:a first tunnel junction layer positioned between said second n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer;a third p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said first tunnel junction layer and said first conductor layer;a third n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said third p-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer. 6. The voltaic cell according to claim 5, wherein said first tunnel junction layer comprises a p-n junction. 7. The voltaic cell according to claim 5, further comprising:a second tunnel junction layer positioned between said second p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer;a fourth n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said second tunnel junction layer and said second conductor layer;a fourth p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said fourth n-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer. 8. The voltaic cell according to claim 6, wherein said second tunnel junction layer comprises a p-n junction. 9. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said radioactive layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 10. The voltaic cell according to claim 9, wherein said radioactive material is selected from the group consisting of tritium, carbon 14, magnesium 23, germanium 76, silicon 32, cadmium 113, indium 115 rubidium 87, potassium 40 and combinations thereof. 11. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said first n-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 12. The voltaic cell according to claim 11, wherein said first n-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of phosphorous, nitrogen, arsenic, antimony and combinations thereof. 13. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said first p-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 14. The voltaic cell according to claim 13, wherein said first p-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and combinations thereof. 15. The voltaic cell according to claim 2, wherein said second n-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 16. The voltaic cell according to claim 15, wherein said second n-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of phosphorous, nitrogen, arsenic, antimony and combinations thereof. 17. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein at least one of said first and second conductor layers comprise a metal. 18. The voltaic cell according to claim 17, wherein said metal is selected from the group consisting of gold, silver, copper, aluminum and combinations thereof. 19. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein at least one of said first and second dielectric layers comprises a material selected from the group consisting of silicon oxide and silicon nitride. 20. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots comprise silicon. 21. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots have a size from about 1 nm to about 10 nm. 22. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout at least one of said first and second dielectric layers at a density of about 1021 cm−3. 23. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout at least one of said first and second dielectric layers at a density from about 108 cm−2 to about 1011 cm−2. 24. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots are arranged in a three-dimensional array in at least one of said first and second dielectric layers. 25. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots are arranged substantially at the surface of at least one of said first and second dielectric layers. 26. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially spherical shape. 27. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially pyramidal shape. 28. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, wherein said quantum dots are sized and spaced apart from one another within said dielectric layers so as to promote quantum mechanical tunneling of charge carriers from said radioactive layer to said conductor layers. 29. The voltaic cell according to claim 28, wherein said charge carriers have energies from about 1 eV to about 5 eV. 30. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, further comprising a plurality of first dielectric layers positioned between said first n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer. 31. The voltaic cell according to claim 30, comprising at least three of said first dielectric layers. 32. The voltaic cell according to claim 30, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 33. The voltaic cell according to claim 30, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 34. The voltaic cell according to claim 1, further comprising a plurality of second dielectric layers positioned between said first p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer. 35. The voltaic cell according to claim 34, comprising at least three of said second dielectric layers. 36. The voltaic cell according to claim 34, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 37. The voltaic cell according to claim 34, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 38. A battery comprising a plurality of voltaic cells according to claim 1. 39. A voltaic cell, comprising:a semiconductor layer having a p-type region and an n-type region forming a first p-n junction;a radioactive layer positioned within said semiconductor layer between said p-type region and said n-type region;at least a first dielectric layer overlying said n-type region, said first dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;at least a second dielectric layer overlying said p-type region, said second dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;an n-type semiconductor layer overlying said first dielectric layer;a p-type semiconductor layer overlying said second dielectric layer;a first conductor layer overlying said n-type semiconductor layer;a second conductor layer overlying said p-type semiconductor layer. 40. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, further comprising:a plurality of said first dielectric layers overlying said n-type region;a plurality of said second dielectric layers overlying said p-type region. 41. The voltaic cell according to claim 40, further comprising:a second p-n junction having a p-type region and an n-type region, said second p-n junction being positioned between said n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer, said p-type region of said second p-n junction being adjacent to said n-type semiconductor layer;a first tunnel junction layer positioned between said p-type region of said second p-n junction and said n-type semi-conductor layer;a third p-n junction having a p-type region and an n-type region, said third p-n junction being positioned between said p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer, said n-type region of said third p-n junction being adjacent to said p-type semiconductor layer;a second tunnel junction layer positioned between said n-type region of said third p-n junction and said p-type semi-conductor layer. 42. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, further comprising:a second p-n junction having a p-type region and an n-type region, said second p-n junction being positioned between said n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer, said p-type region of said second p-n junction being adjacent to said n-type semiconductor layer;a first tunnel junction layer positioned between said p-type region of said second p-n junction and said n-type semi-conductor layer;a third p-n junction having a p-type region and an n-type region, said third p-n junction being positioned between said p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer, said n-type region of said third p-n junction being adjacent to said p-type semiconductor layer;a second tunnel junction layer positioned between said n-type region of said third p-n junction and said p-type semi-conductor layer. 43. The voltaic cell according to claim 42, wherein at least one of said tunnel junction layers comprises a p-n junction. 44. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said radioactive layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 45. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said radioactive layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of tritium, carbon 14, magnesium 23, germanium 76, silicon 32, cadmium 113, indium 115 rubidium 87, potassium 40 and combinations thereof. 46. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said n-type region comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 47. The voltaic cell according to claim 46, wherein said n-type region is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of phosphorous, nitrogen, arsenic, antimony and combinations thereof. 48. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said p-type region comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 49. The voltaic cell according to claim 48, wherein said p-type region is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and combinations thereof. 50. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said n-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 51. The voltaic cell according to claim 50, wherein said n-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of phosphorous, nitrogen, arsenic, antimony and combinations thereof. 52. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said p-type semiconductor layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of amorphous hydrogenated silicon, crystalline hydrogenated silicon, amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide, crystalline hydrogenated silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, amorphous hydrogenated carbon, crystalline hydrogenated carbon, crystalline silicon, germanium, carbon, gallium-arsenide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium-nitride, indium-arsenide, zinc-selenium, zinc-sulfide, silicon-carbide, indium-selenide and aluminum-indium-gallium-phosphorous. 53. The voltaic cell according to claim 52, wherein said p-type semiconductor layer is doped with an element selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium and combinations thereof. 54. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein at least one of said first and second conductor layers comprises a metal. 55. The voltaic cell according to claim 54, wherein said metal is selected from the group consisting of gold, silver, copper, aluminum and combinations thereof. 56. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein at least one of said first and second dielectric layers comprises a material selected from the group consisting of silicon oxide and silicon nitride. 57. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots comprise silicon. 58. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots have a size from about 1 nm to about 10 nm. 59. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout at least one of said first and second dielectric layers at a density of about 1021 cm−3. 60. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout at least one of said first and second dielectric layers at a density from about 108 cm−2 to about 1011 cm−2. 61. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots are arranged in a three-dimensional array in at least one of said first and second dielectric layers. 62. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots are arranged substantially at the surface of at least one of said first and second dielectric layers. 63. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially spherical shape. 64. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially pyramidal shape. 65. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, wherein said quantum dots are sized and spaced apart from one another within at least one of said dielectric layers so as to promote quantum mechanical tunneling of charge carriers from said radioactive layer to said conduction layers. 66. The voltaic cell according to claim 65, wherein said charge carriers have energies from about 1 eV to about 5 eV. 67. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, further comprising a plurality of first dielectric layers positioned between said n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer. 68. The voltaic cell according to claim 67, comprising at least three of said first dielectric layers. 69. The voltaic cell according to claim 67, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 70. The voltaic cell according to claim 67, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 71. The voltaic cell according to claim 39, further comprising a plurality of second dielectric layers positioned between said p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer. 72. The voltaic cell according to claim 71, comprising at least three of said second dielectric layers. 73. The voltaic cell according to claim 71, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 74. The voltaic cell according to claim 71, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 75. A battery comprising a plurality of voltaic cells according to claim 39. 76. A voltaic cell, comprising:a radioactive layer comprising a radioactive material and a semiconductor having energy band gaps from about 1 eV to about 4 eV, said radioactive layer having first and second sides oppositely disposed;a first n-type semiconductor layer overlying said first side of said radioactive layer;a first p-type semiconductor layer overlying said second side of said radioactive layer;a first dielectric layer overlying said first n-type semiconductor layer, said first dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;a second dielectric layer overlying said first p-type semiconductor layer, said second dielectric layer comprising a plurality of quantum dots;a first conductor layer overlying said first dielectric layer; anda second conductor layer overlying said second dielectric layer. 77. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, further comprising:a second n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said first conductor layer and said first dielectric layer; anda second p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said second conductor layer and said second dielectric layer. 78. The voltaic cell according to claim 77, further comprising:a first tunnel junction layer positioned between said second n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer;a third p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said first tunnel junction layer and said first conductor layer;a third n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said third p-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer. 79. The voltaic cell according to claim 78, further comprising:a second tunnel junction layer positioned between said second p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer;a fourth n-type semiconductor layer positioned between said second tunnel junction layer and said second conductor layer;a fourth p-type semiconductor layer positioned between said fourth n-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer. 80. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots have a size from about 1 nm to about 10 nm. 81. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout at least one of said first and second dielectric layers at a density of about 1021 cm−3. 82. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots are disbursed throughout said first and second dielectric layers at a density from about 108 cm−2 to about 1011 cm−2. 83. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots are arranged in a three-dimensional array in said first and second dielectric layers. 84. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots are arranged substantially at the surface of at least one of said first and second dielectric layers. 85. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially spherical shape. 86. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots have a substantially pyramidal shape. 87. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, wherein said quantum dots are sized and spaced apart from one another within said dielectric layers so as to promote quantum mechanical tunneling of charge carriers from said radioactive layer to said conduction layers. 88. The voltaic cell according to claim 87, wherein said charge carriers have energies from about 1 eV to about 5 eV. 89. The voltaic cell according to claim 76, further comprising a plurality of first dielectric layers positioned between said first n-type semiconductor layer and said first conductor layer. 90. The voltaic cell according to claim 89, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 91. The voltaic cell according to claim 89, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said first dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said first dielectric layers. 92. The voltaic cell according to claim 89, further comprising a plurality of second dielectric layers positioned between said first p-type semiconductor layer and said second conductor layer. 93. The voltaic cell according to claim 92, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are of a different size from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 94. The voltaic cell according to claim 92, wherein said quantum dots of at least one of said second dielectric layers are spaced apart from one another at a different spacing from said quantum dots of at least one other of said second dielectric layers. 95. A battery comprising a plurality of voltaic cells according to claim 76.