PATENT DOCUMENT

Abstract:
A solid state memory system comprises a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, and a controller. Each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit. The controller receives write data, converts the write data to N target values, and transmits the N target values to the first memory chip. The first memory chip adjusts corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero.

Full Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
       [0001]    This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/883,150, filed on Jan. 2, 2007. The disclosure of the above application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     
    
     FIELD 
       [0002]    The present disclosure relates to nonvolatile memory and more particularly to interfaces for multi-level nonvolatile memory. 
       BACKGROUND 
       [0003]    The background description provided herein is for the purpose of generally presenting the context of the disclosure. Work of the presently named inventors, to the extent it is described in this background section, as well as aspects of the description that may not otherwise qualify as prior art at the time of filing, are neither expressly nor impliedly admitted as prior art against the present disclosure. 
         [0004]    The density of solid-state memory devices is increasing as more bits of user data can be stored into each solid-state storage element. For example, flash memory devices may store two bits per storage element by varying the stored charge in the storage element to one of four (2 2 ) levels in order to produce one of four threshold voltages. Currently, storing even more bits (such as three or four) per storage element is being investigated. 
         [0005]    Other solid-state storage elements, such as those used in phase-change memory (PCM) devices, may store data as varying levels of resistance. Regardless of the storage mechanism, optimum spacing of the different levels may take into account the uncertainty of writing and/or reading each level. For example, within the range of achievable levels, two or more predefined levels may be established. The term level may include a voltage, a current, a resistance, or any other suitable storage parameter. The range of achievable levels is defined by a lower limit and an upper limit, which may be governed by process parameters. To write data, the storage element is programmed to one of the predefined levels. To read data, the level of the storage element is compared to the predefined levels. 
         [0006]    There may be variability or uncertainty in reading or writing the level of a storage element. For example, when writing a first predefined level, the actual level achieved may be slightly above or below the first predefined level. This may be the result of, for example, programming the storage element using an open-loop process that is not calibrated perfectly. Alternatively, even if a closed-loop process is used, the first predefined level may be overshot or undershot. For example, this may occur when, during the last programming iteration, the programming granularity is greater than the difference between the current level and the first predefined level. 
         [0007]    In addition, even if the first predefined level is written precisely, the level read may not be exactly equal to the first predefined level. For example, the level of the storage element may decay or shift with time. In addition, noise, crosstalk, and/or uncertainty in the reading process may lead to a slightly different level being read. A probability density function may be defined that represents the likelihood of a certain level being read a predetermined time after a predefined level is written. 
         [0008]      FIG. 1  is a graphical representation of exemplary probability density functions (pdfs) for a four-predefined-level write scheme. In this example, the four predefined levels, L 0 , L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 , have corresponding pdfs with approximately the same shape. For example, when predefined level L 0  is written,  FIG. 1  indicates that the actual level achieved is most likely L 0 . However, it is only slightly less likely that the level achieved is slightly above or below L 0 . The probability of a resulting level decreases as it gets further from L 0 . 
         [0009]    It may be desirable to space the predefined levels so that each pdf ends (drops to zero) before the next pdf begins, as shown in  FIG. 1 . For example, this may ensure that a level on the high side of the level L 1  pdf is not misinterpreted as a level on the low side of the level L 2  pdf. The predefined levels L 0 , L 1 , L 2 , and L 3  may therefore be arranged so that their pdfs do not overlap. When the pdfs for various levels are approximately the same, the predefined levels may be uniformly spaced to achieve this goal. 
         [0010]      FIG. 2  depicts exemplary pdfs for a four-predefined-level write scheme when the pdfs differ. For example, in  FIG. 2 , the L 0  pdf is wider (has a greater standard deviation) than that of L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 . There are various reasons why pdfs may be different for different levels. For example, L 0  may be an erased level, which cannot be controlled as accurately as programmed levels. Other process variability or design considerations may affect the size and shape of the pdfs. 
         [0011]    To accommodate the widened level L 0  pdf, predefined levels L 1  and L 2  may be moved slightly higher and closer to each other, as shown in the example of  FIG. 2 . As more levels are introduced, the proximity of the pdfs may increase, and it may not be possible to avoid overlap between the pdfs. Error control coding may be used, which may identify and/or correct errors resulting from misreading of a previously written level. 
         [0012]    Referring now to  FIG. 3 , a functional block diagram of a memory system according to the prior art is presented. A memory controller  100  interfaces with a memory chip  102 . For a write, the memory controller  100  sends user data to the memory chip  102  along with an address to which the user data should be written. The memory controller  100  may also indicate to the memory chip  102  that a write is desired using a read/write signal. The memory chip  102  converts the user data into predefined levels for each storage element that will be written. The memory chip  102  then writes the predefined levels to the storage elements at the designated address. 
         [0013]    During a read, the memory controller  100  requests a read from the memory chip  102  and provides an address. The memory chip  102  measures the levels of the storage elements at the given address. These levels are matched up with the closest predefined levels, which are then mapped back to user data. The user data is returned to the memory controller  100 . For example, with reference to  FIG. 2 , if a threshold voltage slightly above predefined level L 3  is measured from a charge storage cell, the memory chip  102  decides that predefined level L 3  had previously been written. 
         [0014]    Predefined level L 3  may correspond to a bit pattern of 11, which the memory chip  102  then returns to the memory controller  100 . The values of the predefined levels and data/level mappings are determined at design time and hard coded into the memory chip  102 . The memory controller  100  does not need to be aware of any level information, simply transmitting binary user data to the memory chip  102  and receiving binary user data from the memory chip  102 . 
       SUMMARY 
       [0015]    A solid state memory system comprises a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, and a controller. Each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit. The controller receives write data, converts the write data to N target values, and transmits the N target values to the first memory chip. The first memory chip adjusts corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero. 
         [0016]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The first memory chip programs the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The first memory chip iteratively programs and measures each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0017]    In further features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The controller determines the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The controller further comprises a mapping between write data and target values. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The controller updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. The first memory chip generates read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the controller. The controller converts the read level data to recovered data. 
         [0018]    In still other features, the read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the N target values to analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. 
         [0019]    In other features, the N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form. The first memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The first memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the N target values to analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. 
         [0020]    In further features, the write data and the recovered data is binary data. The solid state memory system further comprises a serial interface between the controller and the first memory chip. The controller transmits the N target values to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The controller transmits digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The first memory chip transmits read level data to the controller over the serial interface. The N target values and the read level data are time-multiplexed. The N target values are transmitted using an embedded clock. 
         [0021]    In still other features, the controller provides a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the N target values. The solid state memory system further comprises a second memory chip, a first delay module, and a second delay module. The first delay module applies a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip. The first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the N target values. The second delay module applies a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0022]    In other features, the storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0023]    A method of controlling a solid state memory system comprises providing a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; receiving write data; converting the write data to N target values; transmitting the N target values to the first memory chip; and adjusting corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero. 
         [0024]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The method further comprises programming the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The method further comprises iteratively programming and measures each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0025]    In further features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The method further comprises determining the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The method further comprises storing a mapping between write data and target values. The method further comprises determining the mapping during manufacturing. The method further comprises updating the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. 
         [0026]    In still other features, the method further comprises generating read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements; transmitting the read level data to a controller; and converting the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. The method further comprises converting the N target values to analog form. 
         [0027]    In other features, the N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and further comprises converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The method further comprises converting the N target values to analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and further comprises converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. 
         [0028]    In further features, the write data and the recovered data is binary data. The method further comprises transmitting the N target values to the first memory chip over a serial interface. The method further comprises transmitting digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The method further comprises transmitting read level data to the controller over the serial interface. The method further comprises time-multiplexing the N target values and the read level data. The method further comprises transmitting the N target values using an embedded clock. 
         [0029]    In still other features, the method further comprises providing a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the N target values. The method further comprises providing a second memory chip; applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the N target values; and applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0030]    A solid state memory system comprises a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, and control means. Each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit. The control means is for receiving write data, converting the write data to N target values, and transmitting the N target values to the first memory chip. The first memory chip adjusts corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero. 
         [0031]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The first memory chip programs the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The first memory chip iteratively programs and measures each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0032]    In further features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The control means determines the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The control means further comprises a mapping between write data and target values. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The control means updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. The first memory chip generates read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the control means. 
         [0033]    In still other features, the control means converts the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the control means in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the N target values to analog form. 
         [0034]    In other features, the N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the control means in analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form. The first memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the control means. The first memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the N target values to analog form. The N target values are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form. 
         [0035]    In further features, the first memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the control means. The write data and the recovered data is binary data. The solid state memory system further comprises serial interfacing means for communicating between the control means and the first memory chip. The control means transmits the N target values to the first memory chip over the serial interfacing means. 
         [0036]    In still other features, the control means transmits digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interfacing means. The first memory chip transmits read level data to the control means over the serial interfacing means. The N target values and the read level data are time-multiplexed. The N target values are transmitted using an embedded clock. The control means provides a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the N target values. 
         [0037]    In other features, the solid state memory system further comprises a second memory chip; first delay means for applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the control means to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the N target values; and second delay means for applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the control means to the second memory chip. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0038]    A solid state memory system comprises a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements and a controller. Each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit. The controller determines N levels of the measurable parameter, receives write data, converts the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, and transmits the programming parameters to the first memory chip. The first memory chip programs ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters, wherein N is an integer greater than one. 
         [0039]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The first memory chip programs the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0040]    In further features, the controller determines the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The controller further comprises a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The controller updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. The first memory chip generates read level data when reading the ones of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the controller. The controller converts the read level data to recovered data. 
         [0041]    In still other features, the read level data comprises measured parameters from the ones of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the programming parameters to analog form. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. 
         [0042]    In other features, the programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form. The first memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The first memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the programming parameters to analog form. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. 
         [0043]    In further features, the write data and the recovered data is binary data. The solid state memory system further comprises a serial interface between the controller and the first memory chip. The controller transmits the programming parameters to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The controller transmits digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The first memory chip transmits read level data to the controller over the serial interface. The programming parameters and the read level data are time-multiplexed. The programming parameters are transmitted using an embedded clock. 
         [0044]    In still other features, the controller provides a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the programming parameters. The solid state memory system further comprises a second memory chip; a first delay module that applies a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the programming parameters; and a second delay module that applies a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0045]    In other features, the storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0046]    A method of controlling a solid state memory system comprises providing a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; determining N levels of the measurable parameter; receiving write data; converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels; transmitting the programming parameters to the first memory chip; and programming ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters, wherein N is an integer greater than one. 
         [0047]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The method further comprises programming the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0048]    In further features, the method further comprises determining the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The method further comprises storing a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The method further comprises determining the mapping during manufacturing. The method further comprises updating the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. The method further comprises generating read level data when reading the ones of the plurality of storage elements; transmitting the read level data to a controller; and converting the read level data to recovered data. 
         [0049]    In still other features, the read level data comprises measured parameters from the ones of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. The method further comprises converting the programming parameters to analog form. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the controller in analog form. 
         [0050]    In other features, the programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and further comprises converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The method further comprises converting the programming parameters to analog form. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and further comprises converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the first memory chip over a serial interface. 
         [0051]    In further features, the method further comprises transmitting digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interface. The method further comprises transmitting read level data to the controller over the serial interface. The method further comprises time-multiplexing the programming parameters and the read level data. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters using an embedded clock. The method further comprises providing a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the programming parameters. 
         [0052]    In still other features, the method further comprises providing a second memory chip; applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the programming parameters; and applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0053]    A solid state memory system comprises a first memory chip that includes a plurality of storage elements, and control means. Each of the plurality of storage elements have a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit. The control means is for determining N levels of the measurable parameter, for receiving write data, for converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, and for transmitting the programming parameters to the first memory chip. The first memory chip programs ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters, wherein N is an integer greater than one. 
         [0054]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The first memory chip programs the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0055]    In further features, the control means determines the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The control means further comprises a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The control means updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the first memory chip. The first memory chip generates read level data when reading the ones of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the control means. 
         [0056]    In still other features, the control means converts the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises measured parameters from the ones of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form and the read level data is transmitted to the control means in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the programming parameters to analog form. 
         [0057]    In other features, the programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form and the read level data is transmitted to the control means in analog form. The programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in digital form. The first memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the control means. The first memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the programming parameters to analog form. 
         [0058]    In further features, the programming parameters are transmitted to the first memory chip in analog form. The first memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the control means. The write data and the recovered data is binary data. The solid state memory system further comprises serial interfacing means for communicating between the control means and the first memory chip. The control means transmits the programming parameters to the first memory chip over the serial interfacing means. The control means transmits digital address data to the first memory chip over the serial interfacing means. 
         [0059]    In still other features, the first memory chip transmits read level data to the control means over the serial interfacing means. The programming parameters and the read level data are time-multiplexed. The programming parameters are transmitted using an embedded clock. The control means provides a discrete clock signal to the first memory chip for latching the programming parameters. The solid state memory system further comprises a second memory chip; first delay means for applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the control means to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of the discrete clock signal and the programming parameters; and second delay means for applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the control means to the second memory chip. 
         [0060]    In other features, the storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0061]    A memory chip comprises a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; a receiver that receives N target values from a memory controller, where N is an integer greater than zero; and a programming module that adjusts corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0062]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The programming module programs the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The programming module iteratively programs and measures each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0063]    In further features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The memory chip further comprises a read module that generates read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0064]    In still other features, the read module transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. The memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the N target values to analog form. The read module transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. The memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the N target values to analog form. 
         [0065]    In other features, the memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The receiver is a serial receiver that receives the N target values over a serial interface. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0066]    A memory controller comprises an input module that receives write data; a write level module that converts the write data to N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero; and a transmitter that transmits the N target values to a memory chip having a plurality of storage elements. The memory chip adjusts measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0067]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The write level module determines the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The write level module further comprises a mapping between write data and target values. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The write level module updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the memory chip. 
         [0068]    In other features, the memory controller further comprises a receiver that receives read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and a conversion module that converts the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0069]    In other features, the transmitter transmits the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and the receiver receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitter transmits the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and the receiver receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitter transmits the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and the receiver receives the read level data in digital form. The transmitter transmits the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and the receiver receives the read level data in digital form. 
         [0070]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data are binary. The transmitter and receiver form serial interfaces between the memory controller and the memory chip. The transmitter transmits the N target values using an embedded clock. The transmitter provides a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the N target values. A portable computer system includes the memory controller. An enterprise computing system includes the memory controller. 
         [0071]    A solid state memory system comprises first and second memory chips that include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit, a controller, and first and second delay modules. The controller receives write data, converts the write data to N target values, and transmits the N target values to the first and second memory chips. The first and second memory chips adjust corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero. The first delay module applies a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip. The first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values. The second delay module applies a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0072]    In other features, the solid state memory system further comprises a delay controller that sets the first and second delays. The solid state memory system further comprises a lookup table. The delay controller sets the first and second delays based on values from the lookup table. The delay controller adjusts the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0073]    A method of operating a memory chip comprises providing a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; receiving N target values from a memory controller, where N is an integer greater than zero; and adjusting corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0074]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The method further comprises programming the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The method further comprises iteratively programming and measuring each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0075]    In other features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The method further comprises generating read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmitting the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0076]    In other features, the method further comprises transmitting the read level data to the controller in analog form. The method further comprises converting the N target values to analog form. The method further comprises converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The method further comprises converting the N target values to analog form. 
         [0077]    A method of operating a memory controller comprises receiving write data; converting the write data to N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero; and transmitting the N target values to a memory chip having a plurality of storage elements. The memory chip adjusts measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0078]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The method further comprises determining the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The method further comprises storing a mapping between write data and target values. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The method further comprises updating the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the memory chip. 
         [0079]    In other features, the method further comprises receiving read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and converting the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0080]    In other features, the method further comprises transmitting the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and receiving the read level data in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and receiving the read level data in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and receiving the read level data in digital form. The method further comprises transmitting the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and receiving the read level data in digital form. 
         [0081]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data is binary. The transmitter transmits the N target values over a serial interface. The receiver receives the read level data over the serial interface. The transmitter transmits the N target values using an embedded clock. The transmitter provides a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the N target values. 
         [0082]    A method comprises receiving write data; converting the write data to N target values; transmitting the N target values to the first and second memory chips, which each include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; adjusting corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero; applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values; and applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted to the second memory chip. 
         [0083]    In other features, the method further comprises setting the first and second delays based on values from a lookup table. The method further comprises adjusting the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. 
         [0084]    A memory chip comprises a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; a receiver that receives programming parameters from a memory controller, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of N levels of the measurable parameter, where N is an integer greater than one; and a programming module that programs ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0085]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The programming module programs the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0086]    In other features, the memory chip further comprises a read module that generates read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0087]    In other features, the read module transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. The memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the programming parameters to analog form. The read module transmits the read level data to the controller in digital form. The memory chip further comprises an analog to digital converter that converts the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The memory chip further comprises a digital to analog converter that converts the programming parameters to analog form. 
         [0088]    In other features, the read module comprises a serial transmitter that transmits the read level data over a serial interface. The receiver comprises a serial receiver that receives the programming parameters over a serial interface. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0089]    A memory controller comprises an input module that receives write data; a write level module that determines N levels of a measurable parameter of a plurality of storage elements of a memory chip, that converts the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, wherein N is an integer greater than one; and a transmitter that transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip. The memory chip programs ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0090]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The write level module determines the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The write level module further comprises a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The write level module updates the mapping based on an error rate of data recovered from the memory chip. 
         [0091]    In other features, the memory controller further comprises a receiver that receives read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and a conversion module that converts the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0092]    In other features, the transmitter transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and the receiver receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitter transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and the receiver receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitter transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and the receiver receives the read level data in digital form. The transmitter transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and the receiver receives the read level data in digital form. 
         [0093]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data are binary. The transmitter and receiver form serial interfaces between the memory controller and the memory chip. The transmitter transmits the programming parameters using an embedded clock. The transmitter provides a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the programming parameters. A portable computer system includes the memory controller. An enterprise computing system includes the memory controller. 
         [0094]    A solid state memory system comprises first and second memory chips that include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit, a controller, and first and second memory chips. The controller determines N levels of the measurable parameter, receives write data, converts the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, and transmits the programming parameters to the first and second memory chips. The first and second memory chips program ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters, wherein N is an integer greater than one. The first delay module applies a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip. The first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values. The second delay module applies a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0095]    In other features, the solid state memory system further comprises a delay controller that sets the first and second delays. The solid state memory system further comprises a lookup table. The delay controller sets the first and second delays based on values from the lookup table. The delay controller adjusts the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0096]    A method of operating a memory chip comprises providing a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; receiving programming parameters from a memory controller, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of N levels of the measurable parameter, where N is an integer greater than one; and programming ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0097]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The method further comprises programming the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0098]    In other features, the method further comprises generating read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements; and transmitting the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements, where each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0099]    In other features, the method further comprises transmitting the read level data to the controller in analog form and receiving the programming parameters in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the read level data to the controller in digital form and receiving the programming parameters in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the read level data to the controller in digital form and receiving the programming parameters in digital form. 
         [0100]    In other features, the method further comprises transmitting the read level data to the controller in analog form and receiving the programming parameters in digital form. The method further comprises transmitting the read level data over a serial interface. The method further comprises receiving the programming parameters over a serial interface. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0101]    A method of operating a memory controller comprises determining N levels of a measurable parameter of a plurality of storage elements of a memory chip, wherein N is an integer greater than one; receiving write data; converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels; and transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip. The memory chip programs ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0102]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The method further comprises determining the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The method further comprises storing a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The method further comprises determining the mapping during manufacturing. 
         [0103]    In other features, the method further comprises updating the mapping based on an error rate of data recovered from the memory chip. The method further comprises receiving read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and converting the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements, where each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0104]    In other features, the method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and receiving the read level data in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and receiving the read level data in analog form. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and receiving the read level data in digital form. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and receiving the read level data in digital form. 
         [0105]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data are binary. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip over a serial interface. The method further comprises receiving the read level data over the serial interface. The method further comprises transmitting the programming parameters using an embedded clock. The method further comprises providing a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the programming parameters. 
         [0106]    A method comprises providing first and second memory chips that include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; determining N levels of the measurable parameter, wherein N is an integer greater than one; receiving write data; converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels; transmitting the programming parameters to the first and second memory chips, where the first and second memory chips program ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters; applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip, where the first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values; and applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0107]    In other features, the method further comprises setting the first and second delays based on values from a lookup table. The method further comprises adjusting the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0108]    A memory chip comprises a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; receiving means for receiving N target values from a memory controller, where N is an integer greater than zero; and programming means for adjusting corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0109]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The programming means programs the N storage elements by iteratively programming and measuring the measurable parameter of each of the N storage elements. The programming means iteratively programs and measures each of the N storage elements until the corresponding measurable parameter differs from a corresponding one of the N target values by less than a predetermined amount. 
         [0110]    In other features, the predetermined amount is one of a predetermined percentage and a predetermined absolute value. The memory chip further comprises reading means for generating read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and transmits the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0111]    In other features, the reading means transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. The memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the N target values to analog form. The reading means transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. The memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the N target values to analog form. 
         [0112]    In other features, the memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The receiving means comprises a serial receiving means that receives the N target values over a serial interface. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0113]    A memory controller comprises input means for receiving write data; write level means for converting the write data to N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero; and transmitting means for transmitting the N target values to a memory chip having a plurality of storage elements. The memory chip adjusts measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values. 
         [0114]    In other features, each of the N target values includes at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The write level means determines the N target values based upon values stored during manufacturing. The write level means further comprises a mapping between write data and target values. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The write level means updates the mapping based on an error rate of data retrieved from the memory chip. 
         [0115]    In other features, the memory controller further comprises receiving means for receiving read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and conversion means for converting the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0116]    In other features, the transmitting means transmits the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and the receiving means receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitting means transmits the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and the receiving means receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitting means transmits the N target values to the memory chip in digital form and the receiving means receives the read level data in digital form. The transmitting means transmits the N target values to the memory chip in analog form and the receiving means receives the read level data in digital form. 
         [0117]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data are binary. The transmitting means and receiving means form serial interfaces between the memory controller and the memory chip. The transmitting means transmits the N target values using an embedded clock. The transmitting means provides a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the N target values. A portable computer system includes the memory controller. An enterprise computing system includes the memory controller. 
         [0118]    A solid state memory system comprises first and second memory chips that include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit, control means, and first and second delay means. The control means is for receiving write data, for converting the write data to N target values, and for transmitting the N target values to the first and second memory chips. The first and second memory chips adjust corresponding measurable parameters of N storage elements of the plurality of storage elements to the N target values, where N is an integer greater than zero. The first delay means is for applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip. The first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values. The second delay means is for applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0119]    In other features, the solid state memory system further comprises delay control means for setting the first and second delays. The delay control means sets the first and second delays based on values from the lookup table. The delay control means adjusts the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0120]    A memory chip comprises a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit; receiving means for receiving programming parameters from a memory controller, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of N levels of the measurable parameter, where N is an integer greater than one; and programming means for programming ones of the plurality of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0121]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The programming means programs the ones of the plurality of storage elements using predetermined parameters and the programming parameters. The programming parameters include at least one of programming time and programming pulse width, and the predetermined parameters include at least one of programming voltage and programming current. 
         [0122]    In other features, the memory chip further comprises reading means for generating read level data when reading one or more of the plurality of storage elements and for transmitting the read level data to the controller. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements. Each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. The reading means transmits the read level data to the controller in analog form. 
         [0123]    In other features, the memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the programming parameters to analog form. The reading means transmits the read level data to the controller in digital form. The memory chip further comprises analog to digital conversion means for converting the read level data to digital form before the read level data is transmitted to the controller. The memory chip further comprises digital to analog conversion means for converting the programming parameters to analog form. 
         [0124]    In other features, the reading means comprises a serial transmitter that transmits the read level data over a serial interface. The receiving means comprises a serial receiving means that receives the programming parameters over a serial interface. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. 
         [0125]    A memory controller comprises input means for receiving write data; write level means for determining N levels of a measurable parameter of a plurality of storage elements of a memory chip, and for converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, wherein N is an integer greater than one; and transmitting means for transmitting the programming parameters to the memory chip. The memory chip programs ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters. 
         [0126]    In other features, each of the programming parameters includes at least one of programming time, programming voltage, programming current, and programming pulse width. The write level means determines the programming parameters based upon values stored during manufacturing. The write level means further comprises a mapping between write data and programming parameters. The mapping is determined during manufacturing. The write level means updates the mapping based on an error rate of data recovered from the memory chip. 
         [0127]    In other features, the memory controller further comprises receiving means for receiving read level data from the memory chip corresponding to one or more of the plurality of storage elements, and conversion means for converting the read level data to recovered data. The read level data comprises one or more measured parameters from the one or more of the plurality of storage elements, where each of the measured parameters comprises at least one of current, voltage, resistance, and threshold voltage. 
         [0128]    In other features, the transmitting means transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and the receiving means receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitting means transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and the receiving means receives the read level data in analog form. The transmitting means transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in digital form and the receiving means receives the read level data in digital form. The transmitting means transmits the programming parameters to the memory chip in analog form and the receiving means receives the read level data in digital form. 
         [0129]    In other features, the write data and the recovered data are binary. The transmitting means and receiving means form serial interfaces between the memory controller and the memory chip. The transmitting means transmits the programming parameters using an embedded clock. The transmitting means provides a discrete clock signal to the memory chip for latching the programming parameters. A portable computer system includes the memory controller. An enterprise computing system includes the memory controller. 
         [0130]    A solid state memory system comprises first and second memory chips that include a plurality of storage elements, each of the plurality of storage elements having a measurable parameter that varies between a lower limit and an upper limit, control means, and first and second delay means. The control means is for determining N levels of the measurable parameter, for receiving write data, for converting the write data to programming parameters, each of the programming parameters corresponding to one of the N levels, and for transmitting the programming parameters to the first and second memory chips. The first and second memory chips program ones of the pluralities of storage elements using the programming parameters, wherein N is an integer greater than one. The first delay means is for applying a variable first delay to a first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the first memory chip. The first signal includes one of a discrete clock signal and the N target values. The second delay means is for applying a variable second delay to the first signal when the first signal is transmitted from the controller to the second memory chip. 
         [0131]    In other features, the solid state memory system further comprises delay controlling means for setting the first and second delays. The delay controlling means sets the first and second delays based on values from a lookup table. The delay controlling means adjusts the first and second delays based on feedback from the first and second memory chips, respectively. The storage elements comprise nonvolatile storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level phase-change storage elements. The storage elements comprise multi-level charge-storage elements. A portable computer system includes the solid state memory system. An enterprise computing system includes the solid state memory system. 
         [0132]    Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the preferred embodiment of the disclosure, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure. 
     
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
         [0133]    The present disclosure will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein: 
           [0134]      FIG. 1  is a graphical representation of exemplary probability density functions (pdfs) for a four-predefined-level write scheme; 
           [0135]      FIG. 2  is a graphical representation of exemplary pdfs for a four-predefined-level write scheme when the pdfs differ; 
           [0136]      FIG. 3  is a functional block diagram of a memory system according to the prior art; 
           [0137]      FIG. 4  is a functional block diagram of an exemplary memory controller that sends and receives digital data representing level information to a memory chip; 
           [0138]      FIG. 5  is a functional block diagram of an exemplary memory controller that communicates with the memory chip using an embedded clock; 
           [0139]      FIG. 6  is a functional block diagram of an exemplary memory controller that transmits digital write information to a memory chip and receives analog read information; 
           [0140]      FIG. 7  is a functional block diagram of an exemplary memory controller that sends analog write data to a memory chip and receives analog read data; 
           [0141]      FIG. 8  is a functional block diagram of an exemplary system where deskewing circuitry is moved to a memory controller from memory chips; 
           [0142]      FIG. 9A  is a functional block diagram of a hard disk drive; 
           [0143]      FIG. 9B  is a functional block diagram of a DVD drive; 
           [0144]      FIG. 9C  is a functional block diagram of a high definition television; 
           [0145]      FIG. 9D  is a functional block diagram of a vehicle control system; 
           [0146]      FIG. 9E  is a functional block diagram of a cellular phone; 
           [0147]      FIG. 9F  is a functional block diagram of a set top box; and 
           [0148]      FIG. 9G  is a functional block diagram of a mobile device. 
       
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
       [0149]    The following description is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the disclosure, its application, or uses. For purposes of clarity, the same reference numbers will be used in the drawings to identify similar elements. As used herein, the phrase at least one of A, B, and C should be construed to mean a logical (A or B or C), using a non-exclusive logical or. It should be understood that steps within a method may be executed in different order without altering the principles of the present disclosure. 
         [0150]    As used herein, the term module refers to an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), an electronic circuit, a processor (shared, dedicated, or group) and memory that execute one or more software or firmware programs, a combinational logic circuit, and/or other suitable components that provide the described functionality. 
         [0151]    The prior art describes predefined levels for storage elements that are set at design time. Newer and emerging multi-level memory technologies may have level probability density functions (pdfs) and optimum level choices that are not fully characterized at design time. For example, characteristics that influence level determinations may vary across manufacturing lots, from wafer to wafer, or even across a single wafer. In addition, these characteristics may change with time and with the number of program or erase cycles that a storage element sustains. 
         [0152]    Determining these characteristics may be accomplished using intelligent firmware, mapping tables, and/or digital signal processing. These characteristics may relate to the pdf of what level is read when a defined level will be written. When a defined level is likely to be misread, it may need to be spaced further away from other defined levels. For example, for a storage element that stores 2 bits, 4 defined levels may be defined, where one defined level is spaced further away from the other three defined levels. As the memory chip wears, fewer defined levels may be used and/or spacing between the levels may be increased. In addition, the defined levels may be determined and implemented differently across different areas of a memory chip. 
         [0153]    Instead of replicating the capability to determine and use defined levels in each memory chip, a single memory controller may perform some or all of these functions. By locating level control in the memory controller, multiple memory chips do not each have to have this functionality. In addition, fabricating structures for level control, such as mixed signal and/or digital signal processing structures, in the memory chips may require more complex fabrication processes. Moving level control circuitry to the memory controller may decrease the types of devices that need to be fabricated in the memory chip. When memory chips primarily include storage elements, process steps required for other devices may be eliminated, thereby decreasing the cost of memory chips. 
         [0154]    In addition, a memory controller may include storage for firmware and an interface for updating the firmware. Replicating this firmware in each memory chip may increase the cost over a single memory controller including the firmware storage. In addition, adding a firmware interface to each memory chip may add increased cost to the memory chip and/or to the cost of the printed circuit board on which the memory chip is located and may introduce signal integrity problems. 
         [0155]    In the prior art, a memory controller provides user data to the memory chip, which then translates the user data into predefined levels. According to the principles of the present disclosure, a memory controller may determine optimum defined levels and may send the actual level information to the memory chip. In addition, during a read, the measurements of storage elements may be relayed to the memory controller. The memory controller may apply more advanced processing to extract valid data. This is in contrast to the memory chip making hard decisions based on the measurements and returning sometimes incorrect user data. 
         [0156]      FIG. 4  depicts an approach where the memory controller transmits digital data to the memory chip indicating programming parameters to program a storage element to a defined level. For example, the memory controller may receive user data, which can be represented in a storage element as a first defined level. The memory controller will then provide programming parameters to the memory chip that will cause a storage element in the memory chip to reach the first defined level. 
         [0157]    For example, the first defined level may define a first quantity of charge in a charge-storage-based storage element, which will result in the storage element having a first threshold voltage. The programming parameters the memory controller provides may include a programming voltage and/or a programming time that will raise the quantity of charge in the storage element to the first quantity. The memory chip may then program the storage element at the specified programming voltage for the specified programming time. 
         [0158]    To perform a read, the memory chip measures the level of the storage element. For example, the memory chip may apply a voltage to the storage element, and measure the resulting current. This may be an indication of the threshold voltage of the storage element, which indicates the amount of charge stored in the storage element. 
         [0159]    The memory chip of  FIG. 4  converts the measured value into a digital value, which is returned to the memory controller. This digital value is not a hard decision on what user data was stored, but instead represents the level that was read. The memory controller can then process this information to determine which defined level was originally written, which is then mapped to user data. 
         [0160]      FIG. 5  depicts a system similar to that of  FIG. 4 , except that a separate clock used to transfer digital data between the memory controller and memory chip is eliminated. Instead, an embedded clock is used along with clock recovery.  FIG. 6  is a system where the memory chip does not include an analog to digital converter. Accordingly, the memory chip returns an analog value to the memory controller, which then converts that value to digital form. 
         [0161]    Due to the complexity, mixed signal requirements, and layout space, moving the analog to digital converter to the memory controller may save money on each memory chip that is used in the system. In  FIG. 7 , the digital to analog converter is relocated to the memory controller. The memory controller therefore sends analog write information and receives analog read information. Address information may still be sent digitally, as shown in  FIG. 7 . 
         [0162]      FIG. 8  shows an exemplary implementation of clock deskewing in the memory controller. By varying the delay in digital signals sent to the memory chip, the clock received by memory chip can be used directly to latch data. For example, in  FIG. 8 , the memory controller includes a delay module for each of the memory chips to align data for each of the chips with the clock.  FIGS. 9A-9G  depict exemplary devices in which memory controllers and chips according to the present disclosure may be used. 
         [0163]    Referring now to  FIG. 4 , a memory controller  202  that sends and receives digital data representing level information to a memory chip  204  is presented. The memory controller  202  includes a control module  210 . The control module  210  receives access (read and write) requests from a host (not shown). 
         [0164]    The control module  210  outputs address and data information to a multiplexer  212  and a write level module  214 . For address information, the multiplexer  212  outputs the address information from the control module  210  to a high-speed modulator  216 . When the control module  210  outputs data, the write level module  214  may convert user data into digital level data. The multiplexer  212  then outputs this digital level data to the high-speed modulator  216 . The write level module  214  may store a mapping table, received from the control module  210 , of user data to programming parameters for defined levels. 
         [0165]    The programming parameters may include programming voltages/currents, programming times, programming pulse widths, etc. Additionally or alternatively, the programming parameters may include a desired storage element parameter. This may be used as a target for open-loop or closed-loop programming. For example, when using a charge storage element, the desired storage element parameter may be a desired threshold voltage or a desired current at a predetermined read voltage. For example, when using a phase-change storage element, the desired storage element parameter may be a desired resistance. 
         [0166]    The high-speed modulator  216  converts the received information into a serial stream, which is output from the memory controller  202  by a line driver  218 . The high-speed modulator  216  may include a serializer, which may be implemented as part of a serializer/deserializer, and may include a high-speed multi-bit link. A signal conversion module  230  in the memory chip  204  receives the data from the line driver  218 . The data from the line driver  218  may be carried by a low voltage differential signaling (LVDS) interface, and the signal conversion module  230  may include a differential amplifier. 
         [0167]    The memory chip  204  includes a latch  232 , which latches an output of the signal conversion module  230  based on a received clock signal. The received clock signal may be interpreted by a deskewing module  234 . The deskewing module  234  may include, for example, a delay locked loop, a phase locked loop, and/or a calibrated delay element. 
         [0168]    An output of the latch  232  is received by a high-speed demodulator  236 . The high-speed demodulator  236  may include a deserializer, which may be implemented as part of a serializer/deserializer, and may include a high-speed multi-bit link. The high-speed demodulator  236  outputs address and data information. Indication of whether the information is address or data may be included in the serial stream or may be indicated by sideband data, such as a separate control line or bus. Address information may be received by a digital buffer  238 . The buffer  238  then presents one or more addresses to a memory array  240  for reading or writing. 
         [0169]    Data information may be received by a digital to analog converter (DAC)  242 . The data information may include one or more programming parameters for programming a storage element of the memory array  240  to a desired level. The DAC  242  applies an analog version of the received digital value to the memory array  240 . 
         [0170]    If multiple storage elements will be programmed in the memory array  240  at the same time, a buffer (not shown) may be inserted between the DAC  242  and the memory array  240 . The buffer can then accumulate analog values from the DAC  242  and present them to the memory array  240  for programming. Additionally or alternatively, multiple instances of the DAC  242  may produce analog output values in parallel. 
         [0171]    The analog values may represent target values, such as target threshold voltages or target resistances. In various implementations, instead of being measured directly, these values may be inferred from values such as measured currents or measured voltages. These values may be measured when a known voltage or current is applied to the cell. 
         [0172]    In open-loop programming, these values may not be measured until the storage element is read. In closed-loop programming, these values may be measured after each iteration of programming. Closed-loop programming may complete once the measured value differs from the target value by less than a predetermined amount. This predetermined amount may be, for example, a percentage or an absolute value. The predetermined amount may be proportional to the maximum number of defined levels in the storage element. For example, if there are up to four defined levels for a measured parameter of a storage cell, the predetermined amount may be a predetermined percentage of a quarter of the possible range of the measured parameter. 
         [0173]    During a read, the buffer  238  presents the address to the memory array  240 . The memory array  240  outputs analog values to an analog to digital converter (ADC)  244 . The memory array  240  may output multiple analog values from multiple storage elements to multiple instances of the ADC  244 . In various other implementations, the memory array  240  may output in sequence a number of analog values to the ADC  244 . Each of these values may be produced by a new address received from the buffer  238 , or may be output based on logic internal to the memory array  240 . 
         [0174]    The ADC  244  outputs digital values to a high-speed modulator  246 . An output of the high-speed modulator  246  is output to the memory controller  202  via a line driver  248 . In various implementations, the serial link between the memory controller  202  and the memory chip  204  may be multiplexed between transmitting write data to the memory chip  204  and returning read data to the memory controller  202 . 
         [0175]    While receiving write data, the line driver  248  may be tristated—i.e., its output placed into a high impedance state. Similarly, while receiving read data, the line driver  218  may be tristated. If duplex operation is desired, the line driver  248  may output read data to the memory controller  202  via a second serial link. If greater throughput is desired, a separate serial link may be added for address information, while the original serial link is used for data information. In addition, the system of  FIG. 4  may support various forms of burst mode, such as where a single address is sent followed by multiple pieces of data for that and subsequent addresses. 
         [0176]    Data output by the line driver  248  is received by a signal conversion module  260  in the memory controller  202 . The signal conversion module  260  may include a differential amplifier, which outputs data to a high-speed demodulator  262 . The high-speed demodulator  262  outputs digital values from the memory chip  204  to the control module  210 . These digital values may indicate the levels read from storage elements in the memory array  240 . For example, the digital values may represent threshold voltages of storage elements. Alternately, the digital values may represent measured currents, which may be converted into threshold voltages. 
         [0177]    The control module  210  interprets the received values to recover the user data that had been stored in the memory array  240 . For example, the control module  210  may have a mapping for each of the connected memory chips, including the memory chip  204 . For example, each mapping may be from user data to defined threshold voltages. The control module  210  may recover the user data by identifying which one of the defined threshold voltages is closest to the received threshold voltage. The mapping is then used to determine the user data corresponding to the identified threshold voltage. 
         [0178]    The control module  210  may be programmed with level information for the memory chip  204  at the time of assembly. For example, the memory chip  204 , or the lot or wafer from which the memory chip  204  is taken, may be characterized. Characterization may determine how many defined levels can be stored in storage elements of the memory chip  204  and how closely spaced each of the defined levels should be. The values from calibration may be stored into firmware of the memory controller  202  after the memory controller  202  and the memory chip  204  are placed on a circuit board. 
         [0179]    In various implementations, there may be a number of discrete levels available. For example, a phase-change storage element may include two phase-change regions, each of which may be in a crystalline or non-crystalline state. The phase-change storage element may then offer four discrete resistances based on the state of each phase-change region. Characterization may involve determining whether each of the discrete levels is achievable. Characterization may also include determining the programming parameters used to program the storage elements to each of the discrete levels. 
         [0180]    Additionally or alternatively, the control module  210  may itself perform characterization. This may be performed upon power on, at times specified by the host, and/or at periodic intervals during use of the memory chip  204 . For example, the control module  210  may perform characterization by writing and reading test values to determine optimum levels. 
         [0181]    Characterization may result in a mapping table that maps each value of user data to a defined level and one or more associated programming parameters. The control module  210  may store a mapping table for each connected memory chip, including the memory chip  204 . The control module  210  may also store multiple mapping tables corresponding to different areas of the memory chip  204 . For example, for memory blocks that have higher error rates, the control module  210  may store a mapping table including fewer defined levels. The control module  210  may use error control coding to protect data written to the memory chip  204 . The control module  210  may also adapt mapping tables based on error rates, changing the defined levels in the mapping table until data stored using that mapping table experiences a lower error rate. 
         [0182]    Storage elements may degrade and/or experience changes in properties as the number of erases, writes, and/or reads increases. For example, the control module  210  may store mapping tables for different numbers of erases. When data is written to storage element, the number of erases the storage element has experienced determines the mapping table used. The mapping table or tables may be sent to the write level module  214 , which can subsequently translate each write request into appropriate programming parameters. 
         [0183]    The memory controller  202  includes a clock generator  264 , whose output is driven to the memory chip  204  using a line driver  266 . The dedicated clock signal may allow for rapid power-up and power-down of the memory chip  204 . The clock may also be used by the memory controller  202  to receive data from the memory chip  204 . The clock generator  264  may further generate one or more clocks for other components of the memory controller  202 . For example, a latch (not shown) similar to the latch  232  of the memory chip  204  may be implemented in the memory controller  202  between the signal conversion module  260  and the high-speed demodulator  262 . 
         [0184]    The memory chip  204  may also include a write calibration module  270 . For example, in phase-change memory (PCM), write calibration may be performed within the memory chip  204 . The write calibration module  270  may output address data to the buffer  238  and level information to the DAC  242  and may receive read information from the ADC  244 . In implementations where the memory chip  204  does not include the write calibration module  270 , the ADC  244  may not be required and may be moved to the memory controller  202 , as shown in  FIG. 6 . 
         [0185]    Referring now to  FIG. 5 , a memory controller  302  that communicates with a memory chip  304  using an embedded clock is depicted. The memory controller  302  includes a high-speed modulator  310  that receives the output of the multiplexer  212 . The high-speed modulator  310  may include clock and coding circuitry that encodes a clock signal into the bits to be transmitted. For example, the high-speed modulator  310  may use a line code, such as Manchester coding, 8B/10B, or non-return-to-zero. The line driver  218  then drives the signal to the memory chip  304 . 
         [0186]    The signal is received by the signal conversion module  230 . The signal is also received by a clock recovery module  312 . Alternatively, the clock recovery module  312  may receive the output of the signal conversion module  230 . The clock recovery module  312  recovers the embedded clock and outputs the recovered clock to the clock input of the latch  232 . 
         [0187]    When transmitting read data to the memory controller  302 , a high-speed modulator  320  in the memory chip  304  may use the clock recovered by the clock recovery module  312 . Alternatively, the high-speed modulator  320  may embed the recovered clock or another clock into the data. The memory controller  302  includes a high-speed demodulator  322 , which may extract a clock embedded by the high-speed modulator  320 . Alternatively, the high-speed demodulator  322  may use the clock from the clock generator  264  of the memory controller  302 . 
         [0188]    Referring now to  FIG. 6 , a memory controller  402  that transmits digital write information to a memory chip  404  and receives analog read information is shown. A control module  410  in the memory controller  402  outputs user data to the write level module  214  and address information to the multiplexer  212 . The write level module  214  converts user data into digital programming parameters for storing a defined level corresponding to that data. 
         [0189]    The output of the write level module  214  is sent to the high-speed modulator  216 . The memory controller  402  outputs serialized digital information via the line driver  218 . This information may be data information to be translated by the DAC  242  or may be address information. When a read is performed, the memory array  240  outputs one or more analog values to an analog line driver  420 . The analog line driver  420  outputs these analog values to an ADC  430  of the memory controller  402 . 
         [0190]    The control module  410  receives digital data from the ADC  430  indicating the analog values read from the memory array  240 . The control module  410  then converts these values into user data. As shown in  FIG. 6 , the bus between the memory controller  402  and the memory chip  404  may be multiplexed to carry both digital and analog data. However, to optimize the design for each of these types of data and/or to improve signal integrity, a separate digital bus and analog bus may be created. The analog line driver  420  could then transmit data to the ADC  430  using the analog bus. 
         [0191]    Referring now to  FIG. 7 , a memory controller  502  that sends analog write data to a memory chip  504  and receives analog read data is shown. In various implementations, such as that shown in  FIG. 7 , the address data is still sent digitally. A control module  510  outputs digital address data to the high-speed modulator  216 . The digital address data is transmitted to the memory chip  504  via the line driver  218 . Alternatively, the digital address data may be transmitted to the memory chip  504  using a parallel bus. 
         [0192]    The digital address data is applied to the memory array  240  by the buffer  238 . The analog output of the memory array  240  is transmitted to the ADC  430  of the memory controller  502  by the analog line driver  420 . The control module  510  outputs write data to the write level module  214 . The write level module  214  translates this data into digital programming parameters, which are output to a DAC  520 . 
         [0193]    The DAC  520  converts the programming parameters into analog values that are sent to an analog buffer  524  of the memory chip  504  via a second analog line driver  528 . The analog buffer  524  may amplify the signal received from the second analog line driver  528 . In addition, the analog buffer  524  may buffer multiple analog signals, which may then be applied in parallel or sequentially to the memory array  240 . 
         [0194]    In various implementations, a multiplexed bus may be used between the second analog line driver  528  and the analog buffer  524  and the analog line driver  420  and the ADC  430 , as shown in  FIG. 6 . In various implementations, the memory chip  504  may include the ADC  430 , and output digital data to the memory controller  502 . 
         [0195]    Referring now to  FIG. 8 , a system where deskewing circuitry is moved to a memory controller  602  from memory chips  604  is shown. By including deskewing circuitry, the memory controller  602  removes the burden of deskewing from the memory chips  604 , of which three are shown,  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2 , and  604 - 3 . The memory controller  602  includes the clock generator  264  and the line driver  266 , which drives the clock from the clock generator  264  to the memory chips  604 . 
         [0196]    The memory controller  602  includes an output module  610 , which outputs data for the memory chips  604 . The output module  610  may include the write level module  214  and/or the high-speed modulator  216  of  FIG. 4  and/or may include any other module in the memory controller  602  that transmits data to the memory chips  604 . The values from the output module are received by three delay modules  620 - 1 ,  620 - 2 , and  620 - 3 , which correspond to the memory chip  604 - 1 , the memory chip  604 - 2 , and the memory chip  604 - 3 , respectively. 
         [0197]    The delay modules  620  are controlled by a delay control module  630 . The delay control module  630  may receives feedback from the memory chips  604  and adjust the amount of delay introduced by each of the delay modules  620 . For example, the delay control module  630  may receive signal quality information from the latch modules  650 , and adjust the delay of the delay modules  620  until adequate signal integrity is achieved. The delay modules  620  delay the signals from the output module  610 , and these signals are driven to the memory chips  604  by line drivers  640 - 1 ,  640 - 2 , and  640 - 3 , respectively. 
         [0198]    In various implementations, the delay control module  630  may include a lookup table that stores delay values for the delay modules  620 . The lookup table may be created when the system is assembled or designed. In various implementations, the delay control module  630  may send a time-varying pattern of data to the memory chips  604 . The memory chips  604  may transmit to the delay control module  630  the values received. The delay control module  630  may use this information to determine the appropriate delay. The delay control module  630  may increase or decrease the delay by small increments for the memory chips  604  that do not return valid data. 
         [0199]    The driven values are then latched by latch modules  650 - 1 ,  650 - 2 , and  650 - 3  in the memory chips  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2 , and  604 - 3 , respectively. The latch modules  650  are clocked by the clock received from the line driver  266 . By adjusting the amount of delay introduced by the delay modules  620 , the delay control module  630  can ensure that the data arrives at the latch modules  650  synchronously with the clock signal. 
         [0200]    If memory chip  604 - 1  is located closer to the memory controller  602 , the delay introduced by the delay module  620 - 1  may be greater to offset the shorter distance to reach the memory chip  604 - 1 . While multiple delay modules adjust the data in  FIG. 8 , in various other implementations, multiple delay modules may adjust the clock while a single data stream is output. In such implementations, the delay control module  630  would control the delay introduced to each clock signal, so that they are synchronously received with the data at each of the memory chips  604 . 
         [0201]    In  FIGS. 9A-9G , various exemplary implementations incorporating the teachings of the present disclosure are shown. Referring now to  FIG. 9A , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a buffer  711  and/or nonvolatile memory  712  of a hard disk drive (HDD)  700 . The HDD  700  includes a hard disk assembly (HDA)  701  and an HDD printed circuit board (PCB)  702 . The HDA  701  may include a magnetic medium  703 , such as one or more platters that store data, and a read/write device  704 . 
         [0202]    The read/write device  704  may be arranged on an actuator arm  705  and may read and write data on the magnetic medium  703 . Additionally, the HDA  701  includes a spindle motor  706  that rotates the magnetic medium  703  and a voice-coil motor (VCM)  707  that actuates the actuator arm  705 . A preamplifier device  708  amplifies signals generated by the read/write device  704  during read operations and provides signals to the read/write device  704  during write operations. 
         [0203]    The HDD PCB  702  includes a read/write channel module (hereinafter, “read channel”)  709 , a hard disk controller (HDC) module  710 , the buffer  711 , nonvolatile memory  712 , a processor  713 , and a spindle/VCM driver module  714 . The read channel  709  processes data received from and transmitted to the preamplifier device  708 . The HDC module  710  controls components of the HDA  701  and communicates with an external device (not shown) via an I/O interface  715 . The external device may include a computer, a multimedia device, a mobile computing device, etc. The I/O interface  715  may include wireline and/or wireless communication links. 
         [0204]    The HDC module  710  may receive data from the HDA  701 , the read channel  709 , the buffer  711 , nonvolatile memory  712 , the processor  713 , the spindle/VCM driver module  714 , and/or the I/O interface  715 . The processor  713  may process the data, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting. The processed data may be output to the HDA  701 , the read channel  709 , the buffer  711 , nonvolatile memory  712 , the processor  713 , the spindle/VCM driver module  714 , and/or the I/O interface  715 . 
         [0205]    The HDC module  710  may use the buffer  711  and/or nonvolatile memory  712  to store data related to the control and operation of the HDD  700 . The buffer  711  may include DRAM, SDRAM, etc. Nonvolatile memory  712  may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The spindle/VCM driver module  714  controls the spindle motor  706  and the VCM  707 . The HDD PCB  702  includes a power supply  716  that provides power to the components of the HDD  700 . 
         [0206]    Referring now to  FIG. 9B , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a buffer  722  and/or nonvolatile memory  723  of a DVD drive  718  or of a CD drive (not shown). The DVD drive  718  includes a DVD PCB  719  and a DVD assembly (DVDA)  720 . The DVD PCB  719  includes a DVD control module  721 , the buffer  722 , nonvolatile memory  723 , a processor  724 , a spindle/FM (feed motor) driver module  725 , an analog front-end module  726 , a write strategy module  727 , and a DSP module  728 . 
         [0207]    The DVD control module  721  controls components of the DVDA  720  and communicates with an external device (not shown) via an I/O interface  729 . The external device may include a computer, a multimedia device, a mobile computing device, etc. The I/O interface  729  may include wireline and/or wireless communication links. 
         [0208]    The DVD control module  721  may receive data from the buffer  722 , nonvolatile memory  723 , the processor  724 , the spindle/FM driver module  725 , the analog front-end module  726 , the write strategy module  727 , the DSP module  728 , and/or the I/O interface  729 . The processor  724  may process the data, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting. The DSP module  728  performs signal processing, such as video and/or audio coding/decoding. The processed data may be output to the buffer  722 , nonvolatile memory  723 , the processor  724 , the spindle/FM driver module  725 , the analog front-end module  726 , the write strategy module  727 , the DSP module  728 , and/or the I/O interface  729 . 
         [0209]    The DVD control module  721  may use the buffer  722  and/or nonvolatile memory  723  to store data related to the control and operation of the DVD drive  718 . The buffer  722  may include DRAM, SDRAM, etc. Nonvolatile memory  723  may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The DVD PCB  719  includes a power supply  730  that provides power to the components of the DVD drive  718 . 
         [0210]    The DVDA  720  may include a preamplifier device  731 , a laser driver  732 , and an optical device  733 , which may be an optical read/write (ORW) device or an optical read-only (OR) device. A spindle motor  734  rotates an optical storage medium  735 , and a feed motor  736  actuates the optical device  733  relative to the optical storage medium  735 . 
         [0211]    When reading data from the optical storage medium  735 , the laser driver provides a read power to the optical device  733 . The optical device  733  detects data from the optical storage medium  735 , and transmits the data to the preamplifier device  731 . The analog front-end module  726  receives data from the preamplifier device  731  and performs such functions as filtering and A/D conversion. To write to the optical storage medium  735 , the write strategy module  727  transmits power level and timing data to the laser driver  732 . The laser driver  732  controls the optical device  733  to write data to the optical storage medium  735 . 
         [0212]    Referring now to  FIG. 9C , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in memory  741  and/or a storage device  742  of a high definition television (HDTV)  737 . The HDTV  737  includes an HDTV control module  738 , a display  739 , a power supply  740 , memory  741 , the storage device  742 , a network interface  743 , and an external interface  745 . If the network interface  743  includes a wireless local area network interface, an antenna (not shown) may be included. 
         [0213]    The HDTV  737  can receive input signals from the network interface  743  and/or the external interface  745 , which can send and receive data via cable, broadband Internet, and/or satellite. The HDTV control module  738  may process the input signals, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting, and generate output signals. The output signals may be communicated to one or more of the display  739 , memory  741 , the storage device  742 , the network interface  743 , and the external interface  745 . 
         [0214]    Memory  741  may include random access memory (RAM) and/or nonvolatile memory. Nonvolatile memory may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The storage device  742  may include an optical storage drive, such as a DVD drive, and/or a hard disk drive (HDD). The HDTV control module  738  communicates externally via the network interface  743  and/or the external interface  745 . The power supply  740  provides power to the components of the HDTV  737 . 
         [0215]    Referring now to  FIG. 9D , the teachings of the disclosure may be implemented in memory  749  and/or a storage device  750  of a vehicle  746 . The vehicle  746  may include a vehicle control system  747 , a power supply  748 , memory  749 , the storage device  750 , and a network interface  752 . If the network interface  752  includes a wireless local area network interface, an antenna (not shown) may be included. The vehicle control system  747  may be a powertrain control system, a body control system, an entertainment control system, an anti-lock braking system (ABS), a navigation system, a telematics system, a lane departure system, an adaptive cruise control system, etc. 
         [0216]    The vehicle control system  747  may communicate with one or more sensors  754  and generate one or more output signals  756 . The sensors  754  may include temperature sensors, acceleration sensors, pressure sensors, rotational sensors, airflow sensors, etc. The output signals  756  may control engine operating parameters, transmission operating parameters, suspension parameters, etc. 
         [0217]    The power supply  748  provides power to the components of the vehicle  746 . The vehicle control system  747  may store data in memory  749  and/or the storage device  750 . Memory  749  may include random access memory (RAM) and/or nonvolatile memory. Nonvolatile memory may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The storage device  750  may include an optical storage drive, such as a DVD drive, and/or a hard disk drive (HDD). The vehicle control system  747  may communicate externally using the network interface  752 . 
         [0218]    Referring now to  FIG. 9E , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in memory  764  and/or a storage device  766  of a cellular phone  758 . The cellular phone  758  includes a phone control module  760 , a power supply  762 , memory  764 , the storage device  766 , and a cellular network interface  767 . The cellular phone  758  may include a network interface  768 , a microphone  770 , an audio output  772  such as a speaker and/or output jack, a display  774 , and a user input device  776  such as a keypad and/or pointing device. If the network interface  768  includes a wireless local area network interface, an antenna (not shown) may be included. 
         [0219]    The phone control module  760  may receive input signals from the cellular network interface  767 , the network interface  768 , the microphone  770 , and/or the user input device  776 . The phone control module  760  may process signals, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting, and generate output signals. The output signals may be communicated to one or more of memory  764 , the storage device  766 , the cellular network interface  767 , the network interface  768 , and the audio output  772 . 
         [0220]    Memory  764  may include random access memory (RAM) and/or nonvolatile memory. Nonvolatile memory may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The storage device  766  may include an optical storage drive, such as a DVD drive, and/or a hard disk drive (HDD). The power supply  762  provides power to the components of the cellular phone  758 . 
         [0221]    Referring now to  FIG. 9F , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a memory  783  and/or a storage device  784  of a set top box  778 . The set top box  778  includes a set top control module  780 , a display  781 , a power supply  782 , memory  783 , the storage device  784 , and a network interface  785 . If the network interface  785  includes a wireless local area network interface, an antenna (not shown) may be included. 
         [0222]    The set top control module  780  may receive input signals from the network interface  785  and an external interface  787 , which can send and receive data via cable, broadband Internet, and/or satellite. The set top control module  780  may process signals, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting, and generate output signals. The output signals may include audio and/or video signals in standard and/or high definition formats. The output signals may be communicated to the network interface  785  and/or to the display  781 . The display  781  may include a television, a projector, and/or a monitor. 
         [0223]    The power supply  782  provides power to the components of the set top box  778 . Memory  783  may include random access memory (RAM) and/or nonvolatile memory. Nonvolatile memory may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The storage device  784  may include an optical storage drive, such as a DVD drive, and/or a hard disk drive (HDD). 
         [0224]    Referring now to  FIG. 9G , the teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a memory  792  and/or a storage device  793  of a mobile device  789 . The mobile device  789  may include a mobile device control module  790 , a power supply  791 , memory  792 , the storage device  793 , a network interface  794 , and an external interface  799 . If the network interface  794  includes a wireless local area network interface, an antenna (not shown) may be included. 
         [0225]    The mobile device control module  790  may receive input signals from the network interface  794  and/or the external interface  799 . The external interface  799  may include USB, infrared, and/or Ethernet. The input signals may include compressed audio and/or video, and may be compliant with the MP3 format. Additionally, the mobile device control module  790  may receive input from a user input  796  such as a keypad, touchpad, or individual buttons. The mobile device control module  790  may process input signals, including encoding, decoding, filtering, and/or formatting, and generate output signals. 
         [0226]    The mobile device control module  790  may output audio signals to an audio output  797  and video signals to a display  798 . The audio output  797  may include a speaker and/or an output jack. The display  798  may present a graphical user interface, which may include menus, icons, etc. The power supply  791  provides power to the components of the mobile device  789 . Memory  792  may include random access memory (RAM) and/or nonvolatile memory. 
         [0227]    Nonvolatile memory may include any suitable type of semiconductor or solid-state memory, such as flash memory (including NAND and NOR flash memory), phase-change memory, magnetic RAM, and multi-state memory, in which each memory cell has more than two states. The storage device  793  may include an optical storage drive, such as a DVD drive, and/or a hard disk drive (HDD). The mobile device may include a personal digital assistant, a media player, a laptop computer, a gaming console, or other mobile computing device. 
         [0228]    Memory controllers and memory chips according to the principles of the present disclosure may be used in high-performance and enterprise computing systems. Enterprise computing systems may provide services, such as file serving, database processing, and application hosting, to multiple users throughout an organization. Enterprise computing systems may be characterized by high uptime (such as 99.99% uptime), scalability, and large amounts of memory. In these situations, the benefits of the memory systems of the present disclosure, which may include reducing memory chip cost, may be amplified. 
         [0229]    Those skilled in the art can now appreciate from the foregoing description that the broad teachings of the disclosure can be implemented in a variety of forms. Therefore, while this disclosure includes particular examples, the true scope of the disclosure should not be so limited since other modifications will become apparent to the skilled practitioner upon a study of the drawings, the specification, and the following claims.