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Mars Hill Church was a Christian megachurch, founded by Mark Driscoll, Lief Moi, and Mike Gunn. It was a multi-site church based in Seattle, Washington and grew from a home Bible study to 15 locations in 4 U.S. states. Services were offered at its 15 locations; the church also podcast content of weekend services, and of conferences, on the Internet with more than 260,000 sermon views online every week. In 2013, Mars Hill had a membership of 6,489 and average weekly attendance of 12,329. Following controversy in 2014 involving founding pastor Mark Driscoll, attendance dropped to 8,0009,000 people per week. At the end of September, 2014, an investigation by the church elders found "bullying" and "patterns of persistent sinful behavior" by Driscoll. The church elders crafted a "restoration" plan to help Driscoll and save the church. Instead, Driscoll declined the restoration plan and resigned. On October 31, 2014, lead pastor Dave Bruskas announced plans to dissolve the church's 13 remaining campuses into autonomous entities, with the option of continuing, merging with other congregations, or disbanding, effective January 1, 2015. The Mars Hill network dissolved on January 1, 2015. History Early years Mars Hill Church was founded in spring 1996 by Mark Driscoll, Lief Moi and Mike Gunn. The church started at the rental house of Driscoll and his wife Grace with the blessing of Antioch Bible Church and the exodus of about 30 of its students. They outgrew the apartment and started meeting in the youth rooms of another church. The church had its first official service October 1996, with 160 people attending; attendance quickly fell to around 60 because of discussions about the visions and mission of the church. In the spring of 1997, the church expanded to two evening services. The transition to two different congregations resulted in some anxiety and stir by members who didn't want the church to grow bigger, but it resulted in growing attendance. Later that same year Mark Driscoll was invited to speak at a pastors' conference in California. Driscoll's speech influenced the emerging church movement, and changed the focus from reaching Generation X to reaching the postmodern world. The speech resulted in media coverage of Mars Hill Church and Mark Driscoll, and put Driscoll in connection with Leadership Network. The church continued growing. Inspired by Alan Roxburgh, Driscoll settled on an emerging and missional ecclesiology, and a complementarian view on women in ministry. The church installed the first team of elders and they took over much of the work teaching classes, counseling and training new leaders. Furthermore, the church started a course for new members, called the Gospel Class, to ensure that members were focused on the mission of the church and that they agreed with the central doctrinal statements of the church. The class had been running every quarter since. In the fall of 1999 the church had grown to 350 in attendance every week and was able to pay Driscoll full-time. Prior to 1999, Driscoll operated as an unpaid pastor for three years. Multisite church In 2003, Mars Hill Church moved into a renovated hardware store in the Ballard neighborhood of Seattle. In 2006, in an effort to reduce the overcrowding at its services, Mars Hill opened its first satellite campus in Shoreline. This change also marked their transition to a multi-site church, using video sermons and other multimedia improvements to the church's web site to connect the campuses. Later in 2006 Mars Hill acquired two new properties in West Seattle and Wedgwood, which became their West Seattle and Lake City campuses. Since then, new Mars Hill locations were added using a multi-campus "meta-church" structure, connecting Driscoll's sermons via high-definition video to the remote campuses during weekly worship services. This format allowed each location to retain local leadership and ministries while under the leadership of the main campus. A fourth and fifth Mars Hill location opened in 2007, and in 2008 a sixth location was added in downtown Seattle. A seventh campus, in Olympia, Washington, opened in Fall 2008 and an eighth campus, the first outside of Washington state, opened in Albuquerque, New Mexico in Fall 2009. The church launched four new churches on January 15 in Portland (Oregon), Rainier Valley (Seattle), Sammamish (near Seattle), and Orange County (California), the same day as the first sermon in the "Real Marriage" sermon series, based on Mark and Grace Driscoll's book, Real Marriage. On October 16, "black-clad demonstrators" gathered in front of the Mars Hill Church in Southeast Portland to "protest the church's stance on homosexuality." Approximately 20 protesters, "some of whom wore kerchiefs to cover their faces, shouted profanities at adults and children," and briefly blocked the entrance of the church. Mars Hill Church Portland lead pastor Tim Smith expressed disagreement with the conduct of the protesters, but expressed defense of their right to free speech. In 2008, the church launched an online community-building network, called The City, to improve communication on all levels in the church. The City was purchased by the Christian publishing brand, Zondervan, before Christmas 2008. Growth and influence In 2013, The Church Guide released a list of the "Top Churches to Watch in America". The link ranked churches according to how much churches could learn from the ranked churches on particular topics. They ranked Mars Hill Church as #3 to learn from about church growth, #3 for innovation, #2 for church planting, and #4 overall. The list considered data from Outreach magazine's annual lists from 2004–2012 and other sources. In 2006, Mars Hill Church claimed $31,110,000 in assets. Acts 29 Church Planting Network Acts 29 Church Planting Network is a separate 501(c)(3) from Mars Hill Church but was founded by Mars Hill in 2001. It is an interdenominational network of pastors and churches from around the world whose focus is to assess and equip qualified leaders, plant new churches, and rejuvenate declining churches. The current president of Acts 29 is Matt Chandler. The offices and leadership of Acts 29 moved from Mars Hill Church in Seattle to The Village Church in Texas in March 2012. In August 2014, Acts 29 removed Mark Driscoll and Mars Hill Church from the network. Church leadership controversies Dealing with dissent As a result of the large growth of the church, its bylaws were rewritten more than once. The outcome of this process led to changes in leadership organization in November 2007. The new bylaws installed lead pastor Jamie Munson, preaching pastor Mark Driscoll, and pastors Scott Thomas and Tim Beltz as "executive pastors" who led the objectives of the church "under the authority of the Board of Directors," on which the executive pastors also served as directors. This change precipitated the firing of two pastors. Mars Hill leaders said in forum postings that one fired pastor was removed, in part, for "displaying an unhealthy distrust in the senior leadership." They said the other was removed for "disregarding the accepted elder protocol for the bylaw deliberation period" and "verbally attacking the lead pastor" — charges the fired pastor denied, the leaders added. Church leadership instructed members of the congregation to shun the two former elders as unrepentant. Former Mars Hill Church elders and members have criticized the church for its harshness in dealing with dissent within its leadership. Additionally, members who have openly questioned or dissented with Mars Hill leaders have been asked to leave the church. This policy of church discipline was discussed during a lecture given on April 20, 2009 by Mark Driscoll for The Gospel Coalition. In early 2012, the church once again became a source of controversy over shunning and disciplinary proceedings when a young man under discipline released documents from his disciplinary contract to blogger and author Mathew Paul Turner. The documents included a discipline contract and an email from church leaders to the congregation directing them to shun him. ResultSource contract for the Real Marriage Book On March 5, 2014, evangelical magazine World published an article claiming that Mars Hill Church paid a $25,000 fee to marketing firm ResultSource, to manipulate sales numbers of Mark Driscoll's book Real Marriage and thereby attain a place on the New York Times bestseller list. ResultSource accomplished this objective—the book briefly reached #1 in the "Advice How-to" category—by buying 11,000 copies of the book, using $210,000 of Mars Hill Church's money, from a variety of online sources and payment methods. The Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability stated that buying a place on bestseller lists violates its ethical standards, but that because this happened before Mars Hill Church joined they were unable to take action. Christianity Today described the arrangement as "ethically questionable", and Carl Trueman of religion journal First Things decried the revelation, writing, "the overall picture is one of disaster" and "[it] has raised questions not simply about personal integrity but also the very culture of American Evangelicalism." Driscoll had used the apparent success of Real Marriage to negotiate a multi-book deal with Christian publisher Tyndale House. The first book under Driscoll's "Resurgence" imprint was A Call to Resurgence, with plans to publish five to seven books per year. Tyndale House defended Driscoll's alleged plagiarism in A Call to Resurgence, and affirmed their continuing relationship with Driscoll. Mars Hill Church responded with a statement, writing, "while not uncommon or illegal, this unwise strategy is not one we had used before or since, and not one we will use again." Mars Hill also claimed that the "true cost" of the effort was less than "what has been reported." On March 17, 2014, Driscoll posted an open letter of apology in response to this controversy and others, writing that he will no longer claim to be a New York Times bestselling author, and that he now sees the ResultSource marketing campaign as "manipulating a book sales reporting system, which is wrong." He wrote that he was giving up his status as a "celebrity pastor", that he considered his "angry young prophet" days to be over, and that he was reducing his public presence in speaking engagements and on social media. On March 28, 2015, Sutton Turner, a former elder of the church who signed the Result Source contract, explained that he disapproved of the marketing plan to use Result Source, but the decision to use it had already been made before he began work at Mars Hill, so he signed the contract anyway. Turner revealed that Driscoll had not been involved in initiating nor signing the contract with Result Source. Turner stated that the business relationship with the marketing firm was initiated by a pastor who resigned shortly thereafter, and remaining church leaders disagreed over the completion of the contract, stating that it would reflect badly on the church and Mark Driscoll. Plagiarism allegations On November 21, 2013, radio host Janet Mefferd accused Driscoll of plagiarism. Mefferd claimed that 14 pages of Driscoll's book A Call to Resurgence quoted "extensively and without citation" from Peter Jones' 1999 book, Gospel Truth/Pagan Lies: Can You Tell the Difference? and Jones' 2010 book One or Two: Seeing a World of Difference. Driscoll's publisher Tyndale House stated that they performed a "thorough in-house review" and disagreed that this was a case of plagiarism. Neil Holdway, a plagiarism expert with the American Copy Editors Society, concluded that "Driscoll had not adequately indicated the extent to which he had borrowed Jones' work." More allegations of plagiarism in other Driscoll works soon surfaced, including passages from a sermon series companion text, Trial: 8 Witnesses From 1&2 Peter, which were copied verbatim from passages written by David Wheaton in the New Bible Commentary. InterVarsity Press, publisher of the New Bible Commentary, stated that Driscoll failed to properly provide quotation or attribution for the material. The relevant passages were posted online. The allegations soon expanded to include claims that Driscoll used ghostwriters and researchers without giving them proper attribution. As of December 2013, neither Peter Jones, D.A. Carson, nor Janet Mefferd had made any further statements pertaining the case. Syndicator Salem Radio subsequently removed both the broadcast interview with Driscoll and associated materials from Mefferd's program website and apologized for raising the matter in a broadcast interview. This attempt to shut down the story provoked the resignation of Mefferd's producer, Ingrid Schlueter. In explaining her resignation, Schlueter wrote the following regarding herself and Mefferd: Driscoll apologized for "mistakes" related to the allegations in a statement released to The Christian Post on December 18, 2013. Mefferd eventually left Salem Radio in April 2015. Mars Hill Global Fund In June 2014 an online petition asked Sutton Turner of Mars Hill Church and Dan Busby of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability where the money raised through Mars Hill Global Fund actually went. The church reported that "Mars Hill Church began to use the term 'Global Fund' to solicit gifts restricted for 'capital development and expansion'. As communicated in the Global Newsletter on July 7, 2009, the Global Fund was used to raise resources for the following purposes: 'start new Mars Hill campuses, plant new Acts 29 churches, and equip leaders at the Resurgence Training Center'. In the 2009-2011 time frame, over 80% of the funds given to the "Global Fund" went to Acts 29 church planting, with additional funds used for the Resurgence Training Center and church planting in India." Additionally, "subsequent to June 1, 2012, in early July 2014, Mars Hill Church sent approximately 6,000 letters and 3,765 emails to individuals who had made gifts as a global donor subsequent to June 1, 2012. In these communications, Mars Hill Church offered to redirect the donor's gifts, made as a global donor during this time period, specifically for planting churches in Ethiopia or India." Former leaders and members protest Mark Driscoll (2014) Michael Paulson, writing for The New York Times, wrote that while Driscoll had endured criticism from the American political left and liberal Christianity for many years, recent years leading up to and including 2014 saw the rise of criticism from conservative Christians, including Driscoll's former "allies and supporters." According to the Seattle Times, plagiarism accusations against Driscoll made by Janet Mefferd were a "crucial turning point" that drew outside interest into Mars Hill's internal affairs, and prompted inquiries from new critics about the church and how it handled its finances. After hearing of Mefferd's plagiarism accusations, evangelical Christian and Grove City College psychology professor Warren Throckmorton took interest and became a prominent critic of Driscoll and Mars Hill, documenting other examples of perceived plagiarism, abuse reported by former Mars Hill members, and questionable uses of church finances. "Repentant Pastors" On March 29, 2014, four former Mars Hill elders (Kyle Firstenberg, Dave Kraft, Scott Mitchell, and co-founder Lief Moi) created a blog titled "Repentant Pastor" and posted online "confessions and apologies" related to their leadership roles in Mars Hill. In a joint statement, they wrote, "we recognize and confess that Mars Hill has hurt many people within the Mars Hill community, as well as those outside the community." Salon summarized the statements, writing that the former leaders emphasized their failures to "rein Driscoll in" and their complicity with Driscoll's "autocratic" management style. Firstenberg wrote that while the church appeared to flourish, employees lived in constant stress, and "success was to be attained regardless of human and moral cost." Megachurch pastors come to Driscoll's defense Several prominent pastors publicly defended Driscoll from allegations made against him. Those pastors included mega-church pastor Rick Warren, author of The Purpose Driven Life, and Gateway Church's founding pastor Robert Morris. At the 2014 Gateway Conference, Morris told the audience that he counseled Mark Driscoll directly, and that media reports were largely untrue. Morris cited recent media reports of lead pastor Steven Furtick of Elevation Church as experiencing similar coverage. At the conference, Mark Driscoll was invited up to the stage where he told the audience that he received death threats and that his children allegedly had rocks thrown at them. Driscoll stated that "I'm just trying to figure out how to be a good pastor to my family first." Driscoll addresses former members' complaints In a recorded message shown to church members on July 27, 2014, Driscoll discussed the various controversies of 2014. He said that he could "not address some members' discontent ... because the complaints were anonymous." According to Rob Smith, former program director at the church, the anonymity assertion "really touched a nerve" with former members. In response, dissenters organized a Facebook group called "Dear Pastor Mark & Mars Hill: We Are Not Anonymous." The following Sunday, "dozens of demonstrators" organized and picketed the Mars Hill Church Bellevue campus (where Driscoll preached live), calling for Driscoll's resignation. Demonstrators carried placards reading "We Are Not Anonymous" and "Question Mark", and accused Driscoll of bullying, misogyny, inadequate transparency in church finances, and harsh discipline of members. Driscoll was away for his annual summer vacation. A church elder, Anthony Iannicielo, responded that the criticism of Driscoll and Mars Hill "goes with the territory" of running a large church with a long history. In a pre-recorded message, Driscoll said that he had been deliberately "rather silent" during the criticism, that he found it "a little overwhelming and a bit confusing", and that he had no intention of resigning. Removal from Acts 29 Network On August 8, 2014, the board of Acts 29 Network removed both Driscoll and Mars Hill Church from membership. Chairman Matt Chandler wrote, "it is our conviction that the nature of the accusations against Mark, most of which have been confirmed by him, make it untenable and unhelpful to keep Mark [Driscoll] and Mars Hill [Church] in our network." The board of directors of Acts 29 expressed gratitude for Driscoll's work with the Network as co-founder and former President, but declared his recent actions "ungodly and disqualifying behavior." To Driscoll, they wrote, "our board and network have been the recipients of ... dozens of fires directly linked to you ... we are naturally associated with you and feel that this association discredits the network and is a major distraction." They further advised him to "step down from ministry for an extended time and seek help." Acts 29 had attempted to "lean on" the Mars Hill's Board of Advisors and Accountability (BOAA) to discipline Driscoll, but lost confidence in the board. The BOAA had been set up by Driscoll as his accountability board, rather than the elders of the church. (Members of the BOAA were for the most part professional clergy and businessmen who were not members of the church and hand picked by Driscoll.) The previous month, evangelical leaders and Acts 29 associates Paul Tripp and James MacDonald resigned from the BOAA. Religion correspondent Sarah Pulliam Bailey described Acts 29's decision as "unusual" since "ministries usually leave matters of church discipline up to local churches." BOAA Chairman Michael Van Skaik responded, "Men, I told the lead pastors ... that we are making real progress in addressing the serious reconciliation and unhealthy culture issues that have been part of Mars Hill Church for way too long. And we are. ... " He further added that Acts 29 leaders did not contact Mars Hill before acting, and that Driscoll had "changed his ways", and described Acts 29's actions as "divisive." Van Skaik also addressed the formal charges brought against Driscoll under the Mars Hill bylaws, writing "the formal charges that were filed were serious, were taken seriously, and were not dismissed by the board lightly." Driscoll's hiatus from ministry On August 24, 2014, Driscoll announced he would take a six-week "extended focus break" from his pastorship while charges against him were investigated. Later that week, a letter signed by nine current Mars Hill pastors which severely criticized Driscoll was leaked to the public. The letter, written days before Driscoll stepped down, urged him to step down from all aspects of ministry. It included a quote from "internationally recognized" author, pastor and former BOAA member Paul Tripp saying, "This is without a doubt, the most abusive, coercive ministry culture I've ever been involved with." One of the pastors who signed the letter was fired five days later for "rebellion against the church." By September 9, eight of the nine pastors who signed the letter had resigned or been terminated, including worship director Dustin Kensrue. The last of the nine pastors was demoted from pastor to lay elder. Staff layoffs and closure of church branches On September 7, 2014 (the second week of Driscoll's hiatus), Mars Hill officials, citing "financial pressures in the wake of recent negative media attention", announced layoffs and closures of a few church branches. Weekly attendance at the start of the year for all branches was 12,000–13,000, but had dropped to 8,000–9,000. Donations also had a "steep decline." In response, the church planned to lay off "30 to 40 percent" of their 100 paid staff members, and close their downtown Seattle branch and University District branch, consolidating both congregations into the Ballard location. Two other branches outside Washington state were marked for possible closure if their finances did not improve. Mars Hill also announced the resignation of Sutton Turner, executive elder since 2011, effective at the end of September 2014. Driscoll's resignation In the fall of 2014, a group of elders released a report on an investigation into accusations of bullying and intimidating behavior by Driscoll made by 21 former church elders. The investigation involved "some 1,000 hours of research, interviewing more than 50 people and preparing 200 pages of information." The report concluded that Driscoll had never been charged with "immorality, illegality or heresy," and considered "some of the accusations against Pastor Mark to be altogether unfair or untrue." Additionally, the report found that many of the "other charges had previously been addressed by Pastor Mark, privately and publicly. Indeed, he had publicly confessed and apologized for a number of the charges against him, some of which occurred as long as 14 years ago." However, elders did find "bullying" and "patterns of persistent sinful behavior" by Driscoll. The Board also concluded that Driscoll had "been guilty of arrogance, responding to conflict with a quick temper and harsh speech, and leading the staff and elders in a domineering manner", but was not charged with anything immoral or illegal. Driscoll maintained that he had not disqualified himself from ministry. Church leadership crafted a "restoration" plan to help Driscoll and save the church. Instead, Driscoll declined the restoration plan and resigned on October 14, 2014, citing concerns for his health and safety. His resignation came as a "surprise" to the church's Board of Overseers, who said in a statement that they had not asked Driscoll for his resignation. In 2015, after the disbanding of Mars Hill, an executive elder of the church stated that "There has been much talk about the abusive and coercive culture at Mars Hill. What many people do not realize is that some of the very people who were calling for an end to this type of abuse were using abusive tactics." The executive elder stated that he was blackmailed by a staff who asked for more severance pay. He also stated that "former Mars Hill elders were working to file formal charges against me also. I was told that a former lead pastor was approached to lead a group of people who hoped to force my resignation so that I 'could not help Pastor Mark Driscoll'." Pastor and theologian John Piper referred to the controversies and subsequent church closure as a "Satanic victory." It was a defeat for the gospel, it was a defeat for Mark [Driscoll], it was a defeat for evangelicalism, for Reformed Theology, for complementarianism ... It was a colossal Satanic victory.Driscoll's resignation is thoroughly investigated in the podcast The Rise and Fall of Mars Hill. Closing On October 31, 2014, lead pastor Dave Bruskas announced plans to dissolve the church's 13 remaining campuses into autonomous entities, with the option of continuing, merging with other congregations, or disbanding, effective January 1, 2015. On December 28, 2014, Rick Warren gave the final Sunday sermon at Mars Hill, encouraging its remaining members to "give grace" to its leaders, "You need to be grateful for all the ways that God used Mars Hill Church. Be grateful for all the ways God used Mark Driscoll." Driscoll had previously delivered a sermon at Saddleback Church the weekend Rick Warren grieved the loss of his son. The Mars Hill Church network officially disbanded Thursday, January 1, 2015. Eleven of the Mars Hill Churches became independent churches and the remaining churches were dissolved. Prior to the churches disbanding, Mars Hill transferred the majority of its content from its website to where the church's sermons remain. The Mars Hill website now contains a history of the church and a church directory of the previous Mars Hill churches locations with their new names and websites. Prior to disbanding on January 1, 2015, Mars Hill Church met at twelve locations, mostly in Seattle and Washington state, with three out of state locations in New Mexico, California, and Oregon. A few locations were closed or consolidated on October 12, 2014. After January 1, 2015, each church location dissolved into an independent congregation. The remaining members of Mars Hill Ballard reorganized as Cross and Crown Church Seattle, led by former Mars Hill Downtown pastor Matthias Haeusel at Mars Hill's former Ballard location. In February 2016, a federal racketeering lawsuit was filed by former Mars Hill members against both Mars Hill and Driscoll. That lawsuit was dismissed in November 2016 after the plaintiffs said they did not have the money to continue the suit. The plaintiffs' online fundraising campaign on GoFundMe had raised $34,660, which was approximately half of its goal. References Further reading Pastor Dude's Mega-Church Draws Crowds - ABC Nightline story about Mars Hill Church Tempers Flare at Debate on the Devil - ABC Nightline debate at Mars Hill Church on the Devil External links Emerging church movement Evangelical churches in Washington (state) Former megachurches Churches in Seattle Christian organizations established in 1996 Religious organizations disestablished in 2015

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Joel Chandler Harris (December 9, 1848 – July 3, 1908) was an American journalist, fiction writer, and folklorist best known for his collection of Uncle Remus stories. Born in Eatonton, Georgia, where he served as an apprentice on a plantation during his teenage years, Harris spent most of his adult life in Atlanta working as an associate editor at The Atlanta Constitution. Harris led two professional lives: as the editor and journalist known as Joe Harris, he supported a vision of the New South with the editor Henry W. Grady (1880–1889), which stressed regional and racial reconciliation after the Reconstruction era. As Joel Chandler Harris, fiction writer and folklorist, he wrote many 'Brer Rabbit' stories from the African-American oral tradition. Life Education: 1848–1862 Joel Chandler Harris was born in Eatonton, Georgia in 1848 to Mary Ann Harris, an Irish immigrant. His father, whose identity remains unknown, abandoned Mary Ann and the infant shortly after his birth. The parents had never married; the boy was named Joel after his mother's attending physician, Dr. Joel Branham. Chandler was the name of his mother's uncle. Harris remained self-conscious of his illegitimate birth throughout his life. A prominent physician, Dr. Andrew Reid, gave the Harris family a small cottage to use behind his mansion. Mary Harris worked as a seamstress and helped neighbors with their gardening to support herself and her son. She was an avid reader and instilled in her son a love of language: "My desire to write—to give expression to my thoughts—grew out of hearing my mother read The Vicar of Wakefield." Dr. Reid also paid for Harris' school tuition for several years. In 1856, Joe Harris briefly attended Kate Davidson's School for Boys and Girls, but transferred to Eatonton School for Boys later that year. He had an undistinguished academic record and a habit of truancy. Harris excelled in reading and writing, but was mostly known for his pranks, mischief, and sense of humor. Practical jokes helped Harris cloak his shyness and insecurities about his red hair, Irish ancestry, and illegitimacy, leading to both trouble and a reputation as a leader among the older boys. Turnwold Plantation: 1862–1866 At the age of 14, Harris quit school to work. In March 1862, Joseph Addison Turner, owner of Turnwold Plantation nine miles east of Eatonton, hired Harris to work as a printer's devil for his newspaper The Countryman. Harris worked for clothing, room, and board. The newspaper reached subscribers throughout the Confederacy during the American Civil War; it was considered one of the larger newspapers in the South, with a circulation of about 2,000. Harris learned to set type for the paper, and Turner allowed him to publish his own poems, book reviews, and humorous paragraphs. Turner's instruction and technical expertise exerted a profound influence on Harris. During his four-year tenure at Turnwold Plantation, Joel Harris consumed the literature in Turner's library. He had access to Chaucer, Dickens, Sir Thomas Browne, Arabian Nights, Shakespeare, Milton, Swift, Thackeray, and Edgar Allan Poe. Turner, a fiercely independent Southern loyalist and eccentric intellectual, emphasized the work of southern writers, yet stressed that Harris read widely. In The Countryman Turner insisted that Harris not shy away from including humor in his journalism. While at Turnwold Plantation, Harris spent hundreds of hours in the slave quarters during time off. He was less self-conscious there and felt his humble background as an illegitimate, red-headed son of an Irish immigrant helped foster an intimate connection with the slaves. He absorbed the stories, language, and inflections of people like Uncle George Terrell, Old Harbert, and Aunt Crissy. The African-American animal tales they shared later became the foundation and inspiration for Harris's Uncle Remus tales. George Terrell and Old Harbert in particular became models for Uncle Remus, as well as role models for Harris. Savannah and the South: 1866–1876 Joseph Addison Turner shut down The Countryman in May 1866. Joel Harris left the plantation with worthless Confederate money and very few possessions. He lived for a period at The Marshall House. The Macon Telegraph hired Harris as a typesetter later that year. Harris found the work unsatisfactory and himself the butt of jokes around the office, in no small part due to his red hair. Within five months, he accepted a job working for the New Orleans Crescent Monthly, a literary journal. Just six months after that, homesick, he returned to Georgia, but with another opportunity at the Monroe Advertiser, a weekly paper published in Forsyth, Georgia. At the Advertiser Harris found a regional audience with his column "Affairs of Georgia." Newspapers across the state reprinted his humorous paragraphs and political barbs. Harris' reputation earned him the position of associate editor at the Savannah Morning News, the largest circulation newspaper in Georgia. Though he relished his position in Forsyth, Joe Harris accepted the $40-a-week job, a significant pay increase, and quickly established himself as Georgia's leading humor columnist while at the Morning News. In 1872 Harris met Mary Esther LaRose, a seventeen-year-old French-Canadian from Quebec. After a year of courtship, Harris and LaRose married in April 1873. LaRose was 18, and Harris 27 (though publicly admitting to 24). Over the next three years, the couple had two children. Their life in Savannah came to an abrupt halt, however, when they fled to Atlanta to avoid a yellow fever epidemic. Atlanta: 1876–1908 In 1876 Harris was hired by Henry W. Grady at The Atlanta Constitution, where he would remain for the next 24 years. He worked with other journalists including Frank Lebby Stanton, who was in turn an associate of James Whitcomb Riley. Chandler supported the racial reconciliation envisioned by Grady. He often took the mule-drawn trolley to work, picked up his assignments, and brought them home to complete. He wrote for the Constitution until 1900. In addition, he published local-color stories in magazines such as Scribner's, Harper's, and The Century. Uncle Remus stories and later years Not long after taking the newspaper appointment, Harris began writing the Uncle Remus stories as a serial to "preserve in permanent shape those curious mementoes of a period that will no doubt be sadly misrepresented by historians of the future." The tales were reprinted across the United States, and Harris was approached by publisher D. Appleton and Company to compile them for a book. Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings was published near the end of 1880. Hundreds of newspapers reviewed the best-seller, and Harris received national attention. Of the press and attention Walter Hines Page noted, "Joe Harris does not appreciate Joel Chandler Harris." Royalties from the book were modest, but allowed Harris to rent a six-room house in West End, an unincorporated village on the outskirts of Atlanta, to accommodate his growing family. Two years later Harris bought the house and hired the architect George Humphries to transform the farmhouse into a Queen Anne Victorian in the Eastlake style. The home, soon thereafter called The Wren's Nest, was where Harris spent most of his time. Harris preferred to write at the Wren's Nest. He published prodigiously throughout the 1880s and 1890s, trying his hand at novels, children's literature, and a translation of French folklore. Yet he rarely strayed from home and work during this time. He chose to stay close to his family and his gardening. Harris and his wife Essie had seven more children in Atlanta, with a total of six (out of nine) surviving past childhood. By the late 1890s, Harris was tired of the newspaper grind and suffered from health problems, likely stemming from alcoholism. At the same time, he grew more comfortable with his creative persona. Harris retired from the Constitution in 1900. He continued experimenting with novels and wrote articles for outlets such as The Saturday Evening Post. Still, he remained close to home, refusing to travel to accept honorary degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and Emory College (now Emory University). In 1905 Harris was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Harris traveled to accept an invitation to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt. Two years earlier, Roosevelt had said, "Presidents may come and presidents may go, but Uncle Remus stays put. Georgia has done a great many things for the Union, but she has never done more than when she gave Mr. Joel Chandler Harris to American literature." On July 3, 1908, Joel Chandler Harris died of acute nephritis and complications from cirrhosis of the liver. In his obituary, The New York Times Book Review echoed Roosevelt's sentiment, stating: "Uncle Remus cannot die. Joel Chandler Harris has departed this life at the age of 60 ... but his best creation, [Uncle Remus] with his fund of folk-lore, will live in literature." Writing Folklore Harris created the first version of the Uncle Remus character for The Atlanta Constitution in 1876 after inheriting a column formerly written by Samuel W. Small, who had taken leave from the paper. In these character sketches, Remus would visit the newspaper office to discuss the social and racial issues of the day. By 1877, Small had returned to the Constitution and resumed his column. Harris did not intend to continue the Remus character. But when Small left the paper again, Harris reprised Remus. He realized the literary value of the stories he had heard from the slaves of Turnwold Plantation. Harris set out to record the stories and insisted that they be verified by two independent sources before he would publish them. He found the research more difficult given his professional duties, urban location, race and, eventually, fame. On July 20, 1879, Harris published "The Story of Mr. Rabbit and Mr. Fox as Told by Uncle Remus" in The Atlanta Constitution. It was the first of 34 plantation fables that would be compiled in Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880). The stories, mostly collected directly from the African-American oral storytelling tradition, were revolutionary in their use of dialect, animal personages, and serialized landscapes. Remus' stories featured a trickster hero called Br'er Rabbit (Brother Rabbit), who used his wits against adversity, though his efforts did not always succeed. Br'er Rabbit is a direct interpretation of Yoruba tales of Hare, though some others posit Native American influences as well. The scholar Stella Brewer Brookes asserts, "Never has the trickster been better exemplified than in the Br'er Rabbit of Harris." Br'er Rabbit was accompanied by friends and enemies, such as Br'er Fox, Br'er Bear, Br'er Terrapin, and Br'er Wolf. The stories represented a significant break from the fairy tales of the Western tradition: instead of a singular event in a singular story, the critters on the plantation existed in an ongoing community saga, time immemorial. Harris described Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, as a major influence on the characters of Uncle Remus and the Little Boy. When he read Stowe's novel in 1862, he said that it "made a more vivid impression upon my mind than anything I have ever read since." Interpreting Uncle Tom's Cabin as a "wonderful defense of slavery," Harris argued that Stowe's "genius took possession of her and compelled her, in spite of her avowed purpose, to give a very fair picture of the institution she had intended to condemn". In Harris's view, the "real moral that Mrs. Stowe's book teaches is that the ... realities [of slavery], under the best and happiest conditions, possess a romantic beauty and tenderness all their own." The Uncle Remus stories garnered critical acclaim and achieved popular success well into the 20th century. Harris published at least twenty-nine books, of which nine books were compiled of his published Uncle Remus stories, including Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880), Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), The Tar Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904), Told by Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905), Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907). The last three books written by Joel Chandler Harris were published after his death which included Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910), Uncle Remus Returns (1918), and Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948). The tales, 185 in sum, became immensely popular among both black and white readers in the North and South. Few people outside of the South had heard accents like those spoken in the tales, and the dialect had never been legitimately and faithfully recorded in print. To Northern and international readers, the stories were a "revelation of the unknown." Mark Twain noted in 1883, "in the matter of writing [the African-American dialect], he is the only master the country has produced." The stories introduced international readers to the American South. Rudyard Kipling wrote in a letter to Harris that the tales "ran like wild fire through an English Public school. ... [We] found ourselves quoting whole pages of Uncle Remus that had got mixed in with the fabric of the old school life." The Uncle Remus tales have since been translated into more than forty languages. James Weldon Johnson called the collection "the greatest body of folklore America has produced". Journalism Early in his career at the Atlanta Constitution, Joe Harris laid out his editorial ideology and set the tone for an agenda that aimed to help reconcile issues of race, class, and region: "An editor must have a purpose. ... What a legacy for one's conscience to know that one has been instrumental in mowing down the old prejudices that rattle in the wind like weeds." Harris served as assistant editor and lead editorial writer at The Atlanta Constitution primarily between 1876 and 1900. He published articles intermittently until his death in 1908. While at the Constitution, Harris, "in thousands of signed and unsigned editorials over a twenty-four-year period, ... set a national tone for reconciliation between North and South after the Civil War". Throughout his career, Harris actively promoted racial reconciliation as well as African-American education, suffrage, and equality. He regularly denounced racism among southern whites, condemned lynching, and highlighted the importance of higher education for African Americans, frequently citing the work of W.E.B. Du Bois in his editorials. In 1883, for example, the New York Sun had an editorial: "educating the negro will merely increase his capacity for evil." The Atlanta Constitution editorial countered with: if "education of the negro is not the chief solution of the problem that confronts the white people of the South then there is no other conceivable solution and there is nothing ahead but political chaos and demoralization." Harris's editorials were often progressive in content and paternalistic in tone. He was committed to the "dissipation of sectional jealousy and misunderstanding, as well as religious and racial intolerance", yet "never entirely freed himself of the idea that the [southern whites] would have to patronize the [southern blacks]." Harris also oversaw some of The Atlanta Constitutions most sensationalized coverage of racial issues, including the 1899 torture and lynching of Sam Hose, an African-American farm worker. Harris resigned from the paper the following year, having lost patience for publishing both "his iconoclastic views on race" and "what was expected of him" at a major southern newspaper during a particularly vitriolic period. In 1904 Harris wrote four important articles for The Saturday Evening Post discussing the problem of race relations in the South; these highlighted his progressive yet paternalistic views. Of these, Booker T. Washington wrote to him: It has been a long time since I have read anything from the pen of any man which has given me such encouragement as your article has. ... In a speech on Lincoln's Birthday which I am to deliver in New York, I am going to take the liberty to quote liberally from what you have said. Two years later, Harris and his son Julian founded what would become Uncle Remus's Home Magazine. Harris wrote to Andrew Carnegie that its purpose would be to further "the obliteration of prejudice against the blacks, the demand for a square deal, and the uplifting of both races so that they can look justice in the face without blushing." Circulation reached 240,000 within one year, making it one of the largest magazines in the country. Other works Harris wrote novels, narrative histories, translations of French folklore, children's literature, and collections of stories depicting rural life in Georgia. The short stories "Free Joe and the Rest of the World", "Mingo", and "At Teague Poteets" are the most influential of his non-Uncle Remus creative work. Many of his short stories delved into the changing social and economic values in the South during Reconstruction. Harris's turn as a local colorist gave voice to poor white characters and demonstrated his fluency with different African-American dialects and characters. Legacy Harris's legacy has largely been ignored by academia, in part due to the Uncle Remus character, use of dialect, and plantation setting. Harris's books exerted a profound influence on storytellers at home and abroad, yet the Uncle Remus tales effectively have no critical standing. His legacy is, at the same time, not without considerable controversy: Harris's critical reputation in the 20th and 21st centuries has been wildly mixed, as he was accused of appropriating African-American culture. Criticism Critic H. L. Mencken held a less than favorable view of Harris: Once upon a time a Georgian printed a couple of books that attracted notice, but immediately it turned out that he was little more than an amanuensis for the local blacks—that his works were really the products, not of white Georgia, but of black Georgia. Writing afterward as a white man, he swiftly subsided into the fifth rank. Keith Cartwright, however, asserts, "Harris might arguably be called the greatest single authorial force behind the literary development of African American folk matter and manner." In 1981 the writer Alice Walker accused Harris of "stealing a good part of my heritage" in a searing essay called "Uncle Remus, No Friend of Mine". Toni Morrison wrote a novel called Tar Baby. Such a character appears in a folktale recorded by Harris. In interviews, Morrison said she learned the story from her family and owed no debt to him. Scholars have questioned his collection of stories, citing the difficulty that many white folklorists had in persuading African Americans to divulge their folklore. But, others note the similarity of African folk stories in several sources that are similar to the Brer Rabbit tales as published, which represent a folk genre. Examples include the Ila language Sulwe mbwakatizha Muzovu ("Hare makes the elephant afraid") in Smith & Dale The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia volume 2, page 309. In the totally unrelated Kanuri or Bornuese culture in Northern Nigeria, such tales as a Fable of Jackal and a Hyena display similar themes quite in the Brer Rabbit manner. The difficulties in obtaining printed sources on the African languages may have inhibited these aspects of critical treatment. Some critical scholars cite Uncle Remus as a problematic and contradictory figure: sometimes a mouthpiece for white paternalism, sometimes a stereotype of the black entertainer, and sometimes poetically subversive. Julius Lester, a black folklorist and university professor, sees the Uncle Remus stories as important records of black folklore. He has rewritten many of the Harris stories in an effort to elevate the subversive elements over the purportedly racist ones. Regarding the nature of the Uncle Remus character, Lester said, There are no inaccuracies in Harris's characterization of Uncle Remus. Even the most cursory reading of the slave narratives collected by the Federal Writer's Project of the 1930s reveals that there were many slaves who fit the Uncle Remus mold. The author Ralph Ellison was positive about Harris' work: Aesop and Uncle Remus had taught us that comedy is a disguised form of philosophical instruction; and especially when it allows us to glimpse the animal instincts lying beneath the surface of our civilized affectations. Some 21st-century scholars have argued that the Uncle Remus tales satirized the very "plantation school" that some readers believed his work supported. Critic Robert Cochran noted: "Harris went to the world as the trickster Brer Rabbit, and in the trickster Uncle Remus he projected both his sharpest critique of things as they were and the deepest image of his heart's desire." Harris omitted the Southern plantation house, disparaged the white Southern gentleman, and presented miscegenation in positive terms. He violated social codes and presented an ethos that would have otherwise shocked his reading audience. These recent acknowledgements echo early observations from Walter Hines Page, who wrote in 1884 that Harris "hardly conceals his scorn for the old aristocracy" and makes "a sly thrust at the pompous life of the Old South." More recently, the scholars Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Maria Tatar debated whether to include Uncle Remus stories in their 2017 volume, The Annotated African American Folktales. Ultimately they decided on inclusion, along with a detailed preface on the critical issues surrounding Harris, race, and cultural appropriation. Influence Children's literature analyst John Goldthwaite argues that the Uncle Remus tales are "irrefutably the central event in the making of modern children's story." Harris's influence on British children's writers such as Kipling, Milne, Potter, Burgess and Blyton is substantial. His influence on modernism is less overt, but also evident in the works of Pound, Eliot, Joyce, and Faulkner. Beatrix Potter illustrated eight scenes from the Uncle Remus stories between 1893 and 1896, coinciding with her first drawings of Peter Rabbit. Potter's family had favored the Uncle Remus stories during her youth, and she was particularly impressed by the way Harris turned "the ordinary into the extraordinary." Potter borrowed some of the language from the Uncle Remus stories, adopting the words: "cottontail," "puddle-duck," and "lippity-(c)lippity" into her own work. Mark Twain incorporated several of the Uncle Remus stories into readings during his book tour. He wrote to William Dean Howells in the early 1880s, reporting that the "Tar Baby" had been received "best of all" at a reading in Hartford. Twain admired Harris' use of dialect. He appropriated exchanges and turns of phrase in many of his works, most notably in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Mysterious Stranger. A.A. Milne borrowed diction, plot, and narrative structure from several Brer Rabbit stories. "Pooh Goes Visiting" and "Heyo, House!" are particularly similar. As a boy, Milne recalled listening to his father read one Uncle Remus story per night, and referred to it as "the sacred book." Charles Chesnutt's most famous work, The Conjure Woman, is strongly influenced by the Uncle Remus tales; he features Uncle Julius as the main character and storyteller. Chesnutt read the Uncle Remus stories to his own children. Many scholars cite Harris' influence on William Faulkner, most importantly in terms of dialect usage, depictions of African Americans, lower-class whites, and fictionalized landscape. Poets Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot corresponded in Uncle Remus-inspired dialect, referring to themselves as "Brer Rabbit" and "Old Possum," respectively. Eventually the dialect and the personae became a sign of their collaboration against the London literary establishment. Eliot titled one of his books Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats. Ralph Bakshi wrote and directed a 1975 American live action/animated crime film titled Coonskin based on Harris' Brothers rabbit, fox, and bear who rise to the top of the organized crime racket in Harlem, encountering corrupt law enforcement, con artists, and the Mafia. Song of the South In 1946, the Walt Disney Company produced a film based on the Uncle Remus tales called Song of the South. While commercially successful during its original release and re-releases, the film has never been released for home consumption in the United States as, since its release, the film was criticized for the way it portrays its characters and the Southern U. S. in regard to slavery, even though the film's events take place in the postbellum South, when slavery had ended. Song of the South has been released on video in a number of overseas markets, and on LaserDisc in Japan. The film earned mixed critical reviews and two Academy Awards. James Baskett won an honorary Academy Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus, and "Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah" was presented with the award for Best Original Song. Walter White of the NAACP acknowledged "the remarkable artistic merit" of the film in his telegraphed press release on November 27, 1946, but decried the "impression it gives of an idyllic master-slave relationship." Since its debut, the public perception of Harris and the Uncle Remus stories has largely been tied to the reception of Song of the South. Legacy and honors The Wren's Nest, Harris's home in the historic West End neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. It has been operated as a museum home since 1913. Uncle Remus Museum in Eatonton, GA commemorates the life of Harris. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Savannah, GA on Bay Street across from the now demolished Savannah Morning News building where Harris worked in that city. The U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent stamp commemorating Joel Chandler Harris on the 1948 100th anniversary of his birth. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Forsyth, GA on Main Street at N 33° 2.057', W 83° 56.354'. The plaque reads: One block east stood the old office of The Monroe Advertiser, where Joel Chandler Harris, creator of "Uncle Remus," came in 1867, as a boy of nineteen, to work until 1870. Here he advanced from printer's devil to accomplished journalist. Of his duties, Harris said: "I set all the type, pulled the press, kept the books, swept the floor and wrapped the papers for mailing." His typestand is still in use at the present office of The Monroe Advertiser. Selected list of works Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880) Nights with Uncle Remus (1883) Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White (1884) Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches (1887) Daddy Jake, The Runaway: And Short Stories Told After Dark (1889) Joel Chandler Harris' Life of Henry W. Grady (1890) Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories (1891) On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War (1892) Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892) Little Mr. Thimblefinger and his Queer Country: What the Children Saw and Heard There (Houghton Mifflin, 1894), illustrated by Oliver Herford, Mr. Rabbit at Home (1895), illus. Herford – sequel to Mr. Thimblefinger, Sister Jane: Her Friends and Acquaintances (1896) The Story of Aaron (so named): The Son of Ben Ali (1896), illus. Herford, Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), illus. Herford – sequel, Tales of the Home Folks in Peace and War (1898) The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899) Plantation Pageants (1899) On the Wing of Occasions (1900) Gabriel Tolliver (1902) The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (1902) Wally Wanderoon and His Story-Telling Machine (1903) A Little Union Scout (1904) The Tar-Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904) Told By Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905) Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907) Shadow Between His Shoulder Blades (1909) Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910) Uncle Remus Returns (1918) Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948) See also Literature of Georgia (U.S. state) References Bibliography External links Joel Chandler Harris, New Georgia Encyclopedia The Wren's Nest, Harris's historic home in Atlanta, GA Robert Roosevelt's Brer Rabbit Stories Theodore Roosevelt on Brer Rabbit and his Uncle Works by Joel Chandler Harris openly available with full text and large zoomable images in the University of Florida Digital Collections Uncle Remus His Songs and Sayings from American Studies at the University of Virginia "Death Calls 'Uncle Remus' and Whole World Mourns", Atlanta Georgian, July 4, 1908. From the Atlanta Historic Newspaper Archive Remembering Remus – Frank Stephenson, Florida State University 1848 births 1908 deaths People from Eatonton, Georgia American children's writers American male journalists The Atlanta Journal-Constitution people Writers from Atlanta Writers of American Southern literature Fabulists American folklorists Folklore writers Deaths from nephritis Deaths from cirrhosis American people of Irish descent Alcohol-related deaths in Georgia (U.S. state)

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Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was a floating dry dock which served in the Dutch East Indies and Indonesia from 1916 till at least the late 1950s. Context A large floating dry dock for the Dutch East Indies In 1900, there were three floating dry docks in the Dutch East Indies. The biggest was Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons, stationed at Surabaya. A relatively new dry dock was Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons at Tanjung Priok, Batavia. The old Onrust Dock of 3,000 tons was stationed at Sabang at the western extremity of the archipelago. The two dry docks on Java could service most ships that visited the island. They were capable of lifting all ships that the Dutch navy had, and it was thought that they would also be able to lift those which the navy would acquire in the foreseeable future. Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons had been commissioned, and stationed at Onrust Island in 1880. In 1883, she lifted Koning der Nederlanden of 5,400 ton displacement. In September 1884 Koning der Nederlanden was again reported in the dock. Soon after, the dock lifted the Russian armored cruisers Vladimir Monomakh of 5,683t, and (after unloading) Minin of 6,234t. It had been proven that Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons could handle all Dutch warships and even some bigger ships. In 1886 the dry dock was rebased to Surabaya. In 1903, the Dutch Navy in Surabaya then got a nasty surprise when the new HNLMS Koningin Regentes of 5,002t displacement arrived. Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons proved unable to lift her! It was known that the official capacity of the dry dock had gone back from 4,800 tons to 4,500 tons, but in view of the above this was still surprising. Meanwhile, there were plans for a new dry dock of 7,000 tons. After consultations between the ministries for the navy and the colonies, a commission for dry dock facilities in the Indies was appointed in January 1904. Members where: the retired VA N. Mac Leod, the retired chief engineer Siebers of the Marine establishment in Surabaya, Mr. W. Fenenga of the Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij, Navy shipbuilding engineer Van Veen, and as secretary Lieutenant Schoonhoven. This commission made a report in late 1904. In December 1904, a Dutch M.P. asked the minister for the navy about a new dry dock for Surabaya. He stated the cost of docking in Singapore, and the need for independence in this respect, but nothing much happened. In 1903, the Droogdok Maatschappij Tandjong Priok in Batavia was very busy. Its commercial Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons had so much work, that some of the maintenance had to be postponed. In 1905 the company got permission to erect a patent slip that could serve vessels of up to 2,000 tons displacement, which was big enough for most vessels which regularly docked at Batavia. The port of Port of Tanjung Perak in Surabaya Surabaya was the commercial center of Java, with good connections to the interior. In the nineteenth century, this had led to the establishment of the main Dutch navy base of the Dutch East Indies at Surabaya. Meanwhile, the harbor of Surabaya was nothing more than a place to safely anchor offshore. This meant that goods had to be transloaded to ships via boats, considerably raising the cost of calling at Surabaya. In about 1909, the Dutch government therefore started the construction of a modern port known as the Port of Tanjung Perak (Dutch: Tandjong Perak). On 22 September 1910. the Droogdok Maatschappij Soerabaja (DMS) was established to manage a dry dock facility at Surabaya. It ordered Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons, which would arrive in 1912. A large dual use dry dock On 1 January 1910, Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons was still the largest dry dock in the Dutch East Indies. Under normal circumstances, it would not be large enough to lift the armored cruiser De Zeven Provinciën, which had been launched on 15 March 1909. However, as De Zeven Provinciën displaced 6,530 tons, being too large for Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons, did not mean that she required a dry dock of 14,000 tons, i.e. more than twice the size required to lift her. There had been ideas to acquire ships that were slightly larger, but these did not even make it to the design phase. Later plans for battleships would have led to ships which would have been too wide and high for the 14,000 tons dry dock. In effect the explanation for the size of the dry dock is straightforward. In June 1910, the 139 m long ocean liner SS Prinses Juliana of 8,300 tons, and 12,190 ton displacement was launched. She was the biggest ship built in the Netherlands up to then. She was also a ship of the Nederland Line, the main shipping line between the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies. She was soon followed by a sister ship. The Dutch government could not ignore the appearance of these large ships. If these ships could not rely on a suitable repair facility in the Dutch East Indies, their owners might prefer to use the excellent harbor of Singapore. In summary: Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was a dry dock meant for use by the navy and merchant shipping. In the end the size of commercial ships was decisive for the size of the new Surabaya dry dock. That it became so large was caused by the plans becoming mixed up with those for the port of Surabaya. In 1903, the new dry dock would become a 7,000 tons dry dock. In 1907 there was talk about dredging the approaches to Surabaya, and the capacity of the dry dock having to become larger than was previously thought. In November 1910, the Minister for the Colonies Jan Hendrik de Waal Malefijt presented a design for a dry dock of 120 m long and 12,000 tons lift capacity, but by then M.P.'s wanted a larger dock, because the ships of the Nederland Line and others were larger (see Prinses Juliana above). In December 1910, Minister de Waal Malefijt then appointed a commission that was to decide on the type and size of the dry dock. The East Indies would meanwhile have to make plans for the mooring place (Navy base or new port of Surabaya) and the management of the dry dock. If the commission would advice something much more expensive than was envisioned up to then, the minister would get back to the House of Representatives. The commission consisted of: Mr. de Jongh, ex-director of the Public works of Rotterdam (chair); jhr Op ten Noort, member of the board of the Nederland Line; D. Goekoop, chairman of the society of the Dutch shipbuilding industry; Mr. Kloos, chief engineer of Nederlandsche Fabriek van Werktuigen en Spoorwegmaterieel; Fenenga, manager of Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij; Mr. C. Nobel, manager of Rotterdam Public Works, and future manager of Tanjung Perak; Lt-Captain Umbgrove; and Mr. van Beek, chief-engineer and director of navy ship construction. Meanwhile 500,000 guilders for the dry dock were put on the 1911 budget for the Dutch East Indies. Construction and characteristics Ordering and Construction The overall design and construction of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was led by W. Fenenga. In May 1911, construction was tendered on behalf of the Ministry of the Colonies. It was to be a self-docking dry dock of the 'bolted sectional' type. The three sections of almost equal length were to be joined on the whole profile of the dock. Length was to be 140 m, width on the inside 25 m, width on the outside 35 m. The sides above the water were to be 116 m long. These were high 10 m above the pontoon deck, 4.5 m wide on the pontoon deck, and 2.8 m wide at the top. The pontoons had a depth of hold of 4.6 m in the center. The dry dock would be powered by electricity. It should be able to lift a ship of 14,000 ton displacement and 7.5 m draft in four hours. It would be delivered and tried where built, and be towed to Surabaya. Delivery date would be in June 1912. The tender was won by the Nederlandsche Scheepsbouw Maatschappij in Amsterdam. The NSM had recently proven her capabilities with regard to dry dock construction by building Juliana Dock of 12,000 tons. Juliana Dock had been built at a special construction site on the northern shore of the IJ. With her dimensions, she would not have been able to reach the IJ from NSM's shipyard, because the Oosterdok Lock was too narrow. As she was made for the Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij, her dimensions did not matter with regard to reaching open sea. She would be used in the direct vicinity. Using the same construction site for Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was not possible. In order to reach open sea, she would then have to pass either the Oranje Locks of 17.5 m width, or the 25 m wide Middle Lock of the IJmuiden Locks. The only alternative to transport such a wide dry dock from Amsterdam to the North Sea, was to tow it over the Zuiderzee. A special construction site was therefore built near Schellingwoude on the , east of the Oranje Locks. Before construction could begin, 1,200 piles were driven into the ground as a foundation to support the huge weight of the dry dock, and that of the cranes and machines needed for construction. A steam engine with dynamo was set up to provide power to the site for lighting and driving tools. A high-pressure steam compressor was brought in for pneumatic drilling and riveting, a low pressure steam compressor was brought in for abrasive blasting. Two big gantry cranes were erected, as well as temporary buildings for storage, lunchroom etc. Characteristics Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was of the 'bolted sectional' type, and made of Siemens Martin steel. Its three sections could be taken apart, so one section could be lifted by the other two for maintenance. The sections were solidly connected with bolts, rivets and rubber linings. This was done at extra reinforced connection compartments. It made self docking a tedious procedure, which made the dry dock unavailable for quite some time. The bolted sectional type was an improvement over the previous pontoon dock, e.g. Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons, which had sides in one piece. The pontoon dock was self-docking, because pontoons could be taken out from under it for maintenance, while they were replaced by others. This gave practically no down time for the dock. The bolted sectional type had more rigidity, with the advantage of lifting ships more evenly. Another maintenance aspect was the use of bituminous enamel coating, which had also been applied to Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons. It was used up till the waterline on the outside, and overall on the inside, and protected the dry dock against corrosion. The coating was supplied by William Briggs & Sons Ltd. from Dundee, Scotland. During the first self docking in 1921 the coating was proven to be very effective. There was little biofouling on the hull. Most of it was seaweed that was easily removed. In between the seaweed, many mussels had attached themselves to the hull. In places where the coating had been damaged, by sunlight or concussion, these mussels had caused rather deep pits in the hull. There were about 400-500 pits on each section. These were closed by welding. There was no need to replace plates. The dry dock was long. Beam was The sides were wide on the pontoon level, and wide on top. The depth of hold of the pontoon ranged from on the sides to in the center. The total height on the sides was . Maximum draft was At the time. Dutch shipbuilders often used English feet for measurements. Each of the three pontoons was divided by three lateral bulkheads. The total connected pontoon also had eight traverse bulkheads in addition to the two sectional endings. This way the pontoon was divided in 4 times 11 (44 total) watertight compartments. The main frames were positioned apart. In between, there were lighter frames placed apart. The pontoon had extra reinforcements below the blocks, and where the other sections of the dock would be during self-docking. The pumps had to be able to lift the loaded dry dock in four hours. There was one main centrifugal pump of diameter in each section, placed as low as possible. Each was driven by a 140 hp electric motor with vertical shaft. These motors were placed in teak houses on top of the dry dock's sides. Each section also had a small centrifugal pump, which served as a bilge pump, and was driven the same way. Electricity would be provided from shore. The dry dock was controlled from a central operating room, from whence the pumps, valves, and gate valves could be operated. One table had the controls for electric-pneumatic operation of the gate valves of the 44 water tight compartments. A second table had 48 pneumatically driven sight glasses, which showed the water level in each of these compartments, and the water level outside the four sides of the dry dock. The operating room had a telephone connection to the motor houses. For construction of specialist parts NSM had subcontracted with other manufacturers: With Louis Smulders & Co. from Utrecht for the pumps; With Electrotechnische Industrie v/h Willem Smit & Co. in Slikkerveer for the electric motors; With Firma Groeneveld, van der Poll & Co. from Amsterdam for the electrical installation; With Haarlemsche Machinefabriek v/h Gebroeders Figee for the (electrically powered) capstans; and with Firma H. Olland from Utrecht for the control tables and sight glasses. Launch and Voyage to Surabaya Launch Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was launched on 7 June 1913. The time was set at 2 PM in order to launch at high tide. The launch was a momentous occasion. At 11 AM the saloon motor boat Alkmaar left the De Ruijter Quay (southern bank of the IJ near Centraal Station) with a number of high-ranking guests. These were: The Minister for the Colonies J.H. de Waal Malefijt; the Minister for Waterstaat L.R.H. Regout; J.G. Staal and L.A. Salverda de Grave, the secretary generals of both departments; De Jongh and Kloos of the advisory commission; J.T. Cremer, president, and L.P.D. op ten Noord, and J.C. Jansen all three members of the supervisory board of NSM; D. Goedkoop, CEO of NSM, and H. Goekoop, vice president of NSM. The guests were shown around, and climbed the stairs on one of the sides. After the visit the guests returned to Alkmaar to lunch on board. After arriving back on the southern shore, they found some other people wanting to see the launch, and so Alkmaar then turned back to the launch site. At 14:30 the dry dock was actually launched by turning on some hydraulic presses. On the sides she carried the text: 'Gouvernements Droogdok Soerabaja'. After the launch J.T. Cremer and the ministers made a speech on board Alkmaar. Voyage to Surabaya On Saturday 21 June at 4 PM tugboats started to tow Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons over the Zuiderzee towards Nieuwediep. On Monday at 2:30 AM, she arrived in the Texel Roadstead. The transport of the dry dock to Surabaya had been confided to the tow service Zur Muhlen en De Graaf, which had prepared its strongest tugs. The Ocean going tug Atlas measured 519 ton and had 1,500 ihp. She was commanded by Captain J. Bakker and had 18 crew. The ocean-going tug Titan measured 352 ton and had 1,000 ihp. She was commanded by Captain C. Spanjer and had 16 crew. The dock itself was commanded by Captain K. Lieuwen and had 17 crew. The tug Simson would accompany the convoy till the end of the English Channel. The 'Manilla hawsers' on board the tugs were thick. The tugs also had pumps, diving equipment, and electrical search lights. Atlas had wireless telegraphy. On the dry dock itself, many parts had been temporarily reinforced. There were also anchors, anchor windlasses, life boats etc. For the dry dock crew there was a temporary deck house. There was also a temporary steam engine on board for generating electricity, made by Louis Smulders & Co. from Utrecht. This way the dry dock could be operated during the voyage, which would at least be handy for the bilge pumps. At 11 AM on 23 June, the tugs were put before the dry dock. The armored cruiser Heemskerck and some smaller navy vessels came out to wish the dry dock a good voyage. At 12 AM the tugs started to tow with a speed of 4 knots. Once at sea, the hawsers were lengthened to 300 meters, and Simson joined the effort. The tug Hercules with some officials joined the convoy till it reached Callantsoog at 2:40 PM. The plan was to make 80 miles a day. Bunkering had been planned at Algiers, Malta, Port Said, Aden, Colombo and Sabang. In Aden, the convoy would also wait for the end of the monsoon. On 25 June. at noon the convoy passed Dover. At 26 June at noon it was south of the Isle of Wight. On the afternoon of the 27th, it was 20 miles south east of Start Point, Devon. On the morning of the 28th, it was ten miles south of Lizard Point, Cornwall. Simson then turned about, and Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was henceforward only pulled by Atlas and Titan. On 10 July, the convoy was at (near Cadiz). On 11 July, the convoy passed Gibraltar. On 16 July, Titan entered Algiers to load coal. On 22 July, the convoy was at , north of Tunis. On 31 July, the convoy was at , south of Crete. On 5 August, the convoy arrived at Port Said. Passing through the Suez Canal proved relatively easy, but it was still 13 August when the convoy left from Suez. A sand storm that hit the convoy in the Red Sea was probably the most dangerous event of the trip. On the 27st, the convoy passed Perim in the Strait of Mandeb, and entered the Gulf of Aden. On 29 August, it reached Aden. Here it had to wait at open sea for two days, because the weather made the trip into the harbor too dangerous. In Aden, the convoy waited for the monsoon to pass, diminishing the chances for bad weather in the Indian Ocean. The Times of India summarized the progress so far. Average speed had been 3.5 knots. The largest distance covered in one day was 110 miles. Near Cape St. Vincent progress had been slow, covering only 36 miles in 24 hours. Passing the Suez Canal had been easier than expected, even though engine trouble made that the dry dock hit one of the shores of the canal. The convoy left Aden on 18 September. Near Socotra coal was transferred from the dry dock to Titan. On 9 October, Atlas sent a telegram via the steamers Teheran and Colombo, stating the convoy to be at . On 17 October, the dry dock, towed by Atlas alone arrived at Colombo. Titan had steamed ahead, to bunker before their arrival. This allowed the convoy to leave at 18 October. On 1 November, the convoy reached Sabang, the first port in the Dutch East Indies. Here Atlas arrived alone in order to bunker ahead of the others. After bunkering the convoy continued its trip on the same day. On 10 November, the convoy passed the Straits of Durian. On Friday 21 November, the convoy reached Surabaya. At 6 AM, the convoy approached the basin. Atlas was towing the dry dock, and Titan was behind her to keep her on course. At 8 AM it had been bought into the new Torpedo Boat Harbor. Service Delayed commissioning The original plan was that the new harbor of Surabaya would be ready in 1913, but that did not happen. For the Droogdok Maatschappij Soerabaja (DMS), the delays meant that in November 1913 one expected the port, and specifically the location for the DSM, to be completed two years later than planned. Therefore, the dry dock company did not send the equipment for the planned repair shipyard with about 60 machines to Surabaya. DMS already had the smaller Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons, which it owned. This was anchored offshore, instead of in the unfinished harbor. DMS had negotiated with the state to lease Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons, but there was no effective contract when the dock arrived in Surabaya. Without assurance of a suitable location, DMS was probably also not that eager to come to a final contract. Therefore, the navy would take the dry dock into conservation for the time being. On the other hand, this was not good for DMS, because there was a fear that the navy would not let go of the dock if it was successful in commercial operation. After World War I started in July 1914, there was a strong demand for dry dock capacity in the Dutch East Indies. By November 1914, the East Indies government had proposed that the minister for the colonies make a second attempt to come to an agreement with DMS. It also proposed that in case of failure to come to an agreement, the navy should operate the dock. The government then ordered the navy to take the 14,000 tons dock into use. Therefore Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons was moved to a different location. Her old location was then deepened to 15 m. The Hollandsche Aannemnings Maatschappij, which also built the new port, accepted the job. In little over a week, a big dredging vessel removed 40–45,000 3 of ground. In early January 1915, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was towed and fixed into position, and a test was done to submerge it's deck. However, it seems that the navy did not use the dock, which was not in a suitable location for merchant shipping. Whatever the motives, the move might have put pressure on DMS. By October 1915 there was news about new negotiations between the East Indies government and DMS in order to lease the dry dock and to move it to the new port. In late November 1915, the Minister for the Colonies and DMS came to a final agreement to lease Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons Regular service On 13 March 1916, the workplaces of the drydock company DMS became operational. On 29 March 1916, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was towed into the new port. March 1916 was also the month that the 3,500 tons dock was brought into the new port. By 15 April 1916 the 14,000 tons dry dock had lifted SS Arakan of 5,106 GRT. Other ships followed, but even in 1917 the dock was not yet in its designated place, because the government had not yet placed the required dolphins. In 1917, the dry dock was nevertheless quite busy with 96 ships using the dock in 89 dockings (i.e. multiple ships in one go) for 283 days. In 1916–1917, DMS got a remarkable assignment. For the Van Meel shipping line, it was to revise three old sailings ships, which were to sail to Europe around the cape with tobacco. These were: Albertina Beatrice, John Davie, and Nest. There is a picture of the barque Nest on board the smaller dry dock, see Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons. Another picture has a ship of this shipping line with a male figurehead and visible bow on the deck of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons. From a picture, the ship on the dock is shown to be the John Davie. In 1918, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons lifted Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons for 22 days, so she could be repaired. That year Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons serviced 82 ships in docking operations which lasted 344 days. In 1919, the dock was busy for 97 ships in 83 dockings for 295 days. In 1920, this was 121 ships in 95 dockings which lasted for 329 days. In 1920, the terrain where DMS would finally establish its 99.5 by 39.5 m hall was created. In 1921, the two dry docks were joined by Surabaya Dock of 1,400 tons, a smaller dry dock which had been bought in Germany. The years 1921-1925 were rather bad for DMS, and so the docks had little to do. The years 1926-1929 saw a vast expansion of the company. It succeeded in attracting most of the maintenance work for Dutch local shipping companies, which previously preferred to have their maintenance done abroad. Some foreign ships even visited Surabaya just for docking, something unimaginable before WW I. First self docking The original plan was that the first self docking of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons would take place after 5 years in the Dutch East Indies. Due to several circumstances, including the war, this was delayed till May 1921. More than 10 days passed before the three sections were disconnected on 1 June. The challenge was to level these section as exactly as possible in order to prevent them breaking apart forcibly, with risk of severe damage. The three sections were then connected with steel cables, while the outer sections got below the middle section. On 22 June, the docking of the first section started. On 13 July, this docking was finished. On 19 July, the third section was lifted. This was finished on 4 August. On 10 August, the middle section was lifted. This section was finished on 30 August. While lifting the first section, an eastern wind of 6 Bft made that the section that was to be lifted acted as a gigantic sail. In the end, it proved complex to get, and keep the sections in the required positions before lifting a section. The worst margin of the three lifts was 20 cm in length and 10 cm in width. Another challenge was that the lifting sections of course sank deeper under the lifted section. The lifting sections were kept level by pumping out more water from the compartments directly under the lifted section. In summary, the total procedure of lifting a section took between five and nine hours. From 3 to 17 September the sections were bolted together again. On 23 September, the dry dock was towed back to its original location. On 24 September, it was operational again. The great depression The Great Depression led to some very depressed years for DMS. In the early years, it especially hit the 3,500 and small 1,400 tons docks of the company. From 1931 to 1935 there was no dividend. Over 1936 only a small dividend of 2.5%. Over 1937 a more normal divided of 5% was paid to the shareholders. Increased lift capacity of 15.500 tons In 1937, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was lengthened from . As a side effect, lift capacity increased from 14,000 tons to 15,500 tons. The lengthening was done by DMS building two small extra dock sections on its own shipyard in Surabaya. The lengthening had everything to do with the Dutch navy commissioning the light cruiser De Ruyter in October 1936. This cruiser was long, and displaced 7,669 t. This was substantially longer than the Java-class cruisers of length. World War II World War II was an extremely busy time for all shipyards in allied territory. This was also true for the dry dock company Surabaya, which built a lot of ships, and was engaged in the desperate attempts to build up the defense of the Dutch East Indies. In March 1942, the Dutch attempted to destroy the naval facilities in Surabaya. The late 1940s In March 1947 Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was again taken into use. In 1956 usage of the dry dock was again insufficient. By 1958 the Indonesian military had taken control of DMS in Indonesia. In September 1959, the dry dock company in Indonesia was officially nationalized by the Indonesian government, with start date 3 December 1957. The end After nationalization DMS became PT. Dok & Perkapalan Surabaya (DPS) (In English: PT. Dock and Shipping Surabaya (Persero)). Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons might have continued in use for decades. Notes References Dry docks in Indonesia

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doc-en-4033

This is a list of the cicadas found in Australia including its outlying islands and territories. The outlying islands covered include: Christmas, Cocos (Keeling), Ashmore, Torres Strait, Coral Sea, Lord Howe, Norfolk, Macquarie, and Heard/McDonald. The taxonomy followed is from Moulds 2012, Marshall 2018, and Popple 2018. Family Cicadidae Latreille, 1802 Subfamily Cicadinae Latreille, 1802 Tribe Burbungini Moulds, 2005 Genus Burbunga Distant, 1905 Burbunga albofasciata Distant, 1907 (Pale Bark Cicada) Burbunga aterrima (Distant, 1914) (Western Bark Cicada) Burbunga gilmorei (Distant, 1882) (Desert Screamer) Burbunga hillieri (Distant, 1907) (Small Western Bark Cicada) Burbunga inornata Distant, 1905 (Mareeba Bark Cicada) Burbunga mouldsi Olive, 2012 (Charcoal Screamer) Burbunga nanda (Burns, 1964) (Black-spot Screamer) Burbunga nigrosignata (Distant 1904) (South-western Whiner) Burbunga occidentalis (Distant, 1912) (Small Northern Bark Cicada) Burbunga parva Moulds, 1994 (Queensland Bark Cicada) Burbunga queenslandica Moulds, 1994 Tribe Cicadini Latreille Genus Diceropyga Stål, 1870 Dyceropyga subapicalis (Walker, 1868) (Australian Dicer) Tribe Cryptotympanini Handlirsch, 1925 Genus Anapsaltoda Ashton, 1921 Anapsaltoda pulchra Ashton, 1921 (Golden Emperor) Genus Arenopsaltria Ashton, 1921 (Sandgrinders) Arenopsaltria fullo (Walker, 1850) (Sandgrinder) Arenopsaltria nubivena (Walker, 1858) (Eastern Sandgrinder) Arenopsaltria pygmaea (Distant, 1904) (Pygmy Sandgrinder) Genus Henicopsaltria Stål, 1866 Henicopsaltria danielsi Moulds, 1993 (McIvor River Grinder) Henicopsaltria eydouxii (Guérin-Méneville, 1838) (Razor Grinder) Henicopsaltria kelsalli Distant, 1910 (Cape York Grinder) Henicopsaltria rufivelum Moulds, 1978 (Jungle Grinder) Genus Illyria Moulds, 1985 Illyria australensis (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Semi-arid Rattler) Illyria burkei (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Illyria hilli (Ashton, 1921) (Northern Rattler) Illyria major Moulds, 1985 (Desert Rattler) Genus Macrotristria Stål, 1870 Macrotristria angularis (Germar, 1834) (Cherrynose) Macrotristria bindalia Burns, 1964 (Corroboree Cicada) Macrotristria doddi Ashton, 1912 (Darwin Whiner) Macrotristria dorsalis Ashton, 1912 (Little Whiner) Macrotristria douglasi Burns, 1964 (Kimberley Whiner) Macrotristria extrema (Distant, 1892) (Western Whiner) Macrotristria frenchi (Distant, 1892) (Northern Steamer) Macrotristria godingi Distant, 1907 (Tiger Cherrynose) Macrotristria hieroglyphicalis (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Derby Whiner) Macrotristria intersecta (Walker, 1850) (Corroboree Cicada) Macrotristria kabikabia Burns, 1964 (Black Cherrynose) Macrotristria kulungura Burns, 1964 (Coastal Whiner) Macrotristria lachlani Moulds, 1992 (Far Northern Cherrynose) Macrotristria maculicollis Ashton, 1914 (False Cherrynose) Macrotristria stevewilsoni Popple, 2016 (Shoalwater Cherrynose) Macrotristria sylvara (Distant, 1901) (Green Cherrynose) Macrotristria thophoides Ashton, 1914 (False Drummer) Macrotristria vittata Moulds, 1992 (Cape York Cherrynose) Macrotristria worora Burns, 1964 (Kimberley Whiner) Genus Neopsaltoda Distant, 1910 Neopsaltoda crassa Distant, 1910 (Dark Knight) Genus Psaltoda Stål, 1861 Psaltoda adonis Ashton, 1914 (Forest Demon) Psaltoda antennetta Moulds, 2002 (Clubbed Sage) Psaltoda aurora Distant, 1881 (Red Roarer) Psaltoda brachypennis Moss and Moulds, 2000 (Phantom Knight) Psaltoda claripennis Ashton, 1921 (Clanger) Psaltoda flavescens Distant, 1892 (Golden Knight) Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton, 1912 (Smoky Sage) Psaltoda harrisii (Leach, 1814) (Yellowbelly) Psaltoda insularis Ashton, 1914 (Lord Howe Island Cicada) Psaltoda maccallumi Moulds, 2002 (Dark Sage) Psaltoda magnifica Moulds, 1984 (Green Baron) Psaltoda moerens (Germar, 1834) (Redeye) Psaltoda mossi Moulds, 2002 (Little Baron) Psaltoda pictibasis (Walker, 1858) (Black Friday) Psaltoda plaga (Walker, 1850) (Silver Knight) Tribe Cyclochilini Distant, 1904 Genus Cyclochila * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Cyclochila australasiae (Donovan, 1805) (Greengrocer/Masked Devil/Yellow Monday) Cyclochila virens Distant, 1906 (Northern Greengrocer) Tribe Jassopsaltriini Moulds, 2005 Genus Jassopsaltria Ashton, 1914 Jassopsaltria rufifacies Ashton, 1914 (Green Fizzer) Tribe Platypleurini Schmidt, 1918 Genus Oxypleura * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Oxypleura calypso (Kirby, 1889) (Christmas Island Cicada) Tribe Talcopsaltriini Moulds, 2008 Genus Talcopsaltria Moulds, 2008 Talcopsaltria olivei Moulds, 2008 (Tetradonta Cicada) Tribe Tamasini Moulds, 2005 Genus Parnkalla Distant, 1905 Parnkalla muelleri (Distant, 1882) (Grass Faerie) Genus Parnquila Moulds, 2012 Parnquila hillieri (Distant, 1906) (Cane Grass Buzzer) Parnquila magna (Distant, 1913) (Goldfields Buzzer) Parnquila venosa (Distant, 1907) (Spinifex Buzzer) Parnquila unicolor (Ashton, 1921) (Perth Buzzer) Genus Tamasa Distant, 1905 Tamasa burgessi (Distant, 1905) (Two-toned Bunyip) Tamasa caverna Moulds and Olive, 2014 (Boulder Bunyip) Tamasa doddi (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Dodd's Bunyip) Tamasa rainbowi Ashton, 1912 (Green Bunyip) Tamasa tristigma (Germar, 1834) (Eastern Bunyip) Tribe Thophini Distant, 1904 Genus Arunta Distant, 1904 Arunta interclusa (Walker, 1858) (Mangrove Drummer) Arunta perulata (Guérin-Méneville, 1831) (White Drummer) Genus Thopha * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Thopha colorata Distant, 1907 (Orange Drummer) Thopha emmotti Moulds, 2001 (Desert Double Drummer) Thopha hutchinsoni Moulds, 2008 (North-western Double Drummer) Thopha saccata (Fabricius, 1803) (Eastern Double Drummer) Thopha sessiliba Distant, 1892 (Northern Double Drummer) Subfamily Cicadettinae Buckton, 1889 Tribe Cicadettini Buckton, 1889 Genus Adelia Moulds, 2012 Adelia borealis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904)Broad-winged Tiger Genus Atrapsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Atrapsalta collina (Ewart, 1989) (Sandstone Squeaker) Atrapsalta corticina (Ewart, 1989) (Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta dolens (Walker, 1850) (South-western Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta emmotti (Owen and Moulds, 2016) (Channel Country Squeaker) Atrapsalta encaustica (Germar, 1834) (Black Squeaker) Atrapsalta furcilla Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Southern Mountain Squeaker) Atrapsalta fuscata (Ewart, 1989) (Small Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta siccana (Ewart, 1989) (Bulloak Squeaker) Atrapsalta vinea Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Clare Valley Squeaker) Pauropsalta rubra Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Sale Squeaker) Genus Auscala Moulds, 2012 Auscala spinosa (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Creaking Branch Cicada) Genus Birrima Distant, 1906 Birrima castanea (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Tree-ticker) Birrima varians (Germar, 1834) (Black Tree-ticker) Genus Caliginopsalta Ewart, 2005 Caliginopsalta percola Ewart, 2005 (Royal Casuarina Ticker) Genus Chelapsalta Moulds, 2012 Chelapsalta puer (Walker, 1850) (Cassinia Cicada) Chelapsalta myoporae Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Copper Shrub-buzzer) Genus Clinata Moulds, 2012 Clinata nodicosta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Western Bent-winged Clicker) Genus Clinopsalta Moulds, 2012 Clinopsalta adelaida (Ashton, 1914) (Murray Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta autumna Popple and Emery, 2017 (Ferny Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta tigris (Ashton, 1914) (Small Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta semilunata Popple and Emery, 2017 (Semilunata Cicada) Genus Crotopsalta Ewart, 2005 Crotopsalta fronsecetes Ewart, 2005 (Eastern Ticker) Crotopsalta plexis Ewart, 2005 (Wilga Ticker) Crotopsalta strenulum Ewart, 2005 (Rapid Ticker) Crotopsalta poaecetes Ewart, 2005 (Cloncurry Ticker) Crotopsalta leptotigris Ewart, 2009 (Cravens Peak Ticker) Genus Diemeniana Distant, 1905 Diemeniana cincta (Fabricius, 1803) (Tasman Twanger) Diemeniana euronotiana (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Golden Twanger) Diemeniana frenchi (Distant, 1907) (Crop Duster) Diemeniana hirsuta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Black Twanger) Diemeniana neboissi Burns, 1958 (Auburn Crop Duster) Genus Dipsopsalta Moulds, 2012 Dipsopsalta signata (Distant, 1914) (Desert Grass-buzzer) Genus Drymopsalta Ewart, 2005 Drymopsalta acrotela Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Top End Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta crepitum Ewart, 2005 (Cape York Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta daemeli (Distant, 1905) (Brown Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta hobsoni Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Inglewood Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta wallumi Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Wallum Heath-buzzer) Genus Erempsalta Moulds, 2012 Erempsalta hermannsbergensis (Distant, 1907) (Turkey Bush Cicada) Genus Ewartia Moulds, 2012 Ewartia brevis (Ashton, 1912) (Varnished Cicada) Ewartia carina Popple, 2017 (Cape York Wattle Cicada) Ewartia cuensis (Distant, 1913) (Western Wattle Cicada) Ewartia etesia Popple, 2017 (Northern Wattle Cicada) Ewartia lapidosa Popple, 2017 (Inland Wattle Cicada) Ewartia oldfieldi (Distant, 1883) (Wattle Cicada) Ewartia roberti Popple, 2017 (Thin-striped Wattle Cicada) Ewartia thamna Popple, 2017 (Shrub Wattle Cicada) Genus Falcatpsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Falcatpsalta aquilus (Ewart, 1989) (Sooty Squeaker) Genus Froggattoides Distant, 1910 Froggattoides pallidus (Ashton, 1912) (Western Bent-wing) Froggattodies typicus Distant, 1910 (Eastern Bent-wing) Genus Gagatopsalta Ewart, 2005 Gagatopsalta obscura Ewart, 2005 (Clip-clop Cicada) Gagatopsalta auranti Ewart, 2005 (Painted Brigalow Ticker) Genus Galanga Moulds, 2012 Galanga labeculata (Distant 1882) (Double-spotted Cicada) Genus Gelidea Moulds, 2012 Gelidea torrida (Erichson, 1842) (Southern Spotted Cicada) Genus Graminitigrina * Ewart and Marques, 2008 Graminitigrina aurora Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Emerald Grass-ticker) Graminitigrina bolloni Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Southern Grass-clicker ) Graminitigrina bowensis Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Northern Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina carnarvonensis Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Maranoa Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina einasleighi Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Ornamental Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina flindensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Hughenden Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina karumbae Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Far Northern Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina selwynensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Selwyn Range Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina triodiae Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Central Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina uluruensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Uluru Grass-clicker) Genus Gudanga Distant, 1905 Gudanga adamsi Moulds, 1996 (Northern Brigalow Blackwing) Gudanga aurea Moulds, 1996 (Golden Blackwing) Gudanga boulayi Distant, 1905 (Red Blackwing) Gudanga browni (Distant, 1913) (Orange Blackwing) Gudanga emmotti Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Noonbah Blackwing) Gudanga kalgoorliensis Moulds, 1996 (Kalgoorlie Blackwing) Gudanga lithgowae Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Southern Brigalow Blackwing) Gudanga nowlandi Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Mulga Blackwing) Gudanga pterolongata Olive, 2007 (Croydon Blackwing) Gudanga solata Moulds, 1996 (Dark Red Blackwing) Genus Haemopsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Haemopsalta aktites (Ewart, 1989) (Beach Squeaker) Haemopsalta flammeata Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Sunray Squeaker) Haemopsalta georgina Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Tasmanian Squeaker) Haemopsalta rubea (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Squeaker) Genus Heliopsalta Moulds, 2012 Heliopsalta polita (Popple, 2003) (Enamel Cicada) Genus Heremusina Ewart, 2018 Heremusina pipatio Ewart, 2018 (Cloncurry Watch-winder) Heremusina udeoecetes Ewart, 2018 (Alice Springs Watch-winder) Genus Kikihia Dugdale, 1972 Kikihia convicta (Distant, 1892) (Norfolk Island Cicada) Genus Kobonga Distant, 1906 Kobonga apicans Moulds and Kopestonsky, 2001 (Northern Robust Clicker) Kobonga apicata (Ashton, 1914) (Western Clicker) Kobonga froggatti Distant, 1913 (Maroon Clicker ) Kobonga fuscomarginata (Distant, 1914) (Slow Dinger) Kobonga godingi (Distant, 1905) (Southern Robust Clicker) Kobonga oxleyi (Distant, 1882) (Moree Dinger) Kobonga umbrimargo (Walker, 1858) (Orange Clicker) Genus Limnopsalta Moulds, 2012 Limnopsalta stradbrokensis (Distant, 1915) (Wallum Sedge-clicker) Genus Marteena Moulds, 1986 Mallee Chirper * Marteena rubricincta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Genus Mugadina Moulds, 2012 Mugadina emma (Goding and Froggatt) (Amber Grass-ticker) Mugadina marshalli (Distant, 1911) (Yellow Grass-ticker) Genus Myopsalta Moulds, 2012 Myopsalta albiventris Popple, 2017 (Pale-bellied Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta atrata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Orange-bellied Buzzer) Myopsalta bassiana Popple, 2017 (Bassian Buzzer) Myopsalta binotata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Robust Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta chrysopedia Popple, 2017 (Black Sandplain Buzzer) Myopsalta coolahensis Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Coolah Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta crucifera (Ashton, 1914) (Brown Buzzer) Myopsalta gordoni Popple, 2017 (Black Acacia Buzzer) Myopsalta leona Popple, 2017 (Black Brigalow Buzzer) Myopsalta longicauda Popple, 2017 (Wavering Buzzer) Myopsalta riverina Popple, 2017 (Eastern Mallee Buzzer) Myopsalta septa Popple, 2017 (Warwick Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta lactea (Distant, 1905) (Dark Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta libritor Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Coolah Repeater) Myopsalta mackinlayi (Distant, 1882) (Fence Buzzer) Myopsalta majurae Popple, 2017 (Mt Ainslie Buzzer) Myopsalta melanobasis Popple, 2017 (Broad-winged Buzzer) Myopsalta parvula Popple, 2017 (Black Mountain Tinkler) Myopsalta platyptera Popple, 2017 (Theodore Chirper) Myopsalta umbra Popple, 2017 (Olive Vine Buzzer) Myopsalta waterhousei (Distant, 1905) (Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta wollomombii (Coombs, 1995) (New England Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta xerograsidia Popple, 2017 (Fishing Reel Buzzer) Genus Nanopsalta Moulds, 2012 Nanopsalta basalis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Paperbark Tree-buzzer) Genus Neopunia Moulds, 2012 Neopunia graminis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Fluoro Grass Pixie) Genus Noongara Moulds, 2012 Noongara issoides (Distant, 1905) (Perth Stubby-wing) Genus Palapsalta Moulds, 2012 Palapsalta belli Emery, Emery and Hutchinson, 2018 (Pilbara Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta circumdata (Walker, 1852) (Bronze Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta eyrei (Distant, 1882) (Yellow Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta ligneocauda Emery, Emery and Hutchinson, 2018 (Lime Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta palaga Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Northern River Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta serpens Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Pale-sided Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta virgulata (Ewart, 1989) (Striped Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta vitellina (Ewart, 1989) (Eastern River Tree-buzzer) Genus Paradina Moulds, 2012 Paradina leichardti (Distant, 1882) (Black Grass-ticker) Genus Pauropsalta * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Pauropsalta accola Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Subcoastal Squawker) Pauropsalta adelphe Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Top End Frog Squawker) Pauropsalta agasta Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kimberley Frog Squawker) Pauropsalta borealis Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Little Orange Squawker) Pauropsalta castanea Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Flinders Squawker) Pauropsalta confinis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Seismic Squawker) Pauropsalta conflua Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Small Mallee Squawker) Pauropsalta contigua Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Oven Squawker) Pauropsalta elgneri (Ashton, 1912) (Cape York Galloper) Pauropsalta ewarti Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Herberton Squawker) Pauropsalta extensa Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Slender Squawker) Pauropsalta extrema (Distant, 1892) (Typewriter) Pauropsalta herveyensis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Herveys Range Squawker) Pauropsalta infrasila Moulds, 1987 (Tropical Orange Squawker) Large Mallee Squawker * Pauropsalta infuscata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Pauropsalta juncta Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Stirling Squawker) Pauropsalta katherina Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kathy's Squawker) Pauropsalta kriki Owen and Moulds, 2016 (River Galloper) Pauropsalta melanopygia Germar, 1834) (Strident Sqawker) Pauropsalta mneme (Walker, 1850) (Alarm Clock Squawker) Pauropsalta opaca Ewart, 1989 (Fairy Dust Squawker) Pauropsalta prolongata Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Slender Squawker) Pauropsalta similis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kimberley Squawker) Pauropsalta sinavilla Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Pilbara Squawker) Pauropsalta walkeri Moulds and Owen, 2011 (Normanton Squawker) Genus Physeema Moulds, 2012 Physeema bellatrix (Ashton, 1914) (Esperance Ticker) Physeema convergens (Walker, 1850) (Duke) Physeema labyrinthica (Walker, 1850) (Southern Coastal Ticker) Physeema latorea (Walker, 1850) (Northern Sandplain Ticker) Physeema quadricincta (Walker, 1850) (Tick-tock) Genus Pipilopsalta Ewart, 2005 Pipilopsalta ceuthoviridis Ewart, 2005 (Green Desert Ticker) Genus Platypsalta Moulds, 2012 Platypsalta dubia (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Black Scrub-buzzer) Platypsalta mixta (Distant, 1914) (Black Scrub-buzzer) Genus Plerapsalta Moulds, 2012 Plerapsalta incipiens (Walker, 1850) (Tiny Ambertail) Plerapsalta multifascia (Walker, 1850) (Neon Ambertail) Genus Popplepsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Popplepsalta aeroides Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Blue-banded Scratcher) Popplepsalta annulata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Sprinkler Squeaker) Popplepsalta ayrensis (Ewart, 1989) (Ephemeral Squeaker) Popplepsalta blackdownensis (Popple, 2013) (Blackdown Squeaker) Popplepsalta corymbiae (Popple, 2013) (Western Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta decora (Popple, 2013) (Static Squeaker) Popplepsalta granitica (Popple, 2013) (Northern Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta inversa (Popple, 2013) (Retro Squeaker) Popplepsalta kobongoides (Popple, 2013) (Mimic Squeaker) Popplepsalta notialis incitata (Popple, 2013) (Inland Sprinkler Squeaker) Popplepsalta notialis notialis (Popple, 2013) (Southern Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta rubristrigata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Scratcher) Popplepsalta simplex (Popple, 2013) (Atherton Squeaker) Popplepsalta subtropica (Popple, 2013) (Subtropical Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta torrensis (Popple, 2013) (Hughenden Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta tremula (Popple, 2013) (Maraca Squeaker) Pauropsalta stigmatica Distant, 1905 (Small Adelaide Squeaker) Genus Punia Moulds, 2012 Punia minima (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Grass Pygmy) Genus Pyropsalta Moulds, 2012 Pyropsalta melete (Walker, 1850) (Red Bandit) Genus Relictapsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Relictapsalta nigristriga (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Dusty Squawker) Genus Samaecicada* Popple and Emery, 2010 Samaecicada subolivacea (Ashton, 1912) (Red-eyed Fairy) Genus Simona Moulds, 2012 Simona erema Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Roaring Senna Cicada) Simona retracta Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Charleville Eremophila Cicada) Simona sancta (Distant, 1913) (Western Eremophila Cicada) Genus Sylphoides Moulds, 2012 Sylphoides arenaria (Distant, 1907) (Sand Fairy) Genus Taurella Moulds, 2012 Taurella forresti (Distant, 1882) (Hibiscus Cicada) Taurella froggatti (Distant, 1907) (Red Fairy) Taurella viridis (Ashton, 1912) (Emerald Fairy) Genus Telmapsalta Moulds, 2012 Telmapsalta hackeri (Distant, 1915) (Paperbark Cicada) Genus Terepsalta Moulds, 2012 Terepsalta infans (Walker, 1850) (Southern Stubby Grass-ticker) Terepsalta leichhardti Ewart, 2013 (Northern Stubby Grass-ticker) Genus Toxala Moulds, 2012 Toxala verna (Distant, 1912) (Bent-winged Grass-buzzer) Toxala mckinnonae Popple, 2015 (Herberton Grass-buzzer) Genus Urabunana Distant, 1905 Urabunana sericeivitta (Walker, 1862) (Eastern Grass-buzzer) Genus Uradolichos Moulds, 2012 Uradolichos longipennis (Ashton, 1914) (Candy Tiger-squawker) Uradolichos rotunda Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Dark Tiger-squawker) Genus Xeropsalta Ewart, 2018 Xeropsalta aridula Ewart, 2018 (Simpson Desert Grass-shaker) Mugadina festiva (Distant, 1907) (Bee Gleeper) Xeropsalta rattrayi Ewart, 2018 (Green Grass-shaker) Xeropsalta thomsoni Ewart, 2018 (Birdsville Grass-ticker) Genus Yoyetta Moulds, 2012 Yoyetta aaede (Walker, 1850) (Red-eyed Firetail) Yoyetta abdominalis (Distant, 1892) (Golden-haired Firetail) Yoyetta celis (Moulds, 1988) (Silver Princess) Yoyetta cumberlandi Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Cumberland Ambertail) Yoyetta denisoni (Distant, 1893) (Black Firetail) Yoyetta fluviatilis Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (River Ambertail) Yoyetta humphreyae Moulds and Popple, 2018 (Varied Ambertail) Yoyetta hunterorum (Moulds, 1988) (Sydney Treetop Ticker) Yoyetta incepta (Walker, 1850) (False Ambertail) Yoyetta landsboroughi (Distant, 1882) (Small Bassian Ambertail) Yoyetta nigrimontana Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Small Southern Ambertail) Yoyetta repetens Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Zipping Ambertail) Yoyetta toowoombae (Distant, 1915) (Small Bassian Ambertail) Yoyetta tristrigata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Tropical Ambertail) Tribe Chlorocystini Distant, 1905 Genus Chlorocysta Westwood, 1851 Chlorocysta congrua (Walker, 1862) (Small Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta fumea (Ashton, 1914) (McIllwraith Range Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta suffusa (Distant, 1907) (Marbled Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta vitripennis (Westwood, 1851) (Lesser Bottle Cicada) Genus Cystopsaltria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Cystopsaltria immaculata Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Rare Bladder Cicada) Genus Cystosoma Westwood, 1842 Cystosoma saundersii Westwood, 1842 (Bladder Cicada) Cystosoma schmeltzi Distant, 1882 (Small Bladder Cicada) Genus Euthemopsaltria Moulds, 2014 Euthemopsaltria laeta Moulds, 2014 (Reticulate Bottle Cicada) Genus Glaucopsaltria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Glaucopsaltria viridis Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Bottle Cicada) Genus Guineapsaltria de Boer, 1993 Guineapsaltria flava (Goding and Froggatt), 1904 (Green Fairy) Genus Gymnotympana Stål, 1861 Gymnotympana rufa (Ashton, 1914) (Crimson Fairy) Gymnotympana varicolor (Distant, 1907) (Red Belly) Genus Owra Ashton, 1912 Owra insignis Ashton, 1912 (Green Ghost) Genus Thaumastopsaltria Kirkaldy, 1900 Thaumastopsaltria globosa (Distant, 1897) (Slender Green Growler) Thaumastopsaltria smithersi Moulds, 2012 (Robust Green Growler) Genus Venustria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Venustria superba Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Frog Cicada) Tribe Prasiini Matsumura, 1917 Genus Lembeja Distant, 1883 Lembeja paradoxa (Karsch, 1890) (Bagpipe Cicada) Lembeja vitticollis (Ashton, 1912) (Brown Leaf Cicada) Tribe Taphurini Distant, 1905 Genus Aleeta Moulds, 2003 Aleeta curvicosta (Germar, 1834) (Floury Baker) Genus Tryella Moulds, 2003 Tryella adela Moulds, 2003 (Small Maroon Bullet) Tryella burnsi Moulds, 2003 (Brown Bullet) Tryella castanea (Distant, 1905) (Small Rusty Bullet) Tryella crassa Moulds, 2003 (Dusky Bullet) Tryella graminea Moulds, 2003 (Grass Bullet) Tryella infuscata Moulds, 2003 (Large Maroon Bullet) Tryella kauma Moulds, 2003 (Silver-striped Bullet) Tryella lachlani Moulds, 2003 (Golden Black Bullet) Tryella noctua (Distant, 1913) (Chocolate Bullet) Tryella occidens Moulds, 2003 (Dusty Brown Bullet) Tryella ochra Moulds, 2003 (Golden Brown Bullet) Tryella rubra (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Large Rusty Bullet) Tryella stalkeri (Distant, 1907) (Honey Bullet) Tryella willsi (Distant, 1882) (Black Bullet) Genus Chrysocicada Boulard, 1989 Chrysocicada franceaustralae Boulard, 1989 (Western Gold Cicada) Genus Pictila Moulds, 2012 Pictila occidentalis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Green Mallee Cicada) Family Tettigarctidae Distant, 1905 Subfamily Tettigarctinae Distant, 1905 Tribe Tettigarctini Distant, 1905 Genus Tettigarcta White, 1845 Tettigarcta crinita Distant, 1883 (Alpine Hairy Cicada) Tettigarcta tomentosa White, 1845 (Tasmanian Hairy Cicada) See also An article in the Sydney Morning Herald describing Australian cicadas. References Hemiptera of Australia Cicadas Cicadas

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John Aaron Rawlins (February 13, 1831 September 6, 1869) was a general officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War and a cabinet officer in the Grant administration. A longtime confidant of Ulysses S. Grant, Rawlins served on Grant's staff throughout the war, rising to the rank of brevet major general, and was Grant's chief defender against allegations of insobriety. He was appointed Secretary of War when Grant was elected President of the United States. Rawlins was a self-made man who overcame an impoverished family background, scanty education, and an absentee father who was prone to drink. After studying law, Rawlins passed the bar in 1854 and started a practice in Galena, Illinois. He was a Douglas Democrat at the outbreak of the Civil War; a noted public speaker, he gave a notable pro-Union speech at the start of hostilities, and he soon became close friends with Ulysses S. Grant, a Galena resident, United States Military Academy graduate, and Mexican–American War veteran who had served in the Army for 11 years. Rawlins persuaded Grant to drill and muster a local volunteer militia company and send them to the state capital in Springfield so they could be inducted into federal service. After brief service in the Illinois militia as a mustering officer, Grant was soon recommissioned in the Army to serve under Union General John C. Frémont, commander of Union Army forces in the western United States. Rawlins also joined the Union Army and served primarily as an officer on Grant's staff; his promotions were linked to Grant's success on the battlefields and Grant's advancement in the Union Army under President Abraham Lincoln. Rawlins contracted tuberculosis in 1863, but continued to serve on Grant's staff during Reconstruction. After Grant won the 1868 election and assumed the presidency in March 1869, he named Rawlins as his Secretary of War. With the exception of his approving the height of the Brooklyn Bridge, before construction, Rawlins' brief tenure was mostly controversial. Rawlins supported insurrection against Spanish rule in Cuba, established an anti-Mormon policy for the Utah Territory, and reduced the authority of General William Tecumseh Sherman, Grant's successor as commander of the Army. Rawlins' tuberculosis continued to worsen, and he died in September 1869, five months into his term. Except for a 1916 biography, The Life of John A. Rawlins, by James Harrison Wilson, Rawlins' short life is not well known, while Grant, perhaps protecting his own reputation, rarely mentioned him in his popular Memoirs, published in 1885. With Rawlins' death, strong cabinet-level support for an independent Cuba ended, and did not become a priority until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Early years John Aaron Rawlins was born on February 13, 1831 in East Galena, Illinois, the second of ten children born to James Dawson and Lovisa Collier Rawlins, both of Scotch-Irish descent, whose ancestors originally settled in Culpeper County, Virginia. James Rawlins was a descendant of Robert Rawlins, who originally settled in Maryland, and he became a farmer and charcoal maker in Missouri and Illinois. In 1849, James Rawlins migrated to California during the Gold Rush, and he stayed for three years. While his father was absent, Rawlins became the primary caretaker of his mother, sister, and six brothers. James did not strike gold, and upon returning home he halfheartedly devoted his time to his family farm and timber lands, while John Rawlins took on increasing responsibility as the head of the family. Rawlins blamed his father James' carefree lifestyle and lack of attention to his family on strong drink. His father's behavior affected Rawlins' own attitudes and fears concerning alcohol, and he became a teetotaler. According to historian Bruce Catton, Rawlins' abstention was caused by his belief that if he took even one drink, he would not be able to stop. Rawlins' early education was scanty; he attended local schools in Illinois and spent a year and a half at Rock River Seminary in Mount Morris, Illinois. Rawlins attracted notice locally as a "self-made man" by going through a period of self-directed study to make up for his lack of formal education. He then studied law in the office of Isaac P. Stevens of Galena, and attained admission to the bar in 1854. Rawlins practiced in partnership with Stevens, and later with David Sheean, who had studied under Rawlins. Politically Rawlins aligned himself with the Democratic Party and supported the presidential campaigns of Stephen A. Douglas. Marriages, family, health On June 5, 1856, Rawlins married Emily Smith, daughter of Hiram Smith of Goshen, New York. Their marriage produced three children including son James, and daughters Jennie and Emily. Mrs. Rawlins died of tuberculosis in August, 1861, shortly after Rawlins began his service with the Union Army. According to historian Bruce Catton, her death left Rawlins with the fear he would one day die of the same disease. On December 23, 1863 Rawlins married Mary Emma Hurlburt, the daughter of S. A. Hurlburt of Danbury, Connecticut. During the Winter of 1863 Rawlins developed a persistent cough that was later diagnosed as tuberculosis. American Civil War Galena Union loyalty speech After Fort Sumter fell, at the outbreak of the American Civil War, Galena's residents held a town meeting; the featured speakers were U.S. Congressman Elihu B. Washburne and Rawlins. Rawlins made his pro-Union sentiments clear when he stated: "I have been a Democrat all my life; but this is no longer a question of politics; It is simply country or no country; I have favored every honorable compromise; but the day for compromise is passed; only one course is left us. We will stand by the flag of our country, and appeal to the god of battles." Union Army military promotions In 1861, Rawlins took an active role in the organization of the 45th Illinois Infantry, in response to President Abraham Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers, and Grant volunteered to help train the regiment. He was soon appointed commander of the 21st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and requested that Rawlins become his aide-de-camp. Rawlins accepted and on August 30 he was appointed a captain in the regular Army and Assistant Adjutant-General of Volunteers. On September 14, Rawlins reported to Grant's headquarters in Cairo. From this time forward, Rawlins remained by Grant's side and became Grant's most influential staff officer, advisor, and closest friend. Like most men at the beginning of the Civil War, Rawlins was not formally military trained, however, he was naturally suited for his position. As Grant rose in rank and responsibility, Rawlins was likewise promoted in roles of increasing responsibility and rank, including Chief of Staff of the Army of the Tennessee and Chief of Staff of the Military Division of the Mississippi. He was known for his great attention to detail, as well as being a stickler for proper protocol. On May 14, 1862 Rawlins was promoted to major, and on November 1 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Just before joining his staff, he exacted a pledge from Grant, who had a history of alcohol problems, not to drink during the war. He forbade the use of alcohol at headquarters and a year after joining the staff signed a pledge himself not to consume alcohol. During the war, Rawlins frequently scolded Grant for perceived derelictions with an impunity that often surprised onlookers. Rawlins was promoted to brigadier general of Volunteers on August 11, 1863. When Grant was promoted to general in chief of all the Union armies, Rawlins became Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters of the United States Army. He was promoted to brevet major general on February 24, 1865, to brigadier general in the regular army on March 3, and brevet major general in the regular army on April 9. Petitioned for Sheean release (1862) In the fall of 1862, Rawlins' law partner David Sheean, an outspoken critic of Lincoln's war policy, was arrested; he was an outspoken Democrat, and because habeas corpus had been suspended by President Abraham Lincoln in 1861, Sheean's Republican political enemies worked to have him detained without charges at Fort Lafayette, New York. Rawlins took a leave of absence to aid Sheean, and petitioned in person to both Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Congressman Elihu B. Washburne. Sheean was finally released in December, 1862. Objected to General Order No. 11 (1862) During the Vicksburg Campaign, on December 17, 1862, Grant issued General Order No. 11 expelling Jews, as a class, from Grant's military district. Grant was upset over an illegal cotton trade that he believed funded the Confederate Army. Grant blamed Jewish traders for breaking Treasury Department regulations. Jewish persons who did not obey the order were to be arrested and forcibly removed as prisoners. Rawlins, Grant's attorney and Asst. Adjt. Gen., strongly warned Grant not to issue the order. Grant refused to take Rawlin's advise concerning the order and told him: "Well, they can countermand this from Washington if they like, but we will issue it anyhow." The controversial order was revoked by President Abraham Lincoln. Grant's Washington D.C. emissary (1863) During the Summer of 1863, Grant sent Rawlins east to Washington D.C. as his emissary. At this time Grant was relatively unknown in political circles, having fought far from Washington D.C. in the Western Theater. Rawlins arrived in Washington D.C. on July 30 and talked with General-In-Chief Henry W. Halleck at the War Department and the Army's assistant adjutant general, Colonel J.C. Kelton. Halleck cordially received Rawlins and told Rawlins he was pleased with Grant's victory and endorsed Grant's Vicksburg surrender terms, including releasing 31,000 Confederate prisoners on parole. Rawlins then went to the White House and met President Abraham Lincoln and his Cabinet. He handed Lincoln a letter from Grant that asked for Rawlins to be given an interview with Lincoln so Rawlins could brief him on the successful results of the Vicksburg Campaign and explain why the Confederate soldiers were paroled. Special observer Charles A. Dana and Secretary of Navy Gideon Welles gave Rawlins high praise for his industrious nature and his intelligence. Dana stated that Rawlins was a "very industrious, conscientious man." Welles stated that he was pleased by Rawlins' "frank, intelligent, and interesting description of men and of army operations." Chattanooga letter to Grant (1863) During the Chattanooga Campaign in November 1863, Grant was alleged to have been drinking excessively among other generals and subordinates who had access to bottles of whiskey and a bottle of wine received from Grant's mother Hannah. Rawlins heard of this, and considering himself to be Grant's protector when it came to alcohol, wrote him a letter on November 15 or 16, which was never sent; it demanded that Grant "immediately desist from further tasting of liquors of any kind". Rawlins' concerns were unfounded; According to General David Hunter, who had the opportunity to observe Grant closely during this period, Grant had only two drinks in three weeks during the month of November. On November 14, Grant had actually broken up a drinking party between his subordinate Colonel Clark Lagow and Lagow's friends at four in the morning. Rawlins kept this unsent letter in his records, where it was later found by historians. This unsent letter was one of several items which created the impression that Grant routinely drank to excess. Dodge expedition and attempted health recovery (1867) In 1867, during Reconstruction, Rawlins accompanied the military escort that traveled with Grenville M. Dodge's expedition to explore the proposed route of the Union Pacific Railroad. Dodge was chief engineer for the Union Pacific, which was responsible for building the railroad from east to west, while the Central Pacific Railroad built from west to east. Rawlins had accompanied Dodge as far as Salt Lake City, Utah in hopes that the dry air of the plains would help cure his tuberculosis. Dodge later named one of the expedition's Wyoming campsites Rawlins; this site was later incorporated as a town. After four months of travel with Dodge, Rawlins returned to Washington D.C., but his health had not substantially improved. Secretary of War (1869) Overview When Grant became President, Rawlins' doctors recommended that he go to Arizona, where they believed the dry desert climate would allow him to live longer. To accommodate their medical advice, Grant wanted to appoint Rawlins military commander of the Southwest; Rawlins refused, wishing to stay at Grant's side. Grant acquiesced and appointed Rawlins as Secretary of War. During his five months in office, Rawlins was at odds with Secretary of State Hamilton Fish over whether to recognize and support a revolution against the Spanish government in Cuba; Rawlins favored providing military aid and other assistance; Fish was opposed. Both competed for Grant's support and that of the other cabinet secretaries. Grant finally sided with Fish and the U.S did not intervene. On the question of dealing with the Mormons located primarily in Utah Territory, Rawlins convinced Grant to adopt a confrontational approach to ending their practice of polygamy, including the use of the military if necessary. Rawlins' health continued to deteriorate; he was bedridden before he died in office on September 6, 1869. One of his last acts as Secretary of War was his approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Sherman controversy When Grant became President he promoted William T. Sherman his friend and fellow general during the Civil War the top command of General of the Armies in March 1869. During this time General John M. Schofield was Grant's interim Secretary of War, a carry-over from the Andrew Johnson administration. Initially, Grant had given Sherman broad powers over the U.S. Military, including having authority over bureau chiefs, causing Sherman to believe his relationship to Grant during Grant's presidency would be the same as his close relationship to Grant during the Civil War. When Rawlins became Secretary of War his first actions were to significantly reduce General Sherman's authority in the U.S. military. Rawlins had requested to Grant to give him authority over bureau chiefs and Grant complied, knowing Rawlins was in ill health. Sherman hurried to the White House and asked that Grant rescind his orders that reduced Sherman's authority. Knowing that Rawlins was gravely ill Grant told Sherman that he would not rescind his orders. This upset Sherman, and after a disagreement over military and presidential protocol, Sherman stood up and walked out of the meeting saying "Good day Mister President!". Grant and Sherman had formerly been on first name familiarity. After this incident, Grant and Sherman were not on the same friendly manner they had been during the Civil War. Rawlins' successor, William W. Belknap, also continued this trend and reduced Sherman's authority in the U.S. military, taking away Sherman's authority to appoint post-trader commissions. Anti-Mormon policy In 1869, Grant sent Rawlins to Utah Territory in hopes he would recover from his declining health and in part to observe the condition of Mormons there. This was Rawlins second time in Utah, having traveled with Dodge to Salt Lake City, in 1867. Rawlins was very cool to his reception of Mormons in Utah including Mormon leader Brigham Young, whom he met twice, who was surrounded by a Mormon military escort. Inwardly, Rawlins was hostile to Young and the Mormon polygamists. When Rawlins returned to Washington he convinced Grant to develop a harsh policy against the religious sect. Rawlins also convinced Grant to appoint J. Wilson Shaffer Governor of Utah Territory. Shaffer implemented a strict policy that was designed to keep the Mormons from rebelling from the United States. The Mormons, according to Grant, were in a militant state of rebellion over the issue of polygamy. Grant went on to arrest many Mormons, including Young, in a crackdown by federal marshals Grant believed would keep the Mormons from separating from the United States and to disrupt their practice of polygamy. Cuban insurrection In 1868, the Cuban Revolution began when rebels on Cuba tried to overthrow Spanish rule. Many Americans rallied behind the rebellion and began to sell war bonds in support of the recognition of Cuban belligerency. In 1869, President Grant's Secretary of State Hamilton Fish was unwilling to support the Cuban rebels since the United States had recently gone through the Civil War. Also at stake was negotiations for settlement of the Alabama Claims, that included the claim the British had recognized Confederate belligerency during the Civil War. The recognition of Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized negotiations between Britain and the United States. Secretary Rawlins, however, was strongly in favor of the recognition of Cuban belligerency and even advocated war with Spain, if necessary. Rawlins went to the press and stated the reasons why the United States needed to aid the Cuban rebels. Rawlins himself had accepted $28,000 in Cuban War bonds that would have been given face value if the Cuban rebels were recognized by the United States. Political infighting over recognizing Cuban belligerency took place in Grant's Cabinet. Secretary Fish, however, was able to convince Grant over Rawlins' impassioned arguments not to intervene in the Cuban insurrection. At this time Rawlins was becoming increasingly ill and was confined to his bed. Approval of Brooklyn Bridge construction One of Rawlins' last and most complicated acts as Secretary of War was the approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a steel suspension bridge to connect the borough of Manhattan and the then independent city of Brooklyn over the East River. Controversy ensued when shipping interests demanded a high grade of the bridge to allow large ships to pass under, while the bridge construction company demanded a lower bridge span. Although Rawlins was severely ill, he took several days minutely and carefully going over the construction plans to settle the matter. The bridge company desired a maximum 130 feet height while the shipping interests wanted a minimal 140 feet height. In front of both shipping and bridge representatives, Rawlins fixed the maximum height of the Brooklyn Bridge at 135 feet above the East's high water mark. The bridge company was prohibited from giving a different order of approval of the bridge's construction. Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge followed several months later, but Rawlins condition was terminal and he did not have long to live. The Brooklyn Bridge was finally completed in 1883 under much celebration and is one of the oldest working bridges in the United States. Last cabinet meeting and death By late August 1869, Rawlins' "consumption" had progressed, and while he was staying at his home in Danbury, Connecticut with his wife and children, he hemorrhaged. Called to the capital for a cabinet meeting, his wife and children stayed behind, while Rawlins set off for Washington. In New York, Rawlins hemorrhaged again, but he continued his journey to see the President. Making it to the capital he hemorrhaged again, but he made it to the cabinet meeting and sat at his regular chair. Grant and Secretary Fish were surprised to see him there. The next day Rawlins had a long meeting with Grant at the White House, whereupon Grant said goodbye to his friend, who left Washington for Saratoga to join his wife Julia. Rawlins was left alone without wife or family in Washington, but another close wartime friend and Native American, Ely Parker, cared for him. The following day, Sunday, September 5, Grant was informed of Rawlins' declining health, and he set back to Washington determined to see his friend before he died, but his trip was delayed. Sherman and Grant's Secretary of Interior Jacob D. Cox stayed with Rawlins at his bedside waiting for Grant to arrive. When Rawlins asked when Grant was going to arrive Sherman gently lied to him and said "about 10 minutes". Rawlins, however, persisted on asking his doctor, D. Willard Bliss, when Grant was coming to see him. The following day on Monday, September 6, 1869, Secretary of War Rawlins died in office at 4:12 PM. Grant arrived at Rawlins' at 5:15 PM, too late to see his friend. Historian William McFeely said concerning Grant missing Rawlins' death that no one "could replace John Rawlins. Now in the first year of the frightening business of the presidency, Rawlins was stolen from Grant, and he had not even been on hand to protest the theft." Rawlins was initially buried in a friend's vault at Congressional Cemetery; his remains were later relocated to Arlington National Cemetery. Rawlins was survived by his second wife Mary Hurlburt and two children. Rawlins was succeeded as Secretary of War by Sherman on an interim basis, and permanently by William W. Belknap. Honors and historical evaluations A statue, General John A. Rawlins was erected in Washington, D.C. in 1874. Rawlins Township, Jo Daviess County, Illinois, the town of Rawlins, county seat of Carbon County, Wyoming, as well as Rawlins County, Kansas are all named after him. Rawlins devoted his efforts to maintaining Grant's public image during the war. Grant was known before the war for trouble with alcoholism, but it was revealed, in a letter from Rawlins to Grant (which Grant never saw), that Grant maintained his sobriety during his command of the Army. In this letter, made public in 1891—several years after Grant's death—Rawlins wrote, "I find you where the wine bottle has been emptied, in company with those who drink, and urge you not to do likewise." Rawlins noted that this advice was "heeded, and all went well", thus proving that Grant was not impaired by drink when his decision-making was critical. There was speculation that by the time Rawlins died, he and Grant had grown distant and that Grant no longer needed Rawlins's constant fussing over his image. When Rawlins died, only his temporary successor as Secretary of War, General William Tecumseh Sherman, was at his bedside. In his memoirs, written shortly before his death, Grant only mentioned Rawlins a few times, and essentially ignored their professional and personal relationship. Surviving members of Grant's former staff were outraged at the fact that Grant would snub someone who had been so useful and as loyal to him—literally to the death—as Rawlins had been. The most likely explanation for this is given by historian E.B. Long, who wrote, "It might be that Grant did not wish to praise Rawlins too profusely because of the current reports picturing Rawlins as the protector of Grant from his own bad habits." Rawlins's anti-Mormon policy was part of a general latter half of the 19th-century hysteria campaign against Mormons. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act that outlawed polygamy. This law was not enforced until Secretary of War Rawlins, appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869, had convinced Grant to set up an anti-Mormon policy in the Utah Territory. To further prosecution of Mormon polygamy, including the arrest of Mormons, President Grant signed into law the Poland Act (1874) that allowed the federal government to choose juries that could prosecute polygamists. The law put all Mormons in the Utah Territory under control of the U.S. Marshal and U.S. Attorney. Two more anti-Mormon bills were passed including the Edmunds Act (1882), signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur, and the Edmunds–Tucker Act (1887), signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. An Endicott Era coast artillery battery at Fort Flagler was named after Rawlins in 1906. Military appointments Captain Assistant Military Adjutant General of Volunteers August 30, 1861 Major and Assistant Adjutant General of Volunteers May 14, 1862 Brigadier General of Volunteers August 11, 1863 Brigadier General United States Army and Chief of Staff to the Major General Commanding March 3, 1865 Major General United States Army April 9, 1865 Resigned March 12, 1869 Total military service time starting from first appointment date up to and including resignation date 2752 days or 7 years, 6 months, 13 days See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant William S. Hillyer – Another member of General Grant's original staff Notes References Sources Books Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, . Newspapers External links 1831 births 1869 deaths Union Army generals Illinois lawyers American people of Scotch-Irish descent Burials at Arlington National Cemetery People from Galena, Illinois United States Secretaries of War People of Illinois in the American Civil War 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Tuberculosis deaths in Washington, D.C. Grant administration cabinet members 19th-century American politicians Illinois Republicans Utah Republicans Critics of Mormonism Illinois Democrats

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The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of the surface of Earth and contains 97% of Earth's water. Another definition is "any of the large bodies of water into which the great ocean is divided". Separate names are used to identify five different areas of the ocean: Pacific (the largest), Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic (the smallest). Seawater covers approximately of the planet. The ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, and therefore integral to life on Earth. Acting as a huge heat reservoir, the ocean influences climate and weather patterns, the carbon cycle, and the water cycle. Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column from surface to ocean floor throughout the open ocean. The water column is further categorized in other zones depending on depth and on how much light is present. The photic zone includes water from the surface to a depth of 1% of the surface light (about 200 m in the open ocean), where photosynthesis can occur. This makes the photic zone the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) creates organic matter using light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients. Ocean photosynthesis creates 50% of the oxygen in earth's atmosphere. This upper sunlit zone is the origin of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem. Light only penetrates to a depth of a few hundred meters; the remaining ocean below is cold and dark. The continental shelf where the ocean approaches dry land is more shallow, with a depth of a few hundred meters or less. Human activity has a greater impact on the continental shelf.   Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over . Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about . Deep seawater temperature is between and in all parts of the ocean. Water continuously circulates in the oceans creating ocean currents. These directed movements of seawater are generated by forces acting upon the water, including temperature differences, atmospheric circulation (wind), the Coriolis effect and differences in salinity. Tidal currents originate from tides, while surface currents are caused by wind and waves. Major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe. This circulation significantly impacts global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean. Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This gas exchange takes place at the ocean surface and solubility depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion leads to higher concentrations in ocean water, resulting in ocean acidification. The ocean provides society with important environmental services, including climate regulation. It also offers a means of trade and transport and access to food and other resources. Known to be the habitat of over 230,000 species, it may contain far more – perhaps over two million species. However, the ocean is subject to numerous environmental threats, including marine pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change. The continental shelf and coastal waters that are most influenced by human activity are especially vulnerable. Terminology Ocean and sea The terms "the ocean" or "the sea" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water covering the majority of the Earth's surface. It includes the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern and Arctic Oceans. As a general term, "the ocean" is mostly interchangeable with "the sea" in American English, but not in British English. Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land. World ocean The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth. The global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the world ocean or global ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. Etymology The word ocean comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (; Ōkeanós, ), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology. Oceanus was believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases. Geography Oceanic divisions The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are so named based on nearest continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. Oceans are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres in total distance. They are also connected to smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. Seawater covers approximately and is customarily divided into five principal oceans, as below: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+Oceans by size |- !scope="col" class="unsortable"| # !scope="col"| Ocean !scope="col" class="unsortable"| Location !scope="col"| Area(km2) !scope="col"| Volume(km3) !scope="col"| Avg. depth(m) !scope="col"| Coastline(km) |- !scope="row"| 1 | style="text-align:left;"| Pacific Ocean || align=left | Between Asia and Australasia and the Americas || (46.6%) || (50.1%) || || (35.9%) |- !scope="row"| 2 | align=left | Atlantic Ocean || align=left | Between the Americas and Europe and Africa || (23.5%) || (23.3%) || || (29.6%) |- !scope="row"| 3 | align=left | Indian Ocean || align=left | Between southern Asia, Africa and Australia || (19.5%) || (19.8%) || || (17.6%) |- !scope="row"| 4 | align=left | Southern Ocean || align=left | Between Antarctica and the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans Sometimes considered an extension of those three oceans.|| (6.1%) || (5.4%) || || (4.8%) |- !scope="row"| 5 | align=left | Arctic Ocean || align=left | Between northern North America and Eurasia in the Arctic Sometimes considered a marginal sea of the Atlantic. || (4.3%) || (1.4%) || || (12.0%)|- class="sortbottom" ! colspan="3" | Total ! (100%)! (100%)! ! (100%)|} Ocean ridges and ocean basins Every ocean basin has a mid-ocean ridge, which creates a long mountain range beneath the ocean. Together they form the global mid-oceanic ridge system that features the longest mountain range in the world. The longest continuous mountain range is . This underwater mountain range is several times longer than the longest continental mountain range—the Andes. Oceanographers state that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. Formation The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life. Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. This is called atmospheric escape. Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons. Physical properties Volumes The volume of water in all the oceans together is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (320.3 million cubic miles). Depth The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. More precisely the average depth is . Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over deep. "Deep ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft.), covers about 66% of Earth's surface. This figure does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea. The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be . The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men. Color Oceanic zones Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be divided into further regions categorized by light abundance and by depth. Grouped by light penetration The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) allows the creation of organic matter from chemical precursors including water and carbon dioxide. This organic matter can then be consumed by other creatures. Much of the organic matter created in the photic zone is consumed there but some sinks into deeper waters. Below the photic zone is the mesopelagic or twilight zone where there is a very small amount of light. Below that is the aphotic deep ocean to which no surface sunlight at all penetrates. Life that exists deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are a source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic. Grouped by depth and temperature The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and temperature: The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of which generally lies at in the tropics. Next is the bathypelagic lying between , typically between and . Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about . The last and deepest zone is the hadalpelagic which includes the oceanic trench and lies between . The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about . The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches. Distinct boundaries between ocean surface waters and deep waters can be drawn based on the properties of the water. These boundaries are called thermoclines (temperature), haloclines (salinity), chemoclines (chemistry), and pycnoclines (density). If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline, a distinct boundary between warmer surface water and colder deep water. The tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water everywhere in the ocean is very cold, ranging from −1°C to 3°C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9°C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline. Temperature and salinity control the density of ocean water, with colder and saltier water being more dense, and this density in turn regulates the global water circulation within the ocean. The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline, a boundary between less dense surface water and dense deep water. Grouped by distance from land The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions based on distance from land: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves and hence includes coastal waters, whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water. The littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region. Temperature Ocean temperatures depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the Sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about . There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep seawater has a temperature between and in all parts of the globe. Seawater with a typical salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about −1.8°C (28.8°F). When its temperature becomes low enough, ice crystals form on the surface. These break into small pieces and coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension known as frazil. In calm conditions this freezes into a thin flat sheet known as nilas, which thickens as new ice forms on its underside. In more turbulent seas, frazil crystals join into flat discs known as pancakes. These slide under each other and coalesce to form floes. In the process of freezing, salt water and air are trapped between the ice crystals. Nilas may have a salinity of 12–15‰, but by the time the sea ice is one year old, this falls to 4–6‰. Ocean warming accounts for over 90% of Earth's energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2020. About one third of that extra heat has been estimated to propagate to depths below 700 meters. Ocean currents and global climate Types of ocean currents An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements. They have different origins, such as tides for tidal currents, or wind and waves for surface currents. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various complex patterns in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots. The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as "drift currents"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (which vary on timescales of a couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface. This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly, when the ocean depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents in proportion with the increase of depth, while friction lowers their speed. At a certain ocean depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with current speed becoming null: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably change and are dependent on the yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi-permanent current at the surface can adopt quite a different direction in relation to the direction of the wind. In this case, the water column becomes virtually homogeneous above the thermocline. The wind blowing on the ocean surface will set the water in motion. The global pattern of winds (also called atmospheric circulation) creates a global pattern of ocean currents. These are not only driven by the wind but also by the effect of the circulation of the earth (coriolis force). Theses major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles Antarctica and influences the area's climate as well as connecting currents in several oceans. Relationship of currents and climate Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe influencing climate. These wind driven currents are largely confined to the top hundreds of meters of the ocean. At greater depth the drivers of water motion are the thermohaline circulation. This is driven by the cooling of surface waters at northern and southern polar latitudes creating dense water which sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold and dense water moves slowly away from the poles which is why the waters in the deepest layers of the world ocean are so cold. This deep ocean water circulation is relatively slow and water at the bottom of the ocean can be isolated from the ocean surface and atmosphere for hundreds or even a few thousand years. This circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.       Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions and thereby also affecting air temperature and precipitation in coastal regions and further inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Oceans moderate the climate of locations where prevailing winds blow in from the ocean. At similar latitudes, a place on Earth with more influence from the ocean will have a more moderate climate than a place with more influence from land. For example, the cities San Francisco (37.8 N) and New York (40.7 N) have different climates because San Francisco has more influence from the ocean. San Francisco, on the west coast of North America, gets winds from the west over the Pacific Ocean, and the influence of the ocean water yields a more moderate climate with a warmer winter and a longer, cooler summer, with the warmest temperatures happening later in the year. New York, on the east coast of North America gets winds from the west over land, so New York has colder winters and hotter, earlier summers than San Francisco. Warmer ocean currents yield warmer climates in the long term, even at high latitudes. At similar latitudes, a place influenced by warm ocean currents will have a warmer climate overall than a place influenced by cold ocean currents. French Riviera (43.5 N) and Rockland, Maine (44.1 N) have same latitude, but the French Riviera is influenced by warm waters transported by the Gulf Stream into the Mediterranean Sea and has a warmer climate overall. Maine is influenced by cold waters transported south by the Labrador Current giving it a colder climate overall. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget. Since the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. However, climate change might result in the shutdown of thermohaline circulation in the future. This would in turn trigger cooling in the North Atlantic, Europe, and North America. Waves and swell The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing, surfing and navigation. These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness. Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organized masses of water called swell roll across the ocean. If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas. Constructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .Laird, Anne (2006). "Observed Statistics of Extreme Waves". Naval Postgraduate School (Monterey). The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or wrap around rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous. Tides Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the moon and the sun, and the effects of the Earth's rotation. During each tidal cycle, at any given place the water rises to a maximum height known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to the minimum "low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more and more of the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude. In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some areas. Some of the largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada, reaching up to 16 meters. Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina. Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the moon to its previous position relative to an observer. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun. When the sun, moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high "spring tides". A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the ocean at high tide dramatically. Water cycle, weather and rainfall Ocean water represents the largest body of water within the global water cycle (oceans contain 97% of Earth's water). Evaporation from the ocean moves water into the atmosphere to later rain back down onto land and the ocean. Oceans have a significant effect on the biosphere. The ocean as a whole is thought to cover approximately 90% of the Earth's biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall (about 90%). Ocean temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms). As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns. Chemical composition of seawater Salinity Salinity is a measure of the total amounts of dissolved salts in seawater. It was originally measured via measurement of the amount of chloride in seawater and hence termed chlorinity. It is now routinely measured by measuring electrical conductivity of the water sample. Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity: Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity (in ‰) The average ocean water chlorinity is about 19.2‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7‰. Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −2 °C at atmospheric pressure. Salinity is higher in Earth's oceans where there is more evaporation and lower where there is more precipitation. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and some temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is sometimes the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. For example, evaporation is greater than precipitation in the Mediterranean Sea, which has an average salinity of 38‰, more saline than the global average of 34.7‰. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters tropical regions. However, when sea ice forms at high latitudes, salt is excluded from the ice as it forms, which can increase the salinity in the residual seawater in polar regions such as the Arctic Ocean. General characteristics of ocean surface waters The waters in different regions of the ocean have quite different temperature and salinity characteristics. This is due to differences in the local water balance (precipitation vs. evaporation) and the "sea to air" temperature gradients. These characteristics can vary widely among ocean regions. The table below provides an illustration of the sort of values usually encountered. Dissolved gases Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These dissolve into ocean water via gas exchange at the ocean surface, with the solubility of these gases depending on the temperature and salinity of the water. The four most abundant gases in earth’s atmosphere and oceans are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. In the ocean by volume, the most abundant gases dissolved in seawater are carbon dioxide (including bicarbonate and carbonate ions, 14 mL/L on average), nitrogen (9 mL/L), and oxygen (5 mL/L) at equilibrium at All gases are more soluble – more easily dissolved – in colder water than in warmer water. For example, when salinity and pressure are held constant, oxygen concentration in water almost doubles when the temperature drops from that of a warm summer day to freezing . Similarly, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gases are more soluble at colder temperatures, and their solubility changes with temperature at different rates. Oxygen and carbon cycling The process of photosynthesis in the surface ocean releases oxygen and consumes carbon dioxide. This photosynthesis in the ocean is dominated by phytoplankton, microscopic free floating algae. After the plants grow, bacterial decomposition of the organic matter formed by photosynthesis in the ocean consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The sinking and bacterial decomposition of some organic matter in deep ocean water, at depths where the waters are out of contact with the atmosphere, leads to a reduction in oxygen concentrations and increase in carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate. This cycling of carbon dioxide in oceans is an important part of the global carbon cycle. The increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion lead to higher concentrations in the ocean waters and ocean acidification. Dissolving atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with bicarbonate and carbonate ions in seawater to shift the chemical balance of the water, making it more acidic. The oceans represent a major sink for carbon dioxide taken up from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolution. There is also increasing attention focused on carbon dioxide uptake in coastal marine habitats such as mangroves and saltmarshes, a process sometimes referred to as “Blue carbon”. Attention is focused on these ecosystems because they are strong carbon sinks as well as ecologically important habitats under considerable threat from human activities and environmental degradation. As deep ocean water circulates throughout the globe, it contains gradually less oxygen and gradually more carbon dioxide with more time away from the air at the surface. This gradual decrease in oxygen concentration happens as sinking organic matter continuously gets decomposed during the time the water is out of contact with the atmosphere. Most of the deep waters of the ocean still contain relatively high concentrations of oxygen sufficient for most animals to survive. However, some ocean areas have very low oxygen due to long periods of isolation of the water from the atmosphere. These oxygen deficient areas, called oxygen minimum zones or hypoxic waters, could be made worse by climate change. Residence times of chemical elements and ions The ocean waters contain many chemical elements as dissolved ions. Elements dissolved in ocean waters have a wide range of concentrations. Some elements have very high concentrations of several grams per liter, such as sodium and chloride, together making up the majority of ocean salts. Other elements, such as iron, are present at tiny concentrations of just a few nanograms (10−9 grams) per liter. The concentration of any element depends on its rate of supply to the ocean and its rate of removal. Elements enter the ocean from rivers, the atmosphere and hydrothermal vents. Elements are removed from ocean water by sinking and becoming buried in sediments or evaporating to the atmosphere in the case of water and some gases. Oceanographers consider the balance of input and removal by estimating the residence time of an element. Residence time is the average time the element would spend dissolved in the ocean before it is removed. Very abundant elements in ocean water like sodium have high rates of input, reflecting high abundance in rocks and relatively rapid rock weathering, coupled to very slow removal from the ocean because sodium ions are rather unreactive and very soluble. In contrast, other elements such as iron and aluminium are abundant in rocks but very insoluble, meaning that inputs to the ocean are low and removal is rapid. These cycles represent part of the major global cycle of elements that has gone on since the Earth first formed. The residence times of the very abundant elements in the ocean are estimated to be millions of years, while for highly reactive and insoluble elements, residence times are only hundreds of years. Nutrients A few elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and potassium are essential for life, are major components of biological material, and are commonly called “nutrients”. Nitrate and phosphate have ocean residence times of 10,000 and 69,000 years, respectively, while potassium is a much more abundant ion in the ocean with a residence time of 12 million years. The biological cycling of these elements means that this represents a continuous removal process from the ocean's water column as degrading organic material sinks to the ocean floor as sediment. Phosphate from intensive agriculture and untreated sewage is transported via runoff to rivers and coastal zones to the ocean where it is metabolized. Eventually, it sinks to the ocean floor and is no longer available to humans as a commercial resource. Production of rock phosphate, an essential ingredient in inorganic fertilizer is a slow geological process occurring in some of the world's ocean sediments thus making minable sedimentary apatite (phosphate) in effect a non-renewable resource (see peak phosphorus). This continuous net deposition loss of non-renewable phosphate from human activities may become a resource problem in the future for fertilizer production and food security. Marine life Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region. The diversity of life in the ocean is immense, including: Animals: most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are only found in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such as corals and jellyfish), comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea stars). Many other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean, including cephalopods (includes octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), fish, sharks, cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises). In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans. Plants: including sea grasses, or mangroves Algae: algae is a "catch-all" term to include many photosynthetic, single-celled eukaryotes, such as green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, but also multicellular algae, such as some red algae (including organisms like Pyropia, which is the source of the edible nori seaweed), and brown algae (including organisms like kelp). Bacteria: ubiquitous single-celled prokaryotes found throughout the world Archaea: prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, that inhabit many environments of the ocean, as well as many extreme environments Fungi: many marine fungi with diverse roles are found in oceanic environments Human uses of the oceans The ocean has been linked to human activity throughout history. These activities serve a wide variety of purposes, including navigation and exploration, naval warfare, travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing, whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving), power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination. Many of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports. Large quantities of goods are transported across the ocean, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim. A lot of cargo, such as manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard sized, lockable containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals. Containerization greatly increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of globalization and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century. Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster. The biggest commercial fishery globally is for anchovies, Alaska pollock and tuna. A report by FAO in 2020 stated that "in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world’s marine fisheries were classified as overfished". Fish and other fishery products from both wild fisheries and aquaculture are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential nutrients. Data in 2017 showed that "fish consumption accounted for 17 percent of the global population’s intake of animal proteins". In order to fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing further afield to exploit stocks in international waters. The ocean offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity. Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out on the ocean; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore. There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the ocean floor. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land. "Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters. Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). There are two major international legal organizations that are involved in ocean governance on a global scale, namely the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), which was ratified in 1958 is responsible mainly for maritime safety, liability and compensation and they have held some conventions on marine pollution related to shipping incidents. Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Threats Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through many negative influences, such as marine pollution (including marine debris and microplastics) overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans. Marine pollution Plastic pollution Overfishing Climate change Ocean acidification Protection Protecting Earth's oceans ecosystem/s against its recognized threats is a major component of environmental protection and is closely related to sustainable development. One of its main techniques is the creation and enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs). Other techniques may include standardized product certifications, supply chain transparency requirements policies, policies to prevent marine pollution, eco-tariffs, research and development, ecosystem-assistance (e.g. for coral reefs), support for sustainable seafood (e.g. sustainable fishing practices and types of aquaculture), banning and systematically obstructing (e.g. via higher costs policies) unsustainable ocean use and associated industries (e.g. cruise ship travel, certain shipping practices), monitoring, revising waste management of plastics and fashion industry pollutants, protection of marine resources and components whose extraction or disturbance would cause substantial harm, engagement of broader publics and impacted communities, novel decision-making mechanisms, and the development of ocean clean-up projects. Ocean protection serves to i.a. protect human health and to safeguard stable conditions of this natural ecosystem upon which humans depend. It may be necessary to consider marine protection within a national, regional and international context. Marine protection could also have synergistic effects – for instance, according to a study, a global network of MPAs designed to improve fisheries productivity could substantially increase future catch. In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review, clarifications and standardization – enables the evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and can serve as a guide for any subsequent efforts to improve, plan and monitor marine protection-quality and -extents such as in efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal of the "Global Deal For Nature" and the UN's SDG 14. Extraterrestrial oceans Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, which are made of hydrocarbons instead of water. However, there is strong evidence for subsurface water oceans' existence elsewhere in the Solar System. The best-established candidates for subsurface water oceans in the Solar System are Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; and Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan. Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans. In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common'' in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies. Supercritical fluid on gas giants The inner structure of gas giants remain poorly understood. Scientists suspect that under extreme pressure, hydrogen would act as a supercritical fluid. Hence the likelihood of "oceans" of liquid hydrogen deep in the interior of gas giants like Jupiter. The possibility of oceans of liquid carbon have been hypothesized to occur on ice giants, notably Neptune and Uranus. See also European Atlas of the Seas Land and water hemispheres List of seas Marine heatwave World Ocean Atlas World Oceans Day References External links FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fisheries Division NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States) United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) Oceans Coastal and oceanic landforms Bodies of water Articles containing video clips

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