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Lewis Allan Reed (March 2, 1942October 27, 2013) was an American musician, singer, songwriter, and poet. He was the guitarist, singer, and principal songwriter for the rock band the Velvet Underground and had a solo career that spanned five decades. The Velvet Underground was not a commercial success during its existence, but became regarded as one of the most influential bands in the history of underground and alternative rock music. Reed's distinctive deadpan voice, poetic and transgressive lyrics, and experimental guitar playing were trademarks throughout his long career. After leaving the band in 1970, Reed released twenty solo studio albums. His second, Transformer (1972), was produced by David Bowie and arranged by Mick Ronson, and brought him mainstream recognition. The album is considered an influential landmark of the glam rock genre, anchored by Reed's most successful single, "Walk on the Wild Side". After Transformer, the less commercial but critically acclaimed Berlin peaked at No. 7 on the UK Albums Chart. Rock 'n' Roll Animal (a live album released in 1974) sold strongly, and Sally Can't Dance (1974) peaked at No. 10 on the Billboard 200; but for a long period after, Reed's work did not translate into sales, leading him deeper into drug addiction and alcoholism. Reed cleaned up in the early 1980s, and gradually returned to prominence with The Blue Mask and New Sensations (1984), reaching a critical and commercial career peak with his 1989 album New York. Reed participated in the re-formation of the Velvet Underground in the 1990s, and made several more albums, including a collaboration album with John Cale titled Songs for Drella which was a tribute to their former mentor Andy Warhol. Magic and Loss (1992) would become Reed's highest-charting album on the UK Albums Chart, peaking at No. 6. He contributed music to two theatrical interpretations of 19th century writers, one of which he developed into an album titled The Raven. He married his third wife Laurie Anderson in 2008, and recorded the collaboration album Lulu with Metallica. He died in 2013 of liver disease. Reed has been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice; as a member of the Velvet Underground in 1996 and as a solo act in 2015. Biography 1942–57: Early life Lewis Allan Reed was born on March 2, 1942, at Beth-El Hospital (later Brookdale) in Brooklyn and grew up in Freeport, Long Island. Reed was the son of Toby (née Futterman) (1920–2013) and Sidney Joseph Reed (1913–2005), an accountant. His family was Jewish and his grandparents were Russian Jews who had fled antisemitism; his father had changed his name from Rabinowitz to Reed. Reed said that although he was Jewish, his “real god was rock 'n' roll“. Reed attended Atkinson Elementary School in Freeport and went on to Freeport Junior High School. His sister Merrill, born Margaret Reed, said that as an adolescent, he suffered panic attacks, became socially awkward and "possessed a fragile temperament" but was highly focused on things that he liked, mainly music. Having learned to play the guitar from the radio, he developed an early interest in rock and roll and rhythm and blues, and during high school played in several bands. He began experimenting with drugs at the age of 16. Reed was dyslexic. 1958–64: Early recordings and education Reed's first recording was as a member of a doo-wop three-piece group called the Jades, with Reed providing guitar accompaniment and singing backing vocals. After participating at a talent show at Freeport Junior High School in early 1958, and receiving an enthusiastic response from the audience, the group was given the chance to record an original single "So Blue" with the B-side "Leave Her for Me" later that year. While the single didn't chart, notable saxophonist King Curtis was brought in as a session musician by the producer Bob Shad to play on both songs, and the single was played by a substitute DJ during the Murray the K radio show, which gave Reed his first-ever airplay. Reed's love for playing music and his desire to play gigs brought him into confrontation with his anxious and unaccommodating parents. His sister recalled that during his first year in college he was brought home one day, having had a mental breakdown, after which he remained "depressed, anxious, and socially unresponsive" for a time, and that his parents were having difficulty coping. Visiting a psychologist, Reed's parents were made to feel guilty as inadequate parents, and they consented to giving Lou electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Reed appeared to blame his father for the treatment to which he had been subjected. He wrote about the experience in his song, "Kill Your Sons" from the album Sally Can't Dance (1974). Reed later recalled the experience as having been traumatic and leading to memory loss. He believed that he was treated to dispel his feelings of homosexuality. After Reed's death, his sister denied the ECT treatments were intended to suppress his "homosexual urges", asserting that their parents were not homophobic but had been told by his doctors that ECT was necessary to treat Reed's mental and behavioral issues. Upon his recovery from his illness and associated treatment, Reed resumed his education at Syracuse University in 1960, studying journalism, film directing, and creative writing. He was a platoon leader in ROTC; he said he was later expelled from the program for holding an unloaded gun to his superior's head. In 1961, he began hosting a late-night radio program on WAER called Excursions on a Wobbly Rail. Named after a song by pianist Cecil Taylor, the program typically featured doo wop, rhythm and blues, and jazz, particularly the free jazz developed in the mid-1950s. Reed said that when he started out he was inspired by such musicians as Ornette Coleman, who had "always been a great influence" on him; he said that his guitar on "European Son" was his way of trying to imitate the jazz saxophonist. Reed's sister said that during her brother's time at Syracuse, the university authorities had tried unsuccessfully to expel him because they did not approve of his extracurricular activities. At Syracuse University, he studied under poet Delmore Schwartz, who he said was "the first great person I ever met", and they became friends. He credited Schwartz with showing him how "with the simplest language imaginable, and very short, you can accomplish the most astonishing heights." One of Reed's fellow students at Syracuse in the early 1960s (who also studied under Schwartz) was the musician Garland Jeffreys; they remained close friends until the end of Reed's life. Jeffreys recalled Reed's time at Syracuse: "At four in the afternoon we'd all meet at [the bar] The Orange Grove. Me, Delmore and Lou. That would often be the center of the crew. And Delmore was the leader - our quiet leader." While at Syracuse, Reed was also introduced to intravenous drug use for the first time, and quickly contracted hepatitis. Reed later dedicated the song "European Son", from the first Velvet Underground album, to Schwartz. In 1982, Reed recorded "My House" from his album The Blue Mask as a tribute to his late mentor. He later said that his goals as a writer were "to bring the sensitivities of the novel to rock music" or to write the Great American Novel in a record album. Reed met Sterling Morrison, a student at City University of New York, while the latter was visiting mutual friend, and fellow Syracuse student, Jim Tucker. Reed graduated from Syracuse University's College of Arts and Sciences with a B.A. cum laude in English in June 1964. 1964–70: Pickwick and the Velvet Underground In 1964, Reed moved to New York City to work as an in-house songwriter for Pickwick Records. He can be heard singing lead on two cuts on The Surfsiders Sing The Beach Boys Songbook. For Pickwick, Reed also wrote and recorded the single "The Ostrich", a parody of popular dance songs of the time, which included lines such as "put your head on the floor and have somebody step on it". His employers felt that the song had hit potential, and assembled a supporting band to help promote the recording. The ad hoc band, called the Primitives: Reed, Welsh musician John Cale, who had recently moved to New York to study music and was playing viola in composer La Monte Young's Theatre of Eternal Music, Tony Conrad and sculptor Walter De Maria. Cale and Conrad were surprised to find that for "The Ostrich", Reed tuned each string of his guitar to the same note, which they began to call his "ostrich guitar" tuning. This technique created a drone effect similar to their experimentation in Young's avant-garde ensemble. Disappointed with Reed's performance, Cale was nevertheless impressed by Reed's early repertoire (including "Heroin"), and a partnership began to evolve. Reed and Cale (who played viola, keyboards and bass guitar) lived together on the Lower East Side, and invited Reed's college acquaintance guitarist Sterling Morrison and Cale's neighbor drummer Angus MacLise to join the band, thus forming the Velvet Underground. When the opportunity came to play their first paying gig at Summit High School in Summit, New Jersey, MacLise quit because he believed that accepting money for art was a sellout and did not want to participate in a structured gig. He was replaced on drums by Moe Tucker, the sister of Reed and Morrison's mutual friend Jim Tucker. Initially a fill in for that one show she soon became a full-time member with her drumming an integral part of the band's sound, despite Cale's initial objections. Though it had little commercial success, the band is considered one of the most influential in rock history. Reed was the main singer and songwriter in the band. The band soon came to the attention of Andy Warhol. One of Warhol's first contributions was to integrate them into the Exploding Plastic Inevitable. Warhol's associates inspired many of Reed's songs as he fell into a thriving, multifaceted artistic scene. Reed rarely gave an interview without paying homage to Warhol as a mentor. Warhol pushed the band to take on a chanteuse, the German former model and singer Nico. Despite his initial resistance, Reed wrote several songs for Nico to sing, and the two were briefly lovers. The Velvet Underground & Nico was released in March 1967 and peaked at No. 171 on the U.S. Billboard 200. Much later, Rolling Stone listed it as the 13th greatest album of all time; Brian Eno once stated that although few people bought the album, most of them were inspired to form their own bands. Václav Havel credited the album, which he bought while visiting the U.S., with inspiring him to become president of Czechoslovakia. By the time the band recorded White Light/White Heat, Nico had quit the band and Warhol had been fired, both against Cale's wishes. Warhol's replacement as manager was Steve Sesnick. In September 1968, Cale left the band at Reed's behest. Morrison and Tucker were discomfited by Reed's tactics but continued with the band. Cale's replacement was Boston-based musician Doug Yule, who played bass guitar, keyboards and who would soon share lead vocal duties in the band with Reed. The band now took on a more pop-oriented sound and acted more as a vehicle for Reed to develop his songwriting craft. They released two studio albums with this line-up: 1969's The Velvet Underground and 1970's Loaded. Reed left the Velvet Underground in August 1970. The band disintegrated after Morrison and Tucker departed in 1971. 1970–75: Glam rock and commercial breakthrough After leaving the Velvet Underground, Reed moved to his parents' home on Long Island, and took a job at his father's tax accounting firm as a typist, by his own account earning $40 a week ($ in dollars). In 1971, he signed a recording contract with RCA Records and recorded his first solo album at Morgan Studios in Willesden, London with session musicians including Steve Howe and Rick Wakeman from the band Yes. The album, Lou Reed, contained versions of unreleased Velvet Underground songs, some of which had originally been recorded for Loaded but shelved. This album was overlooked by most pop music critics and did not sell well, although music critic Stephen Holden, in Rolling Stone, called it an "almost perfect album. ... which embodied the spirit of the Velvets." Holden went on to compare Reed's voice with those of Mick Jagger and Bob Dylan and to praise the poetic quality of his lyrics. Reed's commercial breakthrough album, Transformer, was released in November 1972. Transformer was co-produced by David Bowie and Mick Ronson, and it introduced Reed to a wider audience, especially in the UK. The single "Walk on the Wild Side" was a salute to the misfits and hustlers who once surrounded Andy Warhol in the late '60s and appeared in his films. Each of the song's five verses describes a person who had been a fixture at The Factory during the mid-to-late 1960s: (1) Holly Woodlawn, (2) Candy Darling, (3) "Little Joe" Dallesandro, (4) "Sugar Plum Fairy" Joe Campbell and (5) Jackie Curtis. The song's transgressive lyrics evaded radio censorship. Though the jazzy arrangement (courtesy of bassist Herbie Flowers and saxophonist Ronnie Ross) was musically atypical for Reed, it eventually became his signature song. It came about as a result of a commission to compose a soundtrack to a theatrical adaptation of Nelson Algren's novel of the same name; the play failed to materialize. "Walk on the Wild Side" was Reed's only entry in the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, at No. 16. Ronson's arrangements brought out new aspects of Reed's songs. "Perfect Day", for example, features delicate strings and soaring dynamics. It was rediscovered in the 1990s and allowed Reed to drop "Walk on the Wild Side" from his concerts. Bowie and Reed fell out during a late-night meeting which led to Reed hitting Bowie. Bowie had told Reed that he would have to "clean up his act" if they were to work together again. Reed hired a local New York bar-band, the Tots, to tour in support of Transformer and spent much of 1972 and early 1973 on the road with them. Though they improved over the months, Reed (with producer Bob Ezrin's encouragement) decided to recruit a new backing band in anticipation of the upcoming Berlin album. He chose keyboardist Moogy Klingman to come up with a new five-member band on barely a week's notice. Reed married Bettye Kronstad in 1973. She later said he had been a violent drunk when on tour. Berlin (July 1973) was a concept album about two speed-freaks in love in the city. The songs variously concern domestic violence ("Caroline Says I", "Caroline Says II"), drug addiction ("How Do You Think It Feels"), adultery and prostitution ("The Kids"), and suicide ("The Bed"). Reed's late 1973 European tour, featuring lead guitarists Steve Hunter and Dick Wagner, mixed his Berlin material with older numbers. Response to Berlin at the time of its release was negative, with Rolling Stone pronouncing it "a disaster". Reed found the poor reviews it received very frustrating. Since then the album has been critically reevaluated, and in 2003 Rolling Stone included it in their list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. Berlin peaked at No. 7 on the UK Albums Chart. Following the commercial disappointment of Berlin, Reed befriended Steve Katz of Blood, Sweat & Tears (who was the brother of his then-manager Dennis Katz), who suggested Reed put together a "great live band" and release a live album of Velvet Underground songs. Katz would come on board as producer, and the album Rock 'n' Roll Animal (February 1974) contained live performances of the Velvet Underground songs "Sweet Jane", "Heroin", "White Light/White Heat", and "Rock and Roll". Wagner's live arrangements, and Hunter's intro to "Sweet Jane" which opened the album, gave Reed's songs the live rock sound he was looking for, and the album peaked at No. 45 on the Billboard 200 for 28 weeks and soon became Reed's biggest selling album. It went gold in 1978, with 500,000 certified sales. Sally Can't Dance which was released later that year (in August 1974), became Reed's highest-charting album in the United States, peaking at No. 10 during a 14-week stay on the Billboard 200 album chart in October 1974. In October 2019, an audio tape of publicly unknown music by Reed, based on Warhol's 1975 book, "The Philosophy of Andy Warhol: From A to B and Back Again", was reported to have been discovered in an archive at The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 1975–79: Addiction and creative work Throughout the 1970s, Reed was a heavy user of methamphetamine and alcohol. In the summer of 1975, he was booked to headline Startruckin' 75 in Europe, a touring rock festival organized by Miles Copeland. However, Reed's drug addiction made him undependable and he never performed on the tour, causing Copeland to replace him with Ike & Tina Turner. Reed's album Metal Machine Music (1975) was an hour of modulated feedback and guitar effects. Described by Rolling Stone as the "tubular groaning of a galactic refrigerator", many critics interpreted it as a gesture of contempt, an attempt to break his contract with RCA or to alienate his less sophisticated fans. Reed claimed that the album was a genuine artistic effort inspired by the drone music of La Monte Young, and suggesting that quotations of classical music could be found buried in the feedback, but he also said, "Well, anyone who gets to side four is dumber than I am." Lester Bangs declared it "genius", though also psychologically disturbing. The album, now regarded as a visionary textural guitar masterpiece by some music critics, was reportedly returned to stores by the thousands and was withdrawn after a few weeks. 1975's Coney Island Baby was dedicated to Reed's then-partner Rachel Humphreys, a transgender woman Reed dated and lived with for three years. Humphreys also appears in the photos on the cover of Reed's 1977 "best of" album, Walk on the Wild Side: The Best of Lou Reed. Rock and Roll Heart was his 1976 debut for his new record label Arista, and Street Hassle (1978) was released in the midst of the punk rock scene he had helped to inspire. Reed took on a watchful, competitive and sometimes dismissive attitude towards punk. Aware that he had inspired them, he regularly attended shows at CBGB to track the artistic and commercial development of numerous punk bands, and a cover illustration and interview of Reed appeared in the first issue of Punk magazine by Legs McNeil. Reed released his third live album, Live: Take No Prisoners, in 1978; some critics thought it was his "bravest work yet", while others considered it his "silliest". Rolling Stone described it as "one of the funniest live albums ever recorded" and compared Reed's monologues with those of Lenny Bruce. Reed felt it was his best album to date. The Bells (1979) featured jazz trumpeter Don Cherry. During 1979 Reed toured extensively in Europe and throughout the United States performing a wide range of songs, including a suite of core songs from his Berlin album and the title track from The Bells featuring Chuck Hammer on guitar-synth. Around this time Reed also appeared as a record producer in Paul Simon's film One-Trick Pony. From around 1979 Reed began to wean himself off drugs. 1980–89: Marriage and mid-period Reed married British designer Sylvia Morales in 1980. Morales inspired Reed to write several songs, particularly "Think It Over" from 1980's Growing Up in Public and "Heavenly Arms" from 1982's The Blue Mask. The latter album was enthusiastically received by critics such as Rolling Stone writer Tom Carson, whose review began, "Lou Reed’s The Blue Mask is a great record, and its genius is at once so simple and unusual that the only appropriate reaction is wonder. Who expected anything like this from Reed at this late stage of the game?" In the Village Voice, Robert Christgau called The Blue Mask "his most controlled, plainspoken, deeply felt, and uninhibited album." After Legendary Hearts (1983) and New Sensations (1984), Reed was sufficiently reestablished as a public figure to become a spokesman for Honda scooters. In the early 1980s, Reed worked with guitarists including Chuck Hammer on Growing Up in Public, and Robert Quine on The Blue Mask and Legendary Hearts. Reed's 1984 album New Sensations marked the first time that Reed had charted within the US Top 100 since 1978's Street Hassle, and the first time that Reed had charted in the UK altogether since 1976's Coney Island Baby. Although its lead single "I Love You, Suzanne" only charted at No. 78 on the UK Singles Chart it did receive light rotation on MTV. Two more singles were released from the album: "My Red Joystick" and the Dutch-only release "High in the City" but they both failed to chart. In 1998, The New York Times observed that in the 1970s, Reed had a distinctive persona: "Back then he was publicly gay, pretended to shoot heroin onstage, and cultivated a 'Dachau panda' look, with cropped peroxide hair and black circles painted under his eyes." The newspaper wrote that in 1980, "Reed renounced druggy theatrics, even swore off intoxicants themselves, and became openly heterosexual, openly married." On September 22, 1985, Reed performed at the first Farm Aid concert in Champaign, Illinois. He performed "Doin' the Things That We Want To", "I Love You, Suzanne", "New Sensations" and "Walk on the Wild Side" as his solo set, later playing bass for Roy Orbison during his set. In June 1986, Reed released Mistrial (co-produced with bassist Fernando Saunders). To support the album, he released two music videos: "No Money Down" and "The Original Wrapper". In the same year, he joined Amnesty International's A Conspiracy of Hope short tour and was outspoken about New York City's political issues and personalities. He also appeared on Steven Van Zandt's 1985 anti-Apartheid song "Sun City", pledging not to play at that resort. The 1989 album New York, which commented on crime, AIDS, civil rights activist Jesse Jackson, then-President of Austria Kurt Waldheim and Pope John Paul II, became his second gold-certified work when it passed 500,000 sales in 1997. Reed was nominated for a Grammy Award for best male rock vocal performance for the album. 1990–99: Velvet Underground reunion and various projects Reed met John Cale for the first time in several years at Warhol's funeral in 1987. They worked together on the album Songs for Drella (April 1990), a song cycle about Warhol. On the album, Reed sings of his love for his late friend, and criticizes both the doctors who were unable to save Warhol's life and Warhol's would-be assassin, Valerie Solanas. In 1990, the first Velvet Underground lineup reformed for a Fondation Cartier benefit show in France. In June and July 1993, the Velvet Underground again reunited and toured Europe, including an appearance at the Glastonbury Festival; plans for a North American tour were cancelled following a dispute between Reed and Cale. Reed had released his sixteenth solo album, Magic and Loss, in January 1992. The album is focused on mortality, inspired by the death of two close friends from cancer. In 1994, he appeared in A Celebration: The Music of Pete Townshend and The Who. In the same year, he and Morales were divorced. In 1995, Reed made a cameo appearance in the unreleased video game Penn & Teller's Smoke and Mirrors. If the player selects the "impossible" difficulty setting, Reed appears shortly after the game begins as an unbeatable boss who murders the player with his laser beam eyes. Reed then pops up on the screen and says to the player, "This is the impossible level, boys. Impossible doesn't mean very difficult, very difficult is winning the Nobel Prize, impossible is eating the sun." In 1996, the Velvet Underground were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. At the ceremony, Reed, Cale and Tucker performed a song titled "Last Night I Said Goodbye to My Friend", dedicated to Sterling Morrison, who had died the previous August. In February 1996 Reed released Set the Twilight Reeling, and later that year, Reed contributed songs and music to Time Rocker, a theatrical interpretation of H. G. Wells' The Time Machine by experimental director Robert Wilson. The piece premiered in the Thalia Theater, Hamburg, and was later also shown at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in New York. From 1992, Reed was romantically linked to avant-garde artist Laurie Anderson, and the two worked together on several recordings. They married on April 12, 2008. 2000–12: Rock and ambient experimentation In February 2000, Reed worked with Robert Wilson at the Thalia Theater again, on POEtry, another production inspired by the works of a 19th-century writer, this time Edgar Allan Poe. In April 2000, Reed released Ecstasy. In January 2003, Reed released a 2-CD set, The Raven, based on POEtry. The album consists of songs written by Reed and spoken-word performances of reworked and rewritten texts of Edgar Allan Poe by actors, set to electronic music composed by Reed. It features Willem Dafoe, David Bowie, Steve Buscemi, and Ornette Coleman. A single disc CD version of the album, focusing on the music, was also released. In May 2000, Reed performed before Pope John Paul II at the Great Jubilee Concert in Rome. In 2001, Reed made a cameo appearance in the movie adaptation of Prozac Nation. On October 6, 2001, the New York Times published a Reed poem called "Laurie Sadly Listening" in which he reflects on the September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11). Incorrect reports of Reed's death were broadcast by numerous US radio stations in 2001, caused by a hoax email (purporting to be from Reuters) which said he had died of a drug overdose. In April 2003, Reed began a world tour featuring the cellist Jane Scarpantoni and singer Anohni. In 2003, Reed released a book of photographs, Emotions in Action. This comprised an A4-sized book called Emotions and a smaller one called Actions laid into its hard cover. In January 2006, he released a second book of photographs, Lou Reed's New York. A third volume, Romanticism, was released in 2009. In 2004, a Groovefinder remix of his song "Satellite of Love", called "Satellite of Love '04", was released. It peaked at No. 10 on the UK Singles Chart. In October 2006, Reed appeared at Hal Willner's Leonard Cohen tribute show "Came So Far for Beauty" in Dublin, along with Laurie Anderson, Nick Cave, Anohni, Jarvis Cocker, and Beth Orton. He played a heavy metal version of Cohen's "The Stranger Song". In December that year, Reed played a series of shows at St. Ann's Warehouse, Brooklyn, based on Berlin. Reed played with guitarist Steve Hunter, who played on the original album and Rock 'n' Roll Animal, and was joined by singers Anohni and Sharon Jones. The show was produced by Bob Ezrin, who also produced the original album, and Hal Willner. The show played at the Sydney Festival in January 2007 and in Europe during June and July 2007. The album version of the concert, entitled Berlin: Live at St. Ann's Warehouse, and a live film recording of these concerts were both released in 2008. In April 2007, he released Hudson River Wind Meditations, an album of ambient meditational music. It was released on the Sounds True record label. In June 2007, he performed at the Traffic Festival 2007 in Turin, Italy, a five-day free event organized by the city. In the same month "Pale Blue Eyes" was included in the soundtrack of the French-language film, The Diving Bell and the Butterfly. In August 2007, Reed recorded "Tranquilize" with the Killers in New York City, a duet with Brandon Flowers for the B-side/rarities album Sawdust. On October 2 and 3, 2008, he introduced his new group, which was later named Metal Machine Trio, at the Walt Disney Concert Hall Complex in Los Angeles. The trio featured Ulrich Krieger (saxophone) and Sarth Calhoun (electronics), and played improvised instrumental music inspired by Metal Machine Music. Recordings of the concerts were released under the title The Creation of the Universe. The trio played at New York's Gramercy Theatre in April 2009, and appeared as part of Reed's band at the 2009 Lollapalooza. Reed provided the voice of Maltazard, the villain in the 2009 Luc Besson animated/live-action feature film Arthur and the Revenge of Maltazard and appeared as himself in Wim Wenders' 2008 film Palermo Shooting. Reed played "Sweet Jane" and "White Light/White Heat" with Metallica at Madison Square Garden during the twenty-fifth anniversary celebration of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on October 30, 2009. In 2010, Reed featured on the song "Some Kind of Nature" with virtual band Gorillaz, from their third studio album Plastic Beach. In October 2011, Metallica and Reed released the collaboration album Lulu. It was based on the "Lulu" plays by the German playwright Frank Wedekind (1864–1918). The album received mixed and mainly negative reviews from music critics. Reed joked that he had no fans left. The album debuted at No. 36 on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 13,000 copies. In 2012, Reed collaborated with indie rock band Metric on "The Wanderlust", the tenth track on their fifth studio album Synthetica. This was to be the last original composition he worked on. Death, legacy, and honors Reed had suffered from hepatitis and diabetes for several years. He practiced tai chi during the last part of his life. He was treated with interferon but developed liver cancer. In May 2013, he underwent a liver transplant at the Cleveland Clinic. Afterward, on his website, he wrote of feeling "bigger and stronger" than ever, but on October 27, 2013, he died from liver disease at his home in East Hampton, New York, at the age of 71. He was cremated and the ashes were given to his family. His widow Laurie Anderson said his last days were peaceful, and described him as a "prince and a fighter". David Byrne, Patti Smith, David Bowie, Morrissey, Iggy Pop, Courtney Love, Lenny Kravitz, and many others also paid tribute to Reed. Former Velvet Underground members Moe Tucker and John Cale made statements on Reed's death, and those from outside the music industry paid their respects such as Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi. On October 27, 2013, the day of Reed's death, Pearl Jam dedicated their song "Man of the Hour" to him at their show in Baltimore and then played "I'm Waiting for the Man". On the day of his death, the Killers dedicated their rendition of "Pale Blue Eyes" to Reed at the Life Is Beautiful festival in Las Vegas. My Morning Jacket performed a cover of "Oh! Sweet Nuthin'" in California while Arctic Monkeys performed "Walk on the Wild Side" in Liverpool. That same night, Phish opened their show in Hartford, Connecticut with the Velvet Underground's "Rock & Roll". On November 14, 2013, a three-hour public memorial was held near Lincoln Center's Paul Milstein Pool and Terrace. Billed as "New York: Lou Reed at Lincoln Center", the ceremony featured favorite Reed recordings selected by family and friends. On March 14, 2014, Richard Barone and Alejandro Escovedo produced and hosted the first full-scale tribute to Lou Reed at the SXSW Music Festival in Austin, Texas, with over twenty international acts performing Reed's music. Reed's estate was valued at $30 million, $20 million of which accrued after his death. He left everything to his wife and his sister. Reed's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist was announced on December 16, 2014. He was inducted by Patti Smith at a ceremony in Cleveland on April 18, 2015. In 2017, Lou Reed: A Life was published by the Rolling Stone critic Anthony DeCurtis. Asteroid 270553 Loureed, discovered by Maik Meyer at Palomar Observatory in 2002, was named in his honor. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on June 2, 2015 (). Spiders with furry bodies are known as velvet spiders and one which was recently discovered in Spain is named Loureedia, because it has a velvet body and lives underground. An archive of his letters and other personal effects was donated to the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, where it can be viewed by members of the public. Since his death, allegations have been made about Reed, including of misogyny, and racism. Equipment Guitars Lou Reed's main guitar during the Velvet Underground era was a 1964 Gretsch Country Gentleman, which he modified extensively, to the extent that it became unplayable. He played various stock Fender Telecasters, later favoring models that were built specifically for him, such as the Rick Kelly 'Lou Reed's T' Custom Telecaster and the Fender Custom Shop Danny Gatton Telecaster. He has played various other electric guitars throughout his career: Carl Thompson Steve Klein Epiphone Riviera Steinberger Synapse Transcale ST-2FPA Custom Gibson ES-335TD Fender Electric XII twelve-string Gibson SG Amplifiers Jim Kelley Amplifiers Fender 'wide panel tweed' Deluxe Amp 5C3 Soldano SLO 100 100-Watt Tube guitar amplifier Tone King Imperial 1x12 Combo guitar amplifier Sears Silvertone 1484 Twin-Twelve Discography The Velvet Underground The Velvet Underground & Nico (1967) White Light/White Heat (1968) The Velvet Underground (1969) Loaded (1970) Solo Lou Reed (1972) Transformer (1972) Berlin (1973) Rock 'n' Roll Animal (1974) Sally Can't Dance (1974) Metal Machine Music (1975) Coney Island Baby (1975) Rock and Roll Heart (1976) Street Hassle (1978) The Bells (1979) Growing Up in Public (1980) The Blue Mask (1982) Legendary Hearts (1983) New Sensations (1984) Mistrial (1986) New York (1989) Magic and Loss (1992) Set the Twilight Reeling (1996) Ecstasy (2000) The Raven (2003) Hudson River Wind Meditations (2007) Collaborations Songs for Drella (1990) (with John Cale) Lulu'' (2011) (with Metallica) Filmography References Notes Citations Bibliography External links Lou Reed papers, 1958-2015, held by the Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts 1942 births 2013 deaths 20th-century American singers 21st-century American singers 20th-century American guitarists 21st-century American guitarists American baritones American street performers American experimental guitarists American male guitarists American male singer-songwriters American people of Russian-Jewish descent American poets American rock guitarists American rock singers American rock songwriters Art rock musicians Bisexual men Bisexual musicians Deaths from liver disease Glam rock musicians Guitarists from New York City Ivor Novello Award winners Jewish American songwriters Jewish American musicians Jewish rock musicians Jewish singers Jews in punk rock Rhythm guitarists Lead guitarists LGBT Jews LGBT people from New York (state) LGBT singers from the United States LGBT songwriters Liver transplant recipients Matador Records artists MGM Records artists Musicians from Brooklyn American noise musicians People from Freeport, New York People from Hardwick Township, New Jersey Photographers from New York (state) Protopunk musicians RCA Records artists Reprise Records artists Singers from New York City Sire Records artists Syracuse University alumni The Velvet Underground members Warner Records artists People from East Hampton (town), New York People associated with The Factory Singer-songwriters from New York (state)

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Godzilla: King of the Monsters is a 2019 American monster film directed and co-written by Michael Dougherty. A sequel to Godzilla (2014), it is the 35th film in the Godzilla franchise, the third film in Legendary's MonsterVerse, and the third Godzilla film to be completely produced by a Hollywood studio. The film stars Kyle Chandler, Vera Farmiga, Millie Bobby Brown, Bradley Whitford, Sally Hawkins, Charles Dance, Thomas Middleditch, Aisha Hinds, O'Shea Jackson Jr., David Strathairn, Ken Watanabe, and Zhang Ziyi. In the film, humans must rely on Godzilla and Mothra to defeat King Ghidorah, who has awakened Rodan and other Titans to destroy the world. The sequel was green-lit during the opening weekend of Godzilla, with Gareth Edwards expected to return to direct a trilogy. In May 2016, Edwards left the project. In October 2016, Dougherty and Shields were hired to rewrite the script. In January 2017, Dougherty was announced as the director. Principal photography began in June 2017 in Atlanta, Georgia, and wrapped in September 2017. The film is dedicated to executive producer Yoshimitsu Banno (director of Godzilla vs. Hedorah) and original Godzilla suit performer Haruo Nakajima, both of whom died in 2017. Godzilla: King of the Monsters was theatrically released on May 31, 2019, to mixed reviews from critics, with praise for its visual effects, action sequences, cinematography, and musical score but with criticism to the plot, pacing, tone and characters. The film was a box office disappointment, grossing $386 million worldwide against a production budget between $170–200 million and marketing costs between $100–150 million. A sequel, Godzilla vs. Kong, was released on March 24, 2021. Plot Five years after the existence of the "Titans" was revealed to the world, Dr. Emma Russell, a paleobiologist working for the Titan-studying organization Monarch, and her daughter Madison witness the birth of a larva called Mothra. Emma calms Mothra using the "Orca," a device that can emit frequencies to attract or alter Titan behavior. A group of eco-terrorists, led by former British Army Colonel Alan Jonah, attacks the base and abducts Emma and Madison, while Mothra flees and pupates under a nearby waterfall. Monarch scientists Dr. Ishirō Serizawa and Dr. Vivienne Graham approach former employee Dr. Mark Russell, Emma's ex-husband and Madison's father, to help track them down. Mark is reluctant at first due to his hatred toward Godzilla, whom he blames for the death of his son during the events in San Francisco, but eventually agrees. The Monarch team follows Godzilla to Antarctica, where Jonah plans to free a three-headed Titan codenamed "Monster Zero". Emma frees and awakens Monster Zero, who battles Godzilla, devours Graham and escapes. The team later realizes that Emma is working with the terrorists. From a Monarch bunker in Boston, Emma contacts Monarch and argues that the Titans must be awakened in order to heal the Earth from the damages that humans have caused. Emma awakens Rodan in Mexico, and the Monarch team lure it towards Monster Zero. After Rodan is defeated, Godzilla ambushes Monster Zero and severs his left head. During the fight, the U.S. Navy launches a prototype weapon called the "Oxygen Destroyer", seemingly killing Godzilla. Unaffected, Monster Zero regrows his lost head and awakens all the other dormant Titans around the world, with Rodan submitting to his rule. As a result, Madison disowns Emma. Through mythological texts, Dr. Ilene Chen discovers that Monster Zero is King Ghidorah, a prehistoric alien seeking to transform the Earth. Mothra emerges from her cocoon and flies to Monarch's Bermuda base to communicate with Godzilla, who is recuperating in an ancient underwater city. Via submarine, the team locates Godzilla's lair, which is highly radioactive. They deduce it will take too long for Godzilla to heal on his own and decide to detonate a nuclear warhead to speed up the process. Serizawa sacrifices himself by manually detonating the warhead, reviving Godzilla and increasing his power. Emma realizes the destruction Ghidorah and the other Titans will bring to the world is far worse than anything humans could inflict, but Jonah ignores her pleas to stop. Madison overhears this and steals the Orca. Arriving at Fenway Park, Madison broadcasts a frequency that calms the Titans but unwittingly attracts them all to her location. Ghidorah lands in Boston to destroy the Orca. Godzilla arrives to engage him in battle with Monarch personnel's assistance. Mark leads a team to rescue Madison and escape the city after learning Godzilla's radiation levels are increasing and will lead to a thermonuclear explosion. Mothra arrives to help Godzilla but is intercepted by Rodan; she defeats him but is injured in the process. Ghidorah overpowers Godzilla and prepares to kill him, but Mothra sacrifices herself and transfers her energy to Godzilla. Mark, Emma, and Madison are reunited and reactivate the Orca to lure Ghidorah away from Godzilla. Emma sacrifices herself to lead Ghidorah away, giving Mark, Madison, and the Monarch team time to escape. Godzilla enters a newly empowered state and defeats Ghidorah. Rodan and the other Titans converge on Godzilla and bow to him. During the ending credits, news clippings and Monarch public files show that the Titans are helping to heal the planet, a suspected second Mothra egg has been discovered, and some of the Titans are converging on Skull Island. Ancient cave paintings of Godzilla and Kong-like Titans locked in battle are shown. In a post-credits scene, Jonah and his forces purchase Ghidorah's severed left head in Mexico. Cast Kyle Chandler as Dr. Mark Russell:Emma's ex-husband, Madison's father, an animal behavior and communication specialist who formerly worked for Monarch, and co-inventor of the "Orca", a device that enables communication with the Titans, but can also "potentially control them using their bioacoustics on a sonar level". After suffering the loss of his son, Mark has an unfavorable opinion of the Titans, Godzilla in particular. Despite this, he joins a rescue mission along with Dr. Serizawa and Dr. Graham to save Emma and Madison from Alan Jonah and his terrorist group. Chandler spoke of the film's themes being about "healing the planet". Vera Farmiga as Dr. Emma Russell:Mark's ex-wife, Madison's mother and a renegade Monarch paleobiologist with a history of environmental activism in league with eco-terrorist Alan Jonah. She is the co-inventor of the Orca. Unlike Mark, Emma believes that humans and Titans can co-exist peacefully. She does not see Godzilla as evil, but as a potential savior in an age of catastrophic climate change. Farmiga stated that Emma views Godzilla in the same manner one views Mother Nature, specifying, "when these devastating natural occurrences come, it's because the environment has been mistreated and is showing righteous anger." Emma and Madison conspire with a mysterious organization interested in her technology, with their own plans for the creatures. Farmiga described her character as being a "DJ for the monsters", stating, "she has figured out a way to communicate with the creatures", she also described the film being about "saving the environment". Farmiga noted that while the previous film focused on a father/son relationship, King of the Monsters focuses on a mother/daughter relationship. Due to this, Farmiga believes the film may pass the Bechdel test. Millie Bobby Brown as Madison Russell:Emma and Mark's 12-year-old daughter. Alexandra Rachael Rabe as Young Madison Russell Bradley Whitford as Dr. Rick Stanton:A crypto-sonographer working for Monarch. Dougherty confirmed that Dr. Stanton is loosely modeled after Rick Sanchez from Rick and Morty. Dougherty had the character "drink a lot" to keep the character in line with the spirit of Sanchez. Sally Hawkins as Dr. Vivienne Graham:A paleozoologist working for Monarch as Serizawa's right-hand woman. Hawkins reprises her role from Godzilla (2014). Charles Dance as Alan Jonah:A former British Army SAS Colonel and MI-6 agent who defected after becoming disillusioned by humanity during his time in the service. Obsessed with "leveling the global playing field" and restoring the natural order, he became the mercenary leader of an anarchist eco-terrorist group funded through the trafficking of Titan DNA. He conspires with Emma to help her use the Orca to further their shared agenda. Dougherty described Jonah as a mysterious character with conflicting ideas about the Titans' role in the world, believing that mankind has damaged the planet and that bringing back the Titans will potentially set things right. Thomas Middleditch as Sam Coleman:Monarch's Director of Technology, leader on the development of the Monarch Sciences network, and communications liaison with the U.S. government. Aisha Hinds as Colonel Diane Foster:A decorated Green Beret and the leader of the G-Team, the special military forces group run by Monarch specializing in battles involving Titans. O'Shea Jackson Jr. as Jackson Barnes:A Green Beret chief warrant officer who is a member of the G-Team. David Strathairn as Admiral William Stenz:An Admiral in the 7th Fleet of the United States Navy. He is the commander of the U.S. Navy task force and was previously in charge of tracking down the MUTOs. Strathairn reprises his role from Godzilla (2014). Ken Watanabe as Dr. Ishirō Serizawa:A high-ranking scientist working for Monarch. His father Eiji Serizawa was one of Monarch's founding members, so he is seen by many as the agency's de facto leader. Watanabe reprises his role from Godzilla (2014). Watanabe noted the film's themes, stating, "In the 21st century we need to do think about natural disasters. This creature is symbolic of that natural disaster. We cannot control them, but we must live on this planet." Zhang Ziyi as Dr. Ilene Chen and Dr. Ling:Dr. Ilene Chen is a mythologist working for Monarch, specializing in deciphering the mythological backgrounds of the Titans in connection with tales and legends throughout history. With her twin sister Dr. Ling, Ilene is a third generation Monarch operative in her family, having joined the agency like their grandmother and mother before them. The Chens come from several generations of twins in their family, with an early pair visiting Infant Island, depicted in Mothra (1961) as Mothra's home. Dougherty intended the Chen sisters and their connection to Mothra to be a modernized version of the Shobijin, Mothra's twin fairies, explaining, "It was important to me to find ways to modernize the ideas that she has followers. Modernize the priestesses. There are still certain realms of believability to keep in take. You have to ease people into the more fantastical aspects." He noted that the twins were a "perfect example" showing humans and monsters cooperating and forming a "symbiotic relationship with each other". Dougherty also felt that the twins should be portrayed by Asian actresses, same as in the Toho films. Joe Morton appears as an older Dr. Houston Brooks, a character that originally appeared in Kong: Skull Island, where he was portrayed by Corey Hawkins. Additionally, CCH Pounder portrays Senator Williams, Anthony Ramos portrays Staff Sergeant Anthony Martinez, Elizabeth Ludlow plays First Lieutenant Lauren Griffin, Jonathan Howard portrays Asher Jonah, and Randy Havens portrays Dr. Tim Mancini. Tyler Crumley plays Mark and Emma's son and Madison's brother Andrew. Kevin Shinick cameos as a weatherman. Through performance capture, T.J. Storm reprises his role as Godzilla, while Jason Liles, Alan Maxson, and Richard Dorton portray the heads of King Ghidorah. Liles also portrays Rodan via performance capture. Production Crew Michael Dougherty – director, co-writer Zach Shields – co-writer, executive producer Barry H. Waldman – executive producer Dan Lin – executive producer Roy Lee – executive producer Yoshimitsu Banno – executive producer (posthumous) Kenji Okuhira – executive producer Alexandra Mendes – co-producer Scott Chambliss – production designer Louise Mingenbach – costume designer Guillaume Rocheron – visual effects supervisor Tom Woodruff Jr. – effects and creature designer Personnel taken from the press release and The Global Dispatch. Development Gareth Edwards, the director of Godzilla (2014), stated that he wanted Godzilla to work as a standalone film with a definitive ending, and he opposed suggestions that the ending should leave the film open for a sequel. He said that he had no problem coming back for a sequel if the film did well, but his main concern was delivering a satisfying experience with the current film, "I want a story that begins and ends, and you leave on a high note. That's all we cared about when we were making this; just this film. If this film is good, the others can come, but let's just pay attention to this and not get sidetracked by other things." After a successful opening of $103 million internationally, Legendary green-lit the Godzilla sequel, with plans to produce a trilogy and Edwards attached to direct. At the San Diego Comic-Con in July 2014, Legendary confirmed that they had acquired the rights to Rodan, Mothra, and King Ghidorah from Toho. A short teaser clip showing concept art of all three with the ending tagline "Let them fight" was shown. Other details of their appearances in the sequels were not announced. In August 2014, Legendary announced that the sequel would be released on June 8, 2018, and that Godzilla writer Max Borenstein would return to write the screenplay. In April 2015, Aaron Taylor-Johnson stated that he was unsure if he would reprise his role for the sequel and that his return depended on Edwards' decision. In October 2015, Legendary announced plans to unite Godzilla and Kong in a film titled Godzilla vs. Kong, then-set for a 2020 release date. Legendary is creating a shared cinematic franchise "centered around Monarch" that "brings together Godzilla and ... King Kong in an ecosystem of other giant super-species, both classic and new." While Legendary will maintain its home at Universal Pictures, it will continue to collaborate with Warner Bros. for the franchise. In May 2016, Warner Bros. announced that Godzilla 2 had been pushed back from its original June 8, 2018 release date to March 22, 2019, and shortly afterward, that Edwards had left the sequel to work on smaller-scale projects. Edwards also felt that Legendary "needed to get on with things" instead of waiting for him to finish work on Rogue One, but expressed his hope to work on Godzilla again one day. In October 2016, it was announced that Michael Dougherty and Zach Shields (both of whom had worked on Krampus) would write the screenplay for Godzilla 2. A day later, it was reported that Dougherty was also in negotiations to direct Godzilla 2. That same month, Legendary announced that production would also take place at parent company Wanda's Qingdao Movie Metropolis facility in Qingdao, China, along with Pacific Rim: Uprising. In December 2016, Legendary announced that the official title for Godzilla 2 would be Godzilla: King of the Monsters. In January 2017, Dougherty was officially confirmed as the director. Dougherty stated that he was offered to direct first before being offered to re-write the script. When asked about his reaction to being asked to direct, Dougherty stated, "'Yes.' That was my reaction very, very quickly. I felt flattered, honored...and that continues to this day. It was a dream come true. And lots of pressure. Immense, immense pressure." Dougherty described the film as: While Dougherty loved the 2014 film's slow-build, he said that he would "take the gloves off for this film. No holding back." While comparing King of the Monsters to the 2014 film, Dougherty said "I would call (my movie) the Aliens to Gareth's Alien." Dougherty elaborated by noting the balance between serious and "fun, tongue-in-cheek moments" from Aliens and that King of the Monsters would take a similar approach. Writing In September 2014, it was reported that Max Borenstein would return to write the script. While promoting Kong: Skull Island, Borenstein mentioned that one thing he aimed to do in the Godzilla sequel is make Godzilla more empathetic for the audience: Legendary's only mandate was to include Monarch, Rodan, Mothra, and King Ghidorah. For Dougherty's script, he and his team "started over from scratch". Dougherty began with a rough two-page treatment that contained basic beats and rough sketches of the characters. Subsequently, a writer's room was assembled that was ran by Dougherty and co-writer/executive producer Zach Shields, with Borenstein participating. Ten writers contributed to building on the treatment. The script took a year to come together. Dougherty also changed, revised, and improved lines during filming and post-production. He felt the struggles of writing the script were balancing the monster spectacle "while still creating a story with human characters that we care about." While the previous film focused on Ford with Monarch in the background, Dougherty wanted the film to be focused on Monarch, feeling there was an opportunity to craft the organization as a group of heroes. Due to this, the film became an ensemble piece. Dougherty and Shields chose a human story line where the science fiction elements could be replaced with themes such as climate change or eco-terrorism and stand out on its own without the monsters. Dougherty felt that the third act proved the most challenging in terms of writing as many of the human and monster story arcs converged and needed to be resolved. Shields confirmed that Emma's speech to Monarch went through several rewrites. Shields and Dougherty wanted the speech to present a moral question to audiences whether they would put their faith in humanity or Mother Nature. In the original script, Mark and Sam were originally written as old friends. This was changed in later drafts from Sam to Serizawa to have him be the guiding force for Mark. Dougherty added the Oxygen Destroyer as a representation of "humanity's inability to not interfere." Dougherty and Shields chose to have Godzilla killed during the film's mid-point due to this being an idea that has not been done in previous Godzilla films. Shields noted that this was also to parallel Godzilla and Mark's characters, stating, "Kyle's loss of faith in the beginning, and finding it in this moment when he realizes, you know, God is dead." In Dougherty and Shields's treatment and early drafts, full sequences of the non-Toho Titans rising after Ghidorah's call were written but later trimmed due to budgetary concerns. Creature design The film reclassifies the monsters' designation from "MUTOs" to "Titans". For the monsters, Dougherty wanted their designs to emit a godly presence and evoke a sense of worship, stating, "Primitive man saw these creatures, and you want to give them a presence that would make him drop to his knees and bow to this god...It can't just look like big dinosaurs. Jurassic Park has that covered. These have to be distinct. They have to be their own thing. They're Titans." The director instructed the designers to look at the original designs from every era and "distill those silhouettes and those key traits into something more modern." It was important for the director that the Titans were not just treated as monsters but "very large animals with a distinct thought process." For Godzilla, Dougherty wished to put back the "God in Godzilla". He liked the design that Gareth Edwards and Matt Allsopp conceived but wanted to tweak it by adding the dorsal plates of the 1954 iteration, as well as making the claws and feet bigger to make Godzilla look like a more powerful predator. The director had the sound design team expand on Godzilla's roar by making it sound closer to the roars of the 1954 incarnation, stating, "I think they did a great job with Godzilla's roar in the first movie. I pushed them a little bit further to bring it even closer to the (1954) original even more." For Rodan, elements of volcanic rock were added to the scales and skin color to make Rodan look capable of living inside of a volcano. Dougherty wanted Rodan's design to resemble something that "Mother Nature could have created." The designers were instructed to not just look at Pteranodons but at various birds such as vultures, eagles, and hawks due to birds being related to dinosaurs. Dougherty described Rodan as a "bit of a rogue...you never quite know where his loyalties lie". The director further described Rodan as a "massive A-bomb" that brings "speed and ferocity." Tom Woodruff Jr. and Amalgamated Dynamics provided the design for Rodan. The Rodan chase scene was the first pre-viz sequence produced to be used as a pitch to Legendary. For Mothra, Dougherty wanted to create something that was "beautiful, and feminine, and elegant, and looked like a true goddess, but also dangerous if she had to be." He attempted to remain faithful to the color palette of the original 1961 incarnation and retain the eye-spots on her wings. The eye-spots were designed to resemble Godzilla's eyes in order to create a connection between Mothra and Godzilla. Mothra was designed to resemble real moths and given longer legs in order to defend herself against other monsters, another attribute inspired by moths. Dougherty researched various moth species and discovered that some looked "scary" and "predatory". He wished to maintain a sense of realism for Mothra, stating, "...the approach for Mothra is to create an insectoid, huge creature that looks believable from every angle, and especially in motion." The director found Mothra the most difficult Titan to design because he wished to avoid making Mothra look like a blown-up moth. Legacy Effects provided the design for Mothra. For King Ghidorah, Dougherty wanted to create a "unique" design that still resembled King Ghidorah, and worked closely with Toho to make sure the new design respected past incarnations. Each head was given its own personality, with the center being the alpha and the others its lackeys. He studied various animals, specifically king cobras, in order to add a sense of realism to the design. The designers were instructed to look at different scales from various reptiles to avoid having Ghidorah's scales looking similar to Godzilla or the original King Ghidorah. The director told the design team to maintain an Eastern dragon influence for Ghidorah and to avoid any Western dragon influence, stating, "They're not traditional western dragons. So those were marching orders from the beginning...We don't want it to look like Game of Thrones dragons." Legacy Effects also provided the design for Ghidorah. While noting that the film is not a comedy, Dougherty likened Ghidorah to Rip Van Winkle, having a sense of curiosity and cruelty. Producer Alex Garcia described Ghidorah as "not part of the natural order." Dougherty confirmed that the film would feature original, non-Toho monsters. The names of the non-Toho Titans were revealed as Baphomet, Typhon, Abaddon, Bunyip, Methuselah, Behemoth, Scylla, Tiamat, Leviathan, Sargon, and Mokele-Mbembe. Dougherty created new monsters because he felt it was part of the "Toho tradition" to add new monsters to the Godzilla pantheon. Dougherty had originally hoped for Legendary to acquire other Toho monsters such as Anguirus, Biollante, and Gigan. However, the film's budget prevented them from acquiring additional Toho characters. For the roars, the director felt it was important "getting the noises right." He gave the sound designers a "super cut" of the monster roars from the Shōwa Godzilla films, and had them start from there. He stated that the monsters would have new roars that would resemble the original incarnations. Dougherty had the Shōwa roars on a massive speaker system to use on-set for scenes where actors had to run from or react to the monsters. Pre-production In late January 2017, Millie Bobby Brown was the first to be cast for the film, in her feature film debut. In February 2017, Kyle Chandler and Vera Farmiga were cast as the parents to Brown's character. In March 2017, it was reported that O'Shea Jackson Jr. was in talks for a role in the film. In April 2017, Aisha Hinds was confirmed to join the cast of the film. In May 2017, Anthony Ramos, Randy Havens, Thomas Middleditch, and Charles Dance were added to the cast, and Sally Hawkins was confirmed to return. A press release confirmed Watanabe's return for the sequel. In June 2017, Bradley Whitford and Zhang Ziyi were added to the cast, with the latter playing a "major role" in the MonsterVerse. In July 2017, Elizabeth Ludlow was added to the cast. In April 2018, Jason Liles, Alan Maxson, and Richard Dorton were cast to provide the performance capture for the heads of King Ghidorah, with Dorton performing the left head, Liles performing the middle head, and Maxson performing the right head. Other actors perform the body. Liles also provided the performance capture for Rodan. Matthew E. Cunningham was hired as a Senior Illustrator during the research and development stage. Cunningham designed most of the vehicles after the storyboard artist worked with Dougherty. Senior conceptual designer George Hull provided a series of concept paintings of vehicles and monster imagery. Production designer Scott Chambliss managed all the art directors. Artists would sometimes show concept art to the writers, producers, and director; however, Chambliss had final say on what would be shown to Dougherty and the producers. After the illustrations were approved, they were delivered for pre-vis. The visual effects used concept art and pre-viz as a reference. Legacy Effects, who had worked on Edwards' Godzilla, were brought back to provide additional concept art. Filming Principal photography began on June 19, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia under the working title Fathom. Dougherty confirmed that the film would feature practical effects and creature designs by Tom Woodruff Jr. Lawrence Sher served as director of photography. Parts of the film were shot in the Historic Center of Mexico City between August 19–22, 2017. Dougherty announced the film had wrapped production on September 27, 2017. Post-production Visual effects for the film were provided by Moving Picture Company, DNEG, Method Studios, Raynault VFX, Rodeo FX and Ollin VFX. Guillaume Rocheron was the main visual effects supervisor. In November 2018, post-production on the film officially ended. The brief shots of the non-Toho Titans were "late additions" during post-production. Dougherty said that an earlier cut of the film was nearly three hours long. Dougherty affectionately referred to the three-hour cut as Godzilla: The Miniseries. He considered splitting the film into two parts but decided against it, feeling that the final cut is faithful to the core of his original vision. Music On July 21, 2018, Dougherty revealed that Bear McCreary would compose the film's score, incorporating themes from Akira Ifukube's previous Godzilla scores. Regarding his involvement, McCreary stated, "I am thrilled to be the composer for Godzilla: King of the Monsters, and honored beyond words to have the opportunity to contribute to one of cinema's longest-running musical legacies." McCreary further expanded on his plans and involvement, stating; The first trailer featured a rearrangement of Claude Debussy's Clair de Lune by Michael Afanasyev for Imagine Music. The Beautiful TV spot and final trailer featured two different renditions of "Over the Rainbow". An alternate mix of Nessun dorma was featured in the extended IMAX preview. LL Cool J's "Mama Said Knock You Out" was featured in the Exclusive Final Look trailer. In November 2018, a sample of McCreary's Godzilla theme was leaked online after it was used during a panel at Tokyo Comic Con. In April 2019, WaterTower Music released two tracks from the soundtrack, "Old Rivals", composed by McCreary, and a cover of Blue Öyster Cult's "Godzilla" by Serj Tankian. Brendon Small, Gene Hoglan, and other members of Dethklok contributed to the Tankian cover. McCreary called the cover "the most audacious piece of music" he had produced in his career, citing the orchestra, choir, taiko chanting, taiko drumming, heavy metal rhythm section, Hoglan's double-kick drums, and Tankian's vocals used to produce the track. McCreary stated "For [the character] Godzilla, I chose to incorporate and adapt the legendary Akira Ifukube's iconic theme, and for Mothra, Yūji Koseki's immortal 'Mothra's Song'." The Japanese band Alexandros contributed the single "Pray" for the film's Japanese release. On this decision, Dougherty commented, "we feel incredibly fortunate to have had [Alexandros] contribute such an anthemic song that captures not only the gravitas of the film, but also perfectly complements its dramatic conclusion." The single was released on May 13, 2019. The soundtrack was released by Waxwork Records in 2019 on a triple LP. Marketing The marketing costs was reported to be $100–150 million. In June 2017, Legendary's official Twitter account for Kong: Skull Island began posting videos revealing a timeline and background information of Monarch's discoveries, which teased elements for Godzilla: King of the Monsters and Godzilla vs. Kong. During the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con, Legendary revealed an image of a stone sculpture featuring Mothra, two larvae, and an egg. On July 12, 2018, two first-look images featuring Godzilla unleashing his atomic breath skyward, and Millie Bobby Brown and Vera Farmiga, were released, along with a few plot details. On July 18, 2018, a teaser clip was released featuring Brown, and the viral Monarch website went live with documents providing information on the monsters. On July 21, 2018, the first trailer was shown at San Diego Comic-Con and later released online that same day. In October 2018, Legendary Comics held a panel titled Godzilla: Secrets of the MonsterVerse at the L.A. Comic Con, which presented a sneak peek at the prequel comic Godzilla: Aftershock. In November 2018, a panel for the film was held at the Tokyo Comic-Con where Dougherty revealed concept art, a teaser for an upcoming trailer, and the S.H.MonsterArts figures with designs of the Titans. That same month, Dougherty posted a new image of Godzilla from the film on Twitter with a caption from the Book of Job originally concerning the Leviathan. In early December 2018, teaser clips of Rodan, Mothra, and King Ghidorah from a then-upcoming trailer were released online. On December 9, 2018, a new trailer premiered at Comic Con Experience. On December 10, 2018, the film's first teaser poster and CCXP trailer were released. On December 13, 2018, character posters for Rodan, Mothra, and Ghidorah were released. In January 2019, Dougherty released a new image of King Ghidorah via Twitter, and in February 2019, four new character posters of Godzilla, Rodan, Mothra, and King Ghidorah were released to celebrate the Chinese New Year. In March 2019, the film was featured on the cover of Total Film which revealed exclusive photos and information. An extended preview was exclusively presented at WonderCon and CinemaCon, later in the month. Warner Bros. attached the extended preview to all IMAX screenings of Shazam! and The Curse of La Llorona, while US theater chain AMC Theatres (of which the parent company of Legendary, Wanda Group, are a majority stakeholder in) attached the preview to their IMAX screenings of Avengers: Endgame. In April 2019, the main theatrical poster was released online. On April 21, 2019, the extended preview was released on HBO's streaming services, and then on April 23, 2019, the final trailer was released online. The Chinese investor and film marketer Huahua Media invested an undisclosed sum to market the film in China. The deal also grants the company participation in the film's box office. In May 2019, a Godzilla head was built on top of the Cinerama Dome to promote the film. That same month, the IMAX and RealD 3D posters were released. Robin Lopez created several TV spots, titled Robzilla: King of the Mascots, promoting the film and the NBA playoffs. The website Joe created a mock-trailer, titled Pugzilla: King of the Dogsters, by replacing the Titans with cats and dogs. The video received approval from Dougherty, who shared it on his Twitter. On May 22, 2019, a clip featuring Brown and Ghidorah premiered on The Tonight Show. On May 23, 2019, a new Chinese poster was released. Merchandise A prequel graphic novel, Godzilla: Aftershock, was released in May 2019. Aftershock was written by Arvid Nelson and illustrated by Drew Edward Johnson. S.H. MonsterArts figures of kaiju in the movie were released for sale in June 2019. The film's novelization was released on May 31, 2019; the art book The Art of Godzilla: King of the Monsters was released on June 4, 2019. NECA, Jakks Pacific, and Bandai all produced toy lines for the film featuring its monsters. Release Theatrical Godzilla: King of the Monsters was released on May 31, 2019, in IMAX, 3D, Dolby Cinema, RealD 3D, IMAX 3D, 4DX, and ScreenX formats by Warner Bros. Pictures, except in Japan where it was distributed by Toho. The film was originally scheduled to be released on June 8, 2018. However, in May 2016, it was pushed back to March 22, 2019, and later again to its current release date. The film was released in ScreenX formats in some markets. In the United States, the film was given a PG-13 rating for "sequences of monster action, violence, and destruction, and for some language." In April 2019, a private screening was held for the press at Toho Studios in Tokyo, which was followed by a 30-minute Q&A with Dougherty and Ken Watanabe. In early May 2019, advanced screenings were held for audiences ahead of the film's release, and on May 17, 2019, a VIP press screening was held in Los Angeles at the AMC Century City theater. The film had its red carpet premiere in Beijing on May 13, 2019. It then had its second red carpet premiere at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood on May 18, 2019. A group of Taiko drummers delivered a performance signaling the opening of the ceremony prior to the actors' arrival. Prior to the Hollywood premiere, Warner Bros. hosted a block party. A green-screen photo booth was made available that allowed attendees to be placed in scenes from the film. Regal Cinemas offered collectible tickets to IMAX attendees, along with a mini-poster of the ticket image. The collectible tickets were offered in two sizes: Standard (measuring 4" × 7.5") and Godzilla-sized (5.125" × 9.5"). In June 2019, the film received a one-month theatrical extension in China. Home media The film was released on Digital HD on August 13, 2019 and released on DVD, Blu-ray, and 4K Ultra HD on August 27, 2019. The 4K release includes HDR10, HDR10+, Dolby Vision high dynamic range, and a Dolby Atmos soundtrack. Best Buy released a retail exclusive of its own as a 4K UHD Combo steelbook release. The film's home media release debuted at number 1 on the NPD VideoScan First Alert chart. In the United States and Canada, the DVD grossed $12.4 million and the Blu-ray grossed $23.4 million, totaling $35.9 million in domestic video sales. Toho released multiple editions of the film on 4K, Blu-ray, and DVD in Japan on December 18, 2019, which included retail exclusives from Amazon, the Godzilla Store, and Tsutaya. Toho also released a four-disc limited edition set which included the 4K Blu-ray, standard Blu-ray, DVD, bonus features Blu-ray, and an S.H. MonsterArts Godzilla figure. The Godzilla Store exclusive of the four-disc set featured a limited edition Movie Monster Series figure of the film's version of Burning Godzilla. The retail exclusives included limited special clear files. In January 2020, the film made its pay cable debut on HBO. Reception Box office Godzilla: King of the Monsters grossed $110.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $276.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $386.6 million. Reports on the film's break even point varies; Erik Childress from Rotten Tomatoes estimated the film would have needed to gross $550–600 million to break even. Chris Agar from Screen Rant estimated the film would have needed to gross $400 million worldwide "just to make its money back," based on the rule of thumb. John Nguyen from Nerd Reactor estimated the film would have needed to gross $340 million worldwide to break even. In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Rocketman and Ma, and was projected to gross $55–65 million from 4,108 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $19.6 million on its first day, including $6.3 million from Thursday night previews, which was lower than the $9.3 million made by the 2014 film but more than Kong: Skull Islands $3.7 million. It went on to debut to $47.8 million, finishing first at the weekend box office but below expectations. Deadline Hollywood said the film "lacked urgency," having debuted its first trailer over a year before the film's release, and not separating its appearance from previous Godzilla films. The film fell 67% in its second weekend to $15.5 million, finishing in fourth, and then to $8.1 million the following weekend, finishing seventh. Worldwide, the film was initially projected to earn around $180 million from 75 other territories in its opening weekend, for a global total of $230–235 million. It was speculated that the amount could go higher if the film over-performed in China, where it was projected to debut to $75–90 million. The film held early previews in China on May 25, 2019, where it grossed $2.5 million. King of the Monsters made $12.7 million from 51 countries on Thursday and $31.4 million from 75 countries on Friday, for a cume of $48.2 million through Friday. In China, the film grossed through Friday and Saturday. The film ended up grossing a total of $130 million internationally and $177.8 million including North American tallies, far below projections. Its largest markets were China ($70 million), the United Kingdom ($4.4 million), France ($2.6 million) and South Korea ($2.2 million). The film dropped 64% to $47.1 million in its second weekend of international play, for a 10-day running total of $213.7 million. Critical response The Observer stated reviews were "mixed to negative". The Indian Express called reviews "largely negative." Screen Rant described responses as "so negative." Yahoo! Finance noted the reviews to be a "pretty mixed bag." Scott Mendelson from Forbes stated the film earned "mixed reviews", but later stated the film earned "mixed-negative reviews". On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Godzilla: King of the Monsters delivers spectacular kaiju action—and reaffirms that cutting-edge effects are still no substitute for a good story." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by the first two MonsterVerse installments, while those at PostTrak gave it an overall positive score of 85% (with an average 4.5 out of 5 stars) and a 75% "definite recommend." Benjamin Lee of The Guardian gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, writing that it "has rare moments of visual splendour but they can't disguise a laughable script with a ramshackle narrative." Chris Evangelista of /Film gave the film a score of 6.5 out of 10, criticizing the human characters and writing that "The ultimate kaiju smack-down shouldn't be this boring." Kate Erbland of IndieWire gave the film a grade of "C-", calling it "dark, wet, and inept," while Mike Ryan of Uproxx also gave the film a negative review, writing that "When a movie is just nonstop monster action, guess what happens? It all becomes the new 'normal' and it becomes boring." Ben Travis, writing for Empire Online, gave the film 1 out of 5 stars, stating, "Globe-trotting but not adventurous, action-packed but not remotely exciting, utterly overstuffed and completely paper-thin." Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote that the film "makes for a spectacular clash of the titans, but this one has a less commanding balance of schlock and awe," compared to its predecessor. Conversely, Alonso Duralde of the TheWrap praised the film for taking an "all-thriller-no-filler approach both to monsters and the human drama." Scott Collura of IGN.com gave the film a score of 7.8 out of 10, calling it "a fun exercise in giant monster madness that indulges in all the kaiju fights fans and even casual viewers could hope for." For Bloody Disgusting, William Bibbiani wrote "Godzilla: King of the Monsters is a big, kinda silly, but otherwise exciting blockbuster. It's gorgeous, it's epic in the extreme, and it features some of the most impressive monster fights you've ever seen. Maybe someday Americans will make a Godzilla movie that isn't just 'badass,' but which also works on another level and resonates in a meaningful way." James Whitbrook of Io9 said the film "is little more than beautifully stunning sound and fury, sadly signifying nothing for its human stars—beyond them being a vector in which the movie can thickly spread on some b-movie cheese that lends the whole endeavor a sort of 'classic monster movie with a modern budget' vibe." Accolades Sequel In September 2015, Legendary's Kong: Skull Island was moved from Universal to Warner Bros., which sparked media speculation that Godzilla and King Kong would appear in a film together. In October 2015, Legendary confirmed that they would unite Godzilla and King Kong in Godzilla vs. Kong. They planned to create a shared cinematic franchise "centered around Monarch" that "brings together Godzilla and Legendary's King Kong in an ecosystem of other giant super-species, both classic and new." Godzilla vs. Kong was theatrically released in Europe and Taiwan on March 24, 2021, and is scheduled in the United States on March 31, 2021, where it will be released simultaneously in theaters and on HBO Max. Dougherty had expressed interest in directing a Ray Harryhausen-esque prequel set during prehistoric times exploring how primitive humans survived against the Titans, humanity's first encounter with Godzilla, and how their relationship with Godzilla was christened. Notes References Sources External links Monarch Sciences website 2019 3D films 2010s monster movies 2010s science fiction films American films American 3D films American action films American disaster films American monster movies American science fiction films American sequel films Apocalyptic films Chinese films Chinese 3D films Chinese action films Chinese disaster films Chinese science fiction films Chinese sequel films Eco-terrorism in fiction Films about extraterrestrial life Films about nuclear war and weapons Films directed by Michael Dougherty Films produced by Thomas Tull Films scored by Bear McCreary Films set in 2014 Films set in 2019 Films set in Antarctica Films set in Bermuda Films set in Boston Films set in China Films set in Colorado Films set in Germany Films set in Massachusetts Films set in Mexico Films set in San Francisco Films set in Sedona, Arizona Films set in Washington, D.C. Films set in the Atlantic Ocean Films set on airplanes Films set on fictional islands Films shot in Atlanta Films shot in Mexico City Films with screenplays by Michael Dougherty Giant monster films Godzilla films IMAX films Japanese films Japanese 3D films Japanese action films Japanese disaster films Japanese science fiction films Japanese sequel films Kaiju films Legendary Pictures films MonsterVerse Submarine films Toho films Warner Bros. films

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Richard Marvin DeVos Jr. (born October 21, 1955) is an American businessman and author. The son of Amway co-founder Richard DeVos, he served as CEO of the multi-level marketing company from 1993 to 2002. In 2006, DeVos ran for Governor of Michigan, but lost to the then-incumbent Democrat Jennifer Granholm. In 2012, Forbes magazine listed his father as the No. 351 richest person in the world, with a net worth of approximately . DeVos is the husband of Betsy DeVos, the former United States Secretary of Education in the Trump administration. Family and early life DeVos was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of Helen June (Van Wesep) and Richard Marvin DeVos. His grandparents were Dutch immigrants. DeVos is a graduate of the Forest Hills public school system. He was involved in the family business, Amway, even as a child. "I still remember when it was in the basement of our home when I was growing up," he later said. "I remember the offices being down there and people working down there." As boys, he and his brother Doug were "tapped as mini-hosts", assigned to greet attendees at Amway's annual conventions, and they "helped out with everything from clearing plates during gatherings to ferrying guests to play tennis or waterski. That evolved to speaking in front of groups and even giving product demonstrations." DeVos later said that "It was kind of like a Junior Achievement atmosphere contained inside of Amway. ... We just hung around the company. It was your social activity." DeVos received a bachelor's degree in business administration from Northwood University. He later paid to attend, but did not complete, the Harvard Business School and the Wharton School's Executive Study Programs. DeVos has received honorary doctorates from Grove City College, Central Michigan University and Northwood University, as well as distinguished alumni recognition from Northwood University. His wife, Betsy DeVos, is the former chairperson of the Michigan Republican Party and the former Secretary of Education under President Donald Trump. She is the daughter of billionaire industrialist Edgar Prince, and sister of Blackwater USA founder Erik Prince. Business activities Amway DeVos began working with Amway Corporation in 1974, holding positions in various divisions, including research and development, manufacturing, marketing, sales, and finance. In 1984, he became one of Amway's vice presidents, with overall responsibility for the company's operations in 18 countries. Under his leadership, the company opened numerous new markets and tripled foreign sales to exceed domestic sales for the first time in company history. According to one source, "When Dick DeVos became vice president of Amway's foreign operation in 1986, sales outside of the U.S. accounted for about 5 percent of overall sales. When he left the position six years later, they had grown to 50 percent of annual sales." Orlando Magic When the DeVos family acquired the National Basketball Association's Orlando Magic basketball franchise in 1991, DeVos's father, Richard DeVos became president and CEO of the team. On October 21, 2005, it was announced that DeVos would become part owner as his father split ownership evenly between his children. Larry Guest of the Orlando Sentinel wrote in a September 1991 column that "civic and business leaders in Grand Rapids" considered DeVos "admirable, amicable, compassionate, honorable, community-conscious, intelligent", but that they wondered whether DeVos, who was about to begin running the Orlando Magic, was "strong enough...to make the tough decisions necessary as the chief operating officer overseeing... an NBA franchise?" Guest answered yes, calling DeVos "a business and political specialist experienced far beyond his 35 years on this globe" and noting that he had "recently attracted more than a million votes, more than any other Republican on a statewide basis, to win a seat on Michigan's Board of Education." Guest quoted DeVos as saying that in making business decisions, he hopes "to be seen as tough, but also fair.... I'm not a control-oriented individual, but I expect results and I expect meticulous, detailed management." Amway/Alticor DeVos left his positions as president and CEO of the Orlando Magic in January 1993 to rejoin Amway as its president, succeeding his father, Amway co-founder Rich DeVos. Under Dick Devos, the firm expanded operations to more than 50 countries and territories on six continents. In 2000, DeVos oversaw a significant corporate restructuring that created Alticor, the new parent company of predecessor Amway, as well as other subsidiary companies. In a 20-month span, Alticor cut over 1,300 jobs (primarily in Michigan) during this restructuring, with 400 of them being buyouts and early retirement. Job cuts were one of several cut backs made during the corporate restructuring of Amway in order to expedite the return to profitability and prevent further downsizing or the possible loss of the company. DeVos and his brother, Doug DeVos, are "credited with taking the company global, and setting industry standards as they moved into those markets." DeVos retired as president of Alticor in August 2002. In that fiscal year, Alticor reported sales of $4.5 billion, primarily through its more than 3.5 million part-time sales force and its complementary e-commerce channel. After retiring from Alticor, DeVos returned to become president of The Windquest Group. The Windquest Group The Windquest Group is a privately held investment management firm with holdings in technology, manufacturing, and other sectors. A 2010 article reported on a Windquest venture called The Green Machine, which "converts waste heat that's the byproduct of a manufacturing process – in liquid or gaseous form – into electricity." DeVos explained that "Some time ago Windquest brought on a specialist in alternative energy. ... We knew this was going to be an important part of our future, but also an opportunity." He explained that sustainability is "not just an environmental concept, it's also an economic one. If a particular business approach is not economically viable it will not be sustainable." Windquest was not interested in "glitzy and glamorous" ideas, he said, but in "technologies that were environmentally sound and economically sustainable" and thus more likely to be widely adopted. He expressed concern "that some of the new products in the marketplace are either too dependent on tax incentives or subsidies" and not genuinely "viable and ...competitive". The Green Machine is produced by the ElectraTherm Company and distributed by Windquest in collaboration with Pro Services. "It's a three-legged stool", DeVos explained. "ElectraTherm provides the core technology, Pro Services provides the installation ability and the knowledge of the customers' needs and Windquest then provides both financing and high-level business acumen." Political activities and activism Political activities prior to 2006 In 1990, DeVos won election to the Michigan State Board of Education, and resigned two years into his eight-year term, citing his return to Amway as CEO as the reason. In 1996, DeVos was appointed by Governor John Engler to the Grand Valley State University Board of Control. School vouchers DeVos and his wife became co-chairs of the Education Freedom Fund in 1993. The Fund provides private scholarships to low-income families in Michigan with wishes to attend schools of their choice. When the Children's Scholarship Fund provided $7.5 million to the Education Freedom Fund, the DeVos matched the grant, and their foundation covers all of the administrative costs of the organization. In 2000, DeVos was the co-chairman of the "Kids First! Yes!" campaign committee, which sponsored a ballot-initiative that would have amended the Michigan constitution to allow vouchers and tuition tax credits for private K-12 education. The initiative lost, with 69% of voters opposing the measure. The Dick and Betsy DeVos Foundation has also given money to groups like the American Education Reform Council, Choices for Children, and Children First America, in addition to funding Christian schools in the West Michigan area. 2006 gubernatorial candidacy On June 2, 2005, at Mackinac Island, DeVos announced his candidacy for governor of Michigan. He is still considered to be the wealthiest man to run for statewide office in Michigan's history. As of October 27, 2006, the DeVos campaign had spent $39 million, of which nearly $35 million was DeVos's own money. An article published on August 3, 2005, quoted DeVos as saying that the main issue for Michigan voters was the state's economy. "We're fighting with Mississippi for the highest unemployment rate in the country. We have the lowest personal income growth, the lowest business start-ups in the country. We are the only state that has not moved to positive ground when it comes to actual numbers of jobs in the marketplace," he said. He also suggested that tourism "is one of the businesses and industries that has a bright future for Michigan, and is exciting." Criticizing Granholm's economic policies, he said that in her place "I would have sent a very different signal to the entire regulatory infrastructure of the state, and would have taken steps to make this state more business friendly." Granholm, he said, "has talked about wanting business, but all of her actions and the actions of all the regulatory agencies and government agencies in this state have continued to create difficulties for business. I hear it from business people everywhere I go in this state." In an interview given during the campaign, DeVos said: "It's all about jobs. Jobs are the number one issue in Michigan right now. Our state does not have a climate for job creation. Job-killing taxes like the SBT (Single Business Tax) punish job makers for creating jobs, providing their employees with benefits, and investing in new technology. Taxes like the SBT and Michigan's personal property tax hurt manufacturers more than any other tax. They've got to go if we want to help manufacturing and bring jobs back to Michigan." He also spoke of the need to "work on trade issues to make sure that Detroit's automakers can compete fairly both here in the United States and around the world." Thomas Bray of RealClearPolitics reported on June 21, 2006, that incumbent Jennifer Granholm was "in deep trouble," with DeVos surging "to a 48–40 lead...in a Detroit News/WXYZ-TV poll." In other polls, the two candidates were "in a dead heat," and, to some observers' surprise, DeVos was leading "48–40 among union households." Bray's conclusion was that "the DeVos ads are striking home with their message: that the Michigan economy is in a shambles, that Granholm has failed to develop a strategy to resurrect the state and that a hard-nosed businessman who owes nothing to anybody is just the guy to sort things out." An October 2006 article in Human Events argued that the Michigan governor's race was "shaping up as a classic style vs. substance confrontation," with Granholm, "a charismatic and attractive former aspiring actress who can deliver a speech and charm a crowd with the best of them," representing style, and DeVos representing substance. While lacking Granholm's "flashier qualities," DeVos's "business background...ideally suits him to address the state's most vexing economic issues." The article noted that DeVos was interested in job creation in what was "perhaps the least business-friendly state in the country." While Granholm argued that jobs had been moved to China and India, DeVos pointed out that "Michigan jobs have...gone to Ohio, Indiana, and other states with less punitive tax policies, and this governor fails to recognize that." A November 3, 2006, article noted that DeVos's plan for turning around Michigan's "economic stagnancy and increasing unemployment" was called the TurnAround Plan. It called for action on four fronts: "creating an attractive job climate, overhauling state government, diversifying the economy, and conquering the international marketplace." DeVos planned to create "a pro-jobs tax structure while supporting small business growth to increase jobs," and described his credentials as follows: "I've made tough decisions, I've turned around a struggling business, and I've helped an entire city turn around." He also called for an increase in "funding for secondary and higher education," for a streamlined health-care system "that utilizes technology to reduce hospital errors by making medical records more efficient," and for " strong anti-crime measures, specifically against child predators." The article noted that debates between DeVos and Granholm had "done little to help either's cause, though they did have an effect on the polls," with support for both candidates dropping and the number of undecided voters increasing. "Whether it has been Granholm's campaign morphing images of DeVos into President Bush, or DeVos's ads including compromising footage of the governor's speeches, neither candidate has found a way to gain an advantage." The article also pointed out that "newspapers have divided their support along party lines, with the Detroit Free Press endorsing Granholm and The Grand Rapids Press siding with DeVos." Among DeVos's supporters was Lee Iacocca, who had been actively campaigning for him. He had also received endorsements from the Michigan Chamber of Commerce and the Michigan Farm Bureau. On November 7, 2006, DeVos was defeated by Democratic incumbent Jennifer Granholm by a 14-point margin. He congratulated the re-elected Granholm via phone after the results were in. Granholm was quoted as saying she "admired his tenacity and his passion for Michigan". According to a CBS reporter, DeVos's loss was widely attributed to his performance in his first televised debate with Granholm. "Granholm went for the jugular talking about an investment he had in a nursing home," and "DeVos's lackluster response opened the door that led to his eventual loss." Years later, DeVos said: "I learned I needed to be better at expressing my opinions more directly and forcefully....My mother taught me to be respectful and polite, but sometimes I took that advice too far." Post-2006 political activity In October 2008, DeVos donated $200,000 to the PAC opposing Michigan State Proposal – 08-2 (2008). He is a major backer of the America First Action PAC. Right to work In October 2012, DeVos engaged in a series of public debates with Teamsters president James Hoffa, son of that union's legendary leader Jimmy Hoffa. They argued about the role of unions, with DeVos taking the position that "Workers and job creators, through hard work, ingenuity, sweat and risk-taking, literally made the strongest economy in the world and the greatest standard of living in history...The greatest generation...did not just win a World War, they labored shoulder-to-shoulder with fellow workers to create and sustain value-added enterprises." By contrast, "big union bosses have engaged in cozy deals and political backroom dealings in order to advance their personal agendas, not those of their members," They focused especially on Michigan's Proposition 2, which would protect collective bargaining. "The unintended consequences of Proposal 2 will result in a $1.6-billion annual tax hike," said DeVos. "Since collective bargaining is a federally protected right, Proposal 2 is really about special interests." In a December 2012 article in The New York Times, Nicholas Confessore and Monica Davey reported that after President Obama's re-election, DeVos "began dialing up state lawmakers in Lansing," telling them that it was time to pass a right-to-work law. "If the lawmakers later found themselves facing recalls or tough re-election fights, Mr. DeVos told them, he would be there to help." The legislators and Republican governor Rick Snyder "rapidly approved the legislation and delivered a body blow to the labor movement." The Times article noted that the Devos family had given over $1 million to the Michigan GOP in 2012 and at least $2 million to a successful effort to defeat a proposal for a pro-union constitutional amendment. After that defeat, the DeVos family helped form the Michigan Freedom Fund to promote a right-to-work law. A Reuters article published in December 2012 noted that the Michigan right-to-work campaign had "gathered momentum" thanks to the involvement of DeVos and "Ronald Weiser, former chairman of the Michigan Republican Party and ambassador to Slovakia under President George W. Bush...The wealthy businessman and the political guru both worked to persuade wavering Republican lawmakers by assuring them they would have financial support if they faced recall elections over right-to-work, as happened in Wisconsin." In a talk given in Washington, D.C., in January 2013, under the auspices of the Heritage Foundation, DeVos discussed the passage of so-called "Right to Work" legislation in Michigan. "Freedom to Work was simply the right thing to do," he said. "By casting off the practice of forced unionization; Michigan now publicly declares to other states and in fact the world, that we embrace freedom for our workers, true equality in the workplace and that we are ready to compete with anyone, anywhere to create economic opportunity for our Michigan families." In his talk, he explained how the legislation was passed, praising Michigan's business community, certain legislators, and Mackinac Center for Public Policy for their role in its passage, and noting that it was important to propose the legislation at the right time, to give it the right name, to be prepared for backlash, and to bring it to a vote quickly. MSNBC reported in December 2012 that the Mackinac Public Policy Center, which had played a major role in the passage of right-to-work in Michigan, was funded mainly by the Charles G. Koch Foundation and the Dick and Betsy DeVos Foundation. Despite the national fame of the Koch brothers, noted MSNBC, "among Michigan power brokers, DeVos might well be the bigger name." Since losing his 2006 run for governor, he had "worked to exert influence from the outside." Philanthropy Foundation activity Dick DeVos is President of the Dick and Betsy DeVos Foundation, a Grand Rapids-area foundation that has donated millions of dollars to civic, artistic, religious, educational, community and free-market economic organizations since 1990. Among its grantees are Kids Hope USA; the Helen DeVos Children's Hospital; the West Michigan Aviation Academy; the Regional Air Alliance of West Michigan; Mars Hill Bible Church; Potter's House; Grand Rapids Christian Schools; the Thunderbird School of Global Management; Willow Creek Association; ArtPrize Grand Rapids; the Education Freedom Fund; the Hugh Michael Beahan Foundation; Children First America; Florida P.R.I.D.E; New Urban Living; Rehoboth Christian School; Calvin College; Princeton University; Davenport University; Grove City College; Hope College; Little Star Inc.; the American Education Reform Council; and Choices for Children. In the fall of 2010, DeVos opened the West Michigan Aviation Academy, the nation's first aviation public charter high school. A March 2010 article reported that the idea for the school had been Betsy DeVos's. "DeVos said she was thinking about the couple's interest in education and her husband Dick's love of flying. 'I said, "Why don't you combine both of these passions—a passion for education, for kids and a passion for flying—in a school."'" The academy is located on the grounds of the Gerald R. Ford International Airport. "There are aviators all over this community," Dick DeVos told a reporter. "It's fascinating how many aviators there are who have already expressed a desire to be involved with this program and to bring the aviation component to it. That is going to be a big job to weave aviation throughout the entire basic curriculum. We've made a commitment to do that." In answer to the question of why it was a charter school, DeVos explained that "Charter schools are available to everyone.... A charter school is a public school and therefore there's no tuition. So every student would have the possibility of going to this school at no cost and we think that's very, very important—to reach across the entire West Michigan community to be sure that every child has an opportunity to attend this school." He added that "This is the kind of school that I would have loved to have had if I was a kid." He told a reporter for the Grand Rapids Press: "If you're the kind of person who can't help but look up when you hear a plane overhead, then you're exactly the kind of person who will love this school....I have just a joy of flying....The world is such a different place when you can see it from 5,000 feet. I want young people to experience something that might broaden their world." Arts funding The Dick and Betsy DeVos Foundation has supported ArtPrize, an art competition in Grand Rapids, since 2009. In 2010 Betsy and Dick DeVos committed $22.5 million to the Kennedy Center Institute of Arts Management, which was thereupon renamed the DeVos Institute of Arts Management at the Kennedy Center. It offers "practical training to arts managers and board members on stages of professional development in the United States and around the world"; its centerpiece is the "Capacity Building programs, which offer technical assistance to arts managers and their boards through seminars, web chats, and on-site consultations." The gift was the largest private donation in the Kennedy Center's history and part was to be spent on arts groups in Michigan hit hard by the recession. Free-market economics The foundation has also given money to organizations that promote free-market economics, such as the Grand Rapids-based Acton Institute; the Heritage Foundation; and the Hudson Institute. Also the DeVos family has contributed much to Northwood University in Midland, Michigan. This includes various donations of scholarships, buildings and uncountable financial donations. Scholarships The Dick & Betsy DeVos Scholarship was established in 2008 by DeVos and his wife to support entering MA, MS, or MBA students at the Thunderbird School of Global Management, particularly those from developing nations. The DeVoses have also established an annual scholarship, called the Betsy and Dick DeVos Scholars for Free Enterprise and Entrepreneurship Scholarship, which is awarded to students who wish to earn a BBA or combined BBA/MBA at Northwood University. Grand Action An account of the Grand Action project explains that while authorities in Detroit kept initiating "one master project after another" that was supposed to solve that city's problems, and that never did, Grand Rapids was different, because its "business leaders painstakingly set goals, aligned with government officials, generated support, and empowered key players." DeVos was at the center of this effort. In 1991, he "convened a group of more than 50 community and civic leaders to begin the process of revitalizing downtown" under the name of Grand Vision, later Grand Action. Plans were made "for an entertainment and sports arena and the expansion of local convention facilities." After conducting "a feasibility and economic-impact analysis," DeVos worked with two local bankers to set the plan in motion. Among the fruits of this effort were a new sports arena, a new convention center, a new J.W. Marriott Hotel, the renovation of the Civic Theater (renamed the Meijer Majestic Theater), a new art museum, and a new civic gardens and sculpture park, two new satellite campuses for Grand Valley State University, and a new institute for biomedical research. "It's this kind of planning, a continual reinvention with clear goals," wrote a CNN journalist, "that has been lacking in Detroit." Pollution study DeVos and his wife contributed money to help fund a $500,000, 18-month private study of Lake Macatawa pollution sources, according to a June 2011 article. The study would "use DNA fingerprinting technology pioneered recently at Michigan State University to identify specific sources of E. coli in different areas of the lake. A second part of the study will look at sources of sediment and the contaminants it carries." "We are fortunate to have skilled scientists, committed conservationists and highly qualified academicians in West Michigan addressing this problem," DeVos told the Sentinel. "Threats to water quality are threats to public health and safety, and the people of Holland cannot afford to wait until 2017 for action." Rediscovering American Values DeVos is the author of the 1998 book Rediscovering American Values. Published by E.P. Dutton, it contains a foreword by former President Gerald R. Ford. Publishers Weekly described it as follows: "Drawing on inspirational anecdotes taken from a cross section of the population, he describes how people have bettered themselves both morally and in their careers by practicing such values as honesty, compassion, self-discipline, initiative, hard work, charity and forgiveness. An unrelenting optimist, DeVos is convinced that people can solve most of their problems by taking personal responsibility." The book was a New York Times best seller. Honors and awards In September 2010, the Spectrum Health Foundation presented DeVos with its Art of Giving Award at its annual celebration of philanthropy. Current posts and board memberships President, the Windquest Group Chairman, Board of Directors, Spectrum Health System, 2010 – present Member, Board of Trustees, Health Care Foundation; 1990–2010 (Chairman, 1994–2010) Member, Board of Directors, Michigan State Chamber of Commerce, 2010 – present Member, Board of Directors, The Stow Company of Michigan Founder and Chairman, West Michigan Aviation Academy (a charter high school), 2010 – present Chairman, Board of Directors, RDV Corporation Governing Board, Orlando Magic, 1994–present Member, Board of Trustees, Thunderbird School of Global Management, 2003–present Member, Board of Directors, Willow Creek Association, 1997–present Co-Chairman, Grand Action Committee, 1992–present (Chairman, Grand Vision Committee, 1991–1992) Founder and Chairman, Regional Air Alliance of West Michigan, 2010–present Member, FAA Management Advisory Council, September 2017–present. Personal life DeVos and his wife have four children: Richard Marvin (Rick) III, Elisabeth (Elissa), Andrea, and Ryan, and eight grandchildren. Their son, Rick, is the founder and chairman of ArtPrize, a world-renowned art competition in Grand Rapids, Michigan. DeVos and his wife have homes in Grand Rapids and Ada, Michigan. They also own three houses in Windsor, Florida, a development at the northern end of Vero Beach, 80 miles north of Palm Beach. They bought a lot there in 1997 and bought another one later. They now have a compound consisting of two houses, plus another house elsewhere in Windsor, where they spend several weeks a year. In addition, they have a vacation home in Holland, Michigan, on the shore of Lake Macatawa. DeVos bought the property from his father in 2009. References External links Dick DeVos.com West Michigan Aviation Academy Regional Air Alliance of West Michigan 1955 births American people of Dutch descent Amway people American philanthropists American anti-abortion activists Christians from Michigan Dick Harvard Business School alumni Intelligent design advocates Living people Michigan Republicans Northwood University alumni Businesspeople from Grand Rapids, Michigan The Heritage Foundation Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni

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"Michael" is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee, and the fifty-fifth overall. Written by co-creator Ryan Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez-Rejon, the episode aired on Fox in the United States on January 31, 2012. It is a special tribute episode to Michael Jackson, and features eight of his songs as a solo artist, and one he sang as part of The Jackson 5. Reviews were widely varied for the episode: some felt it was the best of the third season to date, and others were quite critical, though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative. A number of reviewers noted that tribute episodes have tended to be light on plot, though several felt that this episode had surmounted the usual storyline problems that had plagued past tributes. The episode's musical performances were viewed more favorably, with many of the nine performances given high praise, including "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin', "Human Nature", "Smooth Criminal", and "Scream", the last of these primarily for Kevin McHale's dancing. Five of the songs—the first three above plus "Bad" and "Black or White"—charted on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100, while the other four were also released as singles but did not chart. Upon its initial airing, this episode was viewed by 9.07 million American viewers and received a 3.7/10 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic. The total viewership was up over 20% from the previous episode, "Yes/No". Plot Glee club members Mercedes (Amber Riley), Santana (Naya Rivera) and Brittany (Heather Morris) are disappointed that they missed their chance to sing Michael Jackson's music at Sectionals, so director Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison) says that New Directions might include Jackson for the upcoming Regionals competition. Blaine (Darren Criss) performs "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' to demonstrate his suggested number. However, he mentions this possibility to Sebastian Smythe (Grant Gustin), the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers and a Regionals competitor, and Sebastian later announces that the Warblers, who will be performing first, will also be doing Jackson's music. New Directions challenges the Warblers for the right to perform Jackson, and they meet in a parking garage at night and compete to "Bad". At the end of the number, Sebastian throws a slushie at Kurt (Chris Colfer) but Blaine interposes himself: he is hit in the face and badly injured. Finn (Cory Monteith) asks Rachel (Lea Michele) for her answer to his proposal since he has waited the three days she requested, but she is not ready, so he agrees to wait longer. Rachel asks Quinn (Dianna Agron) for advice, and Quinn advises her to refuse and leave her past behind. Quinn has done so, and she has been accepted at Yale; she sings "Never Can Say Goodbye" to former boyfriends Puck (Mark Salling), Finn and Sam (Chord Overstreet), and to the glee club. Sam calls Mercedes to the auditorium and asks her to sing with him—they have never duetted in glee club. She refuses and starts to leave, but he begins "Human Nature" and she joins in. Afterward, they kiss. Blaine's cornea was deeply scratched in the incident and he needs surgery. The club wants revenge on Sebastian; Kurt says he should be expelled from Dalton, but Will asks them to let the system handle it. Artie (Kevin McHale) refuses: he is fed up with being told it will get better and says it should be better now, and leaves. Despite wanting revenge, Kurt is unwilling to use violence, so Santana goes to Dalton and accuses Sebastian of lying about the composition of the damaging slushie. He challenges her to a duel: the song "Smooth Criminal". He admits after they finish that he rigged the slushie with rock salt, and hits her with an unadulterated one. Santana secretly recorded the encounter, and plays her evidence to New Directions, who in turn invite the Warblers to their auditorium, show them that they "get" Jackson better by performing "Black or White", and reveal to the Warblers the proof that Sebastian deliberately tried to injure one of them. Kurt's father Burt (Mike O'Malley) takes Kurt out of class to hand him his letter from NYADA. Kurt opens it and discovers to his elation he is a finalist for admission; Burt is overcome with pride. Kurt tells Rachel, only to discover that she has not received any letter from the school; Rachel dissolves in tears. Finn later sings "I Just Can't Stop Loving You" to Rachel, and she tells him she loves him and that she accepts his proposal. She ultimately does get a finalist letter from NYADA and tells Kurt, to his joy, but she has not yet told Finn. Production Executive producers Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk had been mentioning since before the second season ended that they were planning another big tribute episode that they had been wanting to do since the first season, but would not reveal the name of the artist. On December 6, 2011, the same day that they were airing the "Hold On to Sixteen" episode that featured three Jackson family songs, Murphy announced that they had finally obtained the rights to do a Michael Jackson tribute episode. The episode was written by Murphy and directed by Alfonso Gomez-Rejon, who had most recently directed Asian F. Filming had begun by December 12, 2011, and was interrupted by a two-week holiday vacation. Both of the last two shooting days before the vacation began, December 15 and 16, ran a couple of hours past midnight, with the final night not ending until three in the morning. Filming had not yet completed when the twelfth episode, with guest star Ricky Martin, began filming on January 5, 2012, the third day after the holiday vacation ended. The two episodes continued in parallel until the final Michael Jackson number was shot on January 13, 2012, over a month after filming began and the same day that the thirteenth episode commenced filming. It had been announced late in the summer that Darren Criss, who plays Blaine Anderson, would be starring on Broadway in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22, 2012, with rehearsals beginning there a couple of weeks before his debut. At the time, the reports said he would be missing "an episode and a half of Glee". The final scene filmed before the holiday break was the first song in the episode, for which Criss sang lead, and he filmed several scenes in the episode in those last four days. He is singing lead on the song "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin. Criss spent five weeks in New York City, the last three starring in How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying from January 3 through 22, 2012. The Dalton Academy Warblers return in this episode, and perform "Bad" with New Directions, which was shot on location in a "parking garage just outside the Paramount Studio gates". On the previous day, several members of New Directions did their first location shoots in the building used for Dalton Academy. The Warblers shot their own number, "I Want You Back" by The Jackson 5 with Gustin on lead vocal, but the song was omitted from the final cut of the episode. This was the second time in the third season that ten musical performances were shot for an episode but only nine were ultimately included: Rivera's rendition of "Santa Baby" was cut from the episode two before this one, "Extraordinary Merry Christmas". "I Want You Back", like "Santa Baby" before it, was nevertheless released as a single, and on August 3, 2012, Murphy released the originally filmed scene including it uploaded to his YouTube page. The Warblers number had already run into difficulties earlier in production: it was originally planned to be Jackson's "Rock with You", but there were problems clearing the rights, so "I Want You Back" was selected and filmed instead. Gustin and Rivera performed "Smooth Criminal" with on-screen musical guests 2Cellos, Luka Šulić and Stjepan Hauser, who became famous when their instrument-only two-cello cover of the piece received over three million views on YouTube in its first two weeks. The arrangement used for the performance is based on the 2Cellos version. The remaining six songs that are covered in the episode include "I Just Can't Stop Loving You", performed by Michele and Monteith; The Jackson 5's "Never Can Say Goodbye", sung by Agron; "Ben" sung by Colfer, Michele and Monteith; "Black or White" featuring Riley, Rivera, Michele, McHale and Colfer; "Human Nature" sung by Riley and Overstreet; and the Michael and Janet Jackson song "Scream", performed by McHale and Harry Shum, Jr. "Human Nature" was originally reported as being part of a mash-up with Nat King Cole's "Nature Boy", but the song as performed is the Jackson song alone. All ten songs recorded—the nine in the episode plus "I Want You Back" which was ultimately cut—have been released as singles, available for download. Recurring guest stars in the episode include Kurt's father Burt Hummel (O'Malley), glee club members Sam Evans (Overstreet) and Rory Flanagan (Damian McGinty), and Dalton Academy Warbler Sebastian Smythe (Gustin). Reception Ratings "Michael" was first broadcast on January 31, 2012, in the United States on Fox. It received a 3.7/10 Nielsen rating/share in the 18–49 demographic, and attracted 9.07 million American viewers during its initial airing, an increase of over 20% from the 3.1/8 rating/share and 7.50 million viewers of the previous episode, "Yes/No", which was broadcast on January 17, 2012. In Canada, 1.84 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere. It was the tenth most-viewed show of the week, up two slots and 14% from the 1.61 million viewers who watched "Yes/No" two weeks earlier. In the United Kingdom, "Michael" first aired on March 8, 2012, and was watched on Sky 1 by 682,000 viewers. Viewership was down over 15% from "Yes/No", which attracted 805,000 viewers when it aired the week before. In Australia, "Michael" was broadcast on February 24, 2012. It was watched by 535,000 viewers, which made Glee the thirteenth most-watched program of the night, down from eleventh the week before. The viewership was down nearly 4% from the previous episode, "Yes/No", which was seen by 556,000 viewers. Critical reception The episode was given a widely varied reception by reviewers, ranging from Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone, who called it "season three's best episode so far", to BuddyTV John Kubicek, who described the episode as "just plain silly and ridiculous", though the overall mix was somewhat more positive than negative. Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal wrote that "the episode was well paced, well sung and well danced", though he was unhappy with the concluding number, and Entertainment Weekly Joseph Brannigan Lynch said the episode "contained some of this season's best dramatic and musical performances". Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV stated that she was "a little underwhelmed" by the episode, which "never quite lived up to the greatness that is Michael Jackson". IGN's Robert Canning gave the episode a "great" 8 out of 10, and characterized it as "more than just a theme episode" in which he was "connecting to characters" that had not "grabbed" him since the first season. MTV's Kevin P. Sullivan summarized the episode as follows: "When all was said and done, it was another tribute episode, something that can't be uttered by a Glee fan without a sigh and an eye roll." Bell noted that tribute episodes usually mean that "all sense of plot continuity" is forgone, but that this one ranked "at the top of all of the other Glee tribute episodes because even though it was absurd at times, at least there was a plot—and it kind of made sense". Futterman was more complimentary and described it as the "most effortless tribute episode yet", and Canning wrote that "with songs we know and love and storylines that actually connected and delivered some meaningful and moving moments" it was "more than just a theme episode". Jen Chaney of The Washington Post, however, thought that it was very much like previous tributes in that it also "featured scattered plot lines engineered to include as many songs by said artists as possible" and also "glorified their respective pop stars’ images to an absurd degree". The A.V. Club Emily VanDerWerff also noted the glorification of Jackson, and noted "every time the show turns into an episode about Michael Jackson, it stops dead in its tracks entirely". She stated that what was "weird" about the episode was that "what didn’t work was the spectacle, while what did work were the smaller, character-based stories" which "provided a spine some of the other spectacle-oriented episodes have lacked". Futterman was one of many reviewers who took note of a new feature of this tribute episode when she commented on the "initial whiff of product placement and forced timing" related to the "Immortal World Tour" dialogue. Rae Votta of Billboard thought the inclusion a "brilliant bit of marketing synergy", but TVLine Michael Slezak called it "ridiculously unsubtle product-placement". Although Rachel's decision to accept Finn's proposal of marriage was greeted with skepticism, Canning spoke for many when he stated that her "arc in the episode was her best in a while" with "some compelling moments". He also cited the "fantastically true advice" from Quinn, and VanDerWerff thought the scene "was going along great until the last 10 seconds" of that advice. Bell praised as "believable" the scene where Rachel "breaks down in front of Kurt", and Slezak said he "loved that scene of Kurt holding his sobbing friend in front of the lockers". Kurt's scene with his father was Bell's "favorite scene" which she said was "an incredibly touching moment between father and son. It was perfect." Flandez also called Burt "perfect" for "delivering the NYADA envelope to his son", and The Hollywood Reporter Lesley Goldberg described his scene as "another great Burt gem". Kubicek characterized the fact that Sebastian was not arrested for injuring Blaine as "an absurd plot twist". He criticized Kurt for withholding the evidence and wrote, "Santana's plan isn't vicious or mean, it's getting justice. Sebastian committed a crime and he should pay for it." Slezak thought the decision as to whether the police would be given Santana's evidence should have been Blaine's to make, and Lynch posited that "a talk with the police" might teach Sebastian "that violent actions have legal consequences". Chaney was incredulous at Will's statements to the glee club on the matter, especially, "Unless you have proof that he tampered with the slushie, the police aren’t getting involved." Kubicek called Artie's anger that led to "Scream" a story arc that "goes nowhere and was just a poorly written excuse to do that song", but Votta was impressed that "we learn more about Artie's frustration in this fantasy scene than we have in 3 seasons". Canning wrote that "as extraneous as the extended "Scream" segment was, the build up to that moment was perfect". Music and performances The episode's musical performances were given a better reception than the episode as a whole, though there were some dissenting voices, and not every song was received with the same enthusiasm. Slezak described the episode as "jam-packed with terrific song-and-dance numbers", and Votta wrote that "the musical numbers themselves were strong, fantastical and poignant to the story". Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times declared, "The music was good; the dancing, better." Chaney wrote that "too many" of the musical numbers were "weak imitations", which was reflected in her grading: her median grade for the nine numbers was a "C+", and her highest grade was a single "B+". The first song was "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin, which Bell said "was a fun homage to Michael Jackson, and it set the tone for the rest of the episode". Futterman said that Blaine's "slick showmanship" made him a "natural for lead vocals", and Slezak called it "the best use of Darren Criss' voice on Glee in quite some time" and gave it an "A−". Lynch also gave it an "A−", and said Criss "captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original". Sullivan was another fan of "the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss" on the song, and characterized it as "a tribute that's more respectful than any other in the episode". Chaney dissented from the general approval; she gave it a "C+" and wrote that "the number was appropriately big and splashy, but musically, it sounded like all the funk had been drained right out of it". She described "Bad" similarly as she gave it a "C−": "this tune also sounded noticeably defunkified". Sullivan was also unimpressed; he wrote that the performance let "the world know what 'Bad' sounds like after it's drained of every ounce of danger". Lynch gave it a "B" and wrote that "as silly as a choreographed gang fight between teenagers in a parking lot sounds (and was), the choreography was crisp and the attitude was a lot of fun". Slezak also praised the fight choreography, and stated that he "got chills" when Santana sang the chorus, and gave the song a "B+". Futterman noted the "interesting twist" in the song's arrangement "thanks to the Warblers' penchant for a cappella", and said that "Artie and Santana" began their battle for "vocal MVP of the episode" with "Bad". Votta described the number as "up there with the Dreamgirls performance from earlier this season as one of the strangest and best things Glee has done". Kevin McHale's performance as Artie in "Scream" inspired several reviewers, including Kate Stanhope of TV Guide and Bell, to write of their regret that McHale could not dance more often on the show. Reiter called him "a sorely underused Glee resource" and called the number "the best dance moment" of the episode, and Bell declared, "I have one word for this number: Epic." Flandez called it a "phenomenal job", and Stanhope cited "killer performances" by McHale on this number and others as evidence that with Artie only a junior "there is life" in New Directions after McKinley's current seniors graduate. Lynch called the number "awesome" and gave it an "A+", and Goldberg described it as "a perfect example of what the show looks like when it's firing on all cylinders"; both reviewers praised the dancing of both performers. Chaney wrote that the performance "lacked the energy and genuine aggression of the original Michael/Janet Jackson collaboration, although at least Kevin McHale and Harry Shum Jr. got to show off their dance skills", and gave it a "C". She felt that "Never Can Say Goodbye", to which she gave a "B−", "worked much better than every track that preceded it" because it adapted the song to the show "instead of trying to out-Jackson Jackson". Lynch called it "a nice summation of her character's journey, but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode" and gave it a "B". Bell described it as a "blah performance", but Stanhope said it was "sweet and reflective". Futterman wrote that it was "a tune well-suited for Quinn's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics", and Slezak had a similar take: he gave it an "A" and called it a "remarkably lovely fit" for her voice. Votta and Futterman both said that Sam and Mercedes sounded "great together" on "Human Nature", and Futterman also complimented their individual voices—"hers restrained and soulful, his rock-tinged and raw"—and summarized, "It's a crisp, well-executed cover". Most other reviewers also noted how good their voices sounded together, including Chaney, who gave the song a "B−", and Bell, who called their harmonies "out-of-this-world amazing". Lynch and Slezak each praised the tenderness in Riley's vocals; Lynch gave the song an "A", and Slezak an "A−". "Ben", however, received far more mixed commentary, and several reviewers felt it was odd to, as Chaney put it, sing a song about a rat "to a guy who isn't named Ben and was wearing an eye patch", which Futterman called "a little creepy" and VanDerWerff, more bluntly, "fucking weird". Despite this, Chaney gave the song a "B", one of her highest grades of the night, in part because it gave Colfer "an excuse to hit those 'You’ve got a friend in me' high notes", while Futterman noted that he "does well in the high range", and praised the verses by Rachel and Finn. Bell, however, called the song "a snooze-fest", and Slezak was very unhappy with the "interminable rendition" which he graded a "D". In December 2012, TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee worst performances. "Smooth Criminal" was the most highly praised number of the night. Both Slezak and Lynch gave it an "A+": the former called it "an instant Glee classic" that "had me on the edge of my musical chair from start to finish", and Lynch wrote, "Santana declared herself the winner, but the actual victors were 2Cellos, the real-life Croatian cellists whose manic intensity stole the scene." Slezak was similarly impressed by 2Cellos—"this was really a duet between Santana and those amazing black cellos"—and Futterman called them "furiously awesome" and said of the song, "It's the perfect soundtrack for the show's slickest villains: Santana wails, Sebastian channels his Chuck Bass and we are sold." Bell described it as "easily one of the best performances of the night" and added "Santana was flawless". Chaney dissented from the acclaim with a "D" grade. Slezak described the duet of "I Just Can't Stop Loving You" as "really pretty", and Chaney said that "Lea Michele ... sang this Jackson love song in the loveliest possible fashion with Cory Monteith". Votta wrote that "Finn sounds the best he's sounded", and Futterman noted that Finn held "his own against Rachel, vocally"—she liked the fact that it was Finn singing to Rachel instead of the usual other way around and was "grateful to the Glee team for assigning plot-relevant songs". Lynch felt that the song "seemed to slow down the otherwise wonderfully paced episode" and would have preferred it if they had cut the song and "kept the Warblers' version of 'I Want You Back' instead". He was more enthusiastic about "Black or White", which he characterized as "musically awesome but dramatically confusing" and graded an "A−". Futterman said that "Artie once again nails the MJ impression", and Goldberg declared that the "chorus with Santana leading charge and Artie's rap" were "spot on". Bell agreed that the song showed that "Artie is still New Directions' go-to rapper", but noted that she did not feel that New Directions had successfully demonstrated that they "knew the true meaning of Michael Jackson". Chaney was unenthusiastic and gave the song a "C", while Flandez had more negative opinion than hers: "Sebastian Smythe got our reaction right: a slow-handed clap". Chart history Of the nine cover versions of Michael Jackson's music, all of which were released as singles, five debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts, and ranked in the same order in both countries. "Smooth Criminal" debuted in the US at number twenty-six on the Billboard Hot 100, with sales of 108,000; only nine songs sold more digital downloads that week. "Human Nature" debuted at number fifty-six, "Black or White" at number sixty-four, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin at number seventy-eight and "Bad" at number eighty. "Smooth Criminal entered the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at number twenty-eight, and was followed by "Human Nature" at number sixty-two, "Black or White" at number sixty-nine, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin at number eighty-eight and "Bad" at number ninety. References External links "Michael" at Fox.com 2012 American television episodes Glee (season 3) episodes Television episodes written by Ryan Murphy (writer) Cultural depictions of Michael Jackson

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William John Irvine (born 18 June 1943) is a Northern Irish former professional footballer who played as a centre forward. Born in Eden, County Antrim, into a large family, he grew up in the nearby town of Carrickfergus. He did well at school, but chose to pursue a career in professional football and initially played for local club Linfield. After a spell in amateur football, Irvine travelled to England for a trial with Burnley at the age of 16. He was offered a professional deal and spent three years playing for the youth and reserve teams, before making his senior debut at the end of the 1962–63 season. Over the following seasons, Irvine became a regular feature of the Burnley team and in the 1965–66 campaign, he scored 29 goals and was the highest goalscorer in the Football League First Division. Irvine lost his place in the Burnley team after suffering a broken leg during a cup tie in 1967, and never properly regained his form for the club. He was later transfer listed, and joined local rivals Preston North End in March 1968. In the Football League Second Division, he began to score goals again and was Preston's top goalscorer in the 1968–69 season despite suffering a serious leg injury which forced him to miss much of the campaign. When Alan Ball was named Preston manager in the summer of 1970, Irvine found himself out of the team. He joined Brighton & Hove Albion in July 1971 after impressing during a loan spell earlier in the year. He moved to Halifax Town midway through the 1972–73 season, but left the club after six months. Irvine ended his football career with a spell at semi-professional Great Harwood, before retiring at the age of 29. In addition to playing club football, Irvine also represented the Northern Ireland national football team. He won 23 caps for his country, scoring eight goals. After retiring from football, he ran his own do-it-yourself shop but suffered from severe depression when the business collapsed. Irvine spent time in hospital after taking an overdose of medication, but recovered and later worked as a community worker before becoming a window cleaner. As of 2010, he works full-time in an aerospace factory, and also gives guided tours of Burnley's stadium, Turf Moor, on matchdays. Early life Willie Irvine was born on 18 June 1943 in the village of Eden, County Antrim, on the east coast of Northern Ireland. He was born to Alex and Agnes Irvine, and had 17 half-brothers and half-sisters from his mother's previous marriages. Irvine was 11 months old when his father, who had played football for Distillery, died after being involved in a motorcycle accident. He came from a poor background and when he was young the family resided in a small wooden bungalow that had neither electricity nor running water. His mother worked often, and Irvine was looked after by his elder siblings. At the age of one, he started to attend Eden School so that he could be looked after by the teachers while his sisters earned money. When he was seven years old, the family moved to the Sunnylands estate in nearby Carrickfergus after his mother was sent to Omagh Prison for falsely claiming benefits. Irvine soon warmed to his new neighbourhood; he enjoyed visiting Carrickfergus Castle and often spent time at the harbour. In 1950, he moved to Sunnylands Primary School and began to play football seriously. He initially concentrated on playing as a goalkeeper for the school team. In 1953, the team reached the final of the County Cup, but were defeated 0–3 by an older side from Carrick Technical School. Irvine's elder brother Bobby, who went on to represent Stoke City and was also a Northern Ireland international, played for the opposition. Along with his schoolmate William Donnelly, Irvine often frequented Windsor Park to watch the Northern Ireland national team, and he idolised players such as Jimmy McIlroy and Danny Blanchflower. At 14, Irvine enrolled at Carrick Technical School, where he studied German, physics, chemistry and woodwork. He excelled in his studies and was urged to go to university, but his family could not afford the fees. His interest in football increasing, he started to play in a midfielder position for the Carrickfergus-based Barn United and was selected to represent the East Antrim Schoolboys as well as the Irish Schools team. His performances while playing for Northern Ireland in the Victory Shield led to him signing junior terms with Belfast-based club Linfield, where his brother Bobby was the first-team goalkeeper. Several months later, Irvine left Linfield and joined local men's team Barn United, who competed in the Northern Ireland Amateur League. Several clubs, including Manchester United, Arsenal and Wolverhampton Wanderers showed an interest in him and in 1959, Jimmy McIlroy invited Irvine to a trial at English side Burnley. Playing career Burnley Irvine joined the Burnley youth team initially on a month's trial, along with other young players including Brian O'Neil and Willie Morgan. He suffered an injury to his ankle but recovered in time for the final trial match against local rivals Blackburn Rovers. His performances during the month had sufficiently impressed manager Harry Potts, and Irvine was offered a permanent contract. He became a full member of the youth team and was an understudy to the team that won the Football League First Division in the 1959–60 season. As an apprentice footballer he earned a basic wage of £7 per week. While in the youth squad, Irvine was converted into a centre forward and in his first match in the position scored a hat-trick for the Burnley C team. He scored more than 40 goals for the A team in the Lancashire League during the 1961–62 season, including 6 in an 8–3 win against a Blackburn Rovers representative team. On 14 October 1961, Irvine made his debut for the Burnley reserve side, scoring a hat-trick in the 6–1 victory over Barnsley. Both the A team and the reserves were crowned champions of their respective divisions at the end of the season, and Potts singled out Irvine for particular praise, stating that Burnley had not "had a more consistent goal getter than Willie for a very long time." Going into the 1962–63 campaign, Irvine returned to the Burnley A team and scored a hat-trick against Bury early in the season. After Andy Lochhead was promoted to the first team in October 1962, Irvine became the reserve side's first-choice centre forward. He continued to score regularly, netting 8 goals in 15 appearances, although he was forced to stop playing for a period in the winter of 1963 when adverse weather caused the postponement of several matches. After his Northern Ireland debut in April that year, he made several more appearances for the reserves, and his goal against Blackpool was described by journalist Keith McNee as "the finest goal [he had] seen". On 11 May 1963, Irvine was asked by manager Potts to travel with the first team for their final away fixture of the season at Arsenal. He was a boot boy, and was originally only intended to assist Ray Bennion in transporting the team kit to and from the game. It was reported in the Burnley Express the day before the match that he would be making his professional debut against Arsenal, although Irvine himself only found out just before the match. He started at centre forward in place of Lochhead, who was unable to play because of a leg injury. Irvine had a successful introduction to senior football and scored a headed goal after 20 minutes of play, the first goal in a 3–2 win for Burnley. He was again selected three days later for the last game of the campaign at home to Birmingham City and scored a hat-trick as Burnley ended the season with a 3–1 victory. Irvine started the first match of the 1963–64 campaign, a 1–3 defeat away to Ipswich Town. However, he suffered a broken hand during the game, which left him unable to play throughout the following months. Even after recovery, he remained sidelined, unable to regain his place in the starting eleven. Irvine did not play again for Burnley until 30 March 1964, when he was chosen to play at inside-right in the away tie against Bolton Wanderers. Despite Irvine's fifth goal in four league starts, Burnley were beaten 1–2. He retained his place in the team for the next two matches, before returning to his more preferred centre forward position for the 0–3 loss at home to Liverpool on 14 April 1964. He scored three more goals in the final two matches of the season, including two in the 7–2 win against Tottenham Hotspur. His frequent goalscoring led to him becoming a more integral part of the Burnley side during the following campaign, in which he scored three goals in the first six matches, although the team achieved only four draws and two losses. He was dropped from the starting line-up for the away match at Birmingham City on 12 September 1964. The team suffered three defeats in the following four fixtures, and Irvine was reinstated to the team for the trip to West Bromwich Albion two weeks later. He immediately marked his return with both Burnley goals in a 2–1 win, the team's first away victory of the season. Irvine retained his place in the side for most of the remainder of the campaign, and in December he scored seven goals in four games, including a hat-trick in the 4–0 win over Fulham. Despite missing a small portion of the campaign through injury, Irvine ended the season with a total of 22 goals in 37 league and cup matches, one more goal than centre forward partner Lochhead. The Irvine–Lochhead partnership continued into the 1965–66 campaign. Irvine scored a goal in a 2–1 win against Lausanne Sports on a pre-season tour of Switzerland, and his first competitive goal of the season came on 24 August 1965 in the 3–1 home victory against Blackpool. He scored two in the return match at Bloomfield Road the following week, and two matches later he netted a hat-trick in the 4–1 defeat of Northampton Town. Between the 1–1 draw away at Leeds United on 30 October 1965 and the 5–2 win against Fulham on 11 December 1965, Irvine scored in seven consecutive league matches. In the 3–1 win against West Ham United, Irvine and Lochhead both scored in the same match for the first time, despite having played together for almost three seasons. Irvine took his goalscoring form into the cup competitions, netting five times in three FA Cup ties, and scoring the winning goals against Southampton and Stoke City as the team reached the fifth round of the EFL Cup before being knocked out by Peterborough United. During the second half of the season, he went through a somewhat barren spell, failing to score in the league between 8 January 1966 and 26 March 1966. He ended his poor run of form with a hat-trick in the 4–1 win over Nottingham Forest at Turf Moor. He subsequently got on the scoresheet in the next six league games, including two goals against Sheffield Wednesday which took him to 27 league goals, the joint-highest total since George Beel's 30 in the 1928–29 season. Irvine's 29th and final goal of the season came on 23 April 1966 in the 2–0 home victory against Liverpool. He was the highest scorer in the Football League First Division that season, the first, and to date only, time a Burnley player had achieved the feat. In June 1966, Irvine had an altercation with Burnley chairman Bob Lord after returning late from a Northern Ireland match. Nevertheless, he retained his place in the starting line-up at the start of the 1966–67 campaign, and scored in the first match of the season against Sheffield United. After a pre-season tour of Austria, throughout which Burnley remained undefeated, the team were confident of a successful season and especially looked forward to European competition in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. On 20 September 1966, Irvine scored the sole Burnley goal in the 1–1 draw against German side VfB Stuttgart. The following month, he scored in consecutive league matches against Leicester City and Manchester City at Turf Moor. Irvine was on the scoresheet again in the next round of the Fairs Cup as Swiss team Lausanne Sports were beaten 5–0 in Burnley on 25 October 1966. By the middle of the season, Irvine had scored 13 goals in the league, four fewer than the same stage of the previous campaign. He scored his first goal of the new year on 31 January 1967 in the FA Cup third round replay against Everton at Goodison Park. However, early in the second half, Irvine was tackled by Everton defender Johnny Morrissey. The challenge—not deemed a foul by the referee—broke his shin bone, and Irvine was immediately substituted and replaced by fellow Irishman Sammy Todd. The injury meant that he did not play again for Burnley for the remainder of the season. He was forced to remain on the sidelines as Burnley finished 14th in the First Division and reached the fourth round of the Fairs Cup before being knocked out by Eintracht Frankfurt. Irvine regained his place in the Burnley team at the start of the 1967–68 campaign, and scored in the first two league matches of the season. However, he was dropped from the starting eleven after four games. On 7 October 1967, in the 1–1 draw with Nottingham Forest, he became the first ever Burnley player to score after coming on as a substitute, after replacing Martin Dobson. Irvine made six consecutive starts throughout October and November 1967, before again being dropped following the 2–0 home win against Newcastle United. After this, he played less often and scored his final goal for the club on 5 December 1967 in the 1–2 defeat to Arsenal in the fifth round of the League Cup. Just over two months later, on 24 February 1968, Irvine made his last appearance for Burnley when he played in an unfamiliar inside-right position in the 0–1 loss away at Nottingham Forest. In the same month, he formally requested to be placed on the transfer list after becoming increasingly unhappy at Burnley. The request was granted by Potts, who set a price of £60,000 for Irvine. Altogether, he had scored 97 goals in a total of 148 first-team matches for Burnley during his eight years with the club. Preston North End In March 1968, Irvine signed for Preston North End, who were struggling at the bottom of the Football League Second Division, for a transfer fee of £45,000 and a signing-on fee of £5,000. He was one of five Burnley first-team players to leave the club during that year. Irvine made his debut for Preston North End on 14 March 1968 in the 0–4 defeat away at Ipswich Town. He scored his first goal for the club in the following match, a 2–1 win against Aston Villa at Deepdale. The team subsequently went on a run of eight games without defeat in the league, including a 3–1 win over Huddersfield Town in which Irvine scored a hat-trick. On the morning of 27 April 1968, the Preston North End team were each offered £2,500 to purposely lose the match against Bristol City in order that Bristol City could improve their chances of avoiding relegation. Irvine, along with teammate Derek Temple, refused, saying: "I'm a professional. I want no part of this". Irvine scored the team's only goal in a 1–4 defeat that day, and by the end of the 1967–68 season he had scored six times in eleven matches for his new side. He carried his goalscoring form into the new campaign, scoring the winner against Oldham Athletic in the first round of the League Cup, and netting a consolation goal in the 1–3 defeat to Crystal Palace. After 16 matches of the 1968–69 season, Irvine had scored 13 goals. However, he suffered a knee injury midway through the season in the FA Cup fourth round tie against Chelsea. He was injured ten minutes into the match but played for most of the first half before being substituted. He had a chipped bone and ligament damage, requiring him to undergo an operation in February 1969 that forced him to miss the rest of the campaign. Despite missing many games, he was Preston's top scorer that season with 20 goals in all competitions. Irvine never fully recovered from the injury, and played only 16 games the following season, scoring five goals. Preston North End were relegated to the Football League Third Division in 1970 after finishing bottom of the league. Manager Bobby Seith was dismissed following the relegation, and replaced by former Halifax Town coach Alan Ball in May 1970. Ball was reluctant to play Irvine after discovering the knee injury from the previous season. Nevertheless, he appeared in the first three matches of the 1970–71 campaign, scoring in the 1–0 win against Stockport County in the first round of the League Cup. He was dropped from the team after missing several chances in the 1–3 defeat to Torquay United on 22 August 1970. After this, Irvine did not feature regularly for Preston North End and from October 1970, he played mostly for the reserve team. He made his final senior appearance for the club on 26 December 1970 in the 3–3 draw with Tranmere Rovers at Deepdale. During a three-year spell, he played 81 league games for Preston North End, scoring 27 goals in the process. Later career In March 1971, Ball offered Irvine the opportunity of a three-month loan spell at fellow Third Division side Brighton & Hove Albion. Irvine made his debut for Brighton on 10 March 1971 in the 3–2 win against Fulham. He scored in the match, and manager Pat Saward was effusive in his praise of his new signing. Irvine became a regular starter for Brighton, and scored again in the 1–1 draw with Plymouth Argyle at the Goldstone Ground on 28 April 1971. During the loan spell, he played 14 league games and scored six goals. At the end of the season, Irvine temporarily returned to Preston but a transfer fee of £7,000 took him to Brighton on a permanent deal in July 1971. Irvine became known as "late-goal Willie" after scoring a succession of last-minute goals. On 11 December 1971, he scored against Walsall in the second round of the FA Cup to take the tie to a replay. He scored the equaliser in the 2–2 draw away at Bristol Rovers on 22 January 1972, followed by a late winner in the 2–1 defeat of Wrexham two weeks later. Irvine added to his tally with home and away goals against Halifax Town, where he would go on to play the next season, and a strike against Aston Villa that was named as runner-up in a Goal of the Season competition by television programme Match of the Day. With the forward partnership of Irvine and Kit Napier, Brighton performed better than expected in the 1971–72 season. At the end of the campaign, following a 1–1 draw with Rochdale the team was promoted to the Second Division, after finishing as runners-up behind Aston Villa. Irvine continued to score in a higher division, netting five times in the first eleven matches of the season. However, he was then dropped from the team and never regained his place in the starting line-up. Several clubs became interested in his services, including West Ham United, a number of American teams, and Scottish side Heart of Midlothian, where Bobby Seith was the manager. Irvine played his last match for Brighton on 18 November 1972, when the team lost 0–1 at home to his former club Burnley. After turning down potential transfers to West Ham and Torquay, because neither he nor his wife wanted to live in either place, Irvine decided to sign for Third Division outfit Halifax Town in December 1972. Despite taking a considerable pay cut, he chose Halifax to enable his family to return to live near Burnley. Irvine made a total of 11 first-team appearances for Halifax Town, scoring one goal for the club. He played his last competitive game for the club in the 1–0 win against York City on 13 March 1973, after manager George Mulhall accused Irvine of not trying and not deserving his wage. At the end of the 1972–73 season, the team avoided relegation to the Fourth Division on goal difference. After failing to report for the away game at Walsall on 1 May 1973, to play in a testimonial match for Burnley defender John Angus, he was fined two weeks' wages and forced into extra training sessions. In the summer of 1973, Irvine left Halifax Town by mutual consent, his professional football career over at the age of 29. Despite having the option to sign for Rochdale, he joined semi-professional side Great Harwood, who played in the Northern Premier League. At Great Harwood, he played alongside two former Burnley teammates; goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw and midfielder Les Latcham. Irvine remained at the club for a number of months, before leaving midway through the 1973–74 season and retiring from football altogether. International career Irvine's first taste of international football came in 1958, when he represented the Northern Ireland schoolboy team in the Victory Shield. Five years later, he made his debut for the Northern Ireland national under-23 football team, when he played alongside his brother Bobby in the 1–5 defeat to Wales on 27 February 1963. During the next two years, he played twice more for the under-23 team, scoring three goals for the side. Irvine received his first call-up to the Northern Ireland senior team in April 1963, one month before he made his professional debut for Burnley. He went straight into the team and won his first cap on 3 April 1963 in the 1–4 loss to Wales in the British Home Championship. He received his next cap the following month and scored his first international goal on 30 May 1963 in the 1–1 draw with Spain in the first round of the 1964 European Nations Cup. It was over a year before Irvine was selected to represent his country again, when he was included in the squad for the 1–2 defeat to Switzerland in a qualification match for the 1966 FIFA World Cup. On 25 November 1964, he scored his second Northern Ireland goal in the loss to Scotland in the British Home Championship. Irvine was involved in his first win with the Northern Ireland team when they defeated the Netherlands in a World Cup qualifying game on 17 March 1965. During the remainder of the 1964–65 season, he won a further three caps for his country. Between 2 October 1965 and 30 March 1966, Irvine scored in four consecutive international fixtures. The run started with a goal against Scotland in the British Home Championship, followed by a goal in the 1–2 loss to England on 10 November 1965. Two weeks later, he netted in a World Cup qualifier against Albania before scoring in the 4–1 win against Wales to complete the run. Irvine continued to play for Northern Ireland, winning caps against Mexico, England and Scotland, but it was almost two-and-a-half years before he scored again in international football. His two goals in a friendly match against Israel were his last for Northern Ireland, although he did win another five caps for his country. After leaving Burnley in 1968, his inclusion in the Northern Ireland squad became less frequent and between 1969 and 1972 he did not make an appearance for the team. After three years out of the side, he returned for the 0–2 loss to Scotland on 20 May 1972. He played against England three days later before winning his 23rd and final cap in the goal-less draw with Wales, the team against which he had made his international debut, on 27 May 1972. International goals Under–23 Scores and results list Northern Ireland U23's goal tally first. Senior team Scores and results list Northern Ireland's goal tally first. Style of play As a youngster, Irvine played as a goalkeeper until his elder brother Bobby, who went on to keep goal for the Northern Ireland national team, threatened to "batter" him. He subsequently moved into a midfield position, before becoming a centre forward during his time in the Burnley youth team. Described as a natural and instinctive goalscorer, Irvine stated that one of his main strengths as a striker was the ability to anticipate where the ball was going to land. Outside football Irvine is married to wife Rita, whom he met in a public house in Burnley. The couple were wed on 3 October 1966 and have three sons; Darren, Stephen and Jonathan, who played semi-professional football for Nelson and Colne. He has lived in the village of Worsthorne since retiring from football in 1974. Following his retirement he rented a warehouse from a friend and started a do-it-yourself retail business in the centre of Burnley. The shop was reasonably successful, and Irvine opened a second branch in Keighley, West Yorkshire. However, the business became untenable after several years and left Irvine owing £44,000 to the bank after a potential buyer for the shop pulled out of the deal. Following the collapse of the business, Irvine suffered severe depression and at one stage attempted suicide by taking an overdose of paracetamol tablets. He was discovered in time by his wife and admitted to Burnley General Hospital, where he underwent an emergency procedure to pump his stomach. After the attempt, he got a part-time job with Burnley Borough Council, working with young people at local community centres. He later worked as a window cleaner for 12 months before selling the round for a profit. Irvine then took a job in an engineering factory, where he worked for 14 years, before joining electrical firm LED. From there, he moved to Aeropia, an aircraft parts manufacturer, where he has worked as a stores manager ever since. On matchdays at Turf Moor, he gives guided tours of the ground to supporters. Notes A.  The Northern Premier League is a semi-professional league; individual players' appearances and goals are not available in either contemporary or modern sources. References General Specific External links Willie Irvine career stats at the Post War Players Database Willie Irvine biography at ClaretsMad 1943 births Living people People from Carrickfergus Association football forwards Association footballers from Northern Ireland Northern Ireland international footballers Burnley F.C. players Preston North End F.C. players Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. players Halifax Town A.F.C. players Great Harwood F.C. players English Football League players First Division/Premier League top scorers

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Public General Acts |- | {{|British Coal and British Rail (Transfer Proposals) Act 1993|public|2|19-01-1993|maintained=y|An Act to confer powers on the British Coal Corporation and the British Railways Board to act in relation to proposals for the transfer of any of their functions, property, rights or liabilities to any other body or person; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Social Security Act 1993|public|3|29-01-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend sections 3 and 85 of the Social Security Act 1986, to provide for the making of certain payments into the National Insurance Fund, and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Consolidated Fund Act 1993|public|4|18-02-1993|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the year ending on 31st March 1993.}} |- | {{|Damages (Scotland) Act 1993|public|5|18-02-1993|maintained=y|An Act to clarify and amend the law of Scotland concerning the right of certain relatives of a deceased person, and the right of executors, to claim damages in respect of the death of the deceased from personal injuries; to make provision regarding solatium where personal injuries result in loss of expectation of life; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Bankruptcy (Scotland) Act 1993|public|6|18-02-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Bankruptcy (Scotland) Act 1985; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Consolidated Fund (No. 2) Act 1993|public|7|29-03-1993|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the years ending on 31st March 1992 and 1993.}} |- | {{|Judicial Pensions and Retirement Act 1993|public|8|29-03-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make further provision with respect to the pensions and other benefits payable in respect of service in certain judicial, and related, offices and in certain senior public investigative offices; to amend the law relating to the date on which the holders of certain judicial, and related, offices are required to vacate those offices; and for purposes connected therewith.}} |- | {{|Prisoners and Criminal Proceedings (Scotland) Act 1993|public|9|29-03-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law of Scotland with respect to the detention, transfer and release of persons serving sentences of imprisonment etc. or committed or remanded in custody; to make further provision as regards evidence and procedure in criminal proceedings in Scotland; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Charities Act 1993|public|10|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate the Charitable Trustees Incorporation Act 1872 and, except for certain spent or transitional provisions, the Charities Act 1960 and Part I of the Charities Act 1992.}} |- | {{|Clean Air Act 1993|public|11|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate the Clean Air Acts 1956 and 1968 and certain related enactments, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Radioactive Substances Act 1993|public|12|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to radioactive substances with corrections and minor improvements made under the Consolidation of Enactments (Procedure) Act 1949.}} |- | {{|Carrying of Knives etc. (Scotland) Act 1993|public|13|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide, as respects Scotland, for it to be an offence to have in a public place an article with a blade or point; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Disability (Grants) Act 1993|public|14|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the making of grants by the Secretary of State and the Department of Health and Social Services for Northern Ireland to the Independent Living (Extension) Fund, the Independent Living (1993) Fund and Motability.}} |- | {{|Protection of Animals (Scotland) Act 1993|public|15|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to increase the penalties for certain offences under the Protection of Animals (Scotland) Act 1912.}} |- | {{|Foreign Compensation (Amendment) Act 1993|public|16|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Foreign Compensation Act 1950 so as to extend the powers to make Orders in Council under section 3 of that Act; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Non-Domestic Rating Act 1993|public|17|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make further provision with respect to non-domestic rating for the period beginning with 1st April 1993 and ending with 31st March 1995; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Reinsurance (Acts of Terrorism) Act 1993|public|18|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the payment out of money provided by Parliament or into the Consolidated Fund of sums referable to reinsurance liabilities entered into by the Secretary of State in respect of loss or damage to property resulting from or consequential upon acts of terrorism and losses consequential on such loss or damage.}} |- | {{|Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act 1993|public|19|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make further reforms of the law relating to trade unions and industrial relations; to make amendments of the law relating to employment rights and to abolish the right to statutory minimum remuneration; to amend the law relating to the constitution and jurisdiction of industrial tribunals and the Employment Appeal Tribunal; to amend section 56A of the Sex Discrimination Act 1975; to provide for the Secretary of State to have functions of securing the provision of careers services; to make further provision about employment and training functions of Scottish Enterprise and of Highlands and Islands Enterprise; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Licensing (Amendment) (Scotland) Act 1993|public|20|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend section 23(2) of the Licensing (Scotland) Act 1976 in relation to certain planning certificates.}} |- | {{|Osteopaths Act 1993|public|21|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to establish a body to be known as the General Osteopathic Council; to provide for the regulation of the profession of osteopathy, including making provision as to the registration of osteopaths and as to their professional education and conduct; to make provision in connection with the development and promotion of the profession; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Merchant Shipping (Registration, etc.) Act 1993|public|22|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend and restate the law relating to the registration of ships and related matters, to make provision in relation to ships on bareboat charter and to make amendments designed to facilitate, or otherwise desirable in connection with, the consolidation of the enactments relating to shipping and seamen.}} |- | {{|Asylum and Immigration Appeals Act 1993|public|23|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision about persons who claim asylum in the United Kingdom and their dependants; to amend the law with respect to certain rights of appeal under the Immigration Act 1971; and to extend the provisions of the Immigration (Carriers' Liability) Act 1987 to transit passengers.}} |- | {{|Video Recordings Act 1993|public|24|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend the Video Recordings Act 1984 and, so far as it relates to evidence by certificate in respect of offences under the 1984 Act, the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 1980.}} |- | {{|Local Government (Overseas Assistance) Act 1993|public|25|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to enable local authorities in Great Britain to provide advice and assistance as respects matters in which they have skill and experience to bodies engaged outside the United Kingdom in the carrying on of any of the activities of local government.}} |- | {{|Bail (Amendment) Act 1993|public|26|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to confer upon the prosecution a right of appeal against decisions to grant bail.}} |- | {{|Local Government (Amendment) Act 1993|public|27|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend section 11 of the Local Government Act 1966 to permit grants to be made to local authorities making special provisions in exercising their functions, in consequence of the presence within their areas of persons belonging to ethnic minorities; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Leasehold Reform, Housing and Urban Development Act 1993|public|28|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to confer rights to collective enfranchisement and lease renewal on tenants of flats; to make further provision with respect to enfranchisement by tenants of houses; to make provision for auditing the management, by landlords or other persons, of residential property and for the approval of codes of practice relating thereto; to amend Parts III and IV of the Landlord and Tenant Act 1987; to confer jurisdiction on leasehold valuation tribunals as respects Crown land; to make provision for rendering void agreements preventing the occupation of leasehold property by persons with mental disorders; to amend Parts II, IV and V of the Housing Act 1985, Schedule 2 to the Housing Associations Act 1985, Parts I and III and sections 248 and 299 of the Housing (Scotland) Act 1987, Part III of the Housing Act 1988, and Part VI of the Local Government and Housing Act 1989; to make provision with respect to certain disposals requiring consent under Part II of the Housing Act 1985, including provision for the payment of a levy; to alter the basis of certain contributions by the Secretary of State under section 569 of that Act; to establish and confer functions on a body to replace the English Industrial Estates Corporation and to be known as the Urban Regeneration Agency; to provide for the designation of certain urban and other areas and to make provision as to the effect of such designation; to amend section 23 of the Land Compensation Act 1961, section 98 of the Local Government, Planning and Land Act 1980 and section 27 of the Housing and Planning Act 1986; to make further provision with respect to urban development corporations and urban development areas; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Representation of the People Act 1993|public|29|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to secure that members of the regular army who, except for the purposes of training, are required to serve only in Northern Ireland are not regarded as members of the forces for the purposes of the Representation of the People Act 1983.}} |- | {{|Sexual Offences Act 1993|public|30|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to abolish the presumption of criminal law that a boy under the age of fourteen is incapable of sexual intercourse.}} |- | {{|Road Traffic (Driving Instruction by Disabled Persons) Act 1993|public|31|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for enabling persons with certain physical disabilities to be authorised, in certain circumstances, to give paid instruction in the driving of motor cars; and for purposes connected therewith.}} |- | {{|European Communities (Amendment) Act 1993|public|32|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision consequential on the Treaty on European Union signed at Maastricht on 7th February 1992.}} |- | {{|Appropriation Act 1993|public|33|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to apply a sum out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the year ending on 31st March 1994, to appropriate the supplies granted in this Session of Parliament, and to repeal certain Consolidated Fund and Appropriation Acts.}} |- | {{|Finance Act 1993|public|34|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to grant certain duties, to alter other duties, and to amend the law relating to the National Debt and the Public Revenue, and to make further provision in connection with Finance.}} |- | {{|Education Act 1993|public|35|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to amend the law about education.}} |- | {{|Criminal Justice Act 1993|public|36|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision about the jurisdiction of courts in England and Wales in relation to certain offences of dishonesty and blackmail; to amend the law about drug trafficking offences and to implement provisions of the Community Council Directive No. 91/308/EEC; to amend Part VI of the Criminal Justice Act 1988; to make provision with respect to the financing of terrorism, the proceeds of terrorist-related activities and the investigation of terrorist activities; to amend Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1991; to implement provisions of the Community Council Directive No. 89/592/EEC and to amend and restate the law about insider dealing in securities; to provide for certain offences created by the Banking Coordination (Second Council Directive) Regulations 1992 to be punishable in the same way as offences under sections 39, 40 and 41 of the Banking Act 1987 and to enable regulations implementing Article 15 of the Community Council Directive No. 89/646/EEC and Articles 3, 6 and 7 of the Community Council Directive No. 92/30/EEC to create offences punishable in that way; to make provision with respect to the penalty for causing death by dangerous driving or causing death by careless driving while under the influence of drink or drugs; to make it an offence to assist in or induce certain conduct which for the purposes of, or in connection with, the provisions of Community law is unlawful in another member State; to provide for the introduction of safeguards in connection with the return of persons under backing of warrants arrangements; to amend the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1975 and Part I of the Prisoners and Criminal Proceedings (Scotland) Act 1993; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Agriculture Act 1993|public|37|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision about milk marketing; to make provision about potato marketing; to provide for the payment of grants in connection with the marketing of certain commodities; to terminate national price support arrangements for wool and potatoes; to provide for the publication of an annual report on matters relevant to price support; to amend the Industrial Organisation and Development Act 1947 in relation to agriculture; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Welsh Language Act 1993|public|38|21-10-1993|maintained=y|An Act to establish a Board having the function of promoting and facilitating the use of the Welsh language, to provide for the preparation by public bodies of schemes giving effect to the principle that in the conduct of public business and the administration of justice in Wales the English and Welsh languages should be treated on a basis of equality, to make further provision relating to the Welsh language, to repeal certain spent enactments relating to Wales, and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|National Lottery etc. Act 1993|public|39|21-10-1993|maintained=y|An Act to authorise lotteries to be promoted as part of a National Lottery; to make provision with respect to the running and regulation of that National Lottery and with respect to the distribution of its net proceeds; to increase the membership and extend the powers of the Trustees of the National Heritage Memorial Fund; to amend section 1 of the Revenue Act 1898 and the Lotteries and Amusements Act 1976; to amend the law relating to pool betting; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act 1993|public|40|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for noise in a street to be a statutory nuisance; to make provision with respect to the operation of loudspeakers in a street; to make provision with respect to audible intruder alarms; to make provision for expenses incurred by local authorities in abating, or preventing the recurrence of, a statutory nuisance to be a charge on the premises to which they relate; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|European Parliamentary Elections Act 1993|public|41|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to give effect to a Decision of the Council of the European Communities, 93/81/Euratom, ECSC, EEC, of 1st February 1993 having the effect of increasing the number of United Kingdom representatives to be elected to the European Parliament; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Cardiff Bay Barrage Act 1993|public|42|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the construction by the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation of a barrage across the mouth of Cardiff Bay with an outer harbour and for related works; to make provision for the acquisition and use of land for the works; to make provision about the operation and management of the barrage, the outer harbour and the water impounded by the barrage; to make provision for dealing with property damage resulting from any alteration of groundwater levels which may occur in consequence of the construction of the barrage; to enable other protective provisions to be made; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Railways Act 1993|public|43|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the appointment and functions of a Rail Regulator and a Director of Passenger Rail Franchising and of users' consultative committees for the railway industry and for certain ferry services; to make new provision with respect to the provision of railway services and the persons by whom they are to be provided or who are to secure their provision; to make provision for and in connection with the grant and acquisition of rights over, and the disposal or other transfer and vesting of, any property, rights or liabilities by means of which railway services are, or are to be, provided; to amend the functions of the British Railways Board; to make provision with respect to the safety of railways and the protection of railway employees and members of the public from personal injury and other risks arising from the construction or operation of railways; to make further provision with respect to transport police; to make provision with respect to certain railway pension schemes; to make provision for and in connection with the payment of grants and subsidies in connection with railways and in connection with the provision of facilities for freight haulage by inland waterway; to make provision in relation to tramways and other guided transport systems; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Crofters (Scotland) Act 1993|public|44|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to crofting, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Scottish Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Scottish Land Court Act 1993|public|45|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to the constitution and proceedings of the Scottish Land Court; and to repeal provisions of the Crofters Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886 relating to the Scottish Land Court which are no longer of practical utility.}} |- | {{|Health Service Commissioners Act 1993|public|46|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate the enactments relating to the Health Service Commissioners for England, for Wales and for Scotland with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Probation Service Act 1993|public|47|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to the probation service and its functions and to arrangements for persons on bail and the rehabilitation of offenders, with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Pension Schemes Act 1993|public|48|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate certain enactments relating to pension schemes with amendments to give effect to recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission.}} |- | {{|Pension Schemes (Northern Ireland) Act 1993|public|49|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to consolidate for Northern Ireland certain enactments relating to pension schemes, with corrections and minor improvements under the Consolidation of Enactments (Procedure) Act 1949.}} |- | {{|Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1993|public|50|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to promote the reform of the statute law by the repeal, in accordance with recommendations of the Law Commission and the Scottish Law Commission, of certain enactments which (except in so far as their effect is preserved) are no longer of practical utility, and to make other provision in connection with the repeal of those enactments; and to correct a mistake in the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1978.}} |- | {{|European Economic Area Act 1993|public|51|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision in relation to the European Economic Area established under the Agreement signed at Oporto on 2nd May 1992 as adjusted by the Protocol signed at Brussels on 17th March 1993.}} |- | {{|Consolidated Fund (No. 3) Act 1993|public|52|17-12-1993|maintained=y|An Act to apply certain sums out of the Consolidated Fund to the service of the years ending on 31st March 1994 and 1995.}} }} Local Acts |- | {{|South Yorkshire Light Rail Transit Act 1993|local|2|18-02-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make further provision with respect to the light rail transit system authorised by the South Yorkshire Light Rail Transit Acts 1988 to 1990; to authorise the construction of works and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Alliance & Leicester (Girobank) Act 1993|local|3|29-03-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the vesting in Alliance & Leicester Building Society of part of the undertaking of Girobank plc; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|British Railways Act 1993|local|4|29-03-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower the British Railways Board to construct works and to acquire land; to confer further powers on the Board; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Midland Metro Act 1993|local|5|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive to construct works at Chelmsley Wood in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull for their light rail rapid passenger transport system; to authorise the acquisition of lands for that purpose; to confer further powers upon the Executive; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Midland Metro (No. 2) Act 1993|local|6|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive to construct additional works for extension of their light rail rapid passenger transport system and substituted works for parts of that system; to authorise the acquisition of lands for that purpose; to confer further powers upon the Executive; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|London Docklands Railway (Lewisham) Act 1993|local|7|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower Docklands Light Railway Limited to construct works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on Docklands Light Railway Limited; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|London Docklands Railway (Lewisham) (No. 2) 1993|local|8|27-05-1993|maintained=y|An Act to authorise the transfer of the functions of Docklands Light Railway Limited in respect of the extension of the Docklands Railway to Lewisham; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|London Underground (Jubilee) Act 1993|local|9|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower London Underground Limited to construct works and to acquire lands; to confer further powers on London Underground Limited; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Dawat-e-Hadiyah Act 1993|local|10|01-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to incorporate the Dai al-Mutlaq as a corporation sole; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Harris Tweed Act 1993|local|11|20-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make provision for the establishment of a Harris Tweed Authority to promote and maintain the authenticity, standard and reputation of Harris Tweed; for the definition of Harris Tweed; for preventing the sale as Harris Tweed of material which does not fall within the definition; for the Authority to become the successor to The Harris Tweed Association Limited; and for other purposes incidental thereto.}} |- | {{|Highland Regional Council (Wester Bridge) Order Confirmation Act 1993|local|12|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to confirm a Provisional Order under the Private Legislation Procedure (Scotland) Act 1936, relating to Highland Regional Council (Wester Bridge).|po1=Highland Regional Council (Wester Bridge) Order 1993|Provisional Order to authorise The Highland Regional Council to acquire lands; to construct and maintain a new bridge at Wester in Caithness being part of the A9 Wick to John O'Groats road and to construct other related works; to confer power to close the bridge to traffic; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Pwllheli Harbour (Amendment) Act 1993|local|13|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to make further provision with respect to the use of land in or around Pwllheli Harbour and with respect to the disposal of certain land within that harbour.}} |- | {{|Allied Irish Banks Act 1993|local|14|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the transfer to AIB Group Northern Ireland plc of part of the undertaking of Allied Irish Banks, p.l.c.; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Leeds Supertram Act 1993|local|15|27-07-1993|maintained=y|An Act to empower the West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive in conjunction with the Leeds City Council to develop and operate a light rail or supertram system of passenger transport in the City of Leeds; to authorise the construction of works; to confer powers upon the Executive and the City Council for the acquisition of lands for that purpose; and for other purposes.}} |- | {{|Woodgrange Park Cemetery Act 1993|local|16|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to remove, as respects part of the land comprised in Woodgrange Park Cemetery, all trusts, obligations, disabilities and restrictions that are attached to that land by reason of its being used or set apart for the interment of human remains or by reason of its being a cemetery or disused burial ground; and for related purposes.}} |- | {{|Citibank International Act 1993|local|17|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the transfer to and vesting in Citibank International plc of the undertakings of Citicorp Finance PLC, Citibank Trust Limited, The Diners Club Limited, Citibank Leasing Limited, Cardholder Services Limited, Citicorp Scrimgeour Vickers Securities Limited and Citibank Financial Trust Limited; and for connected purposes.}} |- | {{|Unibank Act 1993|local|18|05-11-1993|maintained=y|An Act to provide for the transfer to and vesting in Unibank A/S of the undertaking of Unibank plc; and for other purposes.}} }} References 1993

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Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse defined by an attitude of skepticism toward what it considers as the grand narratives and ideologies of modernism, as well as opposition to epistemic certainty and the stability of meaning. Claims to objective fact are dismissed as naive realism. Postmodernism is characterized by self-referentiality, epistemological, moral relativism, pluralism, irony, irreverence, and eclecticism; it rejects the "universal validity" of binary oppositions, stable identity, hierarchy, and categorization. Postmodernism developed in the mid-twentieth century as a rejection of modernism and was then extended across many disciplines. Postmodernism is associated with deconstructionism and post-structuralism. Various authors have criticized postmodernism as promoting obscurantism, as abandoning Enlightenment rationalism and scientific rigor, and as adding nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. Definition Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse which challenges worldviews associated with Enlightenment rationality dating back to the 17th century. Postmodernism is associated with relativism and a focus on ideology in the maintenance of economic and political power. Postmodernists are "skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person". It considers "reality" to be a mental construct. Postmodernism rejects the possibility of unmediated reality or objectively-rational knowledge, asserting that all interpretations are contingent on the perspective from which they are made; claims to objective fact are dismissed as naive realism. Postmodern thinkers frequently describe knowledge claims and value systems as contingent or socially-conditioned, describing them as products of political, historical, or cultural discourses and hierarchies. Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies to self-referentiality, epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, and irreverence. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such as deconstruction and post-structuralism. Postmodernism relies on critical theory, which considers the effects of ideology, society, and history on culture. Postmodernism and critical theory commonly criticize universalist ideas of objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social progress. Initially, postmodernism was a mode of discourse on literature and literary criticism, commenting on the nature of literary text, meaning, author and reader, writing, and reading. Postmodernism developed in the mid- to late-twentieth century across many scholarly disciplines as a departure or rejection of modernism. As a critical practice, postmodernism employs concepts such as hyperreality, simulacrum, trace, and difference, and rejects abstract principles in favor of direct experience. Origins of term The term postmodern was first used in 1870. John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a way to depart from French Impressionism. J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used it to describe changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism by being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to Catholic feeling as well as to Catholic tradition." In 1942 H. R. Hays described postmodernism as a new literary form. In 1926, Bernard Iddings Bell, president of St. Stephen's College (now Bard College), published Postmodernism and Other Essays, marking the first use of the term to describe the historical period following Modernity. The essay criticizes the lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the Age of Enlightenment. It also forecasts the major cultural shifts toward Postmodernity and (Bell being an Anglican Episcopal priest) suggests orthodox religion as a solution. However, the term postmodernity was first used as a general theory for a historical movement in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our own Post-Modern Age has been inaugurated by the general war of 1914–1918". In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with modern architecture and led to the postmodern architecture movement in response to the modernist architectural movement known as the International Style. Postmodernism in architecture was initially marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban settings, historical reference in decorative forms (eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles. Author Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post-modern world that happened between 1937 and 1957 and described it as a "nameless era" characterized as a shift to a conceptual world based on pattern, purpose, and process rather than a mechanical cause. This shift was outlined by four new realities: the emergence of an Educated Society, the importance of international development, the decline of the nation-state, and the collapse of the viability of non-Western cultures. In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, Mel Bochner described "post-modernism" in art as having started with Jasper Johns, "who first rejected sense-data and the singular point-of-view as the basis for his art, and treated art as a critical investigation". In 1996, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism as belonging to one of four typological world views which he identified as: Neo-romantic, in which truth is found through attaining harmony with nature or spiritual exploration of the inner self. Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth as socially constructed. Scientific-rational, in which truth is defined through methodical, disciplined inquiry. Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization. History The basic features of what is now called postmodernism can be found as early as the 1940s, most notably in the work of artists such as Jorge Luis Borges. However, most scholars today agree postmodernism began to compete with modernism in the late 1950s and gained ascendancy over it in the 1960s. The primary features of postmodernism typically include the ironic play with styles, citations, and narrative levels, a metaphysical skepticism or nihilism towards a "grand narrative" of Western culture, and a preference for the virtual at the expense of the Real (or more accurately, a fundamental questioning of what 'the real' constitutes). Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of fashion". Others argue that postmodernism is dead in the context of current cultural production. Theories and derivatives Structuralism and post-structuralism Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French existentialism, and often interpreted in relation to modernism and high modernism. Thinkers who have been called "structuralists" include the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas. The early writings of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the literary theorist Roland Barthes have also been called "structuralist". Those who began as structuralists but became post-structuralists include Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, and Gilles Deleuze. Other post-structuralists include Jacques Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-François Lyotard, Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. The American cultural theorists, critics, and intellectuals whom they influenced include Judith Butler, John Fiske, Rosalind Krauss, Avital Ronell, and Hayden White. Like structuralists, post-structuralists start from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic conditions determine each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can be understood in isolation. Thus the French structuralists considered themselves to be espousing relativism and constructionism. But they nevertheless tended to explore how the subjects of their study might be described, reductively, as a set of essential relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. (An example is Claude Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Study of Myth"). Postmodernism entails reconsideration of the entire Western value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from an industrial to a service economy) that took place since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term postmodernity, as opposed to postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or movement. Post-structuralism is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, contrary to the original form. Deconstruction One of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is deconstruction, a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed by Jacques Derrida. Critics have insisted that Derrida's work is rooted in a statement found in Of Grammatology: "" ('there is no outside text). Such critics misinterpret the statement as denying any reality outside of books. The statement is actually part of a critique of "inside" and "outside" metaphors when referring to the text, and is a corollary to the observation that there is no "inside" of a text as well. This attention to a text's unacknowledged reliance on metaphors and figures embedded within its discourse is characteristic of Derrida's approach. Derrida's method sometimes involves demonstrating that a given philosophical discourse depends on binary oppositions or excluding terms that the discourse itself has declared to be irrelevant or inapplicable. Derrida's philosophy inspired a postmodern movement called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by a design that rejects structural "centers" and encourages decentralized play among its elements. Derrida discontinued his involvement with the movement after the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenman in Chora L Works: Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman. Post-postmodernism The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms Post-postmodernism and postpoststructuralism were first coined in 2003: More recently metamodernism, post-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth-Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism's demise have become a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put forth a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly called pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels have so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction. The exhibition Postmodernism – Style and Subversion 1970–1990 at the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 January 2012) was billed as the first show to document postmodernism as a historical movement. Philosophy In the 1970s a group of poststructuralists in France developed a radical critique of modern philosophy with roots discernible in Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Heidegger, and became known as postmodern theorists, notably including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, and others. New and challenging modes of thought and writing pushed the development of new areas and topics in philosophy. By the 1980s, this spread to America (Richard Rorty) and the world. Jacques Derrida Jacques Derrida was a French-Algerian philosopher best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts, and developed in the context of phenomenology. He is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. Derrida re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of "presence" or metaphysics in an analytical technique which, beginning as a point of departure from Heidegger's notion of Destruktion, came to be known as deconstruction. Michel Foucault Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, and literary critic. First associated with structuralism, Foucault created an oeuvre that today is seen as belonging to post-structuralism and to postmodern philosophy. Considered a leading figure of , his work remains fruitful in the English-speaking academic world in a large number of sub-disciplines. The Times Higher Education Guide described him in 2009 as the most cited author in the humanities. Michel Foucault introduced concepts such as discursive regime, or re-invoked those of older philosophers like episteme and genealogy in order to explain the relationship between meaning, power, and social behavior within social orders (see The Order of Things, The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, and The History of Sexuality). Jean-François Lyotard Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to use the term in a philosophical context, in his 1979 work . In it, he follows Wittgenstein's language games model and speech act theory, contrasting two different language games, that of the expert, and that of the philosopher. He talks about the transformation of knowledge into information in the computer age and likens the transmission or reception of coded messages (information) to a position within a language game. Lyotard defined philosophical postmodernism in The Postmodern Condition, writing: "Simplifying to the extreme, I define postmodern as incredulity towards metanarratives...." where what he means by metanarrative is something like a unified, complete, universal, and epistemically certain story about everything that is. Postmodernists reject metanarratives because they reject the concept of truth that metanarratives presuppose. Postmodernist philosophers, in general, argue that truth is always contingent on historical and social context rather than being absolute and universal—and that truth is always partial and "at issue" rather than being complete and certain. Richard Rorty Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. In addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of representationalism and correspondence theory that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to consciousness. Jean Baudrillard Jean Baudrillard, in Simulacra and Simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the Real is short-circuited by the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. For Baudrillard, "simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential being or a substance. It is the generation by models of a real without origin or reality: a hyperreal." Fredric Jameson Fredric Jameson set forth one of the first expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual trend, and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the Whitney Museum, later expanded as Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991). Douglas Kellner In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of modern theory" must be forgotten. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real-life experiences and examples. Kellner used science and technology studies as a major part of his analysis; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. The scale was larger than just postmodernism alone; it must be interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. The reality of the September 11 attacks on the United States of America is the catalyst for his explanation. In response, Kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the effects of the 11 September attacks. He questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited form of postmodern theory due to the level of irony. The conclusion he depicts is simple: postmodernism, as most use it today, will decide what experiences and signs in one's reality will be one's reality as they know it. Manifestations Architecture The idea of Postmodernism in architecture began as a response to the perceived blandness and failure of the Utopianism of the Modern movement. Modern Architecture, as established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on: the attempted harmony of form and function; and, the dismissal of "frivolous ornament." the pursuit of a perceived ideal perfection; They argued for architecture that represented the spirit of the age as depicted in cutting-edge technology, be it airplanes, cars, ocean liners, or even supposedly artless grain silos. Modernist Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is associated with the phrase "less is more". Critics of Modernism have: argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism are themselves subjective; pointed out anachronisms in modern thought; and, questioned the benefits of its philosophy. The intellectual scholarship regarding postmodernism and architecture is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect Charles Jencks, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Rise of Post Modern Architecture" from 1975. His magnum opus, however, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, first published in 1977, and since running to seven editions. Jencks makes the point that Post-Modernism (like Modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to Modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Modern techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in order for architecture to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, usually other architects." In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", Terry Farrell and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, particularly in architecture. Art Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. Cultural production manifesting as intermedia, installation art, conceptual art, deconstructionist display, and multimedia, particularly involving video, are described as postmodern. Graphic design Early mention of postmodernism as an element of graphic design appeared in the British magazine, "Design". A characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its own sites and venues, detractors and advocates." Literature Jorge Luis Borges' (1939) short story "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", is often considered as predicting postmodernism and is a paragon of the ultimate parody. Samuel Beckett is also considered an important precursor and influence. Novelists who are commonly connected with postmodern literature include Vladimir Nabokov, William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, Pier Vittorio Tondelli, John Hawkes, William S. Burroughs, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, E. L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosiński, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon (Pynchon's work has also been described as high modern), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jáchym Topol and Paul Auster. In 1971, the Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, an early work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective that traces the development of what he calls "literature of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Samuel Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman. In Postmodernist Fiction (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized by an epistemological dominant and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology. McHale's second book, Constructing Postmodernism (1992), provides readings of postmodern fiction and some contemporary writers who go under the label of cyberpunk. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007) follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism. Music Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is." The postmodern impulse in classical music arose in the 1960s with the advent of musical minimalism. Composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism. Author on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to include in this category the so-called 'art rock' musical innovations and mixing of styles associated with groups like Talking Heads, and performers like Laurie Anderson, together with the self-conscious 'reinvention of disco' by the Pet Shop Boys". Urban planning Modernism sought to design and plan cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production; reverting to large-scale solutions, aesthetic standardisation, and prefabricated design solutions. Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57). Jane Jacobs' 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities was a sustained critique of urban planning as it had developed within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479). The transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is often said to have happened at 3:32 pm on 15 July in 1972, when Pruitt–Igoe, a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for modern living,' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn down (Irving 1993, 480). Since then, Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity. It exalts uncertainty, flexibility and change (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007) and rejects utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting. Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them (Irving 1993, 60). As a result of Postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady claim to there being one single 'right way' of engaging in urban planning and are more open to different styles and ideas of 'how to plan' (Irving 474). The postmodern approach to understanding the city were pioneered in the 1980s by what could be called the "Los Angeles School of Urbanism" centered on the UCLA's Urban Planning Department in the 1980s, where contemporary Los Angeles was taken to be the postmodern city par excellence, contra posed to what had been the dominant ideas of the Chicago School formed in the 1920s at the University of Chicago, with its framework of urban ecology and emphasis on functional areas of use within a city, and the concentric circles to understand the sorting of different population groups. Edward Soja of the Los Angeles School combined Marxist and postmodern perspectives and focused on the economic and social changes (globalization, specialization, industrialization/deindustrialization, Neo-Liberalism, mass migration) that lead to the creation of large city-regions with their patchwork of population groups and economic uses. Criticisms Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the argument that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism. In part in reference to post-modernism, conservative English philosopher Roger Scruton wrote, "A writer who says that there are no truths, or that all truth is 'merely relative,' is asking you not to believe him. So don't." Similarly, Dick Hebdige criticized the vagueness of the term, enumerating a long list of otherwise unrelated concepts that people have designated as postmodernism, from "the décor of a room" or "a 'scratch' video", to fear of nuclear armageddon and the "implosion of meaning", and stated that anything that could signify all of those things was "a buzzword". The linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky has said that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds nothing to analytical or empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals do not respond like people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what evidence are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these requests] can't be met, then I'd suggest recourse to Hume's advice in similar circumstances: 'to the flames'." Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has said "The idea that we live in a postmodern culture is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, engineering, and technology; rather, they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of religion and ethics. But, of course, that's not postmodernism; that's modernism!" American author Thomas Pynchon targeted postmodernism as an object of derision in his novels, openly mocking postmodernist discourse. American academic and aesthete Camille Paglia has said: German philosopher Albrecht Wellmer has said that "postmodernism at its best might be seen as a self-critical – a sceptical, ironic, but nevertheless unrelenting – form of modernism; a modernism beyond utopianism, scientism and foundationalism; in short a post-metaphysical modernism." A formal, academic critique of postmodernism can be found in Beyond the Hoax by physics professor Alan Sokal and in Fashionable Nonsense by Sokal and Belgian physicist Jean Bricmont, both books discussing the so-called Sokal affair. In 1996, Sokal wrote a deliberately nonsensical article in a style similar to postmodernist articles, which was accepted for publication by the postmodern cultural studies journal, Social Text. On the same day of the release he published another article in a different journal explaining the Social Text article hoax. The philosopher Thomas Nagel has supported Sokal and Bricmont, describing their book Fashionable Nonsense as consisting largely of "extensive quotations of scientific gibberish from name-brand French intellectuals, together with eerily patient explanations of why it is gibberish," and agreeing that "there does seem to be something about the Parisian scene that is particularly hospitable to reckless verbosity." The French psychotherapist and philosopher, Félix Guattari, rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist visions of the world were not flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social, and environmental domains at the same time. Zimbabwean-born British Marxist Alex Callinicos says that postmodernism "reflects the disappointed revolutionary generation of '68, and the incorporation of many of its members into the professional and managerial 'new middle class'. It is best read as a symptom of political frustration and social mobility rather than as a significant intellectual or cultural phenomenon in its own right." Analytic philosopher Daniel Dennett said, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but it has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by their distrust of the very idea of truth and their disrespect for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and nothing can be confirmed, only asserted with whatever style you can muster." American historian Richard Wolin traces the origins of postmodernism to intellectual roots in fascism, writing "postmodernism has been nourished by the doctrines of Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Blanchot, and Paul de Man—all of whom either prefigured or succumbed to the proverbial intellectual fascination with fascism." Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry criticised postmodernism for reducing the complexity of the modern world to an expression of power and for undermining truth and reason: Richard Caputo, William Epstein, David Stoesz & Bruce Thyer consider postmodernism to be a "dead-end in social work epistemology." They write: H. Sidky pointed out what he sees as several inherent flaws of a postmodern antiscience perspective, including the confusion of the authority of science (evidence) with the scientist conveying the knowledge; its self-contradictory claim that all truths are relative; and its strategic ambiguity. He sees 21st-century anti-scientific and pseudo-scientific approaches to knowledge, particularly in the United States, as rooted in a postmodernist "decades-long academic assault on science:" See also Theory Culture and politics Philosophy Religion History Opposed by References Further reading Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" () Anderson, Perry. The origins of postmodernity. London: Verso, 1998. Anderson, Walter Truett. The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader). New York: Tarcher. (1995) () Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense, Mimesis International. Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Language of Exile." International Studies Quarterly v 34, no 3 259–68. Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press. Beck, Ulrich (1986) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. Benhabib, Seyla (1995) "Feminism and Postmodernism" in (ed. Nicholson) Feminism Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange. New York: Routledge. Berman, Marshall (1982) All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (). Bertens, Hans (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. London: Routledge. (). Best, Steven and Douglas Kellner. Postmodern Theory (1991) excerpt and text search Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn (1997) excerpt and text search Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Adventure: Science, Technology, and Cultural Studies at the Third Millennium Guilford Press, 2001 () Bielskis, Andrius (2005) Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). Brass, Tom, Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism (London: Cass, 2000). Butler, Judith (1995) 'Contingent Foundations' in (ed. Nicholson) Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange. New York: Routledge. Callinicos, Alex, Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique (Cambridge: Polity, 1999). Drabble, M. The Oxford Companion to English Literature, 6 ed., article "Postmodernism". Farrell, John. "Paranoia and Postmodernism," the epilogue to Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006), 309–327. Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications. Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press. Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. volume I. Samizdat Flight From the Absolute: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. Volume I () Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press () Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), Gender After Lyotard. NY: Suny Press, 2007. () Greer, Robert C. Mapping Postmodernism. IL: Intervarsity Press, 2003. () Groothuis, Douglas. Truth Decay. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Harvey, David (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change () Honderich, T., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, article "Postmodernism". Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. (2002) online edition Jameson, Fredric (1991) Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism () Jarzombek, Mark (2016). Digital Stockholm Syndrome in the Post-Ontological Age. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Kimball, Roger (2000). Experiments against Reality: the Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age. Chicago: I.R. Dee. viii, 359 p. () Kirby, Alan (2009) Digimodernism. New York: Continuum. Lash, S. (1990) The sociology of postmodernism London, Routledge. Lucy, Niall. (2016) A dictionary of Postmodernism () Lyotard, Jean-François (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge () Lyotard, Jean-François (1988). The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982–1985. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas. () Lyotard, Jean-François (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21(1), 2004. Lyotard, Jean-François (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: Theory, Culture and Society, Vol. 21(1), 2004. MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.). Magliola, Robert On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American Academy of Religion, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; , cloth, , pbk). Magliola, Robert, Derrida on the Mend (Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1984; 1986; pbk. 2000, ISBN I-55753-205-2). Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in Subcultural Musics," Popular Music 1/2, 1995, pp. 227–239. McHale, Brian (1992), Constructing Postmodernism. NY & London: Routledge. McHale, Brian (2007), "What Was Postmodernism?" electronic book review, McHale, Brian (2008), "1966 Nervous Breakdown, or, When Did Postmodernism Begin?" Modern Language Quarterly 69, 3:391–413. McHale, Brian, (1987) Postmodernist Fiction. London: Routledge. Murphy, Nancey, Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Science, Religion, and Ethics (Westview Press, 1997). Natoli, Joseph (1997) A Primer to Postmodernity () Norris, Christopher (1990) What's Wrong with Postmodernism: Critical Theory and the Ends of Philosophy () Pangle, Thomas L., The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 Park, Jin Y., ed., Buddhisms and Deconstructions Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006, ; . Pérez, Rolando. Ed. Agorapoetics: Poetics after Postmodernism. Aurora: The Davies Group, Publishers. 2017. . Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" () Sim, Stuart. (1999). "The Routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought" () Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998) Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science () Stephen, Hicks (2014). "Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault (Expanded Edition)", Ockham's Razor Publishing Vattimo, Gianni (1989). The Transparent Society () Veith Jr., Gene Edward (1994) Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture () Windschuttle, Keith (1996) The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering Our Past. New York: The Free Press. Woods, Tim, Beginning Postmodernism, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999, (Reprinted 2002)( Hardback, Paperback). External links Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file) Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, by Lloyd Spencer (1998) Postmodernism and truth by philosopher Daniel Dennett Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism 1880s neologisms Criticism of rationalism Metanarratives Modernism Philosophical movements Theories of aesthetics

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Rose Cottage is a heritage-listed former cottage and now museum at Rose Street, Wilberforce, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia. It was built from 1810 to 1820 by Thomas Rose. The property is owned by the Thomas and Jane Rose Family Society Inc. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. History Indigenous occupation The lower Hawkesbury River was home to the Dharug people. The proximity to the Nepean River and South Creek qualifies it as a key area for food resources for indigenous groups. The Dharug and Darkinjung people called the river Deerubbin and it was a vital source of food and transport. Early history of Wilberforce Early European exploration of the Hawkesbury River began in 1789 with a series of expeditions initiated by Governor of New South Wales Arthur Phillip in his search for fertile land to serve the new colony's agricultural purposes. Although the Hawkesbury River valley was penetrated from Broken Bay to the site of present-day Windsor by 1790, evidence of very high floods observed by Phillip and other explorers prevented Governor Phillip from consenting to make land grants in the area. Despite Phillip's unwillingness to settle the Hawkesbury, Lieutenant-Governor Major Francis Grose proceeded in making 22 land grants in the district of Mulgrave Place in 1794, less than two years after Phillip departed the colony. Grose may have resorted to settling the Hawkesbury due to a lack of land available in the area between Sydney and Parramatta, after Grose had made numerous grants there to members of the New South Wales Corps. Grose reported in a dispatch in 1794, "I have settled on the banks of the Hawkesbury twenty-two settlers, who seem very much pleased with their farms. They describe the soil as particularly rich, and they inform me whatever they have planted has grown in the greatest luxuriance." The first land grants consisted of 30 acres each, all with frontage to the river. Nineteen of the original 22 settlers were former convicts who had finished serving their sentences. Despite the challenges posed by inexperience, poor seed stock, and a lack of livestock to drive ploughs, it was reported that within the first 12 months, the average yield at the Hawkesbury settlement was 25 bushels per acre, double the yield elsewhere in the colony. Spurred on by the initial success, further grants of 25 to 30 acres were made to former convicts, with larger grants going to men from the New South Wales Corps. The European population of the Hawkesbury area increased to 546 inhabitants in the 1795 muster. Despite a rise in water recorded in 1795, which caused many early Hawkesbury settlers to leave the area, farming of the fertile floodplains by a new influx of settlers continued to increase. These early farmers concentrated their activities on the low lying land along the river, ignoring the ridgelines in favour of the more fertile land below. Floods recorded in 1799, 1800 and 1801 severely impacted the colony's economy, leading to vastly inflated prices for food and stores. However, the farming returns in 1802 were good enough for most farmers to pay off the debts incurred in the preceding three years. Soil erosion, caused by livestock, farming practices, and the recent flooding, began to be noted as a problem by 1803. In that year, Governor King introduced a measure to prevent erosion, prohibiting the removal of trees and shrubs within ten metres of the riverbanks. In 1804, King further established six commons for stock grazing, including Wilberforce Common. Despite these steps, the impact of the floods of 1806 and 1809 was immense. The river rose three times in 1806 and twice in 1809, causing damage to thousands of hectares of crops and losses amounting to tens of thousands of pounds. Again, food and grain prices became highly inflated, and government rations were reduced. Questions as to the feasibility of relying on the Hawkesbury as the main food source of the colony began to be posed by William Paterson, who was administering the colony in 1809. Governor Macquarie arrived in the colony in the wake of the 1809 flood disaster, and within 12 months of his arrival, had established the five 'Macquarie Towns': Windsor, Richmond, Wilberforce, Pitt Town and Castlereagh. He sited the towns on higher ground and induced the settlers to relocate their dwellings to higher land in order to minimise the threat of damage from flooding. The towns were laid out on a rectangular grid plan, with a major public square in a central position. Each town was to have a combined school house/church building, with separate land grants set aside for the school master and clergyman. Under the leadership of Macquarie, the Hawkesbury settlers experienced a heretofore unknown level of stability. Commissioner of Inquiry John Thomas Bigge arrived from England in 1820 in order to investigate the state of the colony on behalf of the Crown. Bigge's comments on the farming industry in the Hawkesbury River region reflect both the challenges faced by the settlers and the incomparable fertility of the soil. In his 1823 Report, Bigge referred to the flood plain soil as "distinguished by its depth and inexhaustible fertility. It lies on both sides of the rivers Nepean and Hawkesbury, and the largest tract is that which is formed by a bend of the latter river between the town of Windsor and the township of Wilberforce." Bigge reported that in 1820, the towns of Windsor, Wilberforce and Richmond had 10,000 acres of wheat or maize sown in a total 16,856 acres of cleared land, the most in the colony. In contrast to the fertility of the soil, Bigge commented on the poor state of the farms in the region, stating that "the farms, or rather allotments, in these districts [of the Hawkesbury] are small; the houses generally ill-built and exhibiting traces of former inundations...[the] more opulent settlers have begun to fence their estates with strong railing made of stringy and iron bark trees." He attributed the poor state of farm buildings in the colony to the cost and lack of "mechanical labour," as well as the carelessness of many of the settlers. Wilberforce tended to have a higher proportion of free settlers to former convicts than the other Macquarie towns. The Reverend Cartwright reported in 1819 to the Bigge Commission that church attendance was good at Wilberforce, and the congregation was composed mainly of the "regular families." The combined school house/church was constructed in 1819 and is now the last building of the original school house. A steam mill was established by Buttsworth in 1835 near the river facing Buttsworth Lane. From the end of Buttsworth Lane, a punt crossed the Hawkesbury to Pitt Town Bottoms from as early as 1812. Land grants Upon Thomas Rose's arrival in NSW in 1793, he and the other settlers from the ship Bellona were given land grants in an area near present day Strathfield, which they named "Liberty Plains" after the fact that they were all free settlers. Thomas Rose selected 120 acres on the right bank of Powell's Creek. Despite being an experienced farmer, Rose struggled with the poor soil at Liberty Plains, and by 1802 purchased 15 acres of land known as Laurel Farm on the banks of the Hawkesbury River near Wilberforce, approximately one mile from the site of Rose Cottage. Thomas Rose lost everything in the floods of 1806 and 1809. The land on which Rose Cottage is now situated is part of a 30 acre grant to William Mackay made by Governor Hunter in 1797. In January 1806 Mackay transferred the north-eastern half of his grant, described as "that part to Howarth's Farm" to James Roberts. Two months later, Roberts sold this land to W. M. Nowland, a blacksmith, who then sold the land to Joshua Rose in 1809. Thomas Rose and his wife had been accompanied on their voyage from England on the Bellona by their four children, Thomas (to avoid confusion, herein referred to as Thomas II), Mary, Joshua and Richard, aged 13, 11, 9 and 3 respectively. After arriving in the colony, Thomas Rose had three more children. Most of Thomas and Jane's children remained in Australia, many establishing farms of their own along the Hawkesbury River. The family appears to have retained a patriotism for England, as Thomas II and Joshua returned to England -1806, and father and sons contributed subscriptions to the Waterloo fund in 1816. Construction of Rose Cottage Despite widespread secondary sources indicating that it was Thomas Rose who acquired the subject land, there is no primary documentary evidence to support this. It was certainly his son Joshua Rose who was the first Rose family owner of the land. There is no firm documentary evidence relating to the construction of Rose Cottage; our dating is based on the physical evidence remaining at the cottage. The vertical timber slab construction technique and the pre-1820 gudgeon hinges used in Doors 1, 2, 3, 6 and 7 provide a strong indication that the main part of the cottage (Spaces 1, 2, 5, 6, and the verandah) was built in the period 1809-1820. The original plan form of the cottage was much the same as it is today; however the rear skillion may have been added at another time in the early 19th century. The physical evidence for this later addition includes the use of weather boards inside the skillion, and the use of bush poles for refters, whereas the rafters of the main swing are split. Previous attempts to date the cottage through documentary sources have generally relied on two historical events: Governor Macquarie's General Offer stating requirements for the size and materials of new dwellings in the five Macquarie towns made 15 December 1810, and the reputed visit of Reverend Samuel Leigh to 'old Tom Rose's home' in 1817. In his report on Rose Cottage in 1982, Alan Roberts, Field and Research Officer for the Royal Australian Historical Society, concluded that this evidence for the date of the cottage is questionable, neither proving nor disproving the claim that Rose Cottage was built in the period 1811-1817. Roberts points out that Rose Cottage is not in full compliance with Macquarie's promulgation of 1810, and no source for Rev. Leigh's reference to 'old Tom Rose's home' was found. Additionally, this reference does not necessarily indicate Rose Cottage, merely whichever house Thomas Rose Senior was occupying at the time. The question of which members of the family occupied Rose Cottage is also open to speculation. Thomas Rose's land at Laurel Farm was rented to one J. Armstrong in the 1821 Return of Land in Wilberforce. Although he owned the farm at Rose Cottage between 1809 and 1850, Joshua Rose was listed in the 1828 Census as a resident of Lower Portland head. An 1818 surveyor's field book makes reference to 'Rose's hut' at that location, which indicates that Joshua had built a dwelling on his Portland head holding by this time. The muster records of 1818, 1819, 1821 and 1822 do not provide conclusive evidence as to which member of the family was farming the land. The 1841 census records both Joshua and Thomas II as residents of Wilberforce. In 1850, Joshua transferred the subject land to his brother, Thomas II, in an unregistered dealing recited in a 1913 conveyance. Joshua retained a small strip of land bordering the subject land to the southwest, which remained in the Rose family until 1955. In 1854, Thomas II composed his will, leaving Rose Cottage as ell as Laurel Farm to his son Charles: I devised All that parcel of land containing 14 acres more or less part of Mackay's Grant situate at Wilberforce aforesaid with the buildings thereon now in my own occupation. Also all that parcel of land containing 15 acres more or less part of Laurell's [sic] Grant situate at Wilberforce aforesaid now in my own occupation unto and to the use of the said Charles Rose his heirs and assigns forever But subject to and charged (with the personal estate herein before bequeathed to him) with the payment of the following legacies namely To each of them the said Mary Ann Graham - Thomas Rose - Richard Coley - Alexander Milson - Maria Stewart and Charlotte Flannery the sum of twenty five pounds and I direct the legacies hereinbefore bequeathed to be paid at the end of one year from my decease..... Of the four farms mentioned in Thomas II's will, totalling 89 acres, the only reference to a building is that made above, on the land where Rose Cottage is presently located. This is the earliest documentary evidence (1854) positively identifying the existence of structures on the subject land. Thomas II and his de facto spouse Ann were reported to be safe in the attic during the devastation 1867 flood of the Hawkesbury, while the flood waters reached a height of one metre on the ground floor of the cottage. Possibly due to the damage caused by this flood or upon Thomas II's death in 1869 when his son Charles inherited the cottage, several repairs to the cottage were carried out in the lat 19th century. Hardwood weatherboards were fixed over the vertical slabs to the east of the rear door (south elevation) and the eastern gable. Beaded lining boards were added to the south and east with a Victorian moulded-top skirting board along the east wall. At some time in the 19th century, corrugated galvanised steel sheeting was fixed over the roof and original shingles, and guttering was probably first installed. Farm subdivision Charles Rose, Thomas II's son, was the proprietor of the place from 1869 until his death in May 1911. However, it is unknown whether Charles resided there. His occupation was as a carrier. He married Marry Ann Green in 1859 at his uncle Henry's station at Warialda, NSW, and at least his first 6 children were born there (between 1860 and 1874). In his will dated 20 May 1911, Charles Rose devised: All those my thirteen and three quarter acres of land more or less at Wilberforce whereon I now reside Unto and to the use of my two sons John Henry Rose and Richard Alfred Harold Rose in equal shares their respective heirs and assigns for ever to be divided by a line from the road to the river Hawkesbury so that my son John Henry Rose shall take as his half the portion on which is the Homestead and the other buildings and being the part adjoining the property of Edward Thomas Bowd and so that my son Richard Alfred Harold Rose shall take as his half the other portion on which is the house erected by him. Charles Rose died 28 May 1911 and his wife Mary Ann died in 1912. In December 1913, John and Richard registered an indenture describing the two equal parcels of land, each measuring 6.3.12 1/2 acres. Fenced boundary lines are noted in the indenture between John's parcel and Bowd's farm (on Howith's grant) and between Richard's parcel and the small strip of land formerly owned by Joshua Rose. In the indenture, John is listed as a farmer, and Richard as a dairyman. Physical changes made to the cottage in the early 20th century may have been made by John Rose after receiving the cottage upon the death of his parents. (The repairs could also have been made to make the cottage more comfortable for Charles and Mary Ann Rose in the later years of their lives.) Pine weatherboards were fixed over the slabs on the west side of the rear door (south elevation), over the fixed internally to all walls in the front room, as well as the west and south walls in the front bedroom, and on the north wall in the kitchen. Additionally, the stepladder to the attic was rebuilt and lined with similar boards to the walls. Australiana Pioneer Village After John Henry Rose's death in 1961, Rose Cottage, including the other half of the land devised to Richard in Charles' 1911 will, was purchased by Dugald McLachlan. McLachlan was the proprietor of the Tropicana Hotel, next door to Rose Cottage, and envisioned making Rose Cottage the centrepiece of a theme park called the Australiana Pioneer Village. McLachlan went on to acquire almost all of Mackay's original 30-acre grant, and set about moving other old buildings from their original locations to the site. The Australiana Pioneer Village was opened to a tourist attraction in 1970, featuring Rose Cottage, as well the Kurrajong railway station and the 1850s police station from Riverstone. Repairs to the cottage carried out by Bill McLachlan in establishing the Pioneer Village included bagging over and cementing walls in the two bedrooms, replacing rotted bases to verandah posts, laying a concrete floor to the verandah, installing metal flashing above the wall plate, and adding new guttering. The earliest photographs recording the state of the cottage prior to this repairs are part of a Richmond High School report made in 1965. These photographs show a grapevine trellage and agave to the south of the cottage, as well as the branches of a large peppercorn tree to the west of the cottage. The 1961 gutters are also visible. The Pioneer Village changed hands several times in the ensuing years, with Mawsons Hotel Pty Ltd the dominant controlling interest between 1969 and 1983. When Mawsons began seeking interested buyers for the Village, the future of Rose Cottage became an increasingly pressing concern. Following Alan Roberts' report on behalf of the Royal Australian Historical Society in 1982, Gordon Fuller & Associates, architect, wrote to the National Trust of Australia (NSW) urging the body to classify Rose Cottage as a matter of urgency, and to make representations to the Heritage Council of NSW for the making of a Permanent Conservation Order under the NSW Heritage Act, "excising the building and site from the remainder of the Pioneer Village property". Fuller's report followed an inspection of the site and made recommendations of the works which would be necessary to preserve the building. In August 1985, Permanent Conservation Order No. 358 was placed on Rose Cottage by the Heritage Council of NSW. The Order applied to the current title boundary of Rose Cottage. The following month, Hawkesbury City Council acquired the entire Australiana Pioneer Village, including Rose Cottage. In 1988, the Council debated donating ownership of Rose Cottage to the Thomas and Jane Rose Family Society, Inc. (established in 1975), with some councillors opposed to the donation saying that it was the most important building in the Pioneer Village, and therefore worth keeping. Another councillor expressed that "It's not the sort of heritage that we like to live up to." In 1988 Clive Lucas, Stapleton and Partner wrote a Conservation Analysis and Draft Policy for Treatment of Fabric for the Heritage Council of NSW on Rose Cottage. In 1993, Hawkesbury City Council leased Rose Cottage to the Thomas and Jane Rose Family Society, and in 1995 transferred the title. Substantial stabilisation works were carried out under the NSW Heritage Assistance Program in 1994, with repairs made to the roof, foundations, flooring, cladding, windows, chimneys and fireplaces, directed by Otto Cserhalmi & Associates, architects. Description Cottage The cottage is located to the southwest of the lot, near to the boundary with the Heritage Hotel-Motel. The cottage is an early 19th century colonial vernacular structure. Single storey with attic containing four rooms, verandah to the north side. Constructed with a mixture of vertical slab, timber frame, split lath, mud infill, and weatherboard. The main roof is framed in split rafters for shingle roofing; a skillion roof to the south is framed in bush poles. Hipped roof at west; gabled at east. Two brick chimneys on west elevation. Grounds and garden The 2282 meter square property, herein called the garden, is located on a wide flat ridge above the Hawkesbury River flood plain which lies to the east. The property is bounded by Rose Street to the northeast, the Australiana Pioneer Village to the south and southeast, private property with a dwelling to the east, and the Heritage Hotel-Motel to the west. The property is enclosed by fencelines on all sides, some possibly reconstructed as part of the Australiana Pioneer Village. The entrance to the property is via a pedestrian gate at the northwest; pedestrian and vehicular gates on the southwest provide access to a track in the Australiana Pioneer Village. The cottage is surrounded on all sides by grassed areas with patches of rose bush cultivation and several trees, including white cedar (Melia azedarach var.australasica), false acacia/black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Citrus sp., a bed of roses to the cottage's west. A significant pepper(corn) tree (Schinus molle) is in the southern boundary. A significant rose shrub (Rosa cv.) is at the south-east corner of the cottage and a wattle (Acacia sp.) to the east of the cottage. Other plantings of moderate significance are a gum tree (Eucalyptus sp.) is to the cottage's south west, a grove of eucalypts to the cottage's south, a willow (Salix sp.) to its southeast, a quince (Cydonia oblonga cv.) to its south-west and the remains of former fence corner posts to the cottage's north east. Landscape items of some significance include: a former boundary line indicated by eucalypts and pine trees (Pinus sp.), fencing at the southern end of the spray area, parallel to the river, a fenced boundary line to the cottage's east extending to the river, riverside vegetation, the remainder of the associated land and shed 1. With a few exceptions the plantings appear to be post 1961. Rose Cottage exhibits a sense of containment due to its elevated position. Related landscape features are a "forecourt" area and an area at the back of the cottage and outbuildings. Other Site Features A water cistern is located at the Rose Street frontage of the Heritage Hotel-Motel, reportedly constructed by the Rose family. Victorian brick dome construction with concrete capping, late 19th century, but possibly over an earlier structure. Outbuildings Two sheds are located along the boundaries, to the south and west; and an outbuilding is located close to the south elevation of the cottage. Rose Cottage's outbuildings consist of two distinct construction phases. Outbuilding - west: single-storey, slab walls with bush pole framed sloping roof sheeted in old corrugated galvanised iron, concrete floor, c.1880. Outbuilding - east: single-storey, sloping roof sheeted in corrugated galvanised iron, slab walls and sawn and chamfered hardwood rafters, earth floor, early 20th century. Shed 1: single-storey, pitched roof bush pole, timber slab and corrugated galvanised iron, steel mesh, and pipe construction with granolithic paving and display area for birds, mid to late 20th century. Shed 2: Sawn hardwood and corrugated galvanised iron constructed for display of animals, late 20th century. Heritage listing Rose Cottage is an outstanding example of early 19th century timber slab / lath and plaster construction, most probably dating to the 1810s or 1820s, and inhabited by the Rose family, among the first free settlers to come to Australia, from its construction until 1961. The cottage has retained a visual relationship with the associated land, and provides an indication and is evocative of the nature of early farming settlements along the Hawkesbury River. The cottage is valued by the community as the oldest extant timber slab dwelling in Australia. Rose Cottage was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. Previous historical reports, heritage assessments, and media sources have reported that Rose Cottage is the oldest timber slab dwelling extant in its original location in Australia. The documentary evidence for the date of construction of Rose Cottage relies on two sources: as the cottage at least partly complies with Macquarie's 1810 promulgation on the dimensions of dwellings in the five Macquarie Towns, it is assumed that construction took place after 1810; and it is reported by Hawkesbury historian D. G. Bowd that the Wesleyan Methodist minister Samuel Leigh visited Rose Cottage in 1817. However, despite later research to confirm the citation of Samuel Leigh's visit to the cottage, no reference has been located. Additional research undertaken for this report also failed to locate positive documentary evidence of the existence of Rose Cottage any earlier than 1854 when Thomas II Rose made a devise in his will for his farm on Mackay's grant and the buildings thereon. From the physical evidence it can be reasonably determined that the main part of the cottage (Spaces 1, 2, 5, 6, and the verandah) was constructed prior to 1820, indicated by the use of gudgeon hinges, the vertical timber slab construction technique, and the window sashes used in the front/north facade of the cottage. The skillion-roofed section containing the kitchen and a rear bedroom appears to be an early addition possibly dating to the 1830s. While previous historical assessments may be inaccurate and much about the history of the place is still unknown, Rose Cottage, together with the associated land, is demonstrative of the form of rural development from the earliest period of settlement on the Hawkesbury River. No other similar examples of this age and retaining a relationship with the former farm lands are known from the Wilberforce area. The associated land, comprising approximately 15 acres of William Mackay's 30 acre grant of 1794, was farmed by the Rose family from 1809, when Joshua Rose acquired the property, to 1961, when John Henry Rose died and the cottage and land were acquired by Bill McLachlan, founder of the Australiana Pioneer Village. Some aspects of the long-term land use of the place are still evident on the grounds of the Pioneer Village, including some mid-twentieth century fencing, the grove of eucalypts to the south of the cottage, and a line of trees marking the western boundary line of the farm. Many settlers who received land grants in the initial settlement of the Hawkesbury vacated the land after the damaging floods of 1802 and 1806. In the case of the grant containing Rose Cottage, the land was subdivided in half in January 1806, creating two 15 acres farms. Later subdivisions within the Rose family were made through wills. In each subdivision, the new lots maintained direct access to the Hawkesbury River, creating long, narrow parcels. Mackay's grant is among the first series of farm allotments made on the outskirts of Sydney. The subsequent subdivision of the grant took place very early in history of the site. While suburban subdivisions were made in the surrounding area during the later 20th century, the land at Rose Cottage remained relatively intact to its 1806 configuration, due to the long occupation of the Rose family and the formation of the Australiana Pioneer Village. This configuration is still evident in the cadastral layout of Rose Cottage and the associated land today, and is representative of the land subdivision patterns of the early 19th century as it took place in the area of Wilberforce. After Bill McLachlan acquired Rose Cottage and the associated land in 1961, he set about obtaining much of the land contained in Mackay's 30 acre grant to establish the Australiana Pioneer Village. McLachlan transported other old buildings of many types to the site to create a heritage theme park, which opened in 1970. The collection of heritage buildings, machinery, and other artefacts together into an open-air village-themed park was a trend of the 1970s and 1980s. The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history. Rose Cottage is associated with the Rose family, who were among the first fifteen free settlers to arrive in Australia on the Bellona in 1793. Thomas Rose was an experienced farmer from Dorset, England who responded to the Government's incentive to attract settlers of a land grant, tools, provisions, and the service of convicts free of charge for two years. David Collins, in his assessment of the first group of free settlers said Thomas Rose was "the most respectable of these people, and apparently the best calculated for a bona-fide settler." No other structures built by the first and second generations of the Rose family are known to survive; however, there is photographic evidence for the third generation Rose family cottage at Freemans Reach on the Hawkesbury. Thomas' wife, Jane Rose, gave birth to a son six months after their arrival in the colony, the first free child born to free settlers in the colony. In the Sydney Gazette obituary for Jane Rose in 1828, it was noted that she was the first woman to attain the status of great-grandmother in the colony. The Rose family continuously occupied Rose Cottage and farmed the associated land from 1809 until 1961. The associated of the family with the place is made more distinct by the survival of the dwelling, resulting in a significance that is rare state-wide. The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. Apart from the lack of documentary evidence confirming the date of construction of Rose Cottage, the physical evidence suggests an early construction for the cottage, possibly in the 1810s or 1820s. There are numerous other timber slab structures in the Upper Hawkesbury district. Examples located near Rose Cottage include: 127 King Road, Wilberforce 87 King Road, Wilberforce None of the extant timber slab dwellings have been assessed to be as old as Rose Cottage. However, the timber slab stables at the Macquarie Arms Inn, Windsor, are reputed to date to 1811-16. In view of this, Alan Roberts qualified in his 1982 report on Rose Cottage that is may be the oldest timber house (rather than building) surviving in Australia. Other extant vernacular farm cottages from the early settlement of Australia's mainland include Cos's Cottage, Mulgoa (1811-16); Mountain View, Richmond (1812); Agnes Banks, near Richmond (c.1820); Bowman Cottage, Richmond (1819); Denbigh, Narellan (1817); Moxey's Farm, Richmond ( 1820); and Cad-Die, Clarence Reach ( 1820). However, none of these buildings consists of a timber slab structure, leaving Rose Cottage to be the only building of this type dating to the period of early settlement. Rose Cottage is an outstanding, intact example of vernacular building technique of the early 19th century. Due to the continuing semi-rural character of the surrounding area, the setting of Rose cottage remains evocative of the history of farming represented by the presence of the cottage. The nature of the relationship of the cottage with the associated land has been preserved due to the later sympathetic use of the land as the Australiana Pioneer Village. Some remnant features of the associated land probably date to the 20th century Rose family occupation of Rose Cottage, including fence lines and fences, a boundary line marked by trees, and the grove of eucalypts to the south of the cottage. The riverside vegetation, although none of it appears to be very old, reflects the 1803 promulgation by Governor King prohibiting the clearing of growth within ten metres of the river bank in order to curtail erosion. The placehas strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. In 1975 two descendants of Thomas and Jane Rose, having researched much of the family's history and genealogy, established the Thomas and Jane Rose Family Society. The primary aims of the society were twofold: first, the conservation of Rose Cottage; second, publication of a published Rose family history and genealogy. The first Rose family reunion was held in 1982 and since then has been held triennially. The Society now numbers over 300 members and estimates that there are over 20,000 descendants of Thomas and Jane Rose identified through its genealogical research. The descendants of Captain William Cox have a similar family society and Cox's Cottage is extant in the Mulgoa Valley; however, this family is more focused in the region of Mudgee. Therefore, the association of the Thomas & Jane Rose Family Society with Rose Cottage is considered to be of locally rare significance. General community regard for Rose Cottage is also demonstrated by the number of heritage listings for it: Hawkesbury Local Environmental Plan, National Trust of Australia (NSW), NSW State Heritage Register and the Register of the National Estate. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The long span of occupation of Rose Cottage will have resulted in remnants of information now accessible through the archaeological record. The archaeology of the associated land and garden would primarily constitute an analysis of previous structures at the site, such as the outbuilding visible in the aerial photography to the southeast of the garden area and may also help to establish the nature of plantings and land use across the site. There is potential to yield more information about the history and use of s farm properties in Australia in the early 19th century through archaeological investigation of crops, paddock boundaries, and drainage/irrigation systems. There is also potential for occupational remains to be revealed in and around the cottage and outbuilding, as well as at the cistern located adjacent to the Heritage Hotel-Motel. The information would potentially be of particular interest because of the long occupation of the house by members of the one family. As an intact, early example of a slab-built cottage, further investigation of the structure of Rose Cottage has the potential to reveal more information about timber construction methods of the period. See also References Bibliography Attribution New South Wales State Heritage Register Wilberforce, New South Wales Historic house museums in New South Wales Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register

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Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603 (as James I), he moved to England, where he spent much of the rest of his life. He became heir apparent to the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1612 upon the death of his elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight-month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the marriage negotiations' futility. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France. After his succession in 1625, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. He believed in the divine right of kings, and was determined to govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent, and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch. His religious policies, coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic, generated antipathy and mistrust from Reformed religious groups such as the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, who thought his views too Catholic. He supported high church Anglican ecclesiastics such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid continental Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years' War. His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops' Wars, strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments, and helped precipitate his own downfall. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War. After his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament (the "Long Parliament"). Charles refused to accept his captors' demands for a constitutional monarchy, and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647. Re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, he forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 the Parliamentarian New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for high treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and the Commonwealth of England was established as a republic. The monarchy was restored to Charles's son, Charles II, in 1660. Early life The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600, he was baptised by David Lindsay, Bishop of Ross, and created Duke of Albany, the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland, with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and when she died childless in March 1603, he became King of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant, and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year, due to his fragile health, he remained in Scotland with his father's friend Lord Fyvie, appointed as his guardian. By 1604, when Charles was three-and-a-half, he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance, and it was decided that he was strong enough to journey to England to be reunited with his family. In mid-July 1604, he left Dunfermline for England, where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. In England, Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth, Lady Carey, the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. His speech development was also slow, and he had a stammer for the rest of his life. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereign's second son, and made a Knight of the Bath. Thomas Murray, a presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics and religion. In 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets. He became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate. But in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid (or possibly porphyria). Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent. As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign, he automatically gained several titles, including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay. In November 1616, he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester. Heir apparent In 1613, Charles's sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and moved to Heidelberg. In 1617, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, a Catholic, was elected king of Bohemia. The next year, the Bohemians rebelled, defenestrating the Catholic governors. In August 1619, the Bohemian diet chose as their monarch Frederick V, who led the Protestant Union, while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election. Frederick's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years' War. The conflict, originally confined to Bohemia, spiralled into a wider European war, which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants. In 1620, Charles's brother-in-law, Frederick V, was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands. James, however, had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand's niece, Habsburg princess Maria Anna of Spain, and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe. Unfortunately for James, negotiation with Spain proved unpopular with both the public and James's court. The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism, and thus, when called by James in 1621, the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws, a naval campaign against Spain, and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales. James's Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption. The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder. The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters the Duke of Buckingham, Archbishop William Laud, and the Earl of Strafford. James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs, while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons' walls, demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales. Like his father, Charles considered discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father's royal prerogative. In January 1622, James dissolved Parliament, angry at what he perceived as the members' impudence and intransigence. Charles and Buckingham, James's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince, travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish match. The trip was an embarrassing failure. The Infanta thought Charles little more than an infidel, and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match. They insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the penal laws, which Charles knew Parliament would not agree to, and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the treaty's terms. A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Count of Olivares, the Spanish chief minister, and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally. When he returned to London in October, without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome, he and Buckingham pushed the reluctant King James to declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 to request subsidies for a war. Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer, Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, who opposed war on grounds of cost and quickly fell in much the same manner Bacon had. James told Buckingham he was a fool, and presciently warned Charles that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool. An underfunded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate, but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast. By 1624, the increasingly ill James was finding it difficult to control Parliament. By the time of his death in March 1625, Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom. Early reign With the failure of the Spanish match, Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France. On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the 15-year-old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of Notre Dame de Paris. He had seen her in Paris while en route to Spain. The married couple met in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury. Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the marriage was consummated, to forestall any opposition. Many members of the Commons opposed his marriage to a Roman Catholic, fearing that he would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England. Charles told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, but promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with his brother-in-law Louis XIII of France. Moreover, the treaty loaned to the French seven English naval ships that were used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle in September 1625. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side, because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony. Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti-Calvinist ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu, who was in disrepute among the Puritans. In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose (1624), a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel, Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination, the doctrine that God preordained salvation and damnation. Anti-Calvinistsknown as Arminiansbelieved that people could influence their fates by exercising free will. Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles's proposed Spanish marriage. With King James's support, Montagu produced another pamphlet, Appello Caesarem, in 1625, shortly after the old king's death and Charles's accession. To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament, Charles made him a royal chaplain, heightening many Puritans' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid Catholicism's resurgence. Rather than direct involvement in the European land war, the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets. Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000, an insufficient sum for Charles's war plans. Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a year, although previous sovereigns since Henry VI had been granted the right for life. In this manner, Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full-scale review of customs revenue. The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading. Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties. A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under Buckingham's leadership went badly, and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke. In May 1626, Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support, and had two members who had spoken against BuckinghamDudley Digges and Sir John Eliotarrested at the door of the House. The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members, and after about a week in custody, both were released. On 12 June 1626, the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham, stating, "We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state, we are out of hope of any good success; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will, through his misemployment, be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise, as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given." Despite the protests, Charles refused to dismiss his friend, dismissing Parliament instead. Meanwhile, domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage. Disputes over her jointure, appointments to her household, and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626. Despite Charles's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria, in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle. The action, led by Buckingham, was ultimately unsuccessful. Buckingham's failure to protect the Huguenotsand his retreat from Saint-Martin-de-Réspurred Louis XIII's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament's and people's detestation of the duke. Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan": a tax levied without parliamentary consent. In November 1627, the test case in the King's Bench, the "Five Knights' Case", found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan. Summoned again in March 1628, on 26 May Parliament adopted a Petition of Right, calling upon Charles to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes. Charles assented to the petition on 7 June, but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and reasserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament. On 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated. Charles was deeply distressed. According to Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, he "threw himself upon his bed, lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears". He remained grieving in his room for two days. In contrast, the public rejoiced at Buckingham's death, accentuating the gulf between the court and the nation and between the Crown and the Commons. Buckingham's death effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue, but it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament. It did, however, coincide with an improvement in Charles's relationship with his wife, and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end. Perhaps Charles's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria. She became pregnant for the first time, and the bond between them grew stronger. Together, they embodied an image of virtue and family life, and their court became a model of formality and morality. Personal rule Parliament prorogued In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles's policies in light of the case of John Rolle, a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage. Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March, members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair so that the session could be prolonged long enough for resolutions against Catholicism, Arminianism and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber. The provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders, including Sir John Eliot, imprisoned over the matter, thereby turning the men into martyrs and giving popular cause to their protest. Personal rule necessitated peace. Without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war, or Buckingham's help, Charles made peace with France and Spain. The next 11 years, during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament, are known as the personal rule or the "eleven years' tyranny". Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional, and was supported by precedent. But only Parliament could legally raise taxes, and without it Charles's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives. Finances A large fiscal deficit had arisen during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, Charles had little financial capacity to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign, he was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister, Elizabeth, and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate. England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined those who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. The chief tax Charles imposed was a feudal levy known as ship money, which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage before it. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. But Charles argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined. Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but England's 12 common law judges ruled the tax within the king's prerogative, though some of them had reservations. The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided a platform for popular protest, and the judges found against Hampden only by the narrow margin of 7–5. Charles also derived money by granting monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action, which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s. One such monopoly was for soap, pejoratively referred to as "popish soap"because some of its backers were Catholics. Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent. In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment. The programme's focus was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming, or in the case of the Forest of Dean, development for the iron industry. Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances, including those known as the Western Rising. Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in mid-1640. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances, refused to make any loans to him, as did foreign powers. In this extremity, in July Charles seized silver bullion worth £130,000 held in trust at the mint in the Tower of London, promising its later return at 8% interest to its owners. In August, after the East India Company refused to grant a loan, Lord Cottington seized the company's stock of pepper and spices and sold it for £60,000 (far below its market value), promising to refund the money with interest later. Religious conflicts Throughout Charles's reign, the English Reformation was in the forefront of political debate. Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual's ability to reject or accept salvation, which opponents viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism. Puritan reformers thought Charles too sympathetic to the teachings of Arminianism, which they considered irreligious, and opposed his desire to move the Church of England in a more traditional and sacramental direction. In addition, his Protestant subjects followed the European war closely and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively. In 1633, Charles appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. They initiated a series of reforms to promote religious uniformity by restricting non-conformist preachers, insisting the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer, organising the internal architecture of English churches to emphasise the sacrament of the altar, and reissuing King James's Declaration of Sports, which permitted secular activities on the sabbath. The Feoffees for Impropriations, an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them, was dissolved. Laud prosecuted those who opposed his reforms in the Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber, the two most powerful courts in the land. The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views and unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen. For example, in 1637 William Prynne, Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti-episcopal pamphlets. When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. Although born in Scotland, Charles had become estranged from it; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633. To the dismay of the Scots, who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice, Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted using the Anglican rite. In 1637, he ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer, without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk. Although it had been written, under Charles's direction, by Scottish bishops, many Scots resisted it, seeing it as a vehicle to introduce Anglicanism to Scotland. On 23 July, riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book's usage, and unrest spread throughout the Kirk. The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant, whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations not authorised by Kirk and Parliament. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638, it condemned the new prayer book, abolished episcopal church government by bishops, and adopted presbyterian government by elders and deacons. Bishops' Wars Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority, precipitating the First Bishops' War in 1639. He did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war, instead raising an army without parliamentary aid and marching to Berwick-upon-Tweed, on the Scottish border. The army did not engage the Covenanters, as the king feared the defeat of his forces, whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots. In the Treaty of Berwick, Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters' interim government, albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called. The military failure in the First Bishops' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise funds from Spain while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs, where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy. Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign. Because of his financial weakness, he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture. Both English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640. In March 1640, the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £180,000 with the promise to raise an army 9,000 strong by the end of May. But in the English general election in March, court candidates fared badly, and Charles's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate. The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £650,000 (although the cost of the coming war was estimated at around £1 million). Nevertheless, this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons. The Parliamentarians' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles, who still retained the support of the House of Lords. Despite the protests of Northumberland, the Short Parliament (as it came to be known) was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled. By this stage Strafford, Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632, had emerged as Charles's right-hand man and, together with Laud, pursued a policy of "Thorough" that aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti-government interests. Although originally a critic of the king, Strafford defected to royal service in 1628, in part due to Buckingham's persuasion, and had since emerged, alongside Laud, as the most influential of Charles's ministers. Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament, the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king's consent, and in August 1640 the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland. Following the illness of the earl of Northumberland, who was the king's commander-in-chief, Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces, despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery. The Scottish soldiery, many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years' War, had far greater morale and training than their English counterparts. They met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne, where they defeated the English forces at the Battle of Newburn and occupied the city, as well as the neighbouring county of Durham. As demands for a parliament grew, Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers. By the time it met, on 24 September at York, Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament. After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November, he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime. They recommended making peace. A cessation of arms, although not a final settlement, was negotiated in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed in October 1640. The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £850 per day until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled, which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces. Consequently, Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament. Once again, his supporters fared badly at the polls. Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November, over 350 were opposed to the king. Long Parliament Tensions escalate The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament. It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the king's leading counsellors for high treason. Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November; Laud was impeached on 18 December; Finch, now Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, was impeached the next day, and consequently fled to the Hague with Charles's permission on 21 December. To prevent the king from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which required Parliament to be summoned at least every three years, and permitted the Lord Keeper and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the king failed to do so. The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill, and to secure the latter, Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641. Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians, particularly John Pym, and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641. But the key allegation by Sir Henry Vane that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated, and on 10 April Pym's case collapsed. Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder, which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death. Charles assured Strafford that "upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life, honour or fortune", and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent. Furthermore, many members and most peers opposed the attainder, not wishing, in the words of one, to "commit murder with the sword of justice". But increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue. The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin (204 in favour, 59 opposed, and 230 abstained), and the Lords acquiesced (by 26 votes to 19, with 79 absent) in May. On 3 May, Parliament's Protestation attacked the "wicked counsels" of Charles's "arbitrary and tyrannical government". While those who signed the petition undertook to defend the king's "person, honour and estate", they also swore to preserve "the true reformed religion", Parliament, and the "rights and liberties of the subjects". Fearing for his family's safety in the face of unrest, Charles reluctantly assented to Strafford's attainder on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops. Strafford was beheaded three days later. Also in early May, Charles assented to an unprecedented Act that forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without its consent. In the following months, ship money, fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful, and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act. The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy, but these failed in the Lords. Charles had made important concessions in England, and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by securing the Scots' favour on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of presbyterianism. But after an attempted royalist coup in Scotland, known as "The Incident", Charles's credibility was significantly undermined. Irish rebellion Ireland's population was split into three main sociopolitical groups: the Gaelic Irish, who were Catholic; the Old English, who were descended from medieval Normans and also predominantly Catholic; and the New English, who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters. Strafford's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue, but had done so by heavy-handedly imposing order. He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the king and weakened the Irish Parliament's authority, while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to presbyterians. As a result, all three groups had become disaffected. Strafford's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined together to present evidence against him. In a similar manner to the English Parliament, the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles. They argued that the king had been led astray by malign counsellors, and that, moreover, a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in governance. Strafford's fall from power weakened Charles's influence in Ireland. The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford's imprisonment, until lack of money eventually forced Charles to disband the army at the end of Strafford's trial. Disputes over the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant, particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster, coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England, sowed the seeds of rebellion. When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English in late October 1641, the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king. In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign (that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the king was an unwitting member), but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes, 159 to 148. Furthermore, the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords, which the Remonstrance attacked. The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion, coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles's complicity. Throughout November, a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland, including massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords. Rumours of "papist" conspiracies circulated in England, and English anti-Catholic opinion was strengthened, damaging Charles's reputation and authority. The English Parliament distrusted Charles's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion; many members of the Commons suspected that forces he raised might later be used against Parliament itself. Pym's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the king, but it did not have the support of the Lords, let alone Charles. Instead, the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance, which they claimed did not require royal assent. The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the king. In an attempt to strengthen his position, Charles generated great antipathy in London, which was already fast falling into lawlessness, when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford, an infamous, albeit efficient, career officer. When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels, he decided to take drastic action. Five members Charles suspected, probably correctly, that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots. On 3 January 1642, Charles directed Parliament to give up five members of the Commons—Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig—and one peer, Lord Mandeville, on the grounds of high treason. When Parliament refused, it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force, which he intended to do personally. But news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him, and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January. Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall, from his chair, the king asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall, on his knees, famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." Charles abjectly declared "all my birds have flown", and was forced to retire empty-handed. The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons, and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege. In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder. Parliament quickly seized London, and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January, moving two days later to Windsor Castle. After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February, he travelled northwards, hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull. To his dismay, he was rebuffed by the town's Parliamentary governor, Sir John Hotham, who refused him entry in April, and Charles was forced to withdraw. English Civil War In mid-1642, both sides began to arm. Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array, and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia. The negotiations proved futile, and Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. By then, his forces controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and northern England. He set up his court at Oxford. Parliament controlled London, the south-east and East Anglia, as well as the English navy. After a few skirmishes, the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill, on 23 October 1642. Charles's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Lord Lindsey, and Charles sided with Rupert. Lindsey resigned, leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Lord Forth. Rupert's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks, but instead of swiftly returning to the field, rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train. Lindsey, acting as a colonel, was wounded and bled to death without medical attention. The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded. In his own words, the experience of battle had left Charles "exceedingly and deeply grieved". He regrouped at Oxford, turning down Rupert's suggestion of an immediate attack on London. After a week, he set out for the capital on 3 November, capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations. At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London, the royalist army met resistance from the city militia, and faced with a numerically superior force, Charles ordered a retreat. He overwintered in Oxford, strengthening the city's defences and preparing for the next season's campaign. Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April. The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years, and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643. After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643, Charles visited the port city and laid siege to Gloucester, further up the river Severn. His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain, and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force, Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle. The parliamentary army turned back towards London, and Charles set off in pursuit. The two armies met at Newbury, Berkshire, on 20 September. Just as at Edgehill, the battle stalemated at nightfall, and the armies disengaged. In January 1644, Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford, which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons; all told, the Oxford Parliament, which sat until March 1645, was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons. Charles became disillusioned by the assembly's ineffectiveness, calling it a "mongrel" in private letters to his wife. In 1644, Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York, which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies. Charles was victorious at the battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June, but the royalists in the north were defeated at the battle of Marston Moor just a few days later. The king continued his campaign in the south, encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of the Earl of Essex. Returning northwards to his base at Oxford, he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in; the battle ended indecisively. Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter, while both sides rearmed and reorganised, were again unsuccessful. At the battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645, Rupert's horsemen again mounted a successful charge against the flank of Parliament's New Model Army, but elsewhere on the field, opposing forces pushed Charles's troops back. Attempting to rally his men, Charles rode forward, but as he did so, Lord Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back, fearing for the king's safety. The royalist soldiers misinterpreted Carnwath's action as a signal to move back, leading to a collapse of their position. The military balance tipped decisively in favour of Parliament. There followed a series of defeats for the royalists, and then the siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped (disguised as a servant) in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish presbyterian army besieging Newark, and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne. After nine months of negotiations, the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament: in exchange for £100,000, and the promise of more money in the future, the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647. Captivity Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army. By this time, mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament, which favoured army disbandment and presbyterianism, and the New Model Army, which was primarily officered by congregationalist Independents, who sought a greater political role. Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions, and apparently viewed Joyce's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat. He was taken first to Newmarket, at his own suggestion, and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court, while more fruitless negotiations took place. By November, he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape—perhaps to France, Southern England or Berwick-upon-Tweed, near the Scottish border. He fled Hampton Court on 11 November, and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight, whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic. But Hammond confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody. From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties. In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk, on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots. Under the agreement, called the "Engagement", the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that presbyterianism be established in England for three years. The royalists rose in May 1648, igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles, the Scots invaded England. Uprisings in Kent, Essex, and Cumberland, and a rebellion in South Wales, were put down by the New Model Army, and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648, the royalists lost any chance of winning the war. Charles's only recourse was to return to negotiations, which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight. On 5 December 1648, Parliament voted 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king, but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power. Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November, and placed in the custody of the army the following day. In Pride's Purge on 6 and 7 December, the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride, while others stayed away voluntarily. The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament. It was effectively a military coup. Trial Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, the Rump House of Commons indicted him for treason; the House of Lords rejected the charge. The idea of trying a king was novel. The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England—Henry Rolle, Oliver St John and John Wilde—all opposed the indictment as unlawful. The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone, passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles's trial, and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners, but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away. Only 68 (all firm Parliamentarians) attended Charles's trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall. John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court, and the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cook. Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country. The charge stated that he, "for accomplishment of such his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament, and the people therein represented", and that the "wicked designs, wars, and evil practices of him, the said Charles Stuart, have been, and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will, power, and pretended prerogative to himself and his family, against the public interest, common right, liberty, justice, and peace of the people of this nation." Presaging the modern concept of command responsibility, the indictment held him "guilty of all the treasons, murders, rapines, burnings, spoils, desolations, damages and mischiefs to this nation, acted and committed in the said wars, or occasioned thereby." An estimated 300,000 people, or 6% of the population, died during the war. Over the first three days of the trial, whenever Charles was asked to plead, he refused, stating his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?" He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch, that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England, and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms. Charles insisted that the trial was illegal, explaining that, The court, by contrast, challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity and proposed that "the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern 'by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise'." At the end of the third day, Charles was removed from the court, which then heard over 30 witnesses against him in his absence over the next two days, and on 26 January condemned him to death. The next day, the king was brought before a public session of the commission, declared guilty, and sentenced. Fifty-nine of the commissioners signed Charles's death warrant. Execution Charles's beheading was scheduled for Tuesday, 30 January 1649. Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians: Elizabeth and Henry. They were permitted to visit him on 29 January, and he bade them a tearful farewell. The next morning, he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear: "the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake, which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear. I would have no such imputation." He walked under guard from St James's Palace, where he had been confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House. Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers, and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold. He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford: "An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect, is punished now by an unjust sentence on me." He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any, "but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a sovereign are clean different things." He continued, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be." At about 2:00 p.m., Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands; he was then beheaded in one clean stroke. According to observer Philip Henry, a moan "as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again" rose from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the king's blood as a memento. The executioner was masked and disguised, and there is debate over his identity. The commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common hangman of London, but he refused, at least at first, despite being offered £200. It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death, but others have been named as potential candidates, including George Joyce, William Hulet and Hugh Peters. The clean strike, confirmed by an examination of the king's body at Windsor in 1813, suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Charles's head was exhibited, but those words were not used, possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised. On the day after the execution, the king's head was sewn back onto his body, which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin. The commission refused to allow Charles's burial at Westminster Abbey, so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February. He was buried in private on 9 February 1649 in the Henry VIII vault in the chapel's quire, alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The king's son, Charles II, later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park, London, but it was never built. Legacy Ten days after Charles's execution, on the day of his interment, a memoir purportedly written by him appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek for the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book. Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom, and in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 King Charles the Martyr was added to the Church of England's liturgical calendar. High church Anglicans held special services on the anniversary of his death. Churches, such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells, and Anglican devotional societies such as the Society of King Charles the Martyr, were founded in his honour. With the monarchy overthrown, England became a republic or "Commonwealth". The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons, and executive power was assumed by a Council of State. All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Third English Civil War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653, thereby establishing the Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector. Upon his death in 1658, he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son, Richard. Parliament was reinstated, and the monarchy was restored to Charles I's eldest son, Charles II, in 1660. Art Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623, Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector, amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled. In Spain, he sat for a sketch by Velázquez, and acquired works by Titian and Correggio, among others. In England, his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House, Whitehall, by Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as van Honthorst, Mytens, and van Dyck. His close associates, including the Duke of Buckingham and the Earl of Arundel, shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall Group. In 1627 and 1628, Charles purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua, which included work by Titian, Correggio, Raphael, Caravaggio, del Sarto and Mantegna. His collection grew further to encompass Bernini, Bruegel, da Vinci, Holbein, Hollar, Tintoretto and Veronese, and self-portraits by both Dürer and Rembrandt. By Charles's death, there were an estimated 1,760 paintings, most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament. Assessments In the words of John Philipps Kenyon, "Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy". Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr, he was condemned by Whig historians, such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner, who thought him duplicitous and delusional. In recent decades, most historians have criticised him, the main exception being Kevin Sharpe, who offered a more sympathetic view that has not been widely adopted. Sharpe argued that the king was a dynamic man of conscience, but Professor Barry Coward thought Charles "the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI", a view shared by Ronald Hutton, who called him "the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages". Archbishop William Laud, whom Parliament beheaded during the war, described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great." Charles was more sober and refined than his father, but he was intransigent. He deliberately pursued unpopular policies that brought ruin on himself. Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings, but while James's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects, Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions. He thought he was answerable only to God. "Princes are not bound to give account of their actions," he wrote, "but to God alone". Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormonde, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: Duke of York 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King The official style of Charles I as king in England was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." The style "of France" was only nominal, and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled. The authors of his death warrant called him "Charles Stuart, King of England". Honours KB: Knight of the Bath, 6 January 1605 KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611 Arms As Duke of York, Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux Gules. As the Prince of Wales, he bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points. As king, Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter. Issue Charles had nine children, two of whom eventually succeeded as king, and two of whom died at or shortly after birth. Ancestry Notes References Citations Sources Further reading Brotton, Jerry (2007), The Sale of the Late King's Goods: Charles I and His Art Collection, Pan Macmillan, Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1882), The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637–1649: Volume I (1637–1640); Volume II (1640–1642) Historiography online online online in JSTOR External links Official website of the British monarchy The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States) |- |- 1600 births 1649 deaths 16th-century Scottish peers 17th-century Scottish monarchs 17th-century English monarchs 17th-century Irish monarchs 17th-century English nobility 17th-century Scottish peers Protestant monarchs Anglican saints English pretenders to the French throne Princes of England Princes of Scotland Princes of Wales House of Stuart Dukes of Albany Dukes of Cornwall Dukes of Rothesay Dukes of York Stuart, Charles Peers of Scotland created by James VI Peers of England created by James I Knights of the Garter People from Dunfermline People of the English Civil War Monarchs taken prisoner in wartime Executed monarchs Dethroned monarchs Executed British people People executed under the Interregnum (England) for treason against England People executed under the Interregnum (England) by decapitation Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Publicly executed people Christian royal saints High Stewards of Scotland Heads of government who were later imprisoned Children of James VI and I

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The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. More fundamentally, the conservative leaders of the Congress sought to restrain or eliminate the republicanism and revolution which had upended the constitutional order of the European old regime, and which continued to threaten it. In the settlement, France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania, 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw; Austria gained Venice and much of northern Italy. Russia gained the central and eastern part of the Duchy of Warsaw. It ratified the new Kingdom of the Netherlands which had been created just months before from the formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became Belgium. The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's "final act" was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Historians have criticized the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of the emerging national and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary movement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. In a technical sense, the "Congress of Vienna" was not properly a congress: it never met in plenary session. Instead, most of the discussions occurred in informal, face-to-face sessions among the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and sometimes Prussia, with limited or no participation by other delegates. On the other hand, the Congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. The Congress of Vienna settlement formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Preliminaries The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814–15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814. Participants The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls. Four Great Powers and Bourbon France The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration: Austria was represented by Prince Metternich, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor Francis was kept closely informed. The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the Duke of Wellington, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days. Tsar Alexander I controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count Karl Robert Nesselrode. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the Holy Alliance (1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism. Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar Wilhelm von Humboldt. King Frederick William III of Prussia was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes. France, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for Louis XVIII of France; the king, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail. Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814 These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814): Spain – Pedro Gómez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador Portugal – Plenipotentiaries: Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira. Sweden – Count Carl Löwenhielm Others Denmark – Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King Frederick VI was also present in Vienna. The Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron Hans von Gagern Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation. Charles Pictet de Rochemont from Geneva played a prominent role. Kingdom of Sardinia – Marquis . The Papal States – Cardinal Ercole Consalvi The Order of St. John of Malta – Fra Antonio Miari, Fra Daniello Berlinghieri and Fra Augusto Viè de Cesarini Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic. Grand Duchy of Tuscany – . Kingdom of Sicily – Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta, Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano, Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola and Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala On German issues, Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas Württemberg – Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown – Ernst zu Münster. (King George III had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover). Mecklenburg-Schwerin – Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced. Talleyrand's role Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies. The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on September 30th, 1814. Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador. Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain. Polish-Saxon crisis The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland. Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition. When the Tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia nor the Chełmno Land, which were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen (Poznań), nor Kraków, which officially became a free city, but in fact was a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony-later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony. Final Act The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the Battle of Waterloo). Its provisions included: Russia received most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and retained Finland (which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the Grand Duchy of Finland). Prussia received three-fifths of Saxony, western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (most of which became part of the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen), Gdańsk (Danzig), the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine (merger of the former French departments of Rhin-et-Moselle, Sarre, and Roer (Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (merger itself of the former Prussian Guelders, Principality of Moers, and the Grand Duchy of Berg)) A German Confederation of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of each of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman Empire). The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London). To compensate for Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were to form a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the German Confederation. Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for The Kingdom of Norway, became part of Prussia. France received back Guadeloupe from Sweden, with yearly installments payable to the Swedish king. The neutrality of the 22 cantons of Switzerland was guaranteed and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms. Bienne and the Prince-Bishopric of Basel became part of the Canton of Bern. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons. The former Electorate of Hanover was expanded to a kingdom. It gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the Bishop of Münster and of the formerly Prussian East Frisia. Most of the territorial gains of Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and of parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at Mainz. Austria regained control of the Tyrol and Salzburg; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and Ragusa in Dalmatia. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden; the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered. Ferdinand III was restored as Grand Duke of Tuscany. Archduke Francis IV was acknowledged as the ruler of the Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola. The Papal States under the rule of the Pope were restored to their former extent, with the exception of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, which remained part of France. Britain retained control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa; Tobago; Ceylon; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and Martinique, reverted to their previous overlords. The King of Sardinia, re-established in Piedmont, Nice, and Savoy, gained control of Genoa (putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic of Genoa). The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were taken from the Queen of Etruria and given to Marie Louise for her lifetime. The Duchy of Lucca was established for the House of Bourbon-Parma, with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise. The slave trade was condemned. Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube. Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817. Subsequently, the Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria. Other changes The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma). The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to the throne. A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently. During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this issue remains unresolved. The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain the islands of "Tobago and Saint Lucia, and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands. Later criticism The Congress of Vienna has frequently been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, A World Restored, on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era". He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia, Modena, Naples–Sicily, Parma, Piedmont–Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control. The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later. See also Diplomatic timeline for 1815 Precedence among European monarchies Concert of Europe European balance of power Battle of Waterloo International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) Treaty of Paris (1814) Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920) References Further reading Ferraro, Guglielmo. The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1941) online Forrest, Alan. "The Hundred Days, the Congress of Vienna and the Atlantic Slave Trade." in Napoleon's Hundred Days and the Politics of Legitimacy (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 163–181. Gabriëls, Jos. "Cutting the cake: the Congress of Vienna in British, French and German political caricature." European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 24.1 (2017): 131–157. illustrated Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15" in C. W. Crawley, ed., The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793–1830 (1965) pp. 639–67. online review King, David. Vienna, 1814: How the conquerors of Napoleon made love, war, and peace at the congress of Vienna (Broadway Books, 2008), popular history Kohler, Max James. "Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)" Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 26 (1918), pp. 33–125 online Kraehe, Enno E. Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815 (1984) Kwan, Jonathan. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815: diplomacy, political culture and sociability." Historical Journal 60.4 (2020) online. Lane, Fernanda Bretones, Guilherme de Paula Costa Santos, and Alain El Youssef. "The Congress of Vienna and the making of second slavery." Journal of global slavery 4.2 (2019): 162–195. Langhorne, Richard. "Reflections on the Significance of the Congress of Vienna." Review of International Studies 12.4 (1986): 313–324. Nicolson, Harold. The Congress of Vienna: a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822 (1946) online. ("Chapter II The restoration of Europe") Peterson, Genevieve. "II. Political inequality at the Congress of Vienna." Political Science Quarterly 60.4 (1945): 532–554. online Schenk, Joep. "National interest versus common interest: The Netherlands and the liberalization of Rhine navigation at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)." in Shaping the International Relations of the Netherlands, 1815–2000 (Routledge, 2018) pp. 13–31. Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (1996), pp. 517–582 online Sluga, Glenda. "'Who Hold the Balance of the World?' Bankers at the Congress of Vienna, and in International History." American Historical Review 122.5 (2017): 1403–1430. Vick, Brian. The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon. Harvard University Press, 2014. . also published as Primary sources Other languages External links Animated map Europe and nations, 1815–1914 Final Act of the Congress of Vienna Map of Europe in 1815 Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) Search Results at Internet Archive Diplomatic conferences in Austria 19th-century diplomatic conferences Peace treaties Treaties involving territorial changes 1814 in international relations 1814 in law 1814 in the Austrian Empire 1815 in international relations 1815 in the Austrian Empire 1815 in law 1815 conferences 1815 treaties 1815 in Europe 1815 in Switzerland 19th century in Vienna Reactionary European political history Modern history of Italy Treaties of the Austrian Empire Treaties of the Bourbon Restoration Treaties of the Kingdom of Portugal Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia Treaties of the Russian Empire Treaties of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922) Treaties of the Spanish Empire

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SaarLorLux or Saar-Lor-Lux (also SarLorLux in French), a portmanteau of Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg, is a euroregion of five regional authorities located in four European states. The term has also been applied to cooperations of several of these authorities or of their subdivisions, administrations, organisations, clubs and people. Member regions represent different political structures: the sovereign state of Luxembourg; Belgium's Walloon region, comprising the French and German speaking parts of Belgium; Lorraine, a region of France; the French départements Moselle and Meurthe-et-Moselle; and the German federated states of Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate. There is no well-defined structure of SaarLorLux nor even an exclusive definition of its size. Instead, there exist multiple forms of cooperation and contractual relations among all or several members. Sometimes instead of SaarLorLux, the term Greater Region is used, short for the more formal "Greater Region of Saarland, Lorraine, Luxembourg, Wallonia and (Western-) Rhineland-Palatinate". Member regions Shared history The region of SaarLorLux was settled by the Celtic tribes of the Treveri and Mediomatrici. The Treveri lived in the south of Belgium, Luxembourg, western Rhineland-Palatinate, and northern Saarland. Lorraine and the southern Saarland were inhabited by the Mediomatrici. Both tribes were conquered during the Gallic Wars by the Roman legions of Julius Caesar. The area became part of the Roman provinces of Gallia Belgica, Germania Superior, and Germania Inferior. Barbarian invasions forced the enfeebled Roman Empire to abandon possession of the area in the fifth century. The region became a part of the Frankish Empire. After the death of Louis the Pious in 840, the Carolingians adhered to the Germanic custom of partible inheritance, and the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the empire into three. Louis's eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor of the Romans and ruler of Middle Francia. His three sons in turn divided this kingdom between them into Lotharingia, Burgundy and the Kingdom of Italy (which covered the northern part of the Italian peninsula). The core area of SaarLorLux lies within the borders of Lotharingia. The struggle to gain control over Lotharingia was the cause of centuries of struggle and war between the two other Franconian kingdoms (West and East Francia), which over time evolved into the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire (the predecessor of subsequent German states), with the Holy Roman Empire ultimately gaining control until the 18th century. From 1384, the then Duchy of Luxembourg and part of Wallonia formed part of what was known as the Burgundian Netherlands, which was inherited by the house of Habsburg in 1482, becoming the Habsburg Netherlands. Although still subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, the Habsburg Netherlands were inherited by Habsburg Spain in 1556 and ruled in a personal union until 1714; thereafter it was ruled by the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy, the rulers of which were also the Holy Roman Emperors. The remainder of Wallonia formed part of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, while much of what would become Rhineland-Palatinate was part of the Palatinate, which came under Bavarian control in 1777. Upper Lotharingia evolved into the Duchy of Lorraine while several smaller states came and went over the centuries. In 1766 the Duchy of Lorraine and most of the surrounding smaller states were annexed by France, leaving the County of Salm and a few exclaves of other HRE states as the only territory within the modern region of Lorraine under Imperial rule. In 1793 Salm was annexed, followed in 1794 by the Southern Netherlands (including Luxembourg and Wallonia). Over the course of the Napoleonic Wars, the remainder of the region west of the Rhine (plus Katzenelnbogen, which lies to the east of the Rhine) was annexed to the newly formed French Empire; the rest of modern Rhineland-Palatinate east of the Rhine became part of the Duchy of Nassau (formed from the merger of Nassau-Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg lands), which was a member of Napoleon's puppet Confederation of the Rhine. The wars also saw an end to the Holy Roman Empire. Following Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna granted most of the Southern Netherlands, including Wallonia, to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Luxembourg was placed in a personal union under the Dutch crown but also made subject to the Holy Roman Empire's successor: the German Confederation. Most of what would become the Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate was split between the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia (also within the German Confederation); the eastern portion of Luxembourg was also ceded to Prussia. The only other states to remain in the region were part of the Grand Duchy of Hesse (Rhenish Hesse), Hesse-Homburg (which was incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1866), the Principality of Lichtenberg (which was sold to Prussia in 1834), the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and the Duchy of Nassau (which was annexed by Prussia in 1866). The Lorraine region remained in French hands. In 1830, as a result of the Belgian Revolution, the Kingdom of Belgium declared independence from the Netherlands and also de facto annexed the French-speaking portion of Luxembourg (around of its area at that time). This was later recognised in the Treaty of London (1839). As a result of these events, the inhabitants of the region were on different sides in the Franco Prussian War of 1870–71, which ultimately led to the founding of the German Empire. The new Empire also annexed of part of Lorraine, as well as neighbouring Alsace, as the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Following World War I, this territory was ceded back to France in the Treaty of Versailles, while the Saargebiet, an area roughly co-extensive with the modern Saarland, was placed under joint British and French control until 1935. Prior to World War II the region was divided by the fortifications of the Maginot line and the Westwall. After World War II, the Saar Protectorate was established under French control until 1957, when it was reunited with (West) Germany, forming the modern state. A small area of Germany adjoining Rhineland-Palatinate was also ceded to Belgium, which was incorporated into Wallonia as the German-speaking community of Belgium. Today, the greater region is situated along both sides of the border between speakers of the German and French languages. 11,182,975 people live in an area of about 65,400 km2. Situated in the center of the European Union, it contains highly populated urban sections along the rivers. These areas include industries, especially mining and steelworking. Rural areas are dominated by agriculture. Luxembourg Luxembourg is a sovereign nation with full autonomy. Each of the four départements of the French region of Lorraine is twice the size of the whole nation of Luxembourg. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has a population of 476,187 people in an area of 2586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). Luxembourg is a parliamentary representative democracy with a constitutional monarchy, ruled by a Grand Duke. It is the world's only sovereign Grand Duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the highest Gross Domestic Product per capita in the world. The city of Luxembourg, the capital and largest city, is the seat of several institutions and agencies of the European Union. Luxembourg lies on the cultural divide between Romantic Europe and Germanic Europe, borrowing customs from each of the distinct traditions. Luxembourg is a trilingual country; French, German, and Luxembourgish are official languages. Although a secular state, Luxembourg is predominantly Roman Catholic. Until 1867, the city of Luxembourg, the Gibraltar of the north, was a federal fortress of the German confederation. In the 20th century, Luxembourg was twice occupied by German armies. In the middle of the 20th century, the economy of Luxembourg was dominated by the iron and steel industries. Then, a structural change took place, which transformed the country to an international financial center with more than 200 banks and over 800 financial institutions and insurance companies, generating more than 20% of the GNP of Luxembourg. Today about 66% of workers are employed in the service sector, and less than 2% work in the steel industry. Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate The German states of Saarland and Rhineland-Palatinate are part of the federal system of Germany. They hold far-ranging authorities, although some decisions concerning international treaties are assigned to the federal government. Saarland Saarland is one of the 16 states of Germany. The capital is Saarbrücken. It has an area of 2570 km2 and 1.051 million inhabitants. In both area and population it is the smallest of the German Flächenländer ("area states"), i.e., those that are not City States (Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg). It is named after the Saar River, which is a tributary of the Moselle River (a Rhine tributary) which runs through the state from the south to the northwest. One third of the land area of the Saarland is covered by forest, one of highest percentages in Germany. The state is generally hilly; the highest mountain is the Dollberg with a height of . Most inhabitants live in a city agglomeration on the French border that includes the capital of Saarbrücken. In 1919, Saarland was created from the communes where the steelworks and coal mines were located and the associated workers lived . From 1920 to 1935 and from 1947 to 1956, Saarland was economically affiliated with France. In 1957, 65,000 persons were employed in 18 coal mines, by 2006 only 6,300 in one mine remained. A comparable process happened with the steelworks. Rhineland-Palatinate Rhineland-Palatinate is one of the 16 Bundesländer (federal states) of Germany. It has an area of 19,846 km2 and about 4.048 million inhabitants. The capital is Mainz. The federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate was established on 30 August 1946. The main axis of the state is the Rhine river that forms the border with Baden-Württemberg and Hesse in the southeast before running across the northern part of Rhineland-Palatinate. The Rhine Valley is bounded by mountain chains and forms a landscape containing some of the most historically significant places in Germany. The Eifel and Hunsrück mountain chains are found on the west bank of the Rhine in northern Rhineland-Palatinate, while the Westerwald and Taunus mountains are found on the east bank. The hilly land in the southernmost region of the state is called the Palatinate forest (Pfälzerwald). These mountain chains are separated from each other by tributaries of the Rhine: the Moselle (Mosel), the Lahn and the Nahe. Economically prosperous zones exist along the eastern borders, while in the western part of the state, there are structurally backward, rural regions. Lorraine Until 2016, Lorraine was one of the 26 régions of France. Its two main cities are Metz (administrative capital) and Nancy. The region's name is derived from the medieval Lotharingia. Lorraine consists of four départements, Moselle, Meurthe et Moselle, Meuse and Vosges. Each of them is as big as Luxembourg and the Saarland together. Two of these départements, Vosges in the south and Meuse in the west, only have small interests in the SaarLorLux region, because they are far away from the shared border. Together, they have a population of about 2.338 million people on 23,547 km2. Lorraine is part of the centralised administrative system of France. Therefore, many of the decisions necessary for cooperation in the SaarLorLux region have to be cleared through the central government in Paris. The current région of Lorraine is larger than the historical duchy of Lorraine which gradually came under French sovereignty between 1737 and 1766. The modern région includes provinces and areas that were historically separate from the duchy of Lorraine proper. These are: Barrois Three Bishoprics several small principalities which were still part of the Holy Roman Empire at the time of the French Revolution. Lorraine borders the French regions of Alsace, Champagne-Ardenne and Franche-Comté. The location of Lorraine led to it being seen as a strategic asset. As the crossroads of four nations, it had a very important role in European affairs. Lorraine has many rivers running through it, which include the Rhine, Moselle, Meurthe, and Meuse. From 1871 to 1918 and during World War II, the Moselle department, then known as Lothringen (German for Lorraine), was part of Germany. During the last 40 years, most jobs in the formerly dominant industries of steelworking, coal mining and textiles were lost. Wallonia Wallonia with its five provinces and two communities has far reaching competencies in relation to economics, infrastructure, regional planning and foreign trade. Wallonia occupies the southern part of Belgium. It has an area of 16 844 km2 (55.18% of Belgium) with 3.436 million inhabitants and comprises the following provinces: Hainaut Liège Luxembourg Namur Walloon Brabant French is the official language in most municipalities. German (with facilities for speakers of French) is the official language in nine eastern municipalities which belonged to Germany until 1918 and now form the German-speaking Community of Belgium. Several French-speaking municipalities have facilities in Dutch or German (or both). In a survey conducted by the Universite Catholique de Louvain in Louvain-La-Neuve and published in June 2006, only 19% of Walloons stated that they were able to speak Dutch. In contrast, 59% of respondents from the Flemish Community claimed to speak French. During the seventies the number of jobs in coal mines and steelworks was reduced from 135,000 to 35,000 today. Therefore, the region partially depends upon federal subsidies, including from Flanders, Belgium's most inhabited region. Steelwork is today still important in the region. Development of cooperation The beginnings of SaarLorLux Founding members of the SaarLorLux region are the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the German federated state Saarland and the French region of Lorraine. This classic Saar Lor Lux region spreads over an area of 36,700 km2 with about 4.7 million inhabitants. The term Saar-Lor-Lux was coined in 1969 by Dr. Hubertus Rolshoven, founding president or the IRI ("Institut Régional Intracommunautaire", now " Institute of the Greater Region") and president of Saarberg, the former organisation of coal mines in the Saarland. The term recalls the close historical and economic ties among the coal mines and steelworks of Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg, creating a unified economic region. Facing the same severe economic problems of a crisis in the steel and coal industries, the partners began informal talks, discussing how to solve the shared problems and how to improve the region. In the 1970s, these talks began to be more formalised, when official governmental commissions, first between France and Germany only, then including Luxembourg, began their work. The formal founding act of SaarLorLux was an agreement between the governments of the French Republic (République française), the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland) and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Grand-Duché de Luxembourg) concerning collaboration in the border regions, made on 16 October 1980. This agreement is the legal base of a boundary-crossing cooperation of administrations and institutions to promote the economic, cultural, touristic and social development of the region. Enlargement of the membership The treaties and agreements of SaarLorLux Step by step, the cooperation originally exclusive to Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg was developed to include the Greater Region of Saarland, Lorraine, Luxembourg, Wallonia and the French-speaking Belgians, the German-speaking Belgians and the German state of Rhineland Palatinate. There was no formal process of enlargement that included new regions in all aspects of cooperation in SaarLorLux. The new members did not enter every instrument of collaboration; they only joined single treaties or aspects of cooperation. Therefore, there is not one all embracing structure any more. Now, there are different bilateral and multilateral treaties among different members, creating different grades of cooperation without clear separation from each other. Terminology There is no standardised definition of SaarLorLux. The term SaarLorLux refers to several different geographical structures: The original term only includes the founding members which were the three regions of Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg, the so-called triangle of coal and steel industries. The term also refers to the cooperation of Saarland, Lorraine and Luxembourg with the regions of Walloon and Rhineland Palatinate or parts of these two additional regions. One of these combinations, also called SaarLorLux, is Saarland-Lorraine-Luxembourg-Trier-Westpfalz. Trier and Westpfalz are the western parts of Rhineland-Palatinate. For example, there is a SaarLorLux-ticket, which can be used on all trains of this greater region. Another combination is Saarland, Lothringen, Luxembourg, Walloon Region, and Rhineland Palatinate or Saarland, Lothringen, Luxembourg, the French community of Belgium, and the German-speaking community of Belgium. The official name of government organisations usually uses the names of all participants. The summit of the SaarLorLux region has the official name "Summit of the greater region Saarland, Lothringen, Luxembourg, Walloon Region, French community of Belgium, German speaking community of Belgium". Almost all the meanings of SaarLorLux include the three original members and exclude all other regions except the five members or parts of them. There are many alternative names: SaarLorLux +, Saar-Lor-Lux-Westpfalz-Trier, Saar-Lor-Lux Wallonie Rheinland Pfalz, and Greater Region. The government of Luxembourg wishes to use the term greater region to represent Saarland, Lothringen, Luxembourg, Walloon Region, the French community of Belgium, and the German-speaking community of Belgium, but within and outside the European Union, several other greater regions are beginning to develop. For example, in the greater region of Switzerland, Alsace Baden-Wuerttemberg the use of the term greater region refers to this region. There is no realistic chance of an international agreement requiring the use of the term greater region to be restricted to SaarLorLux. Organization of SaarLorLux SaarLorLux sees a large amount of governmental, non-governmental and mixed cooperation. The SaarLorLux cooperation is not just between five partners. In fact, the cooperation consists of a multitude of single cooperations, treaties and organisations. The single cooperations often do not consist of the same members, because some of the regions do not participate in every cooperation or are represented by different political municipalities. These forms of cooperation have led to the creation of a variety of different organisations. Governmental cooperations Summit Conferences Based on a 1994 decision, there are regular summit conferences. The participants are: Prime Minister of Luxembourg (le premier ministre du Grand Duché de Luxembourg) Minister-President of the Saarland (der Ministerpräsident des Saarlandes) Minister-President of Rhineland-Palatinate (der Ministerpräsident von Rheinland-Pfalz) Minister-President of the Walloon Region (le Ministre-Président de la Région Wallonne) Minister-President of the French Community of Belgium (le Ministre-Président de la Communauté française de Belgique) Minister-President of the German-speaking Community of Belgium (der Ministerpräsident der deutschsprachigen Gemeinschaft Belgiens) Préfet of Lorraine (le préfet de la région Lorraine) President of the regional council of Lorraine (le président du conseil régional de Lorraine) President of the general council of the département Moselle (le président du conseil general du département de la Moselle) President of the general council of the département Meurthe et Moselle (le président du conseil general du département de Meurthe-et-Moselle) This summit conference is the central political organ of the interregional cooperation of the enlarged SaarLorLux region. Its task is the predefinition and declaration of general political decisions. The conference takes care of problems and questions concerning the cooperation and gives suggestions on solutions and developments. There is a group of delegates of the member states who form a standing committee, able to come to decisions in times between the conferences, to prepare conferences, to translate the general ideas of the conferences into practical work and to control the task groups appointed by the conference. The Regional Commission The Regional Commission is the forum for a variety of topics. The members are: Lorraine Luxembourg Saarland (the western parts of) Rhineland-Palatinate Walloon Region (formerly as an observer until 2005) Each of the five members sends a delegation, led by a head of delegation and supported by a delegation secretary. Within the French delegation there is a high representation of the central state, because many of the subjects of the commission are topics within the responsibility of the central state. The Regional Commission meets once a year in a formal session with prepared documents and resolutions. The sessions are presided by a chairman from one of the member states. Every year a different state provides the chairman. Each delegation consists of five or ten members. In addition to the formal session the heads of delegation have informal meetings, prepared by the delegation secretaries. The Regional Commission does not have employees or funds of its own. Necessary expenses are directly paid by the members. The delegation providing the chairman also provides the necessary workforce. There are working parties, which form the operational part of the Regional Commission, reporting on a regular basis to the Regional Commission. Their topics are economic affairs; road links, transport and communications; environment; social affairs; culture; higher education; regional planning; tourism; security and prevention; education; and regional planning. The regional commission formed a working group of the statistics agencies and a working group of the land surveying office. Interregional Parliamentary Council The presidents of the Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies, the Saar Landtag, the Rhineland-Palatinate Landtag, the Lorraine Regional Council the Provincial Council of the (Belgian) Province of Luxembourg (later replaced by the Walloon Regional Council) formed the interregional parliamentary council. This council promotes the economic, social and cultural role of the Saar-Lor-Lux Greater Region and tries to develop a perspective for crossborder cooperation. Participants are the five presidents and six appointed members of each the parliaments and assemblies within SaarLorLux. They meet once a year. Five standing committees report to the council: the committee on economic affairs the committee on social affairs the committee on transport and communications the committee on the environment and agriculture the committee on education, training, research and culture Administrative cooperation The University Charter In October 1984 seven establishments in Saar-Lor-Lux signed a university cooperation agreement (the Charter) at Pont-à-Mousson. This was the first step towards crossborder cooperation in research and education. Members of the Charter are: Belgium/Walloon Region (Province of Luxembourg): Luxembourg University Foundation (Arlon) Germany (Western Palatinate and Saarland): Rhineland-Palatinate University Institute: ( Idar-Oberstein, Kaiserslautern and Trier), Saar University (Saarbrücken and Homburg), College of Technology and Economics (Saarbrücken) France (Lorraine region): Metz University, Metz National School of Engineering (ENIM), Nancy University I and II, Lorraine Polytechnic Institute (Nancy (INPL) Luxembourg : University center of Luxembourg These universities encourage relations between the parties to the Charter, promote teacher, scientist and student exchanges, develop inter-regional study programmes leading to common degrees, and establish common research structures. They foster cooperation on law, French and German literature, geography, environmental science, computer science, materials science, history, culture and sports. European cultural capital 2007 Luxemburg and the SaarLorLux region were the European cultural capital 2007. The year saw a combined cultural program, sharing the motto "Crossing borders together". The programme was intended to reflect the creativity, the energy and the common future of this European region. The House of the Greater Region In November 1999 the House of the Greater Region (Haus der Großregion – Maison de la Grande Région) was opened in Luxembourg. It is a place of communication and contact for the citizens of the region, especially all the participants and organisations of the greater region. The house is a for public demonstration of the existence of the greater region and therefore provides representation and identification within the interregional cooperation of the greater region. The house is a place to work on projects of the summit of the greater region and the regional commission. There is a multilingual hotline connected to the house to give information to interested citizens and to answer questions. The hotline can be used free of charge from anywhere in the greater region. Private cooperations There are many more forms of cooperation between organisations and persons of the member regions, ranging from a cooperation of the Christian parties or the SaarLorLux Chambers of Industry and Commerce, and the SaarLorLux orchestra, to the SaarLorLux rallye and the SaarLorLux Biker community. Most of these forms of private cooperation are working on a binational or trinational level, including only parts of the region or including groups or organisations outside the region. The SaarLorLux region and the European Union All members of SaarLorLux are also members of the European Community. The Greater Region is the central area of this community. Luxembourg, one of the three towns which house central institutions of the European Community (the court of justice of the European Communities) is situated in the center of the Greater Region while the other two (Brussels and Strasbourg) are situated just some miles across the borders, close to SaarLorLux. In terms of the European Union SaarLorLux is defined as a European Border Region (short form: Euroregion or Euregio), which means a single European transboundary region that is an "amalgamation of regional and local authorities from both sides of the national border, sometimes with a parliamentary assembly" with "cross-border organisations with a permanent secretariat and experts and administrative staff", basing on national foundations or international treaties, and a Greater Region (also macroregion), a territory that consists of multiple regions or subareas within different states of the European Union. Council of European Municipalities and Regions Because of its character as a recognised European Border Region, SaarLorLux is member of the council of regions, an assembly of representation meant to give local and regional authorities the opportunity to express their needs, problems and wishes to the European union. Interreg Interreg is a programme of the European Union designed to stimulate cooperation between member states on different levels, especially to diminish the influence of national borders to attain equal economic, social and cultural development of the whole European Union. SaarLorLux is beneficiary of several Interreg projects. The region currently receives funding for projects of Interreg III A, while applications are filed for Interreg IV A projects, which run until 2013. Problems of cooperation The members have different forms of organisation and structure and varying levels of decision making power. The partners face different problems, although they all share problems resulting from the changing economic structure of the region. In all parts of SaarLorLux, coal mines and steelworks are closed or will be closed. While facing the same problem, member states did not create a shared solution, but reacted independently. While Luxembourg was very successful in recreating its economy by changing the structure to secondary industries, especially the banking sector, and Lorraine has tried to take a similar line, the German states and Wallonia tried to preserve their old industries, but failed. This lack of cooperation is not based on a lack of will. In some instances, there is no political power to make the decision to co-operate. The only partner with complete power is Luxembourg, represented by its prime minister. All other members that share the summit table have only limited power. For decisions, they have to consult their central or federal governments in Brussels, Paris and Berlin. Many of the decisions of the Summit are nothing but a declaration of the goodwill of the participants. Administrative structures vary among the different countries represented in SaarLorLux. French villages may only have a hundred inhabitants and a constant need to clear decisions with a higher level of government. German community associations of several districts with thousands of inhabitants have constitutional rights of self-government. The members of SaarLorLux face the same problems. The economy of all members was founded on coal mining and steelworks. Now, they are all trying to perform the same structural change. Because the economic structures resemble each other so closely, there is little possibility for differentiation of fields of activity to complement one another. With the exception of Luxembourg, the citizens of SaarLorLux do not speak the other languages of the region. The main foreign language spoken is English. About 120,000 people cross the borders to work in another country. 90,000 of these work in Luxembourg. This is the result of an enormous difference in living standards. These differences in wealth complicate the search for solutions to shared problems. Many citizens of the regions are not aware of SaarLorLux. For a citizen of the town of Tournai, in the west of Wallonia, the nearest neighbouring region of SaarLorLux is about two hundred kilometres away. For him, the nearest European neighbour is the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais, five kilometres away.The same situation exists for the region of Mainz in the east of Rhineland Palatinate, which is part of the Rhein Main area and the southern départements of Lorraine. The region seems to be too big to form a common identity for all. The future of the Greater Region of SaarLorLux Political plans The current political plans for the future of SaarLorLux are displayed in Zukunftsbild 2020 (Future Picture 2020), a concept of development showing the visions and ambitions of the greater region of SaarLorLux. It was developed by the commission, led by Jacques Santer, the former president of the European Commission and former prime minister of Luxembourg. A central intention is the bilingualism of the region. While for about one hundred years, especially in France, the extinction of everything but the national language was the intention of the state, now the value of bilingualism is understood. French and German are intended to be common languages on equal footing within the whole region, including common media for the interregional audience. This co-ordinates with the plan to create cross border schools, giving students the opportunity to gain access to jobs within the European Community and international enterprises. There are intentions for interlinked higher education, research, and innovation, with statements of marks, examinations and diplomas bearing the seal of SaarLorLux. The Charter of Academic Cooperation is an attempt to combine the higher education establishments of the Region. A university of the region shall be founded. The politicians also hope to form a single employment market within the common economic area resulting in a multinational workforce and a transfer of knowledge. Part of the plan calls for the provision of uniform social welfare standards over the whole territory with new kinds of social networks encompassing all members of society. A cross-border Academy for the Social Professions is visualised, providing the social institutions with first class staff. A Centre for Social Information, still to be created, shall inform the public about the provisions and social institutions in the Greater Region. Great hopes are taken from the good geostrategic position of the region at the center of European infrastructure, combined with the area's great potential for absorbing increasing trans-European traffic, making the region a traffic hub for all modes of transport. The new high-speed east–west railway link, which was opened in 2007, is seen as a first step. Public transport shall be linked to cross-border transport for travellers. In 2020 the region shall be an area with a homogeneous population possessing solid infrastructure and many interregional networks and urban agglomerations. Therefore, national spatial planning policies have to be abandoned to enable networks of cross border services. An Interregional Council (CI) is planned as a central political organ of the Greater Region of SaarLorLux. Another task of the CI is the coordination of central missions at the interregional level. Permanent staff of the Council shall be a secretariat, assisted by five agencies, to develop and realise all central projects. The eight summit delegates agreed that the areas of multilingualism and culture, science and research, tourist marketing, the economy and employment, and transport should be studied. The delegates agreed on the construction of a timetable to realise the Zukunftsbild 2020 platform. Zukunftsbild 2020 is already included in interregional programmes of development. It is part of Interreg III-A-Programme eBIRD. It is an object of reference within the research project "Blueprints for regional foresight" of the Research Directorate General of the European Commission. Actual progress Although politics create promising programs, actual progress is limited. The main advance so far has been the creation of bilingual schools. Byproducts of European unity The most important developments for the people of SaarLorLux have been the launch of the Euro and the signing of the Schengen Agreement. The launch of the Euro gave the citizens of the border region the possibility to trade across the border without the need for advanced arithmetic operations to calculate the price, when one German mark was about three French francs and about twenty Luxembourgian francs or Belgian francs. The Euro negates the need for SaarLorLux to have currency of its own. The Schengen agreement brought the removal of border posts and border checks. Today, for citizens of the European Union the neighbouring village across the border can be reached the same way as a village in one's own country. Although this agreement was signed on a river boat on the river Moselle near Schengen, at the border triangle of Lorraine, Luxembourg and Saarland, it was not created especially for the use of the region, but the whole of the founding members: the Benelux Economic Union, the Federal Republic of Germany, the French Republic, and now 28 European States. Private initiatives The other possibility for advancement is on an informal level. People are beginning to understand their position along the border as an opportunity. The French go shopping in Saarland because the prices are lower. The Germans cherish French shops for the freshness of the food and the wider range of products. Near the border crossings of Luxembourg, the streets are lined with gas stations. People are relocating to villages on the other side of the border, where houses are cheaper or taxes lower, although there still is not much willingness to become part of the other society. Mayors of villages along the border of southern Saarland and Lorraine report serious problems with Germans who are living there but wish their children to be exempted from French compulsory education, because they do not speak French and want their children to be educated by a German school on the other side of the border. German villages face the same problem with students from Luxembourg. The future of SaarLorLux will be the sum of many such single projects and cooperations, made by single persons, groups and villages, in addition to the political paths. Demography On 1 January 2008, the Greater Region of Luxembourg had 11,359,815 inhabitants distributed very unevenly among its five subregions. More than half of the population lived in Rhineland-Palatinate and Wallonia. Only 4.26% of the total population lived in Luxembourg, the smallest subregion. A very slight decrease of the total population of the Greater Region is forecast for 2030. However, there are important differences in the projected evolution of the populations of the various subregions. For example, Luxembourg will experience an increase of 0.25%, while a decrease of 0.11% is predicted for the German state of Saarland. Economy The Greater Region of Luxembourg is characterized by a very high number of daily commuters: in 2007–08 there were 164,000 altogether, of whom 132,000 worked in Luxembourg. Common economic problems arising from drastic changes in the industrial and coal mining areas of the four countries have led to the creation of a community of interest and to the development of common projects like the European Development Pole in the cross-border area of Longwy in France, Rodange in Luxembourg and Athus in Belgium. The European center situated between the rivers Saar, Moselle and Meuse presents the highest number and density of cross-border commuters in the European Union. More than half of them come from Lorraine and almost three-quarters (73.4%) work in Luxembourg. Luxembourg and the Saarland both have a net in-flow of cross-border commuters. However, that of Luxembourg is constantly high, while that of the Saarland is continuously diminishing. The other subregions have more out-commuters than in-commuters. Lorraine provides the highest number of workers for the neighbouring regions (89,478 as of 2009). Culture In 2007 Luxembourg and the Greater Region, together with city of Sibiu, Romania, were designated by the European Union for a period of one year to be the European Capital of Culture, during which they were given a chance to showcase their cultural life and cultural development. For their focal themes, the subregions selected: Luxemburg: Migration; Rhineland-Palatinate: Important European personalities; Saarland: Industry as cultural heritage; Lorraine: Culture and memorization; Wallonia: Modern forms of expression. The Espace culturel Grande Région (Cultural Space Greater Region) association was created in 2007 while the Greater Region was a European Capital of Culture. This association is a project cofinanced by the European Regional Development Funds, within the framework of the INTERREG IV A program Grande Région. Its goals are the pursuit and conservation of cross-border cultural cooperation. The main activities of the association are to bring cultural authorities of the Greater Region together and to define a common work program. This work program of the Espace culturel Grande Région has the following key themes: to reflect on the strategies of cultural policy in the Greater Region; to develop and conduct cross-border cultural projects; to develop professional skills networks; to encourage mobility in the Greater Region; to build bridges linking culture to education and other fields. The partners of the Espace culturel Grande Région are: In Lorraine: Directorate General of the departments Moselle, Meuse and Meurthe-et-Moselle; Regional Directorate of Cultural Affairs of Lorraine; Region Lorraine; In Luxembourg: Ministry of Culture of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg; City of Luxembourg; in Rhineland-Palatinate: Ministry of Education, Science, Youth and Culture of Rhineland-Palatinate; City of Trier; In Saarland Ministry of Culture of the Saarland; In Wallonia Ministry of the French Community of Belgium; Ministry of the German Speaking Community of Belgium. In the Greater Region more than 1,200 museums and other institutions present and conserve the heritage of this core European region. References External links https://web.archive.org/web/20070929033029/http://www.eurice.info/typo3sites/fileadmin/Forschen-ohne-Grenzen/documents/downloads/2020_Vision_for_the_Future_-_Internet-version.pdf https://web.archive.org/web/20071212160224/http://www.saarlorlux.org/cgi-bin/cms. The business portal of SaarLorLux http://www.business-on.de/saarlorlux/ The business news portal of SaarLorLux (in German) https://web.archive.org/web/20070626161038/http://www.luxembourg2007.org/GB/index.php Website of the European cultural capital 2007 Geography of the European Union Euroregions Saarland Lorraine Geography of Rhineland-Palatinate Geography of Luxembourg Geography of Wallonia

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Beginning of the End is a 1957 American science fiction film produced and directed by Bert I. Gordon. It stars Peter Graves, Peggie Castle, and Morris Ankrum. An agricultural scientist, played by Graves, successfully grows gigantic vegetables using radiation. Unfortunately, the vegetables are eaten by locusts (the swarming phase of short-horned grasshoppers), which quickly grow to a gigantic size and attack the nearby city of Chicago. Beginning of the End is generally known for its "atrocious" special effects, "and yet," writes reviewer Bill Warren, "there is something almost compellingly watchable about this goofy little movie". Plot The film opens with newspaper photojournalist Audrey Aimes accidentally stumbling upon a small town (Ludlow, Illinois) which has been inexplicably destroyed. All 150 residents are missing, and the evidence indicates they are dead. Incredibly, the local fields are also barren, as if a swarm of locusts had eaten all the crops. Aimes suspects that the military is covering something up, and travels to a nearby United States Department of Agriculture experimental farm to learn what creature might have caused the agricultural destruction. She meets Dr. Ed Wainwright, who is experimenting with radiation as a means of growing gigantic fruits and vegetables to end world hunger. Wainwright reports that there have been a number of mysterious incidents nearby, and that locusts have eaten all the radioactive wheat stored in a nearby grain silo. Gigantic mutant locusts rampage over the countryside. Wainwright and Aimes begin to track down the source of the mysterious occurrences, and quickly discover that the locusts which ate the grain have grown to the size of a city bus. The monsters have eaten all the crops in the area, and now have turned to human beings as a source of sustenance. It is also clear that they are headed for Chicago. Wainwright and Aimes meet with General Hanson, Colonel Sturgeon, and Captain Barton to try to come up with a solution. Machine gun and artillery fire seem ineffective against the creatures, and there are far too many to effectively deal with all at once. The United States Army and Illinois National Guard are called upon to help protect the city. But the monsters quickly invade Chicago, and begin to feast on human flesh, as well as several buildings. General Hanson concludes that the only way to destroy the beasts en masse is to use a nuclear weapon and destroy Chicago. However, Wainwright realizes that the locusts are warm-weather creatures. He concludes that he might be able to lure the locusts into Lake Michigan using a decoy locust mating call, generated electronically with test-tone oscillators. There, the cold water will incapacitate them, and they will drown. The plan works at the last possible moment. The monstrous locusts drown, but Wainwright and Aimes wonder if other insects or animals might have eaten other radioactive crops. Cast Peter Graves as Dr. Ed Wainwright Peggie Castle as Audrey Aimes Morris Ankrum as Gen. John Hanson Than Wyenn as Frank Johnson Tom Browne Henry as Colonel Sturgeon Richard Benedict as Corporal Mathias James Seay as Captain James Barton John Close as Maj. Everett Don Harvey as Guard at lab Larry Blake as Patrolman Eilene Janssen as Teenager necking in car Hylton Socher as Frank Frank Wilcox as Gen. John T. Short Douglas Evans as Norman Taggart Lyle Latell as Police Lt. MacKenzie Production Beginning of the End was financed by American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres (AB-PT). The company had been formed in February 1953 when the American Broadcasting Company and United Paramount Theatres merged.<ref>Gould, A.B.C., United Paramount Merge in $25,000,000 Deal," New York Times, May 24, 1951; Loftus, "Paramount, A.B.C. Cleared to Merge," New York Times, February 10, 1953.</ref> In September 1956, AB-PT (sometimes also called "Am-Par") announced the formation of a movie studio, and revealed a slate of six films a year in January 1957. The studio's focus was on low-budget features which it could place in its theatres in the Northeast and South. AB-PT hoped to expand to a yearly slate of 20 pictures, and signed a distribution deal with Republic Pictures to get them into theatres.Beginning of the End went into production in 1956, the first of the "boom years" for science fiction films in the United States. Its production was a direct outcome of the success of Them!AB-PT announced on November 29, 1956, that it had approved production of its first film, Beginning of the End and announced on December 2, 1956, that production would begin immediately. The company said it had hired 34-year-old Bert I. Gordon to direct and produce.Hardy and Gifford, The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies, 1986, p. 166.Lucian and Coville, Smokin' Rockets: The Romance of Technology in American Film, Radio, and Television, 1945–1962, 2002, p. 214. Gordon had gotten his start as a supervising producer for televised commercials and network TV shows, had produced his first feature film (Serpent Island) in 1954, and directed his first feature film (King Dinosaur) in 1955.Johnson, Cheap Tricks and Class Acts: Special Effects, Makeup and Stunts From the Films of the Fantastic Fifties, 1996, p. 89. The story was already set, according to press reports, with Variety claiming that Bert I. Gordon had already completed the script."Graves, Peg Castle in Am-Par's 'Beginning'," Variety, December 3, 1956. Press sources noted that the studio was clearly attempting to cash-in on the science fiction movie craze. However, the final screenplay is credited to Fred Freiberger (a veteran writer of B movies) and Lester Gorn. The screen story bears a striking resemblance to the 1904 H. G. Wells novel The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth (Gordon would adapt this novel twice, once for Embassy Pictures in 1965's Village of the Giants and again for American International Pictures in 1976's The Food of the Gods). Casting was complete within two weeks of the start of production. In late November, AB-PT said actress Mala Powers was being considered for the female lead. But on December 2, the studio revealed that Peter Graves and Peggie Castle had been cast as the leads. Three days later, AB-PT announced that Don C. Harvey, Morris Ankrum, Pierre Watkin, Ralph Sanford, and Richard Benedict had also been cast. The studio also said that Pat Dean, its "sexboat" discovery (and a former dancer at the El Rancho Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada) would also appear in the picture. Larry Blake, Duane Cress, James Douglas, Eileen Jannsen, John Kranston, Ann Loos, and Jeanne Wood were added to the cast a few days later. Ankrum, Henry, and Seay were cast because they usually played military men in B movies, roles they portrayed in Beginning of the End as well. John A. Marta, a veteran cinematographer, and Aaron Stell, a long-time film editor, also worked on the film. Marta had shot close to 150 B movies for Republic Pictures by this time, which is probably why he was hired (given AB-PT's relationship with that studio and Marta's fast-and-quick shooting style). Albert Glasser composed the musical score. Glasser worked in the same office building where Gordon had his offices, and Gordon admired his score for the 1956 war film Huk! (a B movie from Pan Pacific Productions). Gordon had already used Glasser to score his 1957 monster movie The Cyclops. Glasser wrote the musical score for Beginning of the End as well as five more of Gordon's films. Glasser was paid $4,000 for his work on The Cyclops, which may indicate how much he was paid for the musical score for Beginning of the End. The musical soundtrack included the song "Natural, Natural Baby." The art director was Walter Keller. It is not clear what the budget for the picture was, although descriptions often use the term "low budget" or "ultra-low-budget." According to a statement by AB-PT President Leonard Goldenson in 1957, the average cost of the AB-PT pictures greenlit to date was $300,000. In comparison, Invaders From Mars was budgeted at $150,000, The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms cost $400,000, It Came From Outer Space cost $532,000, Them! came in at under $1 million, and 1953's The War of the Worlds cost $2 million. Filming began December 3, 1956. Shooting took place on the Republic Pictures backlot at 4024 Radford Avenue in Los Angeles, California (built by Mack Sennett and now home to CBS Studio Center).Weaver, Earth vs. the Sci-Fi Filmmakers: 20 Interviews, 2005, p. 145. Actor Peter Graves said Gordon "was okay, he was a good director." He also had praise for actress Peggie Castle, and said he felt privileged to be working with an actor of Morris Ankrum's stature. Gordon himself provided the special effects for the film. According to composer Glasser, Gordon literally worked out of his home garage. Animated grasshoppers were considered, but the idea rejected as too costly. So Gordon relied heavily on split screen, static mattes, and rear projection effects for the film. But his most important effort was one he had used in King Dinosaur: placing live creatures on still photographs, and blowing air at them to encourage the creatures to move.Warren, Keep Watching the Skies! American Science Fiction Movies of the Fifties, 1997, p. 325. Gordon purchased 200 non-hopping, non-flying live grasshoppers in Texas (which had recently seen an outbreak of a species of exceptionally large locusts) for the film.Fischer, Science Fiction Film Directors: 1895–1998, 2000, p. 242. But when he attempted to bring them into California for filming, state agricultural officials required that every single one of the animals be inspected and sexed. He later described his efforts: I had to get my grasshoppers from Waco, Texas. They had the only species large enough to carry focus. I could only import males because they didn't want the things to start breeding. They even had someone from the agricultural department or some place like that come out to take a head count, or wing count. The grasshoppers turned cannibalistic. Gordon kept the grasshoppers in a box for only a few days, but during that time the grasshoppers devoured one another and only 12 were left when Gordon finally got around to shooting them. Gordon also considered building miniatures for the grasshoppers to climb on, but this, too, was deemed too expensive. Instead, Gordon used still photographs of the Wrigley Building and other noted Chicago landmarks and simply filmed the grasshoppers moving about on top of the photograph. When the monsters are supposed to be wounded or killed by gunfire, Gordon merely tipped the photograph and the grasshoppers slid down it. According to one film historian, "the effect looks (almost) real" until one of the grasshoppers steps off the "building" into what is supposed to be thin air. ReleaseBeginning of the End premiered in Chicago on June 16, 1957."City Locale for Science Fiction Film," Chicago Daily Tribune, June 16, 1957. Stars Peter Graves and Peggie Castle were both on hand for the premiere.Tinee, "Full Summer of Film Fare on Its Way," Chicago Daily Tribune, June 23, 1957. The film opened widely in 244 theaters in the South and Midwest on June 20.Tinee, "'Beginning of the End' Is Both Wild and Weird," Chicago Tribune, June 20, 1957. It played as part of a double feature with The Unearthly (a film based loosely on 1932's Island of Lost Souls and 1956's The Black Sleep), another AB-PT production. As planned, it was distributed by Republic Pictures. There is some discrepancy as to how long the film ran. Some sources cite 73 minutes,Maltin, Leonard Maltin's 2009 Movie Guide, 2008, p. 105. some 74 minutes, and some 76 minutes.Beginning of the End proved an apt title for its parent studio. AB-PT shuttered its operations immediately after releasing the film, for reasons which are still unclear. Gordon's work for AB-PT landed him a new contract with American International Pictures (AIP). The week Beginning of the End opened, Gordon began shooting his next feature film, The Amazing Colossal Man, for AIP. ReceptionBeginning of the End was a modest hit, and profitable for AB-PT. For example, in its first week playing in San Francisco, it made $16,000—just behind the top-ranked movie of the week for the area, the reissue of Bambi (which grossed $18,500). The film's debut in Los Angeles saw its gross reach $16,500, although this was a soft movie-going market. The film made Bert I. Gordon famous for his giant monster films. Critics and film historians point out that the film is only one of many which drew heavily on most Americans' fear about atomic weapons, open-air nuclear tests, and the possibility of nuclear war.Derry, Dark Dreams: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film, 1977, p. 54. However, Beginning of the End had very little of the metaphorical creativity of films such as Godzilla or Them! A more recent assessment, however, concludes that the film taps more deeply into 1950s Americans' worries over invasive species and growing unease over pesticides (like DDT). The film received extensive negative reviews at the time of its release and by modern film historians. Variety was particularly negative. Calling the movie "derivative", the industry trade publication said, "Summarizing the plot of Beginning of the End is like rehashing the story of several dozen similar films." The publication felt that not much effort had been put into the film. "Even taken on its own terms—as a low-budget exploitation feature—Beginning of the End hardly reflects the best effort of a major theatre circuit." It called the special effects "obvious" and decried the use of stock footage. The reviewer felt the screenplay was "ludicrous" and cliché-ridden. The magazine believed Peter Graves had turned in a decent performance, but described Peggie Castle's performance as "unconvincing" and Morris Ankrum's as "artificial". The cinematography and editing were, it concluded, average. Mae Tinnee, reviewing the motion picture for the Chicago Tribune had several negative comments. "The film obviously was made on a shoestring budget, and the people in it are no more than props for the magnified insects. I doubt if it will fool anyone. But youngsters will probably think it's great stuff." The Los Angeles Times was far harsher in its assessment. Its unsigned review concluded: "The audience is cheated in the production. The conclusion is never in doubt and the process shots are so obvious that one is startled the first time a buffalo-sized grasshopper hits the screen but never again. And at no time are there more than a half-dozen of the things shown at once, although the script avers that there are thousands about and more coming." As of 2008, Beginning of the End is still "one of the most excoriated creature features." Leonard Maltin summed up his review in one word: "awful". Another recent film guide called it "Bottom-of-the-sci-fi-barrel rubbish, very boring to watch." One review pointed out that Gordon didn't even bother to hide the mountains in the background of the shots (Central Illinois is mostly flat prairie land). Some have also been upset with film's lack of horrifying images. The derivative nature of the picture has also upset some critics. Critics say the film covered almost the same ground as the far superior monster movie Them!, and it is clear that Gordon merely wanted to "cash in" on giant bug craze rather than come up with a story that was fresh and creative. There have been some positive reviews, however. One modern critic said "the story is adequately paced, the acting is engaging, and we still get a thrill seeing the Army guys empty their cartridges at the unstoppable insects." Another modern reviewer found the screenplay effective, especially the beginning: "As in Deadly Mantis, the complete disappearance of the victims is especially chilling, as is the notion of 150 men, women and children being devoured overnight while in their beds. This aspect is like something out of Lovecraft, although it is not exploited as well as it could have been." Producer-director Bert I. Gordon said he did not care whether reviews were bad; what mattered was whether people went to see the film: "The movie audience these days consists almost entirely of teenagers. Either they're naïve and go to get scared, or they're sophisticated and enjoy scoffing at the pictures. There isn't much a teenager can scoff at these days, you know." Lead actor Peter Graves also felt the film worked on a certain level. "I think they played OK. ... All of that was ludicrous, but there were a certain amount of people who 'bought' it and loved it."Beginning of the End has become somewhat infamous because of its notoriously poor production values and unrealistic plot. The movie was parodied in the 11th season of the hit animated television program The Simpsons in the episode "E-I-E-I-(Annoyed Grunt)." In that episode, Homer Simpson grows giant vegetables using radioactive materials, and automatically assumes that any animal eating the food will become monstrous. Homer even attempts to recall Beginning of the End as evidence of his claim, although he misremembers the title as Grasshopperus and the star as Chad Everett (another blond, all-American actor similar to Peter Graves). Home video releasesBeginning of the End was released on DVD in March 2003 by Image Entertainment. However, this print was considered "smeary" and not a very high quality issue. In popular culture The film was the basis of an episode of the satirical cable television show Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) during its fifth season. This episode of MST3K was released on DVD in 2001. References Notes Bibliography Cornea, Christine. Science Fiction Cinema: Between Fantasy and Reality. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2007. Dangcil, Tommy. Hollywood Studios. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia, 2007. Derry, Charles. Dark Dreams: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film. South Brunswick, N.J.: A.S. Barnes, 1977. Dixon, Wheeler W. Lost in the Fifties: Recovering Phantom Hollywood. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 2005. Erb, Cynthia Marie. Tracking King Kong: A Hollywood Icon in World Culture. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2009. Evans, Joyce A. Celluloid Mushroom Clouds: Hollywood and the Atomic Bomb. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998. Everman, Welch D. Cult Horror Films: From 'Attack of the 50 Foot Woman' to 'Zombies of Mora Tau'. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol Publishing Group, 1993. "Film Production Chart." Variety. December 14, 1956. "Film Reviews: 'Beginning of the End'." Variety. July 3, 1957. "Filming Planned by Theatre Chain." New York Times. September 22, 1956. Fischer, Dennis. Science Fiction Film Directors: 1895–1998. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Gould, Jack. A.BC., United Paramount Merge in $25,000,000 Deal." New York Times. May 24, 1951. "Graves, Peg Castle in Am-Par's 'Beginning'." Variety. December 3, 1956. Halliwell, Leslie and Walker, John. Halliwell's Film Guide. New York: HarperPerennial, 1994. Hardy, Phil and Gifford, Denis. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies. Minneapolis, Minn.: Woodbury Press, 1986. Heffernan, Kevin. Ghouls, Gimmicks, and Gold: Horror Films and the American Movie Business: 1953–1968. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2004. Johnson, John. Cheap Tricks and Class Acts: Special Effects, Makeup and Stunts From the Films of the Fantastic Fifties. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland 1996. Kalat, David and Kaisha, Tōhō Kabushiki. A Critical History and Filmography of Toho's Godzilla Series. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2007. "L.A. 1st Run Biz Droops; 189G Week." Variety. September 24, 1957. Larson, Randall D. Musique Fantastique: A Survey of Film Music in the Fantastic Cinema. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1985. Lisanti, Tom. Fantasy Femmes of Sixties Cinema: Interviews With 20 Actresses From Biker, Beach, and Elvis Movies. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2001. Loftus, Joseph A. "Paramount, A.BC. Cleared to Merge." New York Times. February 10, 1953. Lucian, Patrick and Coville, Gary. Smokin' Rockets: The Romance of Technology in American Film, Radio, and Television, 1945–1962. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2002. Maltin, Leonard. Leonard Maltin's 2009 Movie Guide. New York: Penguin, 2008. McGee, Mark Thomas. Fast and Furious: The Story of American International Pictures. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1984. "Movieland Events." Los Angeles Times. June 17, 1957. Nagro, Anne. "Bugshow." Pest Control Technology. July 27, 2010. "New DVD's." New York Times. July 1, 2008. "Oversized Insects Go on Rampage." Los Angeles Times. September 19, 1957. Parla, Paul and Mitchell, Charles P. "Talking Eye To Eye With Duncan 'Dean' Parkin (1993 Interview)." Filmfax. October 1996 – January 1997. Payment, Simon. Introducing "It Came From Outer Space". New York: Rosen, 2007. Pomerance, Murray. American Cinema of the 1950s: Themes and Variations. New Brunswick, N.J: Berg, 2005. Pratt, Douglas. Doug Pratt's DVD: Movies, Television, Music, Art, Adult, and More! New York: Harbor Electronic Publishing, 2004. Pryor, Thomas M. "6 Films Planned by Am-Par Corp." New York Times. January 28, 1957. Rajewski, Genevieve. Introducing the Deadly Mantis. New York: Rosen Publishing, 2007. "Reissued 'Bambi' Out-Pulls New Product On Frisco 1st-Run Front." Variety. August 16, 1957. Rickman, Gregg. The Science Fiction Film Reader. New York: Limelight Editions, 2004. Ryfle, Steve. Godzilla: The Unauthorized Biography. Toronto: ECW Press, 1998. Scheuer, Philip K. "ABC-Paramount Starts Production Experiment." Los Angeles Times. December 3, 1956. Scheuer, Philip K. "John Beal Back in Film." Los Angeles Times. December 6, 1956. Schneider, Jerry L. Edgar Rice Burroughs and the Silver Screen: Vol. IV, The Locations. Raleigh, N.C.: Lulu, 2008. Schoell, William. Creature Features: Nature Turned Nasty in the Movies. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2008. Tinee, Mae. "'Beginning of the End' Is Both Wild and Weird." Chicago Tribune. June 20, 1957. Tinee, Mae. "Full Summer of Film Fare on Its Way." Chicago Daily Tribune. June 23, 1957. Tinee, Mae. "2 Local Boys Now in Films Revist City." Chicago Tribune. May 19, 1957. Tsutsui, William M. "Looking Straight at Them!: Understanding the Big Bug Movies of the 1950s." Environmental History. April 2007. Vieira, Mark A. "Don't Step on It! Killer Bugs, Babes, and Beasts in 1950s Drive-in Cinema." Bright Lights Film Journal. August 2004. Warren, Bill. Keep Watching the Skies! American Science Fiction Movies of the Fifties. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company, 1997. Weaver, Tom. Earth vs. the Sci-Fi Filmmakers: 20 Interviews. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2005. Weaver, Tom; Brunas, Michael; and Brunas, John. Science Fiction Stars and Horror Heroes: Interviews With Actors, Directors, Producers and Writers of the 1940s Through 1960s. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2006. Wright, Gene. Horrorshows: The A-to-Z of Horror in Film, TV, Radio and Theater. New York: Facts on File Publications, 1986. Young, R.G. The Encyclopedia of Fantastic Film: Ali Baba to Zombies. New York: Applause, 1997. External links 1957 films 1950s science fiction films 1950s monster movies American science fiction horror films American films American black-and-white films Films about insects Films about nuclear technology Fictional grasshoppers Films directed by Bert I. Gordon Films scored by Albert Glasser Films set in Chicago Giant monster films American natural horror films Republic Pictures films Films about size change 1950s English-language films

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The following is a brief history of the North American rail system, mainly through major changes to Class I railroads, the largest class by operating revenue. 1910 July 1: The first year of classification by operating revenue begins. July 1: The property of the independent Chicago, Cincinnati and Louisville Railroad, which entered receivership on February 14, 1908, is conveyed to the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway of Indiana, a subsidiary of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway. December 23: The property of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company is sold to the Oregon-Washington Railroad and Navigation Company, remaining a subsidiary of the Oregon Short Line Railroad (Union Pacific Railroad system). 1911 January 1: The Chicago, Terre Haute and Southeastern Railway begins operations after acquiring the properties of the Southern Indiana Railway and subsidiary Chicago Southern Railway, which entered receivership on August 19 and August 25, 1908, respectively. February: The New York Central Railroad sells half of its majority interest in the Rutland Railroad to the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. April 20: The Blacklick and Yellow Creek Railroad changes its name to Cambria and Indiana Railroad (not yet Class I). June 30: The first year of classification by operating revenue ends. There are 177 Class I railroads, including two Canadian companies (Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian Northern Railway) not included in any totals by the ICC, and a separate listing for "Canadian Pacific Lines in Maine" (leased lines of the International Railway of Maine, Aroostook River Railroad, and Houlton Branch Railroad). Grand Trunk Railway of Canada lessor Atlantic and St. Lawrence Railroad is also listed as a Class I railroad. July: The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway gains control of the Wichita Falls and Northwestern Railway (not yet Class I) and Wichita Falls and Southern Railway (not yet Class I). July 1: Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiaries Cleveland, Akron and Columbus Railway and Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley Railroad, the latter not Class I, merge to form the Cleveland, Akron and Cincinnati Railway. July 1: The Illinois Central Railroad begins operating the property of former subsidiary Indianapolis Southern Railroad, purchased at foreclosure. July 21: The Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad buys the property of subsidiary Evansville and Terre Haute Railroad. September 15: The Bingham and Garfield Railway completes its main line. It will be listed as Class II in 1912 and Class I in 1913. September 16: The International and Great Northern Railway begins operating the former International and Great Northern Railroad, in receivership since February 27, 1908. November: The Louisville and Nashville Railroad and St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad jointly buy control of the New Orleans, Mobile and Chicago Railroad, predecessor of the Gulf, Mobile and Northern. December 28: The property of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway subsidiary Santa Fe, Prescott and Phoenix Railway is conveyed to AT&SF lessor California, Arizona and Santa Fe Railway. 1912 January 1: Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiary Pennsylvania Company leases the Cleveland, Akron and Cincinnati Railway. January 1: The Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad acquires the property of the Iowa Central Railway, formerly independent. March 20: The Sunset Railroad, controlled jointly by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway and Southern Pacific Company, merges with lessor Sunset Western Railway to form the Sunset Railway (no longer Class I). April 4: The Crystal City and Uvalde Railroad is renamed San Antonio, Uvalde and Gulf Railroad (not yet Class I). June 30: The Sunset Railroad is demoted from Class I to II; it will never return to the former classification. The Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway also becomes Class II, since Texas subsidiary Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway of Texas had been listed as a lessor in 1911, but is now listed as an operating subsidiary, and the revenues of the parent alone are not enough to qualify for Class I. On the other hand, the Detroit and Toledo Shore Line Railroad, Oahu Railway and Land Company, and Western Pacific Railroad are newly listed as Class I. The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway begins including data for subsidiary Chesapeake and Ohio Railway of Indiana with its own data. With the loss of the Cleveland, Akron and Cincinnati Railway, Evansville and Terre Haute Railroad, Indianapolis Southern Railroad, Iowa Central Railway, and Santa Fe, Prescott and Phoenix Railway, and electrification of the Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad, the number of Class I railroads drops from 177 in 1911 to 171 as of June 30, 1912. October 1: The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad leases subsidiary Syracuse, Binghamton and New York Railroad. December 9: Canadian Northern Railway subsidiary Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway completes its line and becomes Class I. December 24: The property of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway is conveyed to parent Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway. 1913 January 1: The Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis Railroad begins operating the former Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis Railway of Illinois, in receivership since July 1, 1909. May 1: The Denver and Salt Lake Railroad begins operating the former Denver, Northwestern and Pacific Railway, in receivership since May 2, 1912. May 28: The Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway begins electric service. June 30: The Arizona and New Mexico Railway, Bingham and Garfield Railway, Florence and Cripple Creek Railroad, Lehigh and New England Railroad, Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad, Missouri, Oklahoma and Gulf Railway, and Spokane International Railway are reclassified from II to I, and the new Duluth, Winnipeg and Pacific Railway is also Class I. The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway of Texas starts including its data with parent Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway, and, with the disappearance of the Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railway and Syracuse, Binghamton and New York Railroad, the number of Class I railroads rises from 171 in 1912 to 176 as of June 30, 1913. December 31: The Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad is reorganized under the same name, having been in receivership since July 23, 1910. Former parent Buffalo and Susquehanna Railway (Class II), also in receivership (since May 3, 1910), remains independent, and is reorganized as the Wellsville and Buffalo Railroad (Class II) on December 14, 1915 and abandoned in November 1916. 1914 January 1: The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway begins recording its lease of the Peoria and Eastern Railway, which dates from April 1, 1890, as such. Previously the P&E was listed as Class I. March 1: The Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad begins operating the former Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railway, which had been in receivership since February 1, 1908. As a consequence of this reorganization, the DT&I no longer controls the Ann Arbor Railroad. March 30: The Boston and Maine Railroad sells its controlling share in the Maine Central Railroad. April 7: The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway is completed. May 1: The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway leases subsidiary Wichita Falls and Southern Railway (not yet Class I) to Texas subsidiary Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway of Texas. June 1: New York Central and Hudson River Railroad subsidiary Toledo and Ohio Central Railway buys control of the Kanawha and Michigan Railway from joint owners Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway (also a NYC subsidiary) and Chesapeake and Ohio Railway. June 5: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway subsidiary Southern Kansas Railway of Texas is renamed Panhandle and Santa Fe Railway. June 30: Despite the loss of the Peoria and Eastern Railway, the number of Class I railroads remains at 176, its 1913 value, since Grand Trunk Railway of Canada lessor Chicago, Detroit and Canada Grand Trunk Junction Railroad, which reports separately, is raised from Class II to I. July 1: Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway subsidiary Pecos and Northern Texas Railway is leased in part to the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railway and Panhandle and Santa Fe Railway, being split at Sweetwater. July 6: The Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad begins operating the former Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway, in receivership since March 7, 1912. Texas subsidiary Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway of Texas is in receivership from March 9, 1912 to July 8, 1914. July 29: The Pennsylvania Railroad leases subsidiary Northern Central Railway. August 14: The Utah Railway opens, initially operated by the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. December 23: The New York Central and Hudson River Railroad merges with ten subsidiaries, including Class I Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railroad and Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, to form the New York Central Railroad. 1915 January 23: The Canadian Northern Railway is completed. May 1: The Cripple Creek and Colorado Springs Railroad (recently renamed from Golden Circle Railroad) acquires a portion of the property of former lessee Florence and Cripple Creek Railroad, the rest of which is abandoned. June 1: Due to the financial problems of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, which was to operate the mostly-completed National Transcontinental Railway, the Canadian government retains control of the NTR, grouping it with the existing Canadian Government Railways (primarily the Intercolonial Railway and Prince Edward Island Railway). July 1: The Monongahela Railroad (Class I) and Buckhannon and Northern Railroad (not Class I), both owned jointly by the Pennsylvania Company and New York Central Railroad subsidiary Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, merge to form the Monongahela Railway. November 1: The Wabash Railway begins operating the former Wabash Railroad, in receivership since December 26, 1911. It will soon lose its control of subsidiaries Wabash Pittsburgh Terminal Railway and Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad when they reorganize. December 1: Independent Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Western Railroad begins operating the property of the former Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Western Railway, which had been leased to Baltimore and Ohio Railroad subsidiary Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway, and entered receivership in February 1915. 1916 January 1: The Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railway begins operating the former Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad, which had been in receivership since January 1, 1909. March 1: The New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railway begins operating the former New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railroad, which had been in receivership since July 5, 1913. It retains control of subsidiaries Beaumont, Sour Lake and Western Railway (not yet Class I), Orange and Northwestern Railroad (never Class I), and St. Louis, Brownsville and Mexico Railway (Class I since 1911), but is freed of its former control by the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, itself in receivership. This system comes to be known as the Gulf Coast Lines. July: The New York Central Railroad sells subsidiary New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad to the Van Sweringen brothers. July 1: The Southern Railway leases subsidiary Virginia and Southwestern Railway. This company still exists as a Norfolk Southern Railway lessor. July 14: The Western Pacific Railroad, owned by holding company Western Pacific Railroad Corporation, acquires the property of the former Western Pacific Railway, a subsidiary of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad in receivership since March 5, 1915. (When the D&RG reorganizes in 1921, the WP will control its successor.) August 16: Union Pacific Railroad subsidiary San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad is renamed Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad. September 1: The Pittsburg, Shawmut and Northern Railroad, in receivership since August 1, 1905, terminates its lease of the Pittsburg and Shawmut Railroad, which becomes an independent Class I railroad. November: The Southern Railway buys control of the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad from the Alabama, New Orleans, Texas and Pacific Junction Railways Company, as well as the latter's minority holdings in Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway parent Southwestern Construction Company. Through existing shares of that holding company held by the Southern and subsidiary Alabama Great Southern Railroad, the Southern now controls the CNO&TP. November 1: The St. Louis-San Francisco Railway begins operating the former St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, in receivership since May 27, 1913. During its receivership, it has lost control of the Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad and New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railroad. December 31: The ICC changes its year for which carriers report to end on December 31 rather than June 30. In the preceding six months, the Canadian Pacific Railway has stopped reporting, Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway subsidiaries Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway of Texas and Wichita Falls and Northwestern Railway and Kansas City Southern Railway subsidiary Texarkana and Fort Smith Railway have begun to report separately, the Pittsburg and Shawmut Railroad has commenced independent operations, and the Virginia and Southwestern Railway has been leased. With the raising of the Colorado and Wyoming Railway from Class II to I, the number of Class I railroads as of the end of 1916 is 183, up from 181 as of June 30. 1917 January 1: The independent Gulf, Mobile and Northern Railroad begins operating the property of the former New Orleans, Mobile and Chicago Railroad, in receivership since December 19, 1913, and previously jointly owned by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad and St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad. January 1: The independent Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway begins operating the property of former Wabash Railway subsidiary Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad, in receivership since June 8, 1908. January 1: Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiaries Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway, Vandalia Railroad, and others merge to form the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad. February 1: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad acquires control of the Coal and Coke Railway. March 15: The Pere Marquette Railway acquires the property of the Pere Marquette Railroad. April 1: The independent Pittsburgh and West Virginia Railway begins operating the property of former Wabash Railway subsidiary Wabash Pittsburgh Terminal Railway, in receivership since May 29, 1908. April: The Sterling Trust succeeds the Alabama, New Orleans, Texas and Pacific Junction Railways Company as holding company for the Alabama and Vicksburg Railway and Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific Railway. May 31: The independent Colorado Midland Railroad begins operating the former Colorado Midland Railway, a joint subsidiary of the Colorado and Southern Railway (Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad system) and Denver and Rio Grande Railroad that entered receivership on December 13, 1912. June 1: The Missouri Pacific Railroad begins operating the former properties of the Missouri Pacific Railway and subsidiary St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway, both in receivership since August 19, 1915. July 18: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad subsidiary Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway, in receivership since July 2, 1914, ceases operations after conveying much of its property to new B&O subsidiary and lessor Toledo and Cincinnati Railroad. Other pieces of the CH&D are either abandoned or sold to the newly incorporated independent Dayton, Toledo and Chicago Railway; former lessor Cincinnati, Findlay and Fort Wayne Railway is also freed of B&O control, and both independent companies soon abandon their lines. August 1: The Savannah and Atlanta Railway (not yet Class I) acquires the property of the Savannah and Northwestern Railway. September 30: The Canadian government acquires control of the Canadian Northern Railway. October 1: The San Diego and Arizona Railway (not yet Class I), half-owned by the Southern Pacific Company, acquires the property of the San Diego and South Eastern Railway. December 1: The Utah Railway begins operating its own line, heretofore leased to the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad. It immediately becomes Class I. 1918 January 1: The United States Railroad Administration takes over operation of most of the U.S. rail network, including almost all Class I railroads. January 1: The Pennsylvania Railroad leases its subsidiaries that had been leased to the Pennsylvania Company, as well as the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington Railroad. January 17: The New York Connecting Railroad, jointly owned by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad and Pennsylvania Railroad, begins hauling freight over the Hell Gate Bridge. It will become Class I in 1920. August 5: The Colorado Midland Railroad ceases operations after entering receivership on July 1, 1918. A piece at the east end continues to be operated under trackage rights by the Cripple Creek and Colorado Springs Railroad. August 6: The Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway (not yet Class I) acquires the property of the former Minneapolis, St. Paul, Rochester and Dubuque Electric Traction Company, in receivership since February 20, 1916. October 1: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad leases subsidiary Coal and Coke Railway. December 20: The title "Canadian National Railways" is adopted for the government-owned Canadian Northern Railway and Canadian Government Railways (primarily the National Transcontinental Railway, Intercolonial Railway, and Prince Edward Island Railway). 1919 January 1: Former lessor Midland Terminal Railway (not Class I) leases the property owned by the Cripple Creek and Colorado Springs Railroad and its trackage rights operations over the remaining portion of the Colorado Midland Railroad. March 10: The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada subsidiary Grand Trunk Pacific Railway enters receivership, under control of the Canadian government. June 2: The Cumberland Valley Railroad is merged into parent Pennsylvania Railroad, but lessor Cumberland Valley and Martinsburg Railroad begins operating its own line, and is large enough to be Class I. July 31: The Kansas, Oklahoma and Gulf Railway takes over the property of the former Missouri, Oklahoma and Gulf Railway, in receivership since December 13, 1913. November 15: The San Diego and Arizona Railway (not yet Class I), half-owned by the Southern Pacific Company, completes its line. December 31: The Arizona and New Mexico Railway is demoted to Class II. 1920 The Louisville and Nashville Railroad, subsidiary of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, purchases 1.73% of the stock of the Atlanta and West Point Railroad. Combined with existing ownership - 1.95% by the ACL and 46.98% by joint subsidiary Georgia Railroad - this gives the ACL control of the West Point. February 29: The Washington Southern Railway merges into parent Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad. March 1: The United States Railroad Administration ceases operations, returning control to the railroad companies. March 1: The Akron, Canton and Youngstown Railway (not yet Class I) leases the Northern Ohio Railway, which had been leased to the Lake Erie and Western Railroad, part of the New York Central Railroad system. March 1: The Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway sells subsidiary Wichita Falls and Southern Railway, which was leased to Texas subsidiary Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway of Texas, and it resumes independent operations (not yet Class I). June: The independent Evansville, Indianapolis and Terre Haute Railway begins operating the property of the former Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad subsidiary Evansville and Indianapolis Railroad, in receivership since February 5, 1916. July 1: The Pennsylvania Railroad leases subsidiaries Cumberland Valley and Martinsburg Railroad and New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk Railroad. November 6: Southern Railway subsidiary Southern Railway in Mississippi is renamed Columbus and Greenville Railroad. 1921 New York Central Railroad subsidiary Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railway gains control of the Evansville, Indianapolis and Terre Haute Railway. January 1: The Pennsylvania Railroad leases a number of subsidiaries, including Class I Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway, Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway, and Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad. March 26: The Missouri-Illinois Railroad (not yet Class I) begins operating the former Illinois Southern Railway, in receivership since September 17, 1918. July 1: The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway leases the Chicago, Terre Haute and Southeastern Railway. July 1: The Wichita Falls and Southern Railroad (not yet Class I) opens and leases the Wichita Falls and Southern Railway. August 1: The Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, a subsidiary of Western Pacific Railroad parent Western Pacific Railroad Corporation, begins operating the former Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, in receivership since January 26, 1918. (The D&RG had controlled WP predecessor Western Pacific Railway until its 1916 reorganization.) December 20: The Midland Terminal Railway (not Class I) purchases the remaining property of lessor Cripple Creek and Colorado Springs Railroad (formerly Class I). December 29: The Midland Terminal Railway (not Class I) purchases the remaining property of lessor Colorado Midland Railroad (formerly Class I), in receivership since July 1, 1918. December 31: The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway leases subsidiary Chesapeake and Ohio Railway of Indiana. 1922 January: The Toledo, St. Louis and Western Railroad begins distributing its Chicago and Alton Railroad stock, ending its control of that company. January 1: The El Paso and Southwestern Company buys the Arizona and New Mexico Railway (no longer Class I) from the Phelps Dodge Corporation and leases it to lessor El Paso and Southwestern Railroad. January 1: The Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railway begins operating the former Chicago and Eastern Illinois Railroad, in receivership since May 27, 1913. During its receivership, it has lost its relationships with parent St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad and subsidiary Evansville and Indianapolis Railroad (not yet Class I). January 1: The New York Central Railroad leases subsidiaries Toledo and Ohio Central Railway and Kanawha and Michigan Railway. January 31: The Tennessee Central Railway acquires the property of the former Tennessee Central Railroad, in receivership since December 31, 1912. March: The Van Sweringen brothers buy control of the Toledo, St. Louis and Western Railroad. April 24: The Missouri and North Arkansas Railway begins operating the former Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad, in receivership since April 1, 1912. April 26: The Van Sweringen brothers buy the Lake Erie and Western Railroad from the New York Central Railroad. July 1: The New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad leases the Lake Erie and Western Railroad, both companies being controlled by the Van Sweringen brothers. December 1: The International-Great Northern Railroad begins operating the former International and Great Northern Railway, in receivership since August 11, 1914. December 31: The Akron, Canton and Youngstown Railway is raised from Class II to I. 1923 The Fort Smith and Western Railway begins operating the former Fort Smith and Western Railroad, in receivership since October 9, 1915. January 1: The Van Sweringen brothers merge their Toledo, St. Louis and Western Railroad and lessor Lake Erie and Western Railroad into the New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad. The TStL&W had been in receivership since October 22, 1914. January 20: The new Canadian National Railway takes over operation of the Canadian National Railways, consisting of the Canadian Northern Railway and Canadian Government Railways (primarily the National Transcontinental Railway, Intercolonial Railway, and Prince Edward Island Railway), as well as the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. January 30: The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada is merged into the government-owned Canadian National Railway, completing a process begun in 1920 to save the financially troubled Grand Trunk. April 1: The Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad begins operating most of the former Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway and subsidiary Wichita Falls and Northwestern Railway, in receivership since September 27, 1915 and May 29, 1917, respectively. Texas subsidiary Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railway of Texas, placed under a receiver's control at the same time, is simultaneously reorganized as the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad of Texas. Property not retained in the reorganization includes the Shreveport-Dallas line, acquired by Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company subsidiary Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company of Texas, and the Oklahoma City-Atoka line, acquired by the Oklahoma City-Ada-Atoka Railway (not yet Class I). August 6: The independent Columbus and Greenville Railway begins operating the property of former Southern Railway subsidiary Columbus and Greenville Railroad, in receivership since June 4, 1921. August 17: The Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railway merges with the Munising, Marquette and Southeastern Railway (not Class I) to form the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad. 1924 January 1: The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway leases subsidiary Grand Canyon Railway (no longer Class I). January 1: The Philadelphia and Reading Railway merges into parent Reading Company, which becomes an operating railroad. February 1: Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiary Baltimore and Eastern Railroad (not Class I) begins operating the former Maryland, Delaware and Virginia Railway west of Denton. Independent Maryland and Delaware Coast Railway (not Class I) will acquire the rest on May 14; it is reorganized in 1932 as the Maryland and Delaware Seacoast Railroad. May 14: The Texas and Pacific Railway exits a receivership that began on October 27, 1916, and is acquired by the Missouri Pacific Railroad by the end of the year. June 20: The New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railway (Gulf Coast Lines) buys control of the International-Great Northern Railroad. October 29: The Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad exits a receivership that began on July 21, 1922, and is now equally owned by the Missouri Pacific Railroad and Western Pacific Railroad parent Western Pacific Railroad Corporation. November: The Sterling Trust sells the Alabama and Vicksburg Railway and Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific Railway to New York and New Orleans bankers. November 1: The Southern Pacific Company leases the subsidiaries of the El Paso and Southwestern Company, including the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad and Arizona and New Mexico Railway, which the Class I EP&SW Company had operated. November 8: The Southern Pacific Company leases subsidiary Arizona Eastern Railroad. December 1: The Clinchfield Railroad, an unincorporated entity organized jointly by the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad and subsidiary Louisville and Nashville Railroad, begins operating the Carolina, Clinchfield and Ohio Railway under lease. 1925 January 1: The Missouri Pacific Railroad gains control of the Gulf Coast Lines, including parent New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railway and several other Class I railroads: International-Great Northern Railroad (bought by the NOT&M on June 20, 1924), Beaumont, Sour Lake and Western Railway, and St. Louis, Brownsville and Mexico Railway. March 31: The Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway acquires the property of the former Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railroad, in receivership since April 16, 1917. April 1: The Alton and Eastern Railroad (not Class I) begins operating a short piece of the former Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis Railroad, in receivership since July 31, 1914. May 1: Southern Pacific Company subsidiary Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway leases the San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railway. May 19: The Wabash Railway gains control of the Ann Arbor Railroad. June: The Muskogee Company, parent of the Midland Valley Railroad, acquires control of the Kansas, Oklahoma and Gulf Railway, in receivership from June 7, 1924 until May 1, 1926. July 1: The Illinois Central Railroad acquires control of the Gulf and Ship Island Railroad. November 5: Western Pacific Railroad subsidiary Sacramento Northern Railway acquires the property of the electric Sacramento Northern Railroad. (The Sacramento Northern Railroad had replaced the Northern Electric Railway in 1918.) December 31: The San Antonio, Uvalde and Gulf Railroad, acquired by Missouri Pacific Railroad subsidiary New Orleans, Texas and Mexico Railway on December 1, leaves a receivership that began on August 14, 1914. 1926 The Springfield, Havana and Peoria Railroad takes over a portion of the former Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis Railroad, in receivership since July 31, 1914, and leases it to the Chicago and Illinois Midland Railway, which becomes Class I. January 1: The Pennsylvania Railroad creates lessor Pennsylvania, Ohio and Detroit Railroad by merging other lessors, including former Class I railroads Cincinnati, Lebanon and Northern Railway and Cleveland, Akron and Cincinnati Railway. May: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad gains control of the Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Western Railroad, whose predecessor had been leased to B&O subsidiary Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway until 1915. June 1: The Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad, subsidiary of the Illinois Central Railroad, leases the Alabama and Vicksburg Railway and Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific Railway. June 1: The Canadian Pacific Railway leases the lines of the Boston and Maine Railroad subsidiaries Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers Railroad and Massawippi Valley Railway between Wells River and Sherbrooke. (North of Newport the lease is assigned to CP subsidiary Quebec Central Railway.) Along with the CP's operation under lease of the connecting Newport and Richford Railroad, also controlled by the B&M, and of the short Midland Railroad (later abandoned), these "Canadian Pacific Lines in Vermont" become Class I in 1927. 1927 January 1: The Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast Railroad, subsidiary of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad, begins operating the former Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railway, in receivership since February 25, 1921. January 1: The Central New England Railway is merged into parent New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. January 1: The Denver and Salt Lake Railway begins operating the former Denver and Salt Lake Railroad, in receivership since August 16, 1917. January 1: The Georgia and Florida Railroad begins operating the former Georgia and Florida Railway, in receivership since March 27, 1915. January 1: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad buys a one-third share in the Monongahela Railway, formerly owned jointly by the Pennsylvania Railroad and New York Central Railroad subsidiary Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. March 1: The Southern Pacific Company leases subsidiaries Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway, Houston East and West Texas Railway, Houston and Texas Central Railroad, Louisiana Western Railroad, Morgan's Louisiana and Texas Railroad and Steamship Company, and GH&SA lessor San Antonio and Aransas Pass Railway to Texas subsidiary Texas and New Orleans Railroad. April 1: The new independent Toledo, Peoria and Western Railroad acquires the property of the former Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway, owned jointly by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad and Pennsylvania Company and in receivership since July 2, 1917. May 30: The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad leases subsidiary Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Western Railroad. 1928 The Pennsylvania Railroad buys control of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and Wabash Railway. January 1: The Illinois Power and Light Corporation, which controls the electric Illinois Traction System, acquires the Illinois Terminal Company and leases several subsidiaries to the IT, which becomes Class I. January 14: The Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad begins operating the former Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, in receivership since March 18, 1925. November 1: The Canadian National Railway consolidates ten of its U.S. subsidiaries to form the Grand Trunk Western Railroad. These subsidiaries include the Class I Grand Trunk Western Railway, Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee Railway, and Chicago, Detroit and Canada Grand Trunk Junction Railroad, the latter actually operated under lease by the CN but reported separately. November 28: Existing Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiary Baltimore and Eastern Railroad (not Class I), successor to part of the Maryland, Delaware and Virginia Railway, acquires the property of former Pennsylvania subsidiary Baltimore, Chesapeake and Atlantic Railway. 1929 The Missouri Pacific Railroad gains control of the Missouri-Illinois Railroad, which also becomes Class I this year. The Muskogee Company, owner of the Midland Valley Railroad and Kansas, Oklahoma and Gulf Railway, buys the Oklahoma City-Ada-Atoka Railway. January 1: The Louisiana and Arkansas Railway leases the Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company. January 1: The Reading Company leases subsidiaries Perkiomen Railroad and Port Reading Railroad. January 17: The Southern Pacific Company gains full control of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad by purchasing the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway's one-half share. June 1: The Louisville and Nashville Railroad leases subsidiary Louisville, Henderson and St. Louis Railway. October 19: The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway purchases the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway and subsidiary Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway of Texas, and leases the former directly and the latter to Texas subsidiary Panhandle and Santa Fe Railway. References Interstate Commerce Commission, Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United States, 1910- Edward A. Lewis, American Shortline Railway Guide, 5th Edition, Kalmbach Publishing, 1996 Moody's Transportation Manual Timeline 1910 Rail transport timelines

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Zooropa is the eighth studio album by Irish rock band U2. Produced by Flood, Brian Eno, and the Edge, it was released on 5 July 1993 on Island Records. Inspired by the band's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour, Zooropa expanded on many of the tour's themes of technology and media oversaturation. The record was a continuation of the group's experimentation with alternative rock, electronic dance music, and electronic sound effects that began with their previous album, Achtung Baby, in 1991. U2 began writing and recording Zooropa in Dublin in February 1993, during a six-month break between legs of the Zoo TV Tour. The record was originally intended as an EP to promote the "Zooropa" leg of the tour that was to begin in May 1993, but during the sessions, the group decided to extend the record to a full-length album. Pressed for time, U2 wrote and recorded at a rapid pace, with songs originating from many sources, including leftover material from the Achtung Baby sessions. The album was not completed in time for the tour's resumption, forcing the band to travel between Dublin and their tour destinations in May to complete mixing and recording. Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics. Despite none of its three singles—"Numb", "Lemon", and "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)"—being hits consistently across regions, the record sold well upon release, charting in the top ten of 26 countries. The album's charting duration and lifetime sales of 7 million copies, however, were less than those of Achtung Baby. In 1994, Zooropa won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album. Although the record was a success and music journalists view it as one of the group's most creative works, the band regard it with mixed feelings. Background U2 regained critical favour with their commercially successful 1991 album Achtung Baby and the supporting Zoo TV Tour in 1992. The record was a musical reinvention for the group, incorporating influences from alternative rock, industrial music, and electronic dance music into their sound. The tour was an elaborately staged multimedia event that satirised television and the viewing public's over-stimulation by attempting to instill "sensory overload" in its audience. The band finished 1992 with one of their most successful years, selling 2.9 million concert tickets and reaching 10 million copies sold for Achtung Baby. Their 73 North American concerts from the year grossed US$67 million, easily the highest amount for any touring artist in 1992. The group concluded the North American "Outside Broadcast" leg of the tour on 25 November 1992, leaving them with a six-month break before the tour resumed in Europe in May 1993 with the "Zooropa" leg. Rather than use the time to rest, lead vocalist Bono and guitarist the Edge were keen to record new material. Following a hectic year of touring, the two did not want to settle back into domestic life. Bono said, "We thought we could live a normal life and then go back on the road [in May 1993]. But it turns out that your whole way of thinking, your whole body has been geared toward the madness of Zoo TV... So we decided to put the madness on a record. Everybody's head was spinning, so we thought, why not keep that momentum going...?" The Edge also wished to distract himself from the emotions he was feeling after separating from his wife during the Achtung Baby sessions in 1991. The other members, bassist Adam Clayton and drummer Larry Mullen, Jr., ultimately agreed to join them for recording. Recording and production After handling audio engineering for the recording of Achtung Baby, Robbie Adams was invited by U2 to manage sound mixing on the Zoo TV Tour. Adams also recorded the group's tour soundchecks. In January 1993, the band asked him to compile these recordings and create loops of interesting parts that they could play to in the studio. After Adams spent a few weeks assembling loops, the group entered The Factory in Dublin that February to begin composing rough demos. Bono and the Edge were most involved during this initial demoing process, which lasted six weeks. Audio services company Audio Engineering installed recording equipment at the Factory that included a Soundcraft 6000 mixing console, an Otari MTR100 multi-track recorder, and four Neve console modules. The company also provided outboard gear such as a UREI 1176 Peak Limiter, a dbx 120X-DS subharmonic synthesizer, two Summit and two LA compressors, a Focusrite 115HD equaliser, a Yamaha SPX1000 multi-effects unit, Lexicon PCM-70 and AMS RMX-16 reverb units, and Yamaha NS-10 and EGV monitor speakers. The group employed Brian Eno and his assisting partner Mark "Flood" Ellis—both of whom worked on Achtung Baby—to produce the sessions; long-time Eno collaborator Daniel Lanois was busy promoting his solo album and was unavailable. Similar to the Achtung Baby sessions, Eno worked two-week shifts. The group often gave him in-progress songs to adjust and to which he could add his own personality. Initially, the band did not have a clear plan for how they would release the material being written. At the time, Clayton said, "I don't know if what we're doing here is the next U2 album or a bunch of rough sketches that in two years will turn into the demos for the next U2 album." The Edge was a proponent of making an EP of new material to promote the upcoming leg of the tour, describing his mentality as thus: "We've got a bit of time off. We've got some ideas hanging around from the last record, let's do an EP, maybe four new songs to spice the next phase of the tour up a bit. It'll be a fan thing. It'll be cool." Soon after the sessions commenced, Bono pushed for the band to work towards a full-length album. The Edge was initially hesitant, but saw the opportunity as a challenge to quickly record an album before returning to tour and prove the band had not become spoiled by the luxury of ample recording time. Additionally, Bono and the band's manager Paul McGuinness had discussed the possibility of releasing a "one-two punch" of records since the beginning of the Achtung Baby sessions. In early March, U2 reached a consensus to work towards a full-length album. Much like they had for the Achtung Baby sessions, the band split work between two studios at once; Adams operated a Soundtracs mixing console at The Factory, while Flood used an SSL console at the newly relocated Windmill Lane Studios. Due to the time limit, U2 were forced to write and record songs at a more rapid pace. They continued their long-time practice of jamming in the studio. Eno used an eraseable whiteboard to give instructions and cues to the band while they jammed; he pointed at chords and various commands, such as "hold", "stop", "change", and "change back", to direct their performances. Flood recorded the material, while Eno alternated between performing with U2 and joining Flood in the control room. At the end of a given week, Eno and Flood compared their notes and compiled the week's best jams onto a cassette for the band to listen to. The producers edited together their favourite sections of the jams and then discussed the arrangements with the group. U2 suggested alterations and added lyrics and melodies, before performing to the edited arrangements. To record all of the band's material and test different arrangements, the engineers utilised a technique they called "fatting", which allowed them to achieve more than 48 tracks of audio by using a 24-track analogue recording, a Fostex D20 timecode-capable DAT recorder, and an Adams Smith Zeta Three synchroniser; Adams went through 180 two-hour DAT tapes during the recording sessions. The production crew faced issues with audio spill at The Factory, as all group members recorded in the same room as the mixing desk and Bono frequently sang in-progress lyrics that would need to be replaced. Gobos and wood booths were built to separate the performers' sounds as much as possible. Songs originated from and were inspired by a variety of sources. "Zooropa" was the result of combining two separate pieces of music together, one of which the band discovered while reviewing recordings of tour soundchecks. The verse melody to "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)" and an instrumental backing track that became "Numb" were originally from the Achtung Baby sessions. "Babyface", "Dirty Day", "Lemon", and "The Wanderer" were written during the Zooropa sessions. Country singer Johnny Cash recorded vocals for "The Wanderer" during a visit to Dublin, and although Bono recorded his own vocals for the song, he preferred Cash's version. The production crew and the band debated which version to include on the record. Throughout the sessions, U2 were undecided on a unifying musical style for the release, and as a result, they maintained three potential track listings—one for the best songs, one for "vibes", and one for a soundtrack album. Bono suggested editing the best segments of songs together to create a montage. As May's "Zooropa" tour leg approached, U2 continued to record while simultaneously rehearsing for the tour. Their time limit prevented them from working on live arrangements for any of the new songs. Despite the sessions' rapid pace, the album was not completed by the time they had to resume touring. Moreover, Flood and Eno had to begin work on other projects. The Edge remembers everyone was telling the group, "Well, it's an EP. You did good but there's a lot more work needed to finish some of these songs." However, the band did not want to shelve the project, as they believed they were on a "creative roll" and that they would be in a completely different frame of mind if they revisited the material six months later. The group's solution was to fly back and forth between Dublin and their concert destinations for about ten days to finish recording and mixing at night and during their off-days. Clayton called the process "about the craziest thing you could do to yourself", while Mullen said of it, "It was mad, but it was mad good, as opposed to mad bad." McGuinness later said the band had nearly wrecked themselves in the process. The group simultaneously used three separate rooms at Windmill Lane to mix, overdub, and edit. Adams said the hectic approach meant "there was never anybody sitting around waiting or doing nothing". Flood called the period one of "absolute lunacy". Eschewing console automation, the engineers adopted a "live performance" attitude to mixing, based on past experiences with Lanois. The band and production crew sat in on the mixing and offered encouragement, creating, as Adams put it, "a kind of cheerleader thing. It all induces a nervous energy in you and creates a lot of pressure, and gives the whole thing a performance feel." Flood had to depart about a week prior to the completion of mixing due to prior obligations to produce Nine Inch Nails in Los Angeles. The recording of Zooropa concluded on 14 May 1993. In the final weeks, the band decided to exclude the traditional rock songs and guitar-driven tracks they had written in favour of an "album of disjointed, experimental pop". The Edge received a production credit—his first on a U2 record—for the extra level of responsibility he assumed for the album. Twenty songs were recorded during the sessions, but ultimately 10 were chosen for the final track listing. One piece that was left off the record was "In Cold Blood", which featured somber lyrics written by Bono in response to the Bosnian War and was previewed prior to the album's release. Other tracks that were left off the album included "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me", "If God Will Send His Angels", "If You Wear That Velvet Dress", and "Wake Up Dead Man". The first was later released as a single from the Batman Forever soundtrack in 1995, and the latter three were included on the band's following studio album, Pop, in 1997. Composition Music With an even more "European" musical aesthetic than Achtung Baby, Zooropa is a further departure from the group's "rootsy" sound of the late 1980s. Much like how the group embraced technology for the Zoo TV Tour, they utilized technology as a musical resource to a greater extent on Zooropa. The record exhibits additional influences from alternative rock, electronic dance music, and industrial music—it is more synthesised than U2's past work, featuring various sound effects, audio loops, and use of synthesisers. In addition to the Edge playing synthesiser, Brian Eno received credit for the instrument on six tracks. The Edge's guitar playing on Zooropa marks a further shift away from his trademark style, highlighted by a heavier reliance on guitar effects and the songs' reduced emphasis on his guitar parts. The danceable "Lemon", called a "space-age German disco" by Stephen Thomas Erlewine, features a gated guitar part. The distorted "Daddy's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car" was described by Bono as "industrial blues". The instrumentation of the closing song, "The Wanderer", consists primarily of a synthesised bassline and was described by the group as resembling the "ultimate Holiday Inn band from hell". The song was sequenced as the final track because U2 wanted to end the album on a "musical joke". Similar to how the Zoo TV Tour display screens sampled video footage from television programming, a number of songs from Zooropa sample audio. The introduction to the title track, "Zooropa", contains a noisy collage of indecipherable human voices from radio signals—credited to the "advertising world"—played over sustained synthesiser chords. The industrial-influenced "Numb" features a noisy backdrop of sampled, rhythmic noises, including "arcade sounds", a Walkman rewinding, and a Hitler Youth boy banging a bass drum in the 1935 propaganda film Triumph of the Will. "Daddy's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car" begins with a snippet of fanfare from Lenin's Favourite Songs and samples MC 900 Ft. Jesus' song "The City Sleeps". The vocals on Zooropa are a further departure from U2's previous style. As Jon Pareles described, Bono "underplays his lung power" throughout the record, in contrast to his impassioned, belting vocals from past work. Additionally, in songs such as "Lemon" and "Numb", Bono sings in an operatic falsetto he calls the "Fat Lady" voice. Two tracks feature other people on lead vocals: for "Numb", the Edge provides lead vocals in the form of a droning, monotonous list of "don't" commands; for "The Wanderer", country musician Johnny Cash sings lead vocals, juxtaposing the electronic nature of the song with his haggard voice. Lyrics Bono is credited as the sole lyricist for eight of the ten songs, while the Edge received sole credit for "Numb". The duo share credits for the lyrics to "Dirty Day". Technology is a common theme on Zooropa, inspired by the group's experiences on the Zoo TV Tour. Jon Pareles wrote that the songs are about how "media messages infect characters' souls", while music journalist David Browne said the songs are concerned with "emotional fracturing in the techno-tronic age". Critic Robert Hilburn interpreted the album as U2 probing into what they saw as the "disillusionment of the modern age". "Zooropa" is set amongst neon signs of a brightly lit futuristic city. In the song's introduction, background voices ask, "What do you want?" In response to the question, the lyrics in the first three verses consist of various advertising slogans, including, "Better by design", "Be all that you can be", and "Vorsprung durch technik". Critic Parry Gettelman interpreted these lines as meaning to "signify the emptiness of modern, godless life". In the song's second half, the theme of moral confusion and uncertainty is introduced, particularly in the lines "I have no compass / And I have no map". "Babyface" is about a man practicing his obsessive love for a celebrity by manipulating her image on a TV recording. "Lemon", inspired by an old video of Bono's late mother in a lemon-coloured dress, describes man's attempts to preserve time through technology. This is reflected in lines such as, "A man makes a picture / A moving picture / Through the light projected he can see himself up close". The lyrics to "Numb" are a series of "don't" commands, amidst a noisy backdrop of sounds. The Edge notes that the song was inspired by one of the themes of Zoo TV, "that sense that you were getting bombarded with so much that you actually were finding yourself shutting down and unable to respond because there was so much imagery and information being thrown at you". In contrast to the technology-inspired lyrics of many songs, others had more domestic themes. "The First Time" was Bono's interpretation of the story of the Prodigal son, but in his version, the son decides not to return home. Similarly, "Dirty Day" was written about a character who abandons his family and returns years later to meet his son. Many of the track's lyrics are taken from phrases that Bono's father commonly used, such as "No blood is thicker than ink" and "It won't last kissing time". "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)" is a love song written for an abused woman. Bono based his lyrics to "The Wanderer" on the Old Testament's Book of Ecclesiastes, and he modeled the song's character after the book's narrator, "The Preacher". In the song, the narrator wanders through a post-apocalyptic world "in search of experience", sampling all facets of human culture and hoping to find meaning in life. Bono described the song as an "antidote to the Zooropa manifesto of uncertainty", and he believes it presents a possible solution to the uncertainty expressed earlier on the album. Packaging and title The sleeve was designed by Works Associates of Dublin under the direction of Steve Averill, who had created the majority of U2's album covers. Brian Williams was the graphic designer and created the digital images and layout. Inspired by the Zoo TV Tour's "highly charged electronic TV images in all of their saturated colours and fizz", Works Associates conceived a "kind of electronic flag" for Zooropa. The cover features a sketch of the circle of stars from the Flag of Europe with an "astrobaby" drawing in the center. The illustration, created by Shaughn McGrath, was an alteration of the "graffiti babyface" by Charlie Whisker that was originally on the face of the Achtung Baby compact disc/vinyl record. The cover's drawing was meant to represent an urban legend of a Soviet cosmonaut supposedly left floating in orbit for weeks after the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the background is a montage of blurred images, similar to the arrangement of images on Achtung Babys sleeve. The images include shots of a woman's face and mouth, as well as photographs of European leaders, including Vladimir Lenin, Benito Mussolini, and Nicolae Ceauşescu. These images are obscured by distorted purple text comprising the names of songs planned for the record that were provided to Works Associates during the sleeve design process. However, the album's track listing was eventually changed and the titles of several songs withheld from the album were accidentally left in the cover image; the songs include "Wake Up Dead Man", "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me", and "If You Wear That Velvet Dress". Author Višnja Cogan described this text as giving the impression of a "torn veil". Zooropa was named for the "Zooropa" leg of the Zoo TV Tour, which began in May 1993 while the band completed the record. The name is a portmanteau of "zoo" (from Zoo TV Tour and "Zoo Station") and "Europa". During the album's production, one of the proposed titles was Squeaky. Release Zooropa completed U2's contractual obligation to Island Records, and to PolyGram, the multinational that purchased Island in 1989. Although the group were free to sign a new contract elsewhere, their strong relationship with the label and its founder Chris Blackwell prompted the band to remain with Island/Polygram by signing a long-term, six-album deal in June 1993. The Los Angeles Times estimated that the deal was worth US$60 million to U2, making them the highest-paid rock group ever. At the time, the group were cognizant of several emerging technologies that would potentially impact the delivery and transmission of music to consumers in the following years. Author Bill Flanagan speculated, "Record stores could become obsolete as music is delivered over cable, telephone wires, or satellite transmissions directly into consumers' homes." With uncertainty over the future of these technologies and the implications of entertainment and telecommunications companies merging, the band negotiated with Island that the division of their earnings from future transmission systems would be flexible and decided upon at a relevant time. U2 toyed with the idea of releasing Zooropa as an interactive audio-video presentation in lieu of conventional physical formats, but the deadline imposed by the Zoo TV Tour prevented the band from realising this idea. U2's delivery of Zooropa in late May caught PolyGram somewhat off-guard, because they were not expecting a new album by the group for several years. With Achtung Baby, PolyGram had approximately six months to market the record and plan its release strategy, but the sudden completion of Zooropa necessitated a more hurried promotional plan. PolyGram president/CEO Rick Dobbis explained: "For the last one, we prepared for six months. It was like a marathon. But this is like a sprint, and that is the spirit it was made in. The band was so excited about it, they sprinted to complete the album before the ... tour. We want to bring it to the street with that same spirit." Island/PolyGram's and U2's marketing for Zooropa was intended to focus less on singles and more on the record as a whole, and ultimately, only three singles were released, compared to Achtung Babys five singles. The first single "Numb" was released in June 1993 exclusively on VHS as a "video single". The music video was directed by Kevin Godley. The song peaked at number seven in Australia and number nine in Canada, while reaching number two on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. However, it failed to chart on the singles charts in the UK or US. Zooropa was released on 5 July 1993, during the Zooropa leg of the Zoo TV Tour. An initial shipment of 1.6 million copies was made available in stores at the time of release. The album performed very well commercially, debuting at number one in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, France, Germany, Austria, Sweden, and Switzerland. It also reached number one in the Netherlands, Italy, Japan, Norway, Denmark, Ireland, and Iceland. In the US, the album spent its first two weeks on the Billboard 200 at the top spot, staying in the top 10 for seven weeks. In its first week on sale, Zooropa sold 377,000 copies in the US, the group's best debut in the country to that point. The album reached the top 10 in 26 countries. Despite reaching impressive peak positions, it had a shorter stay on the music charts than Achtung Baby did. In total, Zooropa spent 40 weeks on the Billboard 200, 61 fewer weeks than Achtung Baby. Similarly, the album's stay of 34 weeks on the UK Albums Chart was a decrease of 58 weeks from its predecessor. Two additional commercial singles were released from the album. "Lemon" received a limited commercial release in North America, Australia, and Japan in September 1993. The single peaked at number six in Australia and number three on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. The final commercial single was "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)", released worldwide on 22 November 1993. It was the album's most successful single, topping the Irish Singles Chart and peaking at number five in Australia, number six in New Zealand, number four in the UK, and number 61 in the US—making it the record's only single to chart on the UK Singles Chart and Hot 100. "Zooropa" was released as a promotional single in Mexico and the United States. By the end of 1993, Zooropa had sold 1.8 million copies in the US. Reissues In October 2011, Achtung Baby was reissued to commemorate its 20th anniversary; CD copies of Zooropa were included in the "Super Deluxe" and "Über Deluxe" editions of the release. Continuing a campaign by U2 to reissue all of their records on vinyl, Zooropa was re-released on two 180-gram vinyl records on 27 July 2018. Remastered under the Edge's direction, the reissue included two remixes to commemorate the album's 25th anniversary: "Lemon (The Perfecto Mix)" and "Numb (Gimme Some More Dignity Mix)". Each copy includes a download card that can be used to redeem a digital copy of the album. Critical reception Zooropa received generally favourable reviews from critics. Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone wrote in his four-star review that the album was "a daring, imaginative coda to Achtung Baby" and that "it is varied and vigorously experimental, but its charged mood of giddy anarchy suffused with barely suppressed dread provides a compelling, unifying thread". Spin wrote a positive review, commenting that the record "sounds mostly like a band shedding its skin, trying on different selves for size". The review said the album "has the feel of real collectivity", praising the cohesiveness of the individual band members' playing. The review concluded by saying Zooropa "indicates U2 might be worthy of whatever absurd mutations the '90s throw our way". Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the group for transforming themselves and becoming "raucous, playful and ready to kick its old habits". Pareles enjoyed the sonics and electronic effects that made the "sound of a straightforward four-man band ... hard to find", and he commented that "The new songs seem destined not for stadiums ... but for late-night radio shows and private listenings through earphones." The Orlando Sentinel gave the record a rating of three-out-of-five stars, commenting, "Although U2 leans heavily on the electronic sound of contemporary dance music, the rhythm tracks on Zooropa are less than propulsive." The review said that Eno's production and the electronic flourishes made the album interesting, but that ultimately, "there's nothing especially hummable" and "the songs are not very memorable". David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave Zooropa an "A", calling it "harried, spontaneous-sounding, and ultimately exhilarating album". Browne judged it to sound "messy" and "disconnected", but clarified "that sense of incoherence is the point" in the context of the record's technology themes. He concluded, "For an album that wasn't meant to be an album, it's quite an album." Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times gave the record a maximum score of four stars. In two separate articles, he said that it "captured the anxious, even paranoid tone of the Zoo TV Tour" so much so that "it stands as the first tour album that doesn't include any of the songs from the tour" and yet sounds like a "souvenir" of Zoo TV. In a positive review, Jim Sullivan of The Boston Globe called the album a "creative stretch", noting that the band experimented more yet retained their recognizable sound. He commented that the group's "yearning anthemic reach" and "obvious, slinky pop charm" were replaced with "darker corners, more disruptive interjections, more moodiness". Paul Du Noyer of Q gave Zooropa a score of four-out-of-five stars, finding a "freewheeling feel of going with the flow" throughout the album and calling it "rootless and loose, restless and unsettled". For Du Noyer, U2 sounded "monstrously tight as a performing unit and fluidly inventive as composers, so the results transcend the merely experimental". A review from The New Zealand Herald was more critical, saying that the album started as an EP and "just got longer but not necessarily better". The publication called it "more perplexing than challenging" and commented that it "sounds like the biggest band in the world having one of the biggest, strangest mid-life crises". Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun Times gave the record a three-and-a-half star review, calling it "inconsistent", but admitting "it's satisfying and surprising to hear a band of U2's status being so playful, experimental, and downright weird". Robert Christgau gave the album a B−, calling it "half an Eno album" in the same manner that David Bowie's Eno-produced albums Low and "Heroes" were, but saying, "The difference is that Bowie and Eno were fresher in 1977 than Bono and Eno are today." The Irish media were more critical in their reviews of the album; George Byrne of the Irish Independent said, "The songs sound like they were knocked up in double-quick time and with about as much thought put into the lyrics as goes into a DJ's timecheck". Byrne remarked that the record resembles "a lot of mickey-taking over a variety of drum patterns". In a retrospective, four-star review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated that "most of the record is far more daring than its predecessor". For him, although there were moments that the album was "unfocused and meandering ... the best moments of Zooropa rank among U2's most inspired and rewarding music". Zooropa finished in 9th place on the "Best Albums" list from The Village Voices 1993 Pazz & Jop critics' poll. At the 36th Annual Grammy Awards, it won the award for Best Alternative Music Album. In his acceptance speech, Bono sarcastically mocked the "alternative" characterisation the album received and used a profanity on live television: "I think I'd like to give a message to the young people of America. And that is: We shall continue to abuse our position and fuck up the mainstream." Zoo TV Tour The band began the Zoo TV Tour in February 1992 in support of Achtung Baby. In contrast to the austere stage setups of previous U2 tours, Zoo TV was an elaborate multimedia event. It satirised television and the viewing public's over-stimulation by attempting to instill "sensory overload" in its audience. The stage featured large video screens that showed visual effects, random video clips from pop culture, and flashing text phrases. Live satellite link-ups, channel surfing, crank calls, and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows. The Zooropa album was released in July 1993, halfway through the Zooropa leg of the tour. Of the 157 shows the band played during the Zoo TV Tour, approximately 30 of them were after the release of Zooropa. Many of the album's songs found permanent places in the shows' set lists. "Lemon" and "Daddy's Gonna Pay for Your Crashed Car" were performed with Bono in his MacPhisto persona, during encores of the Zoomerang Leg of the tour. "Dirty Day" was also played on this leg after the acoustic set. "Numb" was performed with the Edge playing guitar and on lead vocals, with Mullen performing backing vocals while drumming. "Zooropa" was played only three times and "Babyface" twice more at the same shows on the Zooropa leg, but they were cut out of the set list after the band were displeased with how they sounded live. "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)" was performed acoustically for the Zooropa and Zoomerang legs. Legacy Zooropa is certified 2× Platinum in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America, 3× Platinum in Australia, Platinum in the UK, and 4× Platinum in both New Zealand and Canada. To date, it has sold more than 7 million copies. After the release of the record, David Bowie praised the band, writing, "[U2] might be all shamrocks and deutsche marks to some, but I feel that they are one of the few rock bands even attempting to hint at a world which will continue past the next great wall—the year 2000." Although the record was a success, in the years following its release, the group have regarded it with mixed feelings and rarely play its material in live performances. Bono said, "I thought of Zooropa at the time as a work of genius. I really thought our pop discipline was matching our experimentation and this was our Sgt. Pepper. I was a little wrong about that. The truth is our pop disciplines were letting us down. We didn't create hits. We didn't quite deliver the songs. And what would Sgt. Pepper be without the pop songs?" The Edge said that he did not think the songs were "potent", further stating, "I never thought of Zooropa as anything more than an interlude... but a great one, as interludes go. By far our most interesting." Clayton said, "It's an odd record and a favourite of mine." In 2005, Bono claimed that Zooropas "Stay (Faraway, So Close!)" is "perhaps the greatest U2 song". Neil McCormick wrote about Zooropa, "It feels like a minor work, and generally U2 don't do minor. But if you're not going to make the Big Statement, you're maybe going to come up with something that has the oxygen of pop music." In 1997, Spin wrote, "Zooropa took U2 as far from the monastic mysticism of The Joshua Tree as they could go. It freed U2 from itself." Edna Gundersen of USA Today said in 2002, "the alien territory of Achtung Baby and Zooropa cemented U2's relevance and enhanced its cachet as intrepid explorers". In 2011, Rolling Stone ranked the record at number 61 on its list of "100 Best Albums of the Nineties". Track listing Note After "The Wanderer" fades out at 4:41, a "hidden track", consisting of a ringing alarm used to alert disc jockeys of "dead air", starts at 5:13 and plays for 30 seconds. Personnel Adapted from the liner notes. U2 Bono – vocals, guitar The Edge – guitar, piano, synthesisers, vocals Adam Clayton – bass guitar Larry Mullen Jr. – drums, percussion, backing vocals Additional musicians Brian Eno – synthesisers, piano, arcade sounds, backing vocals, loops, strings, harmonium Des Broadbery – loops Flood – loops Johnny Cash – lead vocals Production Flood – production, mixing, engineering Brian Eno – production The Edge – production Anne-Louise Kelly – album production manager Robbie Adams – engineering Willie Mannion – engineering and mixing assistance Rob Kirwan – engineering and mixing assistance Mary McShane – engineering and mixing assistance Suzanne Doyle – studio production manager Arnie Acosta – mastering Stewart Whitmore – digital editing Cheryl Engels – post production coordinator Terry Cromer – additional recording facilities (Audio Engineering) Julian Douglas – additional recording facilities (Audio Engineering) Steve Averill – art direction Brian Williams – design, computer treatments Shaughn McGrath – baby illustration Charts Certifications References Notes Footnotes Bibliography External links Zooropa on U2.com 1993 albums Albums produced by Brian Eno Albums produced by the Edge Albums produced by Flood (producer) Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album Island Records albums U2 albums

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Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis (TB) infection caused by bacteria that are resistant to treatment with at least two of the most powerful first-line anti-TB medications (drugs), isoniazid and rifampin. Some forms of TB are also resistant to second-line medications, and are called extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB). Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Almost one in four people in the world are infected with TB bacteria. Only when the bacteria become active do people become ill with TB. Bacteria become active as a result of anything that can reduce the person's immunity, such as HIV, advancing age, diabetes or other immunocompromising illnesses. TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or first-line, anti-TB drugs (i.e., isoniazid, rifampin,pyrazinamide and ethambutol). However, beginning with the first antibiotic treatment for TB in 1943, some strains of the TB bacteria developed resistance to the standard drugs through genetic changes (see mechanisms.) Currently the majority of multidrug-resistant cases of TB are due to one strain of TB bacteria called the Beijing lineage. This process accelerates if incorrect or inadequate treatments are used, leading to the development and spread of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). Incorrect or inadequate treatment may be due to use of the wrong medications, use of only one medication (standard treatment is at least two drugs), not taking medication consistently or for the full treatment period (treatment is required for several months). Treatment of MDR-TB requires second-line drugs (i.e., fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, and others), which in general are less effective, more toxic and much more expensive than first-line drugs. Treatment schedules for MDR-TB involving fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides can run for 2 years, compared to the 6 months of first-line drug treatment, and cost over US$100,000. If these second-line drugs are prescribed or taken incorrectly, further resistance can develop leading to XDR-TB. Resistant strains of TB are already present in the population, so MDR-TB can be directly transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person. In this case a previously untreated person develops a new case of MDR-TB. This is known as primary MDR-TB, and is responsible for up to 75% of cases. Acquired MDR-TB develops when a person with a non-resistant strain of TB is treated inadequately, resulting in the development of antibiotic resistance in the TB bacteria infecting them. These people can in turn infect other people with MDR-TB. MDR-TB caused an estimated 600,000 new TB cases and 240,000 deaths in 2016 and MDR-TB accounts for 4.1% of all new TB cases and 19% of previously treated cases worldwide. Globally, most MDR-TB cases occur in South America, Southern Africa, India, China, and the former Soviet Union. Treatment of MDR-TB requires treatment with second-line drugs, usually four or more anti-TB drugs for a minimum of 6 months, and possibly extending for 18–24 months if rifampin resistance has been identified in the specific strain of TB with which the patient has been infected. Under ideal program conditions, MDR-TB cure rates can approach 70%. Mechanism of drug resistance The TB bacteria has natural defenses against some drugs, and can acquire drug resistance through genetic mutations. The bacteria does not have the ability to transfer genes for resistance between organisms through plasmids (see horizontal transfer). Some mechanisms of drug resistance include: Cell wall: The cell wall of M. tuberculosis (TB) contains complex lipid molecules which act as a barrier to stop drugs from entering the cell. Drug modifying & inactivating enzymes: The TB genome codes for enzymes (proteins) that inactivate drug molecules. These enzymes are usually phosphorylate, acetylate, or adenylate drug compounds. Drug efflux systems: The TB cell contains molecular systems that actively pump drug molecules out of the cell. Mutations: Spontaneous mutations in the TB genome can alter proteins which are the target of drugs, making the bacteria drug resistant. One example is a mutation in the rpoB gene, which encodes the beta subunit of the bacteria's RNA polymerase. In non-resistant TB, rifampin binds the beta subunit of RNA polymerase and disrupt transcription elongation. Mutation in the rpoB gene changes the sequence of amino acids and eventual conformation of the beta subunit. In this case rifampin can no longer bind or prevent transcription, and the bacteria is resistant. Other mutations make the bacterium resistant to other drugs. For example, there are many mutations that confer resistance to isoniazid (INH), including in the genes katG, inhA, ahpC and others. Amino acid replacements in the NADH binding site of InhA apparently result in INH resistance by preventing the inhibition of mycolic acid biosynthesis, which the bacterium uses in its cell wall. Mutations in the katG gene make the enzyme catalase peroxidase unable to convert INH to its biologically active form. Hence, INH is ineffective and the bacteria is resistant. The discovery of new molecular targets is essential to overcome drug resistant problems. In some TB bacteria, the acquisition of these mutations can be explained other mutations in the DNA recombination, recognition and repair machinery. Mutations in these genes allow the bacteria to have a higher overall mutation rate and to accumulate mutations that cause drug resistance more quickly. Extensively drug-resistant TB MDR-TB can become resistant to the major second-line TB drug groups: fluoroquinolones (moxifloxacin, ofloxacin) and injectable aminoglycoside or polypeptide drugs (amikacin, capreomycin, kanamycin). When MDR-TB is resistant to at least one drug from each group, it is classified as extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB). WHO has revised the definitions of pre-XDR-TB and XDR-TB in 2021 as following: Pre-XDR-TB: TB caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tuberculosis) strains that fulfill the definition of MDR/RR-TB and which are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone. XDR-TB: TB caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) strains that fulfill the definition of MDR/RR-TB and which are also resistant to any fluoroquinolone and at least one additional Group A drug. The Group A drugs are currently levofloxacin or moxifloxacin, bedaquiline and linezolid, therefore XDR-TB is MDR/RR-TB that is resistant to a fluoroquinolone and at least one of bedaquiline or linezolid (or both). In a study of MDR-TB patients from 2005 to 2008 in various countries, 43.7% had resistance to at least one second-line drug. About 9% of MDR-TB cases are resistant to a drug from both classes and classified as XDR-TB. In the past 10 years TB strains have emerged in Italy, Iran, India, and South Africa which are resistant to all available first and second line TB drugs, classified as totally drug-resistant tuberculosis, though there is some controversy over this term. Increasing levels of resistance in TB strains threaten to complicate the current global public health approaches to TB control. New drugs are being developed to treat extensively resistant forms but major improvements in detection, diagnosis, and treatment will be needed. Prevention There are several ways that drug resistance to TB, and drug resistance in general, can be prevented: Rapid diagnosis & treatment of TB: One of the greatest risk factors for drug resistant TB is problems in treatment and diagnosis, especially in developing countries. If TB is identified and treated soon, drug resistance can be avoided. Completion of treatment: Previous treatment of TB is an indicator of MDR TB. If the patient does not complete his/her antibiotic treatment, or if the physician does not prescribe the proper antibiotic regimen, resistance can develop. Also, drugs that are of poor quality or less in quantity, especially in developing countries, contribute to MDR TB. Patients with HIV/AIDS should be identified and diagnosed as soon as possible. They lack the immunity to fight the TB infection and are at great risk of developing drug resistance. Identify contacts who could have contracted TB: i.e. family members, people in close contact, etc. Research: Much research and funding is needed in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of TB and MDR TB. "Opponents of a universal tuberculosis treatment, reasoning from misguided notions of cost-effectiveness, fail to acknowledge that MDRTB is not a disease of poor people in distant places. The disease is infectious and airborne. Treating only one group of patients looks inexpensive in the short run, but will prove disastrous for all in the long run."— Paul Farmer DOTS-Plus Community-based treatment programs such as DOTS-Plus, a MDR-TB-specialized treatment using the popular Directly Observed Therapy – Short Course (DOTS) initiative, have shown considerable success in the world. In these locales, these programs have proven to be a good option for proper treatment of MDR-TB in poor, rural areas. A successful example has been in Lima, Peru, where the program has seen cure rates of over 80%. However, TB clinicians have expressed concern in the DOTS program administered in the Republic of Georgia because it is anchored in a passive case finding. This means that the system depends on patients coming to health care providers, without conducting compulsory screenings. As medical anthropologists like Erin Koch have shown, this form of implementation does not suit all cultural structures. They urge that the DOTS protocol be constantly reformed in the context of local practices, forms of knowledge and everyday life. Erin Koch has used Paul Farmer's concept of "structural" violence as a perspective for understanding how "institutions, environment, poverty, and power reproduce, solidify, and naturalize the uneven distribution of disease and access to resources". She has also studied the effectiveness of the DOTS protocol in the widespread disease of tuberculosis in the Georgian prison system. Unlike the DOTS passive case finding used for the general Georgian public, the multiple-level surveillance in the prison system has proven more successful in reducing the spread of tuberculosis while increasing rates of cure. Koch critically notes that because the DOTS protocol aims to change the individual's behavior without addressing the need to change the institutional, political, and economic contexts, certain limitations arise, such as MDR tuberculosis. Treatment Usually, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis can be cured with long treatments of second-line drugs, but these are more expensive than first-line drugs and have more adverse effects. The treatment and prognosis of MDR-TB are much more akin to those for cancer than to those for infection. MDR-TB has a mortality rate of up to 80%, which depends on a number of factors, including: How many drugs the organism is resistant to (the fewer the better) How many drugs the patient is given (patients treated with five or more drugs do better) The expertise and experience of the physician responsible How co-operative the patient is with treatment (treatment is arduous and long, and requires persistence and determination on the part of the patient) Whether the patient is HIV-positive or not (HIV co-infection is associated with an increased mortality). The majority of patients suffering from multidrug-resistant tuberculosis do not receive treatment, as they are found in underdeveloped countries or in poverty. Denial of treatment remains a difficult human rights issue, as the high cost of second-line medications often precludes those who cannot afford therapy. A study of cost-effective strategies for tuberculosis control supported three major policies. First, the treatment of smear-positive cases in DOTS programs must be the foundation of any tuberculosis control approach, and should be a basic practice for all control programs. Second, there is a powerful economic case for treating smear-negative and extra-pulmonary cases in DOTS programs along with treating smear-negative and extra-pulmonary cases in DOTS programs as a new WHO "STOP TB" approach and the second global plan for tuberculosis control. Last, but not least, the study shows that significant scaling up of all interventions is needed in the next 10 years if the millennium development goal and related goals for tuberculosis control are to be achieved. If the case detection rate can be improved, this will guarantee that people who gain access to treatment facilities are covered and that coverage is widely distributed to people who do not now have access. In general, treatment courses are measured in months to years; MDR-TB may require surgery, and death rates remain high despite optimal treatment. However, good outcomes for patients are still possible. The treatment of MDR-TB must be undertaken by physicians experienced in the treatment of MDR-TB. Mortality and morbidity in patients treated in non-specialist centers are significantly higher to those of patients treated in specialist centers. Treatment of MDR-TB must be done on the basis of sensitivity testing: it is impossible to treat such patients without this information. When treating a patient with suspected MDR-TB, pending the result of laboratory sensitivity testing, the patient could be started on SHREZ (Streptomycin+ isonicotinyl Hydrazine+ Rifampicin+Ethambutol+ pyraZinamide) and moxifloxacin with cycloserine. There is evidence that previous therapy with a drug for more than a month is associated with diminished efficacy of that drug regardless of in vitro tests indicating susceptibility. Hence, a detailed knowledge of the treatment history of each patient is essential. In addition to the obvious risks (i.e., known exposure to a patient with MDR-TB), risk factors for MDR-TB include HIV infection, previous incarceration, failed TB treatment, failure to respond to standard TB treatment, and relapse following standard TB treatment. A gene probe for rpoB is available in some countries. This serves as a useful marker for MDR-TB, because isolated RMP resistance is rare (except when patients have a history of being treated with rifampicin alone). If the results of a gene probe (rpoB) are known to be positive, then it is reasonable to omit RMP and to use SHEZ+MXF+cycloserine. The reason for maintaining the patient on INH is that INH is so potent in treating TB that it is foolish to omit it until there is microbiological proof that it is ineffective (even though isoniazid resistance so commonly occurs with rifampicin resistance). For treatment of RR- and MDT-TB, WHO treatment guidelines are as follows: "a regimen with at least five effective TB medicines during the intensive phase is recommended, including pyrazinamide and four core second-line TB medicines – one chosen from Group A, one from Group B, and at least two from Group C3 (conditional recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence). If the minimum number of effective TB medicines cannot be composed as given above, an agent from Group D2 and other agents from Group D3 may be added to bring the total to five. It is recommended that the regimen be further strengthened with high-dose isoniazid and/or ethambutol (conditional recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence)." Medicines recommended are the following: Group A: Fluoroquinolones (levofloxacin,moxifloxicin), linezolid, bedaquiline Group B: clofazimine, cycloserine/terizidone Group C: Other core second-line agents (ethambutol, delamanid, pyrazinamide, imipenem-cilastatin/meropenem, amikacin/streptomycin, ethionamide/prothionamide, p-aminosalicylic acid) For patients with RR-TB or MDR-TB, "not previously treated with second-line drugs and in whom resistance to fluoroquinolones and second-line injectable agents was excluded or is considered highly unlikely, a shorter MDR-TB regimen of 9–12 months may be used instead of the longer regimens (conditional recommendation, very low certainty in the evidence)." In general, resistance to one drug within a class means resistance to all drugs within that class, but a notable exception is rifabutin: Rifampicin-resistance does not always mean rifabutin-resistance, and the laboratory should be asked to test for it. It is possible to use only one drug within each drug class. If it is difficult finding five drugs to treat then the clinician can request that high-level INH-resistance be looked for. If the strain has only low-level INH-resistance (resistance at 0.2 mg/l INH, but sensitive at 1.0 mg/l INH), then high dose INH can be used as part of the regimen. When counting drugs, PZA and interferon count as zero; that is to say, when adding PZA to a four-drug regimen, another drug must be chosen to make five. It is not possible to use more than one injectable (STM, capreomycin or amikacin), because the toxic effect of these drugs is additive: If possible, the aminoglycoside should be given daily for a minimum of three months (and perhaps thrice weekly thereafter). Ciprofloxacin should not be used in the treatment of tuberculosis if other fluoroquinolones are available. As of 2008, Cochrane reports that trials of other fluoroquinolones are ongoing. There is no intermittent regimen validated for use in MDR-TB, but clinical experience is that giving injectable drugs for five days a week (because there is no-one available to give the drug at weekends) does not seem to result in inferior results. Directly observed therapy helps to improve outcomes in MDR-TB and should be considered an integral part of the treatment of MDR-TB. Response to treatment must be obtained by repeated sputum cultures (monthly if possible). Treatment for MDR-TB must be given for a minimum of 18 months and cannot be stopped until the patient has been culture-negative for a minimum of nine months. It is not unusual for patients with MDR-TB to be on treatment for two years or more. Patients with MDR-TB should be isolated in negative-pressure rooms, if possible. Patients with MDR-TB should not be accommodated on the same ward as immunosuppressed patients (HIV-infected patients, or patients on immunosuppressive drugs). Careful monitoring of compliance with treatment is crucial to the management of MDR-TB (and some physicians insist on hospitalisation if only for this reason). Some physicians will insist that these patients remain isolated until their sputum is smear-negative, or even culture-negative (which may take many months, or even years). Keeping these patients in hospital for weeks (or months) on end may be a practical or physical impossibility, and the final decision depends on the clinical judgement of the physician treating that patient. The attending physician should make full use of therapeutic drug monitoring (in particular, of the aminoglycosides) both to monitor compliance and to avoid toxic effects. Some supplements may be useful as adjuncts in the treatment of tuberculosis, but, for the purposes of counting drugs for MDR-TB, they count as zero (if four drugs are already in the regimen, it may be beneficial to add arginine or vitamin D or both, but another drug will be needed to make five). Supplements are: arginine (peanuts are a good source), vitamin D, Dzherelo, V5 Immunitor. The drugs listed below have been used in desperation, and it is uncertain as to whether they are effective at all. They are used when it is not possible to find five drugs from the list above. imipenem, co-amoxiclav, clofazimine, prochlorperazine, metronidazole. On 28 December 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved bedaquiline (marketed as Sirturo by Johnson & Johnson) to treat multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, the first new treatment in 40 years. Sirturo is to be used in a combination therapy for patients who have failed standard treatment and have no other options. Sirturo is an adenosine triphosphate synthase (ATP synthase) inhibitor. The following drugs are experimental compounds that are not commercially available, but may be obtained from the manufacturer as part of a clinical trial or on a compassionate basis. Their efficacy and safety are unknown: pretomanid (manufactured by Novartis, developed in partnership with TB Alliance), and delamanid. In cases of extremely resistant disease, surgery to remove infection portions of the lung is, in general, the final option. The center with the largest experience in this is the National Jewish Medical and Research Center in Denver, Colorado. In 17 years of experience, they have performed 180 operations; of these, 98 were lobectomies and 82 were pneumonectomies. There is a 3.3% operative mortality, with an additional 6.8% dying following the operation; 12% experienced significant morbidity (in particular, extreme breathlessness). Of 91 patients who were culture-positive before surgery, only 4 were culture-positive after surgery. The resurgence of tuberculosis in the United States, the advent of HIV-related tuberculosis, and the development of strains of TB resistant to the first-line therapies developed in recent decades—serve to reinforce the thesis that Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative organism, makes its own preferential option for the poor. The simple truth is that almost all tuberculosis deaths result from a lack of access to existing effective therapy. Treatment success rates remain unacceptably low globally with variation between regions. 2016 data published by the WHO reported treatment success rates of multidrug-resistant TB globally. For those started on treatment for multidrug-resistant TB 56% successfully completed treatment, either treatment course completion or eradication of disease; 15% of those died while in treatment; 15% were lost to follow-up; 8% had treatment failure and there was no data on the remaining 6%. Treatment success rate was highest in the World Health Organization Mediterranean region at 65%. Treatment success rates were lower than 50% in the Ukraine, Mozambique, Indonesia and India. Areas with poor TB surveillance infrastructure had higher rates of loss to follow-up of treatment. 57 countries reported outcomes for patients started on extreme-drug resistant Tuberculosis, this included 9258 patients. 39% completed treatment successfully, 26% of patients died and treatment failed for 18%. 84% of the extreme Drug resistant Cohort was made up of only three countries; India, Russian Federation and Ukraine. Shorter treatment regimes for MDR-TB have been found to be beneficial having higher treatment success rates. Epidemiology Cases of MDR tuberculosis have been reported in every country surveyed. MDR-TB most commonly develops in the course of TB treatment, and is most commonly due to doctors giving inappropriate treatment, or patients missing doses or failing to complete their treatment. Because MDR tuberculosis is an airborne pathogen, persons with active, pulmonary tuberculosis caused by a multidrug-resistant strain can transmit the disease if they are alive and coughing. TB strains are often less fit and less transmissible, and outbreaks occur more readily in people with weakened immune systems (e.g., patients with HIV). Outbreaks among non immunocompromised healthy people do occur, but are less common. As of 2013, 3.7% of new tuberculosis cases have MDR-TB. Levels are much higher in those previously treated for tuberculosis - about 20%. WHO estimates that there were about 0.5 million new MDR-TB cases in the world in 2011. About 60% of these cases occurred in Brazil, China, India, the Russian Federation and South Africa alone. In Moldova, the crumbling health system has led to the rise of MDR-TB. In 2013, the Mexico–United States border was noted to be "a very hot region for drug resistant TB", though the number of cases remained small. It has been known for many years that INH-resistant TB is less virulent in guinea pigs, and the epidemiological evidence is that MDR strains of TB do not dominate naturally. A study in Los Angeles, California, found that only 6% of cases of MDR-TB were clustered. Likewise, the appearance of high rates of MDR-TB in New York City in the early 1990s was associated with the explosion of AIDS in that area. In New York City, a report issued by city health authorities states that fully 80 percent of all MDR-TB cases could be traced back to prisons and homeless shelters. When patients have MDR-TB, they require longer periods of treatment—about two years of multidrug regimen. Several of the less powerful second-line drugs, which are required to treat MDR-TB, are also more toxic, with side effects such as nausea, abdominal pain, and even psychosis. The Partners in Health team had treated patients in Peru who were sick with strains that were resistant to ten and even twelve drugs. Most such patients require adjuvant surgery for any hope of a cure. Somalia MDR-TB is widespread in Somalia, where 8.7% of newly discovered TB cases are resistant to Rifampicin and Isoniazid, in patients which were treated previously the share was 47%. Refugees from Somalia brought an until then unknown variant of MDR tuberculosis with them to Europe. A few number of cases in four different countries were considered by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control to pose no risk to the native population. Russian prisons One of the so-called "hot-spots" of drug-resistant tuberculosis is within the Russian prison system. Infectious disease researchers Nachega & Chaisson report that 10% of the one million prisoners within the system have active TB. One of their studies found that 75% of newly diagnosed inmates with TB are resistant to at least one drug; 40% of new cases are multidrug-resistant. In 1997, TB accounted for almost half of all Russian prison deaths, and as Bobrik et al. point out in their public health study, the 90% reduction in TB incidence contributed to a consequential fall in the prisoner death rate in the years following 1997. Baussano et al. articulate that concerning statistics like these are especially worrisome because spikes in TB incidence in prisons are linked to corresponding outbreaks in surrounding communities. Additionally, rising rates of incarceration, especially in Central Asian and Eastern European countries like Russia, have been correlated with higher TB rates in civilian populations. Even as the DOTS program is expanded throughout Russian prisons, researchers such as Shin et al. have noted that wide-scale interventions have not had their desired effect, especially with regard to the spread of drug-resistant strains of TB. Contributing factors There are several elements of the Russian prison system that enable the spread of MDR-TB and heighten its severity. Overcrowding in prisons is especially conducive to the spread of tuberculosis; an inmate in a prison hospital has (on average) 3 meters of personal space, and an inmate in a correctional colony has 2 meters. Specialized hospitals and treatment facilities within the prison system, known as TB colonies, are intended to isolate infected prisoners to prevent transmission; however, as Ruddy et al. demonstrate, there are not enough of these colonies to sufficiently protect staff and other inmates. Additionally, many cells lack adequate ventilation, which increases likelihood of transmission. Bobrik et al. have also noted food shortages within prisons, which deprive inmates of the nutrition necessary for healthy functioning. Comorbidity of HIV within prison populations has also been shown to worsen health outcomes. Nachega & Chaisson articulate that while HIV-infected prisoners are not more susceptible MDR-TB infection, they are more likely to progress to serious clinical illness if infected. According to Stern, HIV infection is 75 times more prevalent in Russian prison populations than in the civilian population. Therefore, prison inmates are both more likely to become infected with MDR-TB initially and to experience severe symptoms because of previous exposure to HIV. Shin et al. emphasize another factor in MDR-TB prevalence in Russian prisons: alcohol and substance use. Ruddy et al. showed that risk for MDR-TB is three times higher among recreational drug users than non-users. Shin et al.'s study demonstrated that alcohol usage was linked to poorer outcomes in MDR-TB treatment; they also noted that a majority of subjects within their study (many of whom regularly used alcohol) were nevertheless cured by their aggressive treatment regimen. Non-compliance with treatment plans is often cited as a contributor to MDR-TB transmission and mortality. Indeed, of the 80 newly-released TB-infected inmates in Fry et al.'s study, 73.8% did not report visiting a community dispensary for further treatment. Ruddy et al. cite release from facilities as one of the main causes of interruption in prisoner's TB treatment, in addition to non-compliance within the prison and upon reintegration into civilian life. Fry et al.'s study also listed side effects of TB treatment medications (especially in HIV positive individuals), financial worries, housing insecurities, family problems, and fear of arrest as factors that prevented some prisoners from properly adhering to TB treatment. They also note that some researchers have argued that the short-term gains TB-positive prisoners receive, such as better food or work exclusion, may dis-incentivize becoming cured. In their World Health Organization article, Gelmanova et al. posit that non-adherence to TB treatment indirectly contributes to bacterial resistance. Although ineffective or inconsistent treatment does not "create" resistant strains, mutations within the high bacterial load in non-adherent prisoners can cause resistance. Nachega & Chaisson argue that inadequate TB control programs are the strongest driver of MDR-TB incidence. They note that prevalence of MDR-TB is 2.5 times higher in areas of poorly controlled TB. Russian-based therapy (i.e., not DOTS) has been criticized by Kimerling et al. as "inadequate" in properly controlling TB incidence and transmission. Bobrik et al. note that treatment for MDR-TB is equally inconsistent; the second-line drugs used to treat the prisoners lack specific treatment guidelines, infrastructure, training, or follow-up protocols for prisoners reentering civilian life. Policy impacts As Ruddy et al. note in their scholarly article, Russia's recent penal reforms will greatly reduce the number of inmates inside prison facilities and thus increase the number of ex-convicts integrated into civilian populations. Because the incidence of MDR-TB is strongly predicted by past imprisonment, the health of Russian society will be greatly impacted by this change. Formerly incarcerated Russians will re-enter civilian life and remain within that sphere; as they live as civilians, they will infect others with the contagions they were exposed to in prison. Researcher Vivian Stern argues that the risk of transmission from prison populations to the general public calls for an integration of prison healthcare and national health services to better control both TB and MDR-TB. While second-line drugs necessary for treating MDR-TB are arguably more expensive than a typical regimen of DOTS therapy, infectious disease specialist Paul Farmer posits that the outcome of leaving infected prisoners untreated could cause a massive outbreak of MDR-TB in civilian populations, thereby inflicting a heavy toll on society. Additionally, as MDR-TB spreads, the threat of the emergence of totally-drug-resistant TB becomes increasingly apparent. See also 2007 tuberculosis scare Drug resistance MRSA Vancomycin-resistant enterococcus (VRE) Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis (TDR-TB) Medicines Patent Pool References Notes External links Video: Drug-Resistant TB in Russia 24 July 2007, Woodrow Wilson Center event featuring Salmaan Keshavjee and Murray Feshbach TB Drug Resistance Mutation Database MDR-TB : a story of Hope, Struggle & Triumph MDR-TB (DOTS Plus) protocol followed under RNTCP in India (PDF) "The Strange, Isolated Life of a Tuberculosis Patient in the 21st Century", Buzzfeed Antibiotic-resistant bacteria Pharmaceuticals policy Tuberculosis

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WBZ (1030 AM) is a Class A clear channel radio station licensed to Boston, Massachusetts. Originally started by, and formerly owned for most of its existence by, Westinghouse Broadcasting and its successor CBS Radio, WBZ is owned and operated by iHeartMedia. WBZ transmits using the HD Radio digital format, and its programming is carried on the HD2 digital subchannel of WXKS-FM. WBZ's studios and offices are located on Cabot Road in the Boston suburb of Medford, and its transmitter site is in Hull, Massachusetts. WBZ is the designated Primary Entry Point (PEP) for the Emergency Alert System (EAS) in New England. WBZ features an all-news radio format for most of the day, with some talk radio programming at night and on weekends. Operating with a transmitter power output of 50,000 watts, and employing a directional antenna that sends a majority of its signal westward, the station can be heard during daylight hours throughout much of New England. Under the right conditions, it can be heard as far east as New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada; as far south as Eastern Long Island and Monmouth County, New Jersey; and as far west as the outer suburbs of Hartford, Connecticut and Albany, New York. Its nighttime signal covers at least 38 American states and much of eastern Canada. WBZ was granted its first license by the United States Department of Commerce on September 15, 1921, and was originally located in Springfield, Massachusetts, before moving to Boston in 1931. It is the oldest broadcasting station in New England, and one of the oldest in the United States. Programming WBZ runs an all-news format during the day and a talk radio format at night, and is the current home of radio personality Dan Rea. The station was the home of talk host David Brudnoy for 18 years, until the day before his death in 2004. Other notable personalities included talk show host Bob Kennedy, poet/radio host Dick Summer, disc jockeys Bruce Bradley, Jeff Kaye, Ron Landry and later, Larry Justice, jazz DJ-turned-talkmaster Norm Nathan, late-night talker and humorist Larry Glick, and morning hosts Carl DeSuze, Tom Bergeron and Dave Maynard. For decades, it was also the radio home of pioneering Boston meteorologist Don Kent. WBZ has long been one of the highest-rated stations in the Boston area. It is an affiliate of the CBS News Radio Network, as well as NBC News Radio, ABC News Radio, and AP Radio for national and international news as well as some features. But the bulk of the station's schedule, except some weekend programming, is produced in-house. WBZ is heavily involved in charitable work, including its annual Christmastime fund drive for the Boston Children's Hospital, which it does along with TV station WBZ-TV. History In November 1920, the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company established its first broadcasting station, KDKA, located in its plant in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The station was set up to promote the sale of Westinghouse radio receivers. This initial station proved successful, so in 1921 the company expanded its activities by building three additional stations, beginning with WBZ, and followed by WJZ in Newark, New Jersey (now WABC in New York City) and KYW, originally in Chicago, and now in Philadelphia. 1921–1931: Springfield On September 15, 1921, Westinghouse was issued a Limited Commercial license with the randomly assigned call sign WBZ. The new station initially transmitted on a wavelength of 375 meters (800 kHz), before moving to 360 meters (833 kHz) with a power of 100 watts. It was located at the company's East Springfield facility on Page Boulevard. WBZ's inaugural program on September 19 was a remote broadcast originating from the Eastern States Exposition in West Springfield. When WBZ began operations, there were no specific government standards for what constituted a broadcasting station. A small number of stations were already providing regularly scheduled entertainment broadcasts, most of which operated under Amateur or Experimental licenses. (A prime example was the American Radio & Research Corporation's experimental station, 1XE in Medford Hillside, Massachusetts near Boston, which was relicensed in early 1922 as WGI.) Effective December 1, 1921, the U.S. government formally established regulations to define a broadcasting station, by setting aside two wavelengths — 360 meters for entertainment, and 485 meters (619 kHz) for official weather and other government reports — and requiring the stations to hold a Limited Commercial license. WBZ was one of a handful of stations which already met the new standard, and its initial license was the first Limited Commercial license that had specified broadcasting on the 360-meter wavelength that would be formally designated by the December 1 regulations. By some interpretations, this made WBZ America's first broadcasting station, and in 1923 the Department of Commerce, referring to WBZ, stated that "The first broadcasting license was issued in September, 1921". However, WBZ's priority is not widely recognized, when compared to other stations with earlier heritages, in particular KDKA, WWJ in Detroit, and KQW in San Jose, California (now KCBS in San Francisco). By early 1922, WBZ's studios were set up at the luxurious Hotel Kimball in Metro Center Springfield. Programs consisted of general entertainment and information, including live music (often classical and opera), sports, farm reports, special events, and public affairs programming. Despite being housed in Springfield's top hotel, the station's location in a mid-sized city rendered it somewhat difficult to attract top-flight artists. That prompted Westinghouse to open a remote studio on February 24, 1924, at the Hotel Brunswick in Boston. Because of its wide reach, the station often referred to itself as "WBZ New England", as opposed to associating itself solely with Springfield or Boston. Following the opening of the Boston studio, WBZ expanded its news programming via a partnership with the Boston Herald and Traveler newspapers, and carried pro and college sports broadcasts, including Boston Bruins hockey, Boston Braves baseball, and Harvard Crimson football. WBZ's Bruins broadcasts, which began in early December 1924, made it the first Boston station to broadcast a professional hockey game; the first play-by-play announcer for the hockey broadcasts was local sportswriter Frank Ryan. Its broadcast of the Boston Braves' home opener on April 14, 1925, also made WBZ the first Boston station to broadcast a local major league baseball game; the announcer was comedian (and baseball fan) Joe E. Brown. WBZ increased its transmitter power to 2,000 watts by April 1925. But the station still had difficulty reaching Boston listeners. This led Westinghouse to inaugurate, on August 20, 1925, a 250-watt relay station, WBZA, located in Boston and transmitting on 1240 kHz. Efforts were soon made to change WBZA to a synchronous repeater, transmitting on the same frequency as WBZ, 900 kHz, but the process proved difficult, as the two transmitters often interfered with each other, even in Boston. For nearly a year, while the technology was being perfected, WBZA shifted between the two transmitting frequencies, before finally going to full-time synchronous operation in June 1926. The power of the WBZ transmitter in East Springfield continued to be boosted. On March 31, 1926, it was granted permission to operate with 5,000 watts. By 1927, it was operating with 15,000 watts. Meanwhile, a combination of WBZ's growth and continued difficulties with the WBZA signal led the station to move its Boston studio to the Statler Hotel (now the Boston Park Plaza) on June 1, 1927, and activate a new WBZA transmitter on June 9. On November 11, 1928, under the provisions of the Federal Radio Commission's (FRC) General Order 40, WBZ and WBZA were assigned exclusive national use of a "clear channel" frequency, 990 kHz. Amidst the technical changes, WBZ also began sharing its programs by network with other radio stations. By 1925, it often shared programs with WJZ in New York City (which was transferred from Westinghouse to the Radio Corporation of America in May 1923), and a WBZ program commemorating the 150th anniversary of Paul Revere's "Midnight Ride" was also fed to WRC in Washington, D.C. and WGY in Schenectady, New York. This paved the way for the station to become a charter affiliate of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) on November 15, 1926, carrying the WJZ-originated NBC Blue Network beginning on January 1, 1927. With this change the station also began running commercials for the first time. Previously Westinghouse had financed its stations through the profits from radio receiver sales. During this time, the station also became known for having its own troupe of actors and actresses who produced and performed live radio plays: the "WBZ Players" made their radio debut in the spring of 1928, and continued into the 1930s. 1931–1956: NBC affiliation By 1931, Westinghouse had concluded that WBZ's primary market was Boston, so on February 21 the station began using a new transmitter site located at Millis, Massachusetts. The site was chosen to provide service not only to Boston but also to Worcester and Providence, Rhode Island. At the same time WBZA was transferred from Boston to using the East Springfield transmitter, which now operated with 1,000 watts and relayed WBZ's programming to an area that was inadequately served by the Millis transmitter. The Boston studios (which now served as WBZ's main studios) moved as well, relocating on July 1, 1931, to the Hotel Bradford. (Some programs continued to originate from the WBZA Springfield studios at the Hotel Kimball.) WBZ offered its first Boston Marathon coverage on April 19, 1931. The following year, Westinghouse leased WBZ and WBZA to NBC, while maintaining ownership of the broadcast licenses. During the late 1930s, WBZ began to offer more local news coverage. Previously, only major events were regularly covered. NBC's management of WBZ and WBZA ended on July 1, 1940, and Westinghouse resumed full control over the stations. Shortly afterward, on July 27, WBZ relocated its transmitter site once more, to its current location in Hull. A directional antenna array was constructed, consisting of two 520-foot- (160-meter) tall towers. The move was twofold: the Millis site, 25 miles (40 kilometers) southwest of Boston, had not provided as strong a signal to the market as was intended, even after power increases to 25,000 watts in 1931 and 50,000 watts in 1933. A key disadvantage of the Millis site was that the signal had to travel over land to Boston. In contrast the Hull site featured a highly conductive salt water path to the city. The Hull site also provided ample space for WBZ's shortwave station, which had been founded at Springfield as W1XAZ in November 1929. It later operated from Millis as W1XK, ultimately becoming WBOS. WPIT, the shortwave station operated by KDKA in Pittsburgh, also moved its transmitters to Hull at this time, and in 1941 its operations were folded into WBOS. The shortwave transmitters soon began carrying government-provided programming (a service that ultimately evolved into the Voice of America) that would remain the shortwave station's primary function until leaving the air permanently in 1953. The Hull site would also serve as the home for WBZ's first FM sister station, which operated from there as W1XK, W67B, and then WBZ-FM on several frequencies off and on from November 7, 1940, until November 21, 1948. Under the provisions of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement, on March 29, 1941, WBZ's "clear channel" assignment was shifted to its present frequency, 1030 kHz. WBZ transferred from the Blue Network to the NBC Red Network on June 15, 1942. This allowed the station to retain a link with NBC after the Justice Department ordered NBC to divest of one its two radio networks. (It opted to sell the Blue Network, which became ABC, the American Broadcasting Company.) Like other major-market network-affiliated radio stations of the time, WBZ also broadcast a few hours of local programming, including Vaudeville-like musical performances from Max Zides, Tom Currier, and others, during those hours when NBC wasn't feeding programs to affiliates. The station expanded into television on June 9, 1948, when WBZ-TV (channel 4) first signed on as an NBC television affiliate. Westinghouse built new studios at 1170 Soldiers Field Road in the Allston section of Boston to house both the radio and television stations, with the new facility opening on June 17 of that year. (Parts of the new facility containing the master control and TV transmitter had already been in use). The transmission tower built at the studios for WBZ-TV would also replace the Hull site as WBZ-FM's transmitter. It remained there until Hurricane Carol destroyed the tower on August 31, 1954. A power outage caused by the storm disrupted WBZ's programming for three minutes. Don Kent started as a meteorologist at the station in 1951, for a tenure that would endure for over three decades. The following year, WBZ expanded its broadcasting schedule to 24-hour-a-day programming. 1956–1985: becoming a full-service powerhouse During the 1950s, entertainment shows began moving to television, with the amount of music programming on radio increasing as a result. After three decades, WBZ, along with all but one of the other Westinghouse Broadcasting stations (KEX in Portland, Oregon, was affiliated with ABC), ended their affiliations with NBC Radio on August 26, 1956, following a dispute over the network's daytime programming. That prompted the station to program middle of the road music around the clock. The best known host in WBZ's history, Dave Maynard, joined the station in 1958. Another beloved WBZ host was Carl DeSuze, who joined WBZ in April 1942. He remained at the station until 1985. DeSuze was the station's morning man for over three decades. Another popular WBZ voice was longtime news anchor Gary LaPierre, who began at the station in September 1964. At the outset, WBZ's full-service radio format leaned toward middle of the road music, but also featuring an increasing amount of rock and roll. Within a few years, after the demise of top 40 on WCOP (1150 AM, now WWDJ) in 1962 and with WMEX (1510 AM) as the lone top 40 in Boston, WBZ switched to a full-time top 40 format. The combination of hit music, popular hosts, powerful signal, and top-notch news coverage, made WBZ the dominant radio station in the market. It continued to run public affairs programming including "Shape-up Boston," "Stomp Smoking" and the 1969 "T-Group 15," a project produced by public affairs director Jerry Wishnow in which nine black and white school-decentralization activists in a room for 22 hours with microphones and cameras until compromises were reached. The edited broadcast included four hours of audience reaction with the participants and was aired on WBZ for 15 hours without commercials. WBZ re-established an FM station on December 15, 1957, transmitting from the brand new WBZ-TV tower in Needham, operating at 106.7 MHz. This incarnation of WBZ-FM provided limited simulcasts of the AM station and largely had its own programming, including classical music and Ed Beech's Just Jazz program from WRVR in New York City. The station remained in mono through this period, but beginning on December 31, 1971, an automated top 40 format was launched in stereo, apparently in an attempt to blunt the popularity of WRKO (680 AM). WBZ-FM was sold by Group W (which Westinghouse had rebranded its broadcasting division in 1963) to Greater Media in 1981, ultimately becoming WMJX. WBZA continued to serve Springfield with a simulcast of WBZ's programming until July 1962, when the East Springfield transmitter was shut down to allow Westinghouse to purchase WINS in New York City, as the company already owned seven AM radio stations — the maximum allowed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) at that time. The closure of WBZA ended over 40 years of transmission from East Springfield. The towers continued to stand atop the former Westinghouse plant in East Springfield for five more decades, until their removal on November 5, 2011 to accommodate redevelopment at the site of the factory. By then, they were among the oldest broadcast facilities still standing. Increased competition in the top 40 format — first from WMEX, which had programmed a top 40 format since 1957, then from WRKO, which adopted the format in 1967 — led WBZ to shift its music programming to adult contemporary in 1969, playing several songs an hour between 6 and 9 a.m. (though it was not unheard of for Carl DeSuze to play only one, if any, song an hour during his show), 10 to 12 songs an hour between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m., and 4 to 6 songs an hour between 4 and 7 p.m. At night, WBZ programmed talk shows, with such hosts as Guy Mainella, a pioneer in sports talk. Also heard were Jerry Williams in the evenings and Larry Glick's overnight show (the latter two held the same popular shifts at WMEX years earlier). Music was also programmed during the day on weekends. This format was similar to sister station KDKA in Pittsburgh. By 1978, Mainella, who had been the host of Calling All Sports since its inception on July 15, 1969, had been replaced with Bob Lobel and Upton Bell. For much of its time as a full-service AC, WBZ used the slogan "The Spirit of New England" (made famous by a 1988 JAM Creative Productions jingle package of the same name). Beginning in the late 1960s, WBZ made a major push into live play-by-play sports. From 1966 through 1979, and again from 1991 through 1994, WBZ was home to radio broadcasts of New England Patriots football. This brought Gil Santos to the station. In the fall of 1969, WBZ regained the radio rights to the Boston Bruins (which it had lost in 1951), and also began carrying Boston Celtics basketball. The Bruins stayed through the 1977-78 season. The Celtics left WBZ after the team's 1980-81 NBA Championship season. During the years when the Bruins and Celtics were both on WBZ and both playing at the same time, one of them (usually the Celtics) would be heard on WBZ-FM. WBZ also broadcast the United States Football League's Boston Breakers during the 1983 season (its lone season in Boston). Also heard were Boston College Eagles football from 1987 through 1991. Starting in 1972, WBZ's football broadcasts featured the play-by-play team of Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti. During the 1970s, WBZ was one of a number of clear channel AM stations that petitioned to be allowed to increase their power. WBZ would have used 500,000 watts transmitting from Provincetown, Massachusetts, to reach all of New England during the day. A backlash from smaller stations led to the petition being denied and station protections limited to a 750-mile radius. WBZ became an affiliate of ABC Radio on January 1, 1980; ABC was the descendant of the Blue Network, which WBZ had dropped 38 years earlier. The ABC affiliation allowed the station to begin airing Paul Harvey's daily broadcasts, which were previously heard in Boston on WEZE (1260 AM, now WBIX) and, later, WECB, the carrier current station at Emerson College. Later in the year, a schedule shuffle ended Carl DeSuze's run on the morning show (which was taken over by Dave Maynard), and he was moved to middays; the overnight show was then taken over by Bob Raleigh, who had been WBZ's midday host since June 1976. Calling All Sports was also dropped in favor of an early evening talk show, hosted at various points by David Finnegan, Lou Marcel, and Peter Meade. Former overnight host Larry Glick was moved first into late evenings and then into afternoons, and ultimately left the station in May 1987. 1985–2003: becoming a news/talk station In the 1980s, WBZ began to cut back on its music programming; for instance, an expanded afternoon news block was launched on December 2, 1985. The following year, David Brudnoy began to host the station's late-evening talk show. In June 1990, WBZ announced that it would replace Brudnoy with Tom Snyder's ABC Radio talk show, with his last show airing July 13; listener complaints led the station to return Brudnoy to the air by the end of September. It was also late in 1985 that American Top 40 moved to WBZ from WROR (98.5 FM, now WBZ-FM), remaining on WBZ until the program moved to WZOU (94.5 FM, now WJMN) in 1988. WBZ continued its full-service AC format until January 1991, when Gulf War coverage led the station to stop playing music on a regular basis and adopt a full-time news/talk format. The format change became permanent on March 4, 1991; concurrently, WBZ began promoting itself as "Boston's News Station". WBZ has, from time to time, played music on special occasions even after the change to news/talk; the station still offered 24 hours of Christmas music beginning on Christmas Eve through 1995, and it carried the audio of the Boston Pops' Fourth of July concert and fireworks display from 2003 through 2016; additionally, WBZ, along with sister stations WODS (103.3 FM, now WBGB) and WZLX (100.7 FM), carried the Beatles Let It Be... Naked album premiere on November 13, 2003. When WEEI (590 AM, now WEZE) dropped its all-news format for all-sports programming in September 1991, WBZ began a marketing campaign to convince former WEEI listeners to switch to WBZ; this was followed on January 13, 1992, with a shift to all-news programming during drive time (5 to 10 a.m. and 3 to 7 p.m.). On September 28 the station became an all-news station from 5 a.m.–7 p.m. following the end of the two midday talk shows hosted by Tom Bergeron, the morning host prior to the launch of the morning news block (the noon hour, which separated the Bergeron shifts, was already occupied by a news program); the station's nighttime programming continued to be filled by David Brudnoy and Bob Raleigh's talk shows. Initially, the new format was not carried over to WBZ's weekend schedule; while a weekend morning news block was launched, the weekend afternoon schedule remained devoted to specialty talk shows until September 3, 1994, when the station introduced information-oriented sports shows, branded as WBZ Sports Saturday and WBZ Sports Sunday. WBZ's sports commitment also included the return of the Boston Bruins Radio Network to the station in 1995; however, the station lost the New England Patriots to WBCN (104.1 FM, now WWBX) starting with the 1995 season, and for several seasons afterward WBZ was an affiliate of the New York Giants Radio Network. NFL regulations only allowed WBZ to carry Giants' games not played at the same time as Patriots' games. As with the weekday lineup, talk continued to be programmed at night, including three of the specialty shows (Kid Company on Saturday evenings and a revived Calling All Sports and Looking at the Law on Sunday evenings), a Saturday night talk show hosted by Lovell Dyett, and an overnight show with former WHDH (850 AM, now WEEI) host Norm Nathan. WBZ added an affiliation with the CBS Radio Network on March 6, 1995, making it one of a handful of stations to carry both CBS Radio and ABC Radio (however, the station ceased an affiliation with CNN Radio). Five months later, on August 1, Westinghouse announced that it was purchasing CBS, a transaction that was completed on November 24; as a result, WBZ came under the CBS Radio banner. 76 years of Westinghouse ownership would come to an end on December 1, 1997, when the Westinghouse Electric Corporation changed its name to CBS Corporation. CBS' radio stations, including WBZ, were spun off into a new public company, Infinity Broadcasting Corporation, in 1998 (a move that removed the Group W name from the station's license); Viacom announced its acquisition of the publicly held stake in Infinity on August 15, 2000 (shortly after it merged with CBS Corporation), a transaction completed on February 21, 2001 (though Viacom, and CBS before the merger, had always held a majority stake in Infinity). Even after coming under common ownership with the CBS Radio Network, it would not be until 2000 before CBS' hourly newscast replaced ABC's during WBZ's overnight programming. As its ownership shifted, WBZ also continued to modify its program schedule. After Norm Nathan's death on October 29, 1996, his Friday night/Saturday morning show was taken over by Steve LeVeille, and his Saturday night/Sunday morning show went to former WSSH-FM (99.5, now WCRB) morning host Jordan Rich. Bob Lobel (by now WBZ-TV's sports director) and Upton Bell returned to the station on May 17, 1997, for a Sunday night sports show (with Calling All Sports moving to Saturdays). Another sports show, The McDonoughs on Sports with Sean McDonough and Will McDonough aired during the 1997 NFL season as a lead-in to CBS Radio Sports' broadcast of Monday Night Football, preempting David Brudnoy's program; the first two hours of his Friday show were also preempted in favor of a cooking show, Olives' Table with Todd English, from August 1997 through August 1998. The Sports Saturday and Sports Sunday blocks were discontinued in April 1998 in favor of an expansion of the all-news format to weekend afternoons; Calling All Sports and The Bob Lobel Show were not affected, though Lobel's show was replaced with Sunday Sports Page with Dan Roche and Steve DeOssie that July after a management-ordered cut-off of a call on the July 12 broadcast drove Lobel to resign from his show on July 13. Bob Raleigh began to cut back his on-air presence during the late 1990s, with Kevin Sowyrda taking over the Sunday night/Monday morning slot for a time; he eventually retired on June 9, 1999, with Steve LeVeille taking his place in the overnight hours and Jordan Rich taking over the Friday night/Saturday morning show. Shortly afterward, David Brudnoy gave up the 10 p.m.-12 a.m. portion of his show; this timeslot was given to Lowell Sun columnist and former WLLH (1400 AM) host Paul Sullivan. For a time starting in the fall of 2001, the station relaunched the 1 p.m. hour of the Midday News as the WBZ Business Hour, with an increased focus on business news; this program was similar to one on Los Angeles sister station KNX (WBZ has since returned to regular news in the 1 p.m. hour). Later that year, weekend sports talk was abandoned completely, with Calling All Sports, which had been a leased-time program owned and produced by Norm Resha since its revival in 1991, moving to WTKK (96.9 FM) on December 2. WBZ then launched a Saturday evening talk show hosted by Pat Desmarais, while a simulcast of the CBS television program 60 Minutes was added on Sunday evenings on January 13, 2002. 2003–2017 David Brudnoy announced on September 23, 2003, that he had skin cancer (he had also been fighting AIDS since 1994); a farewell broadcast aired on December 8, 2004, and he died the next day, with tribute shows airing over the following two nights. Per Brudnoy's wish, Paul Sullivan took over the 8 p.m.–midnight time slot in January 2005, with the 7 p.m. hour given to an expansion of the WBZ Afternoon News. That March, WBZ began streaming its programming on the web, along with Infinity's other news and talk stations. When Viacom split into two companies on December 31, 2005, Infinity became part of the new CBS Corporation and reverted to the CBS Radio name. That same day, WBZ dropped Paul Harvey after the station's contract to carry his broadcasts expired (however, despite coming under the CBS Radio banner once more, the station still maintains an affiliation with ABC News Radio); in addition, the station dropped Looking at the Law, a legal advice show hosted by Neil Chayet, after its January 8, 2006, broadcast in favor of brokered financial programs. Longtime morning news anchor Gary LaPierre, who anchored WBZ's morning newscasts for nearly 40 years, retired from WBZ at the end of 2006. Governor Mitt Romney declared the day of his final broadcast, December 29, 2006, "Gary LaPierre Day". Romney, Senator Ted Kennedy, Mayor Tom Menino, former Mayor Ray Flynn, former Governor Michael Dukakis, and other notables called in during his final broadcast. LaPierre was replaced on the WBZ Morning News with Ed Walsh, a former morning host at WOR in New York City who had been anchoring at WCBS, starting with the 9:30 a.m. half-hour of the December 29 Morning News. LaPierre continues to be heard on the station on occasion through voiceover work. Meanwhile, evening host Paul Sullivan was fighting a brain tumor, which was discovered on November 22, 2004—shortly before Brudnoy's death. After undergoing several surgeries over the next two and a half years, Sullivan announced on June 21, 2007, that he would step down from the evening talk show, with his final show, led by Jordan Rich, airing on June 28; he died on September 9. Rich and WBZ-TV reporter Dan Rea served as substitute hosts in the interim; on October 1, Rea, who in the 1970s served as a weekend host for the station before moving to television in 1976, became the new host of the show, renamed NightSide with Dan Rea. On December 31, 2008, WBZ let go overnight talk show host Steve LeVeille, sports anchor Tom Cuddy and Saturday night talk show hosts Lovell Dyett and Pat Desmarais. LeVeille was replaced by Jon Grayson (whose show originates from St. Louis sister station KMOX), while Dyett and Desmarais were replaced by the syndicated Kim Komando Show. After listener efforts were made to restore LeVeille and Dyett to the station, WBZ announced on January 27, 2009, that LeVeille would reassume his shift on February 2, while Dyett would host a half-hour early morning public affairs program on Sundays. Cuddy would subsequently return to the station as well that May. While Jordan Rich retained his weekend overnight show, the 2–5 a.m. portion of the program began to be simulcast on sister station WCCO in Minneapolis–Saint Paul. Long-time sports director Gil Santos retired after 38 years with the station on January 30, 2009; after a week-long fill-in by Bob Lobel, Walt Perkins took over as morning sports anchor on February 7. The Bruins once again left WBZ following the 2008-09 season, after CBS Radio launched a third incarnation of WBZ-FM at 98.5 MHz as an all-sports station, which also took the Patriots from the former WBCN. (The station simulcast WBZ-FM's broadcast of Game 7 of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals between the Bruins and the Vancouver Canucks, allowing fans in areas of New England not served by a Bruins radio network affiliate to hear the game; additionally, WBZ briefly carried Bruins games that conflict with WBZ-FM's Patriots broadcasts, a function that has since moved to WZLX. WBZ also carried a Boston Celtics broadcast on January 11, 2014, due to conflicts with both a Patriots game on current Celtics flagship station WBZ-FM and a Bruins game on WZLX.) Ed Walsh retired after four years as morning news anchor on November 30, 2010; Rod Fritz then took over as interim anchor (with Gary LaPierre guest anchoring for a week in early December), with Joe Mathieu, formerly of Sirius XM Radio's P.O.T.U.S. channel, taking over on May 16, 2011. The station added a monthly one-hour interview show hosted by Mathieu, WBZ Newswatch, on January 26, 2012. Overnight host Steve LeVeille retired from WBZ on June 8, 2012; after a year of rotating guest hosts that included Jennifer Brien, Morgan White Jr., Bradley Jay, and Dean Johnson, Brien was named the new host on June 25, 2013. On October 3, 2013, the station announced it was canceling the Jen Brien Show with immediate effect. Bradley Jay then took over the overnight show, renamed Jay Talking. WBZ, along with fellow CBS Radio all-news stations WINS in New York City, KYW in Philadelphia, and WNEW-FM in Washington, D.C., added an affiliation with Westwood One News in 2014. Jordan Rich ended his weekend talk show on July 3, 2016, but continues to do feature segments for the station. Joe Mathieu left WBZ on April 28, 2017; that August, the station announced Josh Binswanger, who hosted Kid Company on the station in the early 1990s and has also worked for WBZ-TV, as its new morning news anchor, while Mathieu joined WGBH (89.7 FM) as its morning anchor. By the end of 2017, the staff included Deb Lawler and Josh Binswanger as morning anchors; Mary Blake and Rod Fritz as midday anchors; Jeff Brown and Laurie Kirby as afternoon anchors; and Dan Rea and Bradley Jay as nighttime talk show hosts. 2017–present; end of Westinghouse heritage and sale to iHeartMedia On February 2, 2017, CBS Radio announced it would merge with Entercom (which locally owned WEEI, WEEI-FM, WKAF, WRKO and WAAF); the sale would be conducted using a Reverse Morris Trust so that it would be tax-free. While CBS shareholders retained a 72% ownership stake in the combined company, Entercom was the surviving entity, separating WBZ radio (both 1030 and FM 98.5) from WBZ-TV and WSBK-TV; for the first time since WBZ-TV's inception in 1948, WBZ radio and television would be under separate ownership. On October 10, CBS Radio announced that as part of the process of obtaining regulatory approval of the merger, WBZ would be one of sixteen stations that would be divested by Entercom, along with sister stations WBZ-FM and WZLX, as well as WRKO and WKAF (WBMX, WODS, WEEI AM/FM and WAAF would be retained by Entercom, while WBZ-FM would be traded to Beasley Broadcast Group in exchange for WMJX). On November 1, iHeartMedia announced that they would acquire WBZ (AM), WZLX, WRKO and WKAF. To meet ownership limits set by the FCC, WKOX would be divested to the Ocean Stations Trust in preparation for a permanent buyer. The merger was approved on November 9, 2017, and was consummated on the 17th. iHeart then began operating WBZ, WKAF, and WZLX under a local marketing agreement. The sale of WBZ, WRKO, WZLX, and WKAF to iHeart was completed on December 19, 2017, ending WBZ's 96 years of lineage under the same ownership. As part of the sale, CBS Corporation entered into a long-term license agreement with iHeartMedia and Beasley Broadcast Group for continued usage of the call sign on both WBZ and WBZ-FM; corporate successor ViacomCBS currently holds the trademark for "WBZ" as a brand. On March 30, 2018, iHeartMedia announced that anchor Rod Fritz was let go. On August 25, 2018, after 70 years, WBZ left the Soldiers Field Road studios (which continue to house WBZ-TV) and moved to facilities on Cabot Road in Medford, putting it in the same building as iHeartMedia's other Boston stations. On January 15, 2020, as part of an iHeartMedia restructuring, WBZ laid off political commentator Jon Keller (who remains with WBZ-TV), morning news anchor Deb Lawler, overnight host Bradley Jay, and sports anchor Tom Cuddy. Hall of Fame In February 2007, the station created the WBZ Radio Hall of Fame. Gary LaPierre was the first inductee, on February 16; Gil Santos was the second when he was inducted on July 9, 2009, and Dave Maynard was the third with his induction on September 15, 2009. Carl DeSuze became the fourth inductee (and the first to be inducted posthumously) on September 19, 2011, coinciding with WBZ's 90th anniversary. Awards WBZ received the 2010 Marconi award in the legendary stations category from the National Association of Broadcasters. In 2014, WBZ, along with sister station at the time, WBZ-TV, received a Peabody Award for its coverage of the Boston Marathon bombing. The station has won numerous Regional Edward R. Murrow Awards for excellence in journalism. In 2017, awards included Overall Excellence, Best Newscast, Excellence in Social Media, and Excellence in Writing. In 2016, WBZ went on to win the National Edward R. Murrow Award for Best Newscast. Notable on-air staff David Brudnoy Neil Chayet—Looking at the Law Larry Glick Gary LaPierre Dan Rea Jordan Rich Charles Osgood—The Osgood File Jerry Williams Notes and references External links FCC History Cards for WBZ All-news radio stations in the United States Radio stations established in 1921 BZ (AM) Westinghouse Broadcasting IHeartMedia radio stations 1921 establishments in Massachusetts Clear-channel radio stations

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Chiapa de Corzo () is a small city and municipality situated in the west-central part of the Mexican state of Chiapas. Located in the Grijalva River valley of the Chiapas highlands, Chiapa de Corzo lies some 15 km (9.3 mi) to the east of the state capital, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Chiapa has been occupied since at least 1400 BCE, with a major archeological site which reached its height between 700 BCE and 200 CE. It is important because the earliest inscribed date, the earliest form of hieroglyphic writing and the earliest Mesoamerican tomb burial have all been found here. Chiapa is also the site of the first Spanish city founded in Chiapas in 1528. The "de Corzo" was added to honor Liberal politician Angel Albino Corzo. Demographics As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 87,603. As of 2010, the city of Chiapa de Corzo had a population of 45,077. Other than the city of Chiapa de Corzo, the municipality had 404 localities, the largest of which (with 2010 populations in parentheses) were: Jardínes del Grijalva (2,881), classified as urban, and Julián Grajales (2,394), Salvador Urbina (1,653), Las Flechas (1,579), Galecio Narcía (1,553), El Palmar (San Gabriel) (1,477), Juan del Grijalva (1,428), Ignacio Allende (1,396), Venustiano Carranza (1,301), Narciso Mendoza (1,193), Nicolás Bravo (1,184), América Libre (1,073), and Nuevo Carmen Tonapac (1,010), classified as rural. Town and municipality The town/municipality is located about fifteen km from the state capital of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and connected to the city of San Cristóbal de las Casas via Federal Highway 190 also known as the Panamerican Highway. The town is located along the Grijalva River and has one of the main docks along this waterway. The town is laid out in Spanish style, centered on a very large plaza which the municipality claims is larger than the Zocalo, or main plaza of Mexico City. (sec. This plaza has a number of important features. The largest and best known is the La Pila fountain. This was constructed in 1562 in Moorish style, made of brick in the form of a diamond. The structure is attributed to Dominican brother Rodrigo de León. It measures fifty two meters in circumference and twelve meters in height. It has eight arches and a cylindrical tower which occasionally functioned as a watchtower. Another important feature is the La Pochota kapok tree. According to tradition, the Spanish town was founded around this tree. The last feature is a clock tower which was constructed in the 1950s. The town's main structures are centered on this plaza, including the municipal palace and the former home of Liberal governor Angel Albino Corzo, for whom the town is partially named. One side of the plaza is taken by the “portales” a series of arches initially built in the 18th century, which contain a number of businesses. Unlike many towns, the main church does not face this plaza. It is set back from it about a block. The Santo Domingo church and former monastery is the largest structure in the town, set on a small hill overlooking the river.(sectorchiapas) It is locally known as the “Iglesia Grande” or Big Church. The structure was built in the second half of the 16th century and attributed to Pedro de Barrientos and Juan Alonso. The church is one of the best preserved from the 16th century in Chiapas. It has three naves, a coffered ceiling and cupolas above the presbytery and intersection. It is based on the Moorish churches of the Seville region in Spain, but it also has Gothic, Renaissance and Neoclassical influences. Its main bell tower has the largest bells in the country. The main altar of the church is only about two decades old and made of cedar, designed in Puebla. The entire piece is supposed to be gilded but so far only a small area in the upper part has had this treatment. The gold used here is 24 carat from Italy and measures two meters by eighty centimeters. The work cost 150,000 pesos, which was collected through raffles and donations for the project. To finish the work, another half a million pesos is needed. Other images in the church include an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, Saint Joseph, the Archangel Michael, Saint Dominic and Saint Sebastian. The church complex is partially maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH). To the side of the Big Church is the former Dominican monastery. This structure has been restored to house exhibition halls, including those associated with the Museo de la Laca (Lacquer Museum). The most important craft in the municipality is the working of wood, often with these pieces glazed in lacquer. One item is the masks used for traditional dances such as Parachicos. Another is the popular musical instrument the marimba. Lacquer is used on wooden items and other things such as gourds. It is decorative, often with intricate designs. This craft is locally called “laca.” Other important churches in the town include the Calvario and the San Sebastian. The Calvario Church is from the 17th century. It was remodeled in Gothic Revival architecture at the beginning of the 19th century. Its interior conserves a wooden relief which was part of the Santo Domingo Church. San Sebastian is a church in ruins located on the San Gregorio hill. It was constructed in the 17th century when the city was at its height. It had three naves separated by archways. However, only its apse and facade remain with elements of Moorish, Renaissance and Baroque elements. The municipality Chiapa de Corzo is the local governing authority for 83 other communities, all of which are considered rural for a total territory of 906.7km2. These communities include Julián Grajales, Las Flechas, Salvador Urbina, El Palmar San Gabriel, Caleció Narcia, Ignacio Allende, Venustiano Carranza and Nicolás Bravo. ) Twenty three percent of the municipality's land is communally owned in ejidos with the rest either privately owned or parkland. The municipality borders the municipalities of Soyaló, Osumacinta, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Suchiapa, Villaflores, Zinacantán, Ixtapa, Acala and Villa Corzo. The municipality has 233.55 km of principal roadways, divided among rural roads managed by SCT, the Comisión Estatal de Campinos, the Secretaría de Obras Públicas, Desarrollo Rural, Defensa Nacional and the Comisión Nacional del Agua. Throughout the municipality, festivals, music and cuisine are similar. The Festival of the Señor de El Calvario is a social and religious event which occurs on 7 October. It honors an image of Christ with masses, popular dances, fireworks and amusement rides along with cultural and sporting events. The Fiesta Grande is celebrated from 15 to 23 January and it is the most important for the year. The marimba is the most often heard instrument at festivals and parties. The main dishes include stews with potatoes and squash seeds, pork with rice and tamales. Cochito is pork cooked in an adobo sauce. It is popular throughout the state but important in Chiapa de Corzo for the Comida Grande which is served during the Festival of San Sebastian in January. Another is a beef dish where the meat is dried then fried then served with a sauce made from squash seeds, green tomatoes and achiote. Typical sweets are also made with squash seeds. A typical cold drink is pozol. Historically, the dominant indigenous ethnicity has been the Zoques and there are still Zoque communities in the municipality. As of 2005, there were 2,899 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total of over 60,000. Most of the municipality's population is young with 64% under the age of thirty and the average age of twenty one. The rate of population growth is just over three percent, which is above the state average of 2.06%. The population of the municipality is expected to double within twenty three years. Over 48% of the population lives in the city proper and the rest live in the 276 rural communities. Population density is at 67 inhabitants per square kilometers, below the regional average of 75/km2 but above the state average of 52. The average woman has 2.89 children which is below the state average of 3.47. Over 76% of the population is Catholic with about 13percent belonging to a Protestant or other Christian group. Illiteracy as of 2000 was at just under twenty percent, down from just under twenty five percent in 1990. Of those over 15 years of age, just under 25% have not completed primary school, about 17% with primary completed and over 35% having education above the primary level. According to Consejo Nacional de Población (CONAPO) the municipality has a high rate of socioeconomic marginalization, despite the fact that it is between the two least marginalized municipalities in the state, Tuxtla Gutiérrez and San Cristóbal. As of 2005, there were 16,327 residences. Just over 84% of homes are owned by their residents, with an average occupancy of 4.62 people per home, which is about state average. Over 28% of homes have dirt floors and about 64% have cement. About 62% of homes have cinderblock walls, and roofs are either made of tile (about 40%) and or a slab of concrete (about 30%). About 95% of homes have electricity, over 70% have running water and over 77% have sewerage, all above state average. Over 35% of the municipality's working population is in agriculture. Of these, about a third do not receive any salary for their work. Principal crops include corn, peanuts, sorghum, cotton, bananas, mangos, melons, jocote (Spondias purpurea), chard, lettuce and onions. Livestock includes cattle, pigs and domestic fowl as well as beekeeping. Fishing is limited to species such as mojarra and catfish. Just over 20% of the population is dedicated to industry, construction and transportation. The main industry is the Nestlé plant. There are also plants that manufacture plywood and bricks. There is also some handcraft workshops. Over 41% of the population is dedicated to commerce, services and tourism. One of the main tourist attractions for the municipality is the Sumidero Canyon, with the municipal docks on the Grijalva River mostly serving tour boats into the National Park up to the La Angostura Dam. Most commerce is small stores and commercial centers for local needs and some for tourism. Services include hotels, auto repair and professional services. There are three hotels with seventy nine rooms. The Fiesta Grande de Enero The Fiesta Grande de Enero (Great January Feast) takes place from 4 to 23 January every year in Chiapa de Corzo, to honor local patron saints Our Lord of Esquipulas, Anthony the Great and Saint Sebastian. The festival has been included in UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists on November 16, 2010, listed as "Parachicos in the traditional January feast of Chiapa de Corzo". Since then, the event has experienced a surge in interest, making the Dance of the Parachicos the highlight. However, this has not assured the survival of the event or of the Parachicos dancers. There are fewer dancers than in the past, and many of the younger generation are not interested in the time it takes to carve a traditional mask from wood then lacquer it. The Fiesta Grande de Enero is a celebration which joins a number of events which all happen in the month of January. Originally, these were the feast days of patron saints and other figures, including a Christ figure called the Our Lord of Esquipulas, Anthony the Great and Saint Sebastian. Since then, it has developed to include other events and overall it is meant to give thanks for what has been received over the past year. On 8 January, the Fiesta Grande is announced and the first of the dances, by dancers called “Chuntas,” is performed. The feast day of the Our Lord of Esquipulas is on January 15, who is honored where he is kept at the Señor de Milagros Church. On 16 January the festival of Saint Sebastian is announced. 17 January is dedicated to San Antonio Abad with a parade of Parachicos. On 18 January, the Parachicos visit the graves of deceased patrons. On 19 January the festival of Saint Sebastian is announced. The 20th is dedicated to this saint as well, with activities starting early and foods such as pepita con tasajo to the public. On the 21 of January a naval battle takes place on the Grijalva River, which consists of a spectacle using thousands of fireworks. This tradition began in 1599, when Pedro de Barrientos, vicar of the Santo Domingo Church, encouraged the development of fireworks making. He came up with the naval battle idea as a diversion and over time it became a way to fascinate visitors. Today, the battle is a recreation of the Battle of Puerto Arturo which occurred on 21 January 1906, by a group of local firework makers. On 22 January, there is a parade with floats. This day is marked with confetti and mariachis along with various types of dancers. The last day, the 23rd is marked by a parade of dancers. Then there is a mass. During these last hours, the drums and flutes play a melancholy tune as the fireworks ends and the streets quiet. The Parachicos cry during their mass as the festival ends. The traditional food during this time is pork with rice and pepita con tasajo. Although the Parachicos are the best known and recognized of the dancers, there are actually three types. All refer back to a story that takes place in the colonial era. According to legend, Doña María de Angula was a rich Spanish woman who traveled in search of a cure for a mysterious paralytic illness suffered by her son, which no doctor could cure. When she arrived here, she was directed to a curandero, or local healer called a namandiyuguá. After examining the boy, he instructed his mother to bathe him in the waters of a small lake called Cumbujuya, after which he was miraculously cured. To distract and amuse the boy, a local group disguised themselves as Spaniards with masks and began to dance showing “para el chico” which means “for the boy.” According to one version of the story, this is what cured the child. The tradition of these dancers began in 1711, leading the Spanish to call the event “para el chico”, which eventually evolved into Parachicos. The term is also used to refer to the best known of the dancers of the Fiesta Grande. The Parachicos dress in a mask, a helmet or wig made of ixtle, a Saltillo style sarape. The mask is carved of wood and decorated with lacquer to mimic a Spanish face. Originally the masks had beards, but over time they evolved and many have an almost childlike look. The ixtle head covering is supposed to mimic blonde hair. The dancers carry a type of maraca made of metal called chinchin to make noise along with the taping of their boot heels. These carry a guitar and/or whip (the latter used by encomenderos in the colonial period). The dancers use the whips to lightly tap children, youths, old men and even some women. These dancers appear a number of times during the days of the Fiesta Grande. These processions visit the various churches on their path, which are decorated with branches, on which are hung breads, sweets, fruits and plastic decorations. Accompanying the Parachicos or dancing on their own is another type of dancer called “chuntas.” These are men dressed as women as the word chunta means maid or servant. These figures represent the “servants” of Doña María. Most of the men dress in shirts and long skirts. The two types of dancers appear on several occasions during the days of the festival dancing and marching to pipes, drums and other instruments. The dance reenacts the search for relief from a pain and suffering, including hunger. The dancers distribute food and small gifts for this reason. The route is lined by spectators who hope to receive some of the gifts that the dancers distribute. The “patron” of the dances and processions has been the Nigenda family for about seventy years, whose house at 10 Alvaro Obregon Avenue becomes the meeting point for the dancers during the festival. At the back of the patio of this house, there is an altar which the portraits of two deceased members of the family Atilano Negenda and Arsenio Nigenda. The latter ceded the charge of the dance to the current patron, Guadalupe Rubicel Gomez Nigenda in 1999. The Parachicos dress in their costumes at the patron's house, then they pray as a group. First the musicians exit playing flutes, drums and whistles. At a signal, the hundreds of Parachicos begin dancing and shouting. At the end of the parade is the patron, Rubisel Nigenda, who is accompanying by a “Chulita” a young woman who does not wear a mask, but rather an old fashioned traditional Chiapan dress, with a long skirt, embroidered shirt and roses. She represents the women of Chiapas. They are followed by people carrying flags representing various saints. In the middle of these is the flag of the city's patron saint and “king” of the festival, Saint Sebastian. Environment The municipality consists of rolling hills which alternate with flat areas, mostly along rivers and streams. Most of the territory is in the Central Valley region but in the northwest, it transitions into the Central Highlands. The main rivers include the Grijalva, also called the Grande de Chiapa and the Santo Domingo. Streams include El Chiquito, Majular, Nandaburé and Nandalumí. The climate is hot and relatively humid with most rain falling from July to November. The annual average temperature in the city is 26C with an annual rainfall of 990mm. The natural vegetation of the area is lowland rainforest with pine-oak forests in the extreme north. However, much of these forests have been overexploited with the loss of wildlife. Wildlife includes river crocodiles, coral snakes, heloderma, iguanas, opossums and skunks. Part of the Sumidero Canyon National Park is in the municipality. The El Chorreadero is a state park located in the municipality centered on the waterfall of the same name. It has an area of 100 hectares with lowland rainforest and secondary vegetation. The Grijalva River extends twenty three km from the city to the Chicoasén Dam, formally known as the Ing. Manuel Moreno Torres, one of the largest in Latin America. Boats touring the canyon leave from the Cahuaré Docks. History The region has been inhabited at least since the Archaic period of Mesoamerican history. The immediate area of the municipality was settled around 1200 BCE by a group of people related to the Olmec culture, who are thought to have been speakers of an early Mixe–Zoquean language. However, the exact relationship between Chiapa de Corzo and the Olmec world has not been definitively established. By 900 or 800 BCE, the village, now archeological site, show a strong relationship with the Olmec center of La Venta, but it is unknown if Chiapa was ruled by La Venta or not. However, much the settlement shared many features with La Venta, including a ceremonial pond and pottery styles as well as using the same sources for materials such as obsidian and andesite. The Chiapa site is important because it shows a Mixe–Zoque–Olmec culture which eventually split from the Olmec. The development of the ancient city has been divided into a number of phases. The earliest and most important are the Escalera or Chiapa III (700-500BCE) and Francesa or Chiapa IV (500BCE to 100CE) phase. Olmec influence is strongest in the Escalera phase when it became a planned town with formal plazas and monumental buildings. However, contacts with Mayan areas is evident as well. However, even during this phase, there are significant differences in architecture and pottery which suggest a distinct Zoque identity from the Mixe–Zoque/Olmec cultural base. The distinction grew in the Francesca period as monumental structures were enlarged and pottery was almost all locally made. There is also evidence of participation in long distance trade networks, and the first examples of hieroglyphic writing appear. The earliest Long Count inscription in Mesoamerica derives from this phase, with a date of 36 BCE appearing on Stela 2. At its height, was an independent city on major trade routes. It may have been a major influence for the later Maya civilization as the pyramids in Chiapa are very similar to the E group pyramids found in most of Mesoamerica. The following Horcones phase and Istmo phase to 400 CE show more elaborate tomb construction and craft specialization. By the end of these phases, however, craft activity diminishes and long distance ties contracted even though tombs remain elaborate. The final centuries are associated with the Jiquipilas phase around 400 CE. It is not known what brought down the civilization, but the city became gradually abandoned and appears to have become a pilgrimage site, perhaps by Zoque who had been conquered by the Chiapa people. Whether the Chiapa actually conquered the Zoque city or whether it had fallen before their arrival, the newcomers decided to occupy the adjacent floodplain of the Grijalva River, where the modern town is, and leave the old ruins untouched. By the early 16th century, this town had become a local power center called Napinaica. The Chiapa people were distinct from others in Chiapas in size, nudity, and fierceness which impressed the Spanish who noted it in their writings. These people were fiercely opposed to Spanish intrusion and were a major obstacle to the first efforts by the conquistadors to dominate. However, in 1528, Diego de Mazariegos succeeded in breaking this resistance by enlisting the help of neighboring peoples who were enemies of the Chiapa. The last Chiapa leader, named Sanguieme, tried to help his people escape the domination of the Spanish but, according to historian Jean de Vos, he was captured and burned alive in a hammock strung between two kapok trees, with a hundred of his followers hung from trees near the river. After the conquest, the town was refounded with the name of Villa Real de Chiapa by a large kapok tree called La Pochota as the first European city in Chiapas. However, the hot climate of the area did not entice many Spanish to stay. Most instead went to the northeast into the cooler mountains to found another city, today San Cristobal. The mountain city would be founded as Chiapa de los Españoles, while Villa Real de Chiapa would become known Chiapa de los Indios, left to the indigenous and monks there to evangelize them. Despite this, the city would remain one of the most important for the first 200 years of colonization. While it was an encomienda at first, it became a dependency of the Spanish Crown in 1552, changing its name to Pueblo de la Real Corona de Chiapa de Indios. The developers of the area were Dominican friars, who followed the ideals of Bartolomé de las Casas in neighboring San Cristobal. They worked to protect the indigenous against the abuses of the Spanish colonizers, allowing them to gain the trust of the local people and convert them to Christianity. They also taught the local indigenous crafts such as European pottery methods, fireworks making and rope making. The Dominicans also built many of the landmarks of the town such as the La Pila fountain. This protection and the very high percentage of indigenous population in the colonial period allowed for many indigenous names to survive to the present day. Along with surnames such as Grajales, Castellanos, Marino Hernández, there is Nandayapa, Tawa, Nuriulú, Nampulá and Nangusé among others. In 1849, the city was declared the seat of its district. The town was officially declared a city in 1851. “de Corzo” was added to the name in 1881 in honor of Liberal politician Angel Albino Corzo. In 1863, there was a battle between the French and the Liberals, with the latter led by Salvador Urbina. Between 1970 and 1979, the construction of the Chicoasén Dam caused earthquakes in the area. One of these toppled the large bell in the main church. The main highway that connects the city with San Cristóbal was built in 2000. During this same year, the first non PRI municipal president was elected, from the National Action Party. Archeology While there is evidence of human occupation in the region from at least the Archaic period the main archeological site for the area is near the modern town of Chiapa de Corzo. This archeological site is located 2 kilometers away from Grijalva River. The origin of this ceremonial and administrative center goes back 3,500 years, being a strategic point in commercial routes between the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coasts. It was one of the largest settlements in early Mesoamerica occupied from 1200 BCE to 600 CE. This site had been occupied from at least 1400 BCE until sometime in the late Classic period. The site reached its height between 700 BCE to 200 CE, when it was a large settlement along major trade routes. The site is important for a number of reasons. First, while it was definitely inhabited by Mixe-Zoque speakers, it has strong ties to the Olmecs, but it is not known what exactly these ties were. Some theories state that the population was genetically related to the Olmecs, while others suppose that they were dominated by the Olmecs initially but then eventually broke away. There have been significant finds here such as the oldest Mesoamerican Long Count calendar with the date of 36 BCE on a monument, as well as a pottery shard with the oldest instance of writing system yet discovered. A recent discovery has been the oldest pre Hispanic tomb, dated to between 700 and 500 BCE. It was found in a previously excavated 20-meter-tall pyramid, but in the very center. The occupant is richly attired with more than twenty axes found as offerings, placed in the cardinal directions. The culture is considered to be Olmec although more exact dating needs to be done. The offerings show Olmec influence, such as depictions of wide eyes and lips, but other typical Olmec decorations such as earspools and breastplates are missing. In addition to the axes, there are also more than three thousand pieces made of jade, river pearls, obsidian and amber, from areas as far away as Guatemala and the Valley of Mexico, showing trade networks. The face was covered in a seashell with eye and mouth openings, the earliest example of a funeral mask. The burial shows that many elements of Mesoamerican burials are older than previously thought. The archeological site lies just outside the urban sprawl of modern Chiapa de Corzo, but the city is growing over it and many areas known to contains ruins underground are encroached upon by modern homes and businesses. The discovery of the ancient tomb has prompted the Mexican government to buy more lands and extend the site by 7,200 square meters to one and a half hectares. Part of the site has been open to tourism since late 2009. References Bibliography Justeson, John S., and Kaufman, Terrence (2001) Epi-Olmec Hieroglyphic Writing and Texts. Lowe, G. W., "Chiapas de Corzo", in Evans, Susan, ed., (2009) Archaeology of Ancient Mexico and Central America, Taylor & Francis, London. Municipalities of Chiapas Pueblos Mágicos Populated places established in 1528

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Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptors and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system. Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, fruits, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to Africa, East Asia and South America, and helps to protect them against herbivores and from competition by preventing the germination of nearby seeds, as well as encouraging consumption by select animals such as honey bees. The best-known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, the seed of the Coffea plant. People may drink beverages containing caffeine to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve cognitive performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, a process called infusion. Caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are consumed globally in high volumes. In 2020, almost 10 million tonnes of coffee beans were consumed globally. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike most other psychoactive substances, caffeine remains largely unregulated and legal in nearly all parts of the world. Caffeine is also an outlier as its use is seen as socially acceptable in most cultures and even encouraged in others, particularly in the Western world. Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Some people experience sleep disruption or anxiety if they consume caffeine, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit caffeine to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence – associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness, headache, and irritability – when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake. Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate, and increased urine output, develops with chronic use (i.e., these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use). Caffeine is classified by the US Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe. Toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than the typical dose of under 500 milligrams per day. The European Food Safety Authority reported that up to 400 mg of caffeine per day (around 5.7 mg/kg of body mass per day) does not raise safety concerns for non-pregnant adults, while intakes up to 200 mg per day for pregnant and lactating women do not raise safety concerns for the fetus or the breast-fed infants. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what "bean" (seed) is used, how it is roasted (darker roasts have less caffeine), and how it is prepared (e.g., drip, percolation, or espresso). Thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach the toxic dose. However, pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts. Use Medical Caffeine is used in: Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants for both prevention and treatment. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Apnea of prematurity as a primary treatment, but not prevention. Orthostatic hypotension treatment. Some people use caffeine-containing beverages such as coffee or tea to try to treat their asthma. Evidence to support this practice, however, is poor. It appears that caffeine in low doses improves airway function in people with asthma, increasing forced expiratory volume (FEV1) by 5% to 18%, with this effect lasting for up to four hours. The addition of caffeine (100–130 mg) to commonly prescribed pain relievers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen modestly improves the proportion of people who achieve pain relief. Consumption of caffeine after abdominal surgery shortens the time to recovery of normal bowel function and shortens length of hospital stay. Enhancing performance Cognitive Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that may reduce fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours. Caffeine can delay or prevent sleep and improves task performance during sleep deprivation. Shift workers who use caffeine make fewer mistakes that could result from drowsiness. Caffeine in a dose dependent manner increases alertness in both fatigued and normal individuals. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2014 found that concurrent caffeine and -theanine use has synergistic psychoactive effects that promote alertness, attention, and task switching; these effects are most pronounced during the first hour post-dose. Physical Caffeine is a proven ergogenic aid in humans. Caffeine improves athletic performance in aerobic (especially endurance sports) and anaerobic conditions. Moderate doses of caffeine (around 5 mg/kg) can improve sprint performance, cycling and running time trial performance, endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of muscle fatigue and central fatigue), and cycling power output. Caffeine increases basal metabolic rate in adults. Caffeine ingestion prior to aerobic exercise increases fat oxidation, particularly in persons with low physical fitness. Caffeine improves muscular strength and power, and may enhance muscular endurance. Caffeine also enhances performance on anaerobic tests. Caffeine consumption before constant load exercise is associated with reduced perceived exertion. While this effect is not present during exercise-to-exhaustion exercise, performance is significantly enhanced. This is congruent with caffeine reducing perceived exertion, because exercise-to-exhaustion should end at the same point of fatigue. Caffeine also improves power output and reduces time to completion in aerobic time trials, an effect positively (but not exclusively) associated with longer duration exercise. Specific populations Adults For the general population of healthy adults, Health Canada advises a daily intake of no more than 400 mg. This limit was found to be safe by a 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology. Children In healthy children, moderate caffeine intake under 400 mg produces effects that are "modest and typically innocuous". As early as 6 months old, infants can metabolize caffeine at the same rate as that of adults. Higher doses of caffeine (>400 mg) can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral harm, particularly for children with psychiatric or cardiac conditions. There is no evidence that coffee stunts a child's growth. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that caffeine consumption is not appropriate for children and adolescents and should be avoided. This recommendation is based on a clinical report released by American Academy of Pediatrics in 2011 with a review of 45 publications from 1994 to 2011 and includes inputs from various stakeholders (Pediatricians, Committee on nutrition, Canadian Pediatric Society, Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, Sports Medicine & Fitness committee, National Federations of High School Associations). For children age 12 and under, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 2.5 milligrams per kilogram of body weight. Based on average body weights of children, this translates to the following age-based intake limits: Adolescents Health Canada has not developed advice for adolescents because of insufficient data. However, they suggest that daily caffeine intake for this age group be no more than 2.5 mg/kg body weight. This is because the maximum adult caffeine dose may not be appropriate for light-weight adolescents or for younger adolescents who are still growing. The daily dose of 2.5 mg/kg body weight would not cause adverse health effects in the majority of adolescent caffeine consumers. This is a conservative suggestion since older and heavier-weight adolescents may be able to consume adult doses of caffeine without suffering adverse effects. Pregnancy and breastfeeding The metabolism of caffeine is reduced in pregnancy, especially in the third trimester, and the half-life of caffeine during pregnancy can be increased up to 15 hours (as compared to 2.5 to 4.5 hours in non-pregnant adults). Current evidence regarding the effects of caffeine on pregnancy and for breastfeeding are inconclusive. There is limited primary and secondary advice for, or against, caffeine use during pregnancy and its effects on the fetus or newborn. The UK Food Standards Agency has recommended that pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake, out of prudence, to less than 200 mg of caffeine a day – the equivalent of two cups of instant coffee, or one and a half to two cups of fresh coffee. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) concluded in 2010 that caffeine consumption is safe up to 200 mg per day in pregnant women. For women who breastfeed, are pregnant, or may become pregnant, Health Canada recommends a maximum daily caffeine intake of no more than 300 mg, or a little over two 8 oz (237 mL) cups of coffee. A 2017 systematic review on caffeine toxicology found evidence supporting that caffeine consumption up to 300 mg/day for pregnant women is generally not associated with adverse reproductive or developmental effect. There are conflicting reports in the scientific literature about caffeine use during pregnancy. A 2011 review found that caffeine during pregnancy does not appear to increase the risk of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation even when consumed in moderate to high amounts. Other reviews, however, concluded that there is some evidence that higher caffeine intake by pregnant women may be associated with a higher risk of giving birth to a low birth weight baby, and may be associated with a higher risk of pregnancy loss. A systematic review, analyzing the results of observational studies, suggests that women who consume large amounts of caffeine (greater than 300 mg/day) prior to becoming pregnant may have a higher risk of experiencing pregnancy loss. Adverse effects Physical Caffeine in coffee and other caffeinated drinks can affect gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid secretion. In postmenopausal women, high caffeine consumption can accelerate bone loss. Acute ingestion of caffeine in large doses (at least 250–300 mg, equivalent to the amount found in 2–3 cups of coffee or 5–8 cups of tea) results in a short-term stimulation of urine output in individuals who have been deprived of caffeine for a period of days or weeks. This increase is due to both a diuresis (increase in water excretion) and a natriuresis (increase in saline excretion); it is mediated via proximal tubular adenosine receptor blockade. The acute increase in urinary output may increase the risk of dehydration. However, chronic users of caffeine develop a tolerance to this effect and experience no increase in urinary output. Psychological Minor undesired symptoms from caffeine ingestion not sufficiently severe to warrant a psychiatric diagnosis are common and include mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. Caffeine can have negative effects on anxiety disorders. According to a 2011 literature review, caffeine use is positively associated with anxiety and panic disorders. At high doses, typically greater than 300 mg, caffeine can both cause and worsen anxiety. For some people, discontinuing caffeine use can significantly reduce anxiety. In moderate doses, caffeine has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression and lower suicide risk. Increased consumption of coffee and caffeine is associated with a decreased risk of depression. Some textbooks state that caffeine is a mild euphoriant, others state that it is not a euphoriant, and one textbook states in one place that caffeine is not a euphoriant but in another place groups it among euphoriants. Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder is a subclass of the DSM-5 diagnosis of substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder. Reinforcement disorders Addiction Whether caffeine can result in an addictive disorder depends on how addiction is defined. Compulsive caffeine consumption under any circumstances has not been observed, and caffeine is therefore not generally considered addictive. However, some diagnostic models, such as the and ICD-10, include a classification of caffeine addiction under a broader diagnostic model. Some state that certain users can become addicted and therefore unable to decrease use even though they know there are negative health effects. Caffeine does not appear to be a reinforcing stimulus, and some degree of aversion may actually occur, with people preferring placebo over caffeine in a study on drug abuse liability published in an NIDA research monograph. Some state that research does not provide support for an underlying biochemical mechanism for caffeine addiction. Other research states it can affect the reward system. "Caffeine addiction" was added to the ICDM-9 and ICD-10. However, its addition was contested with claims that this diagnostic model of caffeine addiction is not supported by evidence. The American Psychiatric Association's does not include the diagnosis of a caffeine addiction but proposes criteria for the disorder for more study. Dependence and withdrawal Withdrawal can cause mild to clinically significant distress or impairment in daily functioning. The frequency at which this occurs is self-reported at 11%, but in lab tests only half of the people who report withdrawal actually experience it, casting doubt on many claims of dependence. Mild physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms may occur upon abstinence, with greater than 100 mg caffeine per day, although these symptoms last no longer than a day. Some symptoms associated with psychological dependence may also occur during withdrawal. The diagnostic criteria for caffeine withdrawal require a previous prolonged daily use of caffeine. Following 24 hours of a marked reduction in consumption, a minimum of 3 of these signs or symptoms is required to meet withdrawal criteria: difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue. Additionally, the signs and symptoms must disrupt important areas of functioning and are not associated with effects of another condition The ICD-11 includes caffeine dependence as a distinct diagnostic category, which closely mirrors the DSM-5's proposed set of criteria for "caffeine-use disorder".  Caffeine use disorder refers to dependence on caffeine characterized by failure to control caffeine consumption despite negative physiological consequences. The APA, which published the DSM-5, acknowledged that there was sufficient evidence in order to create a diagnostic model of caffeine dependence for the DSM-5, but they noted that the clinical significance of the disorder is unclear. Due to this inconclusive evidence on clinical significance, the DSM-5 classifies caffeine-use disorder as a "condition for further study". Tolerance to the effects of caffeine occurs for caffeine-induced elevations in blood pressure and the subjective feelings of nervousness. Sensitization, the process whereby effects become more prominent with use, occurs for positive effects such as feelings of alertness and wellbeing. Tolerance varies for daily, regular caffeine users and high caffeine users. High doses of caffeine (750 to 1200 mg/day spread throughout the day) have been shown to produce complete tolerance to some, but not all of the effects of caffeine. Doses as low as 100 mg/day, such as a 6 oz cup of coffee or two to three 12 oz servings of caffeinated soft-drink, may continue to cause sleep disruption, among other intolerances. Non-regular caffeine users have the least caffeine tolerance for sleep disruption. Some coffee drinkers develop tolerance to its undesired sleep-disrupting effects, but others apparently do not. Risk of other diseases A protective effect of caffeine against Alzheimer's disease and dementia is possible but the evidence is inconclusive. It may protect people from liver cirrhosis. Caffeine may lessen the severity of acute mountain sickness if taken a few hours prior to attaining a high altitude. One meta analysis has found that caffeine consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Regular caffeine consumption reduces the risk of developing Parkinson's disease and slows the rate of progression of Parkinson's disease. Caffeine consumption may be associated with reduced risk of depression, although conflicting results have been reported. Caffeine increases intraocular pressure in those with glaucoma but does not appear to affect normal individuals. The DSM-5 also includes other caffeine-induced disorders consisting of caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder and unspecified caffeine-related disorders. The first two disorders are classified under "Anxiety Disorder" and "Sleep-Wake Disorder" because they share similar characteristics. Other disorders that present with significant distress and impairment of daily functioning that warrant clinical attention but do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed under any specific disorders are listed under "Unspecified Caffeine-Related Disorders". Overdose Consumption of per day is associated with a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use. Caffeine overdose can result in a state of central nervous system over-stimulation known as caffeine intoxication, a clinically significant temporary condition that develops during, or shortly after, the consumption of caffeine. This syndrome typically occurs only after ingestion of large amounts of caffeine, well over the amounts found in typical caffeinated beverages and caffeine tablets (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time). According to the DSM-5, caffeine intoxication may be diagnosed if five (or more) of the following symptoms develop after recent consumption of caffeine: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis (increased production of urine), gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, tachycardia (increased heart rate) or cardiac arrythmia, periods of inexhaustibility, and psychomotor agitation. According to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), cases of very high caffeine intake (e.g. > 5 g) may result in caffeine intoxication with symptoms including mania, depression, lapses in judgement, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations or psychosis, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue). Energy drinks High caffeine consumption in energy drinks (At least 1 liter or 320 mg of caffeine) was associated with short-term cardiovascular side effects including hypertension, prolonged QT interval and heart palpitations. These cardiovascular side effects were not seen with smaller amounts of caffeine consumption in energy drinks (less than 200 mg). Severe intoxication As of 2007 there is no known antidote or reversal agent for caffeine intoxication, treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration. Intralipid infusion therapy is indicated in cases of imminent risk of cardiac arrest in order to scavenge the free serum caffeine. Lethal dose Death from caffeine ingestion appears to be rare, and most commonly caused by an intentional overdose of medications. In 2016, 3702 caffeine-related exposures were reported to Poison Control Centers in the United States, of which 846 required treatment at a medical facility, and 16 had a major outcome; and several caffeine-related deaths are reported in case studies. The LD50 of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram (2.2 lb) of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a adult). There are cases where doses as low as 57 milligrams per kilogram have been fatal. A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints. Interactions Caffeine is a substrate for CYP1A2, and interacts with many substances through this and other mechanisms. Alcohol According to DSST, alcohol provides a reduction in performance and caffeine has a significant improvement in performance. When alcohol and caffeine are consumed jointly, the effects produced by caffeine are affected, but the alcohol effects remain the same. For example, when additional caffeine is added, the drug effect produced by alcohol is not reduced. However, the jitteriness and alertness given by caffeine is decreased when additional alcohol is consumed. Alcohol consumption alone reduces both inhibitory and activational aspects of behavioral control. Caffeine antagonizes the activational aspect of behavioral control, but has no effect on the inhibitory behavioral control. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend avoidance of concomitant consumption of alcohol and caffeine, as this may lead to increased alcohol consumption, with a higher risk of alcohol-associated injury. Tobacco Smoking tobacco increases caffeine clearance by 56%. Cigarette smoking induces the cytochrome P450 1A2 enzyme that breaks down caffeine, which may lead to increased caffeine tolerance and coffee consumption for regular smokers. Birth control Birth control pills can extend the half-life of caffeine, requiring greater attention to caffeine consumption. Medications Caffeine sometimes increases the effectiveness of some medications, such as those for headaches. Caffeine was determined to increase the potency of some over-the-counter analgesic medications by 40%. The pharmacological effects of adenosine may be blunted in individuals taking large quantities of methylxanthines like caffeine. Some other examples of methylxanthines include the medications theophylline and aminophylline, which are prescribed to relieve symptoms of asthma or COPD. Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics In the absence of caffeine and when a person is awake and alert, little adenosine is present in (CNS) neurons. With a continued wakeful state, over time adenosine accumulates in the neuronal synapse, in turn binding to and activating adenosine receptors found on certain CNS neurons; when activated, these receptors produce a cellular response that ultimately increases drowsiness. When caffeine is consumed, it antagonizes adenosine receptors; in other words, caffeine prevents adenosine from activating the receptor by blocking the location on the receptor where adenosine binds to it. As a result, caffeine temporarily prevents or relieves drowsiness, and thus maintains or restores alertness. Receptor and ion channel targets Caffeine is an antagonist of adenosine A2A receptors, and knockout mouse studies have specifically implicated antagonism of the A2A receptor as responsible for the wakefulness-promoting effects of caffeine. Antagonism of A2A receptors in the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) reduces inhibitory GABA neurotransmission to the tuberomammillary nucleus, a histaminergic projection nucleus that activation-dependently promotes arousal. This disinhibition of the tuberomammillary nucleus is the downstream mechanism by which caffeine produces wakefulness-promoting effects. Caffeine is an antagonist of all four adenosine receptor subtypes (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3), although with varying potencies. The affinity (KD) values of caffeine for the human adenosine receptors are 12 μM at A1, 2.4 μM at A2A, 13 μM at A2B, and 80 μM at A3. Antagonism of adenosine receptors by caffeine also stimulates the medullary vagal, vasomotor, and respiratory centers, which increases respiratory rate, reduces heart rate, and constricts blood vessels. Adenosine receptor antagonism also promotes neurotransmitter release (e.g., monoamines and acetylcholine), which endows caffeine with its stimulant effects; adenosine acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that suppresses activity in the central nervous system. Heart palpitations are caused by blockade of the A1 receptor. Because caffeine is both water- and lipid-soluble, it readily crosses the blood–brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors (in other words, an agent that reduces the effects of adenosine). The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and is capable of binding to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them, thereby acting as a competitive antagonist. In addition to its activity at adenosine receptors, caffeine is an inositol trisphosphate receptor 1 antagonist and a voltage-independent activator of the ryanodine receptors (RYR1, RYR2, and RYR3). It is also a competitive antagonist of the ionotropic glycine receptor. Effects on striatal dopamine While caffeine does not directly bind to any dopamine receptors, it influences the binding activity of dopamine at its receptors in the striatum by binding to adenosine receptors that have formed GPCR heteromers with dopamine receptors, specifically the A1–D1 receptor heterodimer (this is a receptor complex with 1 adenosine A1 receptor and 1 dopamine D1 receptor) and the A2A–D2 receptor heterotetramer (this is a receptor complex with 2 adenosine A2A receptors and 2 dopamine D2 receptors). The A2A–D2 receptor heterotetramer has been identified as a primary pharmacological target of caffeine, primarily because it mediates some of its psychostimulant effects and its pharmacodynamic interactions with dopaminergic psychostimulants. Caffeine also causes the release of dopamine in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens core (a substructure within the ventral striatum), but not the nucleus accumbens shell, by antagonizing A1 receptors in the axon terminal of dopamine neurons and A1–A2A heterodimers (a receptor complex composed of 1 adenosine A1 receptor and 1 adenosine A2A receptor) in the axon terminal of glutamate neurons. During chronic caffeine use, caffeine-induced dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens core is markedly reduced due to drug tolerance. Enzyme targets Caffeine, like other xanthines, also acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. As a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caffeine raises intracellular cAMP, activates protein kinase A, inhibits TNF-alpha and leukotriene synthesis, and reduces inflammation and innate immunity. Caffeine also affects the cholinergic system where it is a moderate inhibitor of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Pharmacokinetics Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and of chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (Cmax) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts. Caffeine's biological half-life – the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of a dose – varies widely among individuals according to factors such as pregnancy, other drugs, liver enzyme function level (needed for caffeine metabolism) and age. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is between 3 and 7 hours. The half-life is decreased by 30-50% in adult male smokers, approximately doubled in women taking oral contraceptives, and prolonged in the last trimester of pregnancy. In newborns the half-life can be 80 hours or more, dropping very rapidly with age, possibly to less than the adult value by age 6 months. The antidepressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) reduces the clearance of caffeine by more than 90%, and increases its elimination half-life more than tenfold; from 4.9 hours to 56 hours. Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system, in particular, by the CYP1A2 isozyme, into three dimethylxanthines, each of which has its own effects on the body: Paraxanthine (84%): Increases lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in blood plasma. Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in the cocoa bean (chocolate). Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism. 1,3,7-Trimethyluric acid is a minor caffeine metabolite. Each of these metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life. A 2011 review found that increased caffeine intake was associated with a variation in two genes that increase the rate of caffeine catabolism. Subjects who had this mutation on both chromosomes consumed 40 mg more caffeine per day than others. This is presumably due to the need for a higher intake to achieve a comparable desired effect, not that the gene led to a disposition for greater incentive of habituation. Chemistry Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting, white, odorless powder with a melting point of 235–238 °C. Caffeine is moderately soluble in water at room temperature (2 g/100 mL), but very soluble in boiling water (66 g/100 mL). It is also moderately soluble in ethanol (1.5 g/100 mL). It is weakly basic (pKa of conjugate acid = ~0.6) requiring strong acid to protonate it. Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule. The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and imidazole. The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that exist predominantly in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms. Hence all six of the atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp2 hybridized and planar. Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic. Synthesis The biosynthesis of caffeine is an example of convergent evolution among different species. Caffeine may be synthesized in the lab starting with dimethylurea and malonic acid. Commercial supplies of caffeine are not usually manufactured synthetically because the chemical is readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination. Decaffeination Extraction of caffeine from coffee, to produce caffeine and decaffeinated coffee, can be performed using a number of solvents. Following are main methods: Water extraction: Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with its original flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction: Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used. The extraction process is simple: is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm. Under these conditions, is in a "supercritical" state: It has gaslike properties that allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties that dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden is then sprayed with high-pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis. Extraction by organic solvents: Certain organic solvents such as ethyl acetate present much less health and environmental hazard than chlorinated and aromatic organic solvents used formerly. Another method is to use triglyceride oils obtained from spent coffee grounds. "Decaffeinated" coffees do in fact contain caffeine in many cases – some commercially available decaffeinated coffee products contain considerable levels. One study found that decaffeinated coffee contained 10 mg of caffeine per cup, compared to approximately 85 mg of caffeine per cup for regular coffee. Detection in body fluids Caffeine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to monitor therapy in neonates, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Plasma caffeine levels are usually in the range of 2–10 mg/L in coffee drinkers, 12–36 mg/L in neonates receiving treatment for apnea, and 40–400 mg/L in victims of acute overdosage. Urinary caffeine concentration is frequently measured in competitive sports programs, for which a level in excess of 15 mg/L is usually considered to represent abuse. Analogs Some analog substances have been created which mimic caffeine's properties with either function or structure or both. Of the latter group are the xanthines DMPX and 8-chlorotheophylline, which is an ingredient in dramamine. Members of a class of nitrogen substituted xanthines are often proposed as potential alternatives to caffeine. Many other xanthine analogues constituting the adenosine receptor antagonist class have also been elucidated. Some other caffeine analogs: Dipropylcyclopentylxanthine 8-Cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine 8-Phenyltheophylline Precipitation of tannins Caffeine, as do other alkaloids such as cinchonine, quinine or strychnine, precipitates polyphenols and tannins. This property can be used in a quantitation method. Natural occurrence Around thirty plant species are known to contain caffeine. Common sources are the "beans" (seeds) of the two cultivated coffee plants, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora (the quantity varies, but 1.3% is a typical value); and of the cocoa plant, Theobroma cacao; the leaves of the tea plant; and kola nuts. Other sources include the leaves of yaupon holly, South American holly yerba mate, and Amazonian holly guayusa; and seeds from Amazonian maple guarana berries. Temperate climates around the world have produced unrelated caffeine-containing plants. Caffeine in plants acts as a natural pesticide: it can paralyze and kill predator insects feeding on the plant. High caffeine levels are found in coffee seedlings when they are developing foliage and lack mechanical protection. In addition, high caffeine levels are found in the surrounding soil of coffee seedlings, which inhibits seed germination of nearby coffee seedlings, thus giving seedlings with the highest caffeine levels fewer competitors for existing resources for survival. Caffeine is stored in tea leaves in two places. Firstly, in the cell vacuoles where it is complexed with polyphenols. This caffeine probably is released into the mouth parts of insects, to discourage herbivory. Secondly, around the vascular bundles, where it probably inhibits pathogenic fungi from entering and colonizing the vascular bundles. Caffeine in nectar may improve the reproductive success of the pollen producing plants by enhancing the reward memory of pollinators such as honey bees. The differing perceptions in the effects of ingesting beverages made from various plants containing caffeine could be explained by the fact that these beverages also contain varying mixtures of other methylxanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and polyphenols that can form insoluble complexes with caffeine. Products Products containing caffeine include coffee, tea, soft drinks ("colas"), energy drinks, other beverages, chocolate, caffeine tablets, other oral products, and inhalation products. According to a 2020 study in the United States, coffee is the major source of caffeine intake in middle-aged adults, while soft drinks and tea are the major sources in adolescents. Energy drinks are more commonly consumed as a source of caffeine in adolescents as compared to adults. Beverages Coffee The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee "bean" (the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used; even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 80 to 100 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to approximately 100–125 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. Arabica coffee typically contains half the caffeine of the robusta variety. In general, dark-roast coffee has very slightly less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean by a small amount. Tea Tea contains more caffeine than coffee by dry weight. A typical serving, however, contains much less, since less of the product is used as compared to an equivalent serving of coffee. Also contributing to caffeine content are growing conditions, processing techniques, and other variables. Thus, teas contain varying amounts of caffeine. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea, gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has very little. Soft drinks and energy drinks Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks, such as cola, originally prepared from kola nuts. Soft drinks typically contain 0 to 55 milligrams of caffeine per 12 ounce serving. By contrast, energy drinks, such as Red Bull, can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a prime ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient. Other beverages Mate is a drink popular in many parts of South America. Its preparation consists of filling a gourd with the leaves of the South American holly yerba mate, pouring hot but not boiling water over the leaves, and drinking with a straw, the bombilla, which acts as a filter so as to draw only the liquid and not the yerba leaves. Guaraná is a soft drink originating in Brazil made from the seeds of the Guaraná fruit. The leaves of Ilex guayusa, the Ecuadorian holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a guayusa tea. The leaves of Ilex vomitoria, the yaupon holly tree, are placed in boiling water to make a yaupon tea. Commercially prepared coffee-flavoured milk beverages are popular in Australia. Examples include Oak's Ice Coffee and Farmers Union Iced Coffee. The amount of caffeine in these beverages can vary widely. Caffeine concentrations can differ significantly from the manufacturer's claims. Chocolate Chocolate derived from cocoa beans contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline, as well as caffeine. A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. By weight, dark chocolate has one to two times the amount of caffeine as coffee: 80–160 mg per 100 g. Higher percentages of cocoa such as 90% amount to 200 mg per 100 g approximately and thus, a 100-gram 85% cocoa chocolate bar contains about 195 mg caffeine. Tablets Tablets offer several advantages over coffee, tea, and other caffeinated beverages, including convenience, known dosage, and avoidance of concomitant intake of sugar, acids, and fluids. A use of caffeine in this form is said to improve mental alertness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours. Other oral products One U.S. company is marketing oral dissolvable caffeine strips. Another intake route is SpazzStick, a caffeinated lip balm. Alert Energy Caffeine Gum was introduced in the United States in 2013, but was voluntarily withdrawn after an announcement of an investigation by the FDA of the health effects of added caffeine in foods. Inhalants There are several products being marketed that offer inhalers that deliver proprietary blends of supplements, with caffeine being a key ingredient. In 2012, the FDA sent a warning letter to one of the companies marketing these inhalers, expressing concerns for the lack of safety information available about inhaled caffeine. Combinations with other drugs Some beverages combine alcohol with caffeine to create a caffeinated alcoholic drink. The stimulant effects of caffeine may mask the depressant effects of alcohol, potentially reducing the user's awareness of their level of intoxication. Such beverages have been the subject of bans due to safety concerns. In particular, the United States Food and Drug Administration has classified caffeine added to malt liquor beverages as an "unsafe food additive". Ya ba contains a combination of methamphetamine and caffeine. Painkillers such as propyphenazone/paracetamol/caffeine combine caffeine with an analgesic. History Discovery and spread of use According to Chinese legend, the Chinese emperor Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BCE, inadvertently discovered tea when he noted that when certain leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted. Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea. The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee plant appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Middle East, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Kola nut use appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, in both private and social settings, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs. The earliest evidence of cocoa bean use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BCE. Also, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocolatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Xocolatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Xocolatl was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards, and became a popular beverage by 1700. The Spaniards also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was used in alchemical processes, where it was known as "black bean". The leaves and stems of the yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called asi or the "black drink". Archaeologists have found evidence of this use far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times. Chemical identification, isolation, and synthesis In 1819, the German chemist Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge isolated relatively pure caffeine for the first time; he called it "Kaffebase" (i.e., a base that exists in coffee). According to Runge, he did this at the behest of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1821, caffeine was isolated both by the French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet and by another pair of French chemists, Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou, according to Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in his yearly journal. Furthermore, Berzelius stated that the French chemists had made their discoveries independently of any knowledge of Runge's or each other's work. However, Berzelius later acknowledged Runge's priority in the extraction of caffeine, stating: "However, at this point, it should not remain unmentioned that Runge (in his Phytochemical Discoveries, 1820, pages 146–147) specified the same method and described caffeine under the name Caffeebase a year earlier than Robiquet, to whom the discovery of this substance is usually attributed, having made the first oral announcement about it at a meeting of the Pharmacy Society in Paris." Pelletier's article on caffeine was the first to use the term in print (in the French form Caféine from the French word for coffee: café). It corroborates Berzelius's account: Robiquet was one of the first to isolate and describe the properties of pure caffeine, whereas Pelletier was the first to perform an elemental analysis. In 1827, M. Oudry isolated "théine" from tea, but in 1838 it was proved by Mulder and by Carl Jobst that theine was actually the same as caffeine. In 1895, German chemist Hermann Emil Fischer (1852–1919) first synthesized caffeine from its chemical components (i.e. a "total synthesis"), and two years later, he also derived the structural formula of the compound. This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. Historic regulations Because it was recognized that coffee contained some compound that acted as a stimulant, first coffee and later also caffeine has sometimes been subject to regulation. For example, in the 16th century Islamists in Mecca and in the Ottoman Empire made coffee illegal for some classes. Charles II of England tried to ban it in 1676, Frederick II of Prussia banned it in 1777, and coffee was banned in Sweden at various times between 1756 and 1823. In 1911, caffeine became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares, when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health". Although the judge ruled in favor of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances, which must be listed on a product's label. Society and culture Regulations United States The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States currently allows only beverages containing less than 0.02% caffeine; but caffeine powder, which is sold as a dietary supplement, is unregulated. It is a regulatory requirement that the label of most prepackaged foods must declare a list of ingredients, including food additives such as caffeine, in descending order of proportion. However, there is no regulatory provision for mandatory quantitative labeling of caffeine, (e.g., milligrams caffeine per stated serving size). There are a number of food ingredients that naturally contain caffeine. These ingredients must appear in food ingredient lists. However, as is the case for "food additive caffeine", there is no requirement to identify the quantitative amount of caffeine in composite foods containing ingredients that are natural sources of caffeine. While coffee or chocolate are broadly recognized as caffeine sources, some ingredients (e.g., guarana, yerba maté) are likely less recognized as caffeine sources. For these natural sources of caffeine, there is no regulatory provision requiring that a food label identify the presence of caffeine nor state the amount of caffeine present in the food. Consumption Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per year, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance. This amounts to an average of one serving of a caffeinated beverage for every person every day. The consumption of caffeine has remained stable between 1997 and 2015. Coffee, tea and soft drinks are the most important caffeine sources, with energy drinks contributing little to the total caffeine intake across all age groups. Religions Until recently, the Seventh-day Adventist Church asked for its members to "abstain from caffeinated drinks", but has removed this from baptismal vows (while still recommending abstention as policy). Some from these religions believe that one is not supposed to consume a non-medical, psychoactive substance, or believe that one is not supposed to consume a substance that is addictive. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: " . . . the Church revelation spelling out health practices (Doctrine and Covenants 89) does not mention the use of caffeine. The Church's health guidelines prohibit alcoholic drinks, smoking or chewing of tobacco, and 'hot drinks' – taught by Church leaders to refer specifically to tea and coffee." Gaudiya Vaishnavas generally also abstain from caffeine, because they believe it clouds the mind and over-stimulates the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine, alcohol, nicotine or other drugs, for at least a year. Caffeinated beverages are widely consumed by Muslims today. In the 16th century, some Muslim authorities made unsuccessful attempts to ban them as forbidden "intoxicating beverages" under Islamic dietary laws. Other organisms Recently discovered bacteria Pseudomonas putida CBB5 can live on pure caffeine and can cleave caffeine into carbon dioxide and ammonia. Caffeine is toxic to birds and to dogs and cats, and has a pronounced adverse effect on mollusks, various insects, and spiders. This is at least partly due to a poor ability to metabolize the compound, causing higher levels for a given dose per unit weight. Caffeine has also been found to enhance the reward memory of honey bees. Research Caffeine has been used to double chromosomes in haploid wheat. See also Adderall Amphetamine Cocaine Nootropic Wakefulness-promoting agent References Notes Citations Bibliography External links GMD MS Spectrum Caffeine: ChemSub Online Caffeine at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham) Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Adenosine receptor antagonists Anxiogenics Bitter compounds Glycine receptor antagonists IARC Group 3 carcinogens Mutagens Phosphodiesterase inhibitors Plant toxin insecticides Vasoconstrictors Xanthines Alkaloids found in plants Ergogenic aids Stimulants X Components of chocolate

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Starbase is a private rocket production facility, test site, and spaceport constructed by SpaceX, located at Boca Chica approximately east of Brownsville, Texas, on the US Gulf Coast. When conceptualized, its stated purpose was "to provide SpaceX an exclusive launch site that would allow the company to accommodate its launch manifest and meet tight launch windows." The launch site was originally intended to support launches of the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launch vehicles as well as "a variety of reusable suborbital launch vehicles", but in early 2018, SpaceX announced a change of plans, stating that the launch site would be used exclusively for SpaceX's next-generation launch vehicle, Starship. Between 2018 and 2020, the site added significant rocket production and test capacity. SpaceX CEO Elon Musk indicated in 2014 that he expected "commercial astronauts, private astronauts, to be departing from South Texas," and he foresaw launching spacecraft to Mars from the site. Between 2012 and 2014, SpaceX considered seven potential locations around the United States for the new commercial launch facility. Generally, for orbital launches an ideal site would have an easterly water overflight path for safety and be located as close to the equator as possible in order to take advantage of the Earth's rotational speed. For much of this period, a parcel of land adjacent to Boca Chica Beach near Brownsville, Texas, was the leading candidate location, during an extended period while the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) conducted an extensive environmental assessment on the use of the Texas location as a launch site. Also during this period, SpaceX began acquiring land in the area, purchasing approximately and leasing by July 2014. SpaceX announced in August 2014, that they had selected the location near Brownsville as the location for the new non-governmental launch site, after the final environmental assessment completed and environmental agreements were in place by July 2014. An orbital launch of the Starship would make it SpaceX's fourth active launch facility, following three launch locations that are leased from the US government. SpaceX conducted a groundbreaking ceremony on the new launch facility in September 2014, and soil preparation began in October 2015. The first tracking antenna was installed in August 2016, and the first propellant tank arrived in July 2018. In late 2018, construction ramped up considerably, and the site saw the fabrication of the first prototype test vehicle, Starhopper, which was tested and flown March–August 2019. Through 2021, additional prototype flight vehicles are being built at the facility for higher-altitude tests. By March 2020, there were over 500 people employed at the facility, with most of the work force involved in 24/7 production operations for the third-generation SpaceX launch vehicle, Starship. History Private discussions between SpaceX and various state officials about a future private launch site began at least as early as 2011, and SpaceX CEO Elon Musk mentioned interest in a private launch site for their commercial launches in a speech in September 2011. The company publicly announced in August 2014 that they had decided on Texas as the location for their new non-governmental launch site, the SpaceX South Texas launch site. Site soil work began in 2015 and major construction of facilities began in late-2018, with rocket engine testing and flight testing beginning in 2019. The name Starbase began to be used more widely by SpaceX after March 2021 when SpaceX had some discussions described as a "casual enquiry" about incorporating a city to be called Starbase, and by early 2022, the Starbase moniker for the SpaceX facilities in south Texas had become common. Starbase is also used sometimes to describe the region of the Boca Chica subdelta peninsula surrounding the SpaceX facilities; see . Launch site selection and environmental assessment As early as April 2012, at least five potential locations were publicly known, including "sites in Alaska, California, Florida, Texas and Virginia." In September 2012, it became clear that Georgia and Puerto Rico were also interested in pursuing the new SpaceX commercial spaceport facility. The Camden County, Georgia, Joint Development Authority voted unanimously in November 2012 to "explore developing an aero-spaceport facility" at an Atlantic coastal site to support both horizontal and vertical launch operations. The main Puerto Rico site under consideration at the time was land that had formerly been the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. By September 2012, SpaceX was considering seven potential locations for the new commercial launch pad around the United States. For much of the time since, the leading candidate location for the new facility was a parcel of land adjacent to Boca Chica Beach near Brownsville, Texas. By early 2013, Texas remained the leading candidate for the location of the new SpaceX commercial launch facility, although Florida, Georgia and other locations also remained in the running. Legislation was introduced in the Texas Legislature to enable temporary closings of State beaches during launches, limit liability for noise and some other specific commercial spaceflight risks, as well as considering a package of incentives to encourage SpaceX to locate at the Brownsville, Texas location. 2013 economic estimates showed SpaceX investing approximately in the development and construction of the facility A incentive package was approved by the Texas Legislature in 2013. From the beginning, one of the proposed locations for the new commercial-mission-only spaceport had been south Texas. In April 2012, the FAA's Office of Commercial Space Transportation initiated a Notice of Intent to conduct an Environmental Impact Statement and public hearings on the new launch site, which would be located in Cameron County, Texas. The summary then indicated that the Texas site would support up to 12 commercial launches per year, including two Falcon Heavy launches. The first public meeting was held in May 2012, and the FAA released a draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the location in south Texas in April 2013. Public hearings on the draft EIS occurred in Brownsville, followed by a public comment period ending in June 2013. The draft EIS identified three parcels of land—total of —that would notionally be used for the control center. In addition, SpaceX had leased of land adjacent to the terminus of Texas State Highway 4, of which would be used to develop the vertical launch area; the remainder would remain open space surrounding the launch facility. In July 2014, the FAA officially issued its Record of Decision concerning the Boca Chica Beach facility, and found that "the proposal by Elon Musk’s Space Exploration Technologies would have no significant impact on the environment," approving the proposal and outlining SpaceX's proposal. The company formally announced selection of the Texas location in August 2014. In September 2013, the State of Texas General Land Office (GLO) and Cameron County signed an agreement outlining how beach closures would be handled in order to support a future SpaceX launch schedule. The agreement is intended to enable both economic development in Cameron County and protect the public's right to have access to Texas state beaches. Under the 2013 Texas plan, beach closures would be allowed but were not expected to exceed a maximum of 15 hours per closure date, with no more than three scheduled space flights between the Saturday prior to Memorial Day and Labor Day, unless the Texas GLO approves. In 2019, the FAA completed a reevaluation of the SpaceX facilities in South Texas, and in particular the revised plans away from a commercial spaceport to more of a spaceship yard for building and testing rockets at the facility, as well as flying different rockets—SpaceX Starship and prototype test vehicles—from the site than the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy envisioned in the original 2014 environmental assessment. In May and August 2019, the FAA issued a written report with a decision that a new supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) would not be required. In May 2021, the FAA issued a written FAQ regarding the FAA's Environmental Review of SpaceX Starship/Super Heavy Operations at the Boca Chica Launch Site. Land acquisition Prior to a final decision on the location of the spaceport, SpaceX began purchasing a number of real estate properties in Cameron County, Texas beginning in June 2012. By July 2014, SpaceX had purchased approximately and leased near Boca Chica Village and Boca Chica Beach through a company named Dogleg Park LLC, a reference to the "dogleg" type of trajectory that rockets launched from Boca Chica will be required to follow. Prior to May 2013, five lots in the Spanish Dagger Subdivision in Boca Chica Village, adjacent to Highway 4 which leads to the proposed launch site, had been purchased. In May 2013, SpaceX purchased an additional three parcels, adding another , plus four more lots with a total of in July 2013, making a total of 12 SpaceX-purchased lots. In November 2013, SpaceX substantially "increased its land holdings in the Boca Chica Beach area from 12 lots to 72 undeveloped lots" purchased, which encompass a total of approximately , in addition to the leased from private property owners. An additional few acres were purchased late in 2013, raising the SpaceX total "from 72 undeveloped lots to 80 lots totaling about 26 acres." In late 2013, SpaceX completed a replat of 13 lots totaling into a subdivision that they have named "Mars Crossing." In February 2014, they purchased 28 additional lots that surround the proposed complex at Boca Chica Beach, raising the SpaceX-owned land to approximately in addition to the lease. SpaceX's investments in Cameron County continued in March 2014, with the purchase of more tracts of land, bringing the total number of lots it now owns to 90. Public records showed that the total land area that SpaceX then owned through Dogleg Park LLC was roughly . This is in addition to that SpaceX then had under lease. By September 2014, Dogleg Park completed a replat of lots totaling into a second subdivision, this one named "Launch Site Texas", made up of several parcels of property previously purchased. This is the site of the launch site itself while the launch control facility is planned two miles west in the Mars Crossing subdivision. Dogleg Park has also continued purchasing land in Boca Chica, and now owns a total of "87 lots equaling more than 100 acres". SpaceX has also bought and is modifying several residential properties in Boca Chica Village, but apparently planning to leave them in residential use, about west of the launch site. In September 2019, SpaceX extended an offer to buy each of the houses in Boca Chica Village for three times the fair market value along with an offer of VIP invitations to future launch events. The 3x offer was said to be "non-negotiable." Homeowners were given two weeks for this particular offer to remain valid. Construction Major site construction at SpaceX's launch site in Boca Chica got underway in 2016, with site soil preparation for the launch pad in a process said to take two years, with significant additional soil work and significant construction beginning in late 2018. By September 2019, the site had been "transformed into an operational launch site – outfitted with the ground support equipment needed to support test flights of the methane-fueled Starship vehicles." Lighter construction of fencing and temporary buildings in the control center area had begun in 2014. The Texas launch location was projected in the 2013 draft EIS to include a vertical launch area and a area for a launch control center and a launch pad directly adjacent to the eastern terminus of Texas State Highway 4. Changes occurred based on actual land SpaceX was able to purchase and replat for the control center and primary spaceship build yard. SpaceX broke ground on the new launch site in September 2014, but indicated then that the principal work to build the facility was not expected to ramp up until late 2015 after the SpaceX launch site development team completed work on Kennedy Space Center Launch Pad 39A, as the same team was expected to manage the work to build the Boca Chica facility. Advance preparation work was expected to commence ahead of that. , SpaceX anticipated spending approximately over three to four years to build the Texas facility, while the Texas state government expected to spend to extend utilities and infrastructure to support the new spaceport. The design phase for the facility was completed by March 2015. In the event, construction was delayed by the destruction of one of SpaceX two Florida launch facilities in a September 2016 rocket explosion, which tied up the launch site design/build team for over a year. In order to stabilize the waterlogged ground at the coastal site, SpaceX engineers determined that a process known as soil surcharging would be required. For this to happen, some of new soil was trucked to the facility between October 2015 and January 2016. In January 2016, following additional soil testing that revealed foundation problems, SpaceX indicated they were not planning to complete construction until 2017, and the first launch from Boca Chica was not expected until late 2018. In February 2016, SpaceX President and COO Gwynne Shotwell stated that construction had been delayed by poor soil stability at the site, and that "two years of dirt work" would be required before SpaceX could build the launch facility, with construction costs expected to be higher than previously estimated. The first phase of the soil stabilization process was completed by May 2016. Two S-band tracking station antennas were installed at the site in 2016–2017. They were formerly used to track the Space Shuttle during launch and landing and made operational as tracking resources for crewed Dragon missions in 2018. A SpaceX-owned photovoltaic power station was installed on site to provide off-grid electrical power near the control center, The solar farm was installed by SolarCity in January 2018. Progress on building the pad had slowed considerably through 2017, much slower than either SpaceX or Texas state officials had expected when it was announced in 2014. Support for SpaceX, however, remained fairly strong amongst Texas public officials. In January 2018, COO Shotwell said the pad might be used for "early vehicle testing" by late 2018 or early 2019 but that additional work would be required after that to make it into a full launch site. SpaceX achieved this new target, with prototype rocket and rocket engine ground testing at Boca Chica starting in March 2019, and suborbital flight tests starting in July 2019. In late 2018, construction ramped up considerably, and the site saw the development of a large propellant tank farm including a 95,000 gallon horizontal liquid oxygen tank and 80,000 gallon liquid methane tank, a gas flare, more offices, and a small flat square launch pad. The Starhopper prototype was relocated to the pad in March 2019, and first flew in late July 2019. In late 2018, the "Mars Crossing" subdivision developed into a shipyard, with the development of several large hangars, and several concrete jigs, on top of which large steel rocket airframes were fabricated, the first of which became the Starhopper test article. In February 2019, SpaceX confirmed that the first orbit-capable Starship and Super Heavy test articles would be manufactured nearby, at the "SpaceX South Texas build site." By September 2019, the facility had been completely transformed into a new phase of an industrial rocket build facility, working multiple shifts and more than five days a week, able to support large rocket ground and flight testing. As of November 2019 the SpaceX south Texas Launch Site crew has been working on a new launch pad for its Starship/Super Heavy rocket; the former launch site has been transformed to an assembly site for the Starship rocket. On 7 March 2021, it was revealed by Michael Baylor on Twitter that the SpaceX South Texas Launch Site may eventually expand to the south. The expansion could see the addition of 2 Suborbital test stands along with one orbital launch pad code-named Orbital Launch Mount B. The expansion could also include a new landing pad, an expansion to the current tank farm, a new tank farm situated next to the proposed Orbital Launch Mount B, expanded Suborbital Pad B decking and two integration towers situated to under-construction Orbital Launch Mount A and the proposed Orbital Launch Mount B. In March 2021, SpaceX received a "Determination of no hazard to air navigation" from the FAA for the launch tower that SpaceX is building that is intended to support orbital launches. The period of construction shown on the FAA documents was April–July 2021 but the expiration date on the regulatory approval was 18 September 2021. The launch tower was fully stacked by late July 2021, when a crane lifted the ninth and final large steel section to the top of the tower at the orbital launch site (OLS). The tower is designed to have a set of large arms attached which will be used to stack both Super Heavy and the Starship second stage on the adjacent launch mount and, eventually, catch the rocket on return to the launch site as well. There will be no separate large crane attached to the top of the tower. The launch mount ("Stage Zero") began construction in July 2020 when the rebar of the deep foundation began to rise above the ground. Soon six large steel circular launch supports rose from the ground which would eventually support the massive weight of the launch table some ten months later. The mount got to full height on 31 July 2021 with the rollout and craning into place of the launch table, which had been custom built at the manufacturing site over the preceding months. Musk has commented that Stage Zero is everything needed to both launch and catch the rocket, and that building it is at least as hard as the booster or ship. , launch mount and launch tower plumbing, electrical, and ground support equipment connections are yet to be completed. Soon after tests for Starships were taking a break, production started to get ready for the First Orbital Launch. They started making GSE tanks, Cyro shells, SN20, and Booster 4. As SN20 was completed, and Booster 4,, Booster 4 and SN20 were rolled out to the launch site for a full stack. On August 6th 2021, SN20 was stacked on top of Booster 4 showing a great view of the two on the Orbital Launch Table giving us a great view of the future. SN20 soon after was taken back to the Production site, and Booster 4 as well to finish what needed to be finished between the two. As of October 28th, 2021, Starship SN20 and Booster 4 are at the launch site and are conducting proof tests for the First Orbital launch very soon. SN20 conducted two proof tests which were successful, but lost some heat tiles in the process, and recently conducted a pre burner test, and a raptor engine test firing up its engines, and lost some heat tiles again during the process which is very normal as tests are conducted to gather information for future tests. Booster 4 has not conducted any tests yet as it sits on its test stand waiting for its first proof tests or even a raptor engine test in the near future. Operation The South Texas Launch Site is SpaceX's fourth active launch facility, and its first private facility. , SpaceX leased three US government-owned launch sites: Vandenberg SLC 4 in California, and Cape Canaveral SLC-40 and Kennedy Space Center LC39A both in Florida. The launch site is in Cameron County, Texas, approximately east of Brownsville, with launch flyover range over the Gulf of Mexico. The launch site is planned to be optimized for commercial activity, as well as used to fly spacecraft on interplanetary trajectories. Launches on orbital trajectories from Brownsville will have a constrained flight path, due to the Caribbean Islands as well as the large number of oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. SpaceX has stated that they have a good flight path available for the launching of satellites on trajectories toward the commercially valuable geosynchronous orbit. Although SpaceX initial plans for the Boca Chica launch site were to loft robotic spacecraft to geosynchronous orbits, Elon Musk indicated in September 2014 that "the first person to go to another planet could launch from [the Boca Chica launch site]", but did not indicate which launch vehicle might be used for those launches. In May 2018, Elon Musk clarified that the South Texas launch site would be used exclusively for Starship. By March 2019, two test articles of Starship were being built, and three by May. The low-altitude, low-velocity Starship test flight rocket was used for initial integrated testing of the Raptor rocket engine with a flight-capable propellant structure, and was slated to also test the newly designed autogenous pressurization system that is replacing traditional helium tank pressurization as well as initial launch and landing algorithms for the much larger rocket. SpaceX originally developed their reusable booster technology for the 3-meter-diameter Falcon 9 from 2012 to 2018. The Starhopper prototype was also the platform for the first flight tests of the full-flow staged combustion methalox Raptor engine, where the hopper vehicle was flight tested with a single engine in July/August 2019, but could be fitted with up to three engines to facilitate engine-out tolerance testing. Starhopper currently stands to the side of the launchpad, hosting what appears to be radar equipment. The launch site has been the main production and testing site of the Starship/Super Heavy system. All Starship vehicles have been constructed here besides the Mk2 prototype, which was built in Florida but never completed, and eventually scrapped. By March 2020, SpaceX had doubled the number of employees onsite for Starship manufacturing, test and operations since January, with over 500 employees working at the site. Four shifts are working 24/7—in 12-hour shifts with 4 days on then 3 off followed by 3 days on and 4 off—to enable continuous Starship manufacturing with workers and equipment specialized to each task of serial Starship production. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service claimed that SpaceX had caused 1,000 hours of highway closures in 2019, well above the permitted 300 hours. In June 2021, Cameron County District Attorney Luis Saenz threatened to prosecute SpaceX for unauthorized road and beach closures, as well as employing security officers who may not be licensed to carry handguns. Impact The new launch facility was projected in a 2014 study to generate of economic activity in the city of Brownsville and eventually generate approximately in annual salaries from some 500 jobs projected to be created by 2024. A local economic development board was created for south Texas in 2014—the Cameron County Space Port Development Corporation (CCSPDC)—in order to facilitate the development of the aerospace industry in Cameron County near Brownsville. The first project for the newly established board is the SpaceX project to develop a launch site at Boca Chica Beach. In May 2015, Cameron County transferred ownership of 25 lots in Boca Chica to CCSPDC, which were stated could be used in the future to develop event parking. Effects on nearby homeowners The launch facility was approved to be constructed two miles from approximately thirty homes, with no indication that this would cause problems for the homeowners. Five years later in 2019, following an FAA revaluation of the environmental impact and the issuance of new FAA requirements that residents be asked to voluntarily stay outside their houses during particular tanking and engine ignition tests, SpaceX decided that a couple dozen of these homes were now too close to the launch facility over the long term and began seeking market acquisition of these properties. An attorney with expertise on such situations referred to the timeframe given by SpaceX for homeowners to consider their purchase offer as "aggressive". The United States Fish and Wildlife Service claimed that SpaceX had caused 1,000 hours of highway closures in 2019, well above the permitted 300 hours. In June 2021, Cameron County District Attorney Luis Saenz threatened to prosecute SpaceX for unauthorized road and beach closures, as well as employing security officers who may not be licensed to carry handguns. Environmental concerns Some residents of Boca Chica Village, Brownsville, and environmental activists criticized the Starship development program, stating that SpaceX had harmed local wildlife, conducted unauthorized test flights along with infrastructure construction, and polluted the area with noise. Environmental groups warned that the program threatens wildlife in the area, including 18 vulnerable and endangered species. A rare beetle species, the Boca Chica Flea Beetle (Chaetocnema rileyi), is known only from the beachside dune system next to the launchpad. A new ant species, Temnothorax misomoschus, was named in the wake of the explosion of a SN11 rocket on 30 March 2021. The type locality for T. misomoschus is Boca Chica, collected in 1968. The species epithet misomoschus means "hatred [of] Musk". During the SN8 launch, SpaceX ignored FAA warnings that the flight profile posed a risk of explosion. Following the launch, the FAA's Associate Administrator Wayne Monteith commented that SpaceX does not have a strong safety culture for not conducting thorough checks and following the FAA's statements. Members of the United States Congress voiced concerns about the FAA's response, calling on the agency to not have too much influence over SpaceX. However, the FAA Administrator stated that while SpaceX had done several corrections for those violations, the FAA would not approve further flights if SpaceX did not continue to perform those corrections. David Newstead, the director of one local environmental group, said that the explosion of SN11 left rocket debris on parts of the wildlife refuge that took three months to clean up. The FAA allowed the public to comment until 1 November on the environmental impact statement draft that is released on 19 September. SpaceX's environmental assessment missed important details about the propellant source. One such example is SpaceX's plan of building a 250-megawatt gas-fired power plant without specifying how it would obtain tens of millions of cubic feet of gas per day. Pat Parenteau, a law professor and senior counsel for the Environmental Advocacy Clinic at Vermont Law School, stated that it was unusual to exclude such details, which could violate the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act. Research facilities The Brownsville Economic Development Council (BEDC) was building a space tracking facility in Boca Chica Village on a site adjacent to the SpaceX launch control center. The STARGATE tracking facility is a joint project of the BEDC, SpaceX, and the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (formerly the University of Texas at Brownsville at the time the agreement was reached). Tourism In January 2016, the South Padre Island Convention and Visitors Advisory Board (CVA) recommended that the South Padre Island City Council "proceed with further planning regarding potential SpaceX viewing sites." See also List of spaceports SpaceX reusable launch system development program References External links SpaceX gets preliminary FAA nod for South Texas launch site, Waco Tribune-Herald, 16 April 2013. Lone Star State Bets Heavily on a Space Economy, New York Times, 27 November 2014. Spaceports in the United States SpaceX facilities Cameron County, Texas 2014 establishments in Texas

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The Harmonica Incident took place on a New York Yankees team bus on August 20, 1964, en route to O'Hare International Airport. Infielder Phil Linz, slightly resentful at not being played during a four-game sweep by the Chicago White Sox that was believed at the time to have seriously set back the Yankees' chances at that year's American League pennant, began playing a harmonica in the back of the bus. Manager Yogi Berra, feeling that Linz's behavior was inappropriate given the team's recent poor performance, angrily called on him to stop, whereupon Linz threw the harmonica and loudly complained about being singled out despite not having been at fault for the losses. Journalists on the bus following the team reported the incident in the next day's newspapers, and it became national news. Although Linz was fined for the incident, he received an endorsement contract from harmonica manufacturer Hohner after the company saw an increase in sales. The contract more than made up for Linz's lost money from the fine. Radio stations in Boston urged fans of the Red Sox, whom the Yankees played immediately afterward, to greet Linz at the plate in Fenway Park with a harmonica and kazoo serenade. At an exhibition game against the crosstown New York Mets, Mets players tossed harmonicas onto the field. The incident had divergent effects on the team. For the players, it ended well: Berra's authority as their manager was decisively established and they went 30–11 through the end of the season, clinching the pennant that had seemed out of reach. For the team's management, which had been dogged all season by reports that Berra could not control his former teammates, it confirmed that impression, and efforts to find a replacement for Berra (that had reportedly already been underway) succeeded shortly afterwards, with Johnny Keane, who was considered likely to be fired from his position as St. Louis Cardinals' manager after the season concluded, secretly agreeing to become the Yankees' manager. His team also came back from deep in the standings to win the National League pennant, and then defeat the Yankees in that year's World Series. The day afterwards, Berra was fired and Keane shocked his superiors by resigning instead of accepting a contract extension. Keane took over for Berra a few days later. Despite its role in catalyzing the team that season, the incident has been seen as the beginning of the end of the Yankees' 15-year postwar dynasty, since it also coincided with the announcement that the CBS television network was buying the team. Keane was never able to fully earn the respect of either the aging, injury-plagued stars or the few promising younger players, and in the 1965 season the team failed to win the pennant after recording its first losing season in 40 years. When the subsequent season started with even worse results, Keane was fired, though that did not prevent the Yankees from finishing in last place. They did not return to the World Series until 1976, after CBS had sold the team to George Steinbrenner. Background Yogi Berra and the Yankees In the years after World War II, the Yankees had come to dominate Major League Baseball in a way that no team had done before or since. Between 1947 and 1963, the team appeared in the World Series 14 times, winning ten. Rooting for the Yankees, as Peter Golenbock, the author of several books about the Yankees, some in collaboration with players, wrote, "became like rooting for U.S. Steel". Stars of the earlier era like Joe DiMaggio had been almost seamlessly replaced by younger players like Mickey Mantle. One of those, former catcher Lawrence "Yogi" Berra, had been a constant on the team. Berra had accumulated considerable baseball knowledge during his career. Casey Stengel, the Yankees' manager throughout the 1950s, had considered him the most important player on the team, sometimes describing Berra as his assistant manager. When he published his own memoirs in 1961, a blurb on the back cover by well-regarded Baltimore Orioles manager Paul Richards suggested that Berra would be an excellent manager himself. Since Berra was nearing the end of his playing career, the Orioles and other teams made indications that they would be interested in hiring him for that position. Berra explained later that he had turned down the other clubs' offers because many of them were not regular contenders for the pennant and he did not believe it likely that a new manager would last more than two seasons. During 1962, the Yankees' management noticed that Stengel, whom they had fired due to his advancing age a few seasons earlier, was becoming a big draw for the expansion New York Mets of the National League as the manager during their inaugural season. Despite the Mets' poor performance, the team regularly filled the aging Polo Grounds, and the Yankees only barely outdrew them even though they wound up winning the World Series. The executives worried that Berra, popular with the fans and the media, might be lured over to the Mets after his playing days were done, and with that team expected to move to the newer, larger Shea Stadium within two seasons, the possibility existed that the Mets' attendance figures could exceed those of the Yankees. So, before the start of the 1963 season, manager Ralph Houk took Berra on a yachting trip with several of the team's executives. Out on the ocean, general manager Roy Hamey told Berra that, at the end of the season, he would be leaving that position to become a scout. He in turn would be replaced by Houk, leaving the field manager's position open. Hamey asked Berra if he was interested in that job. The catcher was incredulous at first, but then accepted the offer. Not all the executives on board were enthusiastic about the prospect of Berra taking over as the Yankees' manager. Team president Dan Topping Jr., son of co-owner Dan Topping, who saw the chief benefit of hiring Berra as manager to be counteracting Stengel's force as a draw for the Mets, was not sure about the wisdom of the decision otherwise. Co-owner Del Webb had more serious doubts: Berra, unlike most other major league managers of the era, had no experience managing in the minor leagues; he also thought it inadvisable to go from being a teammate one season to a manager the next. Berra visited him in California to reassure him on both points, and Webb said he would support him as manager. Berra was made a player-coach that season, although he fulfilled the latter role primarily by fungo hitting to his teammates during pregame warmups. The promotion to manager was not made public until after the Yankees had ended the season with a four-game loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers in the World Series. Reporters greeted the news with some of the skepticism that Webb had expressed privately. Berra reassured them that he had learned much from Stengel and Houk in his years with the team. "You can observe a lot by watching", he said, adding to the stock of "Yogi-isms", the pithy, sometimes apparently self-contradictory remarks that had endeared him to the press over the years. "If you ask me a question I don't know", he continued, "I'm not going to answer". As the next season drew near, Berra himself seemed to express some doubts about his own capabilities as manager. "If we win, they'll say Mickey Mouse could have managed this team to the pennant. If we lose, they'll say it's my fault", he observed at one point. "Maybe I'll quit even if we win". The 1964 season Berra faced challenges almost from the start of the season. The team, which had not played well during spring training, lost its first three games in extra innings. Pitcher Jim Bouton, seen as the Yankees' next ace after winning 21 games in his rookie season the previous year, had sat out part of the preseason due to a contract dispute and as a result got off to an uneven start. Within weeks of Opening Day, all three of the team's starting outfielders—Mickey Mantle, Roger Maris, and Tom Tresh—were out with injuries, forcing Berra to play Johnny Blanchard, the team's backup catcher, in that position for some games. Fortunately for Berra, the team's pitchers made up for the injuries. Ace Whitey Ford performed consistently well, and Bouton had improved to his previous season's form by the end of April, to the point where he finished the season with more wins than Ford. Al Downing, another younger player and the first African American Yankee on the mound, also pitched well in the early months, striking out an average of one batter per inning. But then Bouton and Downing were sidelined with strained muscles. The relief pitchers also had their share of injuries, keeping Steve Hamilton and Hal Reniff from replicating their combined 23 saves in 82 appearances of the previous season. Berra was also having issues with the healthy players. Concerns about his capability to manage former teammates were, in the eyes of some media observers, proving justified. Reports began to circulate about late-night carousing by certain players, Mantle in particular. "He ran wild on Yogi", said sportswriter Maury Allen, "staying out late and carrying on". This was in large part a matter of perception. Mantle and other players had done the same thing under Houk, who had never felt it necessary to impose a curfew on them. "After racking up yet another win under the lights", writes baseball historian Philip Bashe, "[Houk']s clubs were known to wind up under tables". Phil Pepe, who covered the team for the World-Telegram and Sun, noted that under Berra, the Yankees "weren't doing anything differently than before—except not winning". Berra's exercise of managerial authority did create some friction between him and his former teammates. He benched third baseman Clete Boyer when his late night antics began affecting his play. "Our relationship at that time wasn't too good", Boyer said later, adding that he only appreciated the move when he himself became a coach after his playing career. Berra's relationship with the pitching staff was rocky as well. He often criticized them in front of their teammates, something Houk had never done. The relievers in particular began complaining to Houk about Berra having had them warm up in the bullpen only to leave his current pitcher in. This was consistent with a general pattern of indecisiveness some other players also noted. Hamilton recalled that Berra often wondered aloud about strategic decisions, asking, "Should I bunt? Should I steal?" Despite these difficulties, the Yankees were still contenders. Mantle came back from his early injury and, while still suffering from it (in addition to continuing pain from older injuries), continued to play well, leading the team in home runs and runs batted in with 35 and 111, respectively. Those numbers were impressive in an off year for hitters following recent pitcher-friendly rule changes; it was Mantle's last good season. Elston Howard, the team's first African American player, also avoided injury and put up the team's best batting average, .313. Despite their complaints of overwork, the relievers combined for a record of 20–7, with 15 saves during the summer months. By early August, the Yankees, despite winning fewer games and winning less overwhelmingly than they had in recent years, were in a tight battle for the pennant with the Baltimore Orioles and Chicago White Sox. Efforts to replace Berra By that time, the team's management had heard the players' complaints and the stories about the lack of discipline. The American League had queried the other nine teams about whether they would approve the sale of the Yankees to the CBS television network, the first word outside the two parties about a transaction that had been in the works since around the time Berra had been offered the manager's position; Topping and Webb did not want any negative publicity to disrupt the deal. According to sportswriter Joe Trimble, around August 12 Houk discreetly contacted Alvin Dark, then manager of the San Francisco Giants, about taking over from Berra after the season. Dark was respected as a manager, and popular in New York from his days as a player when the Giants had been in that city, but he had also been involved in a recent controversy over a remark he had allegedly made suggesting that the team's African-American and Latino players were not as "mentally alert" as their white counterparts. While he claimed to have been misquoted, and many of his players defended him, the publicity reportedly prevented the Yankees from offering him the job. Since any such negotiations before the end of the season would have violated baseball's strict anti-tampering rules, no records exist and thus it is also uncertain if, at that time, the team had definitely decided to replace Berra. With Dark out of the picture, the team reportedly made another effort to line up a replacement. Houk supposedly took advantage of a road trip to Kansas City late in the month to travel across Missouri and secretly meet with St. Louis Cardinals manager Johnny Keane, who was also reportedly having difficulty with some of his team's stars and seemed to be likely to be replaced himself after Gussie Busch, CEO of team owner Anheuser–Busch and team president, had fired general manager Bing Devine earlier in the month; word that Busch had already talked to onetime New York Giants manager Leo Durocher about taking over had leaked, alienating Keane. The Cardinals were floundering, and seemed unlikely at that time to win the National League pennant. It is not known what the outcome of this meeting was or even if it actually took place. The Yankees were also playing poorly by this point. On August 17, they arrived in Comiskey Park for a four-game series with the White Sox which had the potential to give either team the upper hand in the pennant race, at least in regard to one another. The Yankees had lost 6 of the 11 preceding games. Chicago won all four games in this series, including the final game on August 20, holding the Yankees scoreless as they got five runs off Ford in three innings. Incident After the last game, the Yankees dressed and got on the team bus to travel to O'Hare International Airport, from where they flew to Boston for another four-game series against their archrivals, the Red Sox. The mood on board was generally subdued, almost somber. The sweep had dropped the Yankees to 4 games behind the White Sox, down into third place behind Baltimore. It did not seem likely that the Yankees could make up for the lost ground in the remaining weeks of the season no matter how well they played. "It looked like we were out of it", Clete Boyer recalled. "We figured Chicago and Baltimore couldn't both go into slumps". The discomfort was further increased when the bus became stuck in traffic in hot weather. At the back, utility infielder Phil Linz was particularly upset, not only by the team's dire situation but because he had not played. Earlier in the season, he had played third when Berra had benched Boyer, shortstop while Tony Kubek had been injured, and briefly in the outfield when the starters were injured. He had hit very well against the White Sox pitchers, particularly their left-handers, and had taken a 10-game hitting streak into the series that had just concluded, yet he had remained on the bench during all four losses, with Berra declining to use him even as a pinch hitter. "If there was any team you would play me against, it would be the White Sox", Linz said later. By his own account, into which he admits he has incorporated others' reminiscences over the years, he was "resentful", but he was also aware that despite his hitting success, his fielding had been deficient, and he believes the pitchers had complained to the manager. "Yogi started getting pressure to put Tony Kubek back in. Somebody—maybe Whitey Ford—said 'You've got to get Phil out of there. Two hours after the game, the bus was making little progress, and Linz was still visibly upset, according to Jim Bouton, who often sat near him. To take his mind off his resentment, he pulled out a Hohner harmonica he had bought the day before when he ran into Tom Tresh and Kubek doing the same at Marshall Field's department store. Not knowing how to play the instrument, he also took out its by-the-numbers instruction booklet and began attempting to play the easiest song in it, "Mary Had a Little Lamb". He played very slowly, following the directions in the booklet. He also tried to play it quietly, which Bouton suggested may have complicated matters given the team's mood. "If 'Mary Had a Little Lamb' can sound like a dirge, it did", he wrote later. In the front of the otherwise quiet bus, Berra, seated with the team's other coaches, heard the harmonica playing, although he did not know who the player was. He did not think it was in any way appropriate behavior, especially after such a serious setback to the team's pennant chances. Accounts differ as to whether he knew at the time it was Linz, but it is agreed that Berra eventually said something in the general direction of the rear demanding that the harmonica playing stop. Linz claims he did not hear exactly what his manager said, and asked Mickey Mantle, seated a few rows further forward, to repeat it. Mantle, who often played little jokes on his teammates, told Linz that Berra had asked him to play it louder, which Linz did. This in turn led Berra to get out of his seat and go to the back of the bus, supposedly yelling at Linz to "shove [it] up your ass! You'd think you just won four straight!" As Berra confronted Linz, the harmonica for some reason—either Linz threw it to Berra or at him, or Berra knocked it out of his hand—became airborne. It struck first baseman Joe Pepitone in the knee strongly enough to cut him. When it did, Pepitone humorously began feigning a more serious injury and yelling "Corpsman! Corpsman!" among other things. With Berra now standing over him and, Linz believed, about to strike him, Linz stood up and shouted at him. "What are you getting on me for?" he said. "I give one hundred percent! Why don't you talk to some of these guys who aren't hustling?" "I was really an asshole", he later admitted. All the passengers on the bus were now laughing, except for Berra and Frank Crosetti, the third baseman on the 1930s Yankees teams who was now a coach himself. As Berra returned to his seat promising to deal with Linz later, Crosetti raised his high-pitched voice and told Linz he was acting like a child. Linz, who admitted to disliking Crosetti, first because he was "kind of an old-timer and a little cranky" and second because he often was hard on backup players like Linz while avoiding confrontations with stars, shouted, "Fuck you, Crow!" in response, further amusing the bus. Soon afterwards, Crosetti told the reporters who were traveling with the team that this insubordination was the worst thing he had ever seen in 33 years with the Yankees. "It was hard not to laugh", Bouton, who heard the remark, recalled to Rob Neyer 50 years later. "This was really the worst thing ever? In the history of the franchise?" Mantle picked up the harmonica and turned to Whitey Ford, who was sitting across the aisle. "It looks like I'm going to be managing this club pretty soon", he said, continuing his playful mood. "You can be my third base coach". He demonstrated how they would use the harmonica to relay signals to batters and runners. "One toot, that's a bunt. Two toots, that's a hit and run". Aftermath The incident had very different effects on Berra's relationship with the players and team management. Effect on players Either on the plane or after the Yankees reached Boston, Linz went to Berra and apologized. "Forget about it", the manager said, but the two nevertheless shook hands and embraced. However, Berra knew from his experience of the 1957 incident at the Copacabana nightclub, where teammate Billy Martin's birthday party had led to a brawl with some other patrons over racial slurs directed at Sammy Davis Jr. and (ultimately) to Martin being traded, that any player who brought negative publicity to the team had to be fined, regardless of blame. "Phil", he said, "with all the writers there, I have to fine you. How much do you think it should be?" Linz replied that Berra was the manager and should set the amount. He suggested $250 ($ in modern dollars) and Linz agreed. "We were friends after that", the infielder recalled. By the time the Yankees reached Boston, the reporters on the bus had gotten the story out, and it had received national attention. The Yankees' sale to CBS had been announced, and writers jokingly asked if Linz would get a record contract as well. A radio station sent each Yankees player a harmonica; Linz got ten mailed to him, plus checks totaling $65 to help cover the fine. Hohner, which reported a sharp increase in sales, signed Linz to a $5,000 ($ in modern dollars) endorsement deal, more than offsetting his fine. Joe Pepitone later joked that Linz should have brought a piano along on the bus so he would have made even more money. In the earliest known preserved segment of color video from The Tonight Show starring Johnny Carson, Carson devotes a significant portion his monologue to the incident, including a direct jab at CBS. "That would be funny, wouldn't it?" Houk commented in the press on reports that one Boston radio station was urging fans to bring harmonicas and kazoos to the games at Fenway Park to taunt Linz. He added, however, that he did not think Linz should have played the harmonica when he did. When the Yankees played the Mets in the Mayor's Trophy Game, an annual exhibition contest between the two teams, some of the Mets threw harmonicas onto the field. Linz suspected the action had been organized by one Met in particular, Tracy Stallard, his roommate at the time. On the field, at first the incident seemed to be a distraction as the Yankees continued as they had in Chicago, being shut out again in the first game and losing the next by a 5–3 margin, extending their losing streak to six. In the third game, rookie pitcher Mel Stottlemyre, who had snapped two other Yankee losing streaks in his August starts, held the Sox scoreless as Mantle, Maris, and Blanchard hit home runs en route to an 8-0 victory. Another Mantle home run helped Jim Bouton split the series for the Yankees the next day. These two wins were the start of a 22–6 run over the next four weeks. The White Sox lost three of four to Baltimore following their sweep of the Yankees, evening up the pennant race, but the Orioles were unable to build momentum from this; during a game in Boston before that, their star first baseman, Boog Powell, had chipped a bone after running into a wall at Fenway, putting him on the disabled list for three weeks. The Orioles slumped to 10–9 without him. The following weekend, the Yankees swept the Red Sox at home, while the White Sox and the Orioles split a series of their own. "That's when we knew we had a chance", Clete Boyer later recalled. At the end of August, the Orioles' lead was only three games. By the end of the season, the Yankees were 30–11 since the end of the White Sox' sweep. The surge was enough to put them in first place, one game ahead of Chicago, thus becoming league champions once again. Players and writers credited the Harmonica Incident with sparking the team's turnaround. "It will be told over and over for years to come how the 'dead' Yankees were revived and the 1964 pennant won because the manager, Yogi Berra, got mad at Phil Linz's harmonica playing on a bus", Leonard Koppett predicted. Linz has speculated that his implicit criticism of his teammates' lack of effort when he responded to Berra on the bus "may have hit home with some of those guys". It also helped establish Berra's role as the team manager with his players. "Out of that came the realization that Yogi was in charge", said second baseman Bobby Richardson. Years later, Mantle agreed: "In our eyes, that was the first time Yogi showed us all his leadership qualities ... From then on the players showed more respect for [him]. They had seen his temper and believed he had drawn a line". Whitey Ford agreed that "this incident showed us he could be tough when he had to". For his part, Berra repeatedly reassured the players when things seemed tough during September that "the world ain't come to an end yet", an early version of the more frequently quoted "It ain't over till it's over" that he told his Mets team during a similarly tight race in 1973. Effect on management Although Houk did his part to assist the Yankees' surge by making a late trade with the Cleveland Indians early in September for Pedro Ramos, bringing some badly needed help to the bullpen, he and the other front-office executives did not share the players' newfound respect for Berra. The Harmonica Incident had dominated the sports pages just as news of the team's proposed sale to CBS had broken, a sale which was both controversial in and of itself, as not only was it the first time a major corporation had taken a majority stake in a Major League Baseball team, but there were also issues with the potential conflict of interest with a television network having a vote on the sport's lucrative television contract. White Sox owner Arthur Allyn, Jr. had voted against the deal because he said he had been given only three hours in the middle of the night to consider it before voting; while his vote (along with that of the Kansas City A's Charlie Finley, who had a longtime grudge against the Yankees) was not enough to stop the deal, the negative publicity convinced the league to hold another vote later in the month, with the result remaining the same. The Yankees did not need the additional negative publicity the incident brought, especially in light of the doubts it raised about Berra's ability to manage his former teammates effectively. Houk decided sometime in early September, before it was evident that the team had united behind their manager and was turning its season around, that Berra had to be replaced. Through an intermediary, he let Keane know he could manage the Yankees the next season. The Cardinals' manager, who had never forgiven Busch for talking to Durocher, accepted. The planned management changeover became more awkward during September. Not only did the Yankees come back and win the pennant, but the Cardinals, 11 games out of first place in early August, also managed to do the same thing as the Philadelphia Phillies, who, in first place for much of the year, blew a 6-game lead with two weeks remaining, the final act in that team's infamous "Phold". On the last day of the season, the Cards clinched the National League pennant, averting a possible three-way playoff. Replacement of Berra by Keane In seven games, the Cardinals defeated the Yankees. Afterwards, the two teams held end-of-season news conferences. In St. Louis, Busch, who had changed his mind about letting Keane go after the Series win and was prepared to offer him a raise and a two-year extension, instead had to announce to reporters that Keane had handed in a letter of resignation immediately beforehand. The letter was backdated to the end of the regular season, and Keane explained that he had been talking over this decision with his wife shortly before then. He said he had no immediate plans beyond going fishing. Shortly afterwards, New York reporters, who assumed that the team would announce that Berra was being rehired for at least the next season, were taken by surprise when Houk instead announced that Berra had been fired. Asked who would replace him, Houk admitted that Dark was under consideration, and appeared surprised when he learned that Keane had abruptly resigned, saying that now that he was aware Keane was available, he too would be under consideration. Houk denied that losing the Series had led to Berra's dismissal. He declined to elaborate on the reasons for the firing, saying only that "it was better for all concerned". Berra remained with the team as a "special field consultant", primarily doing scouting work on other teams and prospective trades during the regular season. He was free to leave if another team offered him a position. "I don't mind", Berra said, when reached at a New Jersey golf course and told of the events. "I'll be spending the year at home. Where can you get a job like this? I don't have to sign in or punch a clock. And the pay is good". Reports immediately circulated that Keane would be hired, and that he had, in fact, already accepted the position before the season ended. Four days later, Keane was formally announced as the Yankees' new manager. According to Houk, he was signed to a one-year contract; his salary was not disclosed but reportedly was better than what the Cardinals had offered him. Some reporters found the circumstances suspicious and did not believe that Keane's sudden availability was a coincidence; Newsday columnist Stan Isaacs called Houk "the number-one charlatan, mountebank, quack, fop, fraud and ass of the sporting panorama". Fan reaction was overwhelmingly negative; some even wrote to Commissioner Ford Frick to complain. It has been speculated in the subsequent years that Houk had more to do with Berra's firing than anyone above him, and that his reasons were more personal. "Houk didn't think Yogi was a good manager. Houk never backed Yogi up. Also, Yogi had not been Houk's choice", said Jim Bouton, who adds that Houk's biggest mistake was listening to the players who went to his office to complain, something that neither of his predecessors as manager nor general manager would have tolerated. "He never said, 'Mind your own business, and get the hell out of here. Clete Boyer was even more critical. "The truth was that Houk was jealous of Yogi", he claims. "Houk had been nothing but a scrub, a backup for years, and he resented the fact that Yogi was a much greater player and much more popular. And, in my opinion, just as good a manager". As spring training began for the Yankees' next season, Houk spoke at some length about the turn of events at the end of the previous season. He called hiring Berra "his biggest mistake" as general manager. "The plain truth is that he was not ready to manage ... Nobody was more disappointed than I was". While he admitted that the decision to fire Berra had been made in late August, he denied the Harmonica Incident had anything to do with it. He would not discuss the actual reasons either, except to say that "they were very good ones". Not everyone believed him then, or even now. Jim Bouton told Rob Neyer in 2014 that he believed the decision to fire Berra had been made "maybe right after Phil Linz decided to play his harmonica in Chicago". Linz has said that he felt "partially responsible" for some time afterwards, but by 2013 he no longer believed it had been his fault. "I'm pretty sure from what I've heard that the Yankees had made a decision before that had happened". 1965 season There were no changes to the Yankees' roster in the offseason as significant as the management change, and many of the players believed they had a good chance at becoming league champions again and winning another Series. Looking over the team in spring training, Keane told a fellow coach that he had "never had so many good ballplayers" and should not have to change anything they did. However, he did. A career minor leaguer who had never played in the majors before managing there, he tried to instill the same work ethic and practice habits that had kept him playing. Many of the Yankees, who felt they had already established themselves and had never been treated that way by Berra, Houk, or Stengel, resented him as an outsider. The cultural clash between Keane and the Yankees was even deeper when it came to off-field activities. "Johnny Keane was the wrong guy for so many reasons", Bouton recalled in his 2014 interview. "[We] were a party team. We out-drank, out-ate everybody, would be out carousing". Keane, on the other hand, was devoutly religious and imposed curfews and other strict rules on the team. "I don't remember if I said this first or someone else did, but hiring Johnny Keane was like putting Billy Graham in charge of the Hells Angels". At one point he attempted to make an example of a hungover Mickey Mantle by making him shag fly balls endlessly until Mantle retaliated by throwing the ball toward Keane's head. "When we did talk, there were no arguments", Mantle recalled. "More often than not, we had staring contests". Injuries plagued the team as they had the year before, but Keane, who Bouton said "thought the players were babying themselves too much" made some play anyway. In conjunction with upper management, he concealed from Roger Maris the information that he had broken his hand until late in the season, an injury that left him unable to grip a bat as tightly as he had before. Elston Howard had to keep playing despite an arm injury, and the stress on Tony Kubek's bad back forced him into retirement at the end of the season. Bouton also pitched most of the season with a sore arm, which he later realized had led to permanent damage. The effect of the injuries on the team made some of Berra's moves the year before more understandable. He had played Mantle at first, and rested him regularly to keep him at his healthiest when he did play; Keane's decision to play Mantle in the outfield without a break clearly had a deleterious effect on the star. Kubek and Boyer's injuries were also aggravated by their lack of rest. The Yankees ultimately finished the season in sixth place at 77–85, the first time in 40 years they had a losing record. After the team started the next season with only 4 wins in its first 20 games, Keane was fired. Houk returned to the dugout to manage but was unable to turn the season around, and the Yankees finished 70–89, in last place for the first time since 1912. The Yankees did not win the pennant again until 1976, three years after CBS sold the team to George Steinbrenner at a loss. Berra, who had coached and managed the New York Mets to the 1973 World Series in the interim, returned to the Yankees as a coach that season under manager Billy Martin, a teammate on the 1950s Yankees teams. In 1983, he succeeded Martin as manager. Legacy In the years since the Harmonica Incident, it has been remembered both as the beginning of the Yankees' 1964 comeback and the harbinger of the team's collapse over the next two seasons. In 2005, Bobby Richardson recalled that there were some ways during that season in which "the team concept was eroding a bit". When it came to dividing World Series shares, he notes, the players did not give as much to younger players and the team's clubhouse attendants as they had in previous years. Even Berra, he says, was not immune—on the way home from St. Louis after the Series loss, he asked Richardson and his wife if he should ask for a two-year contract, and they agreed. Berra never did the scouting his post-managerial contract called for. Within a week of his firing, he was contacted by the Mets and offered a coaching position with them, which he accepted, reuniting him and Stengel. He also returned to the lineup for four games; after performing poorly, he retired as a player for good. Linz, who appeared in a Hohner ad with the line "Play it again, Phil" on the back of the Yankees' 1965 yearbook, was traded to the Phillies after the 1965 season. That team eventually traded him to the Mets in 1968, where he was reunited with Berra. The two posed for a humorous picture with Linz playing the harmonica and Berra covering his ears and smiling; Linz still uses the picture on his business cards. That season was Linz's last. "If people remember me at all", he recalled in 2013, "they remember me as a harmonica player, because I sure wasn't too good of a baseball player". He still carries the harmonica with him, and can now play "Mary Had a Little Lamb" more expertly. Ralph Houk managed the Yankees through the end of the 1973 season, never having done better than a second-place finish in the American League East in 1970. He later managed the Detroit Tigers and Boston Red Sox during transitional periods that did not see either team reach the postseason. Upon his death in 2010, Berra biographer Allen Barra reminded readers of Houk's role in Berra's 1964 firing. "Yes, Ralph Houk was a brave man and risked his life for his country at Normandy", he wrote. "But that doesn't excuse his complicity in a moment in Yankee history more shameful than anything perpetrated by George Steinbrenner". Berra's later career Berra stayed with the Mets as a coach through several other managerial changes, sharing in that team's 1969 World Series victory under manager Gil Hodges. After Hodges' death during spring training in 1972, Berra was named his successor. That year he was also inducted into the Hall of Fame. The following season, he oversaw another comeback much like the 1964 Yankees, taking the Mets from 5 games out of first place at the end of August to the pennant, followed by a 4 games to 3 games loss in that year's Series to the Oakland A's. Clete Boyer has said that that achievement should put to rest any of the doubts about Berra's managerial acumen which were used to justify his dismissal. He told Berra biographer Allan Barra: In 1974, shortly before his death, former owner Del Webb relayed a message through his doctor, who also occasionally saw Berra, that he had made a mistake in firing Yogi. The Mets fired Berra in August 1975, due to the team's poor performance that season. He returned to the Yankees as a coach the next season under former teammate Billy Martin to win the pennant again and return to the World Series, albeit to be swept by the Cincinnati Reds (the coincidence of those two occurrences has been noted). The Yankees then won the next two Series. Berra remained as a coach throughout the team's managerial changes in the early 1980s. In 1983, after firing Martin for the third time, George Steinbrenner, who had bought the team from CBS ten years earlier, promoted Berra to the manager's position. The fans were happy to see Berra at long last given a second chance; the players liked him as much as their 1964 counterparts had. The season followed the same pattern as 1964 and 1973 had: a slow start, followed by the best record in baseball after the All-Star break. The team finished 87–75 in 1984, 17 games behind the first-place Detroit Tigers, who went on to win the Series. Despite the second-place finish, the Yankees had never been in contention, and Berra was concerned that the mercurial Steinbrenner might decide to make a change. Before the next season, Berra sought assurances that he would be allowed to manage the season out, and Steinbrenner responded by publicly guaranteeing that "Yogi is the manager, win or lose". Notwithstanding that promise, he fired Berra 16 games into the season, rehiring Martin. The players reacted angrily, so much so that when Martin hired former Tigers outfielder Willie Horton as a coach, insiders said Horton's real purpose was to be Martin's bodyguard should he and player Don Baylor fight. Steinbrenner did not personally inform Berra that he had been fired, instead leaving that task to general manager Clyde King. He broke the news to Berra in the visiting manager's office at Comiskey Park, where the Yankees had once again been swept by the White Sox. Players, who had heard the news, were nevertheless surprised to find Berra seated in the front of the team bus, which let him off at O'Hare where he flew back to New York. In 1964, Berra had reportedly taken the firing personally, but knew better than to be angry about it publicly. This time he was even angrier, since Steinbrenner had sent King to do the job rather than face Yogi as Topping and Webb had. He publicly vowed never to set foot in Yankee Stadium again as long as Steinbrenner owned the team. That lasted until 1999, when Steinbrenner traveled from Florida to Berra's home in New Jersey to personally apologize for having not fired him in person 14 years before. Berra's return to the stadium shortly afterwards was celebrated as "Yogi Berra Day". Don Larsen, whose perfect game in the 1956 World Series he had caught, threw out the ceremonial first pitch to Berra. It was followed by Yankee pitcher David Cone throwing his own perfect game against the Montreal Expos. See also History of the New York Yankees Notes References External links "The Demise of the Yankees: 1964–66", by Al Featherston, arguing that the team's mid-1960s decline can solely be attributed to mishandling of injuries to key players and an inability to recognize existing talent, not age and a shortage of promising younger players as is commonly believed. New York Yankees 1964 Major League Baseball season Harmonica August 1964 sports events in the United States 1960s in Chicago 1964 in sports in Illinois

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Caché (), also known as Hidden (United Kingdom), is a 2005 psychological thriller film written and directed by Michael Haneke and starring Daniel Auteuil and Juliette Binoche. The plot follows an upper-middle-class French couple, Georges (Auteuil) and Anne (Binoche), who are terrorised by anonymous tapes that appear on their front porch and seem to show the family is under surveillance. Clues in the videos point to Georges's childhood memories, and his resistance to his parents' adopting an Algerian orphan named Majid, who was sent away. The tapes lead him to the now-grown Majid (Maurice Bénichou). Shot in Paris and Vienna in 2004, the film is an international co-production of France, Austria, Germany and Italy. Haneke wrote the screenplay with Auteuil and Binoche in mind, and with a concept of exploring guilt and childhood. When he learned of the French government's decades-long denial of the 1961 Seine River massacre, he incorporated memories of the event into his story. Caché opened at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival to critical acclaim for the performances and Haneke's direction. Its plot ambiguities raised considerable discussion. The film has been interpreted as an allegory about collective guilt and collective memory, and as a statement on France's Algerian War and colonialism in general. While presented as a mystery, the film does not explicitly reveal which character sends the tapes. Haneke regarded that as of secondary importance to the exploration of guilt and left the question up to viewer interpretation. The film won three awards at Cannes, including Best Director; five European Film Awards, including Best Film; and other honours. It was controversially disqualified for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Caché has been regarded in the years since its release as one of the greatest films of the 2000s, included in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century. Plot An affluent Parisian couple, Anne and Georges Laurent, discover a videotape left on their property without explanation that shows hours of footage of their residence, implying they are under surveillance. Puzzled about its origin, they debate its purpose, considering whether it might be a practical joke played by friends of their 12-year-old son, Pierrot, or the work of fans of Georges, who hosts a literary television show. A second tape arrives, accompanied by a childlike drawing of a person with blood streaming out of his mouth. Similar drawings are mailed to Georges's workplace and Pierrot's school. Disturbed, the Laurents turn to the French police, who determine the tapes are too harmless to be considered criminal activity. The Laurents host a dinner party that is interrupted by the delivery of another videotape, with a crude drawing of a chicken bleeding at its neck. When Anne discloses the stalking to their friends, Georges puts the tape in the VCR, and finds it shows the estate where he grew up. Georges begins to have vivid dreams about Majid, a boy he knew in childhood. Majid's Algerian parents worked as farmhands on Georges's family estate but disappeared in the Paris massacre of 1961. Feeling responsible for Majid, Georges's parents intended to adopt him, but the process was never finalised. Suspecting Majid might be responsible for the tapes, Georges visits his ailing mother, who surprisingly professes not to remember Majid well. When the Laurents receive another tape, revealing an HLM apartment, Georges tells Anne he has a suspect in mind, but will not say who until he can confirm his suspicion. Anne responds with shock at what she sees as his lack of trust. Following the last tape's clues, Georges locates the apartment off Avenue Lénine in Romainville and finds Majid there. Majid denies knowledge of the tapes or drawing, but Georges does not believe him and threatens him. A hidden camera recorded the conversation with Majid, who breaks down crying after Georges leaves, and tapes of the encounter are sent to Anne and Georges's employer. Georges explains to Anne that he was six when his parents were planning to adopt Majid and that he did not want it to happen; he told lies about Majid, who was sent away. When Pierrot disappears, the Laurents frantically contact the police, who check Majid's apartment and arrest Majid and Majid's son, though they deny involvement in kidnapping. Pierrot returns to his family, having spent time with friends, and hints to Anne that he thinks she is too close to Pierre, a family friend. Majid calls Georges and asks him to come back to the apartment. When Georges arrives, Majid denies having sent the tapes, says he wanted Georges present, and kills himself by slashing his throat. Georges confesses to Anne that as a boy, he had claimed Majid was coughing up blood and convinced Majid to kill the family's rooster, falsely claiming his father wanted him to. The police confirm the cause of death as suicide, but Majid's son appears at Georges's workplace to confront him. Believing the son is responsible for the tapes, Georges threatens him to cease surveillance, but the son replies he was not involved with the tapes and wanted to know how Georges felt about being responsible for a death. Later, Majid's son converses with Pierrot after school. Production Historical background A basis for the story was the massacre that took place in Paris on 17 October 1961, referenced by the character Georges: During the Algerian War, the National Liberation Front responded to the French right's attacks on France's Arabs, and as many as 200 protesters in Paris may have been shot or drowned in the Seine River. Maurice Papon was prefect of the Paris police, and previously served Vichy France; a book about Vichy is visible on Georges's shelf. In the aftermath of the massacre, the French government suppressed many of the facts by restricting police archives and delaying and cancelling public investigations, until allowing three historians to review the archives in 1998. The media reported three deaths in 1961; the massacre was not revisited until 1997 when Papon went to trial for his Vichy record. While planning the production of Caché, Haneke learned about the massacre, and how information about it was withheld for years, after seeing a television documentary on Arte. He remarked, given France's free press, "I was totally shocked that I had never heard of this event before". He decided to work it into his story. Development Haneke began writing the screenplay by September 2001. He described a starting point: "I had been toying with the idea of writing a script in which someone is confronted with his guilt for something he did in childhood". In planning the film, he chose the thriller genre as a model but intended the true point to be an exploration of guilt; he deliberately left the question of who sent the tapes ambiguous: Haneke also left it ambiguous whether the young Georges's claim that Majid coughed blood was a lie, but said he viewed the depiction of Majid menacing Georges with an ax as a mere nightmare. While the Paris massacre inspired the plot, Haneke said the story was not about a "French problem" as something unusual, remarking, "This film was made in France, but I could have shot it with very few adjustments within an Austrian – or I'm sure an American – context". Another inspiration was a story he had heard from a friend, similar to that which Denis Podalydès's character tells when claiming to have a scar matching the wound of a dog killed on the day the character was born. Haneke explained, "I wrote it down when I got home and always wanted to use it. I think it sits well here because it makes people ask if it's true or not". While the filmmakers intended the production to be entirely French, they discovered they could not raise the funds in the one country. It received international backing from Films du Losange, Wega-Film, Bavaria Film and BIM Distribuzione which are respectively based in France, Austria, Germany and Italy. Haneke also secured funds from ORF in his native Austria, for a budget of €8 million. Casting Haneke stated "Daniel Auteuil was the reason I wrote this script" and that he envisioned Auteuil and Binoche in the lead roles and had "almost all the actors in mind" while working on the screenplay. Haneke had never worked with Auteuil before, but chose him because he felt Auteuil always played his roles as if keeping a secret. Auteuil had learned of the 1961 massacre only after reading about it in L'Obs circa 1995; he accepted the role, interested in exploring the national conscience surrounding the incident, which made an impression on him. Juliette Binoche had previously starred in Haneke's 2000 Code Unknown, where her character was also named Anne Laurent. She joined the cast, along with Auteuil, in fall 2002. Child actor Lester Makedonsky was cast as Pierrot, and because of his swimming skills, the filmmakers chose swimming as Pierrot's sport. Haneke had also worked with Maurice Bénichou before on Code Unknown and Time of the Wolf (2003), on Code Unknown. and Annie Girardot in The Piano Teacher. Nathalie Richard previously played a character named Mathilde in Code Unknown, both being friends of the two versions of Anne Laurent. Filming Principal photography took place at Rue des Iris and Rue Brillat-Savarin, Paris, where Haneke ordered parked vehicles arranged and rearranged to match his vision and prepare for tracking shots. Majid's neighbourhood was filmed on location at Avenue Lénine in Romainville. Interior scenes at the Laurent residence were shot in Vienna, Austria in August 2004. Interior scenes for Majid's apartment were also shot in Vienna, with Paris largely used for outdoor scenes, and stairs from Paris replicated in Vienna. Haneke said most of the filming likely took place in Vienna. It was the first film he made using high-definition video cameras; it also has no score, due to Haneke's belief that music conflicts with realism. For the scene in which a rooster is beheaded, a real chicken was used and actually killed. In the suicide scene, Haneke sought to create a realistic effect, remarking "if the suicide scene is not plausible then the entire film is spoiled". In the final scene, Lester Makedonsky and Walid Afkir are speaking dialogue Haneke scripted, but Haneke chose not to publish it and left it inaudible, and instructed the actors to never disclose it. Haneke chose a wide shot and positioned the extras so that viewers might not notice Makedonsky and Afkir. He described post-production as marked by arduous work on fixing the sound. Themes and interpretations Colonialism Themes of collective memory and guilt over colonialism run through Caché. When Majid commits suicide, Haneke connects "the personal and collective conscience", and how neither Georges nor his society has acknowledged the violence of colonialism, according to professor Ipek A. Celik. Scholar Susannah Radstone argues that while critics focused on the film as a statement on the Algerian War in particular, the story is generally about "the trauma of violence perpetuated upon the colonized and the guilt that now ought rightfully to be acknowledged by the colonial power". The French people refusing to accept the full truth of a moment of shame, the Paris massacre, underlines the scene where Georges tells Anne about Majid, according to academic Elsie Walker, with the pauses punctuating Georges's monologue belying the shame. After stating the date, Georges adds "Enough said", indicating the event was better-known by 2005, but also seemingly affirming silence about it; Walker points out that Georges ironically follows this with details. Professor Russell J.A. Kilbourn writes that Georges had suppressed his memories and his sense of guilt and that for Haneke, trauma is lived in the present through memory. Georges's dream, in which he sees young Majid kill the rooster, and then menace him with the ax, "presents a spectacle of real death in the place of any simulation or reconstruction of the events of October 1961", author Michael Lawrence writes. Present-day conflicts such as the Iraq War and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict are depicted through a Euronews broadcast seen in the film. Author Patrick Crowley writes these are used to represent "the return of the colonial repressed [...] within contemporary forms of imperialism", and that they are connected to the Paris massacre and the Holocaust. The film's connection between the Seine River massacre and the Holocaust, including Vichy's collaboration with the Nazis, is through Papon. The violence of colonialism, lasting into the present, is also depicted as entering private homes and the media in "hidden" ways, according to essayist Brianne Gallagher. Radstone argues the focus on surveillance and Georges's confrontation with a black cyclist indicate the perspective is that of "the privileged and anxious white middle class". Academic Eva Jørholt argues the film illustrates how white paranoia in the aftermath of colonialism explains racial discrimination in modern France. According to film studies scholar Maria Flood, Majid is largely kept invisible, and his suicide scene confronts viewers with society's marginal people. Celik added that historical revisionism in denying colonial crimes made Caché well-timed for 2005, with the rise of Jean-Marie Le Pen and the National Front. Surveillance Professor Todd Herzog states that after the 11 September 2001 attacks, mass surveillance became commonplace. Herzog adds that Caché follows a tradition of cinema about surveillance, including Blow-Up (1966) and The Conversation (1974), but that Caché is distinctive in being "about being looked at rather than looking at something or someone". Haneke reveals life without privacy, Herzog writes. Qian He of the University of Washington writes the precise question of who is watching is the "question that haunts our daily life"; Caché is one film that explores the question, answers to which have included Google, Big Brother and God. Philosopher William G. Smith tied Haneke's ambiguity as to the sender of the tapes to philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche's writings on interpretation, quoting Haneke: "There are 1,000 truths. It's a matter of perspective". The setting of Rue de Iris has symbolic significance, as "iris" refers to a part of the human eye and to a camera diaphragm. Film studies professor Catherine Wheatley also observes a man sitting behind Anne and Pierre in the café and observing them. Lecturer Judit Pieldner observes Georges's shelves are lined with CDs, DVDs and videotapes, amounting to a celebration of media technology. The length of the tapes the Laurents receive is also stated at two hours, a nod to the typical capacity of VHS and Hi-8 videotape. Academic Jehanne-Marie Gavarini notes photography was employed to preserve memory in the 19th and 20th centuries, suggesting the videos in the story serve to assist remembering, as opposed to being evidence of surveillance as a terror tactic. Editors Amresh Sinha and Terence McSweeney also identified Caché as part of a 21st-century trend of films concerned with memory, along with Memento, Mulholland Drive, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind and Pan's Labyrinth. Gavarini quotes philosopher Martin Heidegger: Drawing on Heidegger's theories, Gavarini concludes Caché is a statement on "the virtual space of the screen". Character studies Scholar Hugh S. Manon hypothesises the surveillance represents psychiatrist Jacques Lacan's "le regard – 'the gaze'", as psychoanalysis, which Georges wishes to avoid. Manon suggests that unlike Hidden, the French title Caché has a double meaning, referencing "masks" silent film cinematographers used to block parts of shots to highlight another element. Georges's general paranoia is observed in his failure to be open and forthright with his friends and employer. In his mind, "the enemy is everywhere", Wheatley writes. Smith considers the lack of communication between Georges and Anne originates "from everything that was swept under the rug". Anne's position as "moral compass" is made ambiguous by hints of possible adultery with Pierre, according to Wheatley. While no sex is shown, the characters' closeness in their café scene makes the notion appear possible though uncertain. Film professor Christopher Sharrett judges Pierrot's suspicions to be correct, given how Anne seeks Pierre for comfort, and suggests Pierrot "sees far more" than Anne realises. Pierrot's "mysterious, hostile behaviour", including accusing his mother of adultery, invites suspicion that he is behind the tapes. Wheatley compares Pierrot, as a child rebel against his elders, to the Funny Games murderers and the children in Haneke's 2009 The White Ribbon. Academic Giuseppina Mecchia likened the film to Italian neo-realism in using a child's perspective to reveal adult dishonesty: child characters reveal Georges's dishonesty. Italian director Vittorio De Sica's 1944 The Children Are Watching Us has similar themes. Majid may also be trying to cope with trauma, with Gavarini writing Majid lives in poverty, "still haunted by the disappearance of his parents". There is a class separation between Majid and Georges, as Majid lives in an HLM and the settings reveal "markers of racial, cultural, and class-based polarizations", according to film studies professor Malini Guha. Gavarini identifies him as the guilty party in the tapes, and submits the drawings attached to the tapes are Majid's attempts at understanding his past, and communicating these thoughts to Georges, unable to verbally communicate them. The viewer is invited to ponder what Majid's son has inherited from his father; Georges questions the son on "what dumb obsession [Majid] passed down", though Wheatley argues that if the son is telling the truth that Majid raised him properly, he would not hate Georges. Haneke had previously used the names Anne and Georges Laurent in Code Unknown and Anna and Georg in Funny Games (1997). Binoche played Anne Laurent in Code Unknown and Caché, and Mathilde is Anne's friend in both films. Lawrence suggests Haneke used this character-naming method to downplay "individualization" and allow the audience to see the characters as "multiple versions of a particular type". Haneke himself said that he sought short character names to avoid "any hidden metaphorical meaning" detracting from realism. Style Generally, Haneke's style has been described as displaying "an aesthetics of dread"; a feeling of "existential dread" or "ambient dread" is also present in Caché. The story has been described as a "psychological thriller"; the British Film Institute stated it employs "classical suspense strategies" to enter the thriller genre. Wheatley adds the techniques differ from the Hitchcockian style by withholding information from the audience until characters disclose it, and not being clear as to whether the characters are honest and whether the flashbacks are real. According to Radstone, the style is characterised by "its closed-in camerawork, its aesthetic and narrative concerns with surveillance, its claustrophobic interiority". Film studies professor Oliver C. Speck has written that Haneke rejected "pseudo-realism" in its recreations of Georges's childhood. Though it resembles a whodunit, the film does not reveal who sent the tapes. A solution may not be possible, as given the setting and the camerawork, the camera could not record without being seen when Georges looks into it, Herzog writes. This suggests Haneke himself is sending the tapes in the story. Georges has no reason to send the tapes to himself and Anne, and the idea that Georges is unconsciously and psychically producing the tapes contradicts the realistic style. Noting that the opening sequence is characterised by a lengthy take in which the camera is stationary and focused on a street, with a "crowded composition" and a two-storey house in the centre, essayist Jonathan Thomas compares this to a photograph, along with sounds of birds, and described it as "idyllic". Professor Brigitte Peucker calls it "slice-of-life realism", comparing it to the opening of Alfred Hitchcock's similarly surveillance-themed Rear Window (1954). The opening credits appear over the shot, in a style suggesting they are being typed. After two minutes and no cut, the "stillness" starts to "weigh" on the viewer. Pieldner compared this to Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni's technique of temps mort, where a shot goes on even after the storytelling seems to have ceased. Wheatley notes the "painstaking arrangement" of the four-minute final shot's mise-en-scène, inviting viewers to seek clues, though many viewers missed the meeting between the sons suggesting they are co-conspirators. The shot is still, with two doors in symmetry, parents wearing brown and beige, and a "content murmur". Throughout the film, images are spliced, from the "dramatic present", "prerecorded video", seeing Georges on television, and flashbacks, according to Thomas. Gavarini asserts that the opening is deceptive as to whether the viewer is seeing from the protagonists' perspective, producing "confusion between the director's camera and the diegetic video" and involving the audience as perpetrators of the surveillance. Speck likens the lengthy takes to "visual rhymes". Thomas writes that the high definition makes them "materially homogeneous", with no grain or noise. Speck adds that the digital film clouds distinctions between the surveillance footage and other scenes, removing "ontological certainty". The colour scheme, observable in the Laurents' apartment, focuses on grey, brown and beige and communicates dissatisfaction; Haneke had employed it before in The Piano Teacher. In the stressful scene where Anne and Georges realise Pierrot is missing, Euronews plays in the background covering Barbara Contini in Iraq and Palestinians being killed in a protest; Walker notes that the background volume remains louder than the Laurent dialogue, while "classical realism" would require the viewer to lose interest in the background news. Release By fall 2002, Mars Distribution had signed on as the French distributor. The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in May 2005, where distributors purchased release rights, including Sony Pictures Classics for the United States. It subsequently screened at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival, the Telluride Film Festival and the New York Film Festival. In France, Caché opened on 5 October 2005. Its poster featured a blood spray alluding to the suicide scene. It opened in New York City and Los Angeles on 23 December 2005, and in the United Kingdom on 27 January 2006, distributed by Artificial Eye. To market the film, Artificial Eye designed a trailer with no music and heavy dialogue with subtitles, emphasising a complicated plot. By the end of January, Sony expanded the release to Chicago, Boston, San Francisco, Montreal, and other cities. The UK Film Council also approved Caché, under the title Hidden, for screenings in multiplexes, based on an assessment it could have commercial appeal. It was released on DVD in Region 1 in June 2006, along with Yves Montmayeur's documentary Hidden Side. That month, Artificial Eye also published a single-disc Region 2 DVD, later including it in its The Essential Michael Haneke DVD boxset in October 2009. Reception Box office By the beginning of November, Films du Losange found the film was performing "strongly" in France. In the United States and Canada, Sony moved it from 10 to 22 screens by 25 January 2006 to gross $718,406. It opened in the United Kingdom making £169,000 in its first weekend, reaching £1 million by 24 March 2006. The film finished its run grossing $3.6 million in the U.S. and £1.1 million in the U.K., more than any previous Haneke film in either country. It grossed US$16,197,824 worldwide. Peter Cowie and Pascal Edelmann summarised Cachés box office performance as having "considerable success". Critical reception The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 89% approval rating based on 135 reviews, with an average rating of 7.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A creepy French psychological thriller that commands the audience's attention throughout". On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 83 based on 37 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". In Le Monde, Jean-François Rauger wrote that while Haneke may be heavy-handed in his negative outlook and use of news about war in the Middle East playing the background, the atmosphere of terror deserved credit. Le Parisien gave it three out of four stars, declaring it an excellent thriller, citing Annie Girardot for her performance as the mother. For Les Inrockuptibles, Serge Kaganski compared the opening to David Lynch's Lost Highway and wrote the suspense developed from there, and that Binoche and Auteuil convey the anxiety, Auteuil more internally. Variety critic Deborah Young reviewed Haneke's pacing favorably and found themes of responsibility, regarding France and Algeria but tied into the United States and Europe in the Iraq War. The Hollywood Reporters Kirk Honeycutt credited the film for a thorough exploration of "guilt, communication and willful amnesia", and praised the cinematography. Film Comment contributor Michael Joshua Rowin considered it Haneke's most political work to date, "not merely liberal hand wringing" in its depiction of "passive-aggressive oppression and its manifestation as a slow-building, unresolved societal tension". A.O. Scott wrote that while he could criticise it as a liberal exercise in inducing guilt, it was "hard to deny its creepy, insinuating power". Roger Ebert awarded it four stars, lauding its focus on "paranoia and distrust" rather than providing a whodunit conclusion, and remarking on the way characters hide so much from each other, reflecting the title. The Guardians Peter Bradshaw gave the film five out of five stars, describing it as "one of the great films of this decade" and "Haneke's masterpiece". For the BBC, Matthew Leyland gave it four stars, citing the mounting suspense over themes of guilt. In a review for The Atlantic, Christopher Orr described Caché as "a broad political allegory about Western guilt and a meditation on the nature of seeing." Film Quarterly critic Ara Osterweil compared Caché to the 1966 Blow-Up in making "challenges naïve assumptions of ocular mastery". Caché's detractors include Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer, who wrote, "Too much of the plot's machinery turns out to be a metaphorical mechanism by which to pin the tail of colonial guilt on Georges and the rest of us smug bourgeois donkeys". In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle called it "a handsome fraud [...] in its style, technique and ultimate message", becoming dull and "a drab social polemic". The Nations Stuart Klawans judged it not a statement of "liberal guilt" but "liberal self-regard" in having Majid choose to die for Georges's sake, in Klawans's interpretation. Jonathan Rosenbaum of The Chicago Reader called Caché a "brilliant if unpleasant puzzle without a solution", writing that "Haneke is so punitive toward the couple and his audience that I periodically rebelled against—or went into denial about—the director's rage, and I guess that's part of the plan." Calum Marsh of Slant Magazine writes that in Caché "Haneke’s predilection for deceit served a high-minded, if still somewhat suspect, intellectual purpose". Ebert added the film to his Great Movies list in 2010, expressing disbelief about missing a possible "smoking gun" after two viewings, crediting Juliette Binoche for a naturalistic performance, and pondered the 1961 massacre: "Has France hidden it in its memory?" Also in 2010, Ebert further explored the whodunit question, considering the motives of various characters. Ebert questioned whether the last scene's encounter between Pierrot and Majid's son is the first time they met, or one of many encounters. He concluded Majid's son must be at least partly responsible and that Pierrot is a possible accomplice, as it is not clear where he is in many scenes. In his 2014 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave it three stars, calling it "icily meticulous, if protracted". Caché was among the most acclaimed films of the 2000s. In 2009, Caché was named 44th in The Daily Telegraphs list of "The films that defined the noughties", and 36th in The Guardians "100 best films of the noughties". The film was ranked 73rd in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010. Caché received 19 total votes in the 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest films ever made; it is 154th among critics and 75th among directors. In 2016, critics also voted it the 23rd best in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century. Accolades Caché competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, where polled critics and festival audiences considered it a frontrunner. Ultimately, the jury awarded Haneke Best Director. It went on to win numerous other awards. At the European Film Awards, it competed with the Cannes Palme d'Or winner, L'Enfant by the Dardenne brothers, with Caché winning five awards, including Best Film. The film was submitted as Austria's entry for Best Foreign Language Film at the 78th Academy Awards, but was disqualified as French is not predominantly the language of Austria. As Haneke is Austrian, it would have also been disqualified if France or any other country had submitted it. The exclusion sparked criticism, with Sony Pictures Classics co-president Michael Barker calling it "unfortunate" and saying the story demanded the film be in French. Austria's Fachverband der Audiovisions und Filmindustrie protested the criteria, and Haneke, whose previous French-language The Piano Teacher was not disqualified as the Austrian submission, also called the rules "really stupid". Academy member Mark Johnson responded, "We're in the process right now of considering some very radical changes". Legacy The film's French release preceded the 2005 French riots, beginning with three deaths on 27 October; professor Gemma King writes the film offered a progressive perspective in contrast to the real-life divisions in the wake of the riots. According to Walker, the riots' occurrence shortly after the film's release made it seem "uncannily resonant"; Radstone cites the riots to interpret the film as a statement on racial tensions felt by whites. King observes Caché is one of a growing number of French films that take a progressive view of the country's colonial past, and that films about Algeria became more common in later years. Following the film's disqualification at the Academy Awards, the Academy revised its rules so as to emphasise the filmmaker's origin over the country's language for eligibility for Best Foreign Language Film. Subsequently, Haneke's 2012 French-language Amour won the award for Austria. In 2015, IndieWire reporter Ryan Lattanzio reported rumours that U.S. producers had wanted to remake Haneke's film and compared Joel Edgerton's The Gift to a remake. Variety critic Scott Foundas also said The Gift resembled Caché in attempting to explore a "moral and existential minefield". Edgerton cited Caché as an influence on The Gift, and has said Haneke's film illustrates "how unsettled you can be by the thing you never see". He added, "The idea of a villain who is able to actively dismantle another person's life from the shadows is often scarier" than a visible threat. See also List of films featuring surveillance List of Austrian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film List of submissions to the 78th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film Notes References Bibliography External links 2005 films 2005 thriller drama films 2005 psychological thriller films Austrian films Algerian War films Austrian thriller films European Film Awards winners (films) Films about adoption Films about memory Films about police misconduct Films about security and surveillance Films about stalking Films about television people Films directed by Michael Haneke Films set in Paris Films shot in Paris Films shot in Vienna French films 2000s French-language films French psychological thriller films German films German psychological thriller films German thriller drama films Italian films Italian psychological thriller films Sony Pictures Classics films Italian thriller drama films

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Glen Innes Showground is a heritage-listed showground at Bourke Street, Glen Innes, Glen Innes Severn, New South Wales, Australia. It was designed by various architects, including Thompson and Holmes, J. P. O'Connor, Rowland Bros and Madigan and Cusick. It was built from 1873 by various builders, including A. W. Lane, G. Cooper and H. A. Tutt and Son. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 4 September 2015. History Indigenous and early colonial use Pre European settlement, the area around Glen Innes was the traditional land of the Ngarabal people, whose totem was the koala. Their land extended to include current towns of Glencoe, Kingsplains, Wellingrove, Strathbogie, Bolivia and Beardy Plains. Due to the severity of the winters in the area and the consequent reduction in food resources, the people migrated away from the high tableland area during the coldest months to the warmer regions along tributaries to the Clarence River in the south and east and the Mole district in the west. The population again swelled during the summer months as the Ngarabal returned to feast on wallaby, bandicoots, possum, lizards, birds and many other creatures. Wild berries including the local wild raspberry, peach heath, wattle, roots of the bracken fern, native yam and native asparagus, were among other plants that augmented their diet and provided medicinal treatment. Those too old or to weak to undertake the migration stayed on the high tablelands and protected themselves from the cold by wearing Possum or Kangaroo skin cloaks and tending large camp fires established close to their bark huts. While tribal boundaries were clearly drawn and incursion of these often provoked fierce battles, there was also movement of neighbouring Clarence River/Macleay River Aboriginal tribes and those of the western districts up to theNgarabal tribal lands near Glen Innes for corroborees, to trade goods information and also for marriage and initiation purposes. Goods traded included ochre, sourced near Dundee in the Glen Innes area and stone from creeks in tribal lands to the south. In 1818, during his journey from Bathurst to the Macquarie Marshes, thence to the Liverpool Plains and Port Macquarie, John Oxley first reported sighting Aboriginal people in the New England area. While Oxley met with some Aboriginal men, women and children were kept hidden. Similarly in 1827 while making his journey of exploration through to the Darling Downs region, Richard Cunningham noted signs of indigenous habitation but rarely saw or met with Aboriginal people. After coming upon cattle and a European hut Cunningham surmised that Aboriginal people may have had a bad experience of some white men and chose to avoid them. Avoiding White settlers became increasingly difficult for the Aboriginal people of the area after 1830. At this time the Australian Agricultural Company took up vast estates north of the Hunter Valley on the Liverpool Plains. With the large agricultural company in possession of this land, new squatters were forced to seek seeking new lands further north, including in the New England area. In 1838 Thomas Hewitt took up Stonehenge located south of present Glen Innes, for Archibald Boyd. In 1839 a New England Pastoral district was formed with Commissioner MacDonald based at Armidale. The early years of settlement in the Glen Innes area was marked by mixed relations between Aboriginal people and the new colonists. Inevitably, as the Aboriginal people were increasingly locked out of their traditional hunting grounds, there were many incidents of conflict between Aboriginals and whites farmers. Aboriginal people on occasion took stock as compensation for the decimation of their traditional food resources. On other occasions they would attempt to drive stock off their traditional lands and in some cases European shepherds were killed. Settlers in return chased Aboriginal people from their farms and in a number of cases between 1839 and 1842 killed Aboriginal people en masse. This happened on the Beardy Plains, at Deepwater Station and at Bluff Rock in the vicinity of Glen Innes. In the 1840s towns were established along the Tablelands and initially a government town was established at Wellingrove. Unlike the village of Glen Innes, Wellingrove did not thrive and in January 1858 the Court of Petty Sessions was moved to Glen Innes. Other businesses then followed. It was in December 1851 that Surveyor J. J. Galloway surveyed a town sites at Glen Innes and Stonehenge. In the early 1870s, Glen Innes developed rapidly following the discovery of tin in the district. New stores and hotels were constructed in the town and a number of social and professional organisations were established in Glen Innes including the Pastoral and Agricultural Association which was initially established in conjunction with Inverell. Showground Pastoralism was an essential element in the development of the local, regional and national economies. Livestock production influenced the development of pastoral stations and modified the landscape in Glen Innes as elsewhere in NSW and Australia. The successful development of pastoralism in the area led the establishment of the Inverell-Glen Innes Pastoral and Agricultural Association which worked hard to establish a local Show where stock could be displayed and judged. The first show to be held in the Glen Innes district was in 1869 at Inverell and the 1870 show was held at Glen Innes, near the Glen Innes Primary School. The first show to be held on the current showground site was in 1874. This date indicates that Glen Innes was one of the earliest shows to be established and continuously operating on its site outside metropolitan Sydney. Other early regional showgrounds in continuous use are Maitland which held its first show at its current site in 1873, Singleton, which held its first show on its current site in 1868, Bathurst, which held the first show on site in 1878, and Armidale show began on its current site in 1877. The joint Inverell-Glen Innes Pastoral and Agricultural Association remained operational until 1876 when, after a less successful show which went into debt to the tune of 144 pounds, Glen Innes members decided to establish an independent Association. The Government of New South Wales formally gazetted the present showground site in 1877. This site became an important part of the Town Plan. The first president of the Glen Innes Pastoral and Agricultural was William Alexander Dumaresq, the son of the well-known, and at times notorious colonial figure and brother-in-law to Governor Darling, Captain William John Dumaresq. William John Dumaresq was made provisional civil engineer and inspector of roads and bridges by Governor Darling and at one stage was acting colonial Treasurer. He and his brother Henry amassed large, profitable land holdings in both the Hunter and the New England tablelands, Saumarez and Tilbuster being those in the New England. His son William Alexander Dumaresq served as an Australian Army Officer in India, married the sister-in-law of Governor Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore and was a wealthy grazier in the Glen Innes district. Another important association for the Glen Innes Pastoral and Agricultural Association was with W. T. Cadell and Deepwater Station. Deepwater Station was initially taken up by noted landowner and pastoralist Archibald Windeyer junior in 1839 and rapidly developed into a prosperous station which made a large contribution to NSW fine merino wool exports. On his demise in 1870 the station was purchased by a family company representing the union of several NSW and Queensland pastoral dynasties, the Windmyers, the Macansh family and W. T. Cadell who had married into the Macansh family. It was Cadell who was the hands-on sheep and cattle breeder and he successfully improved the Deepwater herd and flock to such an extent that Deepwater wool was regarded as the finest in the NSW market and regularly fetched top price. Cadell became official patron and sponsor of the Glen Innes Show in 1903. In this role he worked tirelessly to "advance the Glen Innes Pastoral and Agricultural Society to a leading place in NSW". The first buildings to be built at Glen Innes Showground were a Grandstand and an Exhibition Hall for the 1874 Show. As the annual show continued to grow in terms of both attendance and exhibition these initial buildings were extended and stock yards built. A mark of the popular success of the show was the organisation of excursion trains from Tamworth and Tenterfield to ferry eager show goers to the Glen Innes Show. In 1888 a grand new entrance to the showgrounds was opened on Torrington Street. By 1892 the original Exhibition Hall had seen its best years and was replaced by the existing, attractive Victorian free classical style Main Exhibition Pavilion. Similarly in 1896 the original grandstand was removed and replaced by the Federation Carpenter style grandstand which eventually opened for use in 1899 and is still in situ. The timber from the original grandstand was used to construct the caretakers cottage. In 1897, to celebrate Queen Victoria's Jubilee, a program of tree planting began and the grounds were lit for the first time. The tree planting program was continued over the years, funded by financial and in-kind donations and by the takings of the annual show. The planting program has resulted in the well maintained park-like showground. As a marker of the progress of the show and of its reputation through NSW, by the end of the 19th century is the fact that on several occasions the annual Glen Innes Show was opened or attended by various dignitaries. Show openings were officiated by Premier of New South Wales Sir George Dibbs in 1893; the Governor of NSW, Admiral Sir Harry Rawson in 1903; the NSW Premier, Joseph Carruthers in 1904; and NSW Premier Charles Wade in 1909. The prestige of the show and its success reached its zenith in 1922 when it was widely recognised as the leading annual show in NSW with buildings and exhibition facilities rivalling those at other showgrounds through NSW. During the middle decades of the 20th century it became something of a "tradition" for dignitaries to open the Glen Innes show with NSW Premier, Bertram Stevens opening the 1934 Show; Earle Page opening the 1939 Glen Innes Show and veteran politician Hubert Lawrence Anthony opened the 1941 Show. The early years of the 20th century also saw a spate of building projects with Rowland Bros architects designing an additional pavilion for the showground in 1905, extensive stables buildings in 1906 and J. F. O'Connor, architect, preparing plans and supervising construction of the cattle pavilion between 1909 and 1910. New entrance gates were erected in 1911. In 1922 a major addition to the Main Exhibition Pavilion was designed by architect F. J. Madigan, a widely noted architect and mentor for his son, Colin Madigan. In that same year the sheep pavilion was completed and a new piggery and a new refreshment room was constructed. The new buildings at the showground used designs sympathetic to the buildings already established on the grounds. This dedication to creating a cohesive suite of architect-designed buildings has extended to the design and construction of buildings at Glen Innes Showground through the history of the showgrounds. Late in 1922, after officially opening the show seated in his car as he could not stand, W. T. Cadell died. His dedication to the establishing the best show in NSW was memorialised in the erection of the Cadell Memorial sheep rotunda which was opened in 1927 by Michael Bruxner MLA. During the 1930s the showgrounds were extended with the purchase of two extra acres of land. The Caged Bird Pavilion was erected and a public address system installed. Further developments were cut short by the onset of World War II during which the showground was occupied by the Army. While the 1941 show went ahead, by 1942 the grounds were in Army control and there was no show. The next show to be held was in 1946. In preparation 1944 and 1945 were spent restoring the grounds and facilities after the military use. The 1950s saw a further 2 acre purchase of land to enlarge the showgrounds and also the installation of a Ringside Broadcast Box, horse and cattle stalls and further plantings. By this time the suite of buildings that now characterises the Glen Innes Showground were in place. The exception was the 1991 bar and barbeque, designed to complement the neighbouring grandstand, and the new entrance gates on Bourke Street. The 1960s and 1970s saw the continued care and interest in tree planting in the grounds, the establishment of the Industrial pavilion in 1974 and then in the 2000s the Men's Shed was erected near the Torrington St entrance. The changing nature of pastoralism and related agricultural activities in the Glen Innes area was reflected at the annual show. Initially sheep, beef cattle and horses were paraded and judged. As small farming developed maize, wheat and other cash crops were exhibited as well as dairy herds, pig farms and poultry farms. In time related secondary industries were developed in the town and appeared at the show. Wheat growing led to the development of Flour Mills in Glen Innes; dairy herds led to the development of butter and cheese factories; horses led to the development of blacksmiths, coach companies and coach manufacturing businesses. The development of these industries explains the construction of the Hall of Industries in 1922 and the Industrial Pavilion in 1974. Such an evolution of activities was repeated all over NSW in the context of the local agricultural endeavours. Unfortunately, unlike the Glen Innes showground which has retained the full suite of show buildings, many other NSW showgrounds have not retained the built evidence of this evolution. The showground at Glen Innes is one of the few showgrounds with intact buildings and facilities reflecting its regional agricultural and industrial development. Description In 2006 the buildings and facilities included a grandstand; old timber pavilion; Trade pavilion; Yarraford Hall; stud cattle pavilions; bar and barbecue facilities; 167 horse stalls; tea room seating 100; a new pavilion for basketball; four stand shearing complex; prime cattle yards; caged birds pavilion; show secretary's office; showring and camping ground, park-like landscaped grounds. Main Exhibition Pavilion The Main Exhibition pavilion was built in 1892. The one storey Main Exhiobition Pavilions timber pavilions are clad framed, four joined sections with domed tower, round headed windows, iron roof gabled and domed, timber walls with rear and side walls constructed of corrugated iron; quoins timber routed; timber footings; iron columns; ceiling King post trussed, walls horizontal; tongued and grooved timber, timber floors; windows one and four paned; doors tongued and grooved panels; fanlight; gas lamp side door: domed porch front entrance. Grandstand The main timber grandstand was completed and opened at the 1899 Armidale-Glen Innes Combined District Show. Built of hardwood and covered with corrugated iron, the main building had a ground surface of 58 by 30 feet; a height of 24 feet from plate to plate, giving a roof projection of five feet, with an ornamental front gable. The stand provided seating for 350 people. Designed by Sydney architects, Thompson and Holmes, the work was supervised by Glen Innes builder A. W. Lane. Industrial Pavilion A new building, the Industrial Pavilion 84 feet long and 35 feet wide, was erected on the northern side alongside the older pavilion and opened in March 1922. The wall between the pavilions was removed to provide additional space. Tallowood was used for the floor to also enable it to be used as a dance floor. The pavilion was designed by F. J. Madigan, of the Glen Innes firm Madigan and Cusick, and constructed by G. Cooper. Its primary purpose was to provide facilities for trade displays on a generous scale. Refreshment room and piggery Other improvements in 1921 included the construction of a refreshment room and a new piggery with fourteen stalls. Cadell Memorial Rotunda The ornate Cadell Memorial sheep-judging stand (1928) is of octagonal shape with a 27 feet measurement between the most distant corners. The stand is erected of hardwood posts built into a concrete foundation. It is a timber structure with terra cotta tiled roof. The design makes maximum use of light with a domed ceiling, lantern roof and glass louvres converging to a central flag-staff. The contractors were H. A. Tutt and Son of Glen Innes. Landscape setting The show buildings and central arena are set in a 7-acre planned and maintained park-like setting. Plantings include a large number of trees, eucalypts, elms and pines planted in 1897 in preparation for Queen Victoria's Jubilee celebrations. A large number of trees were donated by the Department for Mines and Agriculture for planting at the showground in 1898. These early plantings formed the skeleton of the landscape grounds with were maintained and added to over the years. In 1910 a local man, George Black donated 20 pine trees which were planted along the George Street boundary of the ground and can be clearly seen in early showground photographs. By 1950s the grounds were well developed and while a plantation of elms was established behind the sheep pavilion, a nest of blackberry bushes was eradicated in the north eastern corner of the grounds and the pine trees growing to the west of the Main Exhibition pavilion were cut down. In 1958 a big tree planting program was carried out and blackberries were once again becoming a problem to be dealt with. By 1962 they were no longer a problem and the fence line at the north east corner of the grounds was extended out to enclose the area where the blackberries had been. In 1964 and 1966 another planting program provided a large number of ring side trees. By 1969 it was reported that there were 250 trees were growing in the showground in addition to a number of yellow box and white gum. In 1974 the George Street pine trees were cut down and then in 1977 more pine trees were removed from behind the fat cattle pavilion . In this year the arena was regrassed with kiluyu grass donated and maintained by the local high school. In 1897 several old white gums were removed. Today the showground landscaping is characterised by copses of elms, eucalypts, including yellow box and white gum and other trees. Elms shade the Main Exhibition Pavilion and ring the arena. Condition and integrity As at December 2014, a number of the structures had been assessed as needing urgent conservation work, including the pavilions and the Cadell Memorial sheep judging stand. These structures have archaeological value as they provide an insight into early bushcraft skills as well as the skills of note country architects. Glen Innes showground has a high degree of intactness. Modifications and dates The original grandstand was removed in 1896 and the timber used in constructing a caretaker's residence. Additions were made to the present grandstand in 1907. A picket fence was once installed in front of the grandstand but is now removed. A Hall of Industries was completed on the northern side of the 1890s pavilion in 1922. The Tea Room Drill Hall was demolished in the 1950s. Remodelling of the main entrances took place in 1988. Columns and whole entry complex was remodelled in 1990 following damage to the overhead sign and pillars by heavy and high trucks. Heritage listing Glen Innes Showground is of state heritage significance as one of the earliest regional shows to be established in NSW. The showground has been used continuously for 140 years for the annual Glen Innes Show. For many years in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Glen Innes Show and Showground was widely regarded as one of the leading shows in NSW due to both attendance, the quality and number of exhibits and also the quality of exhibition, stock handling and spectator facilities provided. Its state heritage significance is enhanced through its association with the Dumaresq family, noted colonial politicians and pastoral holders. It is also associated with W. T. Cadell, a noted pastoralist who further developed the early pastoral station, Deepwater Station which was important to the fine wool export industry in the colony of NSW. It is of aesthetic heritage significance at a state level as an outstanding picturesque and stylistically cohesive and complementary suite of Federation style buildings sited in a park-like setting. The group of buildings is one of NSW's most comprehensive array of show buildings sited on a single showground and arranged in an aesthetically pleasing and distinctive way around the central arena making it a landmark in the town. The Glen Innes Showground is likely to have research values at a state level for its potential to demonstrate the full variety of exhibit, spectator and stock handling facilities required by a successful agricultural show It is rare in NSW as one of the few remaining showgrounds in the state retaining a full suite of architect-designed, Federation style show buildings clustered around its central arena and demonstrating the breadth of activities undertaken by the Show and the development of the show over 140 years. The Glen Innes Showgrounds is of state heritage significance as a fine example of a regional showground retaining its full suite of buildings. Its intactness and aesthetic qualities make this showground illustrative of an "ideal" regional showground. Glen Innes Showground was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 4 September 2015 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. Glen Innes Showground is of state heritage significance as one of the earliest regional shows and showgrounds to be established in NSW. The first Glen Innes Show was held in 1869 and the first show held at the current showground was in 1874. The showground has been in continual use for the annual show since that time. The first agricultural shows were established in metropolitan Sydney. The first regional show held was at Maitland in 1844 with its current showground being opened in the early 1880s. Singleton Showground was first held in 1865 and the first show at its current site was held in 1868. Bathurst show began in 1863, moving to its permanent site in 1878 and Armidale show commenced on its current site in 1877. The showground is also historically significant as one of the most successful in NSW late nineteenth and early twentieth century both in terms of attendance and entry takings and also the number and quality of exhibits. Its historical significance also lies in the ability of its intact collection of buildings to demonstrate th evolution of agricultural and industrial activities in rural NSW and also by the fact that it has retained its original use as a showground since its establishment over 140 year ago. The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history. The state heritage significance of the Glen Innes Show and Showground may be enhanced through its association with the Dumaresq family. The first president of the show was William Alexander Dumaresq, son of the well-known and at times notorious colonial figure William John Dumaresq who along with this brother amassed large and profitable landholdings in NSW including Saumarez and Tilbuster in the New England region. William John was a wealthy property owner in the area and married the sister in law of NSW Governor Belmore. The Show and Showground also have a close and significant association with Deepwater Station and its owner WT Cadell who developed the station and its flock of merinos to the extent that it became one of the leading sheep station in NSW. Deepwater Station make an enormous contribution to the fine wool export industry in NSW. W. T. Cadell was financial and social patron of the Glen Innes Show from 1903 until his death in 1922. His work with the show led to it being recognised as one of the most successful shows in NSW in both levels of attendance and entry takings and also in the number and quality of exhibits at the annual show. The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. Glen Innes Showground is of state heritage significance as an outstanding, picturesque and stylistically cohesive and complementary suite of showground buildings sited in a park like landscape setting. Most of the buildings date from the 1890s and 1920s and are all architect-designed by Sydney-based or local and regional architects. The group of Federation style timber buildings display classical decorative elements. The collection also includes vernacular elements such as post and beam shed, post and rail gates and fences, stables and yards. The group of buildings at Glen Innes showground are one of the most comprehensive array of show buildings gathered at one showground in NSW and are arranged in an aesthetically pleasing and distinctive way around the central arena. The iconic aesthetic qualities of the built and landscape elements of the showground make it a landmark feature of the town, more so than many other showgrounds in NSW. Its distinctive landmark aesthetic qualities have been recognised and used in promotional material produced by the Department of Lands which highlight the values of Crown Reserves across the state. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The Glen Innes Showground with its comprehensive collection of pavilions, grandstand, sheep and cattle pavilions and stock holding yards, stables and other ancillary structures holds research potential as one of the most intact and diverse group of showground buildings in the state. The buildings have important technical and research potential because of their age, architectural and construction merit. The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. The Glen Innes Showground is likely to be of state heritage significance as a rare example of a showground with a full complement of showground buildings demonstrating the breadth of activities associated with a regional show and the development of the show as the agricultural economy of the region developed. The collection of buildings in their landscape setting is also rare as they are still intact and unaltered. Many other NSW showgrounds have retained their grandstands and in some cases, other pavilions but many of the historic pavilions are either demolished or in a state of dilapidation. Along with Singleton, Maitland, and Bathurst, Glen Innes retains a diverse collection of buildings and has strived to ensure new buildings are largely sympathetic with the historic buildings. Glen Innes is a rare example of an aesthetically cohesive group of showground buildings in a carefully planned and maintained landscape setting. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales. Glen Innes Showgrounds is likely to be of state heritage significance as fine representative example of a regional showground retaining the diversity of its exhibition, hospitality and spectator facilities in its landscaped setting. Its intactness and aesthetic qualities including the stylistic cohesion of the buildings and its layout clustered around the central arena make this showground illustrative of an "ideal" regional showground in NSW. See also References Bibliography Attribution New South Wales State Heritage Register Glen Innes, New South Wales Showgrounds in New South Wales Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register

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Rivington is a village and civil parish of the Borough of Chorley, Lancashire, England, occupying . It is about southeast of Chorley and about northwest of Bolton. Rivington is a rural area consisting primarily of agricultural grazing land, moorland, with hill summits including Rivington Pike and Winter Hill within the West Pennine Moors. The area has a thriving tourist industry centred around reservoirs created to serve Liverpool in the Victorian era and Lever Park created as a public park by William Lever at the turn of the 20th century, with two converted barns, a replica of Liverpool Castle and open countryside. Rivington and its village had a population of 109 at the 2011 Census. History Toponymy The name Rivington is made up of three elements: riv is from the Old English hrēof meaning rough or rugged; ing is a place name forming suffix that seems to have crept in over the years; the last is the Old English tūn meaning a farmstead, estate or settlement. Together they indicate a farmstead or settlement at the rough or rugged place. Another suggestion is a place at the rowan trees. Rivington was recorded in many ways in earlier centuries, Rowinton, Rawinton, and Revington were used in 1202; Ruhwinton in 1212, Riuiton in 1226, Rowynton and Rouynton in 1278, Roynton in 1332, Rouyngton in 1400, Revyngton although rare, from the 14th until the 16th century the area was known as 'Rovington', being the name used on a Royal Charter in 1566 along with an alias of 'Ryvington'. Early history A Neolithic or Bronze Age stone, with a cup and ring mark dating from between 2000 and 3000 BC, was found near the Lower Rivington Reservoir in 1999. It is possible that settlements have existed in the area around Rivington since the Bronze Age. Arrowheads, a flint knife, scrapers and the remains of cremations were excavated from a Bronze Age cairn at Noon Hill in 1958 and 1963–64. It is possible that the name Coblowe on the eastern bank of the Lower Rivington Reservoir derives from the Old English hlaw, a hill, which denoted an ancient barrow or burial place. Evidence for the existence of a settlement here in Anglo-Saxon times is found in the Rivington and Coblowe names. Manor Although the manor is not registered at the land registry, the manor has a long history with the majority share of seven-eights originally held by the Pilkington family of Lancashire and is recorded as early as 1212 This share had reduced to five-eights at the sale of the manor in 1611 to their relations Robert Lever and Thomas Breres. Inheritance of the Pilkington share of the manor is assumed next to have passed by inheritance alongside Rivington hall thereafter. In 1729 John Andrews of Little Lever purchased the Breres' share of Hall and its associated land and his property was inherited by the Cromptons by the nineteenth century. Other owners of the manor were by a quarter originally owned by the Lathoms and an eighth by the Shaws. In 1765 the Shaws and their relations the Roscoes inherited the one-eight share. In 1900 William Hesketh Lever purchased the Hall and lands from the Crompton family and it is assumed rights of the manor, he then later sold the hall and land to Liverpool Corporation by agreement and terms set out in the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902, the transfers completed between 1902 and 1905, without explicit sale, rights of the manor were retained. The Hall became part of Lever Park and the Crompton family had remained resident at the hall until 1910 as part of an agreement of sale, then afterwards it was a museum until Leverhulmes death in 1925. By the early 1950s it was derelict, it was rescued and leased as a residence by the Salmon family. The Liverpool Corporation act makes no mention of the manor but does refer to shooting rights to be retained by Leverhulme, this omission preserved the manor. Leverhulme also retained an interest over all of his former land which is recorded at the Land Registry preventing development. Leverhulmes heirs retain a perpetual interest over all his former land preventing any buildings being erected except for farms and the supply of water. He retained a residence on the hillside, shooting rights and use of Rivington Hall as a Museum of Lever Park until his death in 1925. Although freehold in his remaining land was sold after his death, the manorial rights were a separate saleable asset, there are no records of any sale by Leverhulme or his heirs of his rights in the manor. Industry From 1850 until the completion of the Rivington Reservoir Scheme inhabitants formed businesses providing for its large number of workers. As the Lower Rivington Reservoir was completed the tourist industry was born and has since been dominant alongside farming. Prior to this Rivington was a rural village built around what is now the village green. Its inhabitants were employed in agriculture on scattered local farms. The textile industry was a secondary form of income until the industrial revolution, alongside farming. Textile bleaching took place on the River Douglas at Knoll Wood contaminating the water supply; this was closed and demolished in 1868 by Liverpool Corporation though the remnants of its dam still remain. The Cottage Industry of Handloom weaving and use of the Putting-out system was common in the 18th to early 19th century, Samuel Oldknow was a prominent local figure, his family grave being at the Unitarian Chapel. Income was also generated from the quarries, coal mining was on a small scale at Rivington Moor. Rivington Moor Colliery employed two workers mining coal for local use. A water mill and kiln was mentioned in a deed of 1544 and sale agreement of Rivington Hall in 1611, use of a kiln would have been part of the agricultural milling process. This confirms use of land for arable farming in combination with grazing, the latter is now dominant. A commercial slaughter house was located at the New Hall Barn until its demolition along with the house in 1905, its remains are still present. The area of the Rivington Unitarian Chapel is named Mill Hill on the 1848 OS map and extended to Croft Bridge, crossing Hall Brook. The Victorian 'School Houses' became known as Mill Hill cottages. Mill Dam wood is at the rear of the Vicarage, a pond existed there prior to the reservoir construction, on the water course is a ruin that could be a past water wheel house and dam, a short distance down stream was a smithy located in the area of what is now the village hall. Reservoirs Rivington was dramatically changed by the construction of the Rivington Reservoir Chain through the contentious 'Rivington Pike Scheme' to supply clean drinking water to the city of Liverpool by flooding the valley creating what is now the 10,000 acre Rivington watershed, Nine properties in the valley were demolished before construction work began. The Scheme was undertaken by Thomas Hawksley between 1850 and 1857, requiring Liverpool Corporation to purchase large areas of occupied land and to construct five reservoirs and a water treatment works at the south end of Lower Rivington with a pipeline to storage reservoirs at Prescot. Water from two higher level reservoirs, Rake Brook and Lower Roddlesworth, was carried south in the Goit, a man-made channel connecting them to the lower reservoirs. In 1900 Liverpool Corporation attempted to acquire the entire area of Rivington to safeguard its water supply, and proposed demolishing the entire village. The Act of Parliament known as the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902 protected some buildings but others were left vulnerable. The Act allowed the corporation to acquire subject to compensation properties in the west of the village, including the Black-a-Moors Head public house (known locally as the 'Black Lad') and New Hall, which were demolished between 1902 and 1905. The result was the small settlement that has remained largely unchanged since then. Governance Rivington was a township in the ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors, in the Salford hundred in Lancashire. It became part of the Chorley Poor Law Union, formed in 1837, and took responsibility for the administration and funding of the Poor Law in that area. The parish had an unusual method of deciding their Mayor until the mid 19th century. The person was selected according to how quickly they got drunk on the eve of the annual event known as 'Club Day' when a day of heavy drinking commenced and villagers dressed in fancy dress, going from house to house banging on doors till the early hours of the morning to collect funds for the 'dignity of the office'. In 1866 Rivington became a civil parish. It was part of the Chorley Rural Sanitary District from 1875 to 1894, and part of Chorley Rural District from 1894 to 1974. Since 1974 Rivington has been a civil parish of the Borough of Chorley, which comprises 47 councillors each elected for four-year terms to represent wards in the borough. Rivington is part of the Heath Charnock and Rivington ward. Chorley is part of the Lancashire County Council created in 1889 under the Local Government Act 1888 and reconstituted under the Local Government Act 1972. Rivington is part of the Chorley Rural East ward. Rivington has its own parish council. Rivington is part of the Chorley parliamentary constituency, which elected Lindsay Hoyle as Member of Parliament for the Labour party at the 2010 General Election, he became Speaker of the House of Commons after the 2019 General Election. Geography Rivington is situated on the moorland fringe between the high moorland of the West Pennine Moors and the fields below. The landscape is characterised by marginal pastures with isolated farmsteads, reservoirs and disused mines and quarries scattered across the hillsides. There is an extensive network of footpaths providing public access. The reservoir valleys are dominated by expanses of water and the Victorian gothic architecture of the dams and embankments surrounded by woodland. To the east of Rivington is Rivington Pike and to the west the flatter land of the Lancashire Plain. Rivington is north of Horwich and Bolton and to the south of Anglezarke Moor and Yarrow Reservoir. To the west of the village is the wide shallow valley containing the Anglezarke, Upper and Lower Rivington reservoirs. The village is accessed from the west by a road on top of the long Horrobin Embankment, a dam that separates the Upper and Lower Rivington reservoirs. The River Douglas has its source on Winter Hill, and flows in a southwest direction forming part of the southern boundary. The River Yarrow has its source on Anglezarke Moor and forms the northern boundary. The area of the township is , the reservoirs and filter beds occupy . The underlying geology is Millstone Grit overlaid with coal measures. Gritstone was quarried for building stone in the area. Around Rivington are chalybeate springs and in Dean Wood is a waterfall with a descent of . Demography In 2001, 144 people lived in Rivington, 63 males and 81 females. There were 48 households, of which 34 lived in detached houses and 14 in terraced or semi-detached properties. Most households, 60%, were owner-occupied; the remainder were privately rented. The mean age of the population was 53.4 years. In 2001 most of those employed, 47, worked in the service industries. Ten worked in extractive and manufacturing industries, and three males were unemployed. The average distance travelled to work by employed persons was . Population change Economy In the 19th century, farming was reduced with the construction of the reservoirs. The Industrial Revolution ended the viability of cottage industries such as weaving, small mines closed and the long term population decreased as the Water Authority cleared land in the Rivington Pike Scheme catchment area, being the name of the plans for the building of the chain of reservoirs to supply Liverpool with clean water. Prior to the reservoirs the valley of Rivington was mostly farmland, sat in natural woodland, with some cottages and a pub with a stream flowing through, crossed by pack horse bridges. A mill was located near the upper reservoir. The scheme was at first met with significant opposition but with government backing pressed ahead. The building of the chain of reservoirs required a large labour force, boosting the local economy. However the Pike Scheme construction required the demolition of existing properties and flooding of farm land, the original proposal was to demolish all buildings in the village, which was stopped by local opposition, Leverhulme was instrumental in saving the village. The period of the build and after completion resulted in an unexpected influx of tourists. In the early 20th century century tourism had led to two Hotels, busy public houses, Tea Rooms and many offshoot businesses including a wash house at Rivington Hall, supplied by Leverhulmes father, James Lever. The tourist industry was further increased with the opening of Lever Park in 1904. Although the areas hay day has since passed it has remained a popular site with visitors seeking the freedom of the outdoors. Agriculture, mainly sheep farming, continues. Provision of facilities for Special events, including weddings and parties with catering alongside tourism now provide most of the employment in the area, the hotels have long since closed, other attractions have formed, including a GoApe, the Anderton Centre at the Lower Reservoir offers boating, which is very popular. Transport Rivington is to the east to the M61 motorway, which connects the M6 and Preston to the north with the M60 and the Greater Manchester conurbation to the south. The nearest access is at Junction 6. The village is accessed by minor roads from Horwich to the south and Adlington to the west. A winding road to the north passes through Anglezarke and a road over the moors to the east leads to Belmont. The nearest places with regular bus services are Horwich to the south and Adlington to the west, which are served by buses between Bolton and Chorley or Preston. The arrival of the Manchester and Bolton Railway's extension to Preston and opening of Blackrod railway station in 1841 brought visitors to the area. The line remains open with stations at Blackrod and Horwich Parkway giving access to Bolton, Manchester, Chorley and Preston. Education Rivington Grammar School's charter was granted to Bishop James Pilkington by Queen Elizabeth I in 1566. for the creation of 'The Free School of Queen Elizabeth in Rovington', the school opened in 1575 and was rebuilt in 1714, at the time it was a male only school. Blackrod Grammar School, founded in 1568, merged with it in 1875. In 1882 Rivington & Blackrod Grammar School opened on a site at the south of the township, close to the boundary with Horwich. The school is now Rivington and Blackrod High School, a specialist technology college, focusing on design and technology, mathematics and science. Year Seven pupils occupy the former Horwich County Secondary School. The old grammar school building in the village centre is now occupied by Rivington Foundation Primary School. Religion Rivington was a chapelry in the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Bolton le Moors until it became a parish in its own right. Rivington Church is an active Anglican place of worship holding service each Sunday. The Church is built on the site of an earlier chapel that was named in a deed by Margaret Pilkington and her son Robert in 1476. The chapelry covered Rivington and the surrounding areas of Anglezarke, Hemshaws and Foulds and was recognised in the Royal patent founding Rivington School in 1566. In 1628 a chapel was built "upon a little toft and quillet of land" by the local population and divine service was celebrated "for many years of antiquity". The early-16th-century chapel was rebuilt in 1666 and altered and restored in 1861. The church is a small plain building built in sandstone with a bell turret. It is an Anglican church and unusual in that it is not dedicated to a saint or martyr, but referred to as Rivington Church. Rivington Unitarian Chapel is an active place of worship holding regular services on the first and third Sunday of each month in addition to baptisms, weddings and blessings. The Chapel was built with a bellcote of local stone in 1703. Founded as a Presbyterian church and became Unitarian in the late 18th century. The chapel, which retains its box pews, was restored in 1990. Landmarks The most prominent of all buildings in Rivington is on the skyline at the summit of Rivington Pike, the tower. There are twenty eight listed buildings within Rivington. Outside the village centre landmarks include Rivington Hall and its adjacent Hall Barn. At Lever Park on the bank of the Lower Rivington Reservoir is a replica of Liverpool Castle, Great House Barn, serving Tea's and snacks and Great House Farm information centre providing information on the area. On the hillside the former Bungalow Grounds contain eleven listed structures, being remains of its garden features, its most prominent feature visible on the skyline being the Pigeon Tower. Within the village buildings with listed status are Wilkinson's and cottage attached to right, Rivington School, Rivington Church and the Unitarian Chapel, the two latter being active places of worship. Fisher house operated as a Temperance Hotel in the Victorian era, it is now a secluded private residence. The village stocks are a feature on Rivington village green, inscribed "T W 1719" on the stone base. New Hall Barn, opposite the Chapel received planning consent in 2015 to be converted to a four bedroom house. New Hall was a former dwelling and named in deeds of the Pilkington family in 1544 on their land named Ferneley in their possession from at least 1336 and was retained by them at the sale of Rivington Hall in 1611. The house had a date stone of 1642 and was demolished in the early 20th century after being purchased by Liverpool Corporation, an adjoining barn had been left standing and its site and this barn became part of Bradleys Farm. The barn became obsolete after the 1980s and had been left to go to a ruin by its owners United Utilities. Near Horrobin Embankment, Horrobin Lane which passes between the Lower and Upper Rivington reservoirs is a car park, this was the former site of the Black O'Moors Hotel and Bowling Green Public House, adjacent is Rivington Bowling Club, Bowling Green and Club House, operating as a Tea Room from 11am. Little Lake District 'The Little Lake District' became the name for the chain of reservoirs created by the Victorian era Rivington Pike Scheme and had attracted tourists, with increasing visitor numbers, this led to a change in the areas local economy from agricultural to tourism, aided by a new railway at Blackrod in 1841, close to Horwich Vale and a rapid increase in population at Horwich with the arrival of the Horwich Railway Works and railway station, within walking distance. The area attracted well known landscape artists. The open countryside and moorland had, by the Victorian era become a public asset the working classes especially wanted to preserve access to and was the site of the Winter Hill mass trespass in 1896. Leverhulme who in 1902 bought a significant amount of land at Rivington also supported open access to the fields and moorland. Leverhulme was prompted to intervene in 1900 on learning the Cromptons, owners of Rivington Hall were to sell. He was fond of the area that he got to know well as a boy and a place he and his wife frequently visited whilst courting, he had a keen interest in its history, he sponsored and contributed to the book titled 'A Short History of Rivington' published in 1904. Lever Park Leverhulme had donated of land for the creation of a public park at Rivington in a proposal to Bolton in 1901, he had bought the land in 1900. The map of the proposed park is included in the book he sponsored, titled "A short history of the township of Rivington in the county of Lancaster with some account of the church and grammar school". The park became formally created and protected in law within the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902, enshrining in law that the corporation and its successors shall manage Lever Park, named after Leverhulme and keep open the park for the "free and uninterrupted enjoyment of the people of his native town of Bolton". The present owner and successor to the corporation of Liverpool is United Utilities. The main area of the park is adjacent to the Lower Rivington Reservoir and behind Rivington and Blackrod High School toward Rivington Hall Barn, Rivington Pike, although a distance from the reservoirs and now owned by Chorley Council is part of Lever Park, it is mentioned as such in the Lever park Act 1969 and protected under the wider 1902 Act. Access to Lever Park very briefly stopped during the great war and was met with significant public objection. The park land was formerly farmland belonging to The Crosses, Great House Farm and Rivington Hall. Leverhulme sold the remaining areas outside the park to Liverpool Corporation in 1905 and retained an interest by a covenant on the land preventing building without his or his heirs consent, other than by farms and for operation of the water works. Two pillars commemorating the gift of Leverhulme mark the entry to the area named Lever park and are located at the junction of Scholes Bank and Lever Park Avenue, Horwich, inscribed with the words “William Hesketh Lever 1st Viscount Leverhulme. Lever Park the gift of William Hesketh Lever 1st Viscount Leverhulme born at 6 Wood Street, Bolton, September 19, 1851 died at Hampstead, London, May 7, 1925. For the benefit of the citizens of his native town and neighbourhood by act of parliament in 1902 the ownership and care of the park were vested in the Corporation of the City of Liverpool”. The park opened in 1904 and retains its tree-lined avenues and a network of footpaths. A dedication ceremony took place to dedicate the park to the people of Bolton on 10 October 1911. The park was at its peak until Leverhulmes death in 1925, after which everything including buildings, Rivington Hall Museum contents, Leverhulmes Bungalow and contents including fine art, furniture, antiques, Rivington Hall Zoo animals and even the ducks and pigeons were sold by auction. The work on the replica castle stopped. The park was a staging post for troops in the second world war and its barns and adjacent land used to store and produce foods. The park suffered significant neglect in this period, the hall became a derelict building with broken windows, it was saved and remains an attraction after Salmon catering agreed a lease. Today Lever Park consists of avenues of woodland with bridleways and footpaths converging on a replica castle, the routes are former roads which are in disrepair, the main access route for vehicles is Rivington Lane and has limited car parking. There are two converted barns which trade as tearooms serving food and drinks and Rivington Pike Tower is a landmark on the hill. The valley area gives good vantage points to enjoy the lower Rivington reservoir, the hill is popular with hikers and mountain bike enthusiasts. There are boating facilities at the Anderton Center, a Go Ape operates adjacent to the Great House Barn with toilets nearby. The area is popular with a variety of user groups including ramblers, cyclists, horse riders, motorcyclists, young and old and families wishing to enjoy the countryside. Covid The public was prevented from access to the Pike, part of Lever Park, in conflict with the rights afforded by law enshrined in the Liverpool Corporation Act of "free and uninterrupted enjoyment" and the Countryside and Rights of Way Act during Easter by the landowners agent, Rivington Heritage Trust alongside Police for first time in its history in 2020 and 2021 during the Covid pandemic. In June 2020 Police stepped up patrols on rumours of a gathering, also in May 2021 Police, United Utilities / Rivington Heritage Trust and North West 4x4 Response went patrolling with a view to arrests for offences of "gathering and proceeding to a gathering under the Criminal Justice and Public order act". In June 2021 Police officers are reported to have 'swooped' on Rivington to prevent a rumoured gathering. Rivington Castle Leverhulme commenced the build of a folly, named Rivington Castle in 1911, a scale replica of Liverpool Castle at Coblowe Hillock near the Lower Rivington Reservoir, grade 2 listed since 1967 and is one of the most important features of Lever Park. The build commenced 1912 with clearance of the land and digging foundations, with the first foundation stone laid in 1913 and ended on Leverhulmes death in 1925, after which the one tonne crane, stone bogie and other equipment used for the building project including barrows and the workers shed were sold by auction and cleared from the site. Access to the interior had been blocked by steel bars in the post war decades after World War Two, it is now open to the public. The structure has been altered a number of times by the landowner, before and after listed building status, with the demolition of a stone spiral staircase leading to the 'Great Hall' and stone steps that led to the keep, known as 'The Great Tower', a ledge remains. The castle walls were altered by rebuilding to an angular style at the north wall and near the Keep, stonework was also removed from the wall of the Prison tower as it joins the ante-chapel, the work was undertaken in 2012 as part of safety work in an effort to stop visitors climbing. Blue Planet Scheme Rivington Heritage Trust, a body set up in 1997 by United Utilities in order to obtain £15 million in funding for 'Blue Planet Park' had its plans rejected for funding by the Millennium Commission which would have seen them take over all of Lever Park and Rivington Pike, plans were opposed by six regional MPs and were met with huge local opposition. Among issues raised by the public were fears that Music festivals would be held and visitors charged admission, the water company assured the public that would never happen. Den Dover was the Constituency Member of parliament serving for the Conservatives, then in government and raised concerns that the bill presented to parliament would give the water company too much power, he feared public access could be restricted and fee's for entry charged. He opposed the plans and the Water company were forced to withdraw their bill in parliament in July 1997, known as the Lever Park Act, where it met with opposition. The trust abandoned the plans by 1998 after considerable local opposition. The trust was an arm of the water company in all but name and decided to change tactics and invited local representation. Rivington Heritage Trust had plans to take over part of Lever Park to rent out to tourists for Glamping, the plan had been leaked and concerns were raised at a Rivington Parish Council meeting in 2020. Leverhulmes Former Gardens On the hillside of Rivington Pike was an area created as gardens to serve a former Bungalow demolished in 1948 belonging to Leverhulme. The site has surviving stone structures that formed part of the Italian style gardens designed by Thomas Mawson between 1905 and 1922, its design features in his book 'The Art and Craft of Garden Making', published 1912. The area is now woodland with remains including foundations of the bungalow, a number of stone summer houses, footpaths, steps, bridges, three ponds, streams and the restored Pigeon Tower. A Japanese style gardens was added in 1923, its features have since been lost, its pond remains. Further down the hillside a section was built in 1921 as a man made ravine, which along with the Japanese Garden built 1922 made use of artificial rock known as Pulhamite. Roynton Cottage built on the hillside by 1902 was a prefabricated wooden structure, used by Leverhulme for entertaining shooting parties, destroyed in 1913 by arson by a suffragette, Edith Rigby. Its replacement was built of york stone in 1914 and named 'The Bungalow' by 1923 Leverhulme who had constantly altered the building added a second story by 1923. After Lever's death in 1925 the entire contents of the Bungalow and the grounds were sold off, the building and land was purchased by the Bolton brewer, John Magee. After John Magees death in 1939 his executor then offered the property to Bolton Council who declined fearing the effect of increased local rates needed to cover maintenance costs. Liverpool Corporation then purchased the property in late 1939 in turbulent times just prior to the Second World War. During the war the building and grounds were requisitioned by the military, there was a significant decoy site nearby. After the end of the war in 1945 no use could be found of the site due to a clause in the Liverpool Corporation Act restricting use of the site by law to only be used as a private dwelling, this prevented charities and voluntary groups also coming forward. With no buyers and with a great level of neglect and repairs needed by 1948 the bungalow was demolished. The site was then left for many decades to grow wild and neglected, the gardens structures slowly collapsed. By 1974 the park and gardens had passed to the North West Water Authority from Liverpool Corporation, and to United Utilities on privatisation. In the mid 1970's the landowner planned to demolish the remaining garden structures, this was prevented by intervention with listed building status by Chorley Council. From 1976 a local voluntary group, the Bolton Conservation Volunteers stepped in and cleared overgrowth and worked to maintain what had by then become an important public asset. The site was used for unofficial Music festivals in 1976 and 1977. With measures proposed by a group of employees of the water company in 1997 as a part of the Blue Planet Scheme being rejected and opposed by locals it was not until 2012 that the owners through the Rivington Heritage Trust commenced saving the former gardens from ruin. All Rhododendron was removed from the gardens in 2006 after Ramorum Disease was found at the site. By 2016 the trust had obtained funding through public grants and started to clear the former gardens, repair paths and preserve the woodland and remaining structures, the ownership of the site transferred to the trust by way of lease in the same year, the site is managed woodland and the grade 2 listed gardens structures repaired. The Lancashire Environmental Fund awarded a grant of £23,000 in 2022 to improve accessibility from Lower House car park via Roynton Road to improve access at the site. Rivington Heritage Trust The Rivington Heritage Trust, previously known as United Utilities Heritage Foundation, based at the United Utilities Head Quarters abandoned much of the original Blue Planet Scheme and formed a plan to proceed gradually whilst lobbying and obtaining public support from 1998. By 2013 they had succeeded in obtaining £60,000 in grant funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund the Big Lottery Fund and presented new plans for the Rivington Terraced Gardens. By 2016 the trust and Groundwork Cheshire Lancashire and Merseyside were successful in obtaining a grant of £3.4 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund to conserve and repair the Rivington Terraced Gardens and remaining Grade II listed structures. The trust is well funded with an income in 2020 of over £1.4 million. A lease of 50 years was also agreed by United Utilities to the Rivington Heritage Trust in the same year. Clearance work has been undertaken by unpaid volunteers. The former gardens held a variety of events in 2018 and 2019, including a two-day music festival and also sell Gin. Public events and access to the former gardens and Pike was stopped during the Covid pandemic and the 2018 moorland fires. The Rivington Heritage Trust official aims are to "To consult with stakeholders on the use and development of Rivington Terraced Gardens for the benefit of the public and the environment. The objects of the Trust shall be to:- (i) conserve, preserve, maintain, protect and enhance for the benefit of the public all beneficial aspects and features of the environment of land and structures of outstanding natural beauty or of historic or architecture" The trust acts as land agent for United Utilities and is increasingly involved in the management of Lever Park and the broader area. In 2021 Lever parks information centre became the Terraced Gardens visitor centre, it was formerly a long established asset of the Park. Notable Campaigns Rivington Moor was the site of a mass trespass of 12,000 people who descended on the area toward Winter Hill in 1896 after the Smithills Hall land owner blocked off the route from Halliwell to Winter Hill and onto Rivington Moor using a locked gate and stationed his men as guards to stop access, the gate was smashed down by the demonstrators. The event was a forerunner of the Kinder Scout mass trespass and an early battleground of the right to roam, Winter Hill was the biggest rights-of-way battle in British history. Over time people were able to use the disputed route without hindrance. The demonstration is commemorated by a memorial stone on Coal Pit Lane, below Smithills Moor. Leverhulme was also concerned that access to the fields and moorland of Rivington was becoming more restricted. Lever Park came under threat after water supplies and land forming the catchment area had been moved out of public ownership and were transferred to private corporations in the Water privatisation in England and Wales, this was followed by a significant increase in use of gates and fences with stiles on footpaths and bridleways appearing from 1989, in response at Rivington 3000 local campaigners demonstrated and took a pledge to protect the area from then on after attending a meeting of opponents to the bill, organised as a rally at Rivington, led by the Ramblers Association in association with the Open Spaces Society and attended by Ann Taylor MP; mountaineer Chris Bonington; Ramblers’ chairman Chris Hall; the leader of Lancashire County Council, Louise Ellman, and Kinder Scout trespass veteran Benny Rothman, Lever Park was again under threat in a further attempt by the water company supported by Horwich Town Council who attempted to remove statutory protection through a parliamentary act in 1997, they were met with considerable local opposition and the act of parliament was blocked by a cross party group of six regional Conservative and Labour MPs Terry Lewis, Tom Sackville, Peter Thurnham, Andrew Bennett and Gerald Kaufman and was opposed by the local MP, Den Dover. Rights of Way Lever Park is protected under statutory powers within the Liverpool Corporation Act 1902 ensuring "free and uninterrupted enjoyment". The area is popular with walkers, cyclists and horse riders with footpaths, bridleways and roads providing access to the park, hillside and surrounding moorland. Rivington moor, Winter Hill, Rivington Pike, Brown Hill and the former Japanese and Kitchen Gardens within the Bungalow Grounds are part of an extensive area of open access land recorded at Lancashire County Council and has a right to roam protected by the statutory powers in the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000. There is a public footpath and a bridleway from Lever Park to Rivington Pike and Terraced Gardens. The public footpath number 82 runs through the gardens from the Ravine via the former Japanese and Kitchen Gardens, which is also an area of open access land with a right to roam. There are a network of roads that provide access to Rivington recorded on the National Street Gazetteer. Access to Lever Park by vehicle is via Rivington Lane, (USRN 7401372) many former roads in Lever park are gated and are now bridleways along with a network of public footpaths. Toward Rivington Pike the old coach road is Belmont Road (USRN 7400767) and is an open public road from Horwich, the road becomes rougher and less maintained the further up the hill it climbs in the direction of the Pigeon Tower, where it splits. The descending road there leads to Lower House car park but the roads surface is washed away and not maintained, the route leading to Rivington Rd and the moorland is gated. Sport The Rivington Pike Fell Race has been held on Easter Saturday since 1892. The fell race originally started from the Horwich railway works, but since 1930 from the park entrance at Lever Park Avenue. It attracts around 400 runners. The course is long and has a ascent. The area around Rivington and Anglezarke was the location for the 2002 Commonwealth Games mountain biking competition. The area is well used by hikers and hillwalkers. The Holcombe Hunt meets each year at Rivington Hall Barn. Groups of four wheel drive vehicle owners use of a section of Belmont Road for Off-roading, the road is an open public road and is also used by walkers toward the Pigeon Tower from Lower House. The off roaders activity has been very controversial due to damage to the road surfaces and adjacent land over many years. Culture Phoebe Hesketh, lived at Fisher House in the village where she wrote several volumes of poetry and two partly autobiographical books Rivington: the story of a village and Rivington: village of the mountain ash. She also wrote a biography, My Aunt Edith about Edith Rigby the suffragette. The artist Alfred East stayed at Roynton Cottage in summer 1909. Lever commissioned a series of paintings of the surrounding landscape, the reservoirs, country park, village and the pike. Lever gave 15 of them to Bolton Art Gallery and others to Bolton School, the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool and the Lady Lever Art Gallery at Port Sunlight. East gave two water colours, A glimpse of Rivington Water and In Rivington Park to Kettering Museum and Art Gallery. The gallery acquired an oil painting [From] Rivington Pike that East exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1913 in the 1960s. The Bolton Museum and Masonic Lodge, Ridgmont House, Horwich hold a painting titled "Rivington Lakes" dated 1872 and with a variation titled Rivington Valley (1857) held at Walker Art Gallery, by Frederick William Hulme. References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links Rivington photographs Chorley Council, Rivington Rivington Lantern Images LCC RowMaps, Barry Cornelius - Map of Rivington Bridleways and Footpaths Rivington Geography of Chorley Villages in Lancashire Civil parishes in Lancashire West Pennine Moors Tourist attractions in Lancashire

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The Holden Commodore (VF) is an executive car that was produced by Holden between June 2013 and October 2017. It was the second and last significantly restyled iteration of the fourth (and final) generation of the Holden Commodore to be manufactured in Australia. Its range included the sedan and station wagon variants that sold under the luxury Holden Calais (VF) nameplate. Also available was the commercial utility variant that sold under the Holden Ute (VF) nameplate. From 2013 to 2017 an improved version of the Commodore SS V sedan was exported to the United States badged as the Chevrolet SS; an evolution of the badging practice used on the previous-generation Commodore that was sold in North America as the Pontiac G8 from 2008 to 2009, prior to the Pontiac brand being discontinued. Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) used the VF series as the basis of its performance Gen-F sedan, wagon and utility models, which were also exported to the United Kingdom rebadged as the Vauxhall VXR8 range. In December 2013, GM announced that it would discontinue all Australian production in 2017. Development The VF Commodore was built on an altered version of the Holden designed GM Zeta platform, first used in the VE Commodore. The VF was an evolution of the VE, with several visual changes. The VF featured new styling at the front and rear, with a more modern, sculpted appearance replacing the VE's simpler design. Changes included altered headlights, altered tail lamps (on sedans only), alterations to the plastic of the intake and grille and the use of a lip-spoiler instead of a rear wing on the performance models. The body shell, windows, doors, mirrors and roof were all carried over from the VE. The wheelbase and track also remain unchanged. The interior underwent major changes, with switches such as the boot lid release being relocated from the glovebox to the doors and the fitting of an electronic handbrake. All models were fitted with an eight-inch touch screen in the centre console, with keyless entry and auto-park assist also standard across all models. Other optional features included a head-up display on the windscreen, forward and rear collision warning systems, blind spot monitors and a lane departure warning system. The VF used an electric power steering system, rather than the hydraulic system used on previous Commodores, improving fuel economy at the expense of steering feel. The majority of the testing for the VF was completed in Australia but it was also driven in Germany, the Middle East, North America and Sweden. Show-car versions of the SS V and the Calais V were unveiled to the public on 10 February 2013, with the first pre-production models completed in April 2013. Safety Like its predecessor, the VF achieved five stars in the ANCAP safety ratings. On top of the ratings tests, the VF was found to have good whiplash protection for occupants, though pedestrian protection was classified as marginal, with the car scoring 15.41 of a possible 36 points in this area. In May 2014, Holden recalled nearly 42,000 VF and WN Caprice models after a potential problem with the front seatbelts was identified. It was found that the pretensioner wiring harness for the seatbelts could make contact with part of the buckle assembly, leading to premature wearing of the wiring harness which could disable the pretensioner system in the event of an accident. The VF was recalled again a month later, when it was found that the drive gear for the windscreen wiper motor could fail. LPG models were recalled in July after it was identified that the feed hose could develop a slow leak at the end of the vehicle's lifetime, creating a (low) risk of fire. Powertrains The VF uses the same engines as the VE, with minor alterations to improve performance and fuel efficiency, while the automatic gearbox was redesigned to give more appropriate gear selections. The VE's E85 compatibility was carried forward to the VF V8 engines, and the V6 engine until it was dropped in the 2015MY. Fuel economy has also been improved by the use of aluminium body panels and components, leading to the VF being lighter than the VE, and the electric power steering system. The new styling has also improved the aerodynamic efficiency, with the coefficient of drag dropping from 0.33 to 0.30. As a result, fuel consumption has dropped by between three and eight percent depending on the engine and specification level. Starting with the VF II 2015, the 6.0-litre L77 was replaced by the 6.2-litre LS3. The VF II model also saw the discontinuation of the LPG versions of the Commodore. Models The number of specification levels was reduced compared to the VE, with the Berlina (nameplate introduced in 1984) and Omega (introduced in 2006) dropped. Prices are A$5000 to $10,000 less than the previous VE models. Utility variants cost less than the corresponding sedan, while the wagon variants are more expensive. Commodore Evoke Replacing both the Commodore Omega and Berlina (nameplates introduced in 2006 and 1984, respectively), the Evoke is the new entry-level nameplate as reflected by its range of engines, which included as standard the same 3.0-litre SIDI V6 engine fitted to the VE Commodore Omega, and the optional 3.6-litre LPG-powered V6, both available only with an automatic transmission. The central console display was increased in size from , featuring a single-CD player, compatibility with MP3 and iPod and mobile phone integration. The audio, navigation and mobile phone controls all feature voice recognition technology. Safety features include six airbags, traction control and ABS. The Evoke comes with 16-inch alloy wheels. Commodore SV6 The SV6 utilises the larger 3.6-litre SIDI V6 engine and is available with both a manual and automatic transmission. The SV6 is also available with the 3.6 L LPG V6. The SV6 features a sportier body kit than the Evoke, with LED running lights, a lip spoiler, FE2 suspension and 18-inch alloy wheels. The interior fittings are sports seats with suede/leather trim, rear arm rest leather steering wheel and gear shift lever. For the 2016 model year, Holden released a special edition called the "Black Edition". Available on SV6 and SS models, it featured the same mechanics as a standard SV6 and SS (3.6 V6 and 6.2 V8 respectively) but added extra features such as satellite navigation, heads-up display, red stitching and black detailing on the grill, side vents, and wheels. Commodore SS, SS V and SS V Redline The entry level SS has the same cosmetic features as the SV6, but is equipped with a higher performance V8 engine. From 2013 to 2014 model year, it was equipped with the 6.0-litre L77 V8 engine, and from the 2015 VF II update onwards, it was equipped with the 6.2-litre LS3 V8 engine, previously only used on HSV models. The mid-range SS V features include larger 19-inch wheels and front fog lights (in addition to LED DRLs). Inside the SS V gains leather seats, an enhanced instrument display, 8 way electric driver's seat satellite navigation system and a DVD player (DVD dropped from MY 2015). The top-end SS V Redline provides extra performance enhancement features over those of the SS V, with improved brake and suspension packages, extra collision sensors, launch control (manual) and a sunroof with Bose audio (on Sedan only). Across all specifications, a manual transmission was no longer available on any SS models in the sportwagon body shape, as it had been in the VE series. Holden cited a lack of sales for manual sportwagon for this decision. Calais and Calais V The Calais and Calais V are both available with the 3.6-litre V6 engine used in the SV6, and the 6.0-litre V8 engine is optional on Calais V with active fuel management AFM or DoD, running on four cylinders during low load conditions (6.2-litre V8 engine in VF II) used in the SS, SS V and SS V Redline. Both models are only available with an automatic transmission.(LSD Limited slip differential was optional in the Calais range with models using a 2.92 ratio for cruising). The Calais features premium styling with chrome highlights both inside and out, with leather seats and 18-inch wheels. Wheels fitted to VFI Calais V are 19-inch ten spoke machine finished wheels as standard. The Calais V uses the same satellite navigation system as the SS V, and includes text to voice messaging and voice activated call operation while driving. It also features heated front seats with 8 way electric adjust and position memory and four way manual adjustment to head rests, DVD player (until MY2015), head-up display rain sensing wipers, Park assist, side intrusion alert, lane departure warning, forward collision alert and self parking features. The Calais V sedan exclusively added a sunroof, 9-speaker Bose audio, and optional Light Titanium Leather seating. Suspension package was soft for comfort but still supportive while cornering with good reviews on handling. Limited editions There have been several limited edition Commodore models produced, available on a range of specification levels: International: based on the Evoke and available in sedan and Sportwagon form. The International celebrated the 35th anniversary of the Commodore nameplate. It featured 18-inch wheels, minor alterations to the exterior and interior styling (LED running lights) blind spot alert rear cross traffic alert and leather seats. 2014 Model Year Storm: available on the SV6 and SS sedan, Sportwagon and Ute specification. The Storm featured a unique wheel design (black paint in between spokes) and "Storm" badging inside and out, satellite navigation and red stitching in the seats and front fog lights with chrome trim. Collingwood: dubbed the "Collingwoodore", available on Heron White SV6, SS or SS V sedan specification. The Collingwood featured unique 20-inch wheels and extra badging and decals associated with the Collingwood Football Club. 2015 Model Year Craig Lowndes: available on Heron White or Red Hot SS V Redline specification. This edition celebrated Craig Lowndes' twentieth anniversary of first competing with Holden in local touring car racing. It featured upgraded Brembo front and rear brakes (front only on standard Redline models); 20-inch staggered wheels; black roof, spoiler, guard vents, bonnet and door stripes; red engine cover; and an embroidered "Craig Lowndes" signature on the dashboard. The cars were individually numbered 1 to 233, with the first owned by Lowndes himself. Sandman: based on Sportwagon and Ute and available in white or black, vehicles included orange tribute decals to the Sandman's of the '70's, 20inch Baretta wheels and orange sheep-skin seat covers. They were available in addition to SV6 and SS-V Redline vehicle specifications. Black Edition: based on all bodies of the SV6 and SS variants, the 'Black Edition' featured exterior chroming blacked out, black mirror covers, darker 18" alloy rims, red leather stitching to the interior, heads up display, navigation and special floor mats. 2016 and 2017 Model Years Reserve Edition: a limited production run that was specified by the Holden Product Engineering Team for Holden employees only. These vehicles were never available for sale to the general public. Reserve Edition vehicles have 19" forged alloy wheels that were only otherwise equipped on the Chevrolet SS version sold in the US. Reserve Edition vehicles can also be identified by an additional chassis plate in the engine bay displaying the Reserve build option code, and the General Motors employee number of the staff member who purchased the vehicle. The employee number is also stamped on the body in a hidden location (for added protection against counterfeit vehicles). The word “Reserve” is embroidered onto the passenger side of the instrument panel, and “Reserve” badges appear on the vehicle exterior. 2017 Model Year Director: Sedan only, production run of 360 units Motorsport: Sedan only, production run of 1200 units. Magnum: Utility only, production run of 240 units. Series II update In September 2015, Holden introduced the MY16, Series II (VF II) upgrade to the Commodore. The biggest change is the addition of the larger, more powerful 6.2-litre and , LS3 V8 engine across all current V8 models of the Commodore, Calais, Caprice and Ute. A Bimodal exhaust was fitted standard to the SS, SS V and Redline models and was optional on CalaisV when the LS3 V8 was fitted. All wagon models got new LED taillights. As well as this, the front bumper and running lights were restyled, the gear ratios on the SS V Redline were altered, and the Redline's suspension tune was adjusted. For 2017 the SSV pack and Calais wagon were dropped from the range. SV6 models got HUD/GPS plus wheels previously used on "Black Edition". SS gained HUD/GPS and 19 inch Wheels. Redline and Calais V models gained chrome V Series door sill plates. Calais V also gained auto tinting rear view mirror and Calais lettering on the flanks of the car. HSV range (Gen-F) The enhanced performance VF range sold by Holden Special Vehicles (HSV) was marketed in Australia as the Generation F ("Gen-F") and it comprised the variants listed below. All body styles were exported to the United Kingdom where they were rebadged and sold as the Vauxhall VXR8 range. ClubSport The ClubSport is the entry-level sedan in the HSV range, based on Commodore SS. It is powered by a 6.2-litre LS3 V8 engine, with power and torque figures of and . The ClubSport R8 (based on SSV/Redline) variant has a more powerful engine 325Kw (with SV enhanced option an extra of power and ) and minor visual changes compared to the standard ClubSport, including SV badges. The ClubSport R8 Tourer is the station wagon version. All ClubSport models feature 20-inch wheels and standard six-speed manual transmission or optional six-speed automatic. In November 2014, as part of the MY15 update, the power was increased to for the base ClubSport and for the R8. In July 2015, HSV launched the limited edition Clubsport R8 25th Anniversary to commemorate the nameplate. It did not benefit from any performance increases but only extra fitments that included forged alloy wheels and special badges and trims. Production totalled 108 units (eight of which for export to New Zealand). In 2016, R8 model was reintroduced with downtuned LSA supercharged V8, rated at . GTS The Gen-F GTS features a supercharged LSA V8 engine which provides of power and of torque. To assist with its cooling requirements, the GTS is fitted with a stacked plate engine oil cooler and a stand-alone water-to-air charge-air cooling system. Unique tail shafts cater for the higher torque loads and the rear differential helps transfer all of the power to ground. At the time of its release and still to date, the GTS was the most powerful car ever produced in Australia. Like the ClubSport, the GTS is available in both a six-speed manual and a six-speed automatic transmission and it also features 20-inch alloy wheels. Due to the increase in power the GTS has a larger brake package than the ClubSport, also for the sportier look a larger rear spoiler. The GTS is also equipped with generation 3 magnetic ride control or MRC. There are three modes for the MRC, tour, sport/performance and track. The GTS is equipped with a driver preference dial that has four modes to adjust the bi-model exhaust and MRC, these are Tour, Sport, Performance, Track. Maloo The Maloo is a utility version of the ClubSport, with R8 and R8 SV models also available. A limited edition GTS Maloo was launched in November 2014, featuring the GTS sedan mechanicals except for its Magnetic Ride Control suspension. Senator Signature The Gen-F Senator Signature has a more conservative exterior design than the ClubSport or GTS, but makes up for this by having all luxury fitments from the donor Holden Calais. It features the 6.2-litre LS3 V8 engine, with power and torque figures of and , respectively. The Senator Signature is available with both a six-speed automatic or a six-speed manual transmission, it also features 20-inch forged alloy wheels. In early 2015, HSV released 52 units of the limited edition Senator SV (Gen-F MY15) series, 50 were built for sale in Australia and two for New Zealand. Production The VF Commodore was launched during a downwards trend in large car sales in Australia. Despite this, 2,827 cars were sold in the first month after its launch, a 17.8 percent increase over the corresponding month in 2012. Sales continued to be strong for the rest of 2013, with sales in the second half of the year up by 19 percent compared to the same period in 2012. The VF series is the fifteenth and final Australian-made Commodore range since the introduction of this nameplate in 1978. Chevrolet SS The VF Commodore sedan was sold in the United States as a performance vehicle under the name of Chevrolet SS. It was sized between the Malibu and the Impala in the Chevrolet lineup and also filled the void left behind by the Pontiac G8 (itself a rebadged VE Commodore), after the Pontiac brand was terminated in 2009. The SS went on sale as a 2014 model year vehicle in late 2013 and was Chevrolet's first rear-wheel drive V8 sedan available to the general public in eighteen years since the fourth-generation Chevrolet Caprice and the seventh-generation Impala SS. The vehicle was unveiled during Speedweeks in Daytona Beach, Florida, in February 2013. The Chevrolet SS was powered by a 6.2-litre LS3 V8 engine from the Chevrolet Corvette (C6), with power and torque outputs of and . The only available transmission for model year 2014 was a six-speed automatic that could be shifted manually using paddle shifters on the steering wheel. Compared to the preceding Pontiac G8, the restyled SS featured a stiffer chassis for improved ride and handling thanks to greater use of medium to high-strength steels adopted for the updated VF Commodore. The addition of high-grade steels resulted in 30 pounds shaved off the core structure. Crash performance was also improved thanks to redesigned front rails and the electrical architecture was re-engineered from the ground up allowing for technologies such as head up display and active safety systems (e.g. blind spot monitors). These changes also saw the introduction of a redesigned dashboard and human interface, which had been the most visible change in the transition from VE to VF, aside from an exterior redesign. The Chevrolet SS had an MSRP of US$44,470. There was a single, fully equipped specification level, with two optional extras: a sunroof and a full-size spare tire. The SS came with Chevrolet's MyLink system (including Bluetooth, Sirius XM Radio, and Pandora Radio features) and, like the VF Commodore, had auto-park assist, a blind-spot monitoring system, a lane departure warning system and electronic power steering. The SS was fitted with 19-inch wheels. On 7 June 2013 Holden began touting the VF Commodore and its ties to the Chevrolet SS in a series of new television commercials which were released online. On 20 February 2013 GM announced that the Chevrolet SS would not be sold in Canada, despite having been previewed there days before the February 2013 Canadian International Auto Show in Toronto. On 6 September 2013, Chevrolet announced that the number of Chevrolet SS vehicles are limited to selected Chevrolet dealerships based on their sales of the Corvette C7 and the SS's brother, the Camaro, claiming that the allocation might have more to do with production rather than supply and demand. Chevrolet projected about 2,000 to 3,000 vehicles a year instead of the much speculated 15,000 to 20,000 cited in the media. On 30 July 2014, Chevrolet announced that the SS would become the first vehicle in the brand's lineup to feature an automatic parking assist system. Chevrolet added the option of a manual transmission, standard Magnetic Ride Control (MRC) and OnStar's 4G LTE service to the 2015 model, which debuted at the Woodward Dream Cruise in August 2014. For the 2016 model, Chevrolet announced that the SS would receive a facelifted front design revised LED lighting, dual mode exhaust system, a new "Slipstream Blue" paint colour (replacing "Perfect Blue" and "Alchemy Purple Metallic"), red Brembo brake calipers and an updated wheel design (with cast aluminum construction, as opposed to the forged aluminum wheels used previously). For the 2017 model year, three exterior colours were removed (Some Like It Hot Red metallic, Jungle Green metallic, and Mystic Green metallic) and two colours were added: Orange Blast and Nightfall Gray Metallic. This was also the final year of the SS, as Chevrolet announced on 9 January 2017 that with the Commodore ending production in Australia there are no plans for a successor. Motorsport For marketing purposes, the VF Commodore is raced in various motorsport disciplines, however, the race cars generally have no physical or mechanical relationship with the production model, other than similar looks. Supercars Championship The program for the V8 Supercar version of the VF was headed up by Holden Motorsport technical manager Peter Harker, with the aero package designed by Triple Eight Race Engineering's Ludo Lacroix in conjunction with Doug Skinner from the Holden Racing Team. The VF Commodore race car prototype, fitted with VE Commodore body panels, ran for the first time on 13 October 2012 at Holden's Lang Lang Proving Ground as part of the series' aerodynamic validation. The homologated version of the VF Commodore V8 Supercar was first shown by Garry Rogers Motorsport on 11 February 2013; this was followed by an official unveiling by the Holden Racing Team at Holden's headquarters later in the day. The VF was the first Holden model built to New Generation V8 Supercar regulations, a formula designed to decrease the cost of building and repairing cars. The V8 Supercar version features a 5-litre V8 engine, 18-inch control wheels, a specially designed aerodynamics kit, a polycarbonate windscreen as well as many category control parts. It was the first Holden V8 Supercar to feature an end-mounted rear wing since the VP Commodore in the 1990s. Only certain body panels are common between the road car and the V8 Supercar, as well as the headlights and tail lamps, with the rest of the components being custom made by each team. The VF had a successful debut at the 2013 Clipsal 500, with Craig Lowndes and Shane van Gisbergen taking their cars to victory in the two races. Van Gisbergen also claimed both pole positions. The VF Commodore won twenty-eight of the thirty-six races in 2013, with Triple Eight Race Engineering, Tekno Autosports, Brad Jones Racing, Garry Rogers Motorsport and the Holden Racing Team all taking wins in the new Commodore. Holden secured the 2013 Manufacturers' Championship with fourteen races remaining in the season. Jamie Whincup won the championship in his Commodore, ahead of Triple Eight Race Engineering teammate Lowndes. In 2015, the debut of Ford's FGX saw the domination of the VF come to an end with Mark Winterbottom driving for the then, Pepsi Max Crew, to his and the teams first Supercars Championship. Despite this, the VF did secure its first Bathurst 1000 win in the hands of Craig Lowndes and Steven Richards in their Red Bull Racing Australia VF Commodore. At the end of the 2015 season, the VF had already amassed 74 Supercars Championship race wins, with only its predecessor, the VE, having scored more race wins in the championship. 2016 saw Red Bull Racing Australia return to their best winning the drivers and teams championship with new recruit Shane Van Gisburgen. In 2017, the team now known as the Red Bull Holden Racing Team, were severely challenged by Shell V Power's Scott McLaughlin who dominated the championship and was the favourite all year. Jamie Whincup, despite a lack of poles and wins compared to his rival, won the championship in the final race after McLaughlin was penalized for causing Whincup's teammate Craig Lowndes to hit the wall, breaking the front left suspension. Whincup won the championship in the VF Commodore and delivered its final race win in its last race which was Whincup's championship winning race. NASCAR A Chevrolet SS-branded car formerly competed in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, having made its debut during the Sprint Unlimited non-championship race in 2013. Kevin Harvick won the race in the car's first outing. It was one of the new Generation 6 vehicles, replacing the Car of Tomorrow. Jimmie Johnson gave the SS a winning debut at the 2013 Daytona 500 after Danica Patrick took pole in her SS. Like its Commodore counterpart in V8 Supercars, the SS won the NASCAR Sprint Cup manufacturers' championship with three rounds remaining. Johnson went on to win the title in his SS. In 2014, the SS again won the Sprint Cup Series championship this time being driven by Kevin Harvick. In 2016 Jimmie Johnson won the Sprint Cup Series championship in an SS for the seventh time, tying the all time record with Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt. For the 2018 Monster Energy NASCAR Cup season, the SS was replaced by the smaller Chevrolet Camaro ZL1, which is the brand's first coupe-based entry since the Monte Carlo was discontinued after the 2007 model year. Advertising As part of the VF Commodore launch in Australia, two television commercials were produced. The 'Turns Heads. Changes Minds.' commercial demonstrated the vehicle's available head-up display and Automatic Parking Assist feature. The 'Think now. Think Tomorrow. Think Holden.' is centered around a patriotic support theme. In conjunction with the launch of the VF Series II, a brand new television commercial titled "Power Ahead". Footnotes References External links VF Cars introduced in 2013 Cars of Australia Full-size vehicles Coupé utilities Police vehicles Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Sedans Sports sedans Station wagons 2010s cars

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Itanium ( ) is a discontinued family of 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly called IA-64). Launched in June 2001, Intel marketed the processors for enterprise servers and high-performance computing systems. The Itanium architecture originated at Hewlett-Packard (HP), and was later jointly developed by HP and Intel. Itanium-based systems were produced by HP/Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) (the HPE Integrity Servers line) and several other manufacturers. In 2008, Itanium was the fourth-most deployed microprocessor architecture for enterprise-class systems, behind x86-64, Power ISA, and SPARC. In February 2017, Intel released the final generation, Kittson, to test customers, and in May began shipping in volume. It was used exclusively in mission-critical servers from Hewlett Packard Enterprise. In 2019, Intel announced that Itanium CPU family production would terminate on January 30, 2020, and shipments would cease as of July 29, 2021. This took place on schedule. History Development: 1989–2000 In 1989, HP determined that the Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) architectures were approaching the processing limit at one instruction per cycle. HP researchers investigated a new architecture, later named Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing (EPIC), that allows the processor to execute multiple instructions in each clock cycle. EPIC implements a form of very long instruction word (VLIW) architecture, in which a single instruction word contains multiple instructions. With EPIC, the compiler determines in advance which instructions can be executed at the same time, so the microprocessor simply executes the instructions and does not need elaborate mechanisms to determine which instructions to execute in parallel. The goal of this approach is twofold: to enable deeper inspection of the code at compile time to identify additional opportunities for parallel execution, and to simplify the processor design and reduce energy consumption by eliminating the need for runtime scheduling circuitry. HP believed that it was no longer cost-effective for individual enterprise systems companies such as itself to develop proprietary microprocessors, so it partnered with Intel in 1994 to develop the IA-64 architecture, derived from EPIC. Intel was willing to undertake the very large development effort on IA-64 in the expectation that the resulting microprocessor would be used by the majority of enterprise systems manufacturers. HP and Intel initiated a large joint development effort with a goal of delivering the first product, Merced, in 1998. During development, Intel, HP, and industry analysts predicted that IA-64 would dominate in servers, workstations, and high-end desktops, and eventually supplant RISC and complex instruction set computing (CISC) architectures for all general-purpose applications. Compaq and Silicon Graphics decided to abandon further development of the Alpha and MIPS architectures respectively in favor of migrating to IA-64. Several groups ported operating systems for the architecture, including Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, Linux, HP-UX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX, and Monterey/64. The latter three were canceled before reaching the market. By 1997, it was apparent that the IA-64 architecture and the compiler were much more difficult to implement than originally thought, and the delivery timeframe of Merced began slipping. Intel announced the official name of the processor, Itanium, on October 4, 1999. Within hours, the name Itanic had been coined on a Usenet newsgroup, a reference to the RMS Titanic, the "unsinkable" ocean liner that sank on her maiden voyage in 1912. "Itanic" was then used often by The Register, and others, to imply that the multibillion-dollar investment in Itanium—and the early hype associated with it—would be followed by its relatively quick demise. Itanium (Merced): 2001 By the time Itanium was released in June 2001, its performance was not superior to competing RISC and CISC processors. Itanium competed at the low-end (primarily four-CPU and smaller systems) with servers based on x86 processors, and at the high-end with IBM POWER and Sun Microsystems SPARC processors. Intel repositioned Itanium to focus on the high-end business and HPC computing markets, attempting to duplicate the x86's successful "horizontal" market (i.e., single architecture, multiple systems vendors). The success of this initial processor version was limited to replacing the PA-RISC in HP systems, Alpha in Compaq systems and MIPS in SGI systems, though IBM also delivered a supercomputer based on this processor. POWER and SPARC remained strong, while the 32-bit x86 architecture continued to grow into the enterprise space, building on the economies of scale fueled by its enormous installed base. Only a few thousand systems using the original Merced Itanium processor were sold, due to relatively poor performance, high cost and limited software availability. Recognizing that the lack of software could be a serious problem for the future, Intel made thousands of these early systems available to independent software vendors (ISVs) to stimulate development. HP and Intel brought the next-generation Itanium 2 processor to the market a year later. Itanium 2: 2002–2010 The Itanium 2 processor was released in 2002, and was marketed for enterprise servers rather than for the whole gamut of high-end computing. The first Itanium 2, code-named McKinley, was jointly developed by HP and Intel. It relieved many of the performance problems of the original Itanium processor, which were mostly caused by an inefficient memory subsystem. McKinley contains 221 million transistors (of which 25 million are for logic), measured 19.5 mm by 21.6 mm (421 mm2) and was fabricated in a 180 nm, bulk CMOS process with six layers of aluminium metallization. In 2003, AMD released the Opteron CPU, which implements its own 64-bit architecture called AMD64. The Opteron gained rapid acceptance in the enterprise server space because it provided an easy upgrade from x86. Under the influence of Microsoft, Intel responded by implementing AMD's x86-64 instruction set architecture instead of IA-64 in its Xeon microprocessors in 2004, resulting in a new industry-wide de facto standard. Intel released a new Itanium 2 family member, codenamed Madison, in 2003. Madison used a 130 nm process and was the basis of all new Itanium processors until Montecito was released in June 2006. In March 2005, Intel announced that it was working on a new Itanium processor, codenamed Tukwila, to be released in 2007. The Tukwila would have four processor cores and would replace the Itanium bus with a new Common System Interface, which would also be used by a new Xeon processor. Later that year, Intel revised Tukwila's delivery date to late 2008. In November 2005, the major Itanium server manufacturers joined with Intel and a number of software vendors to form the Itanium Solutions Alliance to promote the architecture and accelerate the software porting effort. The Alliance announced that its members would invest $10 billion in the Itanium Solutions Alliance by the end of the decade. In 2006, Intel delivered Montecito (marketed as the Itanium 2 9000 series), a dual-core processor that roughly doubled the performance and decreased the energy consumption by about 20 percent. Intel released the Itanium 2 9100 series, codenamed Montvale, in November 2007. In May 2009, the schedule for Tukwila, its follow-on, was revised again, with the release to OEMs planned for the first quarter of 2010. Itanium 9300 (Tukwila): 2010 The Itanium 9300 series processor, codenamed Tukwila, was released on February 8, 2010, with greater performance and memory capacity. The device uses a 65 nm process, includes two to four cores, up to 24 MB on-die caches, Hyper-Threading technology and integrated memory controllers. It implements double-device data correction, which helps to fix memory errors. Tukwila also implements Intel QuickPath Interconnect (QPI) to replace the Itanium bus-based architecture. It has a peak interprocessor bandwidth of 96 GB/s and a peak memory bandwidth of 34 GB/s. With QuickPath, the processor has integrated memory controllers and interfaces the memory directly, using QPI interfaces to directly connect to other processors and I/O hubs. QuickPath is also used on Intel x86-64 processors using the Nehalem microarchitecture, which possibly enabled Tukwila and Nehalem to use the same chipsets. Tukwila incorporates four memory controllers, each of which supports multiple DDR3 DIMMs via a separate memory controller, much like the Nehalem-based Xeon processor code-named Beckton. Itanium 9500 (Poulson): 2012 The Itanium 9500 series processor, codenamed Poulson, the follow-on processor to Tukwila was released on November 8, 2012. According to Intel, it skips the 45 nm process technology and uses a 32 nm process technology. It features eight cores and has a 12-wide issue architecture, multithreading enhancements, and new instructions to take advantage of parallelism, especially in virtualization. The Poulson L3 cache size is 32 MB. L2 cache size is 6 MB, 512 I KB, 256 D KB per core. Die size is 544 mm², less than its predecessor Tukwila (698.75 mm²). At ISSCC 2011, Intel presented a paper called "A 32nm 3.1 Billion Transistor 12-Wide-Issue Itanium Processor for Mission Critical Servers." Given Intel's history of disclosing details about Itanium microprocessors at ISSCC, this paper most likely referred to Poulson. Analyst David Kanter speculated that Poulson would use a new microarchitecture, with a more advanced form of multithreading that uses up to two threads, to improve performance for single threaded and multithreaded workloads. Some information was also released at the Hot Chips conference. Information presented improvements in multithreading, resiliency improvements (Intel Instruction Replay RAS) and few new instructions (thread priority, integer instruction, cache prefetching, and data access hints). Intel's Product Change Notification (PCN) 111456-01 lists four models of Itanium 9500 series CPU, which was later removed in a revised document. The parts were later listed in Intel's Material Declaration Data Sheets (MDDS) database. Intel later posted Itanium 9500 reference manual. The models are the following: {| class="wikitable" |- !Processor number||Frequency||Cache |- |9520||1.73 GHz||20MB |- |9540||2.13 GHz||24MB |- |9550||2.40 GHz||32MB |- |9560||2.53 GHz||32MB |} HP vs. Oracle During the 2012 Hewlett-Packard Co. v. Oracle Corp. support lawsuit, court documents unsealed by a Santa Clara County Court judge revealed that in 2008, Hewlett-Packard had paid Intel around $440 million to keep producing and updating Itanium microprocessors from 2009 to 2014. In 2010, the two companies signed another $250 million deal, which obliged Intel to continue making Itanium CPUs for HP's machines until 2017. Under the terms of the agreements, HP had to pay for chips it gets from Intel, while Intel launches Tukwila, Poulson, Kittson, and Kittson+ chips in a bid to gradually boost performance of the platform. Itanium 9700 (Kittson): 2017 Rumors of a successor to Poulson (code named Kittson) began to circulate in 2012–2013. This was at first associated with a forthcoming 22 nm process shrink, and later revised in the face of declining Itanium sales to a less-ambitious 32 nm node. In April 2015, Intel, although it had not yet confirmed formal specifications, did confirm that it continued to work on the project. Meanwhile, the aggressively multicore Xeon E7 platform displaced Itanium-based solutions in the Intel roadmap. Intel officially launched the Itanium 9700 series processor family on May 11, 2017. Notably, Kittson has no microarchitecture improvements over Poulson, only higher clock speeds. Intel announced that the 9700 series will be the last Itanium chips produced. The models are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Processor number||Cores||Threads||Frequency||Cache |- |9720||4||8||1.73 GHz||20 MB |- |9740||8||16||2.13 GHz||24 MB |- |9750||4||8||2.53 GHz||32 MB |- |9760||8||16||2.66 GHz||32 MB |} Market share In comparison with its Xeon family of server processors, Itanium was never a high-volume product for Intel. Intel does not release production numbers. One industry analyst estimated that the production rate was 200,000 processors per year in 2007. According to Gartner Inc., the total number of Itanium servers (not processors) sold by all vendors in 2007, was about 55,000. (It is unclear whether clustered servers counted as a single server or not.) This compares with 417,000 RISC servers (spread across all RISC vendors) and 8.4 million x86 servers. IDC reports that a total of 184,000 Itanium-based systems were sold from 2001 through 2007. For the combined POWER/SPARC/Itanium systems market, IDC reports that POWER captured 42% of revenue and SPARC captured 32%, while Itanium-based system revenue reached 26% in the second quarter of 2008. According to an IDC analyst, in 2007, HP accounted for perhaps 80% of Itanium systems revenue. According to Gartner, in 2008, HP accounted for 95% of Itanium sales. HP's Itanium system sales were at an annual rate of $4.4Bn at the end of 2008, and declined to $3.5Bn by the end of 2009, compared to a 35% decline in UNIX system revenue for Sun and an 11% drop for IBM, with an x86-64 server revenue increase of 14% during this period. In December 2012, IDC released a research report stating that Itanium server shipments would remain flat through 2016, with annual shipment of 26,000 systems (a decline of over 50% compared to shipments in 2008). Hardware support Systems By 2006, HP manufactured at least 80% of all Itanium systems, and sold 7,200 in the first quarter of 2006. The bulk of systems sold were enterprise servers and machines for large-scale technical computing, with an average selling price per system in excess of US$200,000. A typical system uses eight or more Itanium processors. By 2012, only a few manufacturers offered Itanium systems, including HP, Bull, NEC, Inspur and Huawei. In addition, Intel offered a chassis that could be used by system integrators to build Itanium systems. By 2015, only HP supplied Itanium-based systems. With HP split in late 2015, Itanium systems (branded as Integrity) are handled by Hewlett-Packard Enterprise (HPE), with a major update in 2017 (Integrity i6, and HP-UX 11i v3 Update 16). HPE also supports a few other operating systems, including Windows up to Server 2008 R2, Linux, OpenVMS and NonStop. Itanium is not affected by Spectre and Meltdown. Chipsets The Itanium bus interfaces to the rest of the system via a chipset. Enterprise server manufacturers differentiate their systems by designing and developing chipsets that interface the processor to memory, interconnections, and peripheral controllers. The chipset is the heart of the system-level architecture for each system design. Development of a chipset costs tens of millions of dollars and represents a major commitment to the use of the Itanium. IBM created a chipset in 2003, and Intel in 2002, but neither of them developed chipsets to support newer technologies such as DDR2 or PCI Express. Before "Tukwila" moved away from the FSB, chipsets supporting such technologies were manufactured by all Itanium server vendors, such as HP, Fujitsu, SGI, NEC, and Hitachi. The "Tukwila" Itanium processor model had been designed to share a common chipset with the Intel Xeon processor EX (Intel's Xeon processor designed for four processor and larger servers). The goal was to streamline system development and reduce costs for server OEMs, many of which develop both Itanium- and Xeon-based servers. However, in 2013, this goal was pushed back to be "evaluated for future implementation opportunities". Software support Unix HP-UX 11 (supported until 2025) BSD NetBSD (a tier II port that "is a work-in-progress effort to port NetBSD to the Itanium family of processors. Currently no formal release is available.") FreeBSD (unsupported since 31 October 2018) Linux The Trillian Project was an effort by an industry consortium to port the Linux kernel to the Itanium processor. The project started in May 1999 with the goal of releasing the distribution in time for the initial release of Itanium, then scheduled for early 2000. By the end of 1999, the project included Caldera Systems, CERN, Cygnus Solutions, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Intel, Red Hat, SGI, SuSE, TurboLinux and VA Linux Systems. The project released the resulting code in February 2000. The code then became part of the mainline Linux kernel more than a year before the release of the first Itanium processor. The Trillian project was able to do this for two reasons: the free and open source GCC compiler had already been enhanced to support the Itanium architecture. a free and open source simulator had been developed to simulate an Itanium processor on an existing computer. After the successful completion of Project Trillian, the resulting Linux kernel was used by all of the manufacturers of Itanium systems (HP, IBM, DELL, SGI, Fujitsu, Unisys, Hitachi, and Groupe Bull.) With the notable exception of HP, Linux is either the primary OS or the only OS the manufacturer supports for Itanium. Ongoing free and open source software support for Linux on Itanium subsequently coalesced at Gelato. Distribution support In 2005, Fedora Linux started adding support for Itanium and Novell added support for SUSE Linux. In 2007, CentOS added support for Itanium in a new release. Gentoo Linux Debian (unsupported since Debian 8; reportedly Debian 10 was ported to Itanium) Red Hat Enterprise Linux (unsupported since RHEL 6, had support in RHEL 5 until 2017, which supported other platforms up to November 30, 2020) SUSE Linux 11 (supported until 2019, for other platforms SUSE 11 is supported to 2022). Deprecation In 2009, Red Hat dropped Itanium support in Enterprise Linux 6. Ubuntu 10.10 dropped support for Itanium. In 2021, Linus Torvalds marked the Itanium code as orphaned. Torvalds said:"HPE no longer accepts orders for new Itanium hardware, and Intel stopped accepting orders a year ago. While intel is still officially shipping chips until July 29, 2021, it's unlikely that any such orders actually exist. It's dead, Jim." Microsoft Windows Windows XP 64-Bit Edition (unsupported since June 30, 2005) Windows Server 2003 (unsupported since July 14, 2015) Windows Server 2008 (unsupported since January 14, 2020) Windows Server 2008 R2 (unsupported since January 14, 2020, last Windows version to support Itanium processors) OpenVMS In 2001, Compaq announced that OpenVMS would be ported to the Itanium architecture. This led to the creation of the V8.x releases of OpenVMS, which support both Itanium-based HPE Integrity Servers and DEC Alpha hardware. Since the Itanium porting effort began, ownership of OpenVMS transferred from Compaq to HP in 2001, and then to VMS Software Inc. (VSI) in 2014. Noteworthy releases include: V8.0 (2003) - First pre-production release of OpenVMS on Itanium available outside HP. V8.2 (2005) - First production-grade release of OpenVMS on Itanium. V8.4 (2010) - Final release of OpenVMS supported by HP. Support ended on December 31st 2020. V8.4-2L3 (2021) - Final release of OpenVMS on Itanium supported by VSI. Support ends on December 31st 2028. Support for Itanium has been dropped in the V9.x releases of OpenVMS, which run on x86-64 only. NonStop OS NonStop OS was ported from MIPS-based hardware to Itanium in 2005. NonStop OS was later ported to x86-64 in 2015. Sales of Itanium-based NonStop hardware ended in 2020, with support ending in 2025. Compiler In 2005, Itanium support in GCC which is used for compiling Linux was improved. GNU Compiler Collection deprecated support for IA-64 in GCC 10, after Intel announced the planned phase-out of this ISA. LLVM (Clang) dropped Itanium support in version 2.6. Virtualization and emulation HP sells a virtualization technology for Itanium called Integrity Virtual Machines. Emulation is a technique that allows a computer to execute binary code that was compiled for a different type of computer. Before IBM's acquisition of QuickTransit in 2009, application binary software for IRIX/MIPS and Solaris/SPARC could run via type of emulation called "dynamic binary translation" on Linux/Itanium. Similarly, HP implemented a method to execute PA-RISC/HP-UX on the Itanium/HP-UX via emulation, to simplify migration of its PA-RISC customers to the radically different Itanium instruction set. Itanium processors can also run the mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators. Competition Itanium was aimed at the enterprise server and high-performance computing (HPC) markets. Other enterprise- and HPC-focused processor lines include Oracle's and Fujitsu's SPARC processors and IBM's Power microprocessors. Measured by quantity sold, Itanium's most serious competition came from x86-64 processors including Intel's own Xeon line and AMD's Opteron line. Since 2009, most servers were being shipped with x86-64 processors. In 2005, Itanium systems accounted for about 14% of HPC systems revenue, but the percentage declined as the industry shifted to x86-64 clusters for this application. An October 2008 Gartner report on the Tukwila processor, stated that "...the future roadmap for Itanium looks as strong as that of any RISC peer like Power or SPARC." Supercomputers and high-performance computing An Itanium-based computer first appeared on the list of the TOP500 supercomputers in November 2001. The best position ever achieved by an Itanium 2 based system in the list was #2, achieved in June 2004, when Thunder (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory) entered the list with an Rmax of 19.94 Teraflops. In November 2004, Columbia entered the list at #2 with 51.8 Teraflops, and there was at least one Itanium-based computer in the top 10 from then until June 2007. The peak number of Itanium-based machines on the list occurred in the November 2004 list, at 84 systems (16.8%); by June 2012, this had dropped to one system (0.2%), and no Itanium system remained on the list in November 2012. Processors Released processors The Itanium processors show a progression in capability. Merced was a proof of concept. McKinley dramatically improved the memory hierarchy and allowed Itanium to become reasonably competitive. Madison, with the shift to a 130 nm process, allowed for enough cache space to overcome the major performance bottlenecks. Montecito, with a 90 nm process, allowed for a dual-core implementation and a major improvement in performance per watt. Montvale added three new features: core-level lockstep, demand-based switching and front-side bus frequency of up to 667 MHz. Market reception High-end server market When first released in 2001, Itanium's performance was disappointing compared to better-established RISC and CISC processors. Emulation to run existing x86 applications and operating systems was particularly poor, with one benchmark in 2001 reporting that it was equivalent at best to a 100 MHz Pentium in this mode (1.1 GHz Pentiums were on the market at that time). Itanium failed to make significant inroads against IA-32 or RISC, and suffered further following the arrival of x86-64 systems which offered greater compatibility with older x86 applications. In a 2009 article on the history of the processor — "How the Itanium Killed the Computer Industry" — journalist John C. Dvorak reported "This continues to be one of the great fiascos of the last 50 years". Tech columnist Ashlee Vance commented that the delays and underperformance "turned the product into a joke in the chip industry". In an interview, Donald Knuth said "The Itanium approach...was supposed to be so terrific—until it turned out that the wished-for compilers were basically impossible to write." Both Red Hat and Microsoft announced plans to drop Itanium support in their operating systems due to lack of market interest; however, other Linux distributions such as Gentoo and Debian remain available for Itanium. On March 22, 2011, Oracle Corporation announced that it would no longer develop new products for HP-UX on Itanium, although it would continue to provide support for existing products. Following this announcement, HP sued Oracle for breach of contract, arguing that Oracle had violated conditions imposed during settlement over Oracle's hiring of former HP CEO Mark Hurd as its co-CEO, requiring the vendor to support Itanium on its software "until such time as HP discontinues the sales of its Itanium-based servers", and that the breach had harmed its business. In 2012, a court ruled in favor of HP, and ordered Oracle to resume its support for Itanium. In June 2016, Hewlett-Packard Enterprise (the corporate successor to HP's server business) was awarded $3 billion in damages from the lawsuit. Oracle unsuccessfully appealed the decision to the California Court of Appeal in 2021. A former Intel official reported that the Itanium business had become profitable for Intel in late 2009. By 2009, the chip was almost entirely deployed on servers made by HP, which had over 95% of the Itanium server market share, making the main operating system for Itanium HP-UX. On March 22, 2011, Intel reaffirmed its commitment to Itanium with multiple generations of chips in development and on schedule. Other markets Although Itanium did attain limited success in the niche market of high-end computing, Intel had originally hoped it would find broader acceptance as a replacement for the original x86 architecture. AMD chose a different direction, designing the less radical x86-64, a 64-bit extension to the existing x86 architecture, which Microsoft then supported, forcing Intel to introduce the same extensions in its own x86-based processors. These designs can run existing 32-bit applications at native hardware speed, while offering support for 64-bit memory addressing and other enhancements to new applications. This architecture has now become the predominant 64-bit architecture in the desktop and portable market. Although some Itanium-based workstations were initially introduced by companies such as SGI, they are no longer available. Timeline 1989 HP begins investigating EPIC. 1994 June: HP and Intel announce partnership. 1995 September: HP, Novell, and SCO announce plans for a "high volume UNIX operating system" to deliver "64-bit networked computing on the HP/Intel architecture". 1996 October: Compaq announces it will use IA-64. 1997 June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $38bn/yr by 2001. October: Dell announces it will use IA-64. December: Intel and Sun announce joint effort to port Solaris to IA-64. 1998 March: SCO admits HP/SCO Unix alliance is now dead. June: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $30bn/yr by 2001. June: Intel announces Merced will be delayed, from second half of 1999 to first half of 2000. September: IBM announces it will build Merced-based machines. October: Project Monterey is formed to create a common UNIX for IA-64. 1999 February: Project Trillian is formed to port Linux to IA-64. August: IDC predicts IA-64 systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2002. October: Intel announces the Itanium name. October: the term Itanic is first used in The Register. 2000 February: Project Trillian delivers source code. June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $25bn/yr by 2003. July: Sun and Intel drop Solaris-on-Itanium plans. August: AMD releases specification for x86-64, a set of 64-bit extensions to Intel's own x86 architecture intended to compete with IA-64. It will eventually market this under the name "AMD64". 2001 June: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $15bn/yr by 2004. June: Project Monterey dies. July: Itanium is released. October: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $12bn/yr by the end of 2004. November: IBM's 320-processor Titan NOW Cluster at National Center for Supercomputing Applications is listed on the TOP500 list at position #34. November: Compaq delays Itanium Product release due to problems with processor. December: Gelato is formed. 2002 March: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $5bn/yr by end 2004. June: Itanium 2 is released. 2003 April: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $9bn/yr by end 2007. April: AMD releases Opteron, the first processor with x86-64 extensions. June: Intel releases the "Madison" Itanium 2. 2004 February: Intel announces it has been working on its own x86-64 implementation (which it will eventually market under the name "Intel 64"). June: Intel releases its first processor with x86-64 extensions, a Xeon processor codenamed "Nocona". June: Thunder, a system at LLNL with 4096 Itanium 2 processors, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2. November: Columbia, an SGI Altix 3700 with 10160 Itanium 2 processors at NASA Ames Research Center, is listed on the TOP500 list at position #2. December: Itanium system sales for 2004 reach $1.4bn. 2005 January: HP ports OpenVMS to Itanium February: IBM server design drops Itanium support. June: An Itanium 2 sets a record SPECfp2000 result of 2,801 in a Hitachi, Ltd. Computing blade. September: Itanium Solutions Alliance is formed. September: Dell exits the Itanium business. October: Itanium server sales reach $619M/quarter in the third quarter. October: Intel announces one-year delays for Montecito, Montvale, and Tukwila. 2006 January: Itanium Solutions Alliance announces a $10bn collective investment in Itanium by 2010. February: IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $6.6bn/yr by 2009. June: Intel releases the dual-core "Montecito" Itanium 2 9000 series. 2007 April: CentOS (RHEL-clone) places Itanium support on hold for the 5.0 release. October: Intel releases the "Montvale" Itanium 2 9100 series. November: Intel renames the family from Itanium 2 back to Itanium. 2009 December: Red Hat announces that it is dropping support for Itanium in the next release of its enterprise OS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6. 2010 February: Intel announces the "Tukwila" Itanium 9300 series. April: Microsoft announces phase-out of support for Itanium. October: Intel announces new releases of Intel C++ Compiler and Intel Fortran Compiler for x86/x64, while Itanium support is only available in older versions. 2011 March: Oracle Corporation announces that it will stop developing application software, middleware, and Oracle Linux for the Itanium. March: Intel and HP reiterate their support of Itanium. April: Huawei and Inspur announce that they will develop Itanium servers. 2012 February: Court papers were released from a case between HP and Oracle Corporation that gave insight to the fact that HP was paying Intel $690 million to keep Itanium on life support. SAP discontinues support for Business Objects on Itanium. September: In response to a court ruling, Oracle reinstitutes support for Oracle software on Itanium hardware. 2013 January: Intel cancels Kittson as a 22 nm shrink of Poulson, moving it instead to its 32 nm process. November: HP announces that its NonStop servers will start using Intel 64 (x86-64) chips. 2014 July: VMS Software Inc (VSI) announces that OpenVMS will be ported to x86-64. December: HP announces that their next generation of Superdome X and Nonstop X servers would be equipped with Intel Xeon processors, and not Itanium. While HP continues to sell and offer support for the Itanium-based Integrity portfolio, the introduction of a model based entirely on Xeon chips marks the end of an era. 2017 February: Intel ships test versions of Kittson, the first new Itanium chip since 2012. May: Kittson formally ships in volume as the Itanium 9700 series. Intel states that Kittson is the final Itanium generation. 2019 January: Intel announces Itanium's end of life with additional orders accepted until January 2020 and last shipments no later than July 2021. 2020 Hewlett Packard Enterprise (HPE) is accepting the last orders for the latest Itanium i6 servers on December 31, 2020. 2021 February: Linus Torvalds marks the Itanium port of Linux as orphaned. "HPE no longer accepts orders for new Itanium hardware, and Intel stopped accepting orders a year ago. While Intel is still officially shipping chips until July 29, 2021, it's unlikely that any such orders actually exist. It's dead, Jim." July 29: official end of life. See also List of Intel Itanium microprocessors Advanced load address table References External links Intel Itanium Intel Itanium Processor Product Specifications HPE Integrity Servers official web page Some undocumented Itanium 2 microarchitectural information Itanium Docs at HP Historical background for EPIC instruction set architectures Computer-related introductions in 2001 Instruction set architectures Intel microprocessors Very long instruction word computing 64-bit microprocessors VLIW microprocessors

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This is a list of the bird species recorded in Brunei. The avifauna of Brunei include a total of 501 species, of which 4 have been introduced by humans. This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of the Birds of the World, 2021 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for Brunei. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories, but not all species fall into one of these categories. Those that do not are commonly occurring native species. (A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Brunei (E) Endemic - a species endemic to Brunei (I) Introduced - a species introduced to Brunei as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. Wandering whistling-duck, Dendrocygna arcuata Lesser whistling-duck, Dendrocygna javanica Garganey, Spatula querquedula Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos Northern pintail, Anas acuta Green-winged teal, Anas crecca Tufted duck, Aythya fuligula Megapodes Order: GalliformesFamily: Megapodiidae The Megapodiidae are stocky, medium-large chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet. All but the malleefowl occupy jungle habitats and most have brown or black coloring. Tabon scrubfowl, Megapodius cumingii Pheasants, grouse, and allies Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds which consists of quails, partridges, snowcocks, francolins, spurfowls, tragopans, monals, pheasants, peafowls and jungle fowls. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. Crested partridge, Rollulus rouloul Black partridge, Melanoperdix nigra Great argus, Argusianus argus Blue-breasted quail, Synoicus chinensis Bulwer's pheasant, Lophura bulweri Crestless fireback, Lophura erythrophthalma Crested fireback, Lophura ignita Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Rock pigeon, Columba livia (I) Metallic pigeon, Columba vitiensis Philippine collared-dove, Streptopelia dusumieri (A) Spotted dove, Spilopelia chinensis Philippine cuckoo-dove, Macropygia tenuirostris Little cuckoo-dove, Macropygia ruficeps Asian emerald dove, Chalcophaps indica Zebra dove, Geopelia striata Nicobar pigeon, Caloenas nicobarica Little green-pigeon, Treron olax Pink-necked green-pigeon, Treron vernans Cinnamon-headed green-pigeon, Treron fulvicollis Thick-billed green-pigeon, Treron curvirostra Large green-pigeon, Treron capellei Jambu fruit-dove, Ptilinopus jambu Green imperial-pigeon, Ducula aenea Mountain imperial-pigeon, Ducula badia Pied imperial-pigeon, Ducula bicolor Cuckoos Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. Bornean ground-cuckoo, Carpococcyx radiatus Short-toed coucal, Centropus rectunguis Greater coucal, Centropus sinensis Lesser coucal, Centropus bengalensis Raffles's malkoha, Rhinortha chlorophaea Red-billed malkoha, Zanclostomus javanicus Chestnut-breasted malkoha, Phaenicophaeus curvirostris Chestnut-bellied malkoha, Phaenicophaeus sumatranus Black-bellied malkoha, Phaenicophaeus diardi Asian koel, Eudynamys scolopacea Violet cuckoo, Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus Horsfield's bronze-cuckoo, Chrysococcyx basalis Little bronze-cuckoo, Chrysococcyx minutillus Banded bay cuckoo, Cacomantis sonneratii Plaintive cuckoo, Cacomantis merulinus Brush cuckoo, Cacomantis variolosus Square-tailed drongo-cuckoo, Surniculus lugubris Moustached hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx vagans Dark hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx bocki Malaysian hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx fugax Indian cuckoo, Cuculus micropterus Himalayan cuckoo, Cuculus saturatus Frogmouths Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Podargidae The frogmouths are a group of nocturnal birds related to the nightjars. They are named for their large flattened hooked bill and huge frog-like gape, which they use to take insects. Large frogmouth, Batrachostomus auritus Gould's frogmouth, Batrachostomus stellatus Bornean frogmouth, Batrachostomus mixtus Blyth's frogmouth, Batrachostomus affinis Sunda frogmouth, Batrachostomus cornutus Nightjars and allies Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds which usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves. Malaysian eared-nightjar, Lyncornis temminckii Gray nightjar, Caprimulgus jotaka Large-tailed nightjar, Caprimulgus macrurus Savanna nightjar, Caprimulgus affinis Bonaparte's nightjar, Caprimulgus concretus Swifts Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. Silver-rumped needletail, Rhaphidura leucopygialis White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus Brown-backed needletail, Hirundapus giganteus Waterfall swift, Hydrochous gigas Plume-toed swiftlet, Collocalia affinis Ameline swiftlet, Aerodramus amelis Mossy-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus salangana Black-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus maximus White-nest swiftlet, Aerodramus fuciphagus Pacific swift, Apus pacificus House swift, Apus nipalensis Asian palm-swift, Cypsiurus balasiensis Treeswifts Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Hemiprocnidae The treeswifts, also called crested swifts, are closely related to the true swifts. They differ from the other swifts in that they have crests, long forked tails and softer plumage. Gray-rumped treeswift, Hemiprocne longipennis Whiskered treeswift, Hemiprocne comata Rails, gallinules, and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. Brown-cheeked rail, Rallus indicus (A) Slaty-breasted rail, Lewinia striata Eurasian moorhen, Gallinula chloropus Eurasian coot, Fulica atra Watercock, Gallicrex cinerea White-breasted waterhen, Amaurornis phoenicurus White-browed crake, Poliolimnas cinereus Red-legged crake, Rallina fasciata Baillon's crake, Zapornia pusilla Cranes Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances". Sarus crane, Antigone antigone Thick-knees Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in the temperate zones Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats. Beach thick-knee, Esacus magnirostris Stilts and avocets Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae Recurvirostridae is a family of large wading birds, which includes the avocets and stilts. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills. Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus (A) Pied stilt, Himantopus leucocephalus Plovers and lapwings Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola Pacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus Gray-headed lapwing, Vanellus cinereus Lesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus Greater sand-plover, Charadrius leschenaultii Malaysian plover, Charadrius peronii Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus White-faced plover, Charadrius dealbatus Common ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula Long-billed plover, Charadrius placidus Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus Painted-snipes Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae Painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly colored. Greater painted-snipe, Rostratula benghalensis Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus Little curlew, Numenius minutus Far Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris Red knot, Calidris canutus Ruff, Calidris pugnax Broad-billed sandpiper, Calidris falcinellus Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea Temminck's stint, Calidris temminckii Long-toed stint, Calidris subminuta Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis Sanderling, Calidris alba Dunlin, Calidris alpina (A) Little stint, Calidris minuta Asian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus (A) Eurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola Common snipe, Gallinago gallinago Pin-tailed snipe, Gallinago stenura Swinhoe's snipe, Gallinago megala Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus (A) Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus Gray-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus (A) Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola Common redshank, Tringa totanus Pratincoles and coursers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards. Oriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with gray or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns and skimmers. Gulls are typically gray or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with gray or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus Brown noddy, Anous stolidus Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus Little tern, Sternula albifrons Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybrida Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana Common tern, Sterna hirundo Great crested tern, Thalasseus bergii Lesser crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis Shearwaters and petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterized by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas (A) Storks Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory. Storm's stork, Ciconia stormi Lesser adjutant, Leptoptilos javanicus Frigatebirds Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have colored inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel Christmas Island frigatebird, Fregata andrewsi Great frigatebird, Fregata minor Boobies and gannets Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Brown booby, Sula leucogaster Red-footed booby, Sula sula Anhingas Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae Anhingas or darters are often called "snake-birds" because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake-like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark-brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape and a larger bill than the female. The females have much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving. Oriental darter, Anhinga melanogaster Cormorants and shags Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage coloration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colorful. Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo Herons, egrets, and bitterns Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, heron, and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills. Great bittern, Botaurus stellaris Yellow bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis Schrenck's bittern, Ixobrychus eurhythmus Cinnamon bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Black bittern, Ixobrychus flavicollis Gray heron, Ardea cinerea Great-billed heron, Ardea sumatrana Purple heron, Ardea purpurea Great egret, Ardea alba Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia Chinese egret, Egretta eulophotes Little egret, Egretta garzetta Pacific reef-heron, Egretta sacra Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis Chinese pond-heron, Ardeola bacchus Striated heron, Butorides striata Black-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax Nankeen night-heron, Nycticorax caledonicus (A) Japanese night-heron, Gorsachius goisagi Malayan night-heron, Gorsachius melanolophus Ibises and spoonbills Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers. Black-faced spoonbill, Platalea minor Osprey Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus Hawks, eagles, and kites Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers, and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. Black-winged kite, Elanus caeruleus Oriental honey-buzzard, Pernis ptilorhynchus Jerdon's baza, Aviceda jerdoni White-rumped vulture, Gyps bengalensis Mountain serpent-eagle, Spilornis kinabaluensis Crested serpent-eagle, Spilornis cheela Bat hawk, Macheiramphus alcinus Changeable hawk-eagle, Nisaetus cirrhatus Blyth's hawk-eagle, Nisaetus alboniger Wallace's hawk-eagle, Nisaetus nanus Rufous-bellied eagle, Lophotriorchis kienerii Black eagle, Ictinaetus malaiensis Gray-faced buzzard, Butastur indicus Eastern marsh-harrier, Circus spilonotus Hen harrier, Circus cyaneus Pied harrier, Circus melanoleucos Crested goshawk, Accipiter trivirgatus Chinese sparrowhawk, Accipiter soloensis Japanese sparrowhawk, Accipiter gularis Besra, Accipiter virgatus Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus (A) Black kite, Milvus migrans Brahminy kite, Haliastur indus White-bellied sea-eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster Lesser fish-eagle, Haliaeetus humilis Gray-headed fish-eagle, Haliaeetus ichthyaetus Barn-owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. T Oriental bay-owl, Phodilus badius Owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk. Reddish scops-owl, Otus rufescens Mountain scops-owl, Otus spilocephalus Collared scops-owl, Otus lettia Sunda scops-owl, Otus lempiji Barred eagle-owl, Bubo sumatranus Buffy fish-owl, Ketupa ketupu Collared owlet, Taenioptynx brodiei Brown wood-owl, Strix leptogrammica Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus' Brown boobook, Ninox scutulataTrogons Order: TrogoniformesFamily: Trogonidae The family Trogonidae includes trogons and quetzals. Found in tropical woodlands worldwide, they feed on insects and fruit, and their broad bills and weak legs reflect their diet and arboreal habits. Although their flight is fast, they are reluctant to fly any distance. Trogons have soft, often colorful, feathers with distinctive male and female plumage. Red-naped trogon, Harpactes kasumbaDiard's trogon, Harpactes diardiiCinnamon-rumped trogon, Harpactes orrhophaeusScarlet-rumped trogon, Harpactes duvauceliiOrange-breasted trogon, Harpactes oreskiosHoopoes Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae Hoopoes have black, white and orangey-pink coloring with a large erectile crest on their head. Eurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops (A) Hornbills Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Bucerotidae Hornbills are a group of birds whose bill is shaped like a cow's horn, but without a twist, sometimes with a casque on the upper mandible. Frequently, the bill is brightly colored. White-crowned hornbill, Berenicornis comatusHelmeted hornbill, Buceros vigilRhinoceros hornbill, Buceros rhinocerosBushy-crested hornbill, Anorrhinus galeritusBlack hornbill, Anthracoceros malayanusOriental pied-hornbill, Anthracoceros albirostrisWreathed hornbill, Rhyticeros undulatusWrinkled hornbill, Rhabdotorrhinus corrugatusKingfishers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. Common kingfisher, Alcedo atthisBlue-eared kingfisher, Alcedo menintingBlue-banded kingfisher, Alcedo euryzonaBlack-backed kingfisher, Ceyx erithacusRufous-backed dwarf-kingfisher, Ceyx rufidorsaBanded kingfisher, Lacedo pulchellaStork-billed kingfisher, Pelargopsis capensisRuddy kingfisher, Halcyon coromandaBlack-capped kingfisher, Halcyon pileataSacred kingfisher, Todirhamphus sanctusCollared kingfisher, Todirhamphus chlorisRufous-collared kingfisher, Actenoides concretusBee-eaters Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterized by richly colored plumage, slender bodies, and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colorful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar. Red-bearded bee-eater, Nyctyornis amictusBlue-throated bee-eater, Merops viridisBlue-tailed bee-eater, Merops philippinusRainbow bee-eater, Merops ornatus (A) Rollers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae Rollers resemble crows in size and build, but are more closely related to the kingfishers and bee-eaters. They share the colorful appearance of those groups with blues and browns predominating. The two inner front toes are connected, but the outer toe is not. Dollarbird, Eurystomus orientalisAsian barbets Order: PiciformesFamily: Megalaimidae The Asian barbets are plump birds, with short necks and large heads. They get their name from the bristles which fringe their heavy bills. Most species are brightly colored. Brown barbet, Caloramphus fuliginosusBlue-eared barbet, Psilopogon duvauceliiRed-crowned barbet, Psilopogon rafflesiiRed-throated barbet, Psilopogon mystacophanosYellow-crowned barbet, Psilopogon henriciiGolden-whiskered barbet, Psilopogon chrysopogonHoneyguides Order: PiciformesFamily: Indicatoridae Honeyguides are among the few birds that feed on wax. They are named for the greater honeyguide which leads traditional honey-hunters to bees' nests and, after the hunters have harvested the honey, feeds on the remaining contents of the hive. Malaysian honeyguide, Indicator archipelagicusWoodpeckers Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks. Rufous piculet, Sasia abnormisGray-and-buff woodpecker, Hemicircus concretusSunda pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus moluccensisGray-capped pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus canicapillus (A) Maroon woodpecker, Blythipicus rubiginosusOrange-backed woodpecker, Reinwardtipicus validusRufous woodpecker, Micropternus brachyurusBuff-necked woodpecker, Meiglyptes tukkiBuff-rumped woodpecker, Meiglyptes tristisOlive-backed woodpecker, Dinopium rafflesiiCommon flameback, Dinopium javanenseCrimson-winged woodpecker, Picus puniceusBanded woodpecker, Chrysophlegma mineaceumChecker-throated woodpecker, Chrysophlegma mentaleGreat slaty woodpecker, Mulleripicus pulverulentusWhite-bellied woodpecker, Dryocopus javensisFalcons and caracaras Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. T Black-thighed falconet, Microhierax fringillariusEurasian kestrel, Falco tinnunculusOriental hobby, Falco severusPeregrine falcon, Falco peregrinusOld world parrots Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand. Blue-rumped parrot, Psittinus cyanurusLong-tailed parakeet, Psittacula longicaudaBlue-crowned hanging-parrot, Loriculus galgulusAfrican and green broadbills Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calyptomenidae The broadbills are small, brightly colored birds which feed on fruit and also take insects in flycatcher fashion, snapping their broad bills. Their habitat is canopies of wet forests. Green broadbill, Calyptomena viridisAsian and Grauer’s broadbills Order: PasseriformesFamily: Eurylaimidae The broadbills are small, brightly colored birds, which feed on fruit and also take insects in flycatcher fashion, snapping their broad bills. Their habitat is canopies of wet forests. Black-and-red broadbill, Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchosLong-tailed broadbill, Psarisomus dalhousiaeBanded broadbill, Eurylaimus javanicusBlack-and-yellow broadbill, Eurylaimus ochromalusDusky broadbill, Corydon sumatranusPittas Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pittidae Pittas are medium-sized by passerine standards and are stocky, with fairly long, strong legs, short tails and stout bills. Many, but not all, are brightly colored. They spend the majority of their time on wet forest floors, eating snails, insects and similar invertebrates. Blue-banded pitta, Erythropitta arquata Garnet pitta, Erythropitta granatinaGiant pitta, Hydrornis caeruleaBornean banded-pitta, Hydrornis schwaneriBlue-headed pitta, Hydrornis baudiiBlue-winged pitta, Pitta moluccensisFairy pitta, Pitta nymphaHooded pitta, Pitta sordidaThornbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acanthizidae Thornbills are small passerine birds, similar in habits to the tits. Golden-bellied gerygone, Gerygone sulphureaCuckooshrikes Order: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly grayish with white and black, although some species are brightly colored. Fiery minivet, Pericrocotus igneusGray-chinned minivet, Pericrocotus solarisScarlet minivet, Pericrocotus flammeusBar-bellied cuckooshrike, Coracina striataPied triller, Lalage nigraLesser cuckooshrike, Lalage fimbriataVireos, shrike-babblers, and erpornis Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae Most of the members of this family are found in the New World. However, the shrike-babblers and erpornis, which only slightly resemble the "true" vireos and greenlets, are found in South East Asia. Blyth's shrike-babbler, Pteruthius flaviscapisWhite-bellied erpornis, Erpornis zantholeucaWhistlers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pachycephalidae The family Pachycephalidae includes the whistlers, shrikethrushes, and some of the pitohuis. Bornean whistler, Pachycephala hypoxanthaMangrove whistler, Pachycephala cinereaOld World orioles Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae The Old World orioles are colorful passerine birds. They are not related to the New World orioles. Dark-throated oriole, Oriolus xanthonotusBlack-naped oriole, Oriolus chinensisBlack-and-crimson oriole, Oriolus cruentusWoodswallows, bellmagpies, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Artamidae The woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-colored passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. White-breasted woodswallow, Artamus leucorynchusVangas, helmetshrikes, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vangidae The family Vangidae is highly variable, though most members of it resemble true shrikes to some degree. Large woodshrike, Tephrodornis virgatusBar-winged flycatcher-shrike, Hemipus picatusBlack-winged flycatcher-shrike, Hemipus hirundinaceusRufous-winged philentoma, Philentoma pyrhopterumMaroon-breasted philentoma, Philentoma velatumBristlehead Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pityriasidae The Bornean bristlehead is large black bird with a red and yellow head. Females also have some red in the wings. It has a massive heavy black hooked bill and a short tail. The crown of the head has short, colored projections like bare feather shaft, hence the name "bristlehead". Bornean bristlehead, Pityriasis gymnocephalaIoras Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithinidae The ioras are bulbul-like birds of open forest or thorn scrub, but whereas that group tends to be drab in coloration, ioras are sexually dimorphic, with the males being brightly plumaged in yellows and greens. Common iora, Aegithina tiphiaGreen iora, Aegithina viridissimaFantails Order: PasseriformesFamily: Rhipiduridae The fantails are small insectivorous birds which are specialist aerial feeders. Spotted fantail, Rhipidura perlataMalaysian pied-fantail, Rhipidura javanicaWhite-throated fantail, Rhipidura albicollisDrongos Order: PasseriformesFamily: Dicruridae The drongos are mostly black or dark gray in color, sometimes with metallic tints. They have long forked tails, and some Asian species have elaborate tail decorations. They have short legs and sit very upright while perched, like a shrike. They flycatch or take prey from the ground. Ashy drongo, Dicrurus leucophaeusCrow-billed drongo, Dicrurus annectensBronzed drongo, Dicrurus aeneusHair-crested drongo, Dicrurus hottentottusGreater racket-tailed drongo, Dicrurus paradiseusMonarch flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching. Black-naped monarch, Hypothymis azureaBlyth's paradise-flycatcher, Terpsiphone affinisCrested shrikejay Order: PasseriformesFamily: Platylophidae Until 2018 this species was included in family Corvidae, but genetic and morphological evidence place it in its own family. Crested shrikejay, Platylophus galericulatusShrikes Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey. Tiger shrike, Lanius tigrinusBrown shrike, Lanius cristatusCrows, jays, and magpies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. Black magpie, Platysmurus leucopterusCommon green-magpie, Cissa chinensisBornean green-magpie, Cissa jefferyiSlender-billed crow, Corvus encaRail-babbler Order: PasseriformesFamily: Eupetidae Eupetidae is a monotypic family; its sole species occurs in Brunei. Malaysian rail-babbler, Eupetes macrocerusFairy flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Stenostiridae Most of the species of this small family are found in Africa, though a few inhabit tropical Asia. They are not closely related to other birds called "flycatchers". Gray-headed canary-flycatcher, Culicicapa ceylonensisTits, chickadees, and titmice Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects. Cinereous tit, Parus cinereusCisticolas and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae The Cisticolidae are warblers found mainly in warmer southern regions of the Old World. They are generally very small birds of drab brown or gray appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub. Dark-necked tailorbird, Orthotomus atrogularisAshy tailorbird, Orthotomus ruficepsRufous-tailed tailorbird, Orthotomus sericeusYellow-bellied prinia, Prinia flaviventrisReed warblers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae The members of this family are usually rather large for "warblers". Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but it also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa. Oriental reed warbler, Acrocephalus orientalisGrassbirds and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae Locustellidae are a family of small insectivorous songbirds found mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are smallish birds with tails that are usually long and pointed, and tend to be drab brownish or buffy all over. Striated grassbird, Megalurus palustrisPallas's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes certhiolaMiddendorff's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes ochotensisLanceolated warbler, Locustella lanceolataSwallows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Bank swallow, Riparia ripariaBarn swallow, Hirundo rusticaPacific swallow, Hirundo tahiticaRed-rumped swallow, Cecropis dauricaStriated swallow, Cecropis striolataBulbuls Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colorful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. Black-and-white bulbul, Brachypodius melanoleucusPuff-backed bulbul, Brachypodius eutilotusBlack-headed bulbul, Brachypodius melanocephalosSpectacled bulbul, Rubigula erythropthalmosGray-bellied bulbul, Rubigula cyaniventrisScaly-breasted bulbul, Rubigula squamatusBornean bulbul, Rubigula montisStraw-headed bulbul, Pycnonotus zeylanicusYellow-vented bulbul, Pycnonotus goiavierOlive-winged bulbul, Pycnonotus plumosusCream-eyed bulbul, Pycnonotus pseudosimplexCream-vented bulbul, Pycnonotus simplexRed-eyed bulbul, Pycnonotus brunneusHairy-backed bulbul, Tricholestes crinigerHook-billed bulbul, Setornis crinigerFinsch's bulbul, Alophoixus finschiiGray-cheeked bulbul, Alophoixus tephrogenysYellow-bellied bulbul, Alophoixus phaeocephalusCharlotte's bulbul, Iole charlottaeStreaked bulbul, Ixos malaccensisLeaf warblers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae Leaf warblers are a family of small insectivorous birds found mostly in Eurasia and ranging into Wallacea and Africa. The species are of various sizes, often green-plumaged above and yellow below, or more subdued with greyish-green to greyish-brown colors. Japanese leaf warbler, Phylloscopus xanthodryasArctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealisKamchatka leaf warbler, Phylloscopus examinandusYellow-breasted warbler, Phylloscopus montisMountain leaf warbler, Phylloscopus trivirgatusBush warblers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Scotocercidae The members of this family are found throughout Africa, Asia, and Polynesia. Their taxonomy is in flux, and some authorities place some genera in other families. Yellow-bellied warbler, Abroscopus superciliarisMountain tailorbird, Phyllergates cuculatusSunda bush warbler, Cettia vulcaniaWhite-eyes, yuhinas, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae The white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull color like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye. Hume's white-eye, Zosterops auriventerTree-babblers, scimitar-babblers, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Timaliidae The babblers, or timaliids, are somewhat diverse in size and coloration, but are characterized by soft fluffy plumage. Bold-striped tit-babbler, Mixornis bornensisFluffy-backed tit-babbler, Macronus ptilosusChestnut-winged babbler, Cyanoderma erythropterumRufous-fronted babbler, Cyanoderma rufifronsChestnut-backed scimitar-babbler, Pomatorhinus montanusBlack-throated babbler, Stachyris nigricollisChestnut-rumped babbler, Stachyris maculataGray-throated babbler, Stachyris nigricepsGray-headed babbler, Stachyris poliocephalaGround babblers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pellorneidae These small to medium-sized songbirds have soft fluffy plumage but are otherwise rather diverse. Members of the genus Illadopsis are found in forests, but some other genera are birds of scrublands. Moustached babbler, Malacopteron magnirostreSooty-capped babbler, Malacopteron affineScaly-crowned babbler, Malacopteron cinereumRufous-crowned babbler, Malacopteron magnumGray-breasted babbler, Malacopteron albogulareBlack-capped babbler, Pellorneum capistratumTemminck's babbler, Pellorneum pyrrogenysShort-tailed babbler, Pellorneum malaccenseWhite-chested babbler, Pellorneum rostratumFerruginous babbler, Pellorneum bicolorBornean wren-babbler, Ptilocichla leucogrammicaAbbott's babbler, Malacocincla abbottiHorsfield's babbler, Malacocincla sepiariaLaughingthrushes and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Leiothrichidae The members of this family are diverse in size and colouration, though those of genus Turdoides tend to be brown or greyish. The family is found in Africa, India, and southeast Asia. Brown fulvetta, Alcippe brunneicaudaNuthatches Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails and powerful bills and feet. Velvet-fronted nuthatch, Sitta frontalisStarlings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Asian glossy starling, Aplonis panayensisCommon hill myna, Gracula religiosaChestnut-cheeked starling, Agropsar philippensisBlack-collared starling, Gracupica nigricollis (I) Common myna, Acridotheres tristis (I) Crested myna, Acridotheres cristatellusThrushes and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. Fruit-hunter, Chlamydochaera jefferyi Chestnut-capped thrush, Geokichla interpresOrange-headed thrush, Geokichla citrinaEyebrowed thrush, Turdus obscurusPale thrush, Turdus pallidusIsland thrush, Turdus poliocephalusOld World flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls. Dark-sided flycatcher, Muscicapa sibiricaAsian brown flycatcher, Muscicapa dauuricaOriental magpie-robin, Copsychus saularisRufous-tailed shama, Copsychus pyrropygusWhite-rumped shama, Copsychus malabaricusPale blue flycatcher, Cyornis unicolorDayak blue flycatcher, Cyornis montanusSunda blue flycatcher, Cyornis caerulatusMalaysian blue flycatcher, Cyornis turcosusBornean blue flycatcher, Cyornis superbusMangrove blue flycatcher, Cyornis rufigastraBrown-chested jungle-flycatcher, Cyornis brunneatus (A) Gray-chested jungle-flycatcher, Cyornis umbratilisFulvous-chested jungle-flycatcher, Cyornis olivaceusChestnut-tailed jungle-flycatcher, Cyornis ruficaudaBlue-and-white flycatcher, Cyanoptila cyanomelanaVerditer flycatcher, Eumyias thalassinaEyebrowed jungle-flycatcher, Vauriella gularis White-browed shortwing, Brachypteryx montanaBornean whistling-thrush, Myophonus borneensisWhite-crowned forktail, Enicurus leschenaultiSiberian rubythroat, Calliope calliopeMugimaki flycatcher, Ficedula mugimakiSnowy-browed flycatcher, Ficedula hyperythraTaiga flycatcher, Ficedula albicillaRufous-chested flycatcher, Ficedula dumetoriaBlue rock-thrush, Monticola solitariusSiberian stonechat, Saxicola maurusAmur stonechat, Saxicola stejnegeriFlowerpeckers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Dicaeidae The flowerpeckers are very small, stout, often brightly colored birds, with short tails, short thick curved bills and tubular tongues. Yellow-breasted flowerpecker, Prionochilus maculatusCrimson-breasted flowerpecker, Prionochilus percussusYellow-rumped flowerpecker, Prionochilus xanthopygiusScarlet-breasted flowerpecker, Prionochilus thoracicusSpectacled flowerpecker, Dicaeum dayakorum (A) Brown-backed flowerpecker, Dicaeum everettiYellow-vented flowerpecker, Dicaeum chrysorrheumOrange-bellied flowerpecker, Dicaeum trigonostigmaPlain flowerpecker, Dicaeum minullumScarlet-backed flowerpecker, Dicaeum cruentatumSunbirds and spiderhunters Order: PasseriformesFamily: Nectariniidae The sunbirds and spiderhunters are very small passerine birds which feed largely on nectar, although they will also take insects, especially when feeding young. Flight is fast and direct on their short wings. Most species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but usually perch to feed. Ruby-cheeked sunbird, Chalcoparia singalensisPlain sunbird, Anthreptes simplexBrown-throated sunbird, Anthreptes malacensisRed-throated sunbird, Anthreptes rhodolaemaVan Hasselt's sunbird, Leptocoma brasiliana' Copper-throated sunbird, Leptocoma calcostetha Olive-backed sunbird, Cinnyris jugularis Temminck's sunbird, Aethopyga temminckii Crimson sunbird, Aethopyga siparaja Purple-naped sunbird, Hypogramma hypogrammicum Thick-billed spiderhunter, Arachnothera crassirostris Long-billed spiderhunter, Arachnothera robusta Little spiderhunter, Arachnothera longirostra Yellow-eared spiderhunter, Arachnothera chrysogenys Spectacled spiderhunter, Arachnothera flavigaster Gray-breasted spiderhunter, Arachnothera modesta Bornean spiderhunter, Arachnothera everetti Fairy-bluebirds Order: PasseriformesFamily: Irenidae The fairy-bluebirds are bulbul-like birds of open forest or thorn scrub. The males are dark-blue and the females a duller green. Asian fairy-bluebird, Irena puella Leafbirds Order: PasseriformesFamily: Chloropseidae The leafbirds are small, bulbul-like birds. The males are brightly plumaged, usually in greens and yellows. Greater green leafbird, Chloropsis sonnerati Lesser green leafbird, Chloropsis cyanopogon Blue-winged leafbird, Chloropsis cochinchinensis Bornean leafbird, Chloropsis kinabaluensis Waxbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have a wide variation in plumage colors and patterns. Tawny-breasted parrotfinch, Erythrura hyperythra Pin-tailed parrotfinch, Erythrura prasina Dusky munia, Lonchura fuscans Scaly-breasted munia, Lonchura punctulata White-bellied munia, Lonchura leucogastra Chestnut munia, Lonchura atricapilla Java sparrow, Padda oryzivora (I) Old World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or gray birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. Eurasian tree sparrow, Passer montanus Wagtails and pipits Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae Motacillidae is a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country. Gray wagtail, Motacilla cinerea Western yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava Eastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis White wagtail, Motacilla alba Paddyfield pipit, Anthus rufulus Olive-backed pipit, Anthus hodgsoni Pechora pipit, Anthus gustavi Red-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus Old World buntings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns. Black-headed bunting, Emberiza melanocephala (A) Yellow-breasted bunting, Emberiza aureola See also List of birds Lists of birds by region References ' birds Brunei Brunei

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Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from the biological parents to the adoptive parents. Unlike guardianship or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. Historically, some societies have enacted specific laws governing adoption, while others used less formal means (notably contracts that specified inheritance rights and parental responsibilities without an accompanying transfer of filiation). Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. History Antiquity Adoption for the well-born While the modern form of adoption emerged in the United States, forms of the practice appeared throughout history. The Code of Hammurabi, for example, details the rights of adopters and the responsibilities of adopted individuals at length. The practice of adoption in ancient Rome is well-documented in the Codex Justinianus. Markedly different from the modern period, ancient adoption practices put emphasis on the political and economic interests of the adopter, providing a legal tool that strengthened political ties between wealthy families and created male heirs to manage estates. The use of adoption by the aristocracy is well-documented: many of Rome's emperors were adopted sons. Adrogation was a kind of Roman adoption in which the person adopted consented to be adopted by another. Infant adoption during Antiquity appears rare. Abandoned children were often picked up for slavery and composed a significant percentage of the Empire's slave supply. Roman legal records indicate that foundlings were occasionally taken in by families and raised as a son or daughter. Although not normally adopted under Roman Law, the children, called alumni, were reared in an arrangement similar to guardianship, being considered the property of the father who abandoned them. Other ancient civilizations, notably India and China, used some form of adoption as well. Evidence suggests the goal of this practice was to ensure the continuity of cultural and religious practices; in contrast to the Western idea of extending family lines. In ancient India, secondary sonship, clearly denounced by the Rigveda, continued, in a limited and highly ritualistic form, so that an adopter might have the necessary funerary rites performed by a son. China had a similar idea of adoption with males adopted solely to perform the duties of ancestor worship. The practice of adopting the children of family members and close friends was common among the cultures of Polynesia including Hawaii where the custom was referred to as hānai. Middle ages to modern period Adoption and commoners The nobility of the Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic cultures that dominated Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire denounced the practice of adoption. In medieval society, bloodlines were paramount; a ruling dynasty lacking a "natural-born" heir apparent was replaced, a stark contrast to Roman traditions. The evolution of European law reflects this aversion to adoption. English common law, for instance, did not permit adoption since it contradicted the customary rules of inheritance. In the same vein, France's Napoleonic Code made adoption difficult, requiring adopters to be over the age of 50, sterile, older than the adopted person by at least 15 years, and to have fostered the adoptee for at least six years. Some adoptions continued to occur, however, but became informal, based on ad hoc contracts. For example, in the year 737, in a charter from the town of Lucca, three adoptees were made heirs to an estate. Like other contemporary arrangements, the agreement stressed the responsibility of the adopted rather than adopter, focusing on the fact that, under the contract, the adoptive father was meant to be cared for in his old age; an idea that is similar to the conceptions of adoption under Roman law. Europe's cultural makeover marked a period of significant innovation for adoption. Without support from the nobility, the practice gradually shifted toward abandoned children. Abandonment levels rose with the fall of the empire and many of the foundlings were left on the doorstep of the Church. Initially, the clergy reacted by drafting rules to govern the exposing, selling, and rearing of abandoned children. The Church's innovation, however, was the practice of oblation, whereby children were dedicated to lay life within monastic institutions and reared within a monastery. This created the first system in European history in which abandoned children did not have legal, social, or moral disadvantages. As a result, many of Europe's abandoned and orphaned children became alumni of the Church, which in turn took the role of adopter. Oblation marks the beginning of a shift toward institutionalization, eventually bringing about the establishment of the foundling hospital and orphanage. As the idea of institutional care gained acceptance, formal rules appeared about how to place children into families: boys could become apprenticed to an artisan and girls might be married off under the institution's authority. Institutions informally adopted out children as well, a mechanism treated as a way to obtain cheap labor, demonstrated by the fact that when the adopted died their bodies were returned by the family to the institution for burial. This system of apprenticeship and informal adoption extended into the 19th century, today seen as a transitional phase for adoption history. Under the direction of social welfare activists, orphan asylums began to promote adoptions based on sentiment rather than work; children were placed out under agreements to provide care for them as family members instead of under contracts for apprenticeship. The growth of this model is believed to have contributed to the enactment of the first modern adoption law in 1851 by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, unique in that it codified the ideal of the "best interests of the child." Despite its intent, though, in practice, the system operated much the same as earlier incarnations. The experience of the Boston Female Asylum (BFA) is a good example, which had up to 30% of its charges adopted out by 1888. Officials of the BFA noted that, although the asylum promoted otherwise, adoptive parents did not distinguish between indenture and adoption: "We believe," the asylum officials said, "that often, when children of a younger age are taken to be adopted, the adoption is only another name for service." Modern period Adopting to create a family The next stage of adoption's evolution fell to the emerging nation of the United States. Rapid immigration and the American Civil War resulted in unprecedented overcrowding of orphanages and foundling homes in the mid-nineteenth century. Charles Loring Brace, a Protestant minister, became appalled by the legions of homeless waifs roaming the streets of New York City. Brace considered the abandoned youth, particularly Catholics, to be the most dangerous element challenging the city's order. His solution was outlined in The Best Method of Disposing of Our Pauper and Vagrant Children (1859), which started the Orphan Train movement. The orphan trains eventually shipped an estimated 200,000 children from the urban centers of the East to the nation's rural regions. The children were generally indentured, rather than adopted, to families who took them in. As in times past, some children were raised as members of the family while others were used as farm laborers and household servants. The sheer size of the displacement—the largest migration of children in history—and the degree of exploitation that occurred, gave rise to new agencies and a series of laws that promoted adoption arrangements rather than indenture. The hallmark of the period is Minnesota's adoption law of 1917, which mandated investigation of all placements and limited record access to those involved in the adoption. During the same period, the Progressive movement swept the United States with a critical goal of ending the prevailing orphanage system. The culmination of such efforts came with the First White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children called by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1909, where it was declared that the nuclear family represented "the highest and finest product of civilization" and was best able to serve as primary caretaker for the abandoned and orphaned. As late as 1923, only two percent of children without parental care were in adoptive homes, with the balance in foster arrangements and orphanages. Less than forty years later, nearly one-third were in adoptive homes. Nevertheless, the popularity of eugenic ideas in America put up obstacles to the growth of adoption. There were grave concerns about the genetic quality of illegitimate and indigent children, perhaps best exemplified by the influential writings of Henry H. Goddard, who protested against adopting children of unknown origin, saying, The period 1945 to 1974, the baby scoop era, saw rapid growth and acceptance of adoption as a means to build a family. Illegitimate births rose three-fold after World War II, as sexual mores changed. Simultaneously, the scientific community began to stress the dominance of nurture over genetics, chipping away at eugenic stigmas. In this environment, adoption became the obvious solution for both unwed people and infertile couples. Taken together, these trends resulted in a new American model for adoption. Following its Roman predecessor, Americans severed the rights of the original parents while making adopters the new parents in the eyes of the law. Two innovations were added: 1) adoption was meant to ensure the "best interests of the child," the seeds of this idea can be traced to the first American adoption law in Massachusetts, and 2) adoption became infused with secrecy, eventually resulting in the sealing of adoption and original birth records by 1945. The origin of the move toward secrecy began with Charles Loring Brace, who introduced it to prevent children from the Orphan Trains from returning to or being reclaimed by their parents. Brace feared the impact of the parents' poverty, in general, and Catholic religion, in particular, on the youth. This tradition of secrecy was carried on by the later Progressive reformers when drafting of American laws. The number of adoptions in the United States peaked in 1970. It is uncertain what caused the subsequent decline. Likely contributing factors in the 1960s and 1970s include a decline in the fertility rate, associated with the introduction of the pill, the completion of legalization of artificial birth control methods, the introduction of federal funding to make family planning services available to the young and low-income, and the legalization of abortion. In addition, the years of the late 1960s and early 1970s saw a dramatic change in society's view of illegitimacy and in the legal rights of those born outside of wedlock. In response, family preservation efforts grew so that few children born out of wedlock today are adopted. Ironically, adoption is far more visible and discussed in society today, yet it is less common. The American model of adoption eventually proliferated globally. England and Wales established their first formal adoption law in 1926. The Netherlands passed its law in 1956. Sweden made adoptees full members of the family in 1959. West Germany enacted its first laws in 1977. Additionally, the Asian powers opened their orphanage systems to adoption, influenced as they were by Western ideas following colonial rule and military occupation. In France, local public institutions accredit candidates for adoption, who can then contact orphanages abroad or ask for the support of NGOs. The system does not involve fees, but gives considerable power to social workers whose decisions may restrict adoption to "standard" families (middle-age, medium to high income, heterosexual, Caucasian). Adoption is today practiced globally. The table below provides a snapshot of Western adoption rates. Adoption in the United States still occurs at rates nearly three times those of its peers even though the number of children awaiting adoption has held steady in recent years, between 100,000 and 125,000 during the period 2009 to 2018. Contemporary adoption Forms of adoption Contemporary adoption practices can be open or closed. Open adoption allows identifying information to be communicated between adoptive and biological parents and, perhaps, interaction between kin and the adopted person. Open adoption can be an informal arrangement subject to termination by adoptive parents who have sole custody over the child. In some jurisdictions, the biological and adoptive parents may enter into a legally enforceable and binding agreement concerning visitation, exchange of information, or other interaction regarding the child. As of February 2009, 24 U.S. states allowed legally enforceable open adoption contract agreements to be included in the adoption finalization. The practice of closed adoption (also called confidential or secret adoption), which has not been the norm for most of modern history, seals all identifying information, maintaining it as secret and preventing disclosure of the adoptive parents', biological kin's, and adoptees' identities. Nevertheless, closed adoption may allow the transmittal of non-identifying information such as medical history and religious and ethnic background. Today, as a result of safe haven laws passed by some U.S. states, secret adoption is seeing renewed influence. In so-called "safe-haven" states, infants can be left anonymously at hospitals, fire departments, or police stations within a few days of birth, a practice criticized by some adoption advocacy organizations as being retrograde and dangerous. How adoptions originate Adoptions can occur either between related family members or between unrelated individuals. Historically, most adoptions occurred within a family. The most recent data from the U.S. indicates about half of adoptions are currently between related individuals. A common example of this is a "step-parent adoption", where the new partner of a parent legally adopts a child from the parent's previous relationship. Intra-family adoption can also occur through surrender, as a result of parental death, or when the child cannot otherwise be cared for and a family member agrees to take over. Adoption is not always a voluntary process. In some countries, for example in the U.K., one of the main origins of children being placed for adoption is that they have been removed from the birth home, often by a government body such as the local authority. There are a number of reasons why children are removed including abuse and neglect, which can have a lasting impact on the adoptee. Social workers in many cases will be notified of a safeguarding concern in relation to a child and will make enquiries into the child’s well-being. Social workers will often seek means of keeping a child together with the birth family, for example, by providing additional support to the family before considering removal of a child. A court of law will often then make decisions regarding the child’s future, for example, whether they can return to the birth family, enter into foster care or be adopted. Infertility is the main reason parents seek to adopt children they are not related to. One study shows this accounted for 80% of unrelated infant adoptions and half of adoptions through foster care. Estimates suggest that 11–24% of Americans who cannot conceive or carry to term attempt to build a family through adoption, and that the overall rate of ever-married American women who adopt is about 1.4%. Other reasons people adopt are numerous although not well documented. These may include wanting to cement a new family following divorce or death of one parent, compassion motivated by religious or philosophical conviction, to avoid contributing to overpopulation out of the belief that it is more responsible to care for otherwise parent-less children than to reproduce, to ensure that inheritable diseases (e.g., Tay–Sachs disease) are not passed on, and health concerns relating to pregnancy and childbirth. Although there are a range of reasons, the most recent study of experiences of women who adopt suggests they are most likely to be 40–44 years of age, to be currently married, to have impaired fertility, and to be childless. Unrelated adoptions may occur through the following mechanisms: Private domestic adoptions: under this arrangement, charities and for-profit organizations act as intermediaries, bringing together prospective adoptive parents with families who want to place a child, all parties being residents of the same country. Alternatively, prospective adoptive parents sometimes avoid intermediaries and connect with women directly, often with a written contract; this is not permitted in some jurisdictions. Private domestic adoption accounts for a significant portion of all adoptions; in the United States, for example, nearly 45% of adoptions are estimated to have been arranged privately. Foster care adoption: this is a type of domestic adoption where a child is initially placed in public care. Many times the foster parents take on the adoption when the children become legally free. Its importance as an avenue for adoption varies by country. Of the 127,500 adoptions in the U.S. in 2000, about 51,000 or 40% were through the foster care system. International adoption: this involves the placing of a child for adoption outside that child's country of birth. This can occur through public or private agencies. In some countries, such as Sweden, these adoptions account for the majority of cases (see above table). The U.S. example, however, indicates there is wide variation by country since adoptions from abroad account for less than 15% of its cases. More than 60,000 Russian children have been adopted in the United States since 1992, and a similar number of Chinese children were adopted from 1995 to 2005. The laws of different countries vary in their willingness to allow international adoptions. Recognizing the difficulties and challenges associated with international adoption, and in an effort to protect those involved from the corruption and exploitation which sometimes accompanies it, the Hague Conference on Private International Law developed the Hague Adoption Convention, which came into force on 1 May 1995 and has been ratified by 85 countries as of November 2011. Embryo adoption: based on the donation of embryos remaining after one couple's in vitro fertilization treatments have been completed; embryos are given to another individual or couple, followed by the placement of those embryos into the recipient woman's uterus, to facilitate pregnancy and childbirth. In the United States, embryo adoption is governed by property law rather than by the court systems, in contrast to traditional adoption. Common law adoption: this is an adoption that has not been recognized beforehand by the courts, but where a parent, without resorting to any formal legal process, leaves his or her children with a friend or relative for an extended period of time. At the end of a designated term of (voluntary) co-habitation, as witnessed by the public, the adoption is then considered binding, in some courts of law, even though not initially sanctioned by the court. The particular terms of a common-law adoption are defined by each legal jurisdiction. For example, the U.S. state of California recognizes common law relationships after co-habitation of 2 years. The practice is called "private fostering" in Britain. Disruption and dissolution Although adoption is often described as forming a "forever" family, the relationship can be ended at any time. The legal termination of an adoption is called disruption. In U.S. terminology, adoptions are disrupted if they are ended before being finalized, and they are dissolved if the relationship is ended afterwards. It may also be called a failed adoption. After legal finalization, the disruption process is usually initiated by adoptive parents via a court petition and is analogous to divorce proceedings. It is a legal avenue unique to adoptive parents as disruption/dissolution does not apply to biological kin, although biological family members are sometimes disowned or abandoned. Ad hoc studies performed in the U.S., however, suggest that between 10 and 25 percent of adoptions through the child welfare system (e.g., excluding babies adopted from other countries or step-parents adopting their stepchildren) disrupt before they are legally finalized and from 1 to 10 percent are dissolved after legal finalization. The wide range of values reflects the paucity of information on the subject and demographic factors such as age; it is known that teenagers are more prone to having their adoptions disrupted than young children. Adoption by same-sex couples Joint adoption by same-sex couples is legal in 26 countries, and additionally in various sub-national territories. LGBT adoption may also be in the form of step-child adoption, wherein one partner in a same-sex couple adopts the biological child of the other partner. Parenting of adoptees Parenting The biological relationship between a parent and child is important, and the separation of the two has led to concerns about adoption. The traditional view of adoptive parenting received empirical support from a Princeton University study of 6,000 adoptive, step, and foster families in the United States and South Africa from 1968 to 1985; the study indicated that food expenditures in households with mothers of non-biological children (when controlled for income, household size, hours worked, age, etc.) were significantly less for adoptees, step-children, and foster children, causing the researchers to speculate that people are less interested in sustaining the genetic lines of others. This theory is supported in another more qualitative study wherein adoptive relationships marked by sameness in likes, personality, and appearance, were associated with both adult adoptees and adoptive parents report being happier with the adoption. Other studies provide evidence that adoptive relationships can form along other lines. A study evaluating the level of parental investment indicates strength in adoptive families, suggesting that parents who adopt invest more time in their children than other parents, and concludes "...adoptive parents enrich their children's lives to compensate for the lack of biological ties and the extra challenges of adoption." Another recent study found that adoptive families invested more heavily in their adopted children, for example, by providing further education and financial support. Noting that adoptees seemed to be more likely to experience problems such as drug addiction, the study speculated that adoptive parents might invest more in adoptees not because they favor them, but because they are more likely than genetic children to need the help. Psychologists' findings regarding the importance of early mother-infant bonding created some concern about whether parents who adopt older infants or toddlers after birth have missed some crucial period for the child's development. However, research on The Mental and Social Life of Babies suggested that the "parent-infant system," rather than a bond between biologically related individuals, is an evolved fit between innate behavior patterns of all human infants and equally evolved responses of human adults to those infant behaviors. Thus nature "ensures some initial flexibility with respect to the particular adults who take on the parental role." Beyond the foundational issues, the unique questions posed for adoptive parents are varied. They include how to respond to stereotypes, answering questions about heritage, and how best to maintain connections with biological kin when in an open adoption. One author suggests a common question adoptive parents have is: "Will we love the child even though he/she is not our biological child?" A specific concern for many parents is accommodating an adoptee in the classroom. Familiar lessons like "draw your family tree" or "trace your eye color back through your parents and grandparents to see where your genes come from" could be hurtful to children who were adopted and do not know this biological information. Numerous suggestions have been made to substitute new lessons, e.g., focusing on "family orchards." Adopting older children presents other parenting issues. Some children from foster care have histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect, physical abuse, and sexual abuse, and are at risk of developing psychiatric problems. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment. Studies by Cicchetti et al. (1990, 1995) found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants in their sample exhibited disorganized attachment styles. Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms, as well as depressive, anxious, and acting-out symptoms. "Attachment is an active process—it can be secure or insecure, maladaptive or productive." In the U.K., some adoptions fail because the adoptive parents do not get sufficient support to deal with difficult, traumatized children. This is a false economy as local authority care for these children is extremely expensive. Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined genetic influences on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families. Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to body mass index found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences. These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems, substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities. Effects on the original parents Several factors affect the decision to release or raise the child. White adolescents tend to give up their babies to non-relatives, whereas black adolescents are more likely to receive support from their own community in raising the child and also in the form of informal adoption by relatives. Studies by Leynes and by Festinger and Young, Berkman, and Rehr found that, for pregnant adolescents, the decision to release the child for adoption depended on the attitude toward adoption held by the adolescent's mother. Another study found that pregnant adolescents whose mothers had a higher level of education were more likely to release their babies for adoption. Research suggests that women who choose to release their babies for adoption are more likely to be younger, enrolled in school, and have lived in a two-parent household at age 10, than those who kept and raised their babies. There is limited research on the consequences of adoption for the original parents, and the findings have been mixed. One study found that those who released their babies for adoption were less comfortable with their decision than those who kept their babies. However, levels of comfort over both groups were high, and those who released their child were similar to those who kept their child in ratings of life satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and positive future outlook for schooling, employment, finances, and marriage. Subsequent research found that adolescent mothers who chose to release their babies for adoption were more likely to experience feelings of sorrow and regret over their decision than those who kept their babies. However, these feelings decreased significantly from one year after birth to the end of the second year. More recent research found that in a sample of mothers who had released their children for adoption four to 12 years prior, every participant had frequent thoughts of their lost child. For most, thoughts were both negative and positive in that they produced both feelings of sadness and joy. Those who experienced the greatest portion of positive thoughts were those who had open, rather than closed or time-limited mediated, adoptions. In another study that compared mothers who released their children to those who raised them, mothers who released their children were more likely to delay their next pregnancy, to delay marriage, and to complete job training. However, both groups reached lower levels of education than their peers who were never pregnant. Another study found similar consequences for choosing to release a child for adoption. Adolescent mothers who released their children were more likely to reach a higher level of education and to be employed than those who kept their children. They also waited longer before having their next child. Most of the research that exists on adoption effects on the birth parents was conducted with samples of adolescents, or with women who were adolescents when carrying their babies—little data exists for birth parents from other populations. Furthermore, there is a lack of longitudinal data that may elucidate long-term social and psychological consequences for birth parents who choose to place their children for adoption. Development of adoptees Previous research on adoption has led to assumptions that indicate that there is a heightened risk in terms of psychological development and social relationships for adoptees. Yet, such assumptions have been clarified as flawed due to methodological failures. But more recent studies have been supportive in indicating more accurate information and results about the similarities, differences and overall lifestyles of adoptees. Evidence about the development of adoptees can be supported in newer studies. It can be said that adoptees, in some respect, tend to develop differently from the general population. This can be seen in many aspects of life, but usually can be found as a greater risk around the time of adolescence. For example, it has been found that many adoptees experience difficulty in establishing a sense of identity. Identity There are many ways in which the concept of identity can be defined. It is true in all cases that identity construction is an ongoing process of development, change and maintenance of identifying with the self. Research has shown that adolescence is a time of identity progression rather than regression. One's identity tends to lack stability in the beginning years of life but gains a more stable sense in later periods of childhood and adolescence. Typically associated with a time of experimentation, there are endless factors that go into the construction of one's identity. As well as being many factors, there are many types of identities one can associate with. Some categories of identity include gender, sexuality, class, racial and religious, etc. For transracial and international adoptees, tension is generally found in the categories of racial, ethnic and national identification. Because of this, the strength and functionality of family relationships play a huge role in its development and outcome of identity construction. Transracial and transnational adoptees tend to develop feelings of a lack of acceptance because of such racial, ethnic, and cultural differences. Therefore, exposing transracial and transnational adoptees to their "cultures of origin" is important in order to better develop a sense of identity and appreciation for cultural diversity. Identity construction and reconstruction for transnational adoptees the instant they are adopted. For example, based upon specific laws and regulations of the United States, the Child Citizen Act of 2000 makes sure to grant immediate U.S. citizenship to adoptees. Identity is defined both by what one is and what one is not. Adoptees born into one family lose an identity and then borrow one from the adopting family. The formation of identity is a complicated process and there are many factors that affect its outcome. From a perspective of looking at issues in adoption circumstances, the people involved and affected by adoption (the biological parent, the adoptive parent and the adoptee) can be known as the "triad members and state". Adoption may threaten triad members' sense of identity. Triad members often express feelings related to confused identity and identity crises because of differences between the triad relationships. Adoption, for some, precludes a complete or integrated sense of self. Triad members may experience themselves as incomplete, deficient, or unfinished. They state that they lack feelings of well-being, integration, or solidity associated with a fully developed identity. Influences Family plays a vital role in identity formation. This is not only true in childhood but also in adolescence. Identity (gender/sexual/ethnic/religious/family) is still forming during adolescence and family holds a vital key to this. The research seems to be unanimous; a stable, secure, loving, honest and supportive family in which all members feel safe to explore their identity is necessary for the formation of a sound identity. Transracial and International adoptions are some factors that play a significant role in the identity construction of adoptees. Many tensions arise from relationships built between the adoptee(s) and their family. These include being "different" from the parent(s), developing a positive racial identity, and dealing with racial/ethnic discrimination. It has been found that multicultural and transnational youth tend to identify with their parents origin of culture and ethnicity rather than their residing location, yet it is sometimes hard to balance an identity between the two because school environments tend to lack diversity and acknowledgment regarding such topics. These tensions also tend to create questions for the adoptee, as well as the family, to contemplate. Some common questions include what will happen if the family is more naïve to the ways of socially constructed life? Will tensions arise if this is the case? What if the very people that are supposed to be modeling a sound identity are in fact riddled with insecurities? Ginni Snodgrass answers these questions in the following way. The secrecy in an adoptive family and the denial that the adoptive family is different builds dysfunction into it. "... social workers and insecure adoptive parents have structured a family relationship that is based on dishonesty, evasions and exploitation. To believe that good relationships will develop on such a foundation is psychologically unsound" (Lawrence). Secrecy erects barriers to forming a healthy identity. The research says that the dysfunction, untruths and evasiveness that can be present in adoptive families not only makes identity formation impossible, but also directly works against it. What effect on identity formation is present if the adoptee knows they are adopted but has no information about their biological parents? Silverstein and Kaplan's research states that adoptees lacking medical, genetic, religious, and historical information are plagued by questions such as "Who am I?" "Why was I born?" "What is my purpose?" This lack of identity may lead adoptees, particularly in adolescent years, to seek out ways to belong in a more extreme fashion than many of their non-adopted peers. Adolescent adoptees are overrepresented among those who join sub-cultures, run away, become pregnant, or totally reject their families. Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined genetic influences on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive families. Similar mechanisms appear to be at work in the physical development of adoptees. Danish and American researchers conducting studies on the genetic contribution to body mass index found correlations between an adoptee's weight class and his biological parents' BMI while finding no relationship with the adoptive family environment. Moreover, about one-half of inter-individual differences were due to individual non-shared influences. These differences in development appear to play out in the way young adoptees deal with major life events. In the case of parental divorce, adoptees have been found to respond differently from children who have not been adopted. While the general population experienced more behavioral problems, substance use, lower school achievement, and impaired social competence after parental divorce, the adoptee population appeared to be unaffected in terms of their outside relationships, specifically in their school or social abilities. The adoptee population does, however, seem to be more at risk for certain behavioral issues. Researchers from the University of Minnesota studied adolescents who had been adopted and found that adoptees were twice as likely as non-adopted people to suffer from oppositional defiant disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (with an 8% rate in the general population). Suicide risks were also significantly greater than the general population. Swedish researchers found both international and domestic adoptees undertook suicide at much higher rates than non-adopted peers; with international adoptees and female international adoptees, in particular, at highest risk. Nevertheless, work on adult adoptees has found that the additional risks faced by adoptees are largely confined to adolescence. Young adult adoptees were shown to be alike with adults from biological families and scored better than adults raised in alternative family types including single parent and step-families. Moreover, while adult adoptees showed more variability than their non-adopted peers on a range of psychosocial measures, adult adoptees exhibited more similarities than differences with adults who had not been adopted. There have been many cases of remediation or the reversibility of early trauma. For example, in one of the earliest studies conducted, Professor Goldfarb in England concluded that some children adjust well socially and emotionally despite their negative experiences of institutional deprivation in early childhood. Other researchers also found that prolonged institutionalization does not necessarily lead to emotional problems or character defects in all children. This suggests that there will always be some children who fare well, who are resilient, regardless of their experiences in early childhood. Furthermore, much of the research on psychological outcomes for adoptees draws from clinical populations. This suggests that conclusions such that adoptees are more likely to have behavioral problems such as ODD and ADHD may be biased. Since the proportion of adoptees that seek mental health treatment is small, psychological outcomes for adoptees compared to those for the general population are more similar than some researchers propose. Public perception of adoption In Western culture, many see that the common image of a family being that of a heterosexual couple with biological children. This idea places alternative family forms outside the norm. As a consequence – research indicates – disparaging views of adoptive families exist, along with doubts concerning the strength of their family bonds. The most recent adoption attitudes survey completed by the Evan Donaldson Institute provides further evidence of this stigma. Nearly one-third of the surveyed population believed adoptees are less-well adjusted, more prone to medical issues, and predisposed to drug and alcohol problems. Additionally, 40–45% thought adoptees were more likely to have behavior problems and trouble at school. In contrast, the same study indicated adoptive parents were viewed favorably, with nearly 90% describing them as "lucky, advantaged, and unselfish." The majority of people state that their primary source of information about adoption comes from friends and family and the news media. Nevertheless, most people report the media provides them a favorable view of adoption; 72% indicated receiving positive impressions. There is, however, still substantial criticism of the media's adoption coverage. Some adoption blogs, for example, criticized Meet the Robinsons for using outdated orphanage imagery as did advocacy non-profit The Evan B. Donaldson Adoption Institute. The stigmas associated with adoption are amplified for children in foster care. Negative perceptions result in the belief that such children are so troubled it would be impossible to adopt them and create "normal" families. A 2004 report from the Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care has shown that the number of children waiting in foster care doubled since the 1980s and now remains steady at about a half-million a year." Attitude toward Adoption Questionnaire (ATAQ): this questionnaire was first developed by Abdollahzadeh, Chaloyi and Mahmoudi(2019). Preliminary Edition: This questionnaire has 23 items based on the Likert scale of 1 (totally Disagree), up to 5 (Totally Agree) being obtained after refining the items designed to construct the present tool and per-study study. The analysis of item and initial psychometric analyses indicate that there are two factors in it. Items 3-10-11-12-14-15-16-17-19-20-21 are reversed and the rest are graded positively. The results of exploratory factor analysis by main components with varimax rotation indicated two components of attitude toward adoption being named respectively cognitive as the aspects of attitude toward adoption and behavioral-emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption. These two components explained 43.25% of the variance of the total sample. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.709 for the whole questionnaire, 0.71 for the first component, and 0.713 for the second one. In addition, there was a significant positive relationship between desired social tendencies and the cognitive aspect of attitude toward adoption as well as the behavioral -emotional aspects of attitude toward adoption (P ≤ 0.01). Reform and reunion trends Adoption practices have changed significantly over the course of the 20th century, with each new movement labeled, in some way, as reform. Beginning in the 1970s, efforts to improve adoption became associated with opening records and encouraging family preservation. These ideas arose from suggestions that the secrecy inherent in modern adoption may influence the process of forming an identity, create confusion regarding genealogy, and provide little in the way of medical history. Family preservation: As concerns over illegitimacy began to decline in the early 1970s, social-welfare agencies began to emphasize that, if possible, mothers and children should be kept together. In the U.S., this was clearly illustrated by the shift in policy of the New York Foundling Home, an adoption-institution that is among the country's oldest and one that had pioneered sealed records. It established three new principles including "to prevent placements of children...," reflecting the belief that children would be better served by staying with their biological families, a striking shift in policy that remains in force today. In addition, groups such as Origins USA (founded in 1997) started to actively speak about family preservation and the rights of mothers. The intellectual tone of these reform movements was influenced by the publishing of The Primal Wound by Nancy Verrier. "Primal wound" is described as the "devastation which the infant feels because of separation from its birth mother. It is the deep and consequential feeling of abandonment which the baby adoptee feels after the adoption and which may continue for the rest of his life." Open records: After a legal adoption in the United States, an adopted person's original birth certificate is usually amended and replaced with a new post-adoption birth certificate. The names of any birth parents listed on the original birth certificate are replaced on an amended certificate with the names of the adoptive parents, making it appear that the child was born to the adoptive parents. Beginning in the late 1930s and continuing through the 1970s, state laws allowed for the sealing of original birth certificates after an adoption and, except in some states, made the original birth certificate unavailable to the adopted person even at the age of majority. Adopted people have long sought to undo these laws so that they can obtain their own original birth certificates. Movements to unseal original birth certificates and other adoption records for adopted people proliferated in the 1970s along with increased acceptance of illegitimacy. In the United States, Jean Paton founded Orphan Voyage in 1954, and Florence Fisher founded the Adoptees' Liberty Movement Association (ALMA) in 1971, calling sealed records "an affront to human dignity.". While in 1975, Emma May Vilardi created the first mutual-consent registry, the International Soundex Reunion Registry (ISRR), allowing those separated by adoption to locate one another. and Lee Campbell and other birthmothers established CUB (Concerned United Birthparents). Similar ideas were taking hold globally with grass-roots organizations like Parent Finders in Canada and Jigsaw in Australia. In 1975, England and Wales opened records on moral grounds. By 1979, representatives of 32 organizations from 33 states, Canada and Mexico gathered in Washington, DC, to establish the American Adoption Congress (AAC) passing a unanimous resolution: "Open Records complete with all identifying information for all members of the adoption triad, birthparents, adoptive parents and adoptee at the adoptee's age of majority (18 or 19, depending on state) or earlier if all members of the triad agree." Later years saw the evolution of more militant organizations such as Bastard Nation (founded in 1996), groups that helped overturn sealed records in Alabama, Delaware, New Hampshire, Oregon, Tennessee, and Maine. A coalition of New York and national adoptee rights activists successfully worked to overturn a restrictive 83-year-old law in 2019, and adult adopted people born in New York, as well as their descendants, today have the right to request and obtain their own original birth certificates. As of 2021, ten states in the United States recognize the right of adult adopted people to obtain their own original birth certificates, including Alabama, Alaska, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon and Rhode Island. Connecticut in 2021 became the tenth state to restore an adopted person's right to request and obtain their original birth certificates. Reunion Estimates for the extent of search behavior by adoptees have proven elusive; studies show significant variation. In part, the problem stems from the small adoptee population which makes random surveying difficult, if not impossible. Nevertheless, some indication of the level of search interest by adoptees can be gleaned from the case of England and Wales which opened adoptees' birth records in 1975. The U.K. Office for National Statistics has projected that 33% of all adoptees would eventually request a copy of their original birth records, exceeding original forecasts made in 1975 when it was believed that only a small fraction of the adoptee population would request their records. The projection is known to underestimate the true search rate, however, since many adoptees of the era get their birth records by other means. The research literature states adoptees give four reasons for desiring reunion: 1) they wish for a more complete genealogy, 2) they are curious about events leading to their conception, birth, and relinquishment, 3) they hope to pass on information to their children, and 4) they have a need for a detailed biological background, including medical information. It is speculated by adoption researchers, however, that the reasons given are incomplete: although such information could be communicated by a third-party, interviews with adoptees, who sought reunion, found they expressed a need to actually meet biological relations. It appears the desire for reunion is linked to the adoptee's interaction with and acceptance within the community. Internally focused theories suggest some adoptees possess ambiguities in their sense of self, impairing their ability to present a consistent identity. Reunion helps resolve the lack of self-knowledge. Externally focused theories, in contrast, suggest that reunion is a way for adoptees to overcome social stigma. First proposed by Goffman, the theory has four parts: 1) adoptees perceive the absence of biological ties as distinguishing their adoptive family from others, 2) this understanding is strengthened by experiences where non-adoptees suggest adoptive ties are weaker than blood ties, 3) together, these factors engender, in some adoptees, a sense of social exclusion, and 4) these adoptees react by searching for a blood tie that reinforces their membership in the community. The externally focused rationale for reunion suggests adoptees may be well adjusted and happy within their adoptive families, but will search as an attempt to resolve experiences of social stigma. Some adoptees reject the idea of reunion. It is unclear, though, what differentiates adoptees who search from those who do not. One paper summarizes the research, stating, "...attempts to draw distinctions between the searcher and non-searcher are no more conclusive or generalizable than attempts to substantiate...differences between adoptees and nonadoptees." In sum, reunions can bring a variety of issues for adoptees and parents. Nevertheless, most reunion results appear to be positive. In the largest study to date (based on the responses of 1,007 adoptees and relinquishing parents), 90% responded that reunion was a beneficial experience. This does not, however, imply ongoing relationships were formed between adoptee and parent nor that this was the goal. The book "Adoption Detective: Memoir of an Adopted Child" by Judith and Martin Land provides insight into the mind of an adoptee from childhood through to adulthood and the emotions invoked when reunification with their birth mothers is desired. Controversial adoption practices Reform and family preservation efforts have also been strongly associated with the perceived misuse of adoption. In some cases, parents' rights have been terminated when their ethnic or socio-economic group has been deemed unfit by society. Some of these practices were generally accepted but have later been considered abusive; others were uncontroversially reprehensible. Forced adoption based on ethnicity occurred during World War II. In German-occupied Poland, it is estimated that 200,000 Polish children with purportedly Aryan traits were removed from their families and given to German or Austrian couples, and only 25,000 returned to their families after the war. The Stolen Generation of Aboriginal people in Australia were affected by similar policies, as were Native Americans in the United States and First Nations of Canada. These practices have become significant social and political issues in recent years, and in many cases the policies have changed. The United States, for example, now has the 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act, which allows the tribe and family of a Native American child to be involved in adoption decisions, with preference being given to adoption within the child's tribe. From the 1950s through the 1970s, a period called the baby scoop era, adoption practices that involved coercion were directed against unwed mothers, as described for the U.S. in The Girls Who Went Away. More recently the military dictatorship in Argentina from 1976 to 1983 is known to have given hundreds of babies born to women captives who were then murdered to be brought up by military families. In Spain under Francisco Franco's 1939–75 dictatorship the newborns of some left-wing opponents of the regime, or unmarried or poor couples, were removed from their mothers and adopted. New mothers were frequently told their babies had died suddenly after birth and the hospital had taken care of their burials, when in fact they were given or sold to another family. It is believed that up to 300,000 babies were involved. These system – which allegedly involved doctors, nurses, nuns and priests – outlived Franco's death in 1975 and carried on as an illegal baby trafficking network until 1987 when a new law regulating adoption was introduced. On January 29, 2010, a group of ten American Baptist missionaries from Idaho attempted to cross the Haiti—Dominican Republic border with 33 Haitian children. The group, known as the New Life Children's Refuge, did not have proper authorization for transporting the children and were arrested on kidnapping charges. After the process for the adoption of 400 children by families in the US and the Netherlands was expedited, Unicef and SOS Children urged an immediate halt to adoptions from Haiti. Jasmine Whitbread, chief executive of Save the Children said: "The vast majority of the children currently on their own still have family members alive who will be desperate to be reunited with them and will be able to care for them with the right support. Taking children out of the country would permanently separate thousands of children from their families—a separation that would compound the acute trauma they are already suffering and inflict long-term damage on their chances of recovery." Rehoming in the United States With the increase in adoption rates over the many decades, the United States has been faced with a new morally questionable practice: rehoming. This is the act of caregivers posting an advertisement when they do not feel the child should be in their care any longer. Investigation of the child's new housing situation is not required in this practice, and this has created an underground market, one where child traffickers can thrive. There is a lack of regulation surrounding this practice and current legislation contradicts each other, making this harder to combat. When a parent adopts a child, they may not have been aware that the child has special needs and thus, are not equipped to help this child. The child may act out or not fit in with the family so the family turns to rehoming. Rehoming is not adoption and because of that, the government does not have to be notified and adoption agencies are not involved. Thus, re-homing is a prime target for child and sex traffickers. There are laws set in place to protect children through adoption processes and against sex trafficking, but there are barely any laws regarding rehoming. The courts authorize this practice because the U.S. state law may allow a parent, legal guardian or relative within the second degree to place out or board out a child. However, while the U.S. federal bill Preventing Sex Trafficking and Strengthening Families Act would require the family to make rational decisions and prioritize the health of the child, the Interstate Compact on the Placement of Children contradicts this. This states that the family only has to make sure children are placed in adequate care only when the re-homing process is done across state lines. There is no mention of maintaining the children's safety when rehoming within the same state. The laws surrounding rehoming are basically non-existent which puts adopted children at the risk of unequipped parents and all other types of dysfunctional homes. This second-chance adoption, as some parents see it, has led to negative effects that failed adoptions have on children as they go through the process of readapting to a new home environment again. With the statute that allows second-degree legal guardians to put their adopted child in the care of someone else, and the rising of re-homing websites and ads on social media, the rehoming process highly exposes children to underground markets and other trafficking prospects. In that regard, laws and statutes concerning adoption and rehoming should be re-evaluated to ensure the full protection of adopted children. In 2018, the Uniform Law Commission formed a committee to study the rehoming issue, which is also known more formerly as "unregulated transfer of adopted children." The committee indicated that it will draft a uniform or model law to prohibit the unregulated transfer of all adopted children. Adoption terminology The language of adoption is changing and evolving, and since the 1970s has been a controversial issue tied closely to adoption reform efforts. The controversy arises over the use of terms which, while designed to be more appealing or less offensive to some persons affected by adoption, may simultaneously cause offense or insult to others. This controversy illustrates the problems in adoption, as well as the fact that coining new words and phrases to describe ancient social practices will not necessarily alter the feelings and experiences of those affected by them. Two of the contrasting sets of terms are commonly referred to as positive adoption language (PAL) (sometimes called respectful adoption language (RAL)), and honest adoption language (HAL). Positive adoptive language (PAL) In the 1970s, as adoption search and support organizations developed, there were challenges to the language in common use at the time. As books like Adoption Triangle by Sorosky, Pannor and Baran were published, and support groups formed like CUB (Concerned United Birthparents), a major shift from "natural parent" to "birthparent" occurred. Along with the change in times and social attitudes came additional examination of the language used in adoption. Social workers and other professionals in the field of adoption began changing terms of use to reflect what was being expressed by the parties involved. In 1979, Marietta Spencer wrote "The Terminology of Adoption" for The Child Welfare League of America (CWLA), which was the basis for her later work "Constructive Adoption Terminology". This influenced Pat Johnston's "Positive Adoption Language" (PAL) and "Respectful Adoption Language" (RAL). The terms contained in "Positive Adoption Language" include the terms "birth mother" (to replace the terms "natural mother" and "real mother"), and "placing" (to replace the term "surrender"). These kinds of recommendations encouraged people to be more aware of their use of adoption terminology. Honest adoption language (HAL) "Honest Adoption Language" refers to a set of terms that proponents say reflect the point of view that: (1) family relationships (social, emotional, psychological or physical) that existed prior to the legal adoption often continue past this point or endure in some form despite long periods of separation, and that (2) mothers who have "voluntarily surrendered" children to adoption (as opposed to involuntary terminations through court-authorized child-welfare proceedings) seldom view it as a choice that was freely made, but instead describe scenarios of powerlessness, lack of resources, and overall lack of choice. It also reflects the point of view that the term "birth mother" is derogatory in implying that the woman has ceased being a mother after the physical act of giving birth. Proponents of HAL liken this to the mother being treated as a "breeder" or "incubator". Terms included in HAL include terms that were used before PAL, including "natural mother," "first mother," and "surrendered for adoption." Inclusive adoption language There are supporters of various lists, developed over many decades, and there are persons who find them lacking, created to support an agenda, or furthering division. All terminology can be used to demean or diminish, uplift or embrace. In addressing the linguistic problem of naming, Edna Andrews says that using "inclusive" and "neutral" language is based upon the concept that "language represents thought, and may even control thought." Advocates of inclusive language defend it as inoffensive-language usage whose goal is multi-fold: The rights, opportunities, and freedoms of certain people are restricted because they are reduced to stereotypes. Stereotyping is mostly implicit, unconscious, and facilitated by the availability of pejorative labels and terms. Rendering the labels and terms socially unacceptable, people then must consciously think about how they describe someone unlike themselves. When labeling is a conscious activity, the described person's individual merits become apparent, rather than his or her stereotype. A common problem is that terms chosen by an identity group, as acceptable descriptors of themselves, can be used in negative ways by detractors. This compromises the integrity of the language and turns what was intended to be positive into negative or vice versa, thus often devaluing acceptability, meaning and use. Language at its best honors the self-referencing choices of the persons involved, uses inclusive terms and phrases, and is sensitive to the feelings of the primary parties. Language evolves with social attitudes and experiences. Cultural variations Attitudes and laws regarding adoption vary greatly. Whereas all cultures make arrangements whereby children whose birth parents are unavailable to rear them can be brought up by others, not all cultures have the concept of adoption, that is treating unrelated children as equivalent to biological children of the adoptive parents. Under Islamic Law, for example, adopted children must keep their original surname to be identified with blood relations, and, traditionally, women wear a hijab in the presence of males in their adoptive households. In Egypt, these cultural distinctions have led to making adoption illegal opting instead for a system of foster care. Homecoming Day In some countries, such as the United States, "Homecoming Day" is the day when an adoptee is officially united with their new adoptive family. See also References Barbara Melosh, the American Way of Adoption page 10 Further reading Argent, Hedi. Related by Adoption: a handbook for grandparents and other relatives (2014) Askeland, Lori. Children and Youth in Adoption, Orphanages, and Foster Care: A Historical Handbook and Guide (2005) excerpt and text search Carp, E. Wayne, ed. Adoption in America: Historical Perspectives (2002) Carp, E. Wayne. Family Matters: Secrecy and Disclosure in the History of Adoption (2000) Carp, E. Wayne. Jean Paton and the Struggle to Reform American Adoption (University of Michigan Press; 2014) 422 pages; Scholarly biography of an activist (1908–2002) who led the struggle for open adoption records Conn, Peter. Adoption: A Brief Social and Cultural History (2013) excerpt and text search Eskin, Michael. The Wisdom of Parenthood: An Essay (New York: Upper West Side Philosophers, Inc. 2013) Fessler, Ann. The Girls Who Went Away: The Hidden History of Women Who Surrendered Children for Adoption in the Decades Before Roe v. Wade (2007) excerpt and text search Gailey, Christine Ward. Blue-Ribbon Babies and Labors of Love: Race, Class, and Gender in U.S. Adoption Practice (University of Texas Press; 185 pages; 2010). Uses interviews with 131 adoptive parents in a study of how adopters' attitudes uphold, accommodate, or subvert prevailing ideologies of kinship in the United States. Melosh, Barbara. Strangers and Kin: the American Way of Adoption (2002) excerpt and text search Minchella, Tina Danielle. Adoption in post-Soviet Russia: Nationalism and the re-invention of the "Russian family" (2011) Pertman, A. (2000). Adoption Nation: How the Adoption Revolution Is Transforming America. New York: Basic Books. Seligmann, Linda J. Broken Links, Enduring Ties: American Adoption Across Race, Class, and Nation (Stanford University Press; 2013) 336 pages); comparative ethnographic study of transnational and interracial adoption. Fictive Kinship: Making Maladaptation Palatable Family law Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement

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Mary Wilson (March 6, 1944 – February 8, 2021) was an American singer. She gained worldwide recognition as a founding member of The Supremes, the most successful Motown act of the 1960s and the best-charting female group in U.S. chart history, as well as one of the best-selling girl groups of all-time. The trio reached number one on Billboards Hot 100 with 12 of their singles, ten of which feature Wilson on backing vocals. Wilson remained with the group following the departures of the other three original members Barbara Martin (in 1962), Florence Ballard (in 1967), and Diana Ross (in 1970), though the subsequent group disbanded following Wilson's own departure in 1977. Wilson later became a New York Times best-selling author in 1986 with the release of her first autobiography, Dreamgirl: My Life as a Supreme, which set records for sales in its genre, and later for the autobiography Supreme Faith: Someday We'll Be Together. Continuing a successful career as a concert performer in Las Vegas, Wilson also worked in activism, fighting to pass Truth in Music Advertising bills and donating to various charities. Wilson was inducted along with Ross and Ballard (as members of the Supremes) into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. Early life Mary Wilson was born March 6, 1944, to Sam, a butcher, and Johnnie Mae Wilson in Greenville, Mississippi. She was the eldest of three children including a brother, Roosevelt, and a sister, Cathy. The Wilsons moved to Chicago, part of the Great Migration in which her father joined many African Americans seeking work in the North, but at age three, Mary Wilson was taken in by her aunt Ivory "I.V." and uncle John L. Pippin in Detroit. Her parents eventually separated and Wilson's mother and siblings later joined them in Detroit, though by then Wilson had come to believe I.V. was her real mother. Wilson and her family had settled in the Brewster-Douglass Housing Projects, a housing project in Detroit where Wilson first met Florence Ballard. The duo became friends while singing in their school's talent show. In 1959, Ballard asked Wilson to audition for Milton Jenkins, who was forming a sister group to his male vocal trio, the Primes (two members of which were later in The Temptations). Wilson was soon accepted into the group known as The Primettes, with Diana Ross and Betty McGlown, who lived in the same housing project with Wilson and Ballard. In this period, Wilson also met Aretha, Erma and Carolyn Franklin, daughters of the pastor at her local Baptist church. Wilson graduated from Detroit's Northeastern High School in January 1962. Career The Supremes: 1959–1977 In 1960, the Primettes signed a contract with Lu Pine Records, issuing two singles from which Wilson sang lead vocals on "Pretty Baby". Shortly after, McGlown left to get married and was replaced by Barbara Martin. During that year, they kept pursuing a Motown contract and agreed to do anything that was required, including adding handclaps and vocal backgrounds. By the end of the year, Berry Gordy agreed to have the group record songs in the studio. In January 1961, Gordy relented and agreed to sign the girls to his label on the condition they change their name. Motown lyricist Janie Bradford approached Ballard with a list of names to choose from before Ballard chose "Supremes". Eventually, Gordy agreed to sign them under that name on January 15, 1961. The group struggled in their early years in comparison to other Motown acts, garnering the nickname "no-hit Supremes" as a result. One track, "Buttered Popcorn", led by Ballard, was a regional hit, but still failed to chart. Before the release of their 1962 debut album, Meet The Supremes, Martin had become pregnant and subsequently left the group, leaving the Supremes as a trio. In December 1963, the single "When the Lovelight Starts Shining Through His Eyes" peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot 100. Following the single's success, Gordy assigned Ross as the group's lead singer. In the spring of 1964, the Supremes released "Where Did Our Love Go", which became their first number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100, paving the way for ten number-one hits recorded by Ross, Ballard, and Wilson between 1964 and 1967. By 1965, the group had become international stars, appearing regularly on television programs such as Hullabaloo, The Hollywood Palace, The Dean Martin Show, and, most notably The Ed Sullivan Show, on which they made 17 appearances. As early as 1966, Ballard's chronic alcoholism led to her missing press conferences and recording sessions. To serve as a stand-in for Ballard, Gordy selected Cindy Birdsong, a member of Patti LaBelle and the Blue Belles. In July 1967, following a contentious performance at the Flamingo, Ballard was removed from the Supremes and replaced with Birdsong. Simultaneously, Gordy re-named the group "Diana Ross & the Supremes", beginning with the single "Reflections". The new lineup continued to record hit singles, although several stalled outside the top 20 chart range. Ross left the group in January 1970, and at her farewell performance Jean Terrell was introduced as the replacement for Ross. According to Wilson, Gordy told Wilson that he thought of having Syreeta Wright join the group in a last-minute change, after Terrell had already been introduced as lead singer, to which Wilson refused. From there, Gordy relinquished creative control of the group over to Wilson. With Terrell, the Supremes recorded seven top-40 hit singles in a three-year period, including "River Deep/Mountain High" (with the Four Tops), "Up the Ladder to the Roof", "Stoned Love", "Nathan Jones", and "Floy Joy". Unlike the latter years with Ross, the single "Automatically Sunshine" succeeded in reaching the top 20 charts, in which it had become the Supremes' final top 40 U.S. hit. In 1972, Cindy Birdsong left the group following marriage and pregnancy and was replaced by Lynda Lawrence. The group's popularity and place on record charts dropped significantly. For the first time in a decade, two singles in a row failed to break into the top 40, including the Stevie Wonder penned-and-produced "Bad Weather". Discouraged, Jean Terrell and Lynda Lawrence both departed in late 1973. Scherrie Payne was recruited from a group called The Glass House, and Cindy Birdsong returned. Beginning with this lineup change, Wilson began doing almost half of the group's lead vocal duties, as she was considered the group's main attraction and reason for continuing. In 1975, Wilson sang lead on the Top 10 disco hit "Early Morning Love". In 1976, the group scored its final hit single with "I'm Gonna Let My Heart Do the Walking", written and produced by Brian and Eddie Holland and included on the album High Energy. Birdsong again departed, just before the album's release, and was replaced by the group's final official member, Susaye Greene, whose voice was dubbed over two songs. High Energy was well-received, but the follow-up album Mary, Scherrie & Susaye, released in 1977, would be their last. During a meeting with Motown, Wilson's husband Pedro Ferrer had notified Motown that Wilson would leave the Supremes to embark on a solo career. On June 12, 1977, Wilson gave her farewell performance with the Supremes at London's Drury Lane Theatre. Meanwhile, Payne and Greene had planned to continue as the Supremes, but a replacement for Wilson proved to be unsuccessful, in which the Supremes officially disbanded. Solo career: 1977–2021 In July 1977, just one month following her farewell performance with the Supremes, Wilson began a touring "Supremes" show with two background singers as the "Mary Wilson of The Supremes" show. The show was the result of Motown's allowance of the group to go into hiatus despite the fact that there were still several uncancelled international tour dates to complete. Mary therefore hired former Supreme, Cindy Birdsong and Debbie Sharpe to complete a summer tour of South America to fulfill contracts so venues would not sue. The three-week tour began in Caracas, Venezuela, and was composed of mostly small clubs. Despite the company's displeasure and the fact that it owned the rights/distribution rights to the name "Supremes," Motown never cancelled the tour. Later that year, Wilson hired Karen Jackson and Kaaren Ragland to tour with as background singers. She and Cindy rehearsed them for a year end's tour of Europe, that was composed of dates at officers' clubs and swank discos. After an out-of-court settlement, Wilson signed with Motown for solo work, releasing a disco-heavy self-titled album in August 1979. A single from the album, "Red Hot", peaked at number 90 on the pop charts. Midway through production of a second solo album in 1980, Motown dropped her from their roster. Throughout the mid-1980s, Wilson focused on performances in musical theater productions, including Beehive, Dancing in the Streets, and Supreme Soul. Wilson found major success once more with her memoir: Dreamgirl: My Life as a Supreme in 1986. The book remained on the national best-seller list for months and established a sales record for the genre. The book focused on the early career of the Supremes and its success during the 1960s. Four years later, in 1990, Wilson released her second memoir: Supreme Faith: Someday We'll Be Together, also a best seller, which focused on the Supremes in the 1970s. In between this period, Wilson became a frequent guest on several television programs and talk shows and began regularly performing in Las Vegas casinos and resorts. Wilson then recorded a cover version of "Ooh Child" for the Motorcity label in 1990. A year later, she signed with CEO Records and released the album, Walk the Line, in 1992. The label filed for bankruptcy the day after its national release. Wilson maintained that she was deceived about the financial status of the label. The available copies of the album quickly sold out, however, and Wilson continued her success as a concert performer. Earlier in 1974, Wilson had her contract with Motown re-negotiated to allow her 50% ownership of the name "Supremes". During the 1990s, Wilson filed suit against several former members of the Supremes, who had formed spin-off groups, for improper usage of the Supremes' name. In September 1997, the court sided with the defendant, claiming Motown Records owned the full rights to the group's name, and allowed for the spin-off groups to continue performing. Wilson then appealed the decision to the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco, which upheld the prior ruling. This prompted Wilson to take a high-profile role in lobbying for "Truth in Music" legislation, which prohibits usage of musical acts names, unless an original member of the group is in the act or the group is properly licensed by the last person to hold right of title to the name. Her efforts succeeded in more than 28 U.S. states. In 1995, Wilson released a song, ".U", for Contract Recording Company. A year later, Wilson released the song, "Turn Around" for Da Bridge Records. In late 1999, a proposal for a Supremes reunion tour was negotiated by Ross and TNA/SFX Productions (now Live Nation Entertainment). According to Wilson, Ross had contacted her that December, long after she had already heard of plans for a reunion tour. Wilson was initially offered $2 million, while Birdsong was reported to have been offered less than $1 million. Wilson disagreed, and a counteroffer of $3 million was made. By March 2000, with salary negotiations still underway, Wilson stated a deal had been accepted between her and Birdsong, but it was rejected by Ross. TNA/SFX then ceased negotiations with Wilson and Birdsong. Instead, the tour, Return to Love, went forward with former Supremes Scherrie Payne and Lynda Lawrence, beginning in Philadelphia on June 14. The opening concert had drawn 10,000 spectators and grossed over $629,000. By July 2000, the tour was reportedly performing below expectations, and was subsequently canceled after 13 concerts. Ross issued a statement that she was "severely disappointed" that SFX had decided to cancel the tour. That year, Wilson released an updated version of her autobiographies as a single combined book. That same year, an album, I Am Changing, was released by Mary Wilson Enterprises, produced through her and her then-management, Duryea Entertainment. In 2001, Wilson starred in the national tour of Leader of the Pack – The Ellie Greenwich Story. A year later, Wilson was appointed by Secretary of State Colin Powell as a "culture-connect ambassador" for the U.S. State Department, appearing at international events arranged by that agency. In 2006, a live concert DVD, Live at the Sands, was released. Four years later, another DVD, Mary Wilson: Live from San Francisco... Up Close, was released. During this period, Wilson became a musical activist, having been part of the Truth in Music Bill, a law proposed to stop impostor groups performing under the names of the 1950s and 1960s rock and roll groups, including Motown groups The Marvelettes and The Supremes. The law was passed in 27 states. Wilson also toured and lectured internationally, as well as across the United States, speaking to multiple groups worldwide. Her lecture series, "Dare to Dream", focuses on reaching goals and triumph over adversity. Wilson's charity work included Children Incorporated, the Susan G. Komen Race for the Cure, the American Cancer Society, St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital, the Easter Seals Foundation, UNICEF, The NAACP, the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, the All-Star Network, and Figure Skaters of Harlem, a youth organization devoted to helping children towards entering the Olympics. Most recently, Wilson became the Mine Action spokesperson for the Humpty Dumpty Institute. In April 2008, Wilson made a special appearance on 20/20 to participate in a social experiment involving pedestrians reacting to a young woman singing "Stop! In the Name of Love" with intentional amateurishness. Wilson approached the woman and gave her constructive criticism toward her style, in contrast to the pedestrians whose reactions were positive, yet dishonest. On March 5, 2009, she made a special appearance on The Paul O'Grady Show, which ended in a special performance with her, O'Grady, and Graham Norton. Wilson created the "Mary Wilson/Supremes Gown Collection", and had the collection tour in an exhibition of the Supremes' stage wear. The collection has been on exhibit at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio and on May 12, 2008, commenced its UK tour, starting at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. More than 50 sets of gowns are shown in rotation, starting with early formal wear from the early 1960s, and including famous gowns worn on television specials and nightclub appearances by the group in the 1960s and 1970s. Wilson released two singles on iTunes, "Life's Been Good To Me" and "Darling Mother (Johnnie Mae)", in 2011 and 2013, respectively. In 2015, Wilson released a new single, "Time To Move On", produced by Sweet Feet Music; the song reached the Top 20 on the Billboard Dance charts history, peaking at No. 17 as of December 26. At 36 years and seven weeks, Mary Wilson holds the record for the longest gap between hits in the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart as "Red Hot" debuted on October 6, 1979 and "Time To Move On" debuted on November 21, 2015. In 2016, an Indiegogo campaign was launched to help raise $35,000 to fund a gay-themed romantic comedy movie, "Please Don't Eat the Pansies". The cast includes actor/writer Ronnie Kerr, Andrew Lauer, singer/actor Tom Goss, and Wilson. On August 15, 2019, Wilson published her fourth book, Supreme Glamour with co-author Mark Bego, dedicated to the history of the Supremes and their fashion with a detailed section dedicated to the Supremes gowns in her collection. That same month, she was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 28 of Dancing with the Stars. Wilson and her professional partner Brandon Armstrong were the first couple to be eliminated from the competition on September 23, 2019. Mary Wilson's last single "Why Can't We All Get Along" was released posthumously on March 5, 2021. The song was featured on a 2021 reissue of Wilson's 1979 solo debut entitled, Mary Wilson: Expanded Edition. Another posthumous project, Mary Wilson: Red Hot Eric Kupper Remix EP was released September 3, 2021. The EP featured three new different dance versions of Wilson's 1979 single "Red Hot" produced by Kupper. Personal life and death Wilson married Dominican businessman Pedro Ferrer, whom she had chosen as The Supremes' manager, in Las Vegas, Nevada on May 11, 1974. They had three children, Turkessa, Pedro Antonio Jr., and Rafael. Wilson and Ferrer divorced in 1981. She was also the adoptive mother of her cousin, Willie. In January 1994, Wilson and her 16-year-old son Rafael were involved in an accident on Interstate 15 between Los Angeles and Las Vegas when their Jeep Cherokee veered off the highway and overturned. Wilson sustained moderate injuries; Rafael's injuries were fatal. Wilson had 10 grandchildren and one great-granddaughter. On February 8, 2021, Wilson died in her sleep from hypertensive atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease at her home in Henderson, Nevada, a suburb of Las Vegas, at the age of 76. Two days before her death, she had announced on YouTube that she was planning to release new solo material with Universal Music Group, and hoped it would come out before March 6, her birthday. Motown founder Berry Gordy said he was "extremely shocked and saddened" by the news of her death and said Wilson was "quite a star in her own right and over the years continued to work hard to boost the legacy of the Supremes." Diana Ross reflected on Wilson's death, posting on Twitter: "I am reminded that each day is a gift. I have so many wonderful memories of our time together. 'The Supremes' will live on in our hearts." Wilson was interred next to her son Rafael on March 16, 2021, at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Honors In 2001, Wilson earned a degree from New York University's School of Continuing and Professional Studies. Wilson was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Paine College in Augusta, Georgia. In 2020, Wilson received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Newspaper Publishers Association. Wilson was also, along with The Supremes, inducted into National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame class of 2013. Wilson also served as the master of ceremonies for the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame from 2016 to 2019 and served as a board member. Legacy The character of Lorrell Robinson in both the play and film versions of "Dreamgirls" was inspired by Wilson. As a member of the Supremes, her songs "Stop! In the Name of Love" and "You Can't Hurry Love" are among the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988, received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1994, and entered into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 1998. Wilson was the only Supreme present for all three ceremonies. In 2004, Rolling Stone placed the group at number 96 on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". Supremes discography Singles Note: The seven of fourteen Diana Ross & the Supremes 1967–1970 singles Wilson appeared on are listed above. The seven singles she did not appear on are listed below: Note: Wilson sang lead on several songs recorded by The Supremes during the group's career and shared lead on 12 songs. Wilson recorded lead vocals to "Send Him to Me" and "If You Let Me Baby" during the Right On sessions which remain unreleased until 2022. Some of Wilson's unreleased lead vocals appeared on several post '77 releases including; "Our Day Will Come" from There's a Place for Us, "Still Water (Love)" from This Is the Story, "Can We Love Again" from The '70s Anthology, "You’re What’s Missing In My Life" [Mary Wilson Lead Version] also "Mr. Boogie" and "Give Out, But Don’t Give Up" [Mary Wilson Lead Version] from Let Yourself Go. The recordings where she had lead vocals are listed below: 1960: "Pretty Baby" 1961: "The Tears" (unreleased from Meet The Supremes) 1962: "Baby Don't Go" (from Meet The Supremes) 1966: "Come and Get These Memories" (from The Supremes A' Go-Go) 1967/1970: “Falling in Love with Love” (co-lead with Diana Ross from The Supremes Sing Rodgers & Hart; live solo version from Farewell) 1968: "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" (unreleased from Diana Ross & the Supremes Sing Disney Classics) 1969/1973: "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" (co-lead with Eddie Kendricks from Together; The Supremes Live! In Japan) 1972: "A Heart Like Mine" (from Floy Joy) 1972: "I Keep It Hid" (from The Supremes Produced and Arranged by Jimmy Webb) 1975: "Early Morning Love" (from The Supremes) 1975: "Where Is It I Belong" (from The Supremes) 1975: "You Turn Me Around" (from The Supremes) 1976: "Don't Let My Teardrops Bother You" (from High Energy) 1976: "Til The Boat Sails Away" (from High Energy) 1976: "I Don't Want To Lose You" (from High Energy) 1976: "We Should Be Closer Together" (from Mary, Scherrie & Susaye) 1976: "You Are The Heart of Me" (from Mary, Scherrie & Susaye) Solo discography Studio albums 1979: Mary Wilson 1992: Walk the Line 2021: Mary Wilson (Expanded Edition) Compilation albums 2000: I Am Changing 2021: Mary Wilson: The Motown Anthology Live album 2007: Up Close: Live from San Francisco DVDs 2006: Live at the Sands 2009: Up Close: Live from San Francisco Album guest appearances with Neil Sedaka on Come See About Me (one song) – "Come See About Me" with Paul Jabara on De La Noche Sisters (one song) – "This Girl's Back" on the album Sing For The Cure (one song) – "Come to Me Mother" with the Four Tops on From the Heart (2006) (one song) – "River Deep – Mountain High" with Human Nature on Get Ready (2007) (two songs) – "River Deep – Mountain High" and "It Takes Two" Singles Motown releases 1979: "Red Hot" / "Midnight Dancer" 1980: "Pick Up the Pieces" / "You're the Light That Guides My Way" (UK only) Nightmare/Motorcity releases 1987: "Don't Get Mad, Get Even" – Nightmare Records 1989: "Oooh Child" – Nightmare Records CEO releases 1992: "One Night With You" 1992: "Walk the Line" Other releases 1995: "U" R&B Mix with Groov-E  – Contract Recording Company 1996: "Turn Around" – Da Bridge Records 1996: "A Little Bit of Love" (with Clas Yngström on guitar) – Boderline Records 1996: "Ships in the Night" (with Clas Yngström on guitar) – Boderline Records 2000: "Got to Keep Movin'" 2011: "Life's Been Good to Me" – Motor City Works 2013: "Darling Mother (Johnnie Mae)" – Motor City Works 2015: "Time to Move On" 2021: "Why Can't We All Get Along" (posthumous) 1980: Gus Dudgeon produced master tracks for Motown – "Love Talk", "Save Me", "You Danced My Heart Around the Stars", "Green River"; released in 2021 as part of the Mary Wilson: Expanded Edition. Unreleased 1986: "My Lovelife is a Disaster" (unreleased demo) 1987: "Sleeping in Separate Rooms" – Atlantic Records 1987: "Stronger in a Broken Part" – Atlantic Records 1987: "The One I Love" – Atlantic Records "Can We Talk About It" "Show Me" "Love Child" (out-take from Walk the Line album) DVD appearances T.A.M.I. Show – performer, with the Supremes (1964) Beach Ball – performer, with the Supremes (1965) Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever – performer, with the Supremes (1983) Girl Groups: The Story of a Sound – herself (1994) Jeff Barry & Friends – Chapel of Love (2000)Jackie's Back (movie) – Vesta Crotchley (2002)Rhythm, Love and Soul – herself (2003)Tiger Town (movie) – National Anthem singer (2004)Only the Strong Survive – performer (2004)From the Heart: The Four Tops – 50th Anniversary Concert – performer (2005) Live at the Sands – herself (2006) Greatest Hits: Live in Amsterdam – performer, with the Supremes (2006) Reflections: The Definitive Performances (1964–1969) – singer (2006) Mary Wilson; Up Close: Live from San Francisco (2010) Other notable appearances Soul Train – Guest star with The Supremes; danced down "the Soul Train line" with Don Cornelius (May 12, 1973) 227 – Guest star; season 3/episode 8 (November 21, 1987) Brenda Russell: "Walkin' in New York" – cameo in music video Motown 40: The Music is Forever – herself (1998) Motown 45 – performer (2004) Motown: The Early Years: PBS Special (2005) My Music: Motown Memories: PBS Special – hostess (2009) Unsung: Florence Ballard – interviewee (2009) Unsung: The Marvelettes - interviewee (2012) Unsung: Eddie Kendricks – interviewee (2013) 60's Girl Grooves: PBS Special – hostess (2013) Dancing with the Stars – contestant on season 28 (2019) Notes References Bibliography External links Official site Mary Wilson interview by Pete Lewis, 'Blues & Soul' May 2009 Endorsed site Interview by Daiana Feuer, L.A. Record, August 2009 1944 births 2021 deaths 20th-century American singers 20th-century American women singers 21st-century American singers 21st-century American women singers Activists from Detroit Activists from Mississippi 21st-century African-American women singers American autobiographers American contraltos American women activists Deaths from hypertension Motown artists Musicians from Greenville, Mississippi People from Henderson, Nevada Singers from Detroit The Supremes members Women autobiographers Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City

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List of Guggenheim Fellowships awarded in 1999. U.S. and Canadian Fellows Chris Aiken, Choreographer and Dancer, Minneapolis; Teaching Specialist in Theatre Arts and Dance, University of Minnesota: Choreography. Jonathan Ames, Writer, New York City: Fiction. Barbara Watson Andaya, Professor of Asian Studies, University of Hawaii: A gendered history of early modern Southeast Asia. C. Edson Armi, Professor of History of Art, University of California, Santa Barbara: The first Romanesque architecture. Jon Robin Baitz, Playwright, New York City; Co-Director, Dramatic Writing Program, Juilliard School: Play writing. Peter Balakian, Professor of English, Colgate University: A family memoir. Lillian Ball, Artist, New York City: Visual art. Mary C. Beckerle, Professor of Biology, University of Utah: The molecular mechanism of cell movement. Robin Behn, Poet, Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Associate Professor of English, University of Alabama: Poetry. Andrea Belag, Artist, New York City; Instructor in Drawing, School of Visual Arts: Painting. David Beratan, Professor of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh: Energy transduction schemes in biology. Janet Catherine Berlo, Susan B. Anthony Professor of Gender and Women's Studies and Professor of Art History, University of Rochester: Graphic arts of the 19th-century Plains Indians. Derek Bermel, Composer, Brooklyn, New York: Music composition. Ben S. Bernanke, Howard Harrison and Gabrielle Snyder Beck Professor of Economics and Public Affairs, Princeton University: Economic policy and the Great Depression. David Biale, Koret Professor of Jewish History and Director, Richard S. Dinner Center for Jewish Studies, Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, California: Blood as a symbol and a substance in Western culture. Roger Bilham, Professor of Geological Sciences and Associate Director, Cooperative Institute for Research in the Environmental Sciences(CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder: Global urbanization and seismic risk. Sheila S. Blair, Independent Scholar, Richmond, New Hampshire: A survey of Islamic calligraphy. Caroline H. Bledsoe, Professor of Anthropology, Northwestern University: Body contingency and linearity in the history of Western obstetrics. Andrea Blum, Artist, New York City; Associate Professor of Art, Hunter College, City University of New York: Sculpture and public art. David Bottoms, Poet, Marietta, Georgia; Professor of English, Georgia State University: Poetry. Rogers Brubaker, Professor of Sociology, University of California, Los Angeles: Ethnicity and nationalism in a Transylvanian town. Stephen G. Brush, Distinguished University Professor of the History of Science, University of Maryland, College Park: A comparative study of theory evaluation in different sciences. Steven M. Burke, Composer, Hopewell Junction, New York: Music composition. Jacqueline Carey, Writer, Missoula, Montana: Fiction. Susan Carey, Professor of Psychology, New York University: The origin of concepts. George Chaconas, Professor of Biochemistry and MRC Distinguished Scientist, University of Western Ontario: Molecular biological studies of the Lyme disease spirochete. Gordon H. Chang, Associate Professor of History, Stanford University: America's relationship with Asia. Jay Clayton, Professor of English and Director of Graduate Studies, Vanderbilt University: Contemporary culture and the 19th-century heritage. Daniel A. Cohen, Associate Professor of History, Florida International University: Rebecca Reed and the burning of the Charlestown convent. Bernard Cooper, Writer, Los Angeles; Member of the Core Faculty in Fiction and Creative Non-Fiction, Antioch University: A memoir. Leda Cosmides, Associate Professor of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara: Reason and the evolution of the imagination (in collaboration with John Tooby). James Cracraft, Professor of History and University Scholar, University of Illinois at Chicago: The Petrine revolution in Russian culture. Blondell Cummings, Choreographer and Performer, New York City: Choreography. Andrew Cyrille, Composer, Montclair, New Jersey; Member of the Faculty in Music, New School for Social Research: Music composition. Frederick T. Davies, Jr., Professor of Horticulture and of Molecular and Environmental Plant Sciences, Texas A&M University: Mycorrhizal fungi as biofertilizers in Peruvian potato farming systems. Dick Davis, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, Ohio State University: Translation and literary hybridity. Robert C. Davis, Associate Professor of History, The Ohio State University: Italian responses to enslavement by Barbary Coast corsairs, 1500-1800. Victoria de Grazia, Professor of History, Columbia University: American market culture in 20th-century Europe. Percy Alec Deift, Professor of Mathematics, Courant Institute, New York University: Riemann-Hilbert problems in pure and applied mathematics. Paul DeMarinis, Artist, San Francisco; Lecturer in Sound Art, San Francisco Art Institute: Sound installation. Junot Díaz, Writer, New York City; Assistant Professor of Creative Writing, Syracuse University: Fiction. Patsy S. Dickinson, Professor of Biology, Bowdoin College: Long-term control of neural networks and neuronal properties. Tamar Diesendruck, Composer, Somerville, Massachusetts; Fellow, Bunting Institute, Radcliffe College: Music composition. Marita Dingus, Artist, Auburn, Washington: Sculpture. Emmanuel Dongala, Writer, Great Barrington, Massachusetts; Member of the Faculty in Literature and Chemistry, Simon's Rock College of Bard College: Fiction. Christopher B. Donnan, Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles: Ceramic portraits of ancient Peru. Linda Dowling, Independent Scholar, Princeton, New Jersey: Charles Eliot Norton and the art of civil life. Laura Lee Downs, Associate Professor of History, University of Michigan: French children's summer camps, 1880-1960. Ellen Carol DuBois, Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles: Women's enfranchisement worldwide. Alessandro Duranti, Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles: Walter Capps' campaign for the United States Congress. Barry Eichengreen, John L. Simpson Professor of Economics and Professor of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley: The European economy since 1945. G. Barney Ellison, Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder: Atmospheric processing of organic aerosols. Nader Engheta, Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania: Fractional paradigm of classical electrodynamics. Will Eno, Playwright, Brooklyn, New York: Play writing. Eve Ensler, Playwright, New York City: Play writing. Kathleen M. Erndle, Associate Professor of Religion, Florida State University: Women, goddess possession, and power in Kangra Hinduism. Jason Eskenazi, Photographer, Bayside, New York: Photography. Andrew G. Ewing, Professor of Chemistry, J. Lloyd Huck Professor in Natural Sciences, and Adjunct Professor of Neuroscience and Anatomy, Pennsylvania State University: Single-cell membrane structure following exocytosis. Carole Fabricant, Professor of English, University of California, Riverside: Anglo-Irish representations of colonial Ireland. B. H. Fairchild, Poet, Claremont, California; Professor of English, California State University, San Bernardino: Poetry. Aaron L. Fogelson, Professor of Mathematics, University of Utah: The processes of platelet aggregation and coagulation. John Foran, Professor of Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara: The origins of Third World social revolutions. David Frick, Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures, University of California, Berkeley: Peoples, confessions, and languages in 17th-century Vilnius. Peter Fritzsche, Professor of History, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: Nostalgia and memory. Kit Galloway, Video Artist, Santa Monica, California; Co-Director, Electronic Cafe International, Santa Monica: Video (in collaboration with Sherrie Rabinowitz). Andrew Garrison, Film Maker, Louisville, Kentucky; Visiting Lecturer in Film, University of Texas at Austin: Film making. Daniel Gilbert, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University: The psychology of affective forecasting. Scott F. Gilbert, Professor of Biology, Swarthmore College: The development and evolution of turtle shells. Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Associate Professor of History, Yale University: Americans and race from World War I to the Brown decision. Warren Ginsberg, Professor of English, University at Albany, State University of New York: Chaucer's Italian tradition. Robb W. Glenny, Associate Professor of Medicine and of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington School of Medicine: Efficient pulmonary gas exchange. Lydia Goehr, Professor of Philosophy, Columbia University: The concept of musicality in modernist opera. David Goldes, Photographer, Minneapolis; Professor of Media Arts, Minneapolis College of Art and Design: Photography. Cameron Gordon, Sid W. Richardson Foundation Regents Professor of Mathematics, University of Texas at Austin: Studies in three-dimensional manifolds. Kenneth R. Graves, Photographer, State College, Pennsylvania; Professor of Art, Pennsylvania State University: Photography. James E. Haber, Professor of Biology, Brandeis University: The mechanisms of recombination and DNA repair. Matt Harle, Artist, Brooklyn, New York: Sculpture. Neil Harris, Preston and Sterling Morton Professor of History, University of Chicago: A history of the American urban newspaper building. Jeffrey W. Harrison, Poet, Andover, Massachusetts; Roger Murray Writer-in-Residence, Phillips Academy, Andover: Poetry. Regina Harrison, Professor of Comparative Literature and Spanish and Director, Comparative Literature Program, University of Maryland, College Park: Cultural translation in colonial Spanish-Quechua literature. Kathryn Hellerstein, Lecturer in Yiddish Language and Literature, University of Pennsylvania: Women poets in Yiddish. Paul Hendrickson, Staff Writer, The Washington Post; Visiting Lecturer in English, University of Pennsylvania: The legacy of racism in Mississippi sheriffs' families. Michael Herzfeld, Professor of Anthropology, Harvard University: Past and present in modern Rome. Julia Heyward, Multi-media Artist, New York City; Visiting Instructor in Video Production, Pratt Institute: Multi-media art. Tin-Lun Ho, Professor of Physics, Ohio State University: The new physics of quantum gases of alkali atoms. Robert Hooper, Artist, Kildeer, Illinois: Painting. Jean E. Howard, Professor of English and Director, Institute for Research on Women and Gender, Columbia University: The social role of the London commercial theater in the early 17th century. Terence T. L. Hwa, Associate Professor of Physics, University of California, San Diego: Statistical mechanics of biopolymer association. Tina L. Ingraham, Artist, Brunswick, Maine: Painting. Mikhail Iossel, Writer, Schenectady, New York; Writer-in-Residence, Union College: Fiction. Robert Grant Irving, Independent Scholar, West Hartford, Connecticut; Associate Fellow, Berkeley College, Yale University: A life of Sir Herbert Baker, architect. Peter Iverson, Professor of History, Arizona State University: A history of the Navajos. David Jablonski, Professor of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago: A synthetic study of macroevolution. Ron Jenkins, Professor of Performing Arts, Emerson College: The theatrical artistry of Dario Fo. Ha Jin, Writer, Lawrenceville, Georgia; Associate Professor of English, Emory University: Fiction. Caroline A. Jones, Associate Professor of Art History, Boston University: Clement Greenberg and American art. William E. Jones, Film Maker, Los Angeles; Member of the Faculty, California Institute of the Arts: Film making. Shirley Kaneda, Artist, New York City: Painting. Leo Katz, Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania Law School: The perverse logic of law and morality. Carol Keller, Artist, Boston, Massachusetts; Assistant Professor of Art, Boston University: Visual art. Jeffrey Knapp, Associate Professor of English, University of California, Berkeley: Church, nation, and theater in Renaissance England. Paul Koonce, Composer, Princeton, New Jersey; Assistant Professor of Music, Princeton University: Music composition. Carol Lansing, Professor of History, University of California, Santa Barbara: The popolo minuto in medieval Bologna. Liz Larner, Artist, Los Angeles; Member of the MFA Faculty, Art Center College of Design, Pasadena: Sculpture. James M. Lattimer, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, State University of New York at Stony Brook: The equation of state and neutrino opacities in dense matter. Tanya Leullieux (La Tania), Choreographer, Willits, California; Artistic Director, Choreographer, and Dancer, La Tania Flamenco Music and Dance: Choreography. Yanguang Li, Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of Missouri; American Mathematical Society Centennial Fellow, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton: Chaos in partial differential equations. Ken Lum, Artist, Vancouver, Canada; Professor of Fine Arts, University of British Columbia: Visual art. Joseph H. Lynch, Professor of History, Ohio State University: Deathbed conversion to the monastic life, 850-1250. Sabine G. MacCormack, Mary Ann and Charles R. Walgreen, Jr., Professor for the Study of Human Understanding, Professor of Classical Studies, and Professor of History, University of Michigan: Historical writing in Spain and Peru, 1500-1650. Ivan G. Marcus, Frederick P. Rose Professor of Jewish History, Professor of History, and of Religious Studies, Yale University: The relationship of medieval Jews and Christians. Ingram Marshall, Composer, Hamden, Connecticut: Music composition. Emily Martin, Professor of Anthropology, Princeton University: A cultural analysis of mental terrain in the United States. Lisa L. Martin, Professor of Government, Harvard University: Institutional effects on state behavior. John Mason, Director, Yoruba Theological Archministry, Brooklyn, New York: Memorial wall-paintings for misspent inner city youth. Sara F. Matthews Grieco, Professor of History and Coordinator, Women's and Gender Studies, Syracuse University in Florence, Italy: Printed pictures and the construction of identity in Italy, 1450-1650. Peter I. Mészáros, Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pennsylvania State University: Gamma-ray bursts and their afterglows. Linne R. Mooney, Associate Professor of English, University of Maine: Professional scribes in medieval England. Ketan Mulmuley, Professor of Computer Science, University of Chicago: Studies in geometric complexity theory. Robert S. Nelson, Professor of Art History, University of Chicago: Hagia Sophia as medieval church and modern monument. Richard G. Newhauser, Professor of English and Medieval Studies, Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas: The sin of avarice in medieval and Renaissance thought. William Royall Newman, Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, Indiana University: Daniel Sennert and early modern matter-theory. Josip Novakovich, Writer, Cincinnati, Ohio; Associate Professor of English and Comparative Literature, University of Cincinnati: Fiction. Stephen Nowicki, Anne T. and Robert M. Bass Associate Professor of Zoology, Duke University: Nutrition and song-learning in birds. Geoffrey O'Brien, Writer, New York City; Editor-in-Chief, Library of America, New York City: Popular music in 20th-century American life. Alex O'Neal, Artist, Brooklyn, New York: Painting. Steve Orlen, Poet, Tucson, Arizona; Professor of English, University of Arizona; Member of the Faculty, Warren Wilson College MFA Program for Writers: Poetry. Katharine Park, Samuel Zemurray, Jr. and Doris Zemurray Stone-Radcliffe Professor of the History of Science and Women's Studies, Harvard University: The early history of human dissection. Robert ParkeHarrison, Photographer, Worcester, Massachusetts; Assistant Professor of Art, College of the Holy Cross: Photography. Pat Passlof, Artist, New York City; Professor of Art, College of Staten Island, City University of New York: Painting. Leighton Pierce, Film Maker, Iowa City; Professor of Film and Video Production, University of Iowa: Film making. Claudia Roth Pierpont, Writer, New York City; Contributor, The New Yorker: A biography of Lincoln Kirstein. David J. Pine, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Professor of Materials, University of California, Santa Barbara: The dynamics of mesoscopic glassy materials. Russell Pinkston, Composer, Austin, Texas; Associate Professor of Composition and Director, Electronic Music Studios, University of Texas at Austin: Music composition. Melissa Ann Pinney, Photographer, Evanston, Illinois; Adjunct Instructor in Photography, Columbia College Chicago: Photography. Robert A. Pollak, Hernreich Distinguished Professor of Economics, College of Arts and Sciences and the John M. Olin School of Business, Washington University in St. Louis: Family bargaining. Sherrie Rabinowitz, Video Artist, Santa Monica, California; Co-Director, Electronic Cafe International, Santa Monica: Video (in collaboration with Kit Galloway). Peter Railton, Professor of Philosophy, University of Michigan: Objectivity and value. Archie Rand, Artist, Brooklyn, New York; Professor of Visual Arts and Director of Painting and Drawing, Columbia University: Painting. Susan Rethorst, Choreographer, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Instructor in Choreography, Amsterdam School of the Arts: Choreography. Michael Riordan, Assistant to the Director, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, California; Adjunct Professor of Physics, University of California, Santa Cruz: The rise and fall of the Superconducting Super Collider. Tyson R. Roberts, Research Associate, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute(STRI), Panama, and Biodiversity Research and Training Program(BRTP), National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Bangkok, Thailand: Freshwater fishes of tropical Asia. Hanneline G. Rogeberg, Artist, Hoboken, New Jersey; Assistant Professor of Painting, Mason Gross School of the Arts, Rutgers University: Painting. Peter A. Rogerson, Professor of Geography, University at Buffalo, State University of New York: Statistical methods for the surveillance of geographic patterns. Kurt Rohde, Composer, San Francisco; Artistic Director, Chamber Music Partnership, San Francisco: Music composition. Pam Ronald, Associate Professor of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis: Bacterial factors affecting plant host signal transduction. Kristin Ross, Professor of Comparative Literature, New York University: French cultural memory and the May 1968 upheavals. Ira Sadoff, Poet, Hallowell, Maine; Dana Professor of Poetry, Colby College: Poetry. Roberto H. Schonmann, Professor of Mathematics, University of California, Los Angeles: Percolation and related processes on graphs. Seth Schwartz, Associate Professor of History, Jewish Theological Seminary: Imperialism and Jewish society, 200 BCE - 634 CE. Carol Shields, Writer, Winnipeg, Canada; Chancellor, University of Winnipeg; Professor of English, University of Manitoba: Fiction. Uri Shulevitz, Artist and Writer, New York City: Sephardic folktales for young readers. Montgomery Slatkin, Professor of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley: Population genetics of human genetic diseases. Steven B. Smith, Photographer, Providence, Rhode Island; Adjunct Professor of Photography, Rhode Island School of Design: Photography. C. Christopher Soufas, Jr., Professor of Spanish, Tulane University: Spanish literature in modernist Europe. Joel Spruck, Professor of Mathematics, The Johns Hopkins University: Nonlinear problems in geometry. Richard Stamelman, Professor of Romance Languages and Literatures, Williams College: The literature and culture of perfume. Duncan G. Steel, Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and Professor of Physics, University of Michigan: Semiconductor nanostructures for quantum information. Christopher Sullivan, Film Animator, Chicago; Associate Professor of Film Making, School of the Art Institute of Chicago: Film animation. Katherine H. Tachau, Professor of History, University of Iowa: The creation of the Bibles moralisées in 13th-century Paris. Éva Tardos, Professor of Computer Science, Cornell University: Approximation-algorithms for network problems. Maria Tatar, Professor of German, Harvard University: "Bluebeard" in folklore, fiction, and film noir. Roger Tibbetts, Artist, Dayville, Connecticut; Associate Professor of Painting, Massachusetts College of Art: Painting and sculpture. John Tooby, Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara: Reason and the evolution of the imagination (in collaboration with Leda Cosmides). Alan M. Wald, Professor of English and American Culture, University of Michigan: The American literary left in the mid-20th century. Mack Walker, Professor of History, The Johns Hopkins University: The Halle enlightenment, 1685-1725. Alice Wexler, Research Scholar, Center for the Study of Women, University of California, Los Angeles: Chorea and community in East Hampton, New York. Susan Wheeler, Poet, New York City; Member of the MFA Faculty in Creative Writing, New School for Social Research: Poetry. Brian White, Professor of Mathematics, Stanford University: Minimal surfaces and mean-curvature flow. Bruce Winstein, Samuel K. Allison Distinguished Service Professor of Physics, University of Chicago: Polarization measurement of cosmic microwave background radiation. Brian Wood, Photographer and Artist, New York City; Lecturer in Photography, Yale University: Photography and graphic art. Martha Woodmansee, Professor of English, Case Western Reserve University: Germany's contribution to the Western concept of intellectual property. Randall Woolf, Composer, Brooklyn, New York: Music composition. James D. Wuest, Professor of Chemistry, University of Montreal: Molecular tectonics. Wu Hung, Harrie A. Vanderstappen Distinguished Service Professor of Art History, University of Chicago: Ruins in Chinese visual culture. Andrei Y. Yakovlev, Professor and Director of Biostatistics, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah: Oligodendrocyte development in cell culture. Reginald Yates, Choreographer, Tampa, Florida; Artist-in-Residence, Juilliard School: Choreography. Eric Zencey, Writer, East Calais, Vermont: The Wollemi pines. Xin Zhou, Associate Professor of Mathematics, Duke University: Oscillatory Riemann-Hilbert problems. Latin American and Caribbean Fellows Carlos Aguirre, Assistant Professor of Latin American History, University of Oregon: A social, political, and cultural history of imprisonment in modern Peru. Alfredo Benavidez Bedoya, Artist, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Rector, High School of Fine Arts 'Ernesto de la Cárcova', Buenos Aires: Graphic art. Esteban Buch, Writer and Musicologist, Paris, France: Opera, zoophilia, and dictatorship. Gloria Camiruaga, Video Artist, Santiago, Chile: Film making. Marisa Carrasco, Associate Professor of Psychology and Neural Sciences, New York University: Effects of spatial attention on visual perception. María C. Chavarría, Assistant Professor of Spanish, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis: Ethnolinguistic dictionary of Ese eja and Spanish. Gabri Christa, Choreographer, Staten Island, New York and Curaçao; Artistic Director, CREATE!, Il Piccolo Teatro, Brooklyn, New York: Choreography. Hildegardo Córdova Aguilar, Professor of Geography and Executive Director, Research Center for Applied Geography (CIGA), Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima: The environmental sustainability of medium-sized cities in Peru. René Davids, Associate Professor of Architecture, University of California, Berkeley: The hillside elevator as a generator of social and urban form in Valparaíso. Roberto Escudero, Professor of Physics, Institute of Materials Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM): Electron tunneling in magnetic systems. Jorge Febles Dueñas, Research Professor, Center for Anthropology, Havana, Cuba: The application of new information and communication technologies to archaeology. Pablo A. Ferrari, Professor of Mathematics, University of São Paulo, Brazil: Space-time behavior, quasi-stationarity, and random environment for interacting particle systems. Paz Alicia Garciadiego, Screenwriter, Mexico City: Screen writing. Roberto Gargarella, Professor of Constitutional Law and Legal Philosophy, Universidad Torcuato di Tella, Buenos Aires, Argentina: The philosophical bases of South American constitutionalism, 1810-1860. Jorge Daniel Gelman, Professor of History, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina: The state and the agrarian question in Buenos Aires in the first half of the 19th century. Guillermo Giucci, Adjunct Professor of Brazilian Literature, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: A cultural biography of Gilberto Freyre. Flavio Grynszpan, Assistant Professor, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California: Towards the design and synthesis of artificial enzymes. Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, Professor of Molecular Neurobiology, Catholic University of Chile, Santiago: A study of the interaction of cholinesterases with the amyloid-β peptide. Leopoldo Infante, Associate Professor of Astrophysics, Catholic University of Chile, Santiago: Formation and evolution of structure in the universe. Noemi Lapzeson, Choreographer, Teacher, and Artistic Director, Vertical Danse-Company Noemi Lapzeson, Geneva, Switzerland: Choreography. Pedro Lemebel, Writer, Santiago, Chile; Radio Commentator, Radio Tierra Purísima, Santiago: Chronicles of a sinner. Enrique P. Lessa, Professor of Evolution, University of the Republic, Montevideo, Uruguay: Geographic genetic structure in the Rio Negro tuco-tuco. João Gilberto Noll, Writer, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Columnist, Folha de S.Paulo: Fiction. Osvaldo L. Podhajcer, Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina; Head, Gene Therapy Laboratory, Fundacion Campomar, Buenos Aires: Molecular mechanisms associated with human melanoma progression. Rosângela Rennó, Artist, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Multimedia and installation art. Mario Sagradini, Artist, Montevideo, Uruguay: Installation art. Arthur Simms, Artist, Long Island City, New York; Preparator, Museum of Modern Art, New York City: Sculpture. Heinz R. Sonntag, Professor of Sociology and Senior Researcher, Center for Development Studies, Central University of Venezuela, Caracas: Exclusion, poverty, integration, and cohesion in comparative perspective. Javier Téllez, Artist, Long Island City, New York: Installation art. Teresa Toledo Cabrera, Independent Researcher and Specialist in Latin American Film Documentation, Madrid, Spain: A dictionary of Latin American film directors. Henrique E. Toma, Professor of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Brazil: Supramolecular complexes and devices. Sergio Vega, Artist, New York City: Installation art. Julia Vicioso, Architect, Rome, Italy: The role of the Columbus family palace in the development of colonial Latin American architecture. Mariana Villanueva, Composer, Morelos, Mexico: Music composition. See also Guggenheim Fellowship External links John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation home page 1999 1999 awards

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The original World Trade Center (WTC) was a large complex of seven buildings in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It opened on April 4, 1973, and was destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers—the original 1 World Trade Center (the North Tower) at ; and 2 World Trade Center (the South Tower) at —were the tallest buildings in the world. Other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The complex contained of office space. The core complex was built between 1966 and 1975, at a cost of $400 million (equivalent to $2.27 billion in 2021). The idea was suggested by David Rockefeller to help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, and his brother Nelson signed the legislation to build it. The buildings at the complex were designed by Minoru Yamasaki. In 1998, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey decided to privatize it by leasing the buildings to a private company to manage. It awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in . During its existence, the World Trade Center symbolized globalization and the economic power of America. Although its design was initially criticized by New York citizens and professional critics, the Twin Towers became an icon of New York City. It had a major role in popular culture, and according to one estimate was depicted in 472 films. The Twin Towers were also used in Philippe Petit's frequent tightrope-walking performance on August 7, 1974. Following the September 11 attacks, mentions of the complex in various media were altered or deleted, and several dozen "memorial films" were created. The World Trade Center experienced several major crime and terrorist incidents, including a fire on , 1975; a bombing on , 1993; a bank robbery on , 1998, and finally a terrorist attack on September 11, 2001. The latter began after Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the Twin Towers within minutes of each other. Between 16,400 and 18,000 people were in the Twin Towers when they were struck. The fires from the impacts were intensified by the planes’ burning jet fuel, which along with the initial damage to the buildings’ structural columns, ultimately caused both towers to collapse. The attacks in New York City killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft. Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the WTC complex’s buildings including 7 World Trade Center, and caused catastrophic damage to 10 other large structures in the surrounding area. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which the remains of the other buildings were demolished. On May 30, 2002, the last piece of WTC steel was ceremonially removed. A new World Trade Center complex is being built with six new skyscrapers and several other buildings, many of which are complete. A memorial and museum to those killed in the attacks, a new rapid transit hub, and an elevated park have been opened. The memorial features two square reflecting pools in the center marking where the Twin Towers stood. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere at and the lead building for the new complex, was completed in May 2013 and opened in November 2014. Before the World Trade Center Site The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River. The shoreline was in the vicinity of Greenwich Street, which is closer to the site's eastern border. It was on this shoreline, close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street, that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block's ship, Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding him and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended beginning in 1797 and was discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second eighteenth-century ship were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers stood, about below the surface. Later, the area became New York City's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966. The neighborhood was a warehouse district in what is now Tribeca and the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually, the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., AN/ARC-5 radios), junk, and parts were often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business. Establishment of the World Trade Center The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project, but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center there. Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; or the west side, near the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) station, Hudson Terminal. Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center. As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate. At the time, ridership on New Jersey's H&M Railroad had declined substantially-from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958- after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River. In a meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the H&M Railroad. They also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH. With the new location and the Port Authority's acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project. As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M "Port Authority Trans-Hudson", or PATH for short. To compensate Radio Row business owners for their displacement, the Port Authority gave each business $3,000 without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous it was. The Port Authority began purchasing properties in the area for the World Trade Center by March 1965, and demolition of Radio Row began in March 1966. It was completely demolished by the end of the year. Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On , 1966, an agreement was reached whereby the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased. Design, construction, and criticism Design On , 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects. Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers. His original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority's requirement for of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall. Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on , 1964, called for a square plan approximately in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows wide, which reflected Yamasaki's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. His design included building facades clad in aluminum-alloy. The World Trade Center was one of the most striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier and was the seminal expression of Yamasaki's gothic modernist tendencies. He was also inspired by Islamic architecture, elements of which he incorporated in the building's design, having previously designed Saudi Arabia's Dhahran International Airport with the Saudi Binladin Group. A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service it, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies"—floors where people could switch from a large-capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local-express train operation used in New York City's subway system, allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently. This increased the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators. The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the framed-tube structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project. As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to the local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the World Trade Center's structural engineers ended up following draft versions of New York City's new 1968 building codes. The framed-tube design, introduced in the 1960s by Bangladeshi-American structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. Each of the World Trade Center towers had 236 high-strength, load-bearing perimeter steel columns which acted as Vierendeel trusses. The perimeter columns were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at the fabrication shop. Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not on the same floor. Below the 7th floor to the foundation, there were fewer, wider-spaced perimeter columns to accommodate doorways. The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants. Hat trusses (or "outrigger trusses") located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building. Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an spire antenna fitted, which was added in May 1979. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower. The framed-tube design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire-resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements. During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces. Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sways. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level. Construction In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site. Demolition work began on , 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for its construction. Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on , 1966. The site of the World Trade Center was located on filled land with the bedrock located below. To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub" with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out. The slurry method selected by the Port Authority's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a "slurry" mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the "slurry" out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before the excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin. The of excavated material were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City. In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers. Construction work began on the North Tower in , and construction on the South Tower was under way by . The original Hudson Tubes, which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service during the construction process until 1971, when a new station opened. The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on , 1970, while 2 WTC's ceremony (South Tower) occurred on , 1971. Extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in , while it was still under construction, while the South Tower began accepting tenants in . When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million. The ribbon cutting ceremony took place on , 1973. In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low-rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47-story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a superblock. Criticism Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. Its site was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation. A group of affected small businesses sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority's power of an eminent domain. The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; it refused to hear the case. Private real-estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized" office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector, when there was already a glut of vacancies. The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only because the complex's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space cheaper than those for comparable space in other buildings. Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority". The World Trade Center's design aesthetics attracted criticism from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project, describing it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass-and-metal filing cabinets". The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in". Many disliked the twin towers' narrow office windows, which were only wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs argued the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy. Some critics regarded the trade center's "superblock", replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city". Complex The World Trade Center complex housed more than 430 companies that were engaged in various commercial activities. On a typical weekday, an estimated 50,000 people worked in the complex and another 140,000 passed through as visitors. The complex hosted of office space, and was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048. The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise. It became a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, the Chrysler Building, and the Statue of Liberty. The World Trade Center was compared to Rockefeller Center, which David Rockefeller's brother Nelson Rockefeller had developed in midtown Manhattan. North and South Towers One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly referred to as the Twin Towers, were designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center. Construction of the North Tower at One World Trade Center began in 1966 with the South Tower at Two World Trade Center. When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after its 40-year reign. The North Tower stood tall and featured a telecommunications antenna or mast that was built on the roof in 1979 (upgraded in 1999 to accommodate DTV broadcasts). With this addition, the highest point of the North Tower reached . Chicago's Sears Tower, finished in , reached at the rooftop. When completed in 1973, the South Tower became the second tallest building in the world at . Its rooftop observation deck was high and its indoor observation deck was high. Each tower stood over high, and occupied about of the total of the site's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110-story buildings? Why not one 220-story building?" His tongue-in-cheek response was: "I didn't want to lose the human scale." The twin towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building before the completion of the Sears Tower in 1973. Their floor counts were not matched until the construction of the Sears Tower, and they were not surpassed until the construction of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons. Austin J. Tobin Plaza The original World Trade Center had a massive, plaza which all of the buildings in the complex, including the Twin Towers, centered around. In 1982, the immense plaza between the twin towers was renamed after the man who authorized the construction of the original World Trade Center: Port Authority's late chairman, Austin J. Tobin. During the summer, the Port Authority installed a portable stage, typically backed up against the North Tower within Tobin Plaza for musicians and performers. The odd layout for performances was due to the installation of The Sphere with a fountain in the center of the plaza, which only allowed for about 6,000 fans. The site had other sculptures, such as Ideogram, Cloud Fortress or the 1993 World Trade Center bombing Memorial fountain. The plaza was pervaded by background music that came from installed loudspeakers. For many years, the Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers. Some gusts were so strong that pedestrians' travel had to be aided by ropes. On June 9, 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million in renovations. This involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas. Top of the World observation deck Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off-limits to the public, the South Tower featured a public glass-enclosed observation deck on the 107th floor called Top of the World and an open-air deck with the height of 110 stories. The observation deck was operative since December 1975 and the opening times were from 9:30 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. (June - August) and from 9:30 a.m. - 9:30 p.m. (September - May). After paying an entrance fee, visitors were required to pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. They were then sent to the 107th-floor indoor observatory at a height of by a dedicated express elevator. The exterior columns were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. In 1995, the Port Authority leased operation of the observatory to Ogden Entertainment, which decided to renovate it. On April 30, 1997, the tour was named as Top of the World. Attractions added to the observation deck included 24 video monitors, which provided descriptions of 44 points of interest in six languages; a theater, showing a film of a simulated helicopter tour around the city; a model of Manhattan with 750 buildings; and two gift shops. The 107th-floor also featured a subway-themed food court that featured Sbarro and Nathan's Famous Hot Dogs. Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th-floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of . On a clear day, visitors could see up to . An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing. This left the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building. Windows on the World Restaurant Windows on the World, the restaurant on the North Tower's 106th and 107th floors, opened in . It was developed by restaurateur Joe Baum at a cost of more than $17 million. As well as the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: Hors d'Oeuvrerie (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and Cellar in the Sky (a small wine bar). Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly, who published a book on the course. Windows on the World was forced to close following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing as the explosion damaged receiving areas, storage and parking spots used by the restaurant complex. On May 12, 1994, the Joseph Baum & Michael Whiteman Company won the contract to run the restaurants after Windows's former operator, Inhilco, gave up its lease. After its reopening in June 26, 1996, the Greatest Bar on Earth and Cellar in the Sky (reopened after Labor Day) replaced the original restaurant offshoots. In 1999, Cellar in the Sky was changed into an American steakhouse and renamed as Wild Blue. In 2000 (its last full year of operation), Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest-grossing restaurant in the United States. The Sky Dive Restaurant on the 44th floor of the North Tower was also operated by Windows on the World. In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews. Ruth Reichl, a New York Times food critic, said in December 1996 that "nobody will ever go to Windows on the World just to eat, but even the fussiest food person can now be content dining at one of New York's favorite tourist destinations". She gave the restaurant two out of four stars, signifying a "very good" quality. In his 2009 book Appetite, William Grimes wrote that, "At Windows, New York was the main course". In 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com compared the now-destroyed restaurant's cuisine to that of its replacement, One World Observatory. He said, "Windows helped usher in a new era of captive audience dining in that the restaurant was a destination in itself, rather than a lazy by-product of the vital institution it resided in." Other buildings Five smaller buildings stood on the block. One was the 22-floor hotel, which opened at the southwest corner of the site in 1981 as the Vista Hotel; in 1995, it became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC). Three low-rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC), which were steel-framed office buildings, also stood around the plaza. 6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service. 5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station, and 4 World Trade Center, located at the southeast corner, housed the U.S. Commodities Exchange. In 1987, construction was completed on a 47-floor office building, 7 World Trade Center, located to the north of the superblock. Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall. It had connections to various mass transit facilities, including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority's PATH trains. One of the world's largest gold depositories was located underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault. Seven weeks after the attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC. This included 3,800 100-Troy-ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000-ounce silver bars. Major events February 13, 1975 fire On February 13, 1975, a three-alarm fire broke out on the North Tower's 11th floor. It spread to the 9th and 14th floors after igniting telephone cable insulation in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately; the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol-based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to fire damage on the 9th through the 14th floors, the water used to extinguish the fire damaged a few of the floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems. On March 12, 1981 the Port Authority announced a $45 million plan to install sprinklers throughout the World Trade Center. February 26, 1993 bombing The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12:17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with of explosives (planted by Ramzi Yousef) detonated in the North Tower’s underground garage. The blast opened a 100ft (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured in the attacks, some from smoke inhalation. Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman and four other individuals were later convicted for their involvement in the bombing, while Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted for carrying out the bombing. According to a presiding judge, the conspirators' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the North Tower and send it crashing into the South Tower, toppling both skyscrapers. Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns. The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and the loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged. After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent pathway markings in the stairwells. The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system were destroyed. A memorial to the victims of the bombing, a reflecting pool, was installed with the names of those who were killed in the blast. It was later destroyed following the attacks. The names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum. January 14, 1998 robbery In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center. He arranged a three-man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the North Tower’s 11th floor. Other events On the morning of August 7, 1974, Philippe Petit performed a high-wire walk between the North and South Towers of the World Trade Center. For his unauthorized feat above the ground, he rigged a cable and used a custom-made , balancing pole. He performed for 45 minutes, making eight passes along the wire. Though Petit was charged with criminal trespass and disorderly conduct, he was later freed in exchange for performing for children in Central Park. On February 20, 1981, an Aerolíneas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers after radar signals indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft, which departed from José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and was scheduled to land at nearby JFK Airport, was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended. The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower. Proposed lease Slow leasing was a hallmark of the old World Trade Center complex. The Twin Towers suffered high vacancy rates for decades. The complex achieved full occupancy only in the 2000s. Following the Port Authority's approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center in the late 1990s, they sought to lease it to a private entity in 2001. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust; a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties; and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group. Privatizing the World Trade Center would add it to the city's tax rolls and provide funds for other Port Authority projects. On , 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the World Trade Center lease, paying $3.25 billion for the 99-year lease. Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39-year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable. Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on , 2001, and closed on , 2001. Destruction On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower at 8:46:40 a.m.; the aircraft struck between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03:11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors. The terrorist organization Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, carried out the attacks in retaliation for certain aspects of American foreign policy, particularly U.S. support of Israel and the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people. Flight 175 had a much more off-centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to descend successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number (fewer than 700) were killed instantly or trapped. At 9:59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane's impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes. At 5:20 p.m. on , 2001, 7 World Trade Center began to collapse with the crumbling of the east penthouse and collapsed completely at 5:21 p.m. due to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure. The Marriott World Trade Center hotel was destroyed during the two towers’ collapse. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later demolished. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months. The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned because of the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011. The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned due to extensive damage, and it was demolished and completely rebuilt. In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could have been inside the World Trade Center. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated approximately 17,400 individuals were in the towers at the time of the attacks. Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9/11 attacks. 2,192 civilians died in and around the World Trade Center, including 658 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st to 105th floors of One World Trade Center), 295 employees of Marsh & McLennan Companies (located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 to 101, the location of Flight 11's impact), and 175 employees of Aon Corporation. In addition to the civilian deaths, 414 sworn personnel were also killed: 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters, including 2 FDNY paramedics and 1 FDNY chaplain, and 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Eight EMS personnel from private agencies also died in the attacks. Ten years after the attacks, the remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified. Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive. New World Trade Center Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan; however, substantial changes were made to the design. The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened on . The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011, and the museum opened on May 21, 2014. 1 WTC opened on , 2014; 4 WTC opened on , 2013; and 3 WTC opened on June 11, 2018. In November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC would not be built to its full height until sufficient space was leased to make the building financially viable. Above-ground construction of 5 WTC was also suspended due to a lack of tenants as well as disputes between the Port Authority and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. In mid-2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned 2 WTC, to be designed by Bjarke Ingels and completed by 2020 with News Corp as anchor tenant. Four years later, with no anchor tenant for 2 WTC, Silverstein expressed his intent to resume work on the tower regardless of whether a tenant had signed. Impact On the surrounding community The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community. The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the 12 block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively. 7 World Trade Center, built on the superblock's north side in the late 1980s, was built over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south. The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets. The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious, with the design having had no public input. By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input. The public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site. One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center. However, the Port Authority ultimately decided to rebuild Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which were destroyed during the original World Trade Center's construction. As an icon of popular culture Before its destruction, the World Trade Center was a New York City icon, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. They were used in film and TV projects as "establishing shots", standing for New York City as a whole. In 1999, one writer noted: "Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city's top ten attractions." There were several high-profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable was held at the original WTC in 1974. French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the two towers on a tightrope, as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008) and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015). Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable. In 1975, Owen J. Quinn base-jumped from the roof of the North Tower and safely landed on the plaza between the buildings. Quinn claimed that he was trying to publicize the plight of the poor. In May 26, 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower. He later said, "It looked unscalable; I thought I'd like to try it." Six years later, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers. The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; in 2006, it was estimated that the World Trade Center had appeared in some form in 472 films. Several iconic meanings were attributed to the World Trade Center. Film critic David Sterritt, who lived near the complex, said that the World Trade Center's appearance in the 1978 film Superman "summarized a certain kind of American grandeur [...] the grandeur, I would say, of sheer American powerfulness". Remarking on the towers' destruction in the 1996 film Independence Day, Sterritt said: "The Twin Towers have been destroyed in various disaster movies that were made before 9/11. That became something that you couldn't do even retroactively after 9/11." Other motifs included romance, depicted in the 1988 film Working Girl, and corporate avarice, depicted in Wall Street (1987) and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1987). Comic books, animated cartoons, television shows, video games, and music videos also used the complex as a setting. After the September 11 attacks After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center. For example, The Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson", which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center. Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer aired on radio, and the release dates of some films, such as the 2001–2002 films Sidewalks of New York; People I Know; and Spider-Man were delayed so producers could remove film and poster scenes that included the World Trade Center. The 2001 film Kissing Jessica Stein, which was shown at the Toronto International Film Festival the day before the attacks, had to be modified before its general public release so the filmmakers could delete scenes that depicted the World Trade Center. Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts. The production of some family-oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for the genre after the attacks. Demand for horror and action films decreased, but within a short time demand returned to normal. By the attacks’ first anniversary, over sixty "memorial films" had been created. Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of The Washington Post said "if we erase the towers from our art, we erase from our memories". Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively "rectified". Other filmmakers such as Michael Bay, who directed the 1998 film Armageddon, opposed retroactively removing references to the World Trade Center based on post-9/11 attitudes. Oliver Stone's film World Trade Center—the first movie that specifically examined the attacks’ effects on the World Trade Center as contrasted with the effects elsewhere—was released in 2006. Several years after the attacks, works such as "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson" were placed back in syndication. The National September 11 Museum has preserved many of the works that feature depictions of the original World Trade Center. See also Artwork damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks List of tallest freestanding steel structures List of tallest freestanding structures References Bibliography External links World Trade Center – Silverstein Properties World Trade Center (1997) - World Trade Center (2001) – Port Authority of New York & New Jersey Building the Twin Towers: A Tribute – slideshow by Life magazine New York: A Documentary film features the construction and destruction of the World Trade Center in the seventh and final episode of the series directed by Ric Burns. Historic video with scenes of World Trade Center under construction in 1970 (North Tower) (North Tower) (North Tower) American Airlines Flight 11 1973 establishments in New York City 2001 disestablishments in New York (state) Buildings and structures demolished in 2001 Articles containing video clips Office buildings completed in 1973 Buildings and structures destroyed in the September 11 attacks Buildings associated with crimes Demolished buildings and structures in Manhattan Financial District, Manhattan Former skyscrapers Former world's tallest buildings Historic American Buildings Survey in New York City History of New York City Minoru Yamasaki buildings Modernist architecture in New York City Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan Twin towers United Airlines Flight 175 New York

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Pinoy Big Brother: Double Up is the third main season of the Philippine ABS-CBN reality television series Pinoy Big Brother and the seventh season overall, which began on October 4, 2009 on ABS-CBN. Toni Gonzaga, Mariel Rodriguez, and Bianca Gonzalez reprised their hosting duties this season. It ran for 133 days until February 13, 2010, which broke Season 2's record for the longest stay of housemates inside the house by only one week. There were two sets of auditions for this season. The first set was held in late 2007 at several cities in the Philippines, as well as the cities of Madrid, Milan, and Dubai. Those auditions also produced the housemates for Pinoy Big Brother: Teen Edition Plus. A second series of auditions, which included selections for the third Teen Edition, were held in several key cities in the Philippines and the cities of Tokyo and San Francisco. An estimated 57,824 people attended the auditions. From those two auditions, only 50 people were reportedly chosen for the shortlist. A total of 26 housemates entered the House, with 14 on Day 1 and ten on Day 7. The last two housemates entered on Day 43. The winner of the new season received an LCD TV set, an Asian tour package, a business package, a house and lot, and PHP 1 million in cash. The winner also donated another PHP 1 million to a charity of their choice, making Double Up the first non-celebrity season to do so. This season also marked the return of Pinoy Big Brother UpLate, after being replaced by Pinoy Big Brother Über in the second Celebrity Edition and Pinoy Big Brother: Teen Edition Plus. Mariel continued hosting Über while Bianca took the helm for UpLate. Episodes from the previous week were also recapped through a weekend program on Studio 23 entitled Pinoy Big Brother: Primetime Weekends on 23 and delayed, but unedited late morning/early afternoon feed through Pinoy Big Brother: Raw on Studio 23. Melisa Cantiveros emerged as the winner of this season. Overview House theme With the Double-up twist of having two houses, the houses have a European motif for interiors with bright colors as inspired by architectural designs of Antoni Gaudí for House A and Vincent Van Gogh's paintings for House B. The houses appear to be smaller than before, with each house having the same set of amenities with different wall paintings. House A has predominantly blue and green wall paintings. House B has predominantly red and yellow wall paintings. Furthermore, House A's garden inherits the infinity pool previously seen in Teen Edition: Plus and the second season of Pinoy Dream Academy; House B only has a simple terrace area with a jacuzzi at one side. Double Up Twists Aside from having two Houses, the season was dubbed Double-Up for several reasons. Double-Up Housemates - Two sets of identical twins were included in the roster of housemates - with each member of the twins living in both parts of the house, switching between the two areas when instructed. However, the rest of the housemates do not know about the twins, or the fact that there are two houses. The twins will also receive immunity from nomination for eviction during the first nomination night if they succeed in keeping this a secret, but if they do reveal it they will be forcibly evicted. House Swaps - Housemates are made to swap houses and group members as instructed by Big Brother. Bagyong Walay - Big Brother instructed female housemates from Houses A and B to swap houses. Big Brother Swap - Carrying on from the second regular season, a Filipino housemate would temporarily trade places with a housemate from another active Big Brother season abroad (see below). Bagyong Isa - Housemates from both houses will be staying in one house. 14 housemates should survive Vote To Evict in order for them to stay in one house. Vote To Evict - The public is given the power to vote to evict a housemate. The housemate with the highest votes will be evicted at the end of the week. SE Voting System - The public votes to save or evict a housemate. Housemate with the lowest net votes, save and evict votes combined, is evicted. Head of Household and Hand Grenade - The Head of Household twist is once again used with the Hand Grenade as the new addition. Both were implemented after the housemates began living in one house. The Hand Grenade goes to the ultimate loser in the HOH competition. See Head of Household and Hand Grenade sections for further details. Char-Char Change - Big Brother made a fake announcement that public voting is discontinued and the housemates themselves will vote among the nominees for who should be evicted, but the ultimate fate will still be decided by the public. Big Brother used this system to show each housemate's true feelings toward their fellow housemates. The name of the twist is a play on Charter change and "Char-Char," which is Filipino slang for "false." House Players - Evicted or Former housemate/s will return to the house to test the remaining official housemates through tasks set by Big Brother and the audience. The Big Jump to the Big Night - The seven remaining housemates will undergo a series of challenges. The overall winner will be granted permanent immunity from nominations and automatic inclusion into the Big Night. The White Room - Two of the six remaining housemates would undergo an endurance challenge in a purely white room for a chance to win a brand-new house and lot. A housemate would lose the challenge if he or she pressed a red button somewhere in the room. Big Five - Big Brother decided to put five housemates in contention for the Big Winner title instead of the standard four; the "Fifth Big Placer" would get PHP100,000 as his prize and the same amount for his chosen charity. Big Reveal - For the first time in the franchise's history, the actual ranking of the finalists were revealed to the public before the Big Night. This happened on Day 129. Housemates There were a total of twenty-six housemates - twenty official housemates, four sub-official housemates, and two replacement housemates, who entered the Houses: the first set of 14 housemates entered on Day 1 (October 4, 2009), while a second set of 10 were introduced on Day 7 (October 10, 2009). A third batch of two housemates entered the house on Day 43 (November 15, 2009). They are divided below by the batch from which they were introduced and House in which they live. The ages indicated were the housemates' ages upon their entrance to the house. The twins are marked with different colors. A table is included to show the housemates shifted houses in the duration of the show. The first batch of housemates entered the Houses on Day 1 (October 4, 2009) in the order shown. They appeared and disappeared from stage with the use of several magic tricks, with a Magic-themed kick-off. Filipino-American artist Amber Davis sang the theme song, with ex-housemates Jason Gainza, Cassandra Ponti and Franzen Fajardo from Season 1, Niña Jose from Teen Edition 1, and Wendy Valdez and Gee-Ann Abrahan from Season 2. The second batch of Housemates entered the Big Brother House on Day 7 (October 10, 2009), during another special show called "The Spooktacular Reveal," utilizing a haunted house theme. Housemates were escorted by hosts Bianca and Mariel to the front door of the house. While the 10 housemates in the two houses danced to the tune of Thriller, outside the house, present were Big Winners and ex-housemates Nene Tamayo from Season 1, John Prats from Celebrity Edition 1, Beatriz Saw and Mickey Perz from Season 2, Robi Domingo from Teen Edition Plus, and the recently evicted Double-up housemates Kenny and Toffi Santos and JM Lagumbay. On Day 41 (November 13, 2009), right after Big Brother announced Tom's forced eviction to the housemates, primetime edition host Toni Gonzaga revealed that new housemate(s) - confirmed during the following night's broadcast as a guy and a girl - would enter the house. The new housemates entered on Day 43 (November 15, 2009). House stay history Big Brother Swap It was announced by the program on Day 21 (October 24, 2009) that another Big Brother Swap would take place. This time, one from either House would trade places with another housemate from another foreign edition of Big Brother. This would also be the second time that Pinoy Big Brother linked up with other foreign versions of the show, Season 2 being the first, when housemate Bruce Quebral traded places with Tina Semolič from the first season of Big Brother Slovenia. On Day 26, it was announced by the host that the show would be swapping housemates with Big Brother Finland's fifth season. On Oct. 29, 2009, ABS-CBN's YouTube channel, iABS-CBN, uploaded a video confirming that the housemate from Big Brother Finland who will swap places in the Philippines is Kätlin Laas (video), a 22-year-old food processing plant worker originally from Rakvere, Estonia but migrated to Finland at the age of 16, and is currently living in Seinäjoki, Finland. On Day 27, it was announced that Cathy from Group A, then currently living in House B, would be swapping with Kätlin and would be going to Finland to live in their Big Brother House for a week. Cathy's selection was made through a series of tasks on which the housemates underwent on the watchful eyes of the Finnish producers. Kätlin left the Big Brother Finland House on Day 26 (Day 66 of the Finnish version) and enter either Philippine House on Day 29 (Day 69 of the Finnish version). She was supposed to arrive in the Philippines and enter either House the day before, but her flight was delayed due to weather disturbances caused by Typhoon Santi. Hours before her entrance, she had a brief appearance on the show The Buzz. On the other hand, Cathy was supposed to leave in the morning of Day 28 (Day 68 of the Finnish version) but their flight was postponed to a later hour of the day. Much like the first Big Swap, events from both Houses are chronicled. Also, all conversations in English are subtitled in Filipino and all Finnish conversations and confessions are dubbed over by Filipino voice actors. For the Finnish version, clips from the Philippine house are shown in the Big Brother Extra show, while conversations in English are subtitled in Suomi. The Big Swap started on the evening of Day 29 (Day 69 of the Finnish version). Kätlin initially stayed in House A upon her arrival on Day 29. She transferred to House B on Day 31. On Day 32, Cathy and Kätlin were finally able to meet through a video call through Skype. Later that day, Kätlin returned to House A. She left the Philippine House on the morning of Day 34 (early morning of Day 74 of the Finnish version). She was briefly interviewed for the morning show Umagang Kay Ganda just after stepping outside the front door. Meanwhile, Cathy entered on the evening of Day 69 of the Finnish version (early morning of Day 30 of the Philippines version). She left six days later on the evening of Day 74 of the Finnish version (early morning of Day 35 of the Philippine version), signaling the end of the Big Swap. Kätlin left the Philippines the same day she left the Pinoy Big Brother house and re-entered their house in the early morning of Day 75 of the Finnish version (Day 35 of the Philippine version). Cathy left Finland the morning after she left the Finnish Big Brother house and re-entered the Pinoy Big Brother house on the evening of Day 36 (Day 76 of the Finnish version). Below is a list of activities each swapped housemate did in their respective host country's Houses, aside from introductions and trading of basic phrases: Also, both Philippine and Finnish houses had weekly tasks involving housemates doing a 30-minute cultural variety show portraying their countries' cultures to their visitors. The Filipino housemates should include Kätlin in their presentation while the Finnish housemates should work four at a time in the upstairs room while Cathy is not around. However, it was later revealed that the real weekly task of the Filipino housemates is to make Kätlin feel the Filipino hospitality, to which she felt that both houses were friendly, yet she felt more warmth with House A. More than three weeks after the Swap ended, on Day 97 of the fifth Finnish season, Kätlin was proclaimed as second placer, behind Aso. The Three Kings On Day 71 (December 13, 2009), Big Brother designated Hermes, Johan, and Patrick as the three kings, which were tasked to designate the ten stars containing gifts to the ten other housemates in the house. 1st Gift: Aral ng Pagpapakumbaba (Lesson In Humility) (Day 71) - the housemate had to live, sleep and eat in a kariton, a wooden pushcart for three days (given to Paul Jake) 2nd Gift: Aral sa Pagtitipid ng Damit (Lesson on Frugality in Clothing) (Day 71) - the housemate had to wear a bahag, the native clothing of the Ifugao, for three days (given to Tibo) 3rd Gift: Date with a Celebrity (Day 72) - the housemate had to act like a refined Filipino, in exchange for a date with a favorite celebrity (given to Melisa) 4th Gift: Aral ng Pagtitipid sa Pagkain (Lesson on Frugality in Food) (Day 73) - the housemate will have to eat nothing but sweet potatoes for three days (given to Rica) 5th Gift: Washing Machine (Day 73) - the housemate had to wash the other housemates' clothes while they are still wearing them, in exchange for a washing machine and dryer (given to Carol) 6th Gift: Digicam (Day 74) - given to a housemate who likes to pose in front of the cameras inside the house. The recipient must teach a certain housemate (Carol) how to walk like a fashion model. (given to Cathy) 7th Gift: Aral sa Pagtitipid ng Tubig (Lesson on Frugality in Water) (Day 75) - the housemate has to keep herself from taking a bath (in the bathroom or in the swimming pool) (given to Sam) 8th Gift: Malaman ang Katotohanan (To Know the Truth) (Day 76) - each of the three kings will give one nomination point to a common housemate and directly explain their reasons. (given to Kath) 9th Gift: Tricycle (Day 86) - the housemate will become a house servant for four days, where he needs to do all the chores of the house and must obey everything the other housemates tell him to do. The housemate will also be the first to wake up and the last to sleep. These sacrifices will be in exchange for a tricycle. For every mistake the housemate makes, a part of the tricycle will be removed. (given to Jason) 10th Gift: Laptop (Day 93) - the housemate would become a teacher to Dengue and two other "mischievous classmates" (namely Clownie and Chacky) which are actually dolls for three days. (given to Mariel) Ex-Housemate Entries German ex-housemate visit On Day 76 (December 18, 2009), the program announced that an ex-housemate from a European Big Brother franchise will visit the Pinoy Big Brother house for the holidays, which they dubbed as Super G (known for having G-cup-sized breasts). On Day 78 (December 20, 2009), it was revealed that Annina Ucatis from the ninth season of Big Brother Germany will be the visitor, which aims to spice up the housemates' Christmas. Due to weather problems, Annina's scheduled entry on Day 79 (December 21, 2009) was postponed. She left Germany in the evening of Day 79. Annina entered the house in the evening of Day 80, in a giant gift box, during Paul Jake's birthday. On Day 84, before the eviction, Sascha, an ex-housemate from the same season as Annina's and also Annina's current boyfriend, entered the house to fetch Annina. While she was in the Pinoy Big Brother House, Annina did the following tasks: Resbak Attack twist On Day 105 (January 16, 2010), after Cathy's eviction, the show announced a new twist involving ex-housemates re-entering House B to compete with the remaining housemates. Cathy, the latest evictee, was instructed by Big Brother to move to House B instead of formally exiting the Pinoy Big Brother House. Princess, Delio, Tom, Rob, Yuri, Patrick and Rica joined Cathy at House B. Tom later voluntary exited and was replaced by Kenny. These eight ex-housemates competed with the remaining eight housemates with the pot money of the Big Four at stake. From the name itself, the ex-housemates had the task of seeking revenge on the remaining eight housemates. Kuya's Darlings As an added twist, on Day 112, when Cathy, Delio, Kenny, Patrick and Rob were given their honorable dismissal from their Resbak Attack duties, Princess, Rica and Yuri were recommissioned by Big Brother to take part in another twist. The three housemates will serve as House Players. For each task they accomplished, each one will be getting PHP 5,000, plus a laptop computer for the final task. The tasks will either be voted upon by the public or ordered by Big Brother. The three ex-housemates were to act returning housemates in exchange for the three eggs broken the week before. Below are the tasks decided upon by viewers: Weekly tasks Both houses do the same weekly task. By the end of the week, Big Brother assesses each house. Assessment would depend whether the task is a competition between two houses or each house would be assessed on its own. If the task is a competition, the winning house gets their allowance for the upcoming week while the losing house gets no money. Group A housemates are housemates initially from House A while Group B housemates are housemates initially from House B, with the exception of Tom, originally part of House A, and Melisa, originally part of House B, who were swapped by Big Brother before the end of the first weekly task. For the fourth weekly task, the housemates swapped houses, and Rob and Carol swapped groups. For the sixth weekly task, aside from the weekly budget, the winning house only had the housemate/s with the highest point as its nominee/s for the following week while the losing house had the housemates with the top three different points as its nominees. As a reward in the fourth and last challenge, the Group A got their clothes and the house of their choice. For the seventh weekly task, aside from the weekly budget, the winning house will only have the housemate/s with the highest point as its nominee/s and also be able to give one housemate from the losing house an automatic nomination. As winners, Group B got their clothes. Before the eighth weekly task started, the females of each group swap houses. Males from Group A and females from Group B were to be known as "Neo-Group A" while females from Group A and males from Group B were to be known as "Neo-Group B". : With Patrick's sacrifice of standing straight on a cart for 12 hours, House B got 50% of their weekly budget. : Originally, all male housemates with the exception of Jason who will be wearing a flesh-colored bodysuit, will be dancing naked while all female housemates will wear a T-back bikini. However, due to some housemates' families' reaction about the task, House A housemates Tibo (in exchange for groceries for his family with the same amount as their weekly budget) and Johan decided to wear a flesh-colored bodysuit and T-back bikini, respectively, while all House B housemates decided to wear flesh-colored bodysuits. House A scored 185 points, down from their 350 base points after committing 18 mistakes. House B scored -1130 points, down from their 100 base points after committing 82 mistakes. : Upon her arrival at the Confession Room, Kätlin Laas chose Group B's artwork which signaled their win. Both artworks were actually half-finished. : Group B housemates, performing first, had a variety show which included Patria explaining the Philippine Flag, a series of dances including Paro-Parong Bukid danced by Rob and Yuri, Tinikling danced by Mariel and Tom, and the boys dancing Maglalatik, a role-playing on Filipino family and courtship and Tom and Kätlin singing Maalaala Mo Kaya. Group A housemates had a Wowowee type of show including dancing the Pandanggo sa Ilaw with Kätlin, dancing the Maglalatik, playing Filipino games, acting out certain Filipino television advertisements and soap operas, role-playing on Filipino courtship, dancing Singkil and Balagtasan (old Filipino form of a poetic debate) with Delio. : Only four challenges were held because Group A swept the first three challenges. The fourth challenge, deemed a special reward challenge, was also won by Group A. Thus, a fifth game was not necessary. : Neo-Group A's video, which had an anti-vice advocacy theme, earned 47,862 views against the 121,182 views of Neo-Group B's video, a midget skit entitled Pinoy Big Babies Toddlers Up. : Ram Ong, winner of TGIF’s bartending competition this year and the official representative of the Philippines to the Asia-Pacific region to the World Bartender Championship in 2010, and Ruel Santos, 2nd runner-up of TGIF's 14th Annual Shake Rattle and Pour, were the guest coaches who taught the housemates how to do flair bartending. : The housemates had to teach Annina all four tasks to get a budget the following week. : With Rica as the host, the concert sported a tiger motif with outfits designed by Sam. In sequence, the housemates performed a Pinoy Ako dance, the Punjabi tiger dance with Harish, a Patron Tequila dance performed by the girl housemates, a rock number performed by Cathy and Johan to the song You Belong With Me, a Hanggang Ngayon duet between Melisa and Jason, and a dance number played to the tune of the Survivor song Eye of the Tiger. The team made 14 mistakes. : The sipa task went underway on Day 93, but the housemates' initial excitement at winning the task was dashed as they reviewed the footage and saw that Kath did not count properly. The housemates decided to risk staying up longer hours to complete the task. The clock still had less than 500 minutes left at the time the task was finished. : The counting for yellow and green balls was correct but the count for blue balls was one short. : The domino tower remained intact despite being destroyed a few times. PHP 60,000 was deducted from the pot as three eggs were broken at PHP 20,000 each. The housemates lost twice in the games, costing PHP 45,000 each. A total of PHP 150,000 was deducted from the Big Four pot. Head of Household and Hand Grenade As the two houses became one, on Day 68, Big Brother revealed to the housemates two new twists this season, the Head of Household and Hand Grenade twists. The Head of Household twist is similar to the twist of the second season of Pinoy Big Brother: Celebrity Edition. Each week, the housemates will undergo HOH competitions. The HOH for the week will get the following privileges for winning: Immunity from nominations Use of shower room at any time Being able to receive items from the outside world that they desire Sending a text message to anyone at the outside world A housemate will be chosen each week to become a hand grenade user, where they will be forced to give the full three points for nominations face-to-face to another housemate, as a consequence of losing in the HOH competition. Beginning the third HOH game, the hand grenade holder is given the alternative to automatically nominate themselves for eviction instead of giving all three points to another housemate. For their final HOH competition in Day 111, Big Brother revealed that the final Head of Household will also be the Hand Grenade user, where the HOH will give an automatic nomination to one housemate. Nomination history The housemate first mentioned in each nomination gets two points, while the second gets one point. The percentage of votes shown is the percentage of votes to save unless other wise stated. At least two housemates from each house will be up for eviction. This means that there are at least four housemates nominated every nomination night. However, the housemate with lowest number of votes, no matter which house s/he is in, would be eliminated. Group A housemates are housemates initially from House A while Group B housemates are housemates initially from House B, with the exception of Tom, originally part of House A, and Melisa, originally part of House B, who were swapped by Big Brother before the first nomination. The color for the names of the votes and nominees indicate the group to which they each belong at the time of nomination and subsequent salvation from eviction. On Day 23, the housemates switched houses, with Group A living in House B and vice versa. On Day 24, Rob and Carol swapped Groups and Houses, and are now therefore part of Groups B and A respectively. The color for groups did not change however. On Day 39, as a result of the 4th game in the 6th weekly task, Group A and Group B housemates swapped houses once again. The color for groups did not change however. On Day 50, the females of each group switched Houses. Group A's males and Group B's females were to be called "Neo-Group A," while Group A's females and Group B's males were to be known as "Neo-Group B." Both of the new-groups were therefore given new colors below; the colors for the Houses stay the same. On Day 57, Big Brother announced that all housemates are up for eviction, with the viewers voting to evict. On Day 63, Big Brother announced that the remaining housemates would be living in House A. Carol, Hermes, Melisa, Rica and Yuri were told to stay in House B to await the announcement of the evictee the following day. On Day 64, the fourteen remaining housemates all stayed in House A. From the eighth nomination night onwards, a new voting scheme was used, wherein the viewers are given the choice of voting to save or voting to evict a housemate. The percentage of evict votes will be added from the percentage of save votes, the voting difference being used as basis. The housemate who gets the lowest difference is evicted from the house. Also, with the housemates already living in one house, the housemates with the three highest points will be nominated for eviction. On Day 68, Big Brother announced that there will be Head of Household (HOH) competitions each week. The HOH gets immunity from nominations in their respective week. The hand grenade user gets to give the full three points to one housemate face to face. For the eighth and ninth nomination night, this is done before the other housemates nominated. From the tenth nomination night onwards, this is done after the other housemates nominated. Starting from the tenth nomination night onwards, the hand grenade user can also opt to give himself an Automatic Nomination instead of giving the three points to another housemate. On Day 105, eight ex-housemates returned to take part in a twist by Big Brother. These housemates remained as ex-housemates and were not re-instilled as regular housemates. Five of the eight ex-housemates were given their repeated eviction on Day 112. The remaining three ex-housemates stayed for one more week and were given their repeated eviction on Day 119. Their first eviction status was maintained, however. On Day 120, the six remaining housemates had a different manner of nominations, giving one point to two housemates they feel should leave face-to-face. However, Big Brother announced that all six housemates, including Melisa who has a sure spot in the Big 5, are up for eviction this week. Legend Bold Italicized name Indicates that the housemate won the "Big Jump to the Big Night"; however was still included in the list of remaining housemates, who will face the public vote, which is for the Big Winner. indicate nominees from Group A indicate nominees from Group B indicate nominees from Neo-Group A indicate nominees from Neo-Group B Automatic Nomination (due to violation(s) committed, as a reward for the winning house, as imposed by the Hand Grenade User) : JP voluntarily left the House on Day 3. He last stayed in House B before he exited. JM, Kenny and Toffi failed their task and had to leave on Day 5. : Princess, Mariel and Yhel were given an automatic nomination by Big Brother for talking about nominations with their fellow housemates. House B was given the opportunity to do a sacrifice to save one of the automatically nominated housemates, which they chose to be Mariel. Princess voluntarily left the House on Day 22. On Day 24, Rob and Carol were swapped to opposing groups. On Day 25, the voting for the Second Eviction Night was canceled due to Yhel's forced eviction, dubbed as the first forced eviction for the season. : There were three nominees from Group B as there was a tie for the highest points scored. Both Tom and Mariel scored 5 points while Patrick scored 4 points, making him the third nominee, with the second highest nomination points. : As Cathy was still en route from Finland to the Philippines, she was not able to nominate, although she could be nominated. Meanwhile, Tibo and Paul were each tied for the most nomination points with 5, while Jason and Carol were tied for the second most points with 3. On Day 39, voting was suspended due to Tom's exit from the house to be confined to the hospital. On Day 40, Tom was able to return, although voting remained suspended. On Day 41, it was announced that Tom has been forcibly evicted from the house. He left the next day accompanied by ex-housemate Princess. : As per stipulation for the weekly task, only the top nomination point earner from Group A and the top three point earners from Group B were nominated. Tom, who was physically at House B during the nominations did not participate as he was already regarded as evicted. : As per stipulation for the weekly task, only the top nomination point earner from Group B and the top two point earners from Group A were nominated. In addition to that, Group B automatically nominated Rica as part of their reward. As Rob and Patrick had the same highest number of nomination points, they were both nominated. As new housemates, Rocky and Sam were exempted from nominations. They were given the chance to nominate but their votes were not counted. : Neo-Group A housemates nominated Neo-Group B housemates and vice versa. One point was given to each nominees instead of the usual 1 and 2 points. Big Brother then revealed the top two nominees, regardless of ties, to the housemates of each house. They were given the chance to discuss whether they would change their nominees or not. The top two nominees for Neo-Group A were Johan and Yuri. However, after the discussion of Neo-Group B, Kath was placed as a nominee instead of Yuri. The top two nominees for Neo-Group B were Rica and Rocky; no change in nominees happened after Neo-Group A's discussion. However, Big Brother later on announced that all housemates are up for eviction. On Day 63, voting was officially closed and all saved housemates were asked to stay in House A with the exception of Carol, Hermes, Melisa, Rica and Yuri who were asked to stay in House B until the next day. : On Day 67, Rocky voluntarily exited the house. : As the designated three kings, Hermes, Johan and Patrick had to give 3 points for nomination to one housemate, 1 point from each of them. : As the hand grenade user, Jason opted to give himself an Automatic Nomination than to give the three points to another housemate. : After Cathy has been evicted, she was not welcomed to the outside world and proceeded to House B after being instructed by Big Brother. : As part of the Resbak Attack twist, seven ex-housemates re-entered the house to challenge the remaining housemates. Princess, Delio, Tom, Rob, Yuri, Patrick and Rica re-entered House B where Cathy was already staying. Hermes chose to give himself an Automatic Nomination than to give the three points to another housemate. As Tom left on Day 107, Kenny re-entered the house to be his replacement. On Eviction Night, Cathy was given her exit, along with Delio, Kenny, Patrick and Rob. : Princess, Rica and Yuri were told to enter the main house as houseplayers. They were to pretend to be regular housemates. Big Brother revealed that the last HOH of the season (Tibo) will also serve as the Hand Grenade User, where he will have the power of automatic nomination. On Eviction Night, houseplayers Princess, Rica and Yuri were given their exit. This will be the last time that the S.E. voting scheme will be used in the season, for the public will already vote for the Big Winner. : As Melisa won the endurance challenge, she won an automatic spot in the Big Five and will be exempted from the last eviction until the final. Big Brother announced that this round of nominations were void, and all housemates are nominated for open voting to save. With this, Melisa was still nominated and should Melisa be the housemate that would have the lowest number of votes, she would still be saved in the upcoming eviction as per stipulation of the "Big Jump" special challenge. The second lowest would be evicted instead. : In the final week, all housemates remaining in the House are automatically up for public vote. The housemate with the largest percentage of votes will be the winner. The rest of the housemates would leave the House one by one according to percentage order, with the least leaving first. On Day 129, the ranking of the Big 5 were revealed to the public, with Paul Jake taking the first rank, followed by Jason, Melisa, Johan and Tibo, respectively. S–E voting system result Below is the eviction voting result from the eighth to fourteenth eviction round. This voting system was stopped after the fourteenth eviction round. Fake eviction voting history While the fate of housemates inside the House continues to rely on public votes, the voting history table below shows how the housemates voted against each other due to the Char-Char Change twist. On Day 120, Big Brother announced that the voting were all voided, and viewers still had power to vote ending the twist Nominated Housemates Head of Household Big Date on the Big Night The finale of the season, dubbed Big Date on the Big Night, was held at the Ninoy Aquino Stadium in Manila. As the finale was held a day before Valentine's Day, the show was partly given a Valentine/prom night theme. References to the Chinese zodiac and anything Chinese also abounded as the show was also held on the eve of Chinese New Year. The opening song which references the Big 5 were sung by Bugoy Drilon, Jay-R Siaboc, Mark Bautista, Rocksteddy's Teddy Corpuz, Yeng Constantino and Charice Pempengco. The 21 ex-housemates also performed dances done throughout the season, namely Drinking Boys, 'Di Makatulog (the Filipino version of Insomnia), the Indian tiger dance, and even Can't Take My Eyes Off You. Accompanying the housemates were Sheryn Regis, Harish Singh, and Charlie Green in each of the last three mentioned. To drum up support for each of the finalists, color-coded cheerleaders and live satellite feeds from Cebu, General Santos City, Cagayan de Oro, and Mindoro were also seen. The finale also announced the coming of the third Teen Edition, Pinoy Big Brother: Teen Clash 2010, as well as the appearances of the cast of Rubi, the Jabawockeez, and Kim Chiu. The season was won by Melisa, who amassed 1,226,675 votes or 32.08% of the entire vote since it began since Day 120. Leaving before her were Paul Jake (1,044,275 votes or 27.31%), Jason (954,961 votes or 24.97%), Johan (303,751 votes or 7.94%), and Tibo (294,262 votes or 7.69%), who left the House as the so-called 5th Big Placer. This table shows the summary of votes as obtained by each of the Big 5 in the Big Night. The Big Reunion On February 14, 2010, a day after the Big Night, the ex-housemates - minus Princess, Tom and Rocky - returned to the Big Brother House one more time to reflect on the season. The evictees were interviewed by Bianca in House B while Toni and the Big Five gathered in House A. Mariel handled things from the Confession Room. Cathy and Hermes received a call from Big Brother Finland winner Aso and second-placer Katlin. Toni admitted to the Big Five that the interviews for the Big Swap were fake. They were greeted by Big Utol and visited by Vilma Santos, who advised them about the challenges of a showbiz career. Big Brother delivered his farewell address to the Housemates. References External links Official website Pinoy Big Brother seasons 2009 Philippine television seasons 2010 Philippine television seasons

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The bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) is a species of baleen whale belonging to the family Balaenidae and the only living representative of the genus Balaena. They are the only baleen whale endemic to the Arctic and subarctic waters, and are named after their characteristic massive triangular skull, which they use to break through Arctic ice. Other common names of the species are the Greenland right whale or Arctic whale. American whalemen called them the steeple-top, polar whale, or Russia or Russian whale. Bowheads have the largest mouth of any animal representing almost one-third of the length of the body, the longest baleen plates with a maximum length of and may be the longest-lived mammals, with the ability to reach an age of more than 200 years. The bowhead was an early whaling target. Their population was severely reduced before a 1966 moratorium was passed to protect the species. Of the five stocks of bowhead populations, three are listed as "endangered", one as "vulnerable", and one as "lower risk, conservation dependent" according to the IUCN Red List. The global population is assessed as of least concern. Taxonomy Carl Linnaeus named this species in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae (1758). It was seemingly identical to its relatives in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Southern Oceans, and as such they were all thought to be a single species, collectively known as the "right whale", and given the binomial name Balaena mysticetus. Today, the bowhead whale occupies a monotypic genus, separate from the right whales, as proposed by the work of John Edward Gray in 1821. For the next 180 years, the family Balaenidae was the subject of great taxonometric debate. Authorities have repeatedly recategorized the three populations of right whale plus the bowhead whale, as one, two, three or four species, either in a single genus or in two separate genera. Eventually, it was recognized that bowheads and right whales were different, but there was still no strong consensus as to whether they shared a single genus or two. As recently as 1998, Dale Rice, in his comprehensive and otherwise authoritative classification, Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution, listed just two species: B. glacialis (the right whales) and B. mysticetus (the bowheads). Studies in the 2000s finally provided clear evidence that the three living right whale species comprise a phylogenetic lineage, distinct from the bowhead, and that the bowhead and the right whales are rightly classified into two separate genera. The right whales were thus confirmed to be in a separate genus, Eubalaena. The relationship is shown in the cladogram below: The earlier fossil record shows no related cetacean after Morenocetus, found in a South American deposit dating back 23 million years. An unknown species of right whale, the so-called "Swedenborg whale", which was proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century, was once thought to be a North Atlantic right whale by scientific consensus. Based on later DNA analysis, those fossil bones claimed to be from Swedenborg whales were confirmed to be from bowhead whales. Description The bowhead whale has a large, robust, dark-coloured body and a white chin/lower jaw. It has a massive triangular skull, which it uses to break through the Arctic ice to breathe. Inuit hunters have reported bowheads surfacing through of ice. It also possesses a strongly bowed lower jaw and a narrow upper jaw. Its baleen is the longest of that of any whale, at , and is used to strain tiny prey from the water. The bowhead whale has paired blowholes at the highest point of the head, which can spout a blow high. The bowhead's blubber is the thickest of that of any animal, with a maximum of . Unlike most cetaceans, the bowhead does not have a dorsal fin - an adaptation for spending much time under sea-surface ice. Like the sperm whale and other cetaceans, the bowhead whale has a vestigial pelvis that is not connected to the spine. Bowhead whales are comparable in size to the three species of right whales. According to whaling captain William Scoresby Jr., the longest bowhead he measured was long, while the longest measurement he had ever heard of was of a whale caught at Godhavn, Greenland, in early 1813. He also spoke of one, caught near Spitsbergen around 1800, that was allegedly nearly long. In 1850, an American vessel claimed to have caught a individual in the Western Arctic. Whether these lengths were actually measured is questionable. The longest reliably measured were a male of and a female of , both landed in Alaska. On average, female bowheads are larger than males. Analysis of hundreds of DNA samples from living whales and from baleen used in vessels, toys, and housing material has shown that Arctic bowhead whales have lost a significant portion of their genetic diversity in the past 500 years. Bowheads originally crossed ice-covered inlets and straits to exchange genes between Atlantic and Pacific populations. This conclusion was derived from analyzing maternal lineage using mitochondrial DNA. Whaling and climatic cooling during the Little Ice Age, from the 16th century to the 19th, is supposed to have reduced the whales' summer habitats, which explains the loss of genetic diversity. A 2013 discovery has clarified the function of the bowhead's large palatal retial organ. The bulbous ridge of highly vascularized tissue, the corpus cavernosum maxillaris, extends along the centre of the hard plate, forming two large lobes at the rostral palate. The tissue is histologically similar to that of the corpus cavernosum of the mammalian penis. This organ is thought to provide a mechanism of cooling for the whale (which is normally protected from the cold Arctic waters by or more of fat). During physical exertion, the whale must cool itself to prevent hyperthermia (and ultimately brain damage). This organ becomes engorged with blood, causing the whale to open its mouth to allow cold seawater to flow over the organ, thus cooling the blood. Behaviour Swimming The bowhead whale is not a social animal, typically travelling alone or in small pods of up to six. It is able to dive and remain submerged under water for up to an hour. The time spent under water in a single dive is usually limited to 9–18 minutes. The bowhead is not thought to be a deep diver, but can reach a depth down to . It is a slow swimmer, normally travelling around [0.55–1.39 m/s]. When fleeing from danger, it can travel at a speed of []. During periods of feeding, the average swim speed is increased to . Feeding The head of the bowhead whale comprises a third of its body length, creating an enormous feeding apparatus. The bowhead whale is a filter feeder, and feeds by swimming forward with its mouth wide open. It has hundreds of overlapping baleen plates consisting of keratin hanging from each side of the upper jaw. The mouth has a large, upturning lip on the lower jaw that helps to reinforce and hold the baleen plates within the mouth. This also prevents buckling or breakage of the plates from the pressure of the water passing through them as the whale advances. To feed, water is filtered through the fine hairs of keratin of the baleen plates, trapping the prey inside near the tongue where it is then swallowed. The diet consists of mostly zooplankton, which includes copepods, amphipods, and many other crustaceans. About of food are consumed each day. While foraging, bowheads are solitary or occur in groups of two to 10 or more. Vocalization Bowhead whales are highly vocal and use low frequency (<1000 Hz) sounds to communicate while travelling, feeding, and socialising. Intense calls for communication and navigation are produced especially during migration season. During breeding season, bowheads make long, complex, variable songs for mating calls. From 2010 through to 2014, near Greenland, 184 distinct songs were recorded from a population of around 300 animals. Reproduction Sexual activity occurs between pairs and in boisterous groups of several males and one or two females. Breeding season is observed from March through August; conception is believed to occur primarily in March when song activity is at its highest. Reproduction can begin when a whale is 10 to 15 years old. The gestation period is 13–14 months with females producing a calf once every three to four years. Lactation typically lasts about a year. To survive in the cold water immediately after birth, calves are born with a thick layer of blubber. Within 30 minutes of birth, bowhead calves are able to swim on their own. A newborn calf is typically long, weighs roughly , and grows to within the first year. Health Lifespan Bowhead whales are considered to be the longest-living mammals, living for over 200 years. In May 2007, a specimen caught off the Alaskan coast was discovered with the head of an explosive harpoon of a model manufactured between 1879 and 1885, so the whale was probably harpooned sometime between those years, and its age at the time of death was estimated at between 115 and 130 years. Spurred by this discovery, scientists measured the ages of other bowhead whales; one specimen was estimated to be 211 years old. Other bowhead whales were estimated to be between 135 and 172 years old. This discovery showed the longevity of the bowhead whale is much greater than originally thought. According to researchers at CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, the genome sequence revealed bowhead whales' maximum lifespan to be 268 years. Genetic benefits A greater number of cells present in an organism was once believed to result in greater chances of mutations that cause age-related diseases and cancer. Although the bowhead whale has thousands of times more cells than other mammals, it has a much higher resistance to cancer and aging. In 2015, scientists from the US and UK were able to successfully map the whale's genome. Through comparative analysis, two alleles that could be responsible for the whale's longevity were identified. These two specific gene mutations linked to the bowhead whale's ability to live longer are the ERCC1 gene and the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) gene. ERCC1 is linked to DNA repair and increased cancer resistance. PCNA is also important in DNA repair. These mutations enable bowhead whales to better repair DNA damage, allowing for greater resistance to cancer. The whale's genome may also reveal physiological adaptations such as having low metabolic rates compared to other mammals. Changes in the gene UCP1, a gene involved in thermoregulation, can explain differences in the metabolic rates in cells. Ecology Range and habitat The bowhead whale is the only baleen whale to spend its entire life in the Arctic and subarctic waters. The Alaskan population spends the winter months in the southwestern Bering Sea. The group migrates northward in the spring, following openings in the ice, into the Chukchi and Beaufort seas. The whale's range varies depending on climate changes and on the forming/melting of ice. Historically, bowhead whales' range may have been broader and more southerly than currently thought. Bowheads were abundant around Labrador, Newfoundland (Strait of Belle Isle) and the northern Gulf of St Lawrence until at least the 16th and 17th centuries. It is unclear whether this was due to the colder climate during these periods. Distributions of Balaena spp. during the Pleistocene were far more southerly as fossils have been excavated from Italy and North Carolina, thus could have overlapped between those of Eubalaena based on those locations. Population Generally, five stocks of bowhead whales are recognized: 1) the Western Arctic stock in the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas, 2) the Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin stock, 3) the Baffin Bay and Davis Strait stock, 4) the Sea of Okhotsk stock, and 5) the Svalbard-Barents Sea stock. However, recent evidence suggests that the Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin stock and the Baffin Bay and Davis Strait stock should be considered one stock based on genetics and movements of tagged whales. Western Arctic The Western Arctic bowhead population, also known as the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort population, has recovered since the commercial harvest of this stock ceased in the early 1900s. A 2011 study estimated that the Western Arctic population was 16,892 (95% CI: 15,074-18,928), more than triple the population estimate in 1978. This study puts the yearly growth rate at 3.7% (95% CI = 2.8-4.7%) from 1978 to 2011. These data suggest that the Western Arctic bowhead stock may be at or near its precommercial whaling level. Alaskan Natives continue to hunt small numbers of bowhead whales for subsistence purposes. The Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission co-manages the bowhead subsistence harvest with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The Alaskan villages that participate in the bowhead subsistence harvest include Barrow, Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainwright, Nuiqsut, Kaktovik, Gambell, Savoonga, Kivalina, Wales, and Little Diomede. The annual subsistence harvest of the Western Arctic stock has ranged from 14 to 72, amounting to an estimated 0.1-0.5% of the population. Baffin Bay and Davis Strait In March 2008, Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans stated the previous estimates in the eastern Arctic had undercounted, with a new estimate of 14,400 animals (range 4,800–43,000). These larger numbers correspond to prewhaling estimates, indicating the population has fully recovered. However, if climate change substantially shrinks sea ice, these whales could be threatened by increased shipping traffic. The status of other populations is less well known. About 1,200 were off West Greenland in 2006, while the Svalbard population may only number in the tens. However, the numbers have been increasing in recent years. Hudson Bay and Foxe Basin The Hudson Bay – Foxe Basin population is distinct from the Baffin BayDavis Strait group. The original population size of this local group is unclear, but possibly about 500 to 600 whales annually summered in the northwestern part of the bay in the 1860s. It is likely that the number of whales that actually inhabit Hudson Bay is much smaller than the total population size of this group, but reports from local indigenous people indicate that this population is increasing over decades. Larger portions of the bay are used for summering, while wintering is on a smaller scale. Some animals winter in Hudson Strait, most notably north of Igloolik Island and north eastern Hudson Bay. Distribution patterns in these regions are affected by the presence of killer whales, and bowheads can disappear from normal ranges in the presence of atypical numbers of orcas. Increased mortality caused by killer whale attack is a possible outcome of climate change, as reduced ice coverage is expected to result in fewer areas that the bowheads can use for shelter from attack. Whaling grounds in the 19th century stretched from Marble Island to Roes Welcome Sound and to Lyon Inlet and Fisher Strait, and whales still migrate through most of these areas. Distribution within Hudson Bay is mostly restricted to the northwestern part along with Wager Bay, Repulse Bay, Southampton Island (one of two main know summering areas), Frozen Strait, northern Foxe Basin, and north of Igloolik in summer. Satellite tracking indicates that some portions of the group within the bay do not venture further south than Whale Cove and areas south of Coats and Mansel Islands. Cow – calf pairs and juveniles up to in length make up the majority of summering aggregation in the northern Foxe Basin, while matured males and noncalving females may use the northwestern part of Hudson Bay. Fewer whales also migrate to the west coast of Hudson Bay and Mansel and Ottawa Islands. Bowhead ranges within Hudson Bay are usually considered not to cover southern parts, but at least some whales migrate to locations further south such as Sanikiluaq and Churchill river mouth. Congregation within Foxe Basin occurs in a well-defined area of north of Igloolik Island to Fury and Hecla Strait and Kapuiviit and Gifford Fiord, and into Gulf of Boothia and Prince Regent Inlet. Northward migrating along western Foxe Basin to eastern side of the basin also occurs in spring. Sea of Okhotsk Not much is known about the endangered Sea of Okhotsk population. To learn more about the population, these mammals have been regularly observed near the Shantar Islands, very close to the shore, such as at Ongachan Bay. Several companies provide whale-watching services, which are mostly land-based. According to Russian scientists, this total population likely does not exceed 400 animals. Scientific research on this population was seldom done before 2009, when researchers studying belugas noticed concentrations of bowheads in the study area. Thus, bowheads in the Sea of Okhotsk were once called "forgotten whales" by researchers. The WWF welcomed the creation of a nature sanctuary in the region Possibly, vagrants from this population occasionally reach into Asian nations such as off Japan or the Korean Peninsula (although this record might be of a right whale). The first documented report of the species in Japanese waters was of a strayed infant () caught in Osaka Bay on 23 June 1969, and the first living sighting was of a juvenile around Shiretoko Peninsula (the southernmost of ice floe range in the Northern Hemisphere) on 21 to 23 June 2015. Fossils have been excavated on Hokkaido, but it is unclear whether the northern coasts of Japan were once included in seasonal or occasional migration ranges. Genetic studies suggest Okhotsk population share common ancestry with whales in Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Seas, and repeated mixings had occurred between whales in the two seas. Svalbard-Barents Sea The most endangered but historically largest of all bowhead populations is the Svalbard/Spitsbergen population. Occurring normally in Fram Strait, Barents Sea and Severnaya Zemlya along Kara Sea to Laptev Sea and East Siberian Sea regions, these whales were seen in entire coastal regions in European and Russian Arctic, even reaching to Icelandic and Scandinavian coasts and Jan Mayen in Greenland Sea, and west of Cape Farewell and western Greenland coasts. Also, bowheads in this stock were possibly once abundant in areas adjacent to the White Sea region, where few or no animals currently migrate, such as the Kola and Kanin Peninsula. Today, the number of sightings elsewhere is very small, but with increasing regularities with whales having strong regional connections. Whales have also started approaching townships and inhabited areas such as around Longyearbyen. The waters around the marine mammal sanctuary of Franz Josef Land is possibly functioning as the most important habitat for this population. It is unclear whether this population is a remnant of the historic Svalbard group, recolonized individuals from other stocks, or if a mixing of these two or more stocks has taken place. In 2015, discoveries of the refuge along eastern Greenland where whaling ships could not reach due to ice floes and largest numbers of whales (80–100 individuals) ever sighted between Spitsbergen and Greenland indicate that more whales than previously considered survived whaling periods, and flows from the other populations are possible. Possible moulting area off Baffin Island During expeditions by a tour operator 'Arctic Kingdom', a large group of bowheads seemingly involved in courtship activities was discovered in very shallow bays south of Qikiqtarjuaq in 2012. Floating skins and rubbing behaviours at sea bottom indicated possible moulting had taken place. Moulting behaviours had never or seldom been documented for this species before. This area is an important habitat for whales that were observed to be relatively active and to interact with humans positively, or to rest on sea floors. These whales belong to Davis Strait stock. Isabella Bay in Niginganiq National Wildlife Area is the first wildlife sanctuary in the world to be designed specially for bowhead whales. However, moultings have not been recorded in this area due to environmental factors. Predation In 1978 the International Whaling Commission (IWC) introduced a hunting strike quota for the Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort Sea (BCB) bowhead. The quota has remained at 67 strikes per year since 1998 and represents about 0.5 percent of BCB population. The population of bowheads in West Greenland and Canada is estimated to be 6,000 and rising, and hunts in this are minimal (<0.001 percent). Both stocks are rising, and the indigenous hunts seem to be self-sustaining. Killer whales are also known predators. There is no consensus on the number of deaths by killer whales. Bowheads seek the ice and shallow waters' safety when threatened by killer whales. The Inuit have a word for this behavior to give historical context that this is not a new phenomenon. Global warming is increasing the frequency that killer whales are observed in the far north. A once-rare event, killer whales are now seen more frequently. There are no reports of attacks on bowheads by sharks. Whaling The bowhead whale has been hunted for blubber, meat, oil, bones, and baleen. Like the right whale, it swims slowly, and floats after death, making it ideal for whaling. Before commercial whaling, they were estimated to number 50,000. Commercial bowhead whaling began in the 16th century when the Basques killed them as they migrated south through the Strait of Belle Isle in the fall and early winter. In 1611, the first whaling expedition sailed to Spitsbergen. The whaling settlement Smeerenburg was founded on Spitsbergen in 1619. By midcentury, the population(s) there had practically been wiped out, forcing whalers to voyage into the "West Ice"—the pack ice off Greenland's east coast. By 1719, they had reached the Davis Strait, and by the first quarter of the 19th century, Baffin Bay. In the North Pacific, the first bowheads were taken off the eastern coast of Kamchatka by the Danish whaleship Neptun, Captain Thomas Sodring, in 1845. In 1847, the first bowheads were caught in the Sea of Okhotsk, and the following year, Captain Thomas Welcome Roys, in the bark Superior, of Sag Harbor, caught the first bowheads in the Bering Strait region. By 1849, 50 ships were hunting bowheads in each area; in the Bering Strait, 500 whales were killed that year, and that number jumped to more than 2000 in 1850. By 1852, 220 ships were cruising around the Bering Strait region, which killed over 2,600 whales. Between 1854 and 1857, the fleet shifted to the Sea of Okhotsk, where 100–160 ships cruised annually. During 1858–1860, the ships shifted back to the Bering Strait region, where the majority of the fleet cruised during the summer until the early 20th century. An estimated 18,600 bowheads were killed in the Bering Strait region between 1848 and 1914, with 60% of the total being reached within the first two decades. An estimated 18,000 bowheads were killed in the Sea of Okhotsk during 1847–1867, 80% in the first decade. Bowheads were first taken along the pack ice in the northeastern Sea of Okhotsk, then in Tausk Bay and Northeast Gulf (Shelikhov Gulf). Soon, ships expanded to the west, catching them around Iony Island and then around the Shantar Islands. In the Western Arctic, they mainly caught them in the Anadyr Gulf, the Bering Strait, and around St. Lawrence Island. They later spread to the western Beaufort Sea (1854) and the Mackenzie River delta (1889). Commercial whaling, the principal cause of the population decline, is over. Bowhead whales are now hunted on a subsistence level by native peoples of North America. Alaskan subsistence Some Alaska Natives continue by tradition to hunt bowhead and beluga whales on a subsistence level, with low annual bowhead total quotas set by the International Whaling Commission in conjunction with individual village limits set by the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission. Bowhead hunting is limited to whaling crews who are: Iñupiat St Lawrence Island Siberian Yupik This bowhead subsistence hunting occurs during the northward spring migrations based from the ice and from small boats during the returning fall migrations. Conservation The bowhead is listed in Appendix I by CITES. While the global population is thought to be secure, thus assigned "least concern" status, some populations are listed by the National Marine Fisheries Service as "endangered" under the auspices of the United States' Endangered Species Act. The IUCN Red List data are: Svalbard population – critically endangered Sea of Okhotsk subpopulation – endangered Baffin Bay-Davis Strait stock – endangered Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin stock – vulnerable (estimated to be 1,026 individuals in 2005 by DFO) Bering-Chukchi-Beaufort stock – lower risk – conservation dependent The Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the USA government list the bowhead whale as federally endangered. The bowhead whale is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of its range. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration, and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Gallery See also List of cetaceans References External links A documentary by Bill Mason from 1974 following an expedition that searches out and meets the bowhead and beluga. Alaska Native culture Mammals described in 1758 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Cetaceans of the Arctic Ocean Balaenidae Greenlandic cuisine ESA endangered species Symbols of Alaska Holarctic fauna

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The 2009 NBA Finals was the championship series of the National Basketball Association's (NBA) 2008–09 season. The best-of-seven playoff was contested between the Western Conference champion Los Angeles Lakers (who were also the defending Western Conference champions), and the Eastern Conference champion Orlando Magic. The Lakers were favored to win the championship over the Magic. The Lakers defeated the Magic, four games to one, to win the franchise's 15th NBA championship. The 63rd edition of the championship series was played between June 4 and June 14 and was broadcast on U.S. television on ABC. The Lakers earned their berth into the playoffs by winning the Pacific Division. The Magic won the Southeast Division to earn their berth. The Lakers reached the NBA Finals by defeating the Utah Jazz in the best-of-seven Western Conference First Round, the Houston Rockets in the best-of-seven Western Conference Semifinals, and the Denver Nuggets in the best-of-seven Western Conference Finals. The Magic reached the NBA Finals by defeating the Philadelphia 76ers in the best-of-seven Eastern Conference First Round, the defending champion Boston Celtics in the best-of-seven Eastern Conference Semifinals, and the league best Cleveland Cavaliers in the best-of-seven Eastern Conference Finals. The NBA Finals were staged under a 2–3–2 rotation, with the Lakers holding home-court advantage as they had a better regular season record than the Magic. Kobe Bryant led the team to a Game 1 win with 40 points, eight rebounds, and eight assists. Game 2 was a high-scoring affair that the Lakers ultimately won on both strong defensive play and last minute heroics by Bryant, Derek Fisher, and Pau Gasol during the overtime. A record-breaking performance from the Magic's 65% team shooting ensured the team a Game 3 win and the first Finals victory in franchise history. Although they trailed the Magic as much as 12 at halftime, the Lakers won Game 4 in overtime on the back of Trevor Ariza's 13 points in the second half and Fisher's pair of three-point clutch shots. Dominant offensive play coupled with a spectacular defense by both starters and reserves from the second quarter until the buzzer helped the Lakers to win Game 5 and secure the series. Bryant was named Most Valuable Player of the Finals. This series was nicknamed the "Disney Series" for its connections to The Walt Disney Company. Disney owns both ESPN, and Finals broadcaster ABC; Walt Disney World is located from Orlando in nearby Lake Buena Vista, and Disneyland is located from Los Angeles in nearby Anaheim. Series summary Background The two team captains (the Lakers' Kobe Bryant and the Magic's Dwight Howard) were teammates and starters on the United States men's national team the previous summer, winning a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Each player defeated another fellow Olympic starter in his respective conference final series: Bryant defeated Carmelo Anthony's Denver Nuggets and Howard advanced past LeBron James' Cleveland Cavaliers. 2009 NBA Playoffs Los Angeles Lakers The Lakers were the favorite to emerge from the Western Conference, but their road to the Finals was a tough one. They played three physical series against the Utah Jazz, Houston Rockets, and Denver Nuggets, winning in 5, 7, and 6 games, respectively. Going into the Finals, the Lakers finished off the Nuggets in the Western Conference Finals with two good performances in Games 5 and 6, making analysts pick them as the favorites in the Finals. It marked a record-extending sixth Finals appearance of the decade and a record-extending 30th Finals appearance overall, the most for any NBA team. Orlando Magic The Magic were overlooked by many to even reach the Eastern Conference Finals, as they played in the shadows of the #1-seeded Cleveland Cavaliers, led by regular-season MVP LeBron James, and defending champion #2-seed Boston Celtics. However, after dispatching the Philadelphia 76ers in six games, the Magic stunned the Celtics by winning Game 7 in Boston. The Celtics were previously 32–0 when leading a series 3–2, and 17–3 previously in Game 7s at home. Orlando assistant coach Patrick Ewing had publicly "guaranteed" that Orlando would win Game 7. In the next round, Orlando was given little chance by many to defeat the top-seeded Cleveland Cavaliers, but a combination of three-point shooting and the inside presence of Dwight Howard created a matchup nightmare for Cleveland on defense, and Orlando ultimately won in six games. In Game 6, Howard's stellar performance with 40 points and 14 rebounds helped the franchise earn its second Finals appearance (they were swept by the Houston Rockets in the Finals during Shaquille O'Neal and Penny Hardaway era). Series preview Although the Magic won both regular-season matchups with the Lakers, Los Angeles was able to take four out of five games in this series. Both regular-season games and three of the NBA Finals games were close contests, decided by six points or fewer or in overtime. The Lakers won Game 2 on June 7 101–96 in overtime. Then they won Game 4 on June 11 in overtime as well. Tyronn Lue, a backup point guard with Orlando, appeared with the Lakers during their initial championship run in the early 2000s and faced his former team in the finals. Lue and another backup point guard, Anthony Johnson were the only players on Orlando's roster with NBA Finals experience. However, neither saw playing time during the series, as Lue was inactive with an injury and Johnson lost his minutes to teammate Jameer Nelson, who returned from a shoulder injury in time for the Finals, where he led the Magic to sweep the Lakers in regular season. Trevor Ariza, the Lakers starting small forward, faced the team that traded him to the Lakers in 2007. Regular-season series The Orlando Magic won both games in the regular-season series: Game summaries All times are in Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−4). Game 1 After an evenly battled first quarter, the Magic took the lead thanks to field goals and assists from point guard Jameer Nelson, who was playing his first game since injuring his shoulder during the regular season in February. Down 33–28 with 8:38 left in the 2nd quarter, the Lakers went on a 10–0 run and never looked back. The Lakers ended the 3rd quarter on a 25–10 run, led by the fierce play from Kobe Bryant, who finished with 40 points, 8 rebounds, and 8 assists, joining the likes of Shaquille O'Neal, Michael Jordan, and Jerry West to put up those numbers in a single NBA Finals game. The 25-point margin of victory was the 6th-largest in NBA Finals Game 1 history. Due to stellar defense by the Lakers, Dwight Howard was a dismal 1–6 from the field, his fewest made field goals in his playoff career, and finished with 12 points, 10 of which came from free throws. The Magic shot only 29.9% (23–77) from the field, the second lowest percentage in the NBA Finals. Game 2 Both teams got off to a slow start and were tied at 15 after the first quarter, setting a record-low for combined score (30) in the first quarter of an NBA Finals game. The Lakers picked up the pace in the 2nd quarter, but Rashard Lewis kept the Magic in the game, scoring 18 of the team's 20 points in the quarter, including the final 16, on his way to a playoff career-high and Finals franchise-high 34 points for the game. The Magic outscored the Lakers in the 3rd quarter to take a 2-point lead in the 4th. With the game tied at 84, Rashard Lewis hit a jumper with 1:32 remaining to give the Magic a 2-point lead. Kobe Bryant responded with a jumper of his own to tie the game. With 47 seconds left, Hedo Türkoğlu hit a jumper that was originally called a three-pointer. However, replay showed that his foot was on the line, giving the Magic a two-point lead. With 33 seconds remaining, Dwight Howard was able to deflect, but not steal, a Derek Fisher pass, and Pau Gasol was able to again tie the game at 88 with a layup. On the ensuing Magic possession, the Lakers played great defense and forced Courtney Lee to miss an awkward layup shot with 10.5 seconds left. With a chance to take a 2–0 series lead, Kobe Bryant was blocked on a jumper by Türkoğlu, who gained control of the ball and called time-out with 0.6 seconds left. After another timeout, Türkoğlu threw a half-court lob to Courtney Lee, who had come free after a screen on his defender. However, Lee was traveling too fast and launched his layup from almost behind the backboard, causing it to miss. With the Lakers up 1 in overtime with 1:55 left, Derek Fisher stole a JJ Redick pass and was fouled on the ensuing fast break, making both free throws. After the Magic were unable to convert, Kobe Bryant made a pivotal assist to Pau Gasol for a layup-and-one, giving the Lakers a 6-point lead and the eventual victory. Game 3 The Magic came out in Game 3 with fire. The Magic shot a field goal percentage of 63% for the game, a Finals record. This also included a 75% first quarter, also a Finals record. However, despite the incredible shooting percentage, the Lakers managed to stay close for much of the game. The game was only sealed for the Magic on a Mickaël Piétrus steal from Kobe Bryant in the waning minute of the 4th quarter. This win marked the first Finals win in Magic franchise history, losing their first 6 Finals games (being swept in their first appearance and losing Games 1 and 2) Game 4 Coming off their franchise's first NBA Finals game victory, the Magic quickly took the lead in the first quarter. However, Kobe Bryant kept the Lakers in the game, scoring 13 of the team's 20 first-quarter points. Dwight Howard played a great first quarter, with 11 rebounds and 4 blocks in the opening frame. In addition, he drew many fouls, putting Andrew Bynum, Pau Gasol, and Lamar Odom in foul trouble and forcing Lakers coach Phil Jackson to use Josh Powell and D. J. Mbenga early in the game. The Magic were able to increase the lead to 12 at halftime. The Lakers came out of the locker room aggressive and outscored the Magic 30–14 in the 3rd quarter, led by Trevor Ariza, who scored 13 points in the quarter, including two three-pointers. Down by six in the opening minutes of the 4th quarter, the Magic took a 76–75 lead halfway through the quarter, but were unable to increase the lead due to poor free-throw shooting, specifically from Hedo Türkoğlu and Dwight Howard. With 3 minutes left in the 4th quarter and the game tied at 79, Howard converted a three-point play to give the Magic an 82–79 lead. On the next Laker possession, the Magic played good defense, but Trevor Ariza was able to hit a 3-pointer as the shot clock expired to tie the game at 82. After Hedo Türkoğlu hit a stepback 3-point shot, Howard blocked Gasol's jumper, giving him a single-game NBA Finals record with 9 blocked shots. On the bench to witness it was a previous record holder, his assistant coach Patrick Ewing, who had 8 in Game 5 of the 1994 NBA Finals while with the New York Knicks. Türkoğlu made another jumper with 1:34 remaining to give the Magic a five-point lead. Down 87–82 with 31 seconds left, Kobe Bryant spun through the lane and passed to Gasol for a dunk to cut the lead to three. On the next Magic possession, Howard was fouled by Bryant with 11 seconds remaining. Needing just one free-throw to make the game a 2-possession affair, Howard missed both shots. Out of the timeout, the Lakers elected to take the ball out at three-quarters court instead of half-court in order to space out the floor. The Magic double-teamed Bryant in the backcourt, allowing him to pass the ball up to Ariza, who in turned passed it to Derek Fisher on the right wing. Having missed his first five three-point shots of the game, Fisher spotted up and hit a pivotal three-pointer over Jameer Nelson to tie the game at 87 with 4.6 seconds left. On the final possession of regulation, Mickaël Piétrus missed a 20-footer. The overtime session began with a three-pointer by Rashard Lewis and two contested jumpers by Kobe Bryant to give the Lakers a 91–90 lead. With 1:27 left in overtime, Howard split a pair of free throws to tie the game at 91. On the next possession, the Lakers would miss a layup and a jumper, but regained possession on an offensive rebound by Ariza and a loose-ball foul on Jameer Nelson. With 31 seconds left, Kobe Bryant passed out of a double-team and Fisher hit a three-pointer to give the Lakers a 94–91 lead. Out of a timeout, Türkoğlu rushed a three-point shot and missed. Rashard Lewis backtapped the rebound to center court, but the ball went to Pau Gasol, who ran in unimpeded for a dunk, giving the Lakers the lead for good. In the next possession, the Magic missed another shot, bouncing the ball to Fisher, who passed it to Ariza, then to Gasol for a dunk, but Pietrus slammed both arms on his back, resulting in Gasol getting a technical foul and Pietrus a flagrant-1 foul. Upon the game's finish, Oasis's "Don't Look Back in Anger" was played throughout Amway Arena. Game 5 The Magic, facing the prospect of the Lakers winning a championship on their home floor, came out with a good start, leading by as much as 9 in the first quarter. In the opening frame, all 5 starters scored and assisted on at least one field goal, but the Lakers pulled within two at the quarter break. Down 40–36 with 7:11 in the 2nd quarter, the Lakers went on a 16–0 run, fueled by two 3-pointers and solid defensive play from Trevor Ariza. The Lakers led by as much as 12 in the 2nd quarter and the score was 56–46 at halftime. Coming out of the half, Orlando cut the lead to 5 with 7:45 remaining in the 3rd on a three-pointer by Rafer Alston. Lamar Odom answered with back-to-back three-pointers to restore the Laker lead to double digits. Leading by as much as 18 in the half, Los Angeles led by 15 going into the 4th quarter. In the final quarter, Orlando attempted a run but managed to cut the lead down to only 12; at the buzzer, the Lakers celebrated their 15th title. Following the game, NBA commissioner David Stern presented the Lakers with the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy and presented Kobe Bryant with the Bill Russell NBA Finals MVP Trophy during a presentation on center court at Amway Arena. Bryant averaged 32.4 points, 5.6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game during the series. Statistics The series was the third straight championship the Lakers clinched on the road (after 2001 and 2002); the last time the Lakers clinched the championship at home was in 2000. With their team's win, Pau Gasol became the first Spaniard and D. J. Mbenga the first Belgian Congolese player to win an NBA championship. Bill and Luke Walton became the third father-son pair to each win a championship as a player; the other father-son combinations are Matt Guokas, Sr. (1947) with Matt Jr. (1967) and Rick Barry (1975) with son Brent (2005 and 2007). Kobe Bryant averaged 32.4 points and 7.4 assists in this series, which was the best combination of those categories since Jerry West averaged 37.9 points and 7.4 assists (1969). For the Magic, Game 3 marked their first Finals game victory in franchise history after losing their first six Finals games, including being swept in their first Finals appearance in 1995. In Game 3, the Magic set the Finals record for the best field goal percentage with 63 percent, and the Finals record for best field goal percentage in the first half with 75 percent. This was the first NBA Finals series since 1984 to have two games go into overtime (Games 2 and 4); both were won by the Lakers. Dwight Howard set an NBA Finals single-game record with 9 blocked shots in Game 4. The previous record holders, all of whom had blocked eight shots in a Finals game, were: Bill Walton of the Portland Trail Blazers in Game 6 of the 1977 NBA Finals; Hakeem Olajuwon of the Houston Rockets in Game 5 of the 1986 NBA Finals; Howard's assistant coach Patrick Ewing of the New York Knicks in Game 5 of the 1994 NBA Finals; Shaquille O'Neal of the Los Angeles Lakers in Game 2 of the 2001 NBA Finals; and Tim Duncan of the San Antonio Spurs in Game 6 of the 2003 NBA Finals. This was the seventh time in NBA Finals history that a team that lost the championship the previous season has won the Finals the very next year. It is the second time in Lakers history, after the 1984 and 1985 teams. This was also the first odd season since 2001 that the San Antonio Spurs did not win the NBA Finals; they won in 2003, 2005, and 2007. This was the last Finals in which a trophy silhouette was painted in mid-court. The tradition began in 2005 and ended for the 2010 series. This was also the last NBA Finals to be played at Amway Arena; the Magic moved to the Amway Center for the 2010–11 season. 2009 NBA Finals rosters Los Angeles Lakers Orlando Magic Player statistics Los Angeles Lakers |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 37.6 || .357 || .417 || .500 || 6.0 || 1.6 || 1.8 || 0.2 || 11.0 |- | align="left" | || 3 || 0 || 5.2 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 |-! style="background:#FDE910;" | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 43.8 || .430 || .360 || .841 || 5.6 || 7.4 || 1.4 || 1.4 || 32.4 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 18.9 || .364 || .000 || .667 || 4.2 || 0.6 || 0.4 || 0.6 || 6.0 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 11.5 || .368 || .125 || 1.000 || 1.2 || 0.4 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 3.4 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 35.9 || .500 || .438 || 1.000 || 3.0 || 1.8 || 1.2 || 0.0 || 11.0 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 42.5 || .600 || .000 || .778 || 9.2 || 2.2 || 0.8 || 1.8 || 18.6 |- | align="left" | || 3 || 0 || 2.0 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.3 || 0.0 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 33.8 || .542 || .500 || .688 || 7.8 || 0.8 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 13.4 |- | align="left" | || 2 || 0 || 5.5 || .500 || 1.000 || .000 || 2.0 || 0.5 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 2.5 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 4.4 || .000 || .000 || .000 || 0.4 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 0.0 || 0.0 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 15.2 || .800 || .000 || .500 || 2.0 || 1.0 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 3.8 Orlando Magic |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 29.5 || .368 || .158 || .800 || 2.2 || 3.0 || 0.8 || 0.0 || 10.6 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 7.0 || .455 || .000 || .000 || 0.8 || 0.4 || 0.0 || 0.4 || 2.0 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 10.7 || .467 || .000 || .500 || 2.6 || 0.0 || 0.4 || 1.0 || 3.2 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 42.6 || .488 || .000 || .603 || 15.2 || 2.2 || 1.6 || 4.0 || 15.4 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 17.6 || .375 || .182 || .750 || 1.4 || 0.2 || 0.6 || 0.0 || 5.8 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 42.5 || .405 || .400 || .846 || 7.6 || 4.0 || 0.8 || 0.0 || 17.4 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 18.0 || .348 || .167 || .500 || 1.4 || 2.8 || 0.2 || 0.0 || 3.8 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 0 || 28.0 || .475 || .333 || .786 || 2.0 || 0.4 || 0.6 || 0.2 || 10.6 |- | align="left" | || 4 || 0 || 16.3 || .400 || .455 || 1.000 || 0.5 || 2.0 || 0.3 || 0.0 || 5.5 |- | align="left" | || 5 || 5 || 41.1 || .492 || .438 || .742 || 4.6 || 3.8 || 0.8 || 0.4 || 18.0 International broadcasts Aside from ABC (U.S.) and TSN (Canada), other broadcasters across the world covered the Finals: : Canal 7 : ESPN and ONE HD : Be 1 and Prime Sport 1 : Great Belize Television and Tropical Vision Limited (all games except games 2 and 5 joined in progress; Sunday games covered in full) : OBN : ESPN Latin America : ESPN Latin America : CCTV-5, several provincial broadcasters : Lumiere TV : DK4 Sport : Antena Latina : SKY México : Urheilukanava : Canal+, Orange Sport : Sport+ : ESPN, Cable TV Hong Kong Sports Channel, Star Sports, TVB HD : Sport1, Sport2 : Stöð 2 Sport : ESPN : ESPN, JakTV : Sky sport : Sport 5 : J Sports Plus, NHK BS-1, SkyPerfecTV : SBS Sports, Star Sports : LTV7 : ESPN Dos North Africa: aljazeera sport +3 : Sport1 Oman: NBA TV : ESPN Latin America, CMD : C/S 9, Basketball TV : Canal+Sport1 : Sport TV 1 : NBA TV : Canal +, Cuatro : TV4 AB : Videoland : ESPN : ESPN : NTV : Five / Setanta Sports 2 : Sport Plus Impact and aftermath Lakers The series win brought the Lakers' franchise championship total to 15, trailing only to the Boston Celtics. The championship was the fourth of the 2000s decade for the Lakers, most among all teams in the four major professional sports leagues in North America. By virtue of their win this year and loss in the previous year, this marked tenth occurrence that the winners of the NBA Finals were losers in the preceding year's Finals, previously the Detroit Pistons had lost and won the Finals in and respectively. The victory was noted by many as a personal success for Finals MVP Kobe Bryant, winning his first championship and succeeding in the playoffs without the presence of former Lakers center Shaquille O'Neal where some people had previously speculated that Bryant could not "win one without Shaq". Head coach Phil Jackson captured his 10th NBA championship as a coach, surpassing Red Auerbach for most championships all-time by an NBA coach. Jackson also passed Auerbach and NHL coach Scotty Bowman for most championships all-time by a head coach in a major American sports league. Having achieved three Game 1 victories throughout the postseason (first round vs. Utah, conference finals vs. Denver, and NBA Finals vs. Orlando), Phil Jackson-coached teams were now 44–0 in series where they win the first game, later improved to 48–0 by the time Jackson retired after the 2011 NBA Playoffs. The Lakers' only offseason change was the acquisition of Ron Artest from the Houston Rockets, in an essential trade where they let Trevor Ariza sign with the Rockets. Again the Lakers won the top seed in the West, though winning just eight games less than the year before. They eliminated the Oklahoma City Thunder in six, the Utah Jazz in four, and the Phoenix Suns in six to return to the NBA Finals and renew their heated rivalry with the Celtics. In the Finals the Lakers won a hard-fought seven game series against the Celtics to retain the NBA title, becoming the first team to repeat as champions since the 2002 Lakers. Magic The Magic again won 59 games and the division title in the 2009–10 season, in which they let go of Hedo Türkoğlu to the Toronto Raptors and acquired Vince Carter from the New Jersey Nets. Dwight Howard won Defensive Player of the Year for the second straight year. In the playoffs the Magic swept the Charlotte Bobcats and the Atlanta Hawks, becoming the first team in NBA history to win their first eight playoff games by 20 or more points. However, the Magic would lose to the Boston Celtics in six games of the Eastern Conference Finals, marking the final games held at Amway Arena. The Magic moved to the Amway Center the next season, then proceeded to lose in the first round for two straight years to the Hawks and the Indiana Pacers, respectively. After the 2011–12 season Stan Van Gundy was fired, and in a blockbuster offseason trade, Howard was traded to the Lakers, which he spent one season with the Lakers and later move to Houston Rockets. However, the team failed to reach NBA Finals due to the rise of the Golden State Warriors. Thus, Howard return to the Eastern Conference teams after signing with Atlanta Hawks. References External links 2009 NBA Finals at ESPN 2009 NBA Finals at Basketball Reference National Basketball Association Finals National Basketball Association controversies Finals NBA NBA Sports competitions in Los Angeles Sports competitions in Orlando, Florida 2009 in sports in Florida 2009 in sports in California Articles containing video clips 2009 in Los Angeles 2000s in Orlando, Florida

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The Venezuelan bolívar is the official currency of Venezuela. Named after the hero of Latin American independence Simón Bolívar, it was introduced following the monetary reform in 1879, before which the venezolano was circulating. Due to its decade-long reliance on silver and gold standards, and then on a peg to the United States dollar, it was considered among the most stable currencies and was internationally accepted until 1983, when the government decided to adopt a floating exchange rate instead. Since 1983, the currency has experienced a prolonged period of high inflation, losing value almost 500-fold against the US dollar in the process. The depreciation became manageable in mid-2000s, but it still stayed in double digits. It was then, on 1 January 2008, that the hard bolívar (bolívar fuerte in Spanish, sign: Bs.F, code: VEF) replaced the original bolívar (sign: Bs.; code: VEB) at a rate of Bs.F 1 to Bs. 1,000 (the abbreviation Bs. is due to the first and the final letters plural form of the currency's name, bolívares). The value of the hard bolívar, pegged to the US dollar, did not stay stable for long despite attempts to institute capital controls. Venezuela entered another period of abnormally high inflation in 2012, which the country hasn't exited since. The central bank stuck to the pegged subsidised exchange rate until January 2018, which was overpriced so people began using parallel exchange rates despite a ban on publishing them. According to Steve Hanke, in 2016-2019 and again in 2020, the currency experienced hyperinflation for a total period of 38 months. The rampant inflation prompted two redenominations. The first occurred in August 2018, when Bs.F 100,000 were exchanged for 1 sovereign bolívar (bolívar soberano in Spanish, sign: Bs.S, code: VES), and another one happened on 1 October 2021, but called "Nueva expresión monetaria" or new monetary expression, which removes 6 zeros from the currency without affecting its denomination but have a new ISO code at a rate of Bs.S 1,000,000 = Bs.D 1 , thus making Bs.D 1 worth Bs. 100,000,000,000,000 (1014, or Bs. 100 trillion in short scale) Both monetary cone are in circulation, though the economy has undergone extensive currency substitution, so the majority of transactions happen in US dollars, or, to a lesser extent, the Colombian peso. History Bolívar The bolívar is named after the hero of Latin American independence Simón Bolívar. The bolívar was adopted by the monetary law of 1879, replacing the short-lived venezolano at a rate of five bolívares to one venezolano. Initially, the bolívar was defined on the silver standard, equal to 4.5 g fine silver, following the principles of the Latin Monetary Union. The monetary law of 1887 made the gold bolívar unlimited legal tender, and the gold standard came into full operation in 1910. Venezuela went off gold in 1930, and in 1934, the bolívar exchange rate was fixed in terms of the U.S. dollar at a rate of 3.914 bolívares = 1 U.S. dollar, revalued to 3.18 bolívares = 1 U.S. dollar in 1937, a rate which lasted until 1941. Until 18 February 1983 (now called , Spanish for Black Friday, by many Venezuelans), the bolívar had been the region's most stable and internationally accepted currency. It then fell prey to high devaluation. Exchange controls were imposed on February 5, 2003, to limit capital flight. The rate was pegged to the US dollar at a fixed exchange rate of Bs. 1,600 to the dollar. Hard bolívar The government announced on 7 March 2007 that the bolívar would be revalued at a ratio of 1,000 to 1 on 1 January 2008 and renamed the bolívar fuerte, or hard bolívar in an effort to facilitate the ease of transaction and accounting. The newer name literally means "hard bolívar", as in hard currency, and in reference to an old coin called the peso fuerte worth 10 Spanish reales. The alternate meaning of "strong" was also used by the government in promotional material The name "bolívar fuerte" is used to distinguish it from the older currency that was being used along with the hard bolívar. The official exchange rate is restricted to individuals by CADIVI, which imposes an annual limit on the amount available for travel. Since the government of Hugo Chávez established strict currency controls in 2003, there have been a series of five currency devaluations, disrupting the economy. On 8 January 2010, the value was changed by the government from the fixed exchange rate of Bs.F 2.15 to Bs.F 2.60 for some imports (certain foods and healthcare goods) and Bs.F 4.30 for other imports like cars, petrochemicals, and electronics. On 4 January 2011, the fixed exchange rate became Bs.F 4.30 for US$1.00 for both sides of the economy. On 13 February 2013 the hard bolívar was devalued to Bs.F 6.30 per US$1 in an attempt to counter budget deficits. On 18 February 2016, President Maduro used his newly granted economic powers to devalue the official exchange rate of the hard bolívar from Bs.F 6.30 per US$1 to Bs.F 10 per US$1, which is a 37% depreciation against the US dollar. The hard bolívar entered hyperinflation in November 2016. On January 26, 2018, the government retired the protected and subsidized Bs.F 10 per US$1 exchange rate that was highly overvalued as a result of rampant inflation. On February 5, 2018, the Central Bank of Venezuela announced a devaluation, with the exchange rate going to Bs.F 25,000 per USD. This made the hard bolívar the second-least-valued circulating currency in the world based on the official exchange rate, behind only the Iranian rial, and between September 2017 and August 2018, according to the informal exchange rate, the bolívar fuerte was the least-valued circulating currency unit in the world. The official exchange rate stood at Bs.F 248,832 to US$1 as of August 10, 2018, making it the least-valued circulating currency in the world based on official exchange rates. In June 2018, the government authorized a new exchange rate for buying, but not selling, currency. On August 13, 2018, the rate was Bs.F 4,010,000 to US$1, according to ZOOM Remesas. Sovereign bolívar On 22 March 2018, President Nicolás Maduro announced a new monetary reform program, with a planned revaluation of the currency at a ratio of 1,000 to 1. The change was to be made effective from 4 June 2018. In May 2018, the government required prices to be expressed in both hard bolívares and sovereign bolívares at the then-planned rate of 1,000 to 1. For example, one kilogram of pasta was shown with a price of Bs.F 695,000 and Bs.S 695. Prices expressed in the new currency were rounded to the nearest 50 céntimos as that was expected to be the lowest denomination in circulation at launch. The rounding created difficulties because some items and sales qualities were priced at significantly less than Bs.S 0.50; for example a litre of gasoline and a Caracas Metro ticket typically cost Bs.S 0.06 and Bs.S 0.04, respectively. The change in currency was originally scheduled for June 4, 2018. The President delayed the planned June launch date of the sovereign bolívar, citing from Aristides Maza, "the period established to carry out the conversion is not enough". The revaluation was rescheduled to 20 August 2018, and the rate changed to 100,000 to 1, with prices being required to be expressed at the new rate starting 1 August 2018. On 20 August 2018, the Maduro government launched the new sovereign bolívar currency, with Bs.S 1 worth Bs.F 100,000. New coins in denominations of 50 céntimos and Bs.S 1, and new banknotes in denominations of Bs.S 2, Bs.S 5, Bs.S 10, Bs.S 20, Bs.S 50, Bs.S 100, Bs.S 200 and Bs.S 500 were introduced. Under the country's official fixed exchange rate to the US dollar the new currency was devalued by roughly 95% compared to the old hard bolívar. The day was declared a bank holiday to allow the banks to adjust to the new currency. Initially, during a transition period the sovereign bolívar was to be run alongside the hard bolívar. However, from the start of the transition, on 20 August, hard bolívar notes of Bs.F 500 and less could not be used; only deposited at banks. Concurrently with the release of the new currency, the minimum wage was raised to Bs.S 1,800 per month, a 33-fold increase, and sales tax increased from 12% to 16%. Additionally, the sovereign bolívar is supposed to have a fixed exchange rate to the petro cryptocurrency, with a rate of Bs.S 3,600 to one petro; a peg of petro and sovereign bolívar was announced by Maduro as early as August 2018. The petro is supposedly tied to the price of a barrel of oil (about US$60 in August 2018). As of the end of August 2018, there is no evidence that the cryptocurrency is being traded. Petro is regarded by many as a scam. Following the introduction of the sovereign bolívar, inflation increased from 61,463 percent on 21 August 2018 to 65,320 percent on 22 August 2018. By 24 August 2018, the introduction of the sovereign bolívar had not prevented hyperinflation. According to inflation analyst Steve Hanke, between 18 August and 21 August 2018, the inflation rate increased from 48,760% percent to 65,320%. In October 2021, the country will remove six zeroes from its currency while adapting a newer version of the bolivar currency system under a project known as "Digital bolivar". Digital bolivar A new bolívar currency was introduced on 1 October 2021 at a rate of Bs.S 1,000,000 to Bs.D 1. This is not a replacement of the sovereign bolivar. The currency has the ISO 4217 currency code "VED". Currency black market The black (or parallel) market value of the hard bolívar and the sovereign bolívar has been significantly lower than the fixed exchange rate and other rates set by the Venezuelan government (SICAD, SIMADI, DICOM). In November 2013, it was almost one-tenth that of the official fixed exchange rate of Bs.F 6.30 per US dollar. In September 2014, the currency black market rate for the hard bolívar reached 100 VEF/USD; on 25 February 2015, it went over 200 VEF/USD. on 7 May 2015, it was over 275 VEF/USD and on 22 September 2015, it was over 730 VEF/USD. Venezuela still had the highest inflation rate in the world in July 2015. By 3 February 2016, this rate reached 1,000 VEF/USD. This rate surpassed 4,300 VEF/USD on 10 December 2016. It surpassed 10,000 VEF/USD on 28 July 2017, and on 7 September 2017, the rate surpassed 20,000 VEF/USD for the first time. Inflation accelerated, and on 1 December 2017, it reached 100,000 VEF/USD for the first time ever. The rate surpassed 200,000 VEF/USD on 18 January 2018, then 500,000 VEF/USD on 16 April, 1 million VEF/USD on 30 May, 2 million VEF/USD on 7 June, and 5 million VEF/USD on 16 August. At the time of redenomination on 20 August 2018, the exchange rate was 59.21 VES/USD. By the end of the month it reached 87 VES/USD. The rate then surpassed 100 VES/USD on 3 October 2018, 1,000 VES/USD on 9 January 2019, 10,000 VES/USD on 19 July, 100,000 VES/USD on 6 April 2020, and reached the 1,000,000 VES/USD on 23 November 2020. According to DolarToday, the parallel exchange rate was 4,146,022 VES/USD as of 30 August 2021. Exchange rate history It is illegal to publish the "parallel exchange rate" in Venezuela. One popular website that has been publishing parallel exchange rates since 2010 is DolarToday, which has also been critical of the Maduro government. This table shows a condensed history of the parallel foreign exchange rate of the Venezuelan bolívar (hard and sovereign) to one United States dollar between 2012 and 2021, according to DolarToday. Coins Bolívar In 1879, silver coins were introduced in denominations of Bs. , Bs. , Bs. 1, Bs. 2, and Bs. 5, together with gold Bs. 20. Gold Bs. 100 were also issued between 1886 and 1889. In 1894, silver Bs. bolívar coins were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel 5 and céntimos in 1896. In 1912, production of gold coins ceased, whilst production of the Bs. 5 ended in 1936. In 1965, nickel replaced silver in the 25 and 50 céntimos, with the same happening to the 1 and 2 bolívares in 1967. In 1971, cupro-nickel 10 céntimo coins were issued, the céntimos having last been issued in 1958. A nickel 5 bolívares was introduced in 1973. Clad steel (first copper, then nickel and cupro-nickel) was used for the 5 céntimos from 1974. Nickel clad steel was introduced for all denominations from 25 céntimos up to 5 bolívares in 1989. In 1998, after a period of high inflation, a new coinage was introduced consisting of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 bolívares denominations. The former coins were: 10 bolívares 20 bolívares 50 bolívares 100 bolívares 500 bolívares 1000 bolívares (minted 2005, issued late 2006, incorrectly rumoured as recalled due to official Coat of Arms change during the interval) All the coins had the same design. On the obverse the left profile of the Libertador Simón Bolívar is depicted, along with the inscription "Bolívar Libertador" within a heptagon, symbolizing the seven stars of the flag. On the reverse the coat of arms is depicted, circled by the official name of the country, with the date and the denomination below. In 2001, the reverse design was changed, putting the denomination of the coin at the right of the shield of the coat of arms, Semi-Circled by the official name of the country and the year of its emission below. Hard bolívar Coins of the hard bolívar were in denominations of 1, 5, 10, , 25, 50 céntimos, and Bs.F 1. They were quickly rendered obsolete by high inflation. It may be noticed that there was a -céntimo coin and a 1-céntimo coin, but no -céntimo coin. Therefore, giving correct change for a purchase of, say, céntimos would require using a -céntimo coin and getting 8 céntimos back. In December 2016, it was announced that coins of Bs.F 10, Bs.F 50, and Bs.F 100 would enter circulation. These three coins would replace the banknotes of the same denominations. Sovereign bolívar Sovereign bolívar coins were announced to be produced in denominations of 50 céntimos and BsS. 1 (50,000 and 100,000 hard bolívares respectively). These two coins were worthless by September 2019. Banknotes Bolívar In 1940, the Banco Central de Venezuela began issuing paper money, introducing by 1945 denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 bolívares. 5-bolívar notes were issued between 1966 and 1974, when they were replaced by coins. In 1989, notes for 1, 2 and 5 bolívares were issued. As inflation took hold, higher denominations of banknotes started being introduced: Bs. 1,000 bolívares in 1991, Bs. 2,000 and Bs. 5,000 in 1994, and Bs. 10,000, Bs. 20,000 and Bs. 50,000 in 1998. The first Bs. 20,000 banknotes were made in a green color similar to the one of the Bs. 2,000 banknotes, which caused confusion, and new banknotes were made in a new olive green color. Starting from 2000, banknotes ranging from Bs. 5,000 to Bs. 50,000 were renamed to REPÚBLICA BOLIVARIANA DE VENEZUELA instead of BANCO CENTRAL DE VENEZUELA on the obverse, after the 1999 constitution was adopted. Moreover, banknotes of Bs. 10,000, Bs. 20,000 and Bs. 50,000 were updated in April 2006 after the National Assembly approved changes to the coat of arms, which were made official on March 12, 2006. The following is a list of former Venezuelan bolívar banknotes: Hard bolívar 2008–2016 ("2007") New banknotes of the series 2007–2015 with values of Bs.F 2 to Bs.F 100 were issued from 20 March 2007 until 5 November 2015 and became legal tender from 1 January 2008 to 20 August 2018. The greater the values, the longer re-issuing occurred. Only the Bs.F 50 and Bs.F 100 notes were re-issued in November 2015. Bs.F 2: March 20, 2007 to October 29, 2013 Bs.F 5: March 20, 2007 to August 19, 2014 Bs.F 10: March 20, 2007 to August 19, 2014 Bs.F 20: March 20, 2007 to August 19, 2014 Bs.F 50: March 20, 2007 to November 5, 2015 Bs.F 100: March 20, 2007 to November 5, 2015 The obverse side is portrait-oriented, with the lower half carrying a portrait, while the reverse side is landscape-oriented, the left two thirds showing an animal in front of its habitat. Re-issues retain the value-specific motifs, but the printing quality is different. The notes are printed by Casa de la Moneda Venezuela in Venezuela. 2016–17 High inflation, which was a part of Venezuela's economic collapse, caused the hard bolívar's value to plummet. The 2- and 5-bolívar notes were no longer found in circulation due to the hyperinflation, but remained legal tender. By December 2016, the Bs.F 100 note, the largest denomination, was only worth about US$0.23 on the black market. On 7 December 2016, a new series of banknotes (recolors of the previous notes) in denominations of Bs.F 500, Bs.F 1,000, Bs.F 2,000, Bs.F 5,000, Bs.F 10,000, and Bs.F 20,000 were unveiled to the Venezuelan public. Days later on 11 December, President Nicolás Maduro who had been ruling by decree wrote into law that the Bs.F 100 would be pulled from circulation within 72 hours because "mafias" were allegedly storing those particular notes to drive inflation. With more than 6 billion BsF. 100 notes issued consisting of 46% of Venezuela's issued currency, Maduro enacted an exchange for Venezuelan citizens to transfer all Bs.F 100 notes for Bs.F 100 coins while also blocking international travel to prevent the return of the bolívares that were supposedly stockpiled. The government justified the move claiming that the United States was working with crime syndicates to spirit away Venezuela's paper money to warehouses in Europe to cause the fall of the government. The government was thwarting this threat by withdrawing the notes from circulation. On 14 February 2017, Paraguayan authorities uncovered a 30-tonne stash of Bs.F 50 and Bs.F 100 notes totaling Bs.F 1.5 billion on its Brazilian border that had not yet been circulated. According to a United States Department of Defense adviser linked to The Pentagon, the Bs.F 1.5 billion was printed by Venezuela and destined for Bolivia, since unlike the implied exchange rate of thousands of hard bolívares equaling one United States dollar, the exchange rate was approximately 10 hard bolívares per dollar, making the value of the stash 419 times stronger, from US$358,000 to US$150 million. The Pentagon adviser further stated that the Venezuelan government tried to send the newly printed notes to be exchanged by the Bolivian government so Bolivia could pay 20% of its debt to Venezuela, and so Venezuela could use the US dollars for its own disposal. On 3 November 2017, the Banco Central de Venezuela issued a Bs.F 100,000 note which is similar to the Bs.F 100 note of the 2007 series and the Bs.F 20,000 of the 2016 series, but with the denomination spelled out in full instead of adding an additional three zeros to the number 100. This denomination was worth US$2.42 using the unofficial exchange rate at the date of its release. New banknotes of the 2016–17 series with values of Bs.F 500 to Bs.F 100,000 were issued from 7 December 2016 until 20 August 2018, the day when the sovereign bolívar was introduced. Notes from Bs.F 5,000 to Bs.F 100,000 were recently re-issued in December 2017. Bs.F 500: August 18, 2016 to March 23, 2017 Bs.F 1,000: August 18, 2016 to March 23, 2017 Bs.F 2,000: August 18, 2016 Bs.F 5,000: August 18, 2016 to December 13, 2017 Bs.F 10,000: August 18, 2016 to December 13, 2017 Bs.F 20,000: August 18, 2016 to December 13, 2017 Bs.F 100,000: September 7, 2017 to December 13, 2017 Maduro has announced that after the currency redenomination has carried out on 20 August 2018, these old denominations with a face value of 1,000 hard bolívares or higher will circulate in parallel with the new series of bolívar soberano notes and will continue to be used for a limited time. Banknotes with a face value below BsF. 1,000 were withdrawn from circulation and ceased to be legal tender on 20 August 2018. They have to be deposited in local banks. 2018 By May 2018, the hard bolívar's banknotes represented very little value and they had become in short supply. Weighing scales could no longer convert mass to price and receipts could no longer fit the numbers on their paper. On June 2018, seven months after its release, the value of the Bs.F 100,000 note (largest denomination), had its value reduced by 98%, from US$2.42 (in November 2017) to US$0.05, as a result of increasing hyperinflation. The lower denomination hard bolívar banknotes (up to Bs.F 500) were demonetized on 20 August 2018; with the introduction of the sovereign bolívar. Higher denominations (Bs.F 1,000 and above) remained legal tender during a transition period. On 30 November 2018, it was announced that the remaining denominations of the old currency will be withdrawn from circulation and cease to be legal tender on 5 December 2018. Sovereign bolívar 2018 On 22 March 2018, with a declared state of emergency, a redenomination of the currency was announced. The conversion from hard bolívar to sovereign bolívar banknotes officially occurred on 20 August 2018, with new denominations of Bs.S 2, Bs.S 5, Bs.S 10, Bs.S 20, Bs.S 50, Bs.S 100, Bs.S 200, and Bs.S 500. Four months after entry into circulation, shops and state banks began refusing the Bs.S 2, as its value had significantly declined since the redenomination. By November 2019, except for the Bs.S 500, all notes issued in 2018 were worthless. 2019 Further inflation since the soberano redenomination resulted in the creation of Bs.S 10,000, Bs.S 20,000 and Bs.S 50,000 banknotes in June 2019. Not mentioning inflation, the Central Bank of Venezuela said the introduction of the new banknotes would "complement and optimize" the monetary system and that their purpose was to make payment systems "more efficient". On 23 April 2020, the exchange rate per xe.com was 1 USD = 144,697.34 VES; the following day, the rate slid to 1 USD = 171,140.42 VES. Banknotes with a narrow segmented security thread were printed by Goznak, those with a wider one were printed elsewhere. 2020 As of December 2020, the highest denomination banknote (Bs.S 50,000) was worth less than US$0.05 and the minimum wage is Bs.S 1,200,000 (about US$1) per month. By September 2020, all sovereign bolivar banknotes (VES 2 to 500) issued on 20 August 2018 were deemed worthless. Venezuelan officials are planning a new Bs.S 100,000 note. Meanwhile, as of 16 December 2020, the exchange rate was over 1 million bolivares to one US dollar. 2021 On 5 March 2021, the Central Bank of Venezuela introduced 3 new denominations: Bs.S 200,000, Bs.S 500,000 and Bs.S 1,000,000 which were made available to the general public on 8 March 2021. The 1,000,000 bolívares note was only worth US$0.52 at the time of the announcement. By late May 2021 the exchange rate had become over 3 million sovereign bolívares to one US dollar. According to a July 2021 Bloomberg article, Venezuela plans to redenominate the bolívar at a ratio of 1,000,000:1 in August 2021, effectively removing six zeros from the denominations. The current largest denomination banknote is 1,000,000 bolívares, expressed on the note with a predominant 1 followed by the descriptive millón de bolívares. It is therefore likely that the bank intends to retain the bolívar currency name while reusing the existing note designs. Notes See also Economy of Venezuela Hyperinflation in Venezuela SUCRE (currency) References Bibliography External links Current Legal Banknotes Venezuela Banknotes of Venezuela Gallery Numismatic Catalog of Venezuela History of Venezuelan Currency Currency Reconversion Calculator Bolívar Soberano to Bolívar Digital Currencies of South America Currencies of Venezuela Currencies introduced in 1879

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The 1978–79 NBA season was the 9th season of the team formerly known as the Buffalo Braves in the NBA. They had moved from Buffalo, New York to San Diego, California and rechristened themselves as the San Diego Clippers. Draft picks Roster {| class="toccolours" style="font-size: 95%; width: 100%;" |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color: #87CEEB; color: #FF8C00; text-align: center;" | San Diego Clippers roster |- style="background-color: #FF8C00; color: #87CEEB; text-align: center;" ! Players !! Coaches |- | valign="top" | {|class="sortable" style="background:transparent; margin:0px; width:100%;" ! Pos. !! # !! Nat. !! Name !! Ht. !! Wt. !! From |- Roster notes This was Kevin Kunnert's second stint with the franchise; he previously played for the Buffalo Braves in 1973–74. Regular season Game log |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 1 || October 13 || @ Suns || L 114–128 || Kermit Washington (25) || Kermit Washington (11)|| Randy Smith (11) || Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum 11,217 || 0–1 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 2 || October 14 || @ Warriors || L 89–117 || Tied (21) || Kermit Washington (14)|| Randy Smith (7) || Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Arena 10,254 || 0–2 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 3 || October 15 || Nuggets || L 94–98|| Randy Smith (28) || Swen Nater (12)|| Lloyd Free (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,362 || 0–3 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 4 || October 17 || Bulls || W 99–94 || Lloyd Free (29) || Tied (14)|| Tied (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 4,944 || 1–3 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 5 || October 18 || Spurs || L 125–127 || Lloyd Free (29) || Kermit Washington (16)|| Lloyd Free (8) || San Diego Sports Arena 5,614 || 1–4 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 6 || October 20 || @ Bulls || W 110–94 || Nick Weatherspoon (19) || Kermit Washington (13)|| World B. Free (9) || Chicago Stadium 12,412 || 2–4 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 7 || October 21 || @ Pacers || L 119–125 || Lloyd Free (35) || Tied (12)|| Lloyd Free (6) || Market Square Arena 9,243 || 2–5 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 8 || October 24 || Lakers || W 124–123 || Lloyd Free (35) || Kevin Kunnert (9)|| Lloyd Free (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 11,637 || 3–5 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 9 || October 25 || Bucks || W 125–116 || Lloyd Free (38) || Swen Nater (15)|| Lloyd Free (9) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,051 || 4–5 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 10 || October 27 || @ Lakers || L 101–113 || Lloyd Free (26) || Swen Nater (10)|| Lloyd Free (5) || The Forum 9,246 || 4–6 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 11 || October 29|| SuperSonics || W 103–100 || Randy Smith (26) || Kevin Kunnert (10)|| Randy Smith (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 9,469 || 5–6 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 12 || November 2 || Knicks || L 122–127 || Lloyd Free (42) || Kermit Washington (10)|| Lloyd Free (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 9,744 || 5–7 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 13 || November 3 || @ Trail Blazers || L 98–119 || Randy Smith (22) || Kermit Washington (11)|| Randy Smith (4) || Memorial Coliseum 12,666 || 5–8 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 14 || November 4 || Cavaliers || L 106–112 || Lloyd Free (24) || Kermit Washington (14)|| Lloyd Free (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 9,791 || 5–9 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 15 || November 7 || @ Jazz || W 121–115 || Lloyd Free (29) || Nick Weatherspoon (16)|| Lloyd Free (6) || New Orleans Superdome 6,411 || 6–9 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 16 || November 8 || @ Spurs || L 125–163 || Lloyd Free (26) || Swen Nater (9)|| Tied (5) || HemisFair Arena 11,358 || 6–10 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 17 || November 9 || @ Hawks || L 101–125 || Nick Weatherspoon (25) || Swen Nater (10)|| Tied (4) || Omni Coliseum 5,082 || 6–11 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 18 || November 11 || @ Rockets || L 123–136 || Lloyd Free (31) || Tied (6)|| Randy Smith (11) || The Summit 9,179 || 6–12 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 19 || November 14 || Pacers || W 109–106 || Kermit Washington (29) || Swen Nater (12)|| Lloyd Free (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,381 || 7–12 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 20 || November 16 || Warriors || W 112–109 || Lloyd Free (29) || Kermit Washington (10)|| Lloyd Free (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,483 || 8–12 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 21 || November 18 || Jazz || W 114–111 || Randy Smith (36) || Swen Nater (17)|| Randy Smith (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,151 || 9–12 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 22 || November 21 || Hawks || L 107–113 || Lloyd Free (26) || Kevin Kunnert (13)|| Lloyd Free (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,730 || 9–13 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 23 || November 24 || @ 76ers || L 120–134 || Lloyd Free (33) || Kermit Washington (11)|| Lloyd Free (8) || The Spectrum 18,276 || 9–14 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 24 || November 25 || @ Kings || W 87–86 || Lloyd Free (28) || Kevin Kunnert (15)|| Tied (4) || Kemper Arena 11,320 || 10–14 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 25 || November 26 || Celtics || W 105–103 || LLoyd Free (28) || Kermit Washington (9)|| Randy Smith (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 7,042 || 11–14 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 26 || November 30 || Rockets || L 104–113 || Nick Weatherspoon (22) || Nick Weatherspoon (11)|| Randy Smith (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,597 || 11–15 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 27 || December 2 || Pistons || L 113–120 || Tied (25) || Tied (13)|| Randy Smith (9) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,433 || 11–16 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 28 || December 6 || @ Celtics || L 111–117 || Lloyd Free (25) || Tied (11)|| Randy Smith (10) || Boston Garden 7,688 || 11–17 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 29 || December 9 || @ Nets || L 120–125 || Lloyd Free (38) || Swen Nater (10)|| Lloyd Free (4) || Rutgers Athletic Center 4,286 || 11–18 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 30 || December 10 || @ Bucks || W 107–106 || Lloyd Free (28) || Tied (12)|| Lloyd Free (5) || MECCA Arena 10,889 || 12–18 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 31 || December 12 || @ Knicks || W 105–103 || Randy Smith (28) || Tied (9)|| Lloyd Free (8) || Madison Square Garden 11,981 || 13–18 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 32 || December 13 || @ Bullets || L 117–134 || Randy Smith (29) || Swen Nater (9)|| Randy Smith (6) || Capital Centre 7,621 || 13–19 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 33 || December 17 || Suns || W 116–100 || Lloyd Free (30) || Swen Nater (13)|| Randy Smith (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,068 || 14–19 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 34 || December 19 || 76ers || L 113–124 || Lloyd Free (35) || Swen Nater (10) || Swen Nater (3) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,822 || 14–20 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 35 || December 25 || @ SuperSonics || W 123–118 || Randy Smith (29) || Swen Nater (13) || Randy Smith (12) || Kingdome 11,910 || 15–20 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 36 || December 26 || Bulls || W 115–109 || Lloyd Free (36) || Kermit Washington (10) || Lloyd Free (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,582 || 16–20 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 37 || December 28 || @ Cavaliers || L 114–116 || Lloyd Free (36) || Kevin Kunnert (9) || Lloyd Free (6) || Richfield Coliseum 11,091 || 16–21 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 38 || December 29 || @ Pistons || W 111–107 || Lloyd Free (35) || Swen Nater (14) || Randy Smith (8) || Pontiac Silverdome 10,284 || 17–21 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 39 || December 30 || @ Pacers || W 114–111 || Lloyd Free (30) || Kevin Kunnert (13) || Sidney Wicks (6) || Market Square Arena 7,263 || 18–21 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 40 || January 2 || Pistons || W 137–119 || Lloyd Free (33) || Kermit Washington (17) || Kermit Washington (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,139 || 19–21 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 41 || January 4 || @ Kings || L 99–108 || Randy Smith (37) || Kermit Washington (15) || Randy Smith (3) || Kemper Arena 6,647 || 19–22 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 42 || January 6 || @ Bucks || L 93–104 || Freeman Williams (26) || Kermit Washington (14) || Randy Smith (6) || MECCA Arena 10,938 || 19–23 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 43 || January 9 || @ Jazz || W 114–107 || Lloyd Free (34) || Kermit Washington (10) || Tied (7) || New Orleans Superdome 6,342 || 20–23 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 44 || January 11 || @ Spurs || L 111–140 || Nick Weatherspoon (38) || Nick Weatherspoon (9) || Randy Smith (12) || HemisFair Arena 11,008 || 20–24 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 45 || January 13 || @ Hawks || L 119–124 || Lloyd Free (46) || Kermit Washington (17) || Tied (3) || Omni Coliseum 7,681 || 20–25 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 46 || January 14 || @ Bullets || L 91–125 || Randy Smith (24) || Kermit Washington (13) || Randy Smith (8) || Capital Centre 9,588 || 20–26 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 47 || January 17 || Lakers || W 119–117 || Lloyd Free (31) || Tied (11) || Tied (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,073 || 21–26 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 48 || January 24 || Trail Blazers || W 122–121 || Lloyd Free (35) || Nick Weatherspoon (11) || Lloyd Free (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 9,659 || 22–26 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 49 || January 26 || @ Bulls || W 107–91 || Lloyd Free (28) || Swen Nater (15) || Tied (5) || Chicago Stadium 8,523 || 23–26 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 50 || January 27 || @ Cavaliers || W 111–110 || Lloyd Free (38) || Kermit Washington (15) || Lloyd Free (4) || Richfield Coliseum 10,523 || 24–26 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 51 || January 28 || @ Pistons || L 118–128 || Lloyd Free (23) || Swen Nater (10) || Sidney Wicks (6) || Pontiac Silverdome 9,279 || 24–27 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 52 || January 30 || Bucks || W 117–113 || Randy Smith (26) || Kevin Kunnert (14) || Tied (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,431 || 25–27 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 53 || January 31 || Nets || W 112–104 || Lloyd Free (25) || Kermit Washington (14) || Randy Smith (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 7,227 || 26–27 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 54 || February 2 || Nuggets || W 124–100 || Lloyd Free (49) || Kevin Kunnert (12) || Randy Smith (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 11,763 || 27–28 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 55 || February 7 || Spurs || L 113–126 || Lloyd Free (25) || Kermit Washington (10) || Tied (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,498 || 27–28 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 56 || February 9 || @ 76ers || L 106–117 || Randy Smith (25) || Nick Weatherspoon (13) || Nick Weatherspoon (5) || The Spectrum 15,823 || 27–29 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 57 || February 11 || @ Nets || L 98–104 || Lloyd Free (22) || Swen Nater (18) || Lloyd Free (6) || Rutgers Athletic Center 14,749 || 27–30 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 58 || February 13 || Bullets || L 136–138 2OT || Lloyd Free (45) || Nick Weatherspoon (10) || Lloyd Free (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,111 || 27–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 59 || February 15 || Jazz || W 122–112 || Lloyd Free (30) || Swen Nater (10) || Randy Smith (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 5,827 || 28–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 60 || February 16 || @ Nuggets || W 118–104 || Randy Smith (25) || Kermit Washington (14) || Tied (5) || McNichols Sports Arena 15,119 || 29–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 61 || February 18 || Hawks || W 116–101 || Lloyd Free (26) || Sidney Wicks (13) || Randy Smith (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,959 || 30–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 62 || February 23 || 76ers || W 117–116 || Lloyd Free (26) || Swen Nater (10) || Tied (3) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,783 || 31–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 63 || February 25 || Celtics || W 131–116 || Lloyd Free (38) || Kevin Kunnert (10) || Tied (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 10,671 || 32–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 64 || February 27 || Pacers || W 124–107 || Lloyd Free (28) || Tied (9) || Kermit Washington (6) || San Diego Sports Arena 6,156 || 33–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 65 || February 28 || Kings || W 122–120 || Randy Smith (22) || Swen Nater (8) || Randy Smith (7) || San Diego Sports Arena 9,051 || 34–31 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 66 || March 2 || @ Celtics || W 106–99 || Lloyd Free (28) || Kermit Washington (15) || Randy Smith (6) || Boston Garden 14,345 || 35–31 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 67 || March 3 || @ Knicks || L 108–111 || Lloyd Free (34) || Kevin Kunnert (23) || Tied (6) || Madison Square Garden 11,488 || 35–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 68 || March 7 || Rockets || W 138–115 || Lloyd Free (34) || Swen Nater (10) || Tied (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 19,911 || 36–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 69 || March 10 || Cavaliers || W 121–115 || Lloyd Free (33) || Swen Nater (12) || Tied (3) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,783 || 37–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 70 || March 14 || Trail Blazers || W 110–105 || Lloyd Free (29) || Kevin Kunnert (12) || Randy Smith (9) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,401 || 38–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 71 || March 17 || Warriors || W 106–103 || Lloyd Free (23) || Kevin Kunnert (11) || Tied (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 11,332 || 39–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 72 || March 18 || Nets || W 110–98 || Lloyd Free (31) || Nick Weatherspoon (17) || Randy Smith (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 18,538 || 40–32 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 73 || March 20 || @ Trail Blazers || L 109–115 || Randy Smith (28) || Swen Nater (12) || Randy Smith (12) || Memorial Coliseum 12,666 || 40–33 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 74 || March 21 || @ Warriors || W 106–103 || Lloyd Free (35) || Kevin Kunnert (17) || Tied (5) || Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Arena 7,813 || 41–33 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 75 || March 23 || @ Lakers || L 119–156 || Randy Smith (33) || Kermit Washington (17) || Kermit Washington (6) || The Forum 14,212 || 41–34 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 76 || March 27 || @ SuperSonics || L 109–115 || Lloyd Free (28) || Tied (9) || Lloyd Free (4) || Kingdome 20,087 || 41–35 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 77 || March 29 || Kings || L 111–116 || Lloyd Free (37) || Kermit Washington (15) || Brian Taylor (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 13,189 || 41–36 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 78 || March 30 || @ Nuggets || L 121–130 || Lloyd Free (42) || Kevin Kunnert (13) || Lloyd Free (6) || McNichols Sports Arena 17,607 || 41–37 || |- |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 79 || April 1 || Knicks || W 126–116 || Lloyd Free (28) || Kevin Kunnert (15) || Tied (4) || San Diego Sports Arena 8,371 || 42–37 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 80 || April 4 || SuperSonics || L 107–115 || Nick Weatherspoon (25) || Kermit Washington (13) || Randy Smith (5) || San Diego Sports Arena 20,087 || 42–38 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#fbb;" | 81 || April 6 || @ Suns || L 117–118 || Lloyd Free (29) || Swen Nater (10) || Tied (4) || Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum 12,660 || 42–39 || |- style="text-align:center; background:#bfb;" | 82 || April 7 || Suns || W 120–116 || Lloyd Free (36) || Swen Nater (12) || Brian Taylor (3) || San Diego Sports Arena 11,614 || 43–39 || |- Season standings Notes z, y – division champions x – clinched playoff spot Record vs. opponents Player stats Awards and records Lloyd Free, All-NBA Second Team Transactions The Clippers were involved in the following transactions during the 1978–79 season. Coaching Change Trades Free agents Additions Subtractions References Los Angeles Clippers seasons San Diego

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Antonio María de Oriol y Urquijo (1913–1996) was a Spanish politician and businessman. Politically he supported the Traditionalist cause, first as a Carlist militant and then as a Francoist official. In 1955–1977 he was a member of Cortes Españolas; in 1957–1965 he headed the welfare department in the Ministry of Interior; in 1965–1973 he served as the Minister of Justice; in 1973–1978 he was a member of the Council of the Realm and in 1973–1979 he presided over the Council of State. As businessman he was active in companies controlled by the Oriol family, holding executive positions in Iberdrola, Patentes Talgo and other entities. Family and youth Antonio Oriol was born to a family of Catalan origins, its first members noted in the history of Spain in the 17th century. Buenaventura Oriol Salvador sided with the legitimists during the First Carlist War. In recognition of his merits the claimant awarded him with Marquesado de Oriol in 1870; he was elected to the Cortes in 1872. The son of his brother and Antonio's paternal grandfather, José María Oriol Gordo (1845–1899), a native of Tortosa, joined Carlos VII during the Third Carlist War and served as Jefe de Ayudantes of general Dorregaray. Following the amnesty he settled in Bilbao and married descendant to a local high bourgeoisie Urigüen family. His son and Antonio's father, José Luis Oriol Urigüen (1877–1972), in the mid-1930s emerged as a Carlist political mogul in Álava. He wed Catalina de Urquijo y Vitórica, descendant to an oligarchic family which controlled much of the Biscay finance. In the early 20th century Oriol Urigüen replaced his father-in-law as CEO of Hidroeléctrica Española and later developed a number of other businesses; he is considered one of the most important Spanish entrepreneurs of the 20th century. José Luis and Catalina initially lived in a family estate in Getxo, the affluent suburb of Bilbao and hub of the oligarchic Basque bourgeoisie; however, they soon moved to Madrid. The couple had 8 children, all brought up in great wealth but also in a fervently religious ambience; Antonio was born as the fourth son; he had also a younger brother. It is not clear whether like at least one of his older brothers, he frequented a Jesuit high school in the capital. At unspecified time though probably in the early 1930s he enrolled at Department of Law at the Madrid university and graduated in juridical sciences in 1935. He prepared to join the family business but did so no sooner that after the Civil War. In 1940 Antonio Oriol married María de la Soledad Díaz de Bustamante y Quijano (died 1990). She descended from a wealthy Cantabrian family of entrepreneurs, though her father – who married into another industrial fortune - lived already in Madrid. The couple settled at the grand Oriol family estate near Majadahonda; it was shared with Antonio's brothers, two of them – Lucas and especially José María – growing to high Francoist officials and business tycoons. Antonio and Soledad had seven children; all the sons became high corporate executives, but they did not engage in politics. The daughter María married Miguel Primo de Rivera y Urquijo, grandson of the dictator and later one of key people behind the Spanish transition to democracy. Among 39 of Oriol's grandchildren the best known is Rocio Primo de Rivera Oriol, author of few fiction and history books; her brother Fernando gained attention in 2019 when claiming ducado de Primo de Rivera. Most of the grandchildren are well set in the world of Spanish societé and business; in 2020 the Oriol family clan was listed as the 180. richest family in Spain. Early public engagements and civil war (before 1940) Antonio's mother descended from a well known Basque family of liberal convictions, but four generations of his paternal ancestors were related to Traditionalism, even though his father adhered to a generic conservative monarchism and politically engaged in Carlism only in his 50s. Like his three older brothers, Antonio inherited legitmist preferences from forefathers and during his student years in Madrid he was active in the Carlist academic organisation, Agrupación Escolar Tradicionalista; none of the sources consulted provides information on any roles he might have performed. According to one author already in his teens he enlisted to the paramilitary Requeté organisation and remained involved in its ranks throughout all of the Republic years. Officially he was noted in the press as donating to Catholic charity and in secondary roles during some Carlist rallies in Madrid. Oriol was engaged in Carlist anti-republican conspiracy of the spring of 1936. He was assigned to join the coup in Álava; on July 18 he hid in Palacio Verástegui in Vitoria. He planned to join the military, supposed to rise the following day. Indeed, the Vitoria-based sub-units of the 5. Mountain Regiment “Flandes” did rise and the city was swiftly seized by the rebels. Early Oriol's military assignment is not clear; it is known that in mid-September he served in requeté troops which took San Sebastián. Since later this month he was seconded to the 2. Requeté Company, incorporated into the 3. Battalion of the Flandes regiment; it was deployed North to Vitoria, in the mountain range which separated Alava from Western parts of Gipuzkoa, controlled by the loyalists. In October 1936 the unit took part in heavy fightings on the Isusquiza hill. Antonio was hit and taken to the rear; few days later on the same section his brother Fernando was mortally wounded. Following recovery in November Oriol was seconded to the alferéz provisional course in Burgos; already as provisional lieutenant he joined the 2. Company, deployed to unblock encircled Villareal de Alava, in December. In the first half of 1937 the unit engaged in the Biscay campaign; shuttled to the central front it took part in the battle of Brunete in July. In September, renamed to 8. Compañía del Requeté de Alava, it was deployed in Cantabria; during later combat in Asturias Oriol was already commanding the 1. Section. Following the Northern campaign the company took part in victory parade in Vitoria, to be shuttled to Teruel by the end of 1937. Oriol was wounded for the second time near Mata de los Olmos in March 1938; treated in the hospital, he re-joined his unit in June at the Castellón front. He commanded the section during heavy fightings in Sierra de Pandols during the Battle of Ebro; the campaign earned him an individual Military Medal. In December 1938 the company was deployed in Huesca, to take part in the Catalonia offensive in early 1939. In March promoted to capitán de infantería, Oriol finished the war commanding his unit near Cartagena. Businessman (1940–1955) There is very little information on Oriol's engagements of the 1940s. It is known that unlike his older brother José María, who assumed major party and administrative posts of early Francoism, he did not engage in politics. Throughout most of the decade he stayed away from public sight and except family events, he was not noted in the press. He did not resume his pre-war Carlist engagements and is not mentioned by historiographic works dealing with Traditionalism of the so-called primer franquismo. According to few available sources he dedicated himself to family business and remained active in “various companies”, controlled by the Oriol oligarchy. It is not clear whether he lived in Madrid or elsewhere. In the mid-1940s he was noted as resident of the Cantabrian Santander; this was probably because of his role in executive board of VALCA, the Santander-based chemical company Sociedad Española de los Productos Fotográficos, founded by the Oriols and 3 other Basque families. It seems that the key Oriol's business focus was on Tren Articulado Ligero Goicoechea Oriol (TALGO), the new manufacturing and transportation railway company launched by his father jointly with Alejandro Goicoechea in 1942. Since the mid-1940 it was already an exclusive family enterprise, but due to cash shortages and technological problems the company was struggling to launch large scale high-speed train services. As TALGO was unable to address production problems domestically, manufacturing was contracted in the United States. Oriol is known to have spent some time in New York, where he signed a contract with American Car and Foundry and supervised production of locomotives and the rolling stock for the train known as Talgo II. In 1950 Oriol ascended to Chief Executive Officer of TALGO; the company figured prominently in the official propaganda, expected to demonstrate robustness of the industry and modernizing capacity of the regime. Apart from developing production, his other major task was closing negotiations with RENFE over usage of the state railway network; in 1950 the first commercial service was launched between Madrid and Hendaye. The Oriols were not happy with the arrangement and complained about their limited say on timetables and routes. In 1953 the contract was re-negotiated and concluded on the entirely new basis; TALGO was manufacturing and maintaining trains, operated by state railways as RENFE property. The new arrangement allowed the company to repay bank loans and stimulated further development; in the 1950s TALGO trains were already serving at a number of national routes. Oriol stepped down from chairmanship in the mid-1950s, reportedly to assume political jobs. However, he entered the new Comité de Gerencia of the company. Welfare and Social Works (1955–1965) In 1955 Oriol was nominated to the FET Consejo Nacional, which ensured his place in the Francoist quasi-parliament, Cortes Españolas. Exact mechanism of his elevation is not clear, though it was part of a wider political change; it came simultaneously with rise of his two brothers, since Lucas took his Cortes ticket as representative of syndicates and José María as personal Franco's appointee. At unspecified time in the mid-1950s Oriol was appointed also FET's Delegado Nacional de Auxilio Social and became president of Cruz Roja Española. In early 1957 he was nominated Director General of Beneficiancia y Obras Sociales, the department of welfare located within the Ministry of Interior structures. None of the sources consulted clarifies Oriol's rapid ascent, though there is little doubt that he owed his position in the ministry to acquaintance with Camilo Alonso Vega, who himself had assumed the Interior just one month earlier; during the war years Alonso was Oriol's direct military superior. Following minor administrative re-adjustments the focus of the department was on re-shaping the social security framework. Until the late 1950s it operated in residual mode, related to various administrative bodies; the system was non-coordinated and calibrated to meet basic requirements. Since 1959 it got formatted as modern state welfare system. In 1960 it was based on newly created Fondo Nacional de Asistencia Social and few other funds; they were included in standard budgetary provisions, while freshly set up Juntas Provinciales de Beneficiencia reported to civil governors. The system was enhanced with further regulations, issued either as ministerial decrees or as official legislation. The regular social security scheme was complete with Ley de Bases de la Seguridad Social, adopted in 1963. It introduced two modes of social security, “protección básica” and “protección complementaria”. As a consequence, the Francoist social security scheme started to resemble these of most Western European countries. A present-day historiographer summarizes the evolution as migration from “Beneficiencia del Estado” to the “Asistencia Social” pattern; another one claims that it moved from a heterogeneous “sistema de Seguros Sociales” to an integrated “sistema de Seguridad Social”. It is not clear how much credit for modernization of the system should be given to Oriol personally. In the press of the era Oriol was noted during typical official ceremonies, e.g. opening of hospitals or child care centers, inspecting local welfare administration or commencing various specific campaigns – e.g. the 1963 one against illiteracy – of the Spanish Red Cross. Though he did not take part in big politics, in 1957 together with numerous offshoot Carlists he visited the Alfonsist claimant in his Estoril residence and declared him the legitimate Traditionalist heir; since then he cautiously promoted the Juanista case. He also tried to counter advances of the Javierista Carlists, even though he openly admitted own Carlist credentials. Because of this at times he could have run into problems with more zealous Falangists like Fernando Herrero Tejedor; however, he was careful that ultimately, the Traditionalist identity did not stand in the way of his career. Minister of Justice (1965–1973) In 1965 Oriol was nominated Minister of Justice, since 1938 the office held mostly by Traditionalists. Oriol's appointment was part of Franco's balancing game; in this case, ministers related to ACNDP and Carlism provided counter-weight to these associated with Opus Dei. His first main project was work on the 1966-adopted Ley Orgánica del Estado, major legislation which produced systematization and clarification of existing arrangements with minor reforms introduced; Oriol endorsed it claiming that the regime was in constant evolution. A key thread of Oriol's work was dealing with Church issues. From the onset busy with religious affairs, he co-ordinated work on the law on religious liberty. The draft generated great tension especially among the Traditionalists; Oriol claimed the project complied with key civil rights but did not dismantle Catholic unity; the law was eventually passed in 1967. Since the late 1960s he was involved in negotiations of a new concordat, a thorny issue related to increasingly anti-Francoist position of the Spanish Church. He opposed changes advocated by the Vatican which would diminish official state prerogatives; following unsuccessful attempt to push through an own project in 1970, he officially hailed the existing regulations; confidential negotiations went on, but bore no fruit. Another religion-related issue was the rising number of priests charged with political offences. In 1968 Oriol set up a prison in Zamora, intended only for the religious. In the 1970s he was increasingly involved in hardly veiled propaganda war with the hierarchy; he admitted some unease about Zamora, but still presented it as a model solution. At the same time he voiced against “Marxist infiltration” among the clergy, demonstrated outrage at public statements of some hierarchs and took some religious appointments as personal insult. As minister Oriol presided over continuous relaxation of the penal policy. He declared that Spain “had the second lowest prison population in the world” after the Netherlands. The number of inmates kept going down, paired with decreasing number of death penalties carried out; over 10 years there were 13 executions and 19 cases of clemency. However, in the early 1970s Oriol admitted to 3,000 political prisoners; they were all subject to amnesty of 1971. During his tenure he was also responsible for adoption of Ley Orgánica de la Justicia y de los Códigos Procesales Civil y Penal, the legislation which partially reformed and consolidated the civil and penal codes. When summarizing his tenure some historians consider him “more of a technocrat than a politician”. Indeed, he is not mentioned as major protagonist of power struggle within the Francoist regime of the era; however, he enjoyed personal confidence of Franco and was in position to mount own personal intrigues. He confronted Javierista maneuvers. In his capacity of minister he denied Spanish citizenship to Don Javier and tried to marginalize independent Carlism, claiming that all Traditionalists sided with the regime; he earned virulent hostility of the Carlist youth in return. His monarchist efforts were crowned when in 1969 Don Juan Carlos was officially declared the future king. Council of State: twilight of the regime (1973–1975) In July 1973 Oriol left the Ministry of Justice when nominated by Franco to Consejo de Estado, a high consultative body. At the same he assumed its presidency, which in turn ensured seat in Consejo del Reino, another council with some personal prerogatives; he became one of the highest-positioned carlo-francoists. None of the sources consulted clarifies whether the nominations were a step forward or a step back in Oriol's career; he abandoned the office which guaranteed real power to take seats in prestigious, but largely ceremonial and decorative bodies. It is neither clear whether Oriol's move should be associated with death of another Carlist Joaquín Bau, whose passing away in May vacated both seats, or rather was related to Carrero Blanco forming his own, the first non-Franco-led government in June. Oriol retained his seat in the Cortes, doubly eligible by virtue of membership in the Falangist Consejo Nacional and due to presidency in Consejo de Estado. For Oriol the years of 1973-1975 were a string of visits, lectures, sittings and other events, associated with officialdom related to presidency of Consejo de Estado and membership in Consejo del Reino; they were dutifully reported in the press. They carried little of political substance; when speaking, Oriol declared faith in resilience of the Francoist system and seemed not to have noticed the apparent dramatic decline in Franco's health. Some of his addresses contained veiled references to understanding among all Spaniards and phrases which renounced division into the victors and the vanquished. Many of his statements pointed to Don Juan Carlos as the key person for the future, though some advanced ambiguous comments as to the role of the military. During the last years of Francoism Oriol emerged as supporter of “asociaciones políticas”, a long-discussed concept supposed to enable institutionalization of political factions. Himself he tried to build a pro-regime Traditionalist grouping; as early as in 1972 he participated in buildup of Hermandad de Maestrazgo, originally an ex-requeté society designed as pro-Juan-Carlos “primera organización monárquica” and intended to attract a broader spectrum of politicians. He then switched to another project, not based on the ex-combatant platform but assuming a more typical political shape; it was also founded on Traditionalist principles. In 1974 Oriol was seen on traditional Carlist feast, and in early 1975 he tried to organize a “Traditionalist summit”. Following adoption of new legislation on political associations, in mid-1975 the organization eventually materialized as Union Nacional Española with Oriol as one of its leaders. It grouped either Carlists who had amalgamated into Francoism during earlier decades or other regime politicians who hoped that the monarchy of Juan Carlos would ensure continuity of the system, possibly with some minor rectifications. Council of State: transición (1975–1979) Following the crowning of Don Juan Carlos Oriol assisted the new king in his personal maneuvers, aimed at consolidating power in hands of more liberal politicians. Though in December 1975 he declared the Francoist system well-organized, in April 1976 he admitted that “Francoism could not operate without Franco”; however, he imagined the change as evolution and not a rupture. He voiced against the perspective of a multi-party regime and envisioned the reform as building the system of associations, operating within Movimiento. He was very active in development of UNE structures, in April 1976 emerging as president of its Consejo Asesor. Some viewed Oriol as representative of hardline post-Francoist “búnker”; in reply he confirmed his commitment to evolution and hostility to fundamental changes. He called the Arias government not to deal with individuals seeking system breakup and demonstrated his allegiance to the memory of Franco. In May 1976 Oriol jointly with hardline Traditionalists and possibly in collusion with security services co-engineered an operation aimed at blocking the Hugocarlista rally at Montejurra; it left 2 progressist militants dead. In June 1976 Oriol cautiously adhered to suggestions of some reformers and contributed to appointment of Adolfo Suarez as the new prime minister. He kept opposing legalization of political parties and insisted on allegiance to the Movimiento principles; he tried to shape the draft electoral law accordingly. However, in November 1976 and unlike his brother José María, Oriol voted in favor of Ley para la Reforma Política, dubbed “suicide of the Francoist Cortes”. As it turned out that his membership in Consejo del Reino was not legally compatible with position in the UNE executive he resigned the latter. In December 1976 Oriol, as president of Consejo de Estado theoretically the 4th person of the kingdom, was kidnapped by a Marxist terrorist organization GRAPO. His captors declared him an iconic Francoist responsible for repressive legislation and demanded exchange for left-wing political prisoners. The abduction triggered speculation that the government was losing control and the country might slip into the unknown. However, following two months in captivity, on February 11, 1977 Oriol was rescued by Spanish security forces in a raid at a GRAPO hideout in Alcorcon. As the last Francoist Cortes was dissolved in 1977, Oriol lost his procurador mandate. Possibly involved in leading UNE into Alianza Popular, he did not take part in the June elections to the constituent assembly. At the time he was getting increasingly sidetracked and his activity throughout 1977 and 1978 was mostly about official but politically irrelevant duties of two Councils he used to sit in; also his public statements demonstrated increasing detachment and veiled disappointment. He lost his seat in Council of the Realm when the institution was abolished by the new constitution in 1978; having reached the regular retirement age Oriol ceased as president and member of Consejo de Estado in 1979. Against the rising tide he kept demonstrating reverence to Franco and attended numerous commemorative and homage post-Francoist rallies, as prestigious guest taking part also in religious, local, or other ceremonies. Retirement (after 1979) Having lost all seats in party and state structures in 1979 Oriol became a political retiree. However, he remained engaged in ex-combatant organization and in 1980 acted as president during the congress of Derecha Democrática Española, a short-lived centre-right amalgam. Some historians claim he was active behind the scenes when mounting “operación De Gaulle”, allegedly a plan to topple Suarez and replace him with a military leader; Oriol was reportedly “centro neurálgico de la conspiración”. In aftermath of the failed coup d’état of 1981 some media identified him as political sponsor of Antonio Tejero; Oriol sued them for libel. Others speculated that with Oriol's record of longtime promoter and supporter of Juan Carlos, his taking part in the conspiracy was unlikely. In the 1980s Oriol appeared in public in relation to various post-Francoist events, never missing during anniversary rallies commemorating Franco's death or attending funerals of other regime officials; he also acted as vicepresidente segundo of Fundación Francisco Franco. As president of Hermandad de Alféreces Provisionales in 1985 he protested against anti-Franco harangues of some state officials, deemed to “break the national harmony”; in a 1986 declaration he professed “la idea de la reconciliación que habría de presidir el futuro de la Patria” and voiced against “revancha que algunos sectores de España pretenden renovar”. In 1987 Oriol seemed supportive of Blas Piñar's idea of building a political right-wing “acción organizada”, but in the late 1980s he was not reported as adhering to the Piñar-led Frente Nacional. Rather seldom he appeared in the media, e.g. when noted for legal action of ex-Francoist ministers who sued for alleged pension irregularities or when interviewed on TV. Oriol remained in executive bodies of various companies related to the family business conglomerate; they included Argón, Compañía Minero-Metalúrgica Los Guindos, Electra de Viesgo, Electricista Alcoyana, Fuerzas Eléctricas del Noroeste, Iberdrola, Patentes Talgo, and Vidrieras de Llodio. At some opportunities he appeared in public, e.g. when opening the Madrid-Paris TALGO connection. He started to withdraw from commercial engagements in the late 1980s; he resigned his key post in the board of Iberdrola in 1990, replaced by own son. In the 1990s Oriol was recorded in public only in relation to his presidency of Confederación de Combatientes and Hermandad Nacional de Alféreces Provisionales ex-combatant organizations. Though at that time he was in conflict with Blas Piñar, some of their rallies managed to attract significant crowds. His death was noted in most nationwide press titles; some adhered to respectful tone and e.g. listed his numerous decorations, some repeated speculations about his alleged involvement in the 1981 plot and some merely re-printed standard news agency messages. See also Carlism Carlo-francoism Traditionalism (Spain) Francoism Jose Maria de Oriol y Urquijo Jose Luis de Oriol y Uriguen Footnotes Further reading Alfonso Ballestero, José Ma de Oriol y Urquijo, Madrid 2014, , 9788483569160 External links Isuskitza: la colina de la sangre, Carlist account of the Isusquiza battle Oriol at Aunamendi Eusko Entziklopedia online Oriol's record at the official Cortes service Oriol as Council of State president at No-Do footage of 1969 footage of Oriol as "first notary of state" during Juan Carlos' designation of 1969 (2:50 to 3:30) 20th-century Spanish businesspeople 20th-century Spanish lawyers Carlists Complutense University of Madrid alumni Crosses of Military Merit FET y de las JONS politicians Francoist Spain Justice ministers of Spain Kidnapped people Members of paramilitary organizations Members of the Cortes Españolas Missing person cases in Spain Order of Civil Merit members People from Getxo Red Cross personnel Spanish business executives Spanish military personnel of the Spanish Civil War (National faction) Spanish rebels Spanish Roman Catholics Talgo Spanish people of Catalan descent Politicians from Madrid Businesspeople from Madrid

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The Russian federal law "for the Purpose of Protecting Children from Information Advocating for a Denial of Traditional Family Values," also referred to in English-language media as the gay propaganda law and the anti-gay law, is a bill that was unanimously approved by the State Duma on 11 June 2013 (with just one MP abstaining—Ilya Ponomarev), and was signed into law by President Vladimir Putin on 30 June 2013. The Russian government's stated purpose for the law is to protect children from being exposed to homosexuality—content presenting homosexuality as being a norm in society—under the argument that it contradicts traditional family values. The statute amended the country's child protection law and the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses, to prohibit the distribution of "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" among minors. This definition includes materials that "raises interest in" such relationships, cause minors to "form non-traditional sexual predispositions", or "[present] distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non-traditional sexual relationships." Businesses and organizations can also be forced to temporarily cease operations if convicted under the law, and foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported, or fined up to 5,000 rubles and deported. The Kremlin's backing of the law appealed to the Russian nationalist far-right. The law was condemned by the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe (of which Russia is a member), by the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child and by human rights groups, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. The statute was criticized for its broad and ambiguous wording (including the aforementioned "raises interest in" and "among minors"), which many critics characterized as being an effective ban on publicly promoting the rights and culture of the LGBT community. The law was also criticized for leading to an increase and justification of homophobic violence, while the implications of the laws in relation to the then-upcoming Winter Olympics being hosted by Sochi were also cause for concern, as the Olympic Charter contains language explicitly barring various forms of discrimination. Background Despite the fact that the cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg have been well known for their thriving LGBT communities, there has been growing opposition towards gay rights among politicians since 2006. The city of Moscow has actively refused to authorize gay pride parades, and former Moscow mayor Yuri Luzhkov supported the city's refusal to authorize the first two Moscow Pride events, describing them as "satanic" and blaming western groups for spreading "this kind of enlightenment" in the country. Fair Russia member of parliament Alexander Chuev was also opposed to gay rights and attempted to introduce a similar "propaganda" law in 2007. In response, prominent LGBT rights activist and Moscow Pride founder Nikolay Alexeyev disclosed on the television talk show К барьеру! that Chuev had been publicly involved in same-sex relationships prior to his time in office. In 2010, Russia was fined by the European Court of Human Rights under allegations by Alexeyev that cities were discriminating against gays by refusing to approve pride parades. Although claiming a risk of violence, the court interpreted the decisions as being in support of groups which oppose such demonstrations. In March 2012, a Russian judge blocked the establishment of a Pride House in Sochi for the 2014 Winter Olympics, ruling that it would "undermine the security of Russian society", and that it contradicted with public morality and policies "in the area of family motherhood and childhood protection." In August 2012, Moscow upheld a ruling blocking Nikolay Alexeyev's requests for 100 years' worth of permission to hold Moscow Pride annually, citing the possibility of public disorder. The bill "On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development" introduced laws which prohibited the distribution of "harmful" material among minors. This includes content which "may elicit fear, horror, or panic in children" among minors, pornography, along with materials which glorify violence, unlawful activities, substance abuse, or self-harm. An amendment to the law passed in 2012 instituted a mandatory content rating system for material distributed through an "information and telecommunication network" (covering television and the internet), and established a blacklist for censoring websites which contain child pornography or content glorifying drug abuse and suicide. The 2013 amendment, which added "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as a class of harmful content under the law was, according to the Government of Russia, intended to protect children from being exposed to content that portrays homosexuality as being a "behavioural norm". Emphasis was placed upon a goal to protect "traditional" family values; bill author Yelena Mizulina (the chair of the Duma's Committee on Family, Women, and Children, who has been described by some as a "moral crusader"), argued that "traditional" relations between a man and a woman required special protection under Russian law. The amendment also expanded upon similar laws enacted by several Russian regions, including Ryazan, Arkhangelsk (who repealed its law shortly after the passing of the federal version), and Saint Petersburg. Mark Gevisser writes that the Kremlin's backing of the law was reflective of a "dramatic tilt toward homophobia" in Russia that began in the years preceding the law's passage. Gevisser writes that the law's passage allowed the Russian government to find "common ground" with the nationalist far right, and also appeal to the many Russians who view "homosexuality as a sign of encroaching decadence in a globalized era." He writes: "Many Russians feel they can steady themselves against this cultural tsunami by laying claim to 'traditional values,' of which rejection of homosexuality is the easiest shorthand. This message plays particularly well for a government wishing to mobilize against demographic decline (childless homosexuals are evil) and cozy up to the Russian Orthodox Church (homosexuals with children are evil)." Human Rights Watch noted that Putin's enactment of the law allowed him to pander to socially conservative voters at home and "position Russia as a champion of so-called 'traditional values'" on the global stage. Contents Article 1 of the bill amended On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development with a provision classifying "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as a class of materials that must not be distributed among minors. The term is defined as materials that are "[aimed] at causing minors to form non-traditional sexual predispositions, notions of attractiveness of non-traditional sexual relationships, distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non-traditional sexual relationships, or imposing information about non-traditional sexual relationships which raises interest in such relationships insofar as these acts do not amount to a criminal offence." Article 2 makes similar amendments to "On basic guarantees for the rights of the child in the Russian Federation", commanding the government to protect children from such material. Article 3 of the bill amended the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses with Article 6.21, which prescribes penalties for violations of the propaganda ban: Russian citizens found guilty can receive fines of up to 5,000 rubles, and public officials can receive fines of up to 50,000 rubles. Organizations or businesses can be fined up to 1 million rubles and be forced to cease operations for up to 90 days. Foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported, or fined up to 5,000 rubles and deported. The fines for individuals are much higher if the offense was committed using mass media or internet. Reaction According to a survey conducted in June 2013 by the state-owned All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion (also known as VTsIOM), at least 90 percent of Russians surveyed were in favour of the law. Over 100 conservative groups worldwide signed a petition in support for the law, with Larry Jacobs, manager of the World Congress of Families, supporting its aim to "prohibit advocacy aimed at involving minors in a lifestyle that would imperil their physical and moral health." President of Russia Vladimir Putin answered to early objections to the then-proposed bill in April 2013 by stating that "I want everyone to understand that in Russia there are no infringements on sexual minorities' rights. They're people, just like everyone else, and they enjoy full rights and freedoms". He went on to say that he fully intended to sign the bill because the Russian people demanded it. As he put it, "Can you imagine an organization promoting pedophilia in Russia? I think people in many Russian regions would have started to take up arms.... The same is true for sexual minorities: I can hardly imagine same-sex marriages being allowed in Chechnya. Can you imagine it? It would have resulted in human casualties." Putin also mentioned that he was concerned about Russia's low birth rate, as same-sex relationships do not produce children. In August 2013, Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko also defended the law, equating it to protecting children from content that glorifies alcohol abuse or drug addiction. He also argued that the controversy over the law and its effects was "invented" by the Western media. Criticism The passing of the law was met with major international backlash, especially from the Western world, as critics considered it an attempt to effectively ban the promotion of LGBT rights and culture in the country. Article 19 disputed the claimed intent of the law, and felt that many of the terms used within were too ambiguous, such as the aforementioned "non-traditional sexual relationships", and "raises interest in". The organization argued that it "feasibly could apply to any information regarding sexual orientation or gender identity that does not fit with what the State considers as in-line with 'tradition'." The term "among minors" was also criticized as being ambiguous, since it is unclear whether it refers to being in the presence of minors, or any place where minors could be present. They argued that "predicting the presence of children in any space, on-line or off-line, is quite impossible and is a variable that the proponent of any expression will rarely be in absolute control of." The law was condemned by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon indirectly criticized the law. LGBT rights activists, human rights activists, and other critics stated that the broad and vague wording of the law, which was characterized as a ban on gay propaganda by the media, made it a crime to publicly make statements or distribute materials in support of LGBT rights, hold pride parades or similar demonstrations, state that gay relationships are equal to heterosexual relationships, or according to Human Rights Campaign (HRC) president Chad Griffin, even display LGBT symbols such as the rainbow flag or kiss a same-sex partner in public. The first arrest made under the law involved a person who publicly protested with a sign containing a pro-LGBT message. The legislation reportedly led to an increase in violence against LGBT people in Russia. Russian LGBT Network chairman Igor Kochetkov argued that the law "[has] essentially legalised violence against LGBT people, because these groups of hooligans justify their actions with these laws," supported by their belief that gays and lesbians are "not valued as a social group" by the federal government. Reports surfaced of activity by groups such as 'Occupy Paedophilia' and 'Parents of Russia', who lured alleged "paedophiles" into "dates" where they were tortured and humiliated. In August 2013, it was reported that a gay teenager was kidnapped, tortured, and killed by a group of Russian Neo-Nazis. Violence also increased during pro-gay demonstrations; on 29 July 2013, a gay pride demonstration at Saint Petersburg's Field of Mars resulted in a violent clash between activists, protesters, and police. In January 2014, a letter, co-written by chemist Sir Harry Kroto and actor Sir Ian McKellen and co-signed by 27 Nobel laureates from the fields of science and the arts, was sent to Vladimir Putin urging him to repeal the propaganda law as it "inhibits the freedom of local and foreign LGBT communities." In February 2014, the activist group Queer Nation announced a planned protest in New York City outside the Russian consulate on 6 February 2014, timed to coincide with the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics. The same day, gay rights group All Out similarly coordinated worldwide protests in London, New York City, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro. On 8 February 2014, a flash mob was held in Cambridge, England featuring same-sex couples embracing and hugging, as part of a video project known as "From Russia With Love". The TV documentary Stephen Fry: Out There explored gay rights and homophobia (fear of gays and lesbians) in numerous countries in the world, including Russia. In it, Stephen Fry interviews a lesbian couple who discuss their fears that simply being out to their 16-year-old daughter and her friends could be taken as breaking this law, due to the law's prohibition "on anyone disseminating information about homosexuality to under 18s". The LGBT news magazine The Advocate described the law as criminalising "any positive discussion of LGBT people, identities, or issues in forums that might be accessible to minors. In practice, the law has given police broad license to interpret almost any mention of being LGBT—whether uttered, printed, or signified by waving a rainbow flag—as just cause to arrest LGBT people." The US State Department in its 2013 report on human rights in Russia noted the clarification from Roskomnadzor (the Russian Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecom, Information Technologies and Mass Communications) that the "gay propaganda" prohibited under the law includes materials which "directly or indirectly approve of people who are in nontraditional sexual relationships." One couple interviewed by Fry said: "Of course we are afraid because we really don't know what's going to happen next in the country. ... You just don't know if they can incarcerate you tomorrow for something or not." Fry also interviewed politician Vitaly Milonov, the original proponent of the law, whose attempts to defend it have been strongly criticized; Milonov responded branding Fry as "sick" for making a suicide attempt while filming the documentary in an interview in which he also compared homosexuality with bestiality. Incompatibility with the European Convention of Human Rights There is a general consensus that the law violates the European Convention of Human Rights, which Russia ratified. In the 2017 case Bayev and Others v. Russia brought by three Russian LGBT activists following their convictions under local anti-propaganda laws, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the laws in question violated the applicants' freedom of speech and right not to be discriminated against in the exercise of Convention rights. The court found that "the authorities reinforce[d] stigma and prejudice and encourage[d] homophobia, which is incompatible with the notions of equality, pluralism and tolerance in a democratic society". The Council of Europe's advisory body on constitutional law, the Venice Commission, passed a resolution in 2013 stating that bans on "propaganda of homosexuality" "are incompatible with ECHR and international human rights standards" for several reasons. First, these bans were worded too vaguely to satisfy the requirement in Article 10 ECHR that limits on freedom of expression must be "prescribed by law". Second, "homosexuality as a variation of sexual orientation, is protected under the ECHR and as such, cannot be deemed contrary to morals by public authorities, in the sense of Article 10 § 2 of The ECHR". Third, the laws only target "propaganda of homosexuality" but not "propaganda of heterosexuality", which amounts to discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation under Article 14 ECHR. Protests A number of protests were held against the law, both locally and internationally. Activists demonstrated outside New York City's Lincoln Center at the opening night of the Metropolitan Opera on 23 September 2013, which was set to feature Tchaikovsky's opera Eugene Onegin. The protests targeted Tchaikovsky's own homosexuality, and the involvement of two Russians in the production; soprano Anna Netrebko and conductor Valery Gergiev, as they were identified as vocal supporters of Putin's government. On 12 October 2013, the day following National Coming Out Day, a protest organized by at least 15 activists was held in Saint Petersburg. The protest site was occupied by a large number of demonstrators, some of whom were dressed as Russian Orthodox priests and Cossacks. In total, 67 protestors were arrested for creating a public disturbance. Activists also called for a boycott of Stolichnaya vodka, who had prominently branded itself as a Russian vodka (going as far as to dub itself "[the] Mother of All Vodkas from The Motherland of Vodka" in an ad campaign). However, its Luxembourg-based parent company, Soiuzplodoimport, responded to the boycott effort, noting that the company was not technically Russian, did not support the government's opinion on homosexuality, and described itself as a "fervent supporter and friend" of LGBT people. Proposed similar laws in Kyrgyzstan In 2014, a bill modeled after the Russian anti-gay law was proposed in the parliament of Kyrgyzstan; the measure, which "drew a welter of criticism from multiple rights groups, governments, the United Nations Human Rights Council and the European parliament," would provide for even harsher penalties than the Russian law. The bill passed its first two readings by wide margins (79–7 and then 90–2) but faltered after two of the legislation's lead sponsors failed to win reelection. In 2016, the legislation was again raised in parliament, but was held up in subcommittee. Prosecutions and other effects The first arrest made under the propaganda law occurred just hours after it was passed: 24-year-old activist Dmitry Isakov was arrested in Kazan for publicly holding a sign reading "Freedom to the Gays and Lesbians of Russia. Down With Fascists and Homophobes", and ultimately fined 4,000 rubles (US$115). Isakov had performed a similar protest in the same location the previous day as a "test" run, but was later caught in an altercation with police officers who targeted his pro-gay activism, and arrested him for swearing. He would be released without charge, but pledged to return there the next day to show that he would "not be cowed by such pressure." Isakov also claimed that he had been fired from his job at a bank as a result of the conviction. In December 2013, Nikolay Alexeyev and Yaroslav Yevtushenko were fined 4,000 rubles for picketing outside a children's library in Arkhangelsk with banners reading, "Gays aren't made, they're born!" Their appeal was denied. In January 2014, Alexander Suturin, editor-in-chief of the Khabarovsk newspaper Molodoi Dalnevostochnik, was fined 50,000 rubles (US$1,400) for publishing a news story discussing the teacher Alexander Yermoshkin, who had been fired for self-admittedly holding "rainbow flash mobs" in Khabarovsk with his students, and was subsequently attacked by right-wing extremists because of his sexuality. The fine centred around a quote in the article by the teacher, who stated that his very existence was "effective proof that homosexuality is normal." Elena Klimova has been charged under the law multiple times for operating Children-404—an online support group for LGBT youth on the social networking services VKontakte and Facebook. The first of these charges was overturned in February 2014, after a court ruled in consultation with a mental health professional that the group "helps teenagers exploring their sexuality to deal with difficult emotional issues and other problems that they may encounter", and that these activities did not constitute "propaganda of non-traditional sexual relationships" as defined under the law. In January 2015, Klimova was sent to court for the same charges. They were overturned on appeal, only for the same court to convict Kilmova and issue a fine of 50,000 rubles in July 2015, pending an appeal. In November 2014, one day after current Apple Inc. CEO Tim Cook publicly announced that he was proud of being gay, it was reported that an iPhone-shaped memorial honoring its late co-founder Steve Jobs had been removed from a Saint Petersburg university campus by its installer, the West European Financial Union (ZEFS). It was alleged that the memorial was removed due to the law because it was in an area frequented by minors. In September 2015, Apple became the subject of an investigation by officials in Kirov for implementing emoji on its operating systems which depict same-sex relationships, over whether they may constitute a promotion of non-traditional sexual relationships to minors. Roskomnadzor later ruled that by themselves, emoji depicting same-sex couples did not constitute a violation of the propaganda law, as whether they have a positive or negative connotation depends on their actual context and usage. In March 2018, Roskomnadzor has blocked access within the nation to a prominent website for the Russian LGBT community Gay.ru for violating a law on gay propaganda. Effects on sports The 2013 World Championships in Athletics, held at Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium in August 2013, were overshadowed by comments and protests over the law by athletes. After winning a silver medal at the event, U.S. runner Nick Symmonds stated that "whether you're gay, straight, black, white, we all deserve the same rights. If there's anything I can do to champion the cause and further it, I will, shy of getting arrested." Swedish athletes Emma Green Tregaro and Moa Hjelmer painted their fingernails in rainbow colors as a symbolic protest. However, Tregaro was forced to re-paint them after they were deemed a political gesture that violated the rules of the IAAF. In response, she re-painted them red as a symbol of love. Russian pole vaulter Yelena Isinbayeva criticized Tregaro's gesture as being disrespectful to the host country, stating in a press conference that "we have our law which everyone has to respect. When we go to different countries, we try to follow their rules. We are not trying to set our rules over there. We are just trying to be respectful." After Isinbayeva's remarks attracted widespread criticism, she argued that her choice of words had been "misunderstood" due to poor English. The implications of the law on Russia's hosting of two major international sporting events, the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi (where seven LGBT athletes, all female, were expected to compete) and the 2018 FIFA World Cup, were called into question. In the case of the World Cup, FIFA had recently established an anti-discrimination task force, and was also facing criticism for awarding the 2022 World Cup to the country of Qatar, where homosexuality is illegal; in August 2013, FIFA requested information from the Russian government on the law and its potential effects on the association football tournament. In the case of the Winter Olympics, critics considered the law to be inconsistent with the Olympic Charter, which states that "[discrimination] on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement." In August 2013, the International Olympic Committee "received assurances from the highest level of government in Russia that the legislation will not affect those attending or taking part in the Games", and also received word that the government would abide by the Olympic Charter. The IOC also confirmed that it would enforce Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter, which forbids political protest, against athletes who make displays of support for the LGBT community at the Games. Vladimir Putin also made similar assurances prior to the Games, but warned LGBT attendees that they would still be subject to the law. Athletes and supporters used the Olympics as leverage for further campaigns against the propaganda law. A number of athletes came out as lesbian, gay, or bisexual to spread awareness of the situation in Russia, including Australian snowboarder Belle Brockhoff, Canadian speed skater Anastasia Bucsis, gold medal figure skater Brian Boitano, and Finnish swimmer Ari-Pekka Liukkonen. There were also calls to boycott the Games, drawing comparisons to the Summer Olympics of 1980 in Moscow, the last time the Olympics were held on what is now Russian soil. A campaign known as Principle 6 was established in collaboration between a group of Olympic athletes, the organizations All Out and Athlete Ally, and clothing maker American Apparel, selling merchandise (such as clothing) with a quotation from the Olympic Charter to support pro-LGBT organizations. Toronto advertising copywriter Brahm Finkelstein also began to market a rainbow-coloured matryoshka doll set known as "Pride Dolls", designed by Italian artist Danilo Santino, to benefit the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association, organizers of the World Outgames. Action was leveraged directly against Olympic sponsors and partners as well; in late-August 2013, the Human Rights Campaign sent letters to the ten Worldwide Olympic Partner companies, urging them to show opposition towards anti-LGBT laws, denounce homophobic violence, ask the IOC to obtain written commitments for the safety of LGBT athletes and attendees, and oppose future Olympic bids from countries that outlaw support for LGBT equality. In February 2014, prior to the games, a group of 40 human rights organizations (including Athlete Ally, Freedom House, Human Rights Campaign, Human Rights Watch and Russian LGBT Network among others) also sent a joint letter to the Worldwide Olympic Partners, urging them to use their prominence to support the rights of LGBT athletes under the Olympic Charter, and pressure the IOC to show greater scrutiny towards the human rights abuses of future host countries. On 3 February 2014, USOC sponsor AT&T issued a statement in support of LGBT rights at the Games, becoming the first major Olympic advertiser to condemn the laws. Several major non-sponsors also made pro-LGBT statements to coincide with the opening of the Games; Google placed a quotation from the Olympic Charter and an Olympic-themed logo in the colours of the rainbow flag on its home page worldwide, while Channel 4 (who serves as the official British broadcaster of the Paralympics) adopted a rainbow-coloured logo and broadcast a "celebratory", pro-LGBT advert entitled "Gay Mountain" on 7 February 2014, alongside an interview with former rugby union player and anti-homophobia activist Ben Cohen. As part of its Dispatches series, Channel 4 had also broadcast a documentary during the week of the Opening Ceremony entitled Hunted, which documented the violence and abuse against LGBT people in Russia in the wake of the law. Effects on video games In May 2014, it was revealed that in accordance with the propaganda law, the computer game The Sims 4—a new installment in a life simulation game franchise published by Electronic Arts which has historically allowed characters to participate in same-sex relationships, and allowed players to give their characters a customised gender, had been given an "18+" rating, restricting its sale to adults only. In contrast, the pan-European ratings board PEGI has historically rated The Sims games as being suitable for those aged 12 and over. In December 2016, the video game FIFA 17 (which is also published by Electronic Arts) was targeted for an event that allowed users to obtain rainbow-coloured shoelaces for their virtual footballers, in support of a pro-LGBT advocacy campaign backed by the English Premier League. MP Irina Rodnina stated that relevant authorities needed to "verify the possibility of distributing this game on the territory of the Russian Federation". In December 2016, Blizzard Entertainment geo-blocked a tie-in web comic for its game Overwatch in Russia for containing a scene of the character Tracer, who was confirmed as being lesbian, kissing her partner, another woman. Blizzard cited the gay propaganda law as reasoning for the block. The game itself is not blocked in the country. In February 2021, Miitopia received an 18+ rating due to the ability of same-sex Miis being able to form "relationships" with each other despite no actual sexual content whatsoever being present in the game. See also Bayev and Others v. Russia Concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics List of 2018 FIFA World Cup controversies Hungarian anti-LGBT law References Further reading 2013 in Russia Censorship in Russia LGBT rights in Russia LGBT-related legislation Gay Propaganda Law Homophobia Censorship of LGBT issues LGBT-related controversies Conspiracy theories in Russia June 2013 events in Russia 2013 in LGBT history

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This is a list of aviation-related events from 1967: Events The Canadian Golden Centennaires aerobatic team is formed and performs all year to celebrate the Canadian Centennial year. Boeing opens its biggest factory (largest building by volume), the Boeing Everett Factory, in Everett, Washington. January January 1 – The United States conducts a 48-hour standdown of air operations over Vietnam for the New Year holiday. January 2 In the biggest air battle to date in the Vietnam War, seven North Vietnamese Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21s (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") are destroyed by U.S. Air Force F-4C Phantom II fighters of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing in Operation Bolo. The contracts for the development of the Boeing SST supersonic transport and its engines are awarded. January 15 – The "Super Sights and Sounds" halftime show at the first AFL-NFL World Championship Game – retroactively dubbed Super Bowl I – at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles, California, includes two men who emerge from giant foam footballs flying around the field with jet packs, witnessed by almost 62,000 people in attendance and a television audience of more than 51 million. February February 1 – Braniff Airways absorbs Pan American-Grace Airways (Panagra). February 2 – Pudahuel International Airport opens in Pudahuel, outside Santiago, Chile. February 7 – A lone hijacker commandeers a United Arab Airlines Antonov An-24 with 41 people on board during a domestic flight in Egypt from Cairo to Hurghada and forces it to fly to Amman, Jordan, where the hijacker surrenders to the authorities. February 12 – Operation Pershing begins against Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army units in Bình Định and Quảng Ngãi provinces in South Vietnam; it will last until January 1968. The U.S. Armys 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) takes part alongside other U.S. Army, South Vietnamese Army, and South Korean Army units. February 13 – United States President Lyndon B. Johnson orders a six-day halt of American bombing raids over Vietnam during the visit of Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin to London. February 16 – Garuda Indonesia Flight 708, a Lockheed L-188A Electra, crashes on landing at Manado on Sulawesi in Indonesia, killing 22 of the 92 people on board. February 21 – McDonnell Aircraft completes the 2,000th F-4 Phantom II. February 22 – 845 troops of the U.S. Army's 173rd Airborne Brigade take part in Operation Junction City, the only paratrooper assault of the Vietnam War February 26 – U.S. Navy A-6 Intruders of Attack Squadron 35 (VA-35) drop naval mines in the mouth of the Sông Cái and Gianh rivers. The aerial mining of five North Vietnamese waterways will be completed by mid-April. March The AGM-62 Walleye television-guided glide bomb is used in combat for the first time when U.S. Navy aircraft in Vietnam employ it in an attack on enemy barracks at Sam Lon. March 5 Varig Airlines Flight 837, a Douglas DC-8-33, crashes on approach to Roberts International Airport in Monrovia, Liberia, killing 51 of the 90 people on board and five people on the ground. A propeller fails aboard Lake Central Flight 527, a Convair CV-580, causing its blades to penetrate the cabin and sever control cables. The airliner crashes near Marseilles, Ohio, killing all 38 people on board. The second launch of the United States Air Force's Martin X-23 PRIME (Precision Reentry Including Maneuvering reEntry) experimental lifting body re-entry vehicle – designed to maneuver during reentry of Earth's atmosphere and be recovered in midair by a specially-equipped Lockheed JC-130B Hercules aircraft – takes place atop an Atlas SLV-3 launch vehicle at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The mission simulates a cross-range reentry taking the vehicle 654 miles (1,053 kilometers) off its ballistic track and banking at hypersonic speeds. The X-23's recovery parachute deploys properly for the first time and two of the recovery aircraft locate it, but its reefing cutters fail to actuate, making it dangerous to attempt to bring the X-23 aboard one of the JC-130Bs. The X-23 descends into the Pacific Ocean beneath its parachute and sinks when its flotation balloon sinks before a surface ship can reach it. March 9 – Trans World Airlines Flight 553, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15, collides in mid-air with a Beechcraft Baron over Concord Township near Urbana, Ohio. All 25 people on the DC-9 and the Beechcrafts sole occupant die. The accident leads the Federal Aviation Administration to place speed restrictions on aircraft flying below 10,000 feet (3,048 m) and contributes to its decision to create Terminal Control Areas. March 10 American aircraft attack the steel and iron works at Thái Nguyên, North Vietnam, for the first time. After the F-4 Phantom of his wingman, Captain Earl Aman, suffers damage from antiaircraft fire over North Vietnam and loses almost all of its fuel, U.S. Air Force Captain Robert Pardo has Aman lower his tailhook and pushes Aman's F-4 by maneuvering to place Aman's tailhook against the base of his own windscreen. With one of his own F-4s engines on fire, Pardo pushes Aman powerless plane for 90 miles (145 km), and all four men aboard the two fighters eject over Laos, where they can avoid capture, rather than North Vietnam. West Coast Airlines Flight 720, a Fokker F27 Friendship, crashes on Stukel Mountain just after takeoff in a mix of snow and rain from Klamath Falls Airport in Klamath Falls, Oregon, due to icing of its wings and control surfaces, killing all four people on board. March 13 A former Soviet Air Force and Aeroflot pilot steals an Aeroflot Antonov An-2P (registration CCCP-04959) at Tuapse in the Soviet Union, intending to fly to Turkey. A Soviet Air Defense Forces Yakovlev Yak-28P (NATO reporting name "Firebar") intercepts the An-2P, and a Soviet Air Force MiG-17 (NATO reporting name "Fresco") later shoots it down over the Black Sea, killing the defecting pilot. The pilot of South African Airways Flight 406, a Vickers Viscount 818, suffers a heart attack while the airliner is on approach to East London, South Africa. The co-pilot is unable to regain control of the Viscount, and it crashes into the Indian Ocean off the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, killing all 25 people on board. April April 1 The United States Department of Transportation begins operations. The Federal Aviation Agency is renamed the Federal Aviation Administration and becomes a component of the new department, and its largest component. The Civil Aeronautics Board also becomes part of the new department. The United States creates the National Transportation Safety Board, responsible for civil transportation accident investigation, including aviation accidents and incidents. It takes over this function from the Civil Aeronautics Board, whose responsibilities henceforth are limited to the regulation of commercial airline routes and fares. April 6 – Trans World Airlines retires it last Lockheed Constellation from passenger service and becomes the first all-jet airline. April 7 – After a Syrian mortar attack against the Israeli farming community of Gadot escalates into a general exchange of tank and artillery fire all along the Syrian-Israeli border, Israeli Air Force Dassault Mirage III fighter-bombers conduct bombing attacks against Syrian Army positions. A large force of Syrian Air Force MiG-21 (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") fighters responds. Within minutes, the Mirages shoot down six MiG-21s and chase the survivors as far as the outskirts of Damascus, Syria, before breaking off pursuit. April 7–22 – The U.S. Armys 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) conducts Operation Lejeune, a helicopter and ground assault against Viet Cong forces in Quảng Ngãi Province, South Vietnam. April 10 The chief of the Egyptian Air Force arrives in Damascus, Syria; the Premier of Egypt will join him there on April 18. Although their visit allegedly is to work out plans for a common stand against Israel by Syria and Egypt, the Egyptian officials actually warn Syria against further attacks on Israel. Gates Rubber Company acquires a controlling interest in Lear Jet Industries. April 17 – Japan Air Lines (JAL) begins a Tokyo-Moscow service using four Tupolev Tu-114 (NATO reporting name "Cleat") airliners reconfigured to a two-class layout with 105-seats and a mixed Aeroflot-JAL crew that includes one JAL flight crew member and a cabin crew of 10, of which five are from JAL and five from Aeroflot. The service continues until 1969, when the airliners are returned to Aeroflot and to their Soviet domestic 200-seat layout. April 18 – Aeroflot and Japan Air Lines jointly inaugurate a Moscow-Tokyo service. April 19 – The third and final launch of the United States Air Force's Martin X-23 PRIME (Precision Reentry Including Maneuvering reEntry) experimental lifting body re-entry vehicle – designed to maneuver during reentry of Earth's atmosphere and be recovered in midair by a specially-equipped Lockheed JC-130B Hercules aircraft – takes place atop an Atlas SLV-3 launch vehicle at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The mission simulates reentry from low Earth orbit with cross-range maneuvers taking the vehicle 710 miles (1,143 kilometers) off its ballistic track. All systems work perfectly and the X-23 is recovered in mid-air by a JC-130B over the Pacific Ocean in condition to fly again, although no further X-23 flights take place. April 20 American aircraft attack power plants in Haiphong, North Vietnam, for the first time. Making its third attempt to land at Nicosia Airport during a violent thunderstorm, a Globe Air Bristol Britannia 313 crashes south of the airport near Lakatamia, Cyprus, killing 126 of the 130 people on board and seriously injuring three of the four survivors. April 23 – Five hijackers commandeer a Nigeria Airways Fokker F27 Friendship during a domestic flight in Nigeria from Benin City to Lagos. The airliner diverts to a landing in Enugu, Nigeria. April 25 – A U.S. Air Force 551st Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing EC-121H Warning Star crashes in the Atlantic Ocean off Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing 15 of the 16-man crew. April 27 – In North Vietnam, U.S. Navy aircraft strike Kép Air Base and U.S. Air Force aircraft attack Hòa Lạc Air Base. April 28 – The Douglas Aircraft Company and McDonnell Aircraft Corporation merge to form the McDonnell-Douglas Corporation. May U.S. Navy "Alpha strikes" against North Vietnam become routine. May 1 – The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration signs a contract with the Boeing Company for the construction of two Boeing 2707 supersonic transports. May 15 – As the possibility of war with Israel looms, President of Egypt Gamel Abdel Nasser places the Egyptian Air Force and Egyptian Army on full nationwide alert. May 18 – The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) announces crew members for the first manned Apollo program space mission, Apollo 7. They are Walter M. Schirra, Jr., Donn F. Eisele, and R. Walter Cunningham. May 20 – American aircraft strike military targets in downtown Hanoi. May 23 – United States President Lyndon B. Johnsons administration prohibits any American air attacks within a 10-mile (16-km) radius of Hanoi. May 31 – A U.S. Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker makes an emergency refuelling of six U.S. Navy jets. June MiG fighters in North Vietnam withdraw to bases in the People's Republic of China. June 3 – The Air Ferry Douglas DC-4 G-APYK. on a charter flight from Manston Airport to Perpignan, crashes into Mount Canigou, France, killing all 88 passengers and crew. June 4 – The British Midland Airways Canadair C-4 Argonaut G-ALHG suffers a fuel system problem and crashes in Hopes Carr, Stockport, England, killing 72 of the 84 people on board and seriously injuring all 12 survivors. June 5 The Six-Day War begins between Israel and her Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria; Israel has 286 combat aircraft, while Egypt has 430, Syria has 127, and Jordan has 24. Israel opens the war with an 80-minute series of surprise pre-emptive Israeli Air Force strikes against Egyptian Air Force bases which destroy over 250 Egyptian aircraft, almost all of them on the ground, kill some 100 of Egypts 350 combat pilots, destroy 23 radar and surface-to-air missile sites, and crater the runways of ten major air bases. Egypt is caught with only five aircraft – the Egyptian Air Forces Ilyushin Il-14 (NATO reporting name "Crate") airborne command post and four unarmed trainers – airborne, and the trainers are shot down. Twenty-eight Egyptian MiGs get into the air, but Israeli aircraft shoot 12 of them down and the remainder crash when they cannot find a serviceable runway to land on; the Il-14 lands at Cairo International Airport, the only Egyptian plane to land safely anywhere during the morning. The Egyptian Air Force is knocked out of the war. Israel loses 19 aircraft during the strikes – two Dassault Mystères in air-to-air combat, one Sud Aviation Vautour to ground fire, and 16 to non-combat causes. The Royal Jordanian Army shells Israels Ramat David Airbase and 16 Royal Jordanian Air Force Hawker Hunters attack Israeli airbases and villages around Netanya, Kfar Sirkin, and Kfar Saba, destroying one Nord Noratlas transport plane. After the Jordanian planes return to base, Israeli Air Force aircraft diverted from operations against Egypt attack their bases at Amman and Mafraq, shooting down two Hunters, destroying 16 more and extensively damaging the remaining six, all on the ground, and also destroying two helicopters and three light transport aircraft on the ground. American pilots fly five F-104 Starfighters in Jordan they have not yet turned over to the Jordanians to Turkey as soon as the war begins, and Jordan is left with no operational combat aircraft. In the afternoon, the Israeli Air Force attacks all five Syrian Air Force bases, destroying 51 fighters, two bombers, and two helicopters on the ground, putting all the bases out of service, and shooting down four MiG-17 (NATO reporting name "Fresco") fighters in air-to-air combat. It also attacks airbases in western Iraq, destroying 20 more aircraft there. Israel loses one Mystère. Israels successful attacks on its opponents allow the Israeli Air Force to focus on ground-attack missions for the remainder of the war. Israeli Air Force Aérospatiale Super Frelon and Sikorsky S-58 helicopters carry 150 Israeli Army paratroopers into action in operations to reduce Egyptian Army positions around Umm Katef in the Sinai Peninsula. Boeing delivers its 1,000th jet airliner, a Boeing 707-120B built for American Airlines. June 6 Israeli aircraft mount heavy strikes against Royal Jordanian Army tanks in Jordans Dotan Valley. In response to the growth of air traffic in Brazil, the Brazilian military government initiates studies concerning the renovation of the country's airport infrastructure. Among other things, the studies will recommend the construction of new passenger facilities in the areas of Galeão Air Force Base in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo Air Force Base in São Paulo, leading eventually to the construction of a new passenger terminal at Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport and the construction of São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport. June 7 Israeli aircraft conduct heavy strikes against Syrian trenchlines and bunkers in the Golan Heights. Three Israeli Air Force Nord Noratlas transport planes land on the runway at Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, and discharge paratroopers, who seize the Egyptian base there. Later in the day, Israeli helicopters land paratroopers at nearby El-Tor, which they also capture. June 8 In the USS Liberty Incident, Israeli Air Force aircraft join Israeli Navy torpedo boats in attacking the U.S. Navy technical research ship in the Mediterranean Sea north of the Sinai Peninsula. Liberty suffers heavy damage, with 34 of her crew killed and 171 wounded. Israeli Air Force planes fly continuously over the Suez Canal, attacking Egyptian Army forces attempting to retreat across it. Heavy Egyptian antiaircraft fire shoots down three Dassault Ouragans and two Dassault Mystères. June 9 – The Israeli Air Force mounts a large, continuous attack against Syrian Army defensive positions in the Golan Heights, employing high-explosive bombs and napalm, and dropping bombs designed to crater runways on Syrian bunkers. June 10 – The Six-Day War ends in a complete Israeli triumph. During the war, the Arab countries have lost 452 aircraft, while Israel has lost 46. June 17 – The Vietnam Wars heaviest air attacks in nine months are American strikes targeting railroads near Hanoi. June 18 – The first regularly scheduled winter flight to Antarctica takes place, when the U.S. Navy C-130L Hercules City of Christchurch, with the commander of U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica, U.S. Navy Rear Admiral James Lloyd Abbot, Jr., in the cockpit alongside its pilot, flies from Christchurch, New Zealand, to McMurdo Station with 22 people (including two parties of scientists riding as passengers), 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) of mail, and almost 3,000 pounds (1,361 kg) of fresh food on board. All previous winter flights to Antarctica had been solely for the emergency evacuation of medical patients. The aircraft returns to Christchurch the following day. June 23 – Mohawk Airlines Flight 40, a BAC 1-11 204AF, crashes at Blossburg, Pennsylvania, due to a non-return valve failure, killing all 34 passengers and crew. It is the deadliest accident in the history of Mohawk Airlines. June 30 Thai Airways International Flight 601, a Sud Aviation Caravelle, crashes into the South China Sea while on approach to Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong, killing 24 of the 80 people on board and injuring all 56 survivors. Aden Airways ceases operations. July July 19 The last U.S. Navy component of the Military Airlift Command, Air Transport Squadron 3, is disestablished at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey. Henceforth the Military Airlift Command consists only of U.S. Air Force components. The Piedmont Airlines Boeing 727-22 Manhattan Pacemaker, operating as Flight 22 with 79 people on board, collides with a Lanseair, Inc., Cessna 310 with three people on board shortly after takeoff from Asheville Regional Airport in Asheville, North Carolina. Both aircraft crash, killing all 82 people on the two planes; among the dead on the Piedmont jet is John T. McNaughton, U.S. Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs and one of United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamaras closest advisers. The incident is the first major air accident investigated by the newly formed U.S. National Transportation Safety Board. July 29 – On Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam, a flight deck fire aboard the aircraft carrier kills 134 men, injures 161, destroys 21 aircraft, and knocks the ship out of action until April 1968. August United States President Lyndon B. Johnsons administration restricts all American bombing of targets in central Hanoi for two months, effective to October. August 6 – Five Colombian men hijack an Aerocondor Colombia Douglas C-54A-15-DC Skymaster with 71 people on board during a domestic flight in Colombia from Baranquilla to San Andrés and force it to fly to Havana, Cuba. August 7 – Aerolíneas Argentinas and Iberia Airlines jointly inaugurate the world's longest non-stop air route, between Buenos Aires and Madrid. August 9 – The world's first radar-equipped antisubmarine helicopter enters service, a Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Westland Wessex HAS.3 with No. 814 Squadron. August 10 – Flying an F-4B Phantom II of United States Navy Fighter Squadron 142 (VF-142) from the attack aircraft carrier , Lieutenant Commander Robert Davis and Lieutenant Guy Freeborn shoot down two MiG-21s (NATO reporting name "Fishbed") over North Vietnam using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. August 11 – F-105 Thunderchiefs of the U.S. Air Forces 335th Tactical Fighter Wing cut the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi, North Vietnam, using 100 tons (90.7 metric tons/tonnes) of bombs. August 19 – U.S. Marine Corps Captain Stephen W. Pless, piloting a UH-1E attack helicopter near Quang Ngai, South Vietnam, drives Viet Cong forces away from Americans stranded on a beach and then lands under heavy fire to rescue them. He will receive the Medal of Honor for his actions, and his crew will receive the Navy Cross. August 30 American aircraft bomb North Vietnamese road, railroad, and canal traffic in an attempt to isolate Haiphong. The Spanish Navy acquires the second aviation ship and first true aircraft carrier in its history when the United States loans the light aircraft carrier to Spain under the Mutual Defense Assistance Program; Spain will purchase the ship outright in 1973. Renamed Dédalo (R01), she will serve in the Spanish Navy until 1989. September September 1 – The U.S. Navys first dedicated search-and-rescue squadron, Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 7 (HC-7), is commissioned at Atsugi, Japan. It operates UH-2 Seasprite helicopters. Previously, all Navy search-and-rescue had been performed by helicopter antisubmarine squadrons. September 3 – Saudi businessman Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden, the father of future al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, is among two people killed when his company Beechcraft 18 (registration HZ-IBN) crashes while trying to land on an airstrip at Usran in southwestern Saudi Arabia. September 9 – Three passengers hijack an Avianca Douglas C-47-DL Skytrain (registration HK-101) with 20 people on board during a domestic flight in Colombia from Baranquilla to Magangué and force it to fly to Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. September 11 – U.S. Navy aircraft strike the port facilities at Cẩm Phả, North Vietnam, for the first time. September 19 – Delta Air Transport begins operations with a flight from Antwerp, Belgium, to Amsterdam, the Netherlands, using a Beechcraft Queen Air. September 22 – North American Aviation and the Rockwell-Standard Corporation merge to form the North American Rockwell Corporation. October October 1 – Frontier Airlines purchases Central Airlines and takes over its airliner fleet and routes. October 3 The U.S. Navys first dedicated search-and-rescue squadron, Helicopter Combat Support Squadron Seven (HC-7), makes its first rescue, saving an American airman downed in Haiphong Harbor, North Vietnam. U.S. Air Force Major William J. Knight sets a new world airspeed record in the North American X-15A-2, reaching Mach 6.72 (4,520 mph, 7,274 km/h), and lands safely despite multiple structural failures that cause the X-15s scramjet module to separate from the aircraft and damage the fuel-jettison system. It will prove to be the highest speed achieved by any aircraft at any time during the 20th century. October 5 Soviet test pilot Mikhail M. Komarov averages 2,981.5 km/h (1,851.5 mph) over a 500-km (310.5-mile) closed circuit in a Mig Ye-155, setting a new speed record for the distance with no payload. Soviet test pilot Alexander V. Fedotov sets a new altitude record with a 1,000-kg (2,205-pound) payload in a Mig Ye-155, reaching 29,977 meters (98,349 feet). American astronaut Clifton Williams is killed in the crash of his T-38 Talon near Tallahassee, Florida. October 8 American aircraft strike Cat Bi airfield near Haiphong in North Vietnam for the first time. The first helicopter gunship designed as such to see combat, the U.S. Armys AH-1G Cobra, flies its first combat mission when two AH-1Gs operating over South Vietnam escort U.S. Army transport helicopters, then support South Vietnamese troops by destroying four enemy fortifications and sinking 14 sampans. October 12 – The de Havilland DH.106 Comet 4B G-ARCO, operating as Cyprus Airways Flight 284, breaks up in mid-air and crashes into the Mediterranean Sea 22 miles (35 km) south of Demre, Turkey, killing all 66 people on board. October 23 – American aircraft attack Phúc Yên Air Base, North Vietnam's largest airfield, for the first time. November November 4 – Iberia Airlines Flight 062, Sud Aviation Caravelle EC-BDD operating a scheduled flight from Málaga Airport, Spain, to London Heathrow Airport, flies into Blackdown, Sussex, killing all 37 on board. English actress June Thorburn is among the dead. November 6 – Trans World Airways Flight 159, a Boeing 707-131, aborts its takeoff from Greater Cincinnati Airport in Hebron, Kentucky, because of the co-pilots fear that it had struck a disabled Delta Air Lines Douglas DC-9 on the runway during its takeoff roll. The 707 overruns the end of the runway and crashes, killing one and injuring 10 of the 36 people on board. November 8–9 (overnight) – Shot down by Viet Cong ground fire in an HH-3E helicopter and badly burned during a rescue mission southeast of Khe Sanh, South Vietnam, U.S. Air Force Captain Gerald O. Young deliberately draws attention to himself, then evades the enemy on the ground for hours to lead enemy forces away from other Americans on the ground and additional helicopters coming to rescue them. He will receive the Medal of Honor for his actions. November 15 – A North American X-15 on a high-altitude flight enters a spin at over Mach 5 and breaks up well above Mach 4, killing its pilot, U.S. Air Force Major Michael J. Adams. His is the only death during the X-15 program. November 16 American aircraft attack the shipyards at Haiphong, North Vietnam, for the first time. Aeroflot Flight 2230, an Ilyushin Il-18V (NATO reporting name "Coot") crashes shortly after takeoff from Yekaterinburg in the Soviet Union, killing all 107 people aboard. November 17 – American aircraft strike Bach Mai Airfield near Hanoi for the first time. November 20 – Trans World Airlines Flight 128, a Convair 880, crashes in Constance, Kentucky, while on approach to Greater Cincinnati Airport, killing 70 of the 82 people on board. December Aero Commuter, the future Golden West Airlines, is founded. December 4 – The A-7A Corsair II strike aircraft enters combat for the first time, operating from the attack aircraft carrier over Vietnam. December 8 – American astronaut Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr., is killed when a United States Air Force F-104 Starfighter in which he is serving as an instructor pilot for a flight test trainee crashes at Edwards Air Force Base, California. The trainee ejects and survives with serious injuries. December 10 – Singer Otis Redding and four members of his back-up band, The Bar-Kays, are among six people killed in the crash of a Beechcraft 18 into Lake Monona in Madison, Wisconsin. December 26 – The Soviet Union commissions its first helicopter carrier, Moskva. December 31 The Royal Air Force's V bomber force begins to be dismantled, pending the deployment of the Polaris missile aboard Royal Navy submarines to act as Britain's nuclear deterrent. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) begins initial talks to develop guidelines for a re-usable spaceplane. First flights Bellanca Viking January Cessna O-2 Skymaster January 4 - Taylor Titch G-ATYO February February 8 - Saab Viggen February 10 - Dornier Do 31 March March 1 - SIAT 223 Flamingo March 3 – Beriev Be-30 (NATO reporting name "Cuff") March 11 - Bede BD-2 April April 7 SA.340, prototype of the Aérospatiale Gazelle Found Centennial 100 April 8 - Beagle B.121 Pup April 9 - Boeing 737 April 21 - Rollason Beta May May 9 - Fokker F28 May 12 - Aermacchi AM-3 May 23 Hawker Siddeley Nimrod Mitchell Kittiwake June June 10 – Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 prototype 23-11/1 June 30 – BAC One-Eleven Series 500 prototype G-ASYD August Schweizer QT-2 August 18 – Handley Page Jetstream October October 5 - Shin Miewa SS-2 October 23 - Canadair CL-215 October 26 - BAC Strikemaster November November 7 - SOCATA ST 10 November 18 - Dassault Mirage G November 28 - Pilatus PC-8D Twin Porter December December 21 - SITAR GY-100 Bagheera December 22 - MHK-101 December 26 - FMA IA 58 Pucará (unpowered prototype) Entered service Mil Mi-8 Sukhoi Su-15 (NATO reporting name "Flagon") with the Soviet Air Defense Forces March Cessna O-2 Skymaster with the United States Air Force May May 16 – Beechcraft U-21 Ute with United States Army June Bell AH-1G Cobra with the United States Army July July 18 – General Dynamics F-111 with the U.S. Air Forces 448th Tactical Fighter Squadron; first variable-geometry wing aircraft to enter service, the first with terrain-following radar, and the first able to score direct hits in zero visibility on the first attempt August Tupolev Tu-134 with Aeroflot September Beechcraft Baron Model 56TC Bell UH-1H Iroquois with United States Army Tupolev Tu-134 (NATO reporting name "Crusty") with Aeroflot September 15 – Ilyushin IL-62 with Aeroflot September 26 – Hamburger Flugzeugbau HFB-320 Hansa Jet with Italcementi November November 17 – BAC One-Eleven Series 500 with British European Airways (BEA) Retirements Avro 707 References Aviation by year

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Mermaiding (also referred to as artistic mermaiding, mermaidry, or artistic mermaid performance) is the practice of wearing, and often swimming in, a costume mermaid tail. It is difficult to determine exactly where the term "mermaiding" was coined; but some of the first professional freelance mermaids appeared on the world scene around 2004, such as Hannah Mermaid, Mahina Mermaid, and Mermaid Linden, who were all playing with the term. A little later on, the term was brought to a wider use and community by Iona the Mermaid, co-founder of MerNetwork.com. In the beginning of the twentieth century mermaiding was sometimes referred to as water ballet, but it is not currently a term that is commonly used. Mermaiding should not be confused with modern synchronized swimming, although there can be some overlap if a mermaid performance troupe is performing a synchronized routine. Mermaiding is both a profession and a hobby. Professional mermaids will often swim in live, filmed, or photographed productions or shows and can be hired for special events. Nonprofessional enthusiasts swim in tails at their local pools if the pool allows it, lakes, rivers, and seashores, or take part in mermaid-themed photo shoots, birthday parties, or mermaid meetings with other Mers. Mermaiding is popular with all ages and genders. Mermaiding practitioners are sometimes called mermaids, professional mermaids, or occasionally, water ballerinas. Within the community, mermaid or merfolk can be shortened to "mer." Mermaiding is often seen as a form of extreme cosplay due to the nature of crafting the tails and other prosthetics used by practitioners. There are several tail-making companies supplying the community with everything from fabric tails to full SFX prostheses costing thousands of dollars. History Annette Kellerman Annette Marie Sarah Kellerman (6 July 1886 – 6 November 1975) was an Australian professional swimmer, vaudeville star, film actress and writer. She was one of the first women to wear a one-piece bathing costume, instead of the then-accepted pantaloons, and inspired others to follow her example. In 1902, Kellerman decided to take her swimming seriously and subsequently won the ladies' 100 yards and mile championships of New South Wales in the record times of 1 minute, 22 seconds and 33 minutes, 49 seconds respectively. In that same year, her parents decided to move to Melbourne, and she was enrolled at Mentone Girls' Grammar School where her mother had accepted a music teaching position. During her time at school, Kellerman gave exhibitions of swimming and diving at the main Melbourne baths, performed a mermaid act at Princes Court entertainment centre and did two shows a day swimming with fish in a glass tank at the Exhibition Aquarium. In June–July 1903 Kellerman performed sensational high dives in the Coogee scene of Bland Holt's spectacular, The Breaking of the Drought, at the Melbourne Theatre Royal. She is often credited with inventing the sport of synchronised swimming after her 1907 performance of the first water ballet in a glass tank at the New York Hippodrome. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The majority of Kellerman's films had themes of aquatic adventure. She performed her own stunts including diving from ninety-two feet into the sea and sixty feet into a pool of crocodiles. Many times she would play mermaids named Annette or variations of her own name. Her "fairy tale films", as she called them, started with The Mermaid (1911), in which she was the first actress to wear a swimmable mermaid costume on film. She designed her own mermaid swimming costumes and sometimes made them herself. Similar designs are still used by The Weeki Wachee Springs Mermaids, including her aquatic fairy costume first introduced in Queen of the Sea (1918). Esther Williams Esther Jane Williams (8 August 1921 – 6 June 2013) was an American competitive swimmer and actress. Williams set multiple national and regional swimming records in her late teens as part of the Los Angeles Athletic Club swim team. Unable to compete in the 1940 Summer Olympics because of the outbreak of World War II, she joined Billy Rose's Aquacade, where she took on the role vacated by Eleanor Holm after the show's move from New York City to San Francisco. While in the city, she spent five months swimming alongside Olympic gold medal winner and Tarzan star, Johnny Weissmuller. Williams caught the attention of MGM scouts at the Aquacade. After appearing in several small roles, alongside Mickey Rooney in an Andy Hardy film, and future five-time co-star Van Johnson in A Guy Named Joe, Williams made a series of films in the 1940s and early 1950s known as "aquamusicals", which featured elaborate performances with synchronised swimming and diving. In 1952, Williams appeared in her only biographical role, as Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman in Million Dollar Mermaid, which went on to become her nickname while at MGM. Williams left MGM in 1956 and appeared in a handful of unsuccessful feature films, followed by several extremely popular water-themed television specials, including one from Cypress Gardens, Florida. Many of her MGM films, such as Million Dollar Mermaid and Jupiter's Darling, contained elaborately staged synchronized swimming scenes, with considerable risk to Williams. She broke her neck filming a 115 ft dive off a tower during a climactic musical number for the film Million Dollar Mermaid and was in a body cast for seven months. She subsequently recovered, although she continued to suffer headaches as a result of the accident. Her many hours spent submerged in a studio tank resulted in ruptured eardrums numerous times. She also nearly drowned after not being able to find the trap door in the ceiling of a tank. The walls and ceiling were painted black and the trap door blended in. Williams was pulled out only because a member of the crew realized the door was not opening. Weeki Wachee Mermaids Located an hour north of Tampa on Florida's Gulf Coast, Weeki Wachee Springs has hosted a mermaid show since 1947. Swimmers, trained by Newton Perry, performed synchronised ballet in the natural springs at the site. The resort was purchased and promoted by the American Broadcasting Co. (ABC) in 1959. In 2008, Weeki Wachee Springs was incorporated into the State of Florida Park system. Film Miranda is a 1948 British comedy film, directed by Ken Annakin and written by Peter Blackmore, who also wrote the play of the same name from which the film was adapted. Denis Waldock provided additional dialogue. A light comedy, the film is about a beautiful and playful mermaid played by Glynis Johns and her effect on Griffith Jones. Googie Withers and Margaret Rutherford are also featured in the film. Glynis Johns and Margaret Rutherford reprised their roles in the 1954 sequel, Mad About Men. Miranda is the story of a fisherman who brings home a mermaid disguised as an invalid in a wheelchair. Her flirting causes some chaos and eventually she returns to the sea. Mr. Peabody and the Mermaid is a 1948 fantasy film starring William Powell and Ann Blyth in the title roles. Irene Hervey played Mr. Peabody's wife. The film was based on the 1945 novel Peabody's Mermaid by Guy and Constance Jones. Sequences were shot at the Weeki Wachee Springs in Florida. Arthur Peabody, while in the midst of a mid-life crisis, captures a mermaid while on vacation with his wife. After hiding her in the resort's fish pond, hijinks ensue. Million Dollar Mermaid (also known as The One Piece Bathing Suit in the UK) is a 1952 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer biographical musical film of the life of Australian swimming star Annette Kellerman, played by Esther Williams. It was directed by Mervyn LeRoy and produced by Arthur Hornblow Jr. from a screenplay by Everett Freeman. The music score was by Adolph Deutsch, the cinematography by George J. Folsey and the choreography by Busby Berkeley. "Million Dollar Mermaid" not only became Esther Williams' nickname around Hollywood, but it became the title of her autobiography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), co-written with Digby Diehl. Williams has often called this her favorite film. Cinema and television post-1980 For simplicity's sake, this section focuses on film and shows with live-action swimmers and tails as the main characters. For an exhaustive list of mermaids in media, please see Mermaids in popular culture. Cinema Splash (1984): starring Daryl Hannah and Tom Hanks, Hannah played a mermaid who falls in love with a human. She could walk on dry land in human form, but her legs changed into a fish tail whenever she got wet. Much of the movie revolves around her humorous attempts to conceal her true identity from her lover. A made-for-television sequel, Splash, Too, followed in 1988, starring Amy Yasbeck and Todd Waring. Immensely popular, the film precipitated a surge in popularity of mermaids in general and mermaiding in particular, as it inspired many people to buy tails and get into the water. Darryl Hannah's mermaid tail was designed and created by Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. The tail was fully functional. Hannah swam with the mermaid tail so fast that her safety team could not keep pace with her. According to the DVD documentary, Hannah had been swimming "mermaid" style with her legs bound together since she was a child, due to her fascination with Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" story. However, by the standards of swimmable mermaid tails, the exceptionally detailed film tail was difficult to remove. For the sake of efficiency, Hannah at first kept it on while the cast had lunch. In the documentary contained on the 20th-anniversary Splash! DVD, Tom Hanks recalled how the other cast members would drop French fries over the side of the tank to her as though she were a trained sea mammal, for she couldn't leave the water while her legs were "shrink-wrapped." Mermaid Got Married (1994): this Hong Kong romantic-comedy tells the story of a school teacher who falls in love with a mermaid who'd rescued him as a young boy. The film stars Asian cinema idols Ekin Cheng, Christy Chung, and Takeshi Kaneshiro. The film is loosely based on Splash. The Thirteenth Year (1999): a teen learns that his birth mother is a mermaid after he begins to grow fins and slimy scales on his thirteenth birthday. Mermaids (2003): this 2003 television film was directed by Ian Barry and stars Serah D'Laine, Nikita Ager and Australian model Erika Heynatz as a trio of mermaid sisters who band together to avenge their father's death. The film is also known in other languages as Sereias (Brazil), Três Sereias (Portugal), Mermaids – Las sirenas (Spain), Oi treis gorgones (Greece), Seireenisiskokset (Finland), Sirènes (France), and Sirenas (Argentina). Some of the tails used in the production have been sold to professional mermaids. Aquamarine (2006): the title character is a mermaid (Sara Paxton) who is washed ashore after a violent storm. She decides to search for true love on land, and makes two good friends (Joanna "JoJo" Levesque and Emma Roberts) along the way. The film, loosely based on a children's book of the same name by Alice Hoffman, and directed by American director Elizabeth Allen, was filmed in Queensland, Australia. There were three different tails used in the production, including an animatronic model that was operated remotely. At least one of the others was a fully swimmable tail worn by the actress. Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011): during his search for the Fountain of Youth, Jack Sparrow encounters several mermaids. This film is included in this list because, like Splash, it accounted for an increase in mermaid popularity upon its release, and includes a central mermaid character. However, no actual tails were used during filming; they were added during the editing process with CGI. On Stranger Tides employed 1,112 shots of computer-generated imagery, which were done by ten visual effects companies. Cinesite visual effects supervisor Simon Stanley-Clamp claimed that the most difficult part was doing the effects in 3D: "Rotoscoping is tricky. Cleaning up plates is double the work, and tracking has to be spot on." The lead companies, with over 300 effects each, were Industrial Light & Magic—responsible for, among others, the mermaids and most water effects—and Moving Picture Company, who created digital ships and environment extensions, such as changing weather and designing cliffs and waterfalls. Filming the mermaids involved eight model-actresses, who portrayed them outside the water, as well as 22 synchronized swimming athletes and a group of stuntwomen, both of whom wore motion capture suits to be later replaced by digital mermaids. Mermaid corpses were depicted by plaster models. The design tried to avoid the traditional representations of mermaids in paintings and literature, instead going for a scaly body with a translucent membrane inspired by both jellyfish and the fabric employed in ballet tutus. To make the mermaids more menacing underwater, the faces of the actresses had some digital touch-ups on the underwater scenes, adding sharper teeth and a shimmery fish scale quality on the skin. H2O: Just Add Water (2006): this TV series involves three teenage girls who, after encountering a mysterious island grotto, transform into mermaids whenever water touches any part of their bodies. A spin-off series, Mako: Island of Secrets, was released on 26 July 2013. Three different types of mermaid tails are used on the show: custom-fitted tails that the girls swim in, a "floppy tail" used for stationary shots, and a "hard tail" for stunts. The custom costumes took six months to build, with the tails and tops made from body casts and comprising individually hand-crafted scales. The finished product weighs between . Inside the tail are leg straps where the girls are strapped up and then zipped up. Once in costume, the girls have to be lifted into the water. Attempts were made to minimise the on-screen visibility of the zips on the tails, such as adding extra scales and crafting a ridge of material around the length of the zip. The tail fin itself was designed with a foot pedal to assist the actresses with swimming. This, along with the fin, adds some to the length of the costume. Dyesebel is a mermaid character based on graphic novelist Mars Ravelo's creation in GMA Network in the Philippines. The story was adapted into five films and a spin-off between 1953 and 1996. Modern use With the 1984 motion picture Splash, mermaiding caught the popular culture wave. Splash tailmaker Thom Shouse's website offered tails for a fee, but also inspired a do it yourself movement. (The Splash Mermaid was designed and created by the Academy Award-winning visual effects artist Robert Short. Shouse was the project foreman on Short's mermaid crew.) The early 2000s saw many performers and artists of varying ages, genders, body shapes, and ethnicities uploading videos and photographs of tails and underwater performances to YouTube and personal websites. Mahina Mermaid, Mermaid Linden, Hannah Mermaid and Katrin Gray aka Mermaid Kat are five of the most successful mermaids in the world. By the beginning of the 2010s, websites dedicated to mermaiding helped to create a distinct subculture in which members ranged from hobbyists to professional performers. Today, many mermaid performers work at aquariums, casinos, or tourist attractions professionally. Some freedivers wear mermaid tails to add novelty to the water sport. Although the vast majority of mers swim in their tails, a small handful of members of the mermaiding subculture do not actually swim. These mers might wear tails to raise awareness for ocean conservation issues, dry land cosplay, or as character performers at children's parties. This does not preclude them from being active in the wider community. In many countries people can now join mermaid swimming classes, where they learn how to swim in mermaid tails. The Mermaid Kat Academy was the world's first mermaid school that made mermaiding accessible to everyone and opened in August 2012. Shortly after that the Philippine Mermaid Swimming Academy and several other mermaid schools opened around the world. Equipment The basic structure of the tail is that of a sleeve or tube that encompasses the legs from ankle to waist, enclosing fins or a monofin that is strapped to and extends from the wearer's feet. The stiff fin provides structure for the fluke as well as propulsion during swimming. Materials Tails can be made out of almost any material, from fabric to platinum cure silicone, and are priced accordingly, from $100 to several thousand dollars. Several tailmaking companies are currently operating, in addition to a vibrant "do it yourself" scene. Secondhand tails are frequently sold privately or through sites such as eBay. Fabric: Due to their great elasticity and strength, lycra and spandex are the first choice in material for fabric tails. Fabric tails are recommended for beginners and children, as they are relatively inexpensive, easy to clean, and allow for growth. They hug the body closely without being too restrictive. Fabric tails come in a wide range of colors and patterns, and can be customized with paint. Other fabrics are often added to the tails in strategic locations for added flair; for instance, chiffon (fabric) is sometimes sewn onto the ends of flukes to give a greater impression of flow, or onto the hip area as decorative pectoral fins. Neoprene: Neoprene or polychloroprene are synthetic rubbers produced by the polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability, and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such as laptop sleeves, orthopedic braces, electrical insulation, liquid and sheet applied elastomeric membranes or flashings, and wetsuits. It is a popular material for tails due in part to its thickness, which creates a smooth line, rendering the tail more lifelike; it is also waterproof and fairly durable. Like fabric, neoprene can be painted and customized. It is often used as the base for sequin tails due to its strength. Sequin tails: In this variation on fabric and neoprene tails, individual sequins are sewn onto a tail for decoration. Occasionally, sequins are sewn onto only a few areas to serve as a highlight; more commonly, they are sewn over the entire tail, and provide all of the tail's color and patterning. Sequin tails are time-intensive to create, as each sequin must be sewn on by hand, and as a result these tails can be quite expensive. Variation is nearly unlimited due to the amounts and types of sequins available on the market. Latex tails: Molded latex is sometimes used as a tail material. It can be molded into scale shapes, and gives a more lifelike impression than fabric, particularly when poured or otherwise affixed onto a neoprene backing. Some of the earliest tails available on the market were made of the same type of latex used in latex clothing, however, these tails went out of production when the company owner died. The material has very little elasticity, which renders the tail difficult to get on and off. Many mermaids cannot use latex due to allergies, and mermaids who specialize in children's parties or other events where a tail may be touched often stay away from this material for that same reason. During the later part of the 2000s and up through about 2012–2013, partial tin-cure latex or tin-cure silicone spread over a neoprene or neoprin base became popular, due to the increased realism of the tails and the relatively low cost of materials (tin-cure tails generally retail around US$300–600). This proved problematic, however, as tin-cure silicones and latexes are not skin-safe materials. Effects over overexposure include "skin, respiratory, kidney and liver damage. Repeated or prolonged contact with the preparation may cause removal of natural fat from the skin resulting in non-allergic contact dermatitis and absorption through the skin. Prolonged and repeated skin contact may cause irritation and possibly dermatitis. Prolonged, repeated, or high exposures may cause weakness and depression of the central nervous system." Some of these ailments have been recorded by mermaids who have tails containing tin-cure materials, although this evidence is anecdotal. Tin-cure tails also degrade with prolonged exposure to water; the silicone becomes soft and white while peeling away from the neoprene on which it rests. It is currently advised that those who are considering making or purchasing tin-cure tails do so with extreme caution and at their own risk. Tin-cure tails have historically not been allowed in aquariums featuring live fish or other sea life, due to the chemicals leaching from the tail into the water and causing potential harm to the aquarium's ecosystem. Silicone tails: Currently, silicone rubber tails (also known as platinum-cure silicone tails and Dragonskin silicone tails, after a silicone brand name) are the most popular and most expensive tails on the market. In addition to being relatively lifelike and durable, silicone tails are skin-safe and inert in most environments once cured. Neutral buoyancy in the water allows for ease of sinking and natural-looking swimming, although they are quite heavy (25–60 lbs) out of the water. Colors and patterns are only limited by the designer's imagination, and if produced properly, paint or pigment does not chip off the tail. The material has excellent elasticity, allowing relative ease in getting in and out of the tail, and fitting snugly once on. Silicone is slip-resistant and grips the skin, which results in less tail slip or gapping during vigorous swimming. It is rare to find silicone tails for less than US$1000, even used, and their prices increase with the amount of extra detail, color, and number of fins added. Silicone tails can costs many thousands of dollars. Due to the expense and heavier weight involved, platinum-cure silicone tails are not recommended for beginners. Urethane tails: Urethane, a type of synthetic rubber, is a relatively durable material, and with proper care can last for years without need of repair. Currently, the only tailmaker working in urethane is Thom Shouse, owner of Mermaid Rentals and member of the original SFX team that created the tail for Splash. It is thought that he uses a urethane-latex mix, although he has never released his formula to the public. Blankets: Over the past several years mermaid tail blankets have become popular. General they are made of specially woven and shaped knitted fabrics, but can also be found in polyester fleece fabrics. They are generally open at the back so that when tucked around the legs they give the illusion that the wearer has a tail. They are not meant to get wet and are not really used for character parties or cosplay. Patterns are available so that knitters and crafters can make their own. Monofins A monofin is a type of swimfin typically used in underwater sports such as finswimming, free-diving and underwater orienteering, in recreational freediving, and even sometimes just for fun. It consists of a single surface attached to footpockets for both of the diver's feet. They have become popular with the mermaiding community due to excellent propulsion during swimming and their realistically mermaidish silhouette. Monofins can be made of glass fiber or carbon fiber. The swimmer's muscle power, swimming style, and the type of aquatic activity the monofin is used for determines the choice of size, stiffness, and materials. Monofins are carefully chosen when a tail is commissioned, taking into account the swimmer's ability, location of use, and desired look in the water. For instance, a large, stiff fiberglass monofin will serve a mermaid well in strong ocean currents, giving them speed and strength in the water. A mermaid who will be performing in a glass tank may choose a smaller, more flexible, plastic model, which imparts agility and graceful flow rather than strong propulsion. Some mermaids prefer to sand, cut, or otherwise alter their monofins into a preferred shape to suit their individual purposes; others prefer to create their monofins from scratch rather than purchase or alter an already existing model. For safety reasons, it is recommended that beginners not create their own monofins from scratch. Some materials that have been used in monofins, such as acrylic or plexiglas, have shattered under hydraulic stress and have caused severe injury and could result in drowning. Plastic polycarbonate is also not recommended, as it will crack and snap under pressure, rendering the monofin useless and dangerous. Humanitarian appeal A common practice among professional mermaids is environmental and individualist advocacy. Many mermaids speak out, create internet campaigns, and work with major environmental or self-help organizations. Susan Rockefeller's 2012 short-form documentary Mission of Mermaids: A Love Letter to the Ocean employs several professional mermaids from around the world to shed light on ocean acidification, overfishing, and marine pollution. Safety concerns Children The practice of mermaiding, especially by young children, has also raised safety concerns about how wearing and swimming in a tail may actually make it harder for children to swim and/or easier to drown, especially when they are not highly experienced swimmers. In 2015, a YouTube video surfaced in which a mother had to come over and rescue her daughter, who was drowning in a backyard pool after trying to do a flip while wearing a mermaid tail. Even as the video, which had gone viral, made efforts to express that mermaid tails can still be fun to play in with proper safety and supervision, various swimming pools in several countries, including Australian YMCA pools, began banning the tails around that time and in the years to come. The bans did not come without criticism. Some contended that it would be better to emphasize safety and supervision while using the tails, rather than banning them outright. A few others suggested that having mermaiders pass swim tests would also be a viable alternative to bans. Professionals Professional mermaids also encounter safety risks. In general, they must contend with having only a limited amount of oxygen to swim and stay underwater, as they traditionally eschew scuba equipment. Tank performers have found ways to overcome this issue, such as using air tubes installed in certain areas of the tank to receive a fresh burst of oxygen without having to resurface. Another way to cope with the limited oxygen involves stationing scuba divers in the tank where the mermaid performs and have them bring the mermaid fresh air whenever they request it with a gesture, although this method requires careful vigilance and attention. Failure to recognize the need for air can prove life-threatening for the performer, with at least one report of a mermaid nearly asphyxiating during a performance when divers missed her requests for air. Mermaids also incur various health risks while immersed in water. Without swim caps, mermaids fully expose their ears to water, subjecting them to ear pain and infection. The water they swim in may also contain bacteria that subjects them to waterborne illnesses and infections. Other potential minor health issues that mermaids can experience include foot blisters that occur as their tightly packed feet rub against the insides of the tail costume, muscle cramps in the legs from strenuous swimming movements in the tail costume, red eyes caused by continual exposure to chlorine in swimming pool water, along with cold and flu-like symptoms and minor respiratory problems induced from being in cold water. Mermaids who wear latex tin-cure tails are also subject to several toxic health effects that the chemicals of such material impart (see above). Mermaids who swim in the open ocean can have their safety jeopardized if they get too close to particular sea animals. For instance, a mermaid who gets up close to a whale would be at risk of being struck hard and seriously injured by even the slightest of the whale's movements. Although there are no reports of mermaids getting attacked or bitten by sharks, two mermaids have recounted colliding with one. A few others have recalled getting stung by venomous jellyfish. See also Sip 'n Dip Lounge Weeki Wachee, Florida Mermaid Synchronised swimming Freediving References External links Professional Mermaid Nina Professional Mermaid Linden Professional Real-Life Mermaid Melissa Business Week article on professional mermaids Huffington Post Interview with a Professional Mermaid Oprah on Mission of Mermaids MerNetwork A guide for children on how to become a mermaid Water sports Cosplay Mermaids in popular culture de:Mermaiding

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In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system (called the host) to behave like another computer system (called the guest). An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use peripheral devices designed for the guest system. Emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate (or imitate) another program or device. Many printers, for example, are designed to emulate HP LaserJet printers because so much software is written for HP printers. If a non-HP printer emulates an HP printer, any software written for a real HP printer will also run in the non-HP printer emulation and produce equivalent printing. Since at least the 1990s, many video game enthusiasts and hobbyists have used emulators to play classic (and/or forgotten) arcade games from the 1980s using the games' original 1980s machine code and data, which is interpreted by a current-era system, and to emulate old video game consoles. A hardware emulator is an emulator which takes the form of a hardware device. Examples include the DOS-compatible card installed in some 1990s-era Macintosh computers, such as the Centris 610 or Performa 630, that allowed them to run personal computer (PC) software programs and FPGA-based hardware emulators. The Church-Turing thesis implies that (theoretically) any operating environment can be emulated within any other environment (assuming memory limitations are ignored). However, in practice, it can be quite difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be (sometimes tediously) deduced through reverse engineering. It also says nothing about timing constraints; if the emulator does not perform as quickly as it did using the original hardware, the software inside the emulation may run much more slowly (possibly triggering timer interrupts that alter behavior). Types Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture—if operating system firmware or software is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be interpreted by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated binary machine's language, some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well; for example, if writing to a specific memory location should influence what is displayed on the screen, then this would need to be emulated. While emulation could, if taken to the extreme, go down to the atomic level, basing its output on a simulation of the actual circuitry from a virtual power source, this would be a highly unusual solution. Emulators typically stop at a simulation of the documented hardware specifications and digital logic. Sufficient emulation of some hardware platforms requires extreme accuracy, down to the level of individual clock cycles, undocumented features, unpredictable analog elements, and implementation bugs. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the "demoscene". In contrast, some other platforms have had very little use of direct hardware addressing, such as an emulator for the PlayStation 4. In these cases, a simple compatibility layer may suffice. This translates system calls for the foreign system into system calls for the host system e.g., the Linux compatibility layer used on *BSD to run closed source Linux native software on FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. For example, while the Nintendo 64 graphic processor was fully programmable, most games used one of a few pre-made programs, which were mostly self-contained and communicated with the game via FIFO; therefore, many emulators do not emulate the graphic processor at all, but simply interpret the commands received from the CPU as the original program would. Developers of software for embedded systems or video game consoles often design their software on especially accurate emulators called simulators before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to be debugged at a low level and without introducing the side effects of a debugger. In many cases, the simulator is actually produced by the company providing the hardware, which theoretically increases its accuracy. Math co-processor emulators allow programs compiled with math instructions to run on machines that don't have the co-processor installed, but the extra work done by the CPU may slow the system down. If a math coprocessor isn't installed or present on the CPU, when the CPU executes any co-processor instruction it will make a determined interrupt (coprocessor not available), calling the math emulator routines. When the instruction is successfully emulated, the program continues executing. Logic simulators Logic simulation is the use of a computer program to simulate the operation of a digital circuit such as a processor. This is done after a digital circuit has been designed in logic equations, but before the circuit is fabricated in hardware. Functional emulators Functional simulation is the use of a computer program to simulate the execution of a second computer program written in symbolic assembly language or compiler language, rather than in binary machine code. By using a functional simulator, programmers can execute and trace selected sections of source code to search for programming errors (bugs), without generating binary code. This is distinct from simulating execution of binary code, which is software emulation. The first functional simulator was written by Autonetics about 1960 for testing assembly language programs for later execution in military computer D-17B. This made it possible for flight programs to be written, executed, and tested before D-17B computer hardware had been built. Autonetics also programmed a functional simulator for testing flight programs for later execution in the military computer D-37C. Video game console emulators Video game console emulators are programs that allow a personal computer or video game console to emulate another video game console. They are most often used to play older 1980s to 2000s-era video games on modern personal computers and more contemporary video game consoles. They are also used to translate games into other languages, to modify existing games, and in the development process of "home brew" DIY demos and in the creation of new games for older systems. The Internet has helped in the spread of console emulators, as most - if not all - would be unavailable for sale in retail outlets. Examples of console emulators that have been released in the last few decades are: RPCS3, Dolphin, Cemu, PCSX2, PPSSPP, ZSNES, Citra, ePSXe, Project64, Visual Boy Advance, Nestopia, and Yuzu. Due to their popularity, emulators have been impersonated by malware. Most of these emulators are for video game consoles like the Xbox 360, Xbox One, Nintendo 3DS, etc. Generally such emulators make currently impossible claims such as being able to run Xbox One and Xbox 360 games in a single program. Legal issues As computers and global computer networks continued to advance and emulator developers grew more skilled in their work, the length of time between the commercial release of a console and its successful emulation began to shrink. Fifth generation consoles such as Nintendo 64, PlayStation and sixth generation handhelds, such as the Game Boy Advance, saw significant progress toward emulation during their production. This led to an effort by console manufacturers to stop unofficial emulation, but consistent failures such as Sega v. Accolade 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992), Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corporation 203 F.3d 596 (2000), and Sony Computer Entertainment America v. Bleem 214 F.3d 1022 (2000), have had the opposite effect. According to all legal precedents, emulation is legal within the United States. However, unauthorized distribution of copyrighted code remains illegal, according to both country-specific copyright and international copyright law under the Berne Convention. Under United States law, obtaining a dumped copy of the original machine's BIOS is legal under the ruling Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 964 F.2d 965 (9th Cir. 1992) as fair use as long as the user obtained a legally purchased copy of the machine. To mitigate this however, several emulators for platforms such as Game Boy Advance are capable of running without a BIOS file, using high-level emulation to simulate BIOS subroutines at a slight cost in emulation accuracy. Terminal Terminal emulators are software programs that provide modern computers and devices interactive access to applications running on mainframe computer operating systems or other host systems such as HP-UX or OpenVMS. Terminals such as the IBM 3270 or VT100 and many others are no longer produced as physical devices. Instead, software running on modern operating systems simulates a "dumb" terminal and is able to render the graphical and text elements of the host application, send keystrokes and process commands using the appropriate terminal protocol. Some terminal emulation applications include Attachmate Reflection, IBM Personal Communications, and Micro Focus Rumba. Other types Other types of emulators include: Hardware emulator: the process of imitating the behavior of one or more pieces of hardware (typically a system under design) with another piece of hardware, typically a special purpose emulation system In-circuit emulator: the use of a hardware device to debug the software of an embedded system Floating-point emulator: Some floating-point hardware only supports the simplest operations: addition, subtraction, and multiplication. In systems without any floating-point hardware, the CPU emulates it using a series of simpler fixed-point arithmetic operations that run on the integer arithmetic logic unit. Instruction set simulator in a high-level programming language: Mimics the behavior of a mainframe or microprocessor by "reading" instructions and maintaining internal variables which represent the processor's registers. Network emulation: a technique for testing the performance of real applications over a virtual network. This is different from network simulation where virtual models of traffic, network models, channels, and protocols are applied. Server emulator: Multiplayer video games often rely on an online game server, which may or may not be available for on-premises installation. A server emulator is an unofficial on-premises server that imitates the behavior of the official online server, even though its internal working might be different. Semulation: the process of controlling an emulation through a simulator Structure and organization Typically, an emulator is divided into modules that correspond roughly to the emulated computer's subsystems. Most often, an emulator will be composed of the following modules: a CPU emulator or CPU simulator (the two terms are mostly interchangeable in this case), unless the target being emulated has the same CPU architecture as the host, in which case a virtual machine layer may be used instead a memory subsystem module various input/output (I/O) device emulators Buses are often not emulated, either for reasons of performance or simplicity, and virtual peripherals communicate directly with the CPU or the memory subsystem. Memory subsystem It is possible for the memory subsystem emulation to be reduced to simply an array of elements each sized like an emulated word; however, this model fails very quickly as soon as any location in the computer's logical memory does not match physical memory. This clearly is the case whenever the emulated hardware allows for advanced memory management (in which case, the MMU logic can be embedded in the memory emulator, made a module of its own, or sometimes integrated into the CPU simulator). Even if the emulated computer does not feature an MMU, though, there are usually other factors that break the equivalence between logical and physical memory: many (if not most) architectures offer memory-mapped I/O; even those that do not often have a block of logical memory mapped to ROM, which means that the memory-array module must be discarded if the read-only nature of ROM is to be emulated. Features such as bank switching or segmentation may also complicate memory emulation. As a result, most emulators implement at least two procedures for writing to and reading from logical memory, and it is these procedures' duty to map every access to the correct location of the correct object. On a base-limit addressing system where memory from address 0 to address ROMSIZE-1 is read-only memory, while the rest is RAM, something along the line of the following procedures would be typical: void WriteMemory(word Address, word Value) { word RealAddress; RealAddress = Address + BaseRegister; if ((RealAddress < LimitRegister) && (RealAddress > ROMSIZE)) { Memory[RealAddress] = Value; } else { RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT); } } word ReadMemory(word Address) { word RealAddress; RealAddress=Address+BaseRegister; if (RealAddress < LimitRegister) { return Memory[RealAddress]; } else { RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT); return NULL; } } CPU simulator The CPU simulator is often the most complicated part of an emulator. Many emulators are written using "pre-packaged" CPU simulators, in order to concentrate on good and efficient emulation of a specific machine. The simplest form of a CPU simulator is an interpreter, which is a computer program that follows the execution flow of the emulated program code and, for every machine code instruction encountered, executes operations on the host processor that are semantically equivalent to the original instructions. This is made possible by assigning a variable to each register and flag of the simulated CPU. The logic of the simulated CPU can then more or less be directly translated into software algorithms, creating a software re-implementation that basically mirrors the original hardware implementation. The following example illustrates how CPU simulation can be accomplished by an interpreter. In this case, interrupts are checked-for before every instruction executed, though this behavior is rare in real emulators for performance reasons (it is generally faster to use a subroutine to do the work of an interrupt). void Execute(void) { if (Interrupt != INT_NONE) { SuperUser = TRUE; WriteMemory(++StackPointer, ProgramCounter); ProgramCounter = InterruptPointer; } switch (ReadMemory(ProgramCounter++)) { /* * Handling of every valid instruction * goes here... */ default: Interrupt = INT_ILLEGAL; } } Interpreters are very popular as computer simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more time-efficient alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a decade ago on modern machines. However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same order of magnitude as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many. What allowed breaking through this restriction were the advances in dynamic recompilation techniques. Simple a priori translation of emulated program code into code runnable on the host architecture is usually impossible because of several reasons: code may be modified while in RAM, even if it is modified only by the emulated operating system when loading the code (for example from disk) there may not be a way to reliably distinguish data (which should not be translated) from executable code. Various forms of dynamic recompilation, including the popular Just In Time compiler (JIT) technique, try to circumvent these problems by waiting until the processor control flow jumps into a location containing untranslated code, and only then ("just in time") translates a block of the code into host code that can be executed. The translated code is kept in a code cache, and the original code is not lost or affected; this way, even data segments can be (meaninglessly) translated by the recompiler, resulting in no more than a waste of translation time. Speed may not be desirable as some older games were not designed with the speed of faster computers in mind. A game designed for a 30 MHz PC with a level timer of 300 game seconds might only give the player 30 seconds on a 300 MHz PC. Other programs, such as some DOS programs, may not even run on faster computers. Particularly when emulating computers which were "closed-box", in which changes to the core of the system were not typical, software may use techniques that depend on specific characteristics of the computer it ran on (e.g. its CPU's speed) and thus precise control of the speed of emulation is important for such applications to be properly emulated. Input/output (I/O) Most emulators do not, as mentioned earlier, emulate the main system bus; each I/O device is thus often treated as a special case, and no consistent interface for virtual peripherals is provided. This can result in a performance advantage, since each I/O module can be tailored to the characteristics of the emulated device; designs based on a standard, unified I/O API can, however, rival such simpler models, if well thought-out, and they have the additional advantage of "automatically" providing a plug-in service through which third-party virtual devices can be used within the emulator. A unified I/O API may not necessarily mirror the structure of the real hardware bus: bus design is limited by several electric constraints and a need for hardware concurrency management that can mostly be ignored in a software implementation. Even in emulators that treat each device as a special case, there is usually a common basic infrastructure for: managing interrupts, by means of a procedure that sets flags readable by the CPU simulator whenever an interrupt is raised, allowing the virtual CPU to "poll for (virtual) interrupts" writing to and reading from physical memory, by means of two procedures similar to the ones dealing with logical memory (although, contrary to the latter, the former can often be left out, and direct references to the memory array be employed instead) Applications In preservation Emulation is one strategy in pursuit of digital preservation and combating obsolescence. Emulation focuses on recreating an original computer environment, which can be time-consuming and difficult to achieve, but valuable because of its ability to maintain a closer connection to the authenticity of the digital object, operating system, or even gaming platform. Emulation addresses the original hardware and software environment of the digital object, and recreates it on a current machine. The emulator allows the user to have access to any kind of application or operating system on a current platform, while the software runs as it did in its original environment. Jeffery Rothenberg, an early proponent of emulation as a digital preservation strategy states, "the ideal approach would provide a single extensible, long-term solution that can be designed once and for all and applied uniformly, automatically, and in organized synchrony (for example, at every refresh cycle) to all types of documents and media". He further states that this should not only apply to out of date systems, but also be upwardly mobile to future unknown systems. Practically speaking, when a certain application is released in a new version, rather than address compatibility issues and migration for every digital object created in the previous version of that application, one could create an emulator for the application, allowing access to all of said digital objects. Benefits Potentially better graphics quality than original hardware. Potentially additional features original hardware didn't have. Emulators maintain the original look, feel, and behavior of the digital object, which is just as important as the digital data itself. Despite the original cost of developing an emulator, it may prove to be the more cost efficient solution over time. Reduces labor hours, because rather than continuing an ongoing task of continual data migration for every digital object, once the library of past and present operating systems and application software is established in an emulator, these same technologies are used for every document using those platforms. Many emulators have already been developed and released under the GNU General Public License through the open source environment, allowing for wide scale collaboration. Emulators allow software exclusive to one system to be used on another. For example, a PlayStation 2 exclusive video game could be played on a PC using an emulator. This is especially useful when the original system is difficult to obtain and the analog-digital adapter can't be obtained or doesn't exist. Obstacles The legality surrounding Intellectual property rights is an ongoing issue. Many development teams, companies, and technology vendors alike sometimes implemented non-standard features during program development in order to establish their niche in the market, while simultaneously applying ongoing upgrades to remain competitive. While this may have advanced the technology industry and increased vendor's market share, it has left users lost in a preservation nightmare with little supporting documentation due to the proprietary nature of the hardware and software. Copyright laws are not yet in effect to address saving the documentation and specifications of proprietary software and hardware in an emulator module. Emulators are often used as a copyright infringement tool, since they allow users to play video games without having to buy the console, and rarely make any attempt to prevent the use of illegal copies. This leads to a number of legal uncertainties regarding emulation, and leads to software being programmed to refuse to work if it can tell the host is an emulator; some video games in particular will continue to run, but not allow the player to progress beyond some late stage in the game, often appearing to be faulty or just extremely difficult. These protections make it more difficult to design emulators, since they must be accurate enough to avoid triggering the protections, whose effects may not be obvious. Emulators require better hardware than the original system has. In new media art Because of its primary use of digital formats, new media art relies heavily on emulation as a preservation strategy. Artists such as Cory Arcangel specialize in resurrecting obsolete technologies in their artwork and recognize the importance of a decentralized and deinstitutionalized process for the preservation of digital culture. In many cases, the goal of emulation in new media art is to preserve a digital medium so that it can be saved indefinitely and reproduced without error, so that there is no reliance on hardware that ages and becomes obsolete. The paradox is that the emulation and the emulator have to be made to work on future computers. In future systems design Emulation techniques are commonly used during the design and development of new systems. It eases the development process by providing the ability to detect, recreate and repair flaws in the design even before the system is actually built. It is particularly useful in the design of multi-core systems, where concurrency errors can be very difficult to detect and correct without the controlled environment provided by virtual hardware. This also allows the software development to take place before the hardware is ready, thus helping to validate design decisions and give a little more control. Comparison with simulation The word "emulator" was coined in 1963 at IBM during development of the NPL (IBM System/360) product line, using a "new combination of software, microcode, and hardware". They discovered that simulation using additional instructions implemented in microcode and hardware, instead of software simulation using only standard instructions, to execute programs written for earlier IBM computers dramatically increased simulation speed. Earlier, IBM provided simulators for, e.g., the 650 on the 705. In addition to simulators, IBM had compatibility features on the 709 and 7090, for which it provided the IBM 709 computer with a program to run legacy programs written for the IBM 704 on the 709 and later on the IBM 7090. This program used the instructions added by the compatibility feature to trap instructions requiring special handling; all other 704 instructions ran the same on a 7090. The compatibility feature on the 1410 only required setting a console toggle switch, not a support program. In 1963, when microcode was first used to speed up this simulation process, IBM engineers coined the term "emulator" to describe the concept. In the 2000s, it has become common to use the word "emulate" in the context of software. However, before 1980, "emulation" referred only to emulation with a hardware or microcode assist, while "simulation" referred to pure software emulation. For example, a computer specially built for running programs designed for another architecture is an emulator. In contrast, a simulator could be a program which runs on a PC, so that old Atari games can be simulated on it. Purists continue to insist on this distinction, but currently the term "emulation" often means the complete imitation of a machine executing binary code while "simulation" often refers to computer simulation, where a computer program is used to simulate an abstract model. Computer simulation is used in virtually every scientific and engineering domain and Computer Science is no exception, with several projects simulating abstract models of computer systems, such as network simulation, which both practically and semantically differs from network emulation. Comparison with hardware virtualization Hardware virtualization is the virtualization of computers as complete hardware platforms, certain logical abstractions of their components, or only the functionality required to run various operating systems. Virtualization hides the physical characteristics of a computing platform from the users, presenting instead an abstract computing platform. At its origins, the software that controlled virtualization was called a "control program", but the terms "hypervisor" or "virtual machine monitor" became preferred over time. Each hypervisor can manage or run multiple virtual machines. See also List of emulators List of computer system emulators QEMU Q (emulator) References External links Gameloop emulators . Computer hardware Articles with example C code

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Lucie Šafářová (; born 4 February 1987) is a Czech former tennis player. She won seven singles titles and 15 doubles titles on WTA Tour. She reached her first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the 2007 Australian Open, upsetting defending champion Amélie Mauresmo in the fourth round, her first Grand Slam semifinal at the 2014 Wimbledon Championships and her first Grand Slam final at the 2015 French Open. She also won the 2015 Australian Open, 2015 French Open, 2016 US Open, 2017 Australian Open and 2017 French Open women's doubles titles partnering with Bethanie Mattek-Sands, as well as the bronze medal in women's doubles at the 2016 Rio Olympic alongside Barbora Strýcová, upsetting the defending gold medalists Venus and Serena Williams in the first round. Playing style Šafářová plays left-handed with a two-handed backhand and possesses a high topspin forehand. Her timing off the ground allows her to project groundstrokes with power, and she is quick to spot opportunities to take the initiative. Šafářová is notorious for having a volatile return that is capable of hitting clean winners, as well as unforced errors. Her preferred surface is clay. She was coached by Rob Steckley until September 2016 when she split with him, ending a coaching relationship of more than three and a half years, and hired František Čermák. In December 2017, Šafářová announced that she is reuniting with Rob Steckley for the 2018 season. Career 2005–2006 Šafářová won her first WTA Tour event in May 2005 at the Estoril Open in Portugal, where she defeated fourth-seeded Li Na in a three-sets final. In June she lost the final of the Rosmalen grass court tournament to fellow Czech Klára Koukalová in three sets. She won her second tournament at the Forest Hills Tennis Classic in August, which was played at the historic West Side Tennis Club, after a victory in the final against Sania Mirza. Šafářová started off 2006 by upsetting world No. 6, Patty Schnyder, in the semifinals of the Gold Coast tournament and then winning the title with a straight-set victory. Also in 2006, she made her first Tier-II semifinal at Amelia Island, where she upset Nicole Vaidišová in the round of 16. She later lost to eventual champion Nadia Petrova. She then made another semifinal at the Tier-IV tournament at Palermo, where she was defeated by Anabel Medina Garrigues. 2007: First Grand Slam quarterfinal At the start of 2007, Šafářová elected to represent the Czech Republic in the Hopman Cup instead of defending her Gold Coast title. Due to not defending the points at that tournament, she came into the first Grand Slam of the year ranked No. 70 and unseeded. Yet she made headlines at the Australian Open, when she stunned the defending champion and No. 2 seed Amélie Mauresmo in the fourth round. She then lost to fellow Czech Nicole Vaidišová in the quarterfinals. After the Australian Open, her ranking rose from No. 70 to 31. Šafářová continued her good start to 2007 at the Paris indoor event. She reached the final by defeating Tsvetana Pironkova in three sets and Nicole Vaidišová, Svetlana Kuznetsova, and Justine Henin, all in straight sets. However, she lost the final against Nadia Petrova in three sets. She pulled out of her next event in Antwerp due to a shoulder injury. Šafářová lost in round three of both Indian Wells and Miami to Shahar Pe'er and Serena Williams, respectively. She defeated Daniela Hantuchová in the Czech Republic vs. Slovak Republic Fed Cup encounter. She then lost in the semifinals of the Tier-IV Estoril tournament to Victoria Azarenka. At Roland Garros, Šafářová defeated Mauresmo in the third round, in straight sets. It was the second time in a row that she had beaten Mauresmo in a Grand Slam championship, after winning their only previous encounter in January at the Australian Open. In the next round, she lost in three sets to Anna Chakvetadze. As the 25th seed in Wimbledon, she defeated Zuzana Ondrášková followed by a win over Eleni Daniilidou, in three sets. However, in the third round, she lost to world No. 3, Jelena Janković, in three sets, after coming within two points of another Grand Slam upset. The match was described as the best match of the 2007 WTA Tour up to that point and the best women's Wimbledon match in many years. Šafářová entered the US Open as the 20th seed. She defeated Jessica Moore in the first round and Andrea Petkovic in the second round. She fell to Marion Bartoli in the third round. In 2007, she advanced to the third round or better in all four Grand Slams including the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, which was the best Grand Slam result at that point of her career. 2008 At the beginning of 2008, Šafářová again decided to enter the Hopman Cup in Perth. She was ranked No. 23 and took on world No. 56 Alicia Molik of Australia. She lost the match followed by a loss with her partner on and off the court, Tomáš Berdych, in mixed doubles. Against the team of the United States, she lost to Serena Williams in three sets. Šafářová and Berdych lost the first set of the mixed doubles and then retired from the match due to Berdych's health concerns. The Czechs closed the cup by defeating India 2-1. Šafářová won her singles match against Sania Mirza in three sets. After Berdych also won his singles match and clinched the victory, Šafářová and Berdych lost the mixed-doubles match. Šafářová's second competition of the year was the Sydney International. In the first round, she faced Alicia Molik and won in two tiebreaks. Both players had set points and match points throughout the tiebreaker, but Šafářová was able to come out on top. She subsequently pulled out of the second round against world No. 1, Justine Henin. Šafářová entered the Australian Open as the 22nd seed. In the first round, she faced Catalina Castaño of Colombia and lost in 71 minutes. Later, it was revealed that a gluteal strain was plaguing her during the match. She sustained the injury during her first-round encounter against Molik at the Medibank International. Competing in Indian Wells, Šafářová, seeded 26th, lost in three sets in the second round to Ashley Harkleroad. Following that, she lost at Miami to fourth seed Jelena Janković. At the Summer Olympics, Šafářová competed in both singles and women's doubles. She reached the third round of the singles by beating Maret Ani and Mariya Koryttseva before losing to Sybille Bammer. In the women's doubles, she and partner Petra Kvitová were knocked out in the first round. She followed the Olympics by winning the Forest Hills Tennis Classic for the second time. She became the first and only player to win the Classic more than once, as 2008 was the last edition of the tournament. 2009 Šafářová began the year with a quarterfinal showing at the hardcourt event in Brisbane. She defeated the Australians Isabella Holland and Samantha Stosur before being defeated by second-seeded Victoria Azarenka of Belarus. After failing to qualify for the premier event in Sydney, she reached the third round of the Australian Open by defeating Sybille Bammer and Marina Erakovic before losing to Marion Bartoli in three sets. She did not advance past the second round in any of the other Grand Slam tournaments in 2009. 2010 Šafářová started the 2010 season by reaching the quarterfinals of the Brisbane International, where she lost to eventual champion Kim Clijsters. She then suffered first round losses at the Hobart International, where she retired against Kateryna Bondarenko in the third set, and the Australian Open, where she lost to sixth seed Venus Williams. She made her first final of the year indoors in Paris by defeating Flavia Pennetta in the semifinals. In the final, she won the first set, but fell in three sets to top seed Elena Dementieva. In her next two tournaments, she then suffered two more first-round losses. First, at the Monterrey Open, she lost to Julie Coin, then at Indian Wells against Julia Görges. At the Miami Open, she was unseeded. She won her first-round match against Kaia Kanepi, and then defeated María José Martínez Sánchez in the second round in three sets, after being down match points at 5–2 in the second set. She then fell to fourth seed Victoria Azarenka. At the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, Šafářová upset world No. 2 and top-seed, Caroline Wozniacki, in the second round. She then fell in three sets to qualifier Anna Lapushchenkova in the quarterfinals. At the Italian Open, she upset world No. 9, Agnieszka Radwańska, in the third round, but lost to eventual champion María José Martínez Sánchez in straight sets in the quarterfinals. At the Madrid Open, she upset world No. 12 Maria Sharapova in the first round. She then defeated Olga Govortsova and Alexandra Dulgheru to advance to the quarterfinals, where she beat world No. 18 Nadia Petrova. She retired due to a thigh injury while trailing Aravane Rezaï by a set in the semifinals. At the French Open, she was seeded 24th. She defeated Jelena Dokić in the first round, but was defeated by Polona Hercog in the second round. The French Open would be her best singles result at a Grand Slam in 2010 as she lost in the first round at both Wimbledon and the US Open. 2011 Šafářová began the year at the Brisbane International where she made it to the quarterfinals after tough matches against Akgul Amanmuradova and Shahar Pe'er where she lost to Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, in three sets. As the 31st seed at the Australian Open, she struggled through her first two rounds, but defeated Zhang Shuai and Klára Zakopalová, respectively. In the third round, she lost in two sets to world No. 2, Vera Zvonareva, despite having had a set point in the second set. Following the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Daniela Hantuchová in the 2011 Fed Cup, but retired in her second rubber against Jana Čepelová. Her next tournament was the Paris Indoor, where she fell to a resurgent Jelena Dokić in the first round. A week later at the Dubai Championships, she again exited in the first round by losing to Klára Zakopalová. Her performance at the Qatar Open was more positive, as she defeated world No. 10 Agnieszka Radwańska in two sets, before losing in three sets in the second round to Flavia Pennetta. She had her best result in 2011 at the Malaysian Open, where she reached the final against an in-form Jelena Dokić. She held two championship points in the second-set tiebreaker, but was unable to convert either chance and succumbed in three sets. She reached the second round in Indian Wells by beating Kristina Barrois, while serving a WTA season-high 18 aces, before losing a close match to 21st seed Andrea Petkovic. The following week as the 31st seed, she had a bye in round one in Miami. She then defeated Patty Schnyder and lost to fourth seed Sam Stosur. Šafářová was forced to pull out of the Czech Fed Cup tie against Belgium the following week due to a left thigh problem. She attempted to play at Stuttgart, but lost to Barrois. She pulled out of Barcelona with the same leg injury. Her next tournament was the Premier Madrid Open. She defeated Spanish player Anabel Medina Garrigues by coming back from match point down in the third set. She followed this victory with a three-set win over seventh seed Jelena Janković in round two and a two-set win over Jarmila Gajdošová in round three. These victories meant that for the second consecutive year, she had made the quarterfinals in Madrid. In the quarterfinals, she lost a hard-fought match to fourth seed Victoria Azarenka in three sets. In Rome the following week, she began with a win over Kimiko Date-Krumm. In the second round, she fell to Jelena Janković. Unseeded at the French Open, Šafářová opened with an easy win over Kirsten Flipkens. In round two, she was up a set and a break against 17th seeded German Julia Görges, but eventually succumbed in three sets. In the doubles event, she and Michaëlla Krajicek opened with a win over Miami champions Radwańska and Hantuchová, and then defeated Pauline Parmentier and Kristina Mladenovic before falling to fifth-seeded Madrid Champions Victoria Azarenka and Maria Kirilenko. Reaching the third round marked her best doubles result at the French Open up to that point in her career. As the fourth seed in Copenhagen, Šafářová made a series of tough three-set wins by never winning the first set. However, after beating Johanna Konta, Michaëlla Krajicek, Zhang Shuai, and Petra Martić (after trailing by a set and 4–0), she lost the final to home favourite and world No. 1, Caroline Wozniacki. She then traveled to Eastbourne, where she lost in the opening round to eventual champion Marion Bartoli despite holding a match point. At Wimbledon, Šafářová was seeded 31st. She defeated fellow Czech Lucie Hradecká in the first round in three sete. This victory was her first win at Wimbledon since 2007. She was defeated by another Czech, Klára Zakopalová, in the second round. She next played on clay in Båstad, but was taken out by Vesna Dolonc in straight sets in the first round. She then pulled out of tournaments in Baku and San Diego before returning to the tour in Toronto. Following wins over Polona Hercog and Simona Halep, she took out eighth seeded Francesca Schiavone to reach her second Toronto quarterfinal. She lost this match to eventual champion Serena Williams in three sets. In Cincinnati the following week, she defeated Klára Zakopalová in the first round, but lost her second round match to the fifth seed, Li Na. Seeded 27th at the US Open, Šafářová began by defeating Magdaléna Rybáriková. The victory was her first US Open win since 2007. She then defeated wild card Madison Keys before a disappointing third round loss to Monica Niculescu. In Quebec City the week following the US Open, she lost in round two to Andrea Hlaváčková as the second seed. After taking a small break, she re-entered the tour in Beijing, but lost in the first round to Petkovic. She followed this tournament up with a semifinal appearance in Linz, Austria, where she lost to Dominika Cibulková. The following week in the premier Moscow event, she took out second-seed Agnieszka Radwańska in round two before losing to Kaia Kanepi in the semifinals in three sets. To finish the year, Šafářová was a part of the Czech Fed Cup team that had qualified for the final against Russia. Despite losing both her matches to the higher-ranked Svetlana Kuznetsova and Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, she and the Czech team won 3–2 to win their first championship as the Czech Republic (Czechoslovakia had previously won five Fed Cup titles). 2012 Šafářová reached the quarterfinals in Sydney, but lost to Li Na in two sets. She was taken out in the first round of the Australian Open by Christina McHale. On 23 March 2012 at the Miami Masters, she lost to Heather Watson of Great Britain in a match lasting one hour, 20 minutes. The young British player was ranked No. 129 in the world. At the London Olympics, Šafářová competed in the women's singles and the women's doubles, but lost in the first round of both competitions. She reached the semifinals of the Canadian Open in Montreal, where she lost to Li Na in three sets. With this result, she was ranked well within the top 20 for the first time in her career. In 2012, she also helped the Czech team defend its Fed Cup title. She won both her singles matches against Ana Ivanovic and Jelena Janković in the final against Serbia. Her victory against Janković clinched a 3–1 victory for the Czechs. 2013 In 2013, Šafářová did not advance past the second round at any of the Grand Slams in singles. She was more successful in doubles. Partnering with Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova, they reached the quarterfinals at both the Australian Open and the French Open. The week following the US Open, Šafářová won her fifth WTA singles title at the Challenge Bell. 2014: First Grand Slam semifinal Šafářová had a match point in the third round of the Australian Open against Li Na, but was eventually beaten in three sets as Li went on to win her second major title. At the Miami Open, she lost in three tight sets to Maria Sharapova in the third round. She would go on to lose to Sharapova again in the first round of the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix. At Roland Garros, she was the 23rd seed and defeated the in-form Ana Ivanovic in the third round, but lost in the next round to Svetlana Kuznetsova, in straight sets. At Wimbledon, she reached her first ever Grand Slam semifinal, where she lost in two sets to fellow Czech Petra Kvitová. In November, Šafárová was a part of the Czech Fed Cup team that played the final against Germany. In front of the home crowd at the O2 Arena in Prague, she won her singles match against Angelique Kerber in straight sets, which contributed to a 3–1 victory for the Czech team. 2015: Grand Slam doubles titles and singles final, becoming a top-5 player, struggles with illness Šafářová had a slow start to the year with a first-round loss at the Sydney International to Samantha Stosur. At the Australian Open, she suffered another first-round exit to Yaroslava Shvedova. Despite the early loss in singles, she rebounded by capturing her first Grand Slam title in doubles. Partnering with Bethanie Mattek-Sands, they defeated the 14th seeded team of Chan Yung-jan and Zheng Jie. Šafářová then played at Antwerp and lost in the quarterfinals to fellow Czech Karolína Plíšková. She next traveled to Dubai where she made it to the quarterfinals by upsetting defending champion Venus Williams along the way. However, in the quarterfinals she lost again to Plíšková. At the Qatar Open, she defeated former Grand Slam champion Samantha Stosur, fifth seed Ekaterina Makarova, sixth seed Andrea Petkovic, and ninth seed Carla Suárez Navarro en route to her first final in over a year. In the final, she defeated former No. 1, Victoria Azarenka, in straight sets to win her first WTA Premier tournaments title. She then lost early at both the Indian Wells and the Miami Open to Elina Svitolina and Johanna Larsson, respectively. Next, she played for the Czech Republic in the semifinals against France at the Fed Cup, where she beat Caroline Garcia in three sets after saving five match points. The Czech Republic would go on to win the tie to advance to the finals for the fourth time in five years. Šafářová began her clay season in Stuttgart where she lost in the second round to eventual finalist Caroline Wozniacki in straight sets, but she would go on to win the doubles title with Mattek-Sands. She then played at the Prague Open and lost in the first round to Tereza Smitková. Next, she played at the Madrid Open and made it to the quarterfinals, where she lost to eventual finalist Svetlana Kuznetsova in three sets. In that match, she had been up 5–2 in the second set tiebreak and also failed to convert two match points on her own serve in the third set. She then lost in the second round at the Italian Open to Alexandra Dulgheru in three sets. Šafářová started her French Open singles campaign by defeating long time friend Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova in two tiebreakers. She went on to defeat Kurumi Nara and 20th seed Sabine Lisicki, which set up a clash with the defending champion Maria Sharapova in the fourth round. She won the match in straight sets. It was Sharapova's earliest French Open loss since 2010. In the quarterfinals, she played the 21st seed Garbiñe Muguruza and won in straight sets to advance to her second semifinal in a major. With her quarterfinal win, she secured her place in the top 10. She then defeated former champion Ana Ivanovic in two tight sets to advance to her first ever Grand Slam tournament final, which she lost to Serena Williams in three sets. In doubles she and Mattek-Sands claimed their second Grand Slam title of the year by beating Yaroslava Shvedova and Casey Dellacqua in three sets in the final. With this win she moved up to No. 5 in doubles. Šafářová began the grass-court season by playing in Eastbourne International. She lost her first match to Dominika Cibulková, in straight sets. Next, she played at the Wimbledon Championships. She reached the fourth round, but was then defeated by unseeded CoCo Vandeweghe in two tiebreakers. In the North American hard court season, Šafářová participated in the Rogers Cup, but lost in the second round to Daria Gavrilova after receiving a first round bye. This loss occurred despite having a 6–4, 5–5, 30–0 lead on her serve. She then reached the quarterfinals of the Cincinnati Open, where she lost to Elina Svitolina in three sets. Šafářová reached the final of the Connecticut Open, but lost to defending champion Petra Kvitová. She then lost in the first round of the US Open to Lesia Tsurenko in straight sets. The rest of Šafářová's season was blighted by a bacterial infection which hospitalized her. As a result, she was unable to play for most of the autumn and early winter. She managed to play in the Linz Open and the Moscow Open, but she lost her opening matches in both tournaments. Since Serena Williams withdrew from the tournament, Šafářová was able to play the WTA Finals for the first time in her career. She failed to advance to the semifinals as she lost to Muguruza and Kvitová in round-robin matches, but she did get a win by beating eventual world No. 1 and two time Grand Slam champion, Angelique Kerber, in straight sets to finish the round with a record of 1–2. She closed the year once again in the Fed Cup Finals, where the Czech Republic won their fourth title in five years. She was not chosen to play in any of the matches. 2016: Continuous struggles with injuries, first Olympic medal and US Open doubles title Šafářová skipped the whole Australian Open Series, including the Australian Open and thus failing to defend her doubles title, due to the same bacterial infection which hospitalized her at the end of 2015. She returned to tennis at the Qatar Open, where she was the defending champion. However, she lost to Turkish wild card Çağla Büyükakçay. In Indian Wells, Šafářová lost to Yaroslava Shvedova in the second round after receiving a bye as the 11th seed. Šafářová then partnered Ekaterina Makarova in doubles as the fifth seed, but they lost to Andreja Klepač and Katarina Srebotnik in the first round. As the 11th seed in the Miami Open, Šafářová received a bye into the second round where she faced Yanina Wickmayer. However, she lost the match in straight sets. For doubles, she partnered with her usual partner Bethanie Mattek-Sands for their first tournament together in 2016. They defeated Sloane Stephens and Madison Keys and then Daria Kasatkina Elena Vesnina to set up a blockbuster meeting with Australian Open finalists Andrea Hlaváčková and Lucie Hradecká, who are known as "The Silent-Hs". Mattek-Sands and Šafářová prevailed in straight sets, and dominated Chinese pairing Xu Yifan and Zheng Saisai in the semifinals. They then defeated the fourth seeds Tímea Babos and Yaroslava Shvedova in the final, winning their first title together of the year. Šafářová's next tournament was the Charleston Open. As the fourth seed in singles, she lost to Louisa Chirico in her opening singles match after receiving a first-round bye. Top-seeded in doubles, Šafářová and Mattek-Sands proceeded to the final after winning all their matches in straight sets, but then lost to Caroline Garcia and Kristina Mladenovic. Next, she played in the Stuttgart Open and lost in the first round to Karolína Plíšková. Šafářová turned her season around by winning her seventh career title at the Prague Open. She won her first singles match of the year in the first round against Duque Marino, whom she beat in three sets. She followed this result up with a second-round win over compatriot Lucie Hradecká 6–4, 2–0 (ret.). In the quarterfinal she beat Hsieh Su-wei in straight sets. In the semifinals she avenged her Stuttgart defeat to compatriot Karolína Plíšková by beating her in straight sets. In the final she delighted a home crowd by coming from a set down to beat Grand Slam champion Samantha Stosur. This result ended her title drought of more than a year since her Doha win. Next, she played in the Madrid Open. She defeated CoCo Vandeweghe in the first round, but withdrew from the tournament, both from singles and doubles due to gastrointestinal illness. At the Rio Olympics, she won her first-round singles match, but retired in her second round match after losing the first set. However, she recovered in time for doubles and on 13 August 2016, she won her first ever Olympic medal, which was a bronze with her partner Barbora Strýcová. At the US Open, Šafářová was unseeded in singles. She won in the first round against Daria Gavrilova, but lost in the second round to fifth seed Simona Halep. In doubles, she teamed once again with Mattek-Sands. They were seeded 12th and would go on to win their third Grand Slam title together. In the semifinals they defeated the fifth seeded Russian team of Makarova and Vesnina, who had just defeated Mattek-Sands and Šafářová the month before in the semifinals of the Olympics and gone on to win the gold medal. In the final, Mattek-Sands and Šafářová defeated the French team of Garcia and Mladenovic, who had won the French Open earlier in the year. Šafářová and Mattek-Sands would team up to win two more tournaments in 2016, Wuhan and Beijing. Their performance during the season qualified them for the WTA Finals, where they made the finals, but lost to Makarova and Vesnina. Šafářová ended the year ranked sixth in doubles. 2017: Australian and French Open doubles champion and world No. 1 in doubles In Hobart, Šafářová defeated Viktorija Golubic in the first round, but then she lost to qualifier Risa Ozaki. At the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Yanina Wickmayer in the first round, after defending nine match points. In the second round, she lost to eventual champion Serena Williams. In doubles, Šafářová and Mattek-Sands won their fourth Grand Slam title, defeating Andrea Hlaváčková and Peng Shuai in the final. Šafářová reached the semifinals in Taipei, where she lost to Peng. She played for the Czech Republic in the Fed Cup quarterfinals against Spain in a dead rubber alongside Kateřina Siniaková. They lost to María José Martínez Sánchez and Sara Sorribes Tormo. In Budapest, Šafářová lost in the final to Tímea Babos. These two players were the top seeds of the tournament. They also partnered in doubles, where they withdrew before the semifinal match. Šafářová and Mattek-Sands would continue their doubles success in the spring. They won at Charleston and then won another Grand Slam title at the French Open. Šafářová would not have as much success in singles during this time. She lost in the first round at the French and then in the second round at Wimbledon. Also at Wimbledon, Mattek-Sands injured her knee in a singles match causing the duo to withdraw from the tournament after winning a first round match. At the US Open, Šafářová defeated Anett Kontaveit, Nao Hibino and Kurumi Nara, before losing to CoCo Vandeweghe in the fourth round. 2018: Struggles with injuries and health Šafářová started the new season in Sydney. In singles, she lost in the first round to Angelique Kerber. In doubles, she played alongside Barbora Strýcová. They withdrew before their semifinal match against Gabriela Dabrowski and Xu Yifan. At the Australian Open, Šafářová defeated Ajla Tomljanović and Sorana Cîrstea, before losing to Karolína Plíšková in the third round. In doubles, Šafářová and Strýcová lost in the quarterfinals to Hsieh Su-wei and Peng Shuai. In Wimbledon, she defeated Bondarenko and Radwańska, losing in the third round to Makarova in three sets. Playing doubles with Mattek-Sands, they were losing in the quarterfinals. In Montreal, Šafářová lost in second round to Julia Görges. In doubles with Mattek-Sands, they lost in the first round to Ashleigh Barty and Demi Schuurs. 2019: Retirement On 10 November 2018, Šafářová announced she would retire from the singles and doubles at the Australian Open. She stated, the decision was based on her health issues. However, on 4 January 2019, she announced that due to body ailments, she would be pulling out of the Australian Open and her farewell tournament would come at a later date. In March 2019, she stated her final tournament would be at the Prague Open. However, she later announced that she would retire at the 2019 French Open. She partnered there with Dominika Cibulková, and they lost in the first round 4–6, 0–6 to Sofia Kenin and Andrea Petkovic. Personal life Šafářová speaks besides Czech also German and English. Her ex-partners are Tomáš Berdych, Kristián Bajza, Troy Hahn, Nicholas Tzekos and Jakub Lustyk. On 4 July 2019, Šafářová posted on her Instagram that she was excited to be expecting a baby with former NHL player Tomáš Plekanec. She announced the birth of her daughter later that year. Career statistics Grand Slam tournament performance timelines Singles Doubles Grand Slam tournament finals Singles: 1 (runner-up) Doubles: 5 (5 titles) Tour Championships finals Doubles: 1 (runner-up) References External links Official website 1987 births Living people Sportspeople from Brno People from Monte Carlo Czech female tennis players Hopman Cup competitors Olympic tennis players of the Czech Republic Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics Australian Open (tennis) champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles French Open champions US Open (tennis) champions Czech expatriates in Monaco Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics Olympic medalists in tennis Olympic bronze medalists for the Czech Republic

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Jonathan King (born Kenneth George King, 6 December 1944) is an English singer, songwriter and record producer. He first came to prominence in 1965 when "Everyone's Gone to the Moon", a song that he wrote and sang while still an undergraduate, achieved chart success. As an independent producer, he discovered and named the rock band Genesis in 1967, producing their first album From Genesis to Revelation. He founded his own label UK Records in 1972. He released and produced songs for 10cc and the Bay City Rollers. In the 1970s King became known for hits that he performed and/or produced under different names, including "Johnny Reggae", "Loop di Love", "Sugar, Sugar", "Hooked on a Feeling", "Una Paloma Blanca" and "It Only Takes a Minute"; between September 1971 and 1972 alone he produced 10 top 30 singles in the UK. Rod Liddle, in 2010, described him as "truly talented" and someone who could "storm the pop charts at will, under a hundred different disguises". The Guardian reported in 2002 that he had sold over 40 million records during his career. While living in New York in the 1980s, King appeared on radio and television in the UK, including on the BBC's Top of the Pops and Entertainment USA. In the early 1990s he produced the Brit Awards, and from 1995 he selected and produced the British entries for the Eurovision Song Contest, including the winning entry in 1997, "Love Shine a Light" by Katrina and the Waves. In September 2001, King was convicted of child sexual abuse and sentenced to seven years in prison for having sexually assaulted five boys, aged 14 and 15, in the 1980s. In November 2001, he was acquitted of 22 similar charges. He was released on parole in March 2005. A further trial for sexual offences against teenage boys resulted in several not guilty verdicts and the trial being abandoned in June 2018. Early life Family background King was born in a nursing home in Bentinck Street, Marylebone, London, the first child of Jimmy King (d. 1954 age 42) and his wife, Ailsa Linley Leon (1916–2007 age 91), a former actress. Originally from New Jersey, Jimmy King had moved to England when he was 14. He attended Oundle School and Trinity College, Cambridge, before joining the American Field Service during World War II and later Tootal Ties and Shirts as managing director. King's birth was a forceps delivery and a muscle on his upper lip was affected during it, giving him his slightly crooked smile. After he was born, the family lived in Gloucester Place, Marylebone, then moved to Surrey, where King and his younger brothers, James and Anthony ("Andy"), were raised in Brookhurst Grange, a mansion near Ewhurst. Stoke House and Charterhouse King was sent to boarding school, first as a weekly boarder to pre-prep school in Hindhead, Surrey, then, when he was eight, to Stoke House Preparatory School in Seaford, East Sussex. A year later, in 1954, after his father died from a heart attack, Brookhurst Grange was sold and the family moved to Cobbetts, a cottage in nearby Forest Green. Music became his passion around this time. King would save his pocket money for train trips to London to watch My Fair Lady, The King and I, Irma la Douce, Salad Days, Damn Yankees and Kismet from the cheap seats in the balcony. He also discovered pop music and bought his first single, Guy Mitchell's "Singing the Blues" (1956). In 1958, King became a boarder at Charterhouse in Godalming, Surrey. He wrote that he "loved Charterhouse immediately", with its history and "every possible area of encouragement from sport to intellectual pursuits." Unlike at Stoke House, there were other boys there who appreciated pop music. He bought a transistor radio and earphones and joined the "under the bedclothes" club, listening to Tony Hall, Jimmy Savile, Don Moss and Pete Murray on Radio Luxembourg, and keeping track of the New Musical Express charts. The music, particularly Buddy Holly, Adam Faith, Roy Orbison and Gene Pitney, made him "ache with desire": Since "It Doesn't Matter Anymore" swept me off my feet, I had become a raving pop addict, desperate for a fix every few seconds. I kept thick notebooks packed with copies of the weekly charts, adverts for new products, pages of predictions of future hits, reviews and comments about current artistes. Looking at them now, there was no way I could ever have avoided a future in the music industry. Gap year King left Charterhouse in 1962 to attend Davies's, a London crammer, for his A levels. With his wages from a job stacking shelves in a supermarket, he made a demo of himself the following year singing "It Doesn't Matter Anymore" and "Fool's Paradise" Eden Kane song with the Ted Taylor Trio, a professional group in Rickmansworth. Wearing a pinstripe suit and trainers, he approached John Schroeder of Oriole Records and told him he could make a hit record. "I have been studying the music industry for the last three years and it is one big joke," Schroeder reported him as saying. "Anyone can make it if they're clever and can fool a few people." After hearing King's demo, Schroeder booked a studio session with an orchestra but suspected that King could not sing in tune. King also joined a local band in Cranleigh, the Bumblies, as manager/producer and occasional singer, sometimes wearing thigh-length boots and long black gloves, during the band's appearances at birthday parties and similar. Despite the cramming, King failed the scholarship exam for Trinity College, Cambridge, but he was offered a place in 1963 after an interview. He accepted, but first took a gap year and spent six months travelling with a round-the-world ticket from his mother. Staying mostly in youth hostels, he visited Greece, the Middle East, Asia, Australia and the United States, including Hawaii, where, in June 1964, he met the manager of the Beatles, Brian Epstein. They spent hours together in Honolulu discussing the music industry, King wrote. In October that year King began to study for his degree in English literature at Cambridge, lodging in Jesus Lane. Career Early success Around the time King began at Cambridge, the Bumblies (featuring Terry Ward) recorded a song he had written and produced, "Gotta Tell", which King persuaded Fontana Records to release. It appeared in April 1965 and "rightly sank without trace", King writes, but the experience of taking it from label to label, and then trying to find people to play it, taught him how to promote a record. He called DJs and television producers to ask them to listen to it and, because it was Easter, delivered hundreds of vinyl singles to music critics complete with Easter eggs he had painted himself. King and the Bumblies recorded another of his songs, "All You've Gotta Do", with producer Joe Meek, but nothing came of it. Keen to break into the music business, King contacted Tony Hall of Decca Records, who put him in touch with The Zombies' producers Ken Jones and Joe Roncoroni. King played them one of his songs, "Green is the Grass", and they asked him to write a B side. He offered them six songs, including "Everyone's Gone to the Moon", which became the A side. They also suggested he change his name. Decca released "Everyone's Gone to the Moon" in August 1965. Relying on the contacts he had made while promoting "Gotta Tell", King plugged it relentlessly to radio stations to get it on their playlists. DJ Tony Windsor of Radio London, a pirate station broadcast from the MV Galaxy, was the first to play it, not only once, but three times in a row. (Windsor later said he did this only because of a problem with his other turntable.) It sold 26,000 copies the next day. When the song made number 18 in the charts, King was invited onto the BBC's Top of the Pops. The following day it sold 35,000 copies. It peaked at number four in the UK (the Beatles were at number one with "Help!") and 17 in the US, and was awarded a gold disc. Nina Simone, Bette Midler, and Marlene Dietrich all covered it. Dietrich sang "Everyone's Gone to the Moon" and its B side, "Summer's Coming", at the Golders Green Hippodrome in October 1966, with an arrangement by Burt Bacharach. The single reached No. 17 in the US Billboard Hot 100 and was one of the songs carried on the Apollo 11 moon mission. In 2019, the track was included in the soundtrack of the Hollywood film In The Shadow of the Moon over the closing credits. From his second year at university, King split his time between Cambridge and London, moving into a three-bedroom apartment, owned by his mother, at 20 St Andrews Mansions, Dorset Street, Marylebone, driving there from classes in his white MGB GT. His next release, "Green is the Grass", flopped, but the third (which he wrote and produced, but did not perform), "It's Good News Week" by Hedgehoppers Anonymous, was a hit. It was released in September 1965 through Decca and credited to King and his new publishing company, JonJo Music Co. Ltd, which was named after King, Ken Jones and Joe Roncoroni and based in Jones' and Roncoroni's office at 37 Soho Square. Briefly banned by the BBC because of its lyrics about birth control, the song made the top five in the UK and top 50 in America. Also in 1965, King began contributing a column to Disc and Music Echo, a weekly magazine edited by Ray Coleman. King adopted a deliberately provocative style, promoting new acts but also publishing criticism of the music industry and particular artists. Michael Wale described him as "the butterfly who stamped its foot". Discovery of Genesis In early 1967, King attended an old boys' reunion at Charterhouse School. He said he went there to show off, "oust[ing] Baden Powell as their most famous Old Boy." When they heard he was going to be there, a school band recorded a demo tape for him, and a friend, John Alexander, left the cassette in King's car with a note, "These are Charterhouse boys. Have a listen". Calling themselves Anon, the band consisted at that point of Peter Gabriel, Tony Banks, Anthony Phillips, Chris Stewart and Mike Rutherford, then all aged 15 to 17. King liked several songs such as "She is Beautiful" (which became "The Serpent" on the band's first album) and, according to Philips, they got the deal with King on the basis of that song. King signed the band to JonJo Music and licensed the short-term rights to Decca Records. He paid them £40 for four songs, and came up with their name, Genesis, to mark the start of his own career as a serious record producer. According to Phillips, King was "hugely patient and indulgent" with the band. John Silver, drummer on the first album, wrote in 2007: We would be pretending to rehearse or simply waiting around and somehow somebody would bring a message to the flat, "Quick, get over to Jonathan King's flat, because Paul McCartney's turning up." We would scurry over as quickly as possible because the art was to be there, looking casual, before the next famous person arrived, so that Jonathan King could say, "Hey, these are my new protégés." I trusted him as a god, because he knew these people. It wasn't celebrity like it is now. There were only a few famous people and he knew them. If Jonathan said jump or stand backwards or stand on your head, basically you did it. This was the nature of the relationship; he was completely omnipotent, in a decent way. King produced their first three singles, including "The Silent Sun" (1968) and an album, From Genesis to Revelation (1969). Banks and Gabriel wrote "The Silent Sun" as a late-1960s Bee Gees "pastiche" to please King; Robin Gibb's voice was apparently King's favourite at the time. The records made little impact; the album sold just 649 copies "and we knew all of those people personally," wrote Banks. King slowly lost interest in the band. Their next demo was even less "poppy"; the more complicated the songs, the less King liked them. Genesis left King in 1970 for Tony Stratton-Smith's Charisma Records, were joined by Phil Collins and Steve Hackett—and, after another two unsuccessful albums, released Foxtrot (1972) to critical acclaim. King retained the rights to the first album and re-released it several times under different titles. Rutherford said in 1985 that, "for all his faults", King had given the band an opportunity to record, which at that time was hard to come by. Broadcasting, Decca Records When King graduated from Cambridge in June 1967, the press covered his graduation ceremony: "Jonathan King becomes M.A. (Cantab.)". Shortly afterwards Tony Firth, an ATV producer and Trinity graduate, asked King to present Good Evening, a weekly television show that ran nationally on ATV at 6:30 pm on Saturdays from October 1967 to 1968. The following year he began broadcasting for BBC Radio 1, including a "blast off" slot on the Stuart Henry show. Tired of living in the Dorset Street apartment, King bought a three-storey mews house near Porchester Terrace, Bayswater, in which he still lived as of 2019, for £18,650. Around this time, he was recruited by Sir Edward Lewis of Decca Records, and another Trinity graduate, to be his unpaid (expenses only) personal assistant. King writes that Lewis recruited him twice for this position, once not long after graduation and again in the late 1970s. Early 1970s "It's Good News Week" (1965) was the last big hit King had for four years. Then his cover of "Let It All Hang Out" (1969) made the top 30 in January 1970, and he went on to become the top singles producer of 1971 and 1972, beginning with "It's the Same Old Song". Released by B&C Records in December 1970 under a pseudonym, the Weathermen, it moved into the charts a month later. Using pseudonyms meant more airtime: radio producers might play several songs by the same artist during a programme without realizing they had devoted so much airtime to one person. King's 1971 releases included a version of Bob Dylan's "Baby, You've Been On My Mind", released as Nemo, which failed to chart; The Sun Has Got His Hat On, also as Nemo; "Sugar, Sugar" as Sakkarin; "Leap Up and Down (Wave Your Knickers in the Air)" by St Cecelia (this one a real band, rather than a pseudonym), which went to number 12; and "Lazy Bones", "Flirt" and "Hooked on a Feeling" – all released under his own name. Bell Records asked King to produce four songs for the Bay City Rollers, including their first hit, "Keep on Dancing", on which King sang the 13 backing vocals himself. Released in May 1971, the single reached number nine. "Hooked on a Feeling", a country song that King had turned into a pop hit, adding "ooga chaka ooga ooga" to the intro, was a Top Thirty hit. King's arrangement later gave Swedish group Blue Swede a US number one in April 1974. The arrangement featured in Reservoir Dogs (1992), at least one episode of Ally McBeal, where it provided the music for the Dancing Baby (1998), and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), although King writes that he made no money from the Blue Swede version. Years later the track still garners coverage. Another top three 1971 hit was "Johnny Reggae", a ska pop song about a skinhead, written by King after he was introduced to a Johnny Reggae at the Walton Hop disco in Surrey. It was sung by King and middle-aged session singers pretending to be teenagers, credited to The Piglets and released by Bell. John Stratton writes that "Johnny Reggae" was the "first British hit with a ska beat to have been written by a white Englishman ... and performed by white English singers and musicians." While, according to Lloyd Bradley, the BBC was reluctant to play reggae by black Jamaican artists, "Johnny Reggae", which Bradley described as "lamentable [and] audibly jarring", reached number three in the UK in November 1971 (when Slade's "Coz I Luv You" was number one) and stayed in the top 50 for 12 weeks. It has been reported that, under various different names and in assorted formats, he sold around 40 million records. UK records In 1972, King founded the UK Records label which was distributed by Decca and later PolyGram in the UK and London Records in the US. Chris Denning left Bell to run the UK office and Fred Ruppert, formerly of Elektra Records, the US office. Don Wardell then took over the US office, Denning left and Wardell moved back to run the UK company. King's brother Andy was hired in 1974 as the promotion manager. Clive Selwood, who had helmed John Peel's label Dandelion, then took over as manager. The label's first hit was "Seaside Shuffle" by Terry Dactyl and the Dinosaurs, followed by King's "Loop di Love", which reached number four, released under the pseudonym Shag. Other signings included Ricky Wilde, then 11 years old and promoted to fill the gap later taken by Donny Osmond, a potential David Cassidy, Simon Turner, Roy C, the First Class and Lobo. The label also released King's cover of "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" (1974) under the name Bubblerock, described as a "Grateful Dead"-style country version", which met the approval of Mick Jagger. In June 1973, after seeing The Rocky Horror Show on its second night, King invested a 20% stake in it, making him one of its two original backers, along with Michael White, and produced and released The Rocky Horror Show Original London Cast. The label's most significant signing was 10cc. Eric Stewart, one of the band members, had known King since 1965, when Stewart was with The Mindbenders and King had wanted to manage them. The band had planned to release "Donna" as a B side, but decided it could be a hit: "We only knew of one person who was mad enough to release it," Stewart said, "and that was Jonathan King." King gave the band its name and released two of the group's albums (10cc and Sheet Music) and eight singles. "Donna" (1972) and "Rubber Bullets" (1973), reached number two and one respectively, followed by "The Dean and I" (1973) and "The Wall Street Shuffle" (1974). The band only dented the American market, with "Rubber Bullets" making 73 on the Billboard Hot 100. 10cc left UK Records in 1975 for Mercury Records, after which they achieved success in America, particularly with "I'm Not in Love" (1975). Move to New York In April 1978, King stood for parliament as an independent in the Epsom and Ewell by-election, calling himself the Royalist party. He gained 2,350 votes. A year later he decided to leave the music industry and closed UK Records. He wrote to the charts committee of the British Phonographic Industry in August 1979 alleging that the lower levels of the charts reflected "clever promotion and marketing rather than good records", and suggesting that only information about the top 30 should be made available. The idea was that this would force programmers to base their airplay decisions on something other than the lower charts. The UK Records New York office on 57th Street was turned into an apartment, and King set about building a new career in writing and broadcasting. He was given a weekly five-minute slot on BBC Radio 1 called "A King in New York", a "Postcard from America" slot in Radio 4, and he reported for Radio 1 on the 1980 presidential election. In December 1980, watching television in bed, he heard there had been a shooting outside the Dakota Apartments. He called and woke up BBC producer Tom Brook, who was living in New York; Brook became the first to announce to the UK that John Lennon had died. Throughout 1980 and 1981 King presented a radio talk show on New York's WMCA from 10–12 weekday mornings, and regularly reported from the United States on Top of the Pops. He devised and hosted a spinoff series, Entertainment USA, broadcast on BBC 2, which was nominated for a BAFTA in 1987. He also created and produced No Limits, a youth programme. His first novel, Bible Two, was published in 1982. It tells the story of a window dresser in "Selfishes" who inherits his family's millions. He was also hired by Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, to write a weekly column, "Bizarre USA", which began in February 1985 and continued for eight years. He continued with several music projects, including with the hard-rock supergroup Gogmagog, which released an EP, I Will Be There (1985). Brit Awards, Eurovision Song Contest In 1987, King hosted the Brit Awards for the BBC, and from 1990 to 1992 was the event's producer. He resigned just after the 1992 show because he and the British Phonographic Industry, which runs the awards, disagreed about the show's format. The following year he founded The Tip Sheet (1993–2002), a weekly trade magazine promoting new acts. King's media work included finding and producing the Eurovision Song Contest entrant for the BBC from 1995. He selected several songs for them. Love City Groove's song, "Love City Groove", came tenth in 1995. Gina G's "Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit" came eighth the following year, and was number one in the UK. "Love Shine A Light" by Katrina and the Waves came first in 1997. His entry for 1998, when the UK hosted the event in Birmingham, was by Imaani and came second. His writing continued. His second novel, The Booker Prize Winner, was published that year. He was involved in finding and promoting the Chumbawamba hit "Tubthumping" (1997), which made number two, and the Baha Men's number one hit, "Who Let the Dogs Out?" (2000) which he first released under the name Fat Jakk and his Pack of Pets. In October 1997, King received a Music Industry Trusts Award at a dinner held in his honour at the Grosvenor House Hotel in London. A video tribute to him featured Guy Mitchell, Ozzy Osbourne, The Moody Blues and Hanson. The following year he devised The Record of the Year, produced by his Tip Sheet and London Weekend Television, a show in which the public voted for the year's best single. In 2000 Nigel Lythgoe, executive producer of the new Popstars talent show, considered hiring King as anchor of its judging panel, but he turned it down. Lythgoe took the position himself. King reportedly turned down the chance to manage the KLF. 2001 trials In September 2001, King was convicted, after a two-week trial at the Old Bailey, on four counts of indecent assault, one of buggery and one of attempted buggery, committed between 1983 and 1987 against five boys aged 14 and 15. In a second trial, he was found not guilty after an alleged victim (someone King denied having ever met) acknowledged that he could have been 16 or older at the time. Three further trials that had been scheduled were ordered abandoned. King continued to maintain his innocence throughout, protesting, among other things, that the lack of a statute of limitations in the UK for sex offences meant he had been unable to defend himself adequately because of the many years that had passed. The National Criminal Intelligence Service had begun investigating King for child sexual abuse in 2000, when a man told them he had been assaulted by King and others 30 years earlier. The man had originally approached publicist Max Clifford, himself later jailed in 2014 for sexual assault; Clifford told him that he should go to the police. King was arrested in November that year and bailed on £150,000, £50,000 of which was put up by Simon Cowell. He was arrested again in January 2001 on further allegations. 27 men told police that King had sexually assaulted them during the period 1969–1989. Police found pictures of teenagers in a search of King's home. King admitted having approached thousands of people with questionnaires about youth interests, doing market research. The questionnaires asked recipients to list topics according to importance including music, sport, friends and family; the prosecution claimed that boys who listed sex high in their list of priorities were then targeted by King. After the second trial at the Old Bailey on 21 November 2001, Judge David Paget QC sentenced King to seven years in prison using the first trial verdict as a sample for "all previous sexual behaviour". In addition, King was placed on the Sex Offenders Register, prohibited from working with children, and ordered to pay £14,000 costs. In 2003, the Court of Appeal rejected his application to appeal both the conviction and the sentence; he had argued that the conviction was unsafe and the sentence, with guidelines of two years, had been "manifestly too severe". He appealed twice unsuccessfully to the Criminal Cases Review Commission, and was released on parole in March 2005, strongly proclaiming his innocence. King has complained about his media coverage since his 2001 conviction. In 2005, he went to the Press Complaints Commission about an article in the News of the World that said he had gone to a park to "ogle" boys. In fact he had gone there at the request of a documentary maker. The complaint was not upheld, but Roy Greenslade argued that King had a good case. In October 2011, then-BBC Director-General Mark Thompson apologised to King for the removal of King's performance of "It Only Takes a Minute" from a repeat, on BBC Four, of a 1976 episode of Top of the Pops. King described the cut as a "Stalinist revision approach to history". When asked by a newspaper in 2012 if he believed he had anything to apologise for, to anybody from his past, King replied, "The only apology I have is to say that I was good at seduction. I was good at making myself seem attractive when I wasn't very attractive at all". He appeared in front of the Leveson Inquiry. On 20 June 2020, King posted on Twitter a photo of a letter from the Metropolitan Police, confirming that he had been removed from the Sex Offenders Register the previous day. After prison Journalist Robert Chalmers wrote that King's creative output after he left prison "resembled a primal scream of rage". Two novels appeared: Beware the Monkey Man (2010), under the pen name Rex Kenny, and Death Flies, Missing Girls and Brigitte Bardot (2013), under his real name, Kenneth George King. He also published a diary, Three Months (2012), and two volumes of his autobiography, Jonathan King 65: My Life So Far (2009) and 70 FFFY (2014). King maintained an interest in prison issues and writes a column for Inside Time, the national newspaper for prisoners. He released Earth to King in 2008. One of the new songs on the album, "The True Story of Harold Shipman" was about the serial killer Dr. Harold Shipman, in which King suggested that Shipman may have been a victim of the media. He also produced three films. Vile Pervert: The Musical (2008), available for free download, is a 96-minute film in which King plays all 21 parts and presents his version of events surrounding his prosecution. He portrays his viewpoint of the events responsible for his troubles. In one scene King, dressed as Oscar Wilde, sings that there is "nothing wrong with buggering boys". Rod Liddle in The Spectator called it "a fantastically berserk, bravado performance". Me Me Me (2011) was described at the Cannes Film Festival as "a re-telling of Romeo and Juliet". The Pink Marble Egg (2013) is a spy story; for publicity King drove down the Promenade de la Croisette in Cannes with a pink papier-mâché egg on top of his Rolls Royce during the Cannes Film Festival. 2018 trial In August 2015, King wrote an article for The Spectator magazine concerning Sir Edward Heath, the subject of the now-discredited Operation Midland. In September 2015, King was arrested as part of Operation Ravine, a further investigation into claims of sexual abuse at the Walton Hop disco in the 1970s. He was later released on bail. On 25 May 2017, he was charged by Surrey Police with 18 sexual offences, relating to nine boys aged between 14 and 16, allegedly carried out between 1970 and 1986. He was released on bail and appeared at Westminster Magistrates' Court on 26 June, where he was released on conditional bail to appear at Southwark Crown Court on 31 July. His trial began on 11 June 2018, and on 27 June the jury was discharged for legal reasons. On 6 August 2018, King received an apology for the collapse of the trial, with Judge Deborah Taylor saying that Surrey Police had made "numerous, repeated and compounded" errors during the investigation, describing the situation as a "debacle". In her ruling she said "I have concluded that this is a case where even if it were possible to have a fair trial, it is in the rare category where the balance, taking account of the history, the failures and misleading of the Court, is in favour of a stay on the basis that following what has occurred, continuation would undermine public confidence in the administration of justice". Taylor said that the case against King had been motivated by "concerns about reputational damage to Surrey Police" following the allegations of sexual abuse against Jimmy Savile. Surrey Police "wholeheartedly apologised" to King, saying: "We deeply regret that despite these efforts we did not meet the required standards to ensure a fair trial." King refused to accept the apology, and criticised Surrey Police for "deep, institutional faults". He urged both the Chief Constable and the Police and Crime Commissioner to go. After the "debacle", as Judge Taylor described the 2018 trial, many respected commentators started to question the verdict of the 2001 trial including Bob Woffinden in his book The Nicholas Cases and Daniel Finkelstein in The Times; the Criminal Cases Review Commission announced it was reopening an investigation into it, after fresh evidence emerged during the 2018 prosecution. In August 2019, Chief Constable Stephens, who had replaced Ephgrave, announced that, in the year since King's acquittal, the Surrey Police success rate for convictions in sex abuse cases had dropped from 20% to "under 4%". On 22 November 2019, an independent review into the police investigation leading to the trial was published. It was critical of the handling of disclosure of documents to King's defence prior to the trial, and questioned whether some of the staff involved had been qualified or experienced enough to handle the case. In 2020, King's complaint to the Independent Office for Police Conduct (IOPC) about Surrey Police's Professional Standards Department's examination of the handling of Operation Ravine was upheld. His appeal to the Criminal Cases Review Commission (CCRC) regarding the 2001 conviction is still being examined after fresh evidence was disclosed in 2018. The new Director General of the BBC confirmed that King was welcome to appear on the network. Selected works Singles discography As performer As producer Books (1982) Bible Two: A Novel According to Jonathan King, London: W. H. Allen/Virgin Books. (1997) The Booker Prize Winner, London: Blake Publishing. (2009) 65: My Life So Far, London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd. (2010) Beware the Monkey Man (as Rex Kenny), London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd. (2012) Three Months: 100 Glorious Sunny Days in the Summer of 2012. A Diary, London: Kingofhits.com. (2013) Death Flies, Missing Girls and Brigitte Bardot (as Kenneth George King), Amazon Media. (2014) 70 FFFY, London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd, Amazon Media. (2016) The Spirit Phone (as Kate Genifer), London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd, Amazon Media. (2018) Don't Go In (as KG Jonathan King), London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd, Amazon Media. (2019) Guilty, London: Revvolution Publishing Ltd, Amazon Media. Films (2008) Vile Pervert: The Musical (2011) Me Me Me (2013) The Pink Marble Egg (2019) Guilty Notes References External links King's website Vile Pervert movie website Me Me Me movie website The Pink Marble Egg movie website 1944 births Living people 20th-century English criminals Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge BBC people BBC television presenters English male criminals English people convicted of indecent assault Child sexual abuse in England Criminals from London Decca Records artists English people convicted of child sexual abuse English people of American descent English pop singers English record producers English sex offenders English television presenters Genesis (band) Impresarios LGBT singers from the United Kingdom Parrot Records artists People educated at Charterhouse School Prisoners and detainees of England and Wales English male singer-songwriters The Sun (United Kingdom) people

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The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) was a conflict involving many of the leading European powers that was triggered by the death in November 1700 of the childless Charles II of Spain. It established the principle that dynastic rights were secondary to maintaining the balance of power between different countries. Related conflicts include the 1700–1721 Great Northern War, Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary, the Camisards revolt in southern France, Queen Anne's War in North America and minor struggles in colonial India. Although weakened by over a century of continuous conflict, in 1700 the Spanish Empire remained a global power with its vast dominions including the Spanish Netherlands, large parts of Italy, the Philippines, and much of the Americas. Charles's closest heirs were members of the Austrian Habsburgs or French Bourbons; acquisition of an undivided Spanish Empire by either threatened the European balance of power. Attempts by Louis XIV of France and William III of England to partition the empire in 1698 and 1700 were rejected by the Spanish. Instead, Charles named Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV, as his heir; if he refused, the alternative was Archduke Charles, younger son of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. Having accepted, Philip was proclaimed king of an undivided Spanish Empire on 16 November 1700. The proclamation led to war, with France and Spain on one side and the Grand Alliance on the other to maintain the separation of the Spanish and French thrones. The French held the advantage in the early stages, but were forced onto the defensive after 1706; however, by 1710 the Allies had failed to make any significant progress, while Bourbon victories in Spain had secured Philip's position as king. When Emperor Joseph I died in 1711, Archduke Charles succeeded his brother as emperor, and the new British government initiated peace talks. Since only British subsidies kept their allies in the war, this resulted in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, followed by the 1714 Treaties of Rastatt and Baden. Philip was confirmed as king of Spain in return for renouncing the right of himself or his descendants to inherit the French throne; the Spanish Empire remained largely intact, but ceded territories in Italy and the Low Countries to Austria and Savoy. Britain retained Gibraltar and Menorca which it captured during the war, acquired significant trade concessions in the Spanish Americas, and replaced the Dutch as the leading maritime and commercial European power. The Dutch gained a strengthened defence line in what was now the Austrian Netherlands; although they remained a major commercial power, the cost of the war permanently damaged their economy. France withdrew backing for the exiled Jacobites and recognised the Hanoverians as heirs to the British throne; ensuring a friendly Spain was a major achievement, but left them financially exhausted. The decentralisation of the Holy Roman Empire continued, with Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony increasingly acting as independent states. Combined with victories over the Ottomans, this meant the Austrian Habsburgs increasingly switched their focus to southern Europe. Background In 1665, Charles II of Spain succeeded his father at the age of four. However, as he suffered from ill-health all his life, Charles II's own death was anticipated almost from birth, and the issue of his successor a matter of diplomatic debate for decades. In 1670, England agreed to support the rights of Louis XIV to the Spanish throne in the Treaty of Dover, while the terms of the 1688 Grand Alliance committed England and the Dutch Republic to back Leopold. In 1700, the Spanish Empire included possessions in Italy, the Spanish Netherlands, the Philippines and the Americas, and though no longer the dominant great power, it remained largely intact. Since acquisition by either the Austrian Habsburgs or French Bourbons would change the balance of power, its inheritance led to a war that involved most of Europe. The 1700–1721 Great Northern War is considered a connected conflict, for it impacted the involvement of states such as Sweden, Saxony, Denmark–Norway and Russia. During the 1688–1697 Nine Years' War, armies grew from an average of 25,000 in 1648 to over 100,000 by 1697, a level unsustainable for pre-industrial economies. The 1690s also marked the lowest point of the Little Ice Age, a period of colder and wetter weather that drastically reduced crop yields across Europe. It is estimated the Great Famine of 1695–1697 killed 15–25% of the population in present-day Scotland, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway, and Sweden, plus another two million in France and Northern Italy. The 1697 Treaty of Ryswick was the result of mutual exhaustion and Louis' acceptance France could not achieve its objectives without allies. Since the succession was left unresolved, Leopold signed only with extreme reluctance in October 1697; it was clear Charles would never produce an heir and a resumption of hostilities appeared inevitable. Partition treaties Unlike the crowns of France or Austria, that of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters Maria Theresa (1638–1683) and Margaret Theresa (1651–1673) to pass their rights onto the children of their respective marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. Louis sought to avoid conflict over the issue through direct negotiation with his main opponent William III of England, while excluding the Spanish. Maria Antonia (1669–1692), daughter of Leopold and Margaret, married Maximillian Emanuel of Bavaria in 1685, and on 28 October 1692, they had a son, Joseph Ferdinand. Under the October 1698 Treaty of the Hague between France, Britain and the Dutch Republic, five-year old Joseph was designated heir to Charles II; in return, France and Austria would receive parts of Spain's European territories. Charles refused to accept this; on 14 November 1698, he published a will leaving an undivided Spanish monarchy to Joseph Ferdinand. However, the latter's death from smallpox in February 1699 undid these arrangements. In 1685, Maria Antonia passed her claim to the Spanish throne onto Leopold's sons, Joseph and Archduke Charles. Her right to do so was doubtful, but Louis and William used this to devise the 1700 Treaty of London. Archduke Charles became the new heir, while France, Savoy and Austria received territorial compensation; however, since neither Leopold or Charles agreed, the treaty was largely pointless. By early October 1700, Charles was clearly dying; his final will left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou; if he refused, the offer would pass to his younger brother the Duke of Berry, followed by Archduke Charles. Charles died on 1 November 1700, and on the 9th, Spanish ambassadors formally offered the throne to Philip. Louis briefly considered refusing; although it meant the succession of Archduke Charles, insisting William help him enforce the Treaty of London meant he might achieve his territorial aims without fighting. However, his son the Dauphin rejected the idea; French diplomats also advised Austria would fight regardless, while neither the British or Dutch would go to war for a settlement intended to avoid war. Louis therefore accepted on behalf of his grandson, who was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700. Prelude to war With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made a series of moves that combined to make war inevitable. The Tory majority in the English Parliament objected to the Partition Treaties, chiefly the French acquisition of Sicily, an important link in the lucrative Levant trade. However, a foreign diplomat observed their refusal to become involved in a European war was true 'only so long as English commerce does not suffer.' Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition. In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to the French throne with the Paris Parlement, raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will. In February, the Spanish-controlled Duchies of Milan and Mantua in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in Swabia and Franconia, these were challenges Leopold could not ignore. Helped by the Viceroy, Max Emanuel of Bavaria, French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in the 'Barrier' fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, granted at Ryswick. It also threatened the monopoly over the Scheldt granted by the 1648 Peace of Münster, while French control of Antwerp and Ostend would allow them to blockade the English Channel at will. Combined with other French actions that threatened English trade, this produced a clear majority for war and in May 1701, Parliament urged William to negotiate an anti-French alliance. On 7 September, Leopold, the Dutch Republic and Britain signed the Treaty of The Hague renewing the 1689 Grand Alliance. Its provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but did not refer to placing Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne. When the exiled James II of England died on 16 September 1701, Louis reneged on his recognition of the Protestant William III as king of England and Scotland and supported the claim of James' son, James Francis Edward Stuart. War became inevitable and when William himself died in March 1702, his successor Queen Anne confirmed her support for the Treaty of the Hague. The Dutch did the same and on 15 May the Grand Alliance declared war on France, followed by the Imperial Diet on 30 September. General strategic drivers The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often underestimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by a desire for access to the American markets. Modern economists generally assume a constantly growing market, but the then-dominant theory of Mercantilism viewed it as relatively static. Increasing one's share implied taking it from someone else, and the government's role was to restrict foreign competition by attacking merchant ships and colonies. This expanded the war to North America, India, and other parts of Asia, with tariffs used as a policy weapon. From 1690 to 1704, English import duties on foreign goods increased by 400%, and the 1651–1663 Navigation Acts were a major factor in the Anglo-Dutch Wars. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods such as cloth, and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others. Armies of the Nine Years' War often exceeded 100,000 men, levels unsustainable for pre-industrial economies; those of 1701–1714 averaged around 35,000 to 50,000. Dependence on water-borne transport for supplying these numbers meant campaigns were focused on rivers like the Rhine and Adda, which limited operations in poor areas like Northern Spain. Better logistics, unified command, and simpler internal lines of communication gave Bourbon armies an advantage over their opponents. Strategic objectives by participant Britain (England and Scotland pre-1707) British foreign policy was based on three general principles, which remained consistent from the 16th through the 20th centuries. First and overriding all others, preserve a balance of power in Europe, which was threatened by French expansion under Louis XIV. Second, prevent the Low Countries being controlled by a hostile power or one stronger than Britain; this included both the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, whose deep harbours and prevailing winds made her a natural embarkation point for an attack on England, as demonstrated in 1688. Third, maintain a navy strong enough to protect British trade, control her waters and launch attacks on her enemies' commercial routes and coastal areas. Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession for the British throne masked differences on how to achieve them. In general, the Tories favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the Royal Navy to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others. The Whigs argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential, while Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France. Dutch Republic Although the English Duke of Marlborough was Allied commander in the Low Countries, the Dutch provided much of the manpower, and strategy in this theatre was subject to their approval. The 1672 to 1678 Franco-Dutch War showed the Spanish could not defend the Southern Netherlands, and so the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick allowed the Dutch to place garrisons in eight key cities. They hoped this barrier would provide the strategic depth needed to protect their commercial and demographic heartlands around Amsterdam against attack from the south. In the event, they were quickly over-run in 1701, then later in 1748, and modern historians consider the idea fundamentally flawed. However, Dutch priorities were to re-establish and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the economically vital Scheldt estuary, and gain access to trade in the Spanish Empire. Austria / Holy Roman Empire Despite being the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian and Imperial interests did not always coincide. The Habsburgs wanted to put Archduke Charles on the throne of an undivided Spanish Monarchy, while their Allies were fighting to prevent either the Bourbons or the Habsburgs from doing so. This divergence and Austria's financial collapse in 1703 meant the campaign in Spain was reliant on Anglo-Dutch naval support and after 1706, British funding. Particularly during the reign of Joseph I, the priority for the Habsburgs was to secure their southern borders from French intervention in northern Italy and suppress Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary. Much of the Spanish nobility resented what they considered to be the arrogance of the Austrians, a key factor in the selection of Philip as their preferred candidate in 1700. In return for British support, Charles agreed to major commercial concessions within the Empire, as well as accepting British control of Gibraltar and Menorca. These made him widely unpopular at all levels of Spanish society, and he was never able to sustain himself outside the coastal regions, which could be supplied by the Royal Navy. The Wittelsbach-controlled states of Bavaria, Liège, Cologne allied with France, but the vast majority of the Empire remained neutral, or limited their involvement to the supply of mercenaries. Like Bavaria, the larger entities pursued their own policies; his claim to the Polish crown meant Augustus of Saxony focused on the Great Northern War, while Frederick I made his support dependent on Leopold recognising Prussia as a kingdom and making it an equal member of the Grand Alliance. Since George, Elector Hanover was also heir to the British throne, his support was more reliable, but the suspicion remained the interests of Hanover came first. France Under Louis XIV, France was the most powerful state in Europe with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded its rivals. Its geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility; unlike Austria, it had its navy, and as the campaigns of 1708–1710 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The Nine Years' War had shown France could not impose its objectives without support but the alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome far more likely. Apart from denying an undivided Spanish Monarchy to others, Louis's objectives were to secure his borders with the Holy Roman Empire, weaken Austria and increase French commercial strength through access to the trade of the Americas. Spain In 1700, Spain remained a great power in terms of territory controlled, while recent research shows imports of bullion from the Americas actually reached their highest level between 1670 and 1700. However, this concealed major structural weaknesses; the vast majority of these imports were used to fund debt or pay foreign merchants. When the new Bourbon administration took over in 1701, they found the Empire bankrupt and effectively defenceless, with fewer than 15,000 troops in Spain itself and a navy consisting of 20 ships in total. Almost constant warfare during the 17th century made the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression, and largely reliant upon others for its prosperity. In many ways, the continued existence of the Empire was not due to Spanish strength but to maintain a balance between the powers competing for a share of its markets. Despite fighting a series of wars against Spain from 1667 to 1697, France was also its most significant economic partner, supplying labour and controlling a large proportion of its foreign trade. This consideration was an important factor in the decision to name Philip heir. Its dependence on others was illustrated in 1703; despite the presence of an invading Allied army, the French ambassador urged Louis to allow Dutch and English merchants to purchase wool from Spanish farmers, "otherwise the flocks cannot be maintained". Enacting political or economic reform was extremely complex since Habsburg Spain was a personal union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon, each with very different political cultures. Most of Philip's support came from the Castilian elite. The Spanish Netherlands had been governed by Bavaria since 1690, while links with Italy, traditionally the major source of Spanish recruits and funding, had been weakened by decades of neglect and heavy taxation. It was widely, if reluctantly, accepted in Madrid that preserving an independent Spanish empire required comprehensive reforms, including elimination of the privileges or Fueros held by the Aragonese states. It was no coincidence Archduke Charles had strong support in areas which were part of the Crown of Aragon, including Catalonia and Valencia. Savoy Over the course of the 17th century, the Savoyard state, generally known as Savoy, sought to replace Spain as the dominant power in Northern Italy. Savoy consisted of two main geographic segments; Piedmont, which contained the capital Turin, and the Duchy of Aosta on the Italian side of the Alps, with the Duchy of Savoy and County of Nice in Transalpine France. The latter were almost impossible to defend and combined with the anti-Habsburg policy pursued by Louis XIV and his predecessors, this meant Savoy generally sided with France. However, Piedmont provided foreign powers access to the restive southern French provinces of the Dauphiné and Vaunage, former Huguenot strongholds with a long history of rebellion. This provided Victor Amadeus II with a degree of leverage, allowing him to manoeuvre between opposing parties in order to expand his territories. During the Nine Years' War in 1690, Savoy joined the Grand Alliance before agreeing a separate peace with France in 1696. The accession of Philip V in 1701 led to a reversal of long-standing strategic policy, with France now supporting the Spanish position in Lombardy, rather than seeking to weaken it, and Austria doing the opposite. While Victor Amadeus initially allied Savoy with France, his long-term goal was the acquisition of Duchy of Milan, which neither the Bourbons or Habsburgs would relinquish voluntarily. In fact, as discussed elsewhere in this article, securing his borders in Italy was of greater concern to Emperor Leopold than Spain itself. This meant Britain was the only power inclined to help Victor Amadeus achieve this objective and he changed sides in 1703 after the Royal Navy won control of the Western Mediterranean. Military campaigns 1701–1708 Italy The war in Italy primarily involved the Spanish-ruled Duchies of Milan and Mantua, considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French troops occupied both cities and Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter Maria Luisa marrying Philip V. In May 1701, an Imperial army under Prince Eugene of Savoy moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at Carpi, Chiari and Cremona forced the French behind the Adda river. Vendôme, one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the Battle of Luzzara but the French recovered most of the territory lost the year before. In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except Turin while victories at Cassano and Calcinato forced the Imperialists into the Trentino valley. However, in July 1706 Vendôme and any available forces were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at Ramillies. Reinforced by German auxiliaries led by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau, Prince Eugene broke the Siege of Turin in September; despite a minor French victory at Castiglione, the war in Italy was over. To the fury of his allies, in the March 1707 Convention of Milan Emperor Joseph gave French troops in Lombardy free passage to Southern France. A combined Savoyard-Imperial attack on the French base of Toulon planned for April was postponed when Imperial troops were diverted to seize the Spanish Bourbon Kingdom of Naples. By the time they besieged Toulon in August, the French were too strong, and they were forced to withdraw. By the end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased, apart from small-scale attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover Nice and Savoy. Low Countries, Rhine and Danube The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria, and Joseph Clemens of Bavaria, ruler of Liège and Cologne. During 1702, the Barrier fortresses were retaken along with Kaiserswerth, Venlo, Roermond and Liège. The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy; they failed to take Antwerp, and the Dutch narrowly escaped defeat at Ekeren in June, which led to bitter recriminations. On the Upper Rhine, Imperial forces under Louis of Baden remained on the defensive, although they took Landau in 1702. Throughout 1703, French victories at Friedlingen, Höchstädt and Speyerbach with the capture of Kehl, Breisach and Landau directly threatened Vienna. In 1704, Franco-Bavarian forces continued their advance with the Austrians struggling to suppress Rákóczi's revolt in Hungary. To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up the Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene, and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at Blenheim on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the Treaty of Ilbersheim placed it under Austrian rule. Allied efforts to exploit their victory in 1705 foundered on poor co-ordination, tactical disputes and command rivalries, while the ruthless rule of Leopold's successor Joseph in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious peasant revolt. In May 1706, an Allied force under Marlborough shattered a French army at the Battle of Ramillies and the Spanish Netherlands fell to the Allies in under two weeks. France assumed a defensive posture for the rest of the war; despite the loss of strongpoints like Lille, they prevented the Allies from making a decisive breach in their frontiers. By 1712, the overall position remained largely unchanged from 1706. Spain and Portugal British involvement was driven by safeguarding their trade routes in the Mediterranean, while by putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, they hoped to gain commercial privileges within the Spanish Empire. The Habsburgs viewed Northern Italy and suppressing the Hungarian revolt as higher priorities, while after 1704 the Dutch focused on Flanders. As a result, this theatre was largely dependent on British naval and military support; high casualties from disease made it a heavy drain on resources, for little apparent benefit. Spain was a union between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon, which was divided into the Principality of Catalonia, plus the Kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, Sicily, Naples and Sardinia. In 1701, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia declared for Philip, while a mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant the others supported Archduke Charles, the most important being Catalonia. Allied victory at Vigo Bay in October 1702 persuaded Peter II of Portugal to switch sides, giving them an operational base in this area. Archduke Charles landed at Lisbon in March 1704 to begin a land campaign, while the British-Dutch capture of Gibraltar was a significant blow to Bourbon prestige. An attempt to retake it was defeated in August, with a land siege being abandoned in April 1705. The 1705 'Pact of Genoa' between Catalan representatives and Britain opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of Barcelona and Valencia left Toulon as the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean. Philip tried to retake Barcelona in May 1706 but was repulsed, while his absence allowed an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and Saragossa. However, lack of popular support and logistical issues meant the Allies could not hold territory away from the coastline, and by November, Philip controlled Castile, Murcia, and parts of Valencia. Allied efforts to regain the initiative ended with defeat at Almansa in April 1707, followed by failure to take Toulon in August. The capture of Menorca in 1708, combined with possession of Gibraltar, gave the British control of the Western Mediterranean, which many considered their primary objective. War beyond Europe and related conflicts The close links between war and trade meant conflict extended beyond Europe, particularly in North America, where it is known as Queen Anne's War, and the West Indies, which produced sugar, then a hugely profitable commodity. Also, there were minor trade conflicts in South America, India, and Asia; the financial strains of war particularly affected the Dutch East India Company, as it was a huge drain on scarce naval resources. Related conflicts include Rákóczi's War of Independence in Hungary, which was funded by France and a serious concern for the Habsburgs throughout the war. In South-Eastern France, Britain funded the Huguenot 1704–1710 Camisard rebellion; one objective of the 1707 campaign in Northern Italy and Southern France was to support this revolt, one of a series that began in the 1620s. No peace without Spain; 1709–1713 By the end of 1708, the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, while the Maritime Powers controlled the Spanish Netherlands, and secured the borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, Britain's Royal Navy had achieved naval supremacy, and acquired permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, as Marlborough himself pointed out, the French frontiers remained largely intact, their army showed no signs of being defeated, while Philip proved far more popular with the Spanish than his rival. Many of the objectives set out by the Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved, but success in 1708 made them overconfident. Diplomacy France viewed the Dutch as the most likely to favour a quick end to the war; Ramillies removed any direct military threat to the Republic, while highlighting differences with Britain on the Spanish Netherlands. Initial peace talks broke down since the Allies had agreed to negotiate jointly, but could not agree terms. Louis re-opened talks after the severe winter of 1708–1709 caused widespread famine in France and Spain, and in May 1709, the Allies presented him with the 'Preliminaries of Hague'. Philip was given two months to cede his throne to Archduke Charles, while France was required to remove him by force if he did not comply. The terms seriously underestimated France's ability to continue the war, assumed Philip would abdicate on request, and required the Spanish to accept Archduke Charles as king, which they were clearly unwilling to do. While Louis was willing to abandon his ambitions in Spain, making war on his grandson was unacceptable; when made public, the terms were considered so offensive that they strengthened French resolve to fight on. Marlborough's 1709 offensive in Northern France resulted in the Battle of Malplaquet on 11 September; although technically an Allied victory, their casualties were appalling with around 24,500 out of 86,000 killed or wounded. The result increased war-weariness in Britain and the Dutch Republic, and showed the fighting abilities of the French army remained intact. Combined with Spanish victories at Alicante in April, and La Gudina in May, chances of a military solution now appeared remote. Shortly after, the Dutch discovered they had been excluded from a commercial agreement signed by Archduke Charles which granted Britain exclusive trading rights in Spanish America. This deepened divisions between the Allies, while increasing Spanish opposition to having the Archduke as their king. When the Whig government in London tried to compensate the Dutch by agreeing concessions in the Spanish Netherlands, they were opposed by their Tory opponents as detrimental to British commerce. The Whigs won the 1708 British general election by arguing military victory was the quickest road to peace, but failure in France was mirrored in Spain. Archduke Charles re-entered Madrid in 1710 after victories in the Battle of Almenar and Battle of Saragossa, but the Allies could not hold the interior and were forced to retreat. 3,500 British troops surrendered at Brihuega on 8 December, and the Battle of Villaviciosa on 10 December confirmed Bourbon control of Spain. At the same time, costs continued to spiral; the Dutch were close to bankruptcy while Austrian troops were almost entirely funded by Britain. In 1709, Parliament approved expenditures of £6.4 million, up from £5.0 million in 1706; by the end of 1710, these had nearly doubled to £12.9 million, despite minimal gains. Negotiations When negotiations resumed in March 1710 at Geertruidenberg, it was clear to the French the mood in Britain had changed. This was confirmed when the pro-peace Tories won a landslide victory in the October 1710 British general election, although they confirmed their commitment to the war to prevent a credit crisis. Despite the capture of Bouchain in September, a decisive victory in Northern France continued to elude the Allies, and an expedition against Quebec in French North America ended in disaster. When Emperor Joseph died in April 1711, Archduke Charles was elected Emperor; continuing the war now seemed pointless since the union of Spain with Austria was as unwelcome as one with France. The British secretly negotiated peace terms directly with France, leading to the signing of the Preliminary Articles of London on 8 October 1711. They included French acceptance of the Act of Settlement and a guarantee the French and Spanish crowns would remain separate; France undertook to ensure Spain ceded Gibraltar and Menorca, while giving Britain a thirty-year monopoly on the Asiento de Negros, the right to import slaves into their American colonies. Despite their resentment at being excluded from these negotiations, the Dutch were financially exhausted by the enormous cost of the war, and could not continue without British support. Charles VI initially rejected the idea of a peace conference; he reluctantly agreed once the Dutch decided to support it, but Habsburg opposition to the treaty continued. Peace of Utrecht Within weeks of the conference opening, events threatened the basis of the peace agreed between Britain and France. First, the French presented proposals awarding the Spanish Netherlands to Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and a minimal Barrier, leaving the Dutch with little to show for their huge investment of money and men. Second, a series of deaths left Louis XIV's two-year-old great-grandson, the future Louis XV as heir, making Philip next in line and his immediate renunciation imperative. The Dutch and Austrians fought on, hoping to improve their negotiating position but Bolingbroke issued 'Restraining Orders' to Marlborough's replacement, the Duke of Ormonde, instructing him not to participate in offensive operations against the French. These orders caused fury then and later, with Whigs urging Hanoverian military intervention; those George considered responsible, including Ormonde and Bolingbroke were driven into exile after his succession, and became prominent Jacobites. Prince Eugene captured Le Quesnoy in June and besieged Landrecies but was defeated at Denain on 24 July; the French went on to recapture Le Quesnoy and many towns lost in previous years, including Marchines, Douai, and Bouchain. This showed the French retained their fighting ability, while the Dutch finally reached the end of their willingness and ability to continue the war. On 6 June, Philip confirmed his renunciation of the French throne, and the British offered the Dutch a revised Barrier Treaty, replacing that of 1709 which they rejected as overly generous. A significant improvement on the 1697 Barrier, it was subject to Austrian approval; although the final terms were less beneficial, it was sufficient for the Dutch to agree peace terms. Charles withdrew from the Conference when France insisted he guarantee not to acquire Mantua or Mirandola; he was supported in this by George, Elector of Hanover, who wanted France to withdraw support for the Stuart heir James Francis. As a result, neither Austria nor the Empire signed the Treaty of Utrecht of 11 April 1713 between France and the other Allies; Spain made peace with the Dutch in June, then Savoy and Britain on 13 July 1713. Treaties of Rastatt and Baden Fighting continued on the Rhine, but Austria was financially exhausted, and after the loss of Landau and Freiburg in November 1713, Charles finally made peace on 7 March 1714. In the Treaty of Rastatt, the Habsburg Monarchy acceded to the terms of Utrecht, which confirmed their gains in Southern Italy, returned Breisach, Kehl, and Freiburg, ended French support for the Hungarian revolt and agreed on terms for the Dutch Barrier fortresses. Charles abandoned his claim to Strasbourg and Alsace and agreed to the restoration of the Wittelsbach Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, Max Emmanuel, and Joseph Clemens. Article XIX of the treaty transferred sovereignty over the Spanish Netherlands to Austria. On 7 September, the Holy Roman Empire joined the agreement by the Treaty of Baden; although Catalonia and Majorca were not finally subdued by the Bourbons until June 1715, the war was over. Aftermath Article II of the Peace of Utrecht included the stipulation "because of the great danger which threatened the liberty and safety of all Europe, from the too-close conjunction of the kingdoms of Spain and France,... the same person should never become King of both kingdoms." Some historians view this as a key point in the evolution of the modern nation-state; Randall Lesaffer argues it marks a significant milestone in the concept of collective security. Britain is usually seen as the main beneficiary of Utrecht, which marked its rise to becoming the dominant European commercial power. It established naval superiority over its competitors, acquired the strategic Mediterranean ports of Gibraltar and Menorca and trading rights in Spanish America. France accepted the Protestant succession, ensuring a smooth inheritance by George I in August 1714, while agreeing to end support for the Stuarts in the 1716 Anglo-French Treaty. Although the war left all participants with unprecedented levels of government debt, only Britain was able to finance it efficiently, providing a relative advantage over its competitors. Philip was confirmed as King of Spain, which retained its independence and the majority of its empire, in return for ceding the Spanish Netherlands, most of their Italian possessions, as well as Gibraltar and Menorca. These losses were deeply felt; Naples and Sicily were regained in 1735 and Menorca in 1782, although Gibraltar is still held by Britain, despite numerous attempts to regain it. The 1707 Nueva Planta decrees centralised power in Madrid, and abolished regional political structures, although Catalonia and Majorca remained outside the system until 1767. Their economy recovered remarkably quickly, while the House of Bourbon remains the Spanish Royal Family to this day. Despite failure in Spain, Austria secured its position in Italy and Hungary and acquired the bulk of the Spanish Netherlands; even after reimbursing the Dutch for the cost of their Barrier garrisons, the increased revenues funded a significant expansion of the Austrian army. The shift of Habsburg focus away from Germany and into Southern Europe continued with victory in the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18. Their position as the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire was challenged by Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, and Saxony, who increasingly acted as independent powers; in 1742, Charles of Bavaria became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years. The Dutch Republic ended the war effectively bankrupt, while the barrier that cost so much proved largely illusory. The forts were quickly overrun in 1740, with Britain's promise of military support against an aggressor proving far more effective. The economy was permanently affected by the damage inflicted by the war on their merchant navy, and while they retained their position in the Far East, Britain replaced them as the pre-eminent commercial and maritime power. Louis XIV died on 1 September 1715, his five-year-old great-grandson reigning as Louis XV until 1774; on his deathbed, he is alleged to have admitted, "I have loved war too well". True or not, while the final settlement was far more favourable than the Allied terms of 1709, it is hard to see what Louis gained that he had not already achieved through diplomacy by February 1701. Since 1666, Louis had based his policies on the assumption of French military and economic superiority over their rivals; by 1714, this was no longer the case. Concern over the expansion of British trade post-Utrecht, and the advantage provided over its rivals, was viewed by his successors as a threat to the balance of power, and a major factor behind French participation in the 1740 to 1748 War of the Austrian Succession. Wider implications include the rise of Prussia and Savoy while many of the participants were involved in the 1700–1721 Great Northern War, with Russia becoming a major European power for the first time as a result. Finally, while colonial conflicts were relatively minor and largely confined to the North American theatre, the so-called Queen Anne's War, they were to become a key element in future wars. Meanwhile, maritime unemployment brought on by the war's end led to the third stage of the Golden Age of Piracy, as many sailors formerly employed in the navies of the warring powers turned to piracy for survival. Claims to the Spanish throne Notes References Citations Sources Navarro i Soriano, Ferran (2019). Harca, harca, harca! Músiques per a la recreació històrica de la Guerra de Successió (1794-1715). Editorial DENES. Further reading External links 1700s conflicts 1710s conflicts Anglo-French wars Global conflicts History of the Royal Marines Pretenders to the Spanish throne 1700s in Austria 1710s in Austria 1700s in France 1710s in France 1700s in Italy 1710s in Italy 1700s in Spain 1710s in Spain 1700s in the Caribbean 1710s in the Caribbean Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Africa Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of North America

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The 2018 United States House of Representatives elections in Texas were held on Tuesday, November 6, 2018. Voters elected the 36 U.S. Representatives from the state of Texas, one from each of the state's 36 congressional districts. The elections coincided with the elections of other offices, including the gubernatorial election, as well as other elections to the House of Representatives, elections to the United States Senate and various state and local elections. The primaries were held on March 6 and the run-offs were held on May 22. In 2018, for the first time in at least 25 years, the Texas Democratic Party fielded at least one candidate in each of the state's 36 congressional districts. The state congressional delegation changed from a 25–11 Republican majority to a 23–13 Republican majority, the most seats that Democrats have won in the state since 2006. Democrats won almost 47% of the vote, likely as part of a down-ballot effect of Representative Beto O'Rourke's Senate candidacy, in which he won 48.3% of the vote. Turnout was also doubled from the last midterm election. Results summary Statewide District Results of the 2018 United States House of Representatives elections in Texas by district: District 1 The first district is located in East Texas, including Deep East Texas, and takes in Longview, Lufkin, and Tyler. The incumbent is Republican Louie Gohmert, who has held the seat since 2005. He was reelected with 73.9% of the vote in 2016. Roshin Rowjee, a physician, is running for the Republican nomination. Brent Beal, a college professor, is running for the Democratic nomination. Its Partisan Voter Index is R+25. Primary results General election Results District 2 This district is located in Greater Houston, including parts of northern and western Houston, as well as Humble, Kingwood, and Spring. The PVI is R+11. The current representative is Dan Crenshaw. Primary results Runoff results General election Polling Results District 3 The 3rd district is located in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, including the Dallas suburbs of Frisco, McKinney, and Plano. The incumbent representative was Sam Johnson, a Republican who has held the seat since 1991. Johnson was reelected with 61.2% of the vote in 2016. Johnson is not standing for reelection, and several candidates have announced their candidacies to replace him. The PVI of the third district is R+13. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Christopher Claytor Scott Jameson Results Christopher Claytor was declared the nominee by defeating Scott Jameson at the Collin County Libertarian Party Convention on Saturday, March 17. Independents Declared Roger Barone Robert Mason (Humane Party) Notes General election Results District 4 The 4th district is located in Northern and Northeastern Texas, including Paris, Sherman, and Texarkana. The incumbent was Republican John Ratcliffe, who has served since 2015. He was reelected in 2016 with 88.0%, facing no Democratic opponent. The PVI of the district is R+28, making it one of the most conservative districts in the nation. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Ken Ashby General election Results District 5 The 5th district stretches from the eastern Dallas suburbs, including Mesquite, down into East Texas including Athens and Palestine. At the 2000 census, the 5th district represented 651,620 people. The Representative from District 5 was Jeb Hensarling, who has served since 2003. He was reelected in 2016 with 80.6% of the vote, facing no Democratic opponent. The PVI of this district is R+16. Hensarling announced in October 2017 that he is going to retire from Congress, and not seek re-election to another term in 2018. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Ben Leder General election Results District 6 The 6th district is located in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, including parts of Arlington, as well as Dalworthington Gardens and Mansfield. The district also stretches southward taking in Corsicana and Ennis. Representative from District 6 was Republican Joe Barton, who has served since 1985. Barton was reelected with 58.3% of the vote in 2016. The PVI of the sixth district is R+9. In November 2017, Barton announced that he would not run for re-election in 2018. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Jason Allen Harber General election Polling Results District 7 The 7th district includes parts of western Houston and Bellaire. The incumbent representative was John Culberson, who had served the district since 2001. He was reelected in 2016 with 56.2% of the vote. The PVI for the district is R+7. Republican primary Declared John Culberson, incumbent Edward Ziegler, business owner and consultant Democratic primary Advanced to runoff Lizzie Fletcher, attorney and activist Laura Moser, editor and journalist Declared Lizzie Fletcher, attorney and activist Laura Moser, editor and journalist Jason Westin, physician Alex Triantaphyllis, attorney and organizer Ivan Sanchez, senior congressional liaison Joshua Butler, business analyst, community relations representative, and pharmaceutical sales representative James Cargas, nominee for this seat in 2012, 2014 and 2016 Primary results Runoff results General election Polling Results District 8 The 8th district includes much of the northern suburbs of Houston, such as Conroe, Huntsville, and The Woodlands. The incumbent Representative from District 8 was Republican Kevin Brady and has been since 1997. Brady was reelected in 2016 unopposed. The PVI for this district is R+28. A Democrat and an independent are running for this seat. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Bert Aguin Chris Duncan Independent candidates Todd Carlton, crop consultant General election Endorsements Results District 9 The 9th district serves the southwestern portion of the Greater Houston area including parts of Missouri City and Sugar Land. The current Representative for the district, since 2005, is Democrat Al Green. Green was reelected with 80.6% of the vote in 2016. The PVI for this district is D+28. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Phil Kurtz General election Endorsements Results District 10 The 10th district includes portions of northern Austin and its suburbs, such as Manor and Pflugerville. The district stretches eastward into rural areas of Central Texas and the outer suburbs of Houston, including Cypress, Katy, and Tomball. The current representative is Michael McCaul, who has served since 2005. McCaul was reelected with 57.3% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+9. Republican primary Michael McCaul, incumbent John W. Cook, attorney Democratic primary In the Democratic primary, Mike Siegel and Tawana Cadien advanced to the runoff, where Siegel ultimately prevailed. Siegel refused all corporate PAC donations. Declared Mike Siegel, Austin Assistant Attorney General, and attorney Matt Harris, data scientist and project manager Madeline Eden, businesswoman, engineer, and architect Tawana Cadien, consultant, registered nurse, MMA Surgery supervisor, quality assurance director, and a perennial candidate Tami Walker, accountant and activist Kevin Nelson, college instructor and publisher Richie DeGrow, business manager and consultant Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Bill Kelsey Mike Ryan General election In the general election, McCaul won against Siegel by 4.3 percent of the vote, the closest contest McCaul has faced. The outcome was notable in a district political experts rate as “Heavily Republican.” Polling {| class="wikitable" |- valign= bottom ! Poll source ! Date(s)administered ! Samplesize ! Margin oferror ! style="width:100px;"| MichaelMcCaul (R) ! style="width:100px;"| MikeSiegel (D) ! Undecided |- | Blink Insights (D-Siegel) | align=center| July 31 – August 4, 2018 | align=center| 524 | align=center| ± 4.3% | align=center| 39% | align=center| 36% | align=center| – Results District 11 The 11th district is located in the Concho Valley including Midland, Odessa, and San Angelo. The incumbent representative was Mike Conaway, who had served since 2005. Conaway was reelected with 89.5% of the vote in 2016, without a Democratic opponent. The PVI is R+32, making this one of the most Republican districts in the country. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Nicholas Landholt Rhett Rosenquest Smith General election Results District 12 The 12th district is centered around Fort Worth and the surrounding suburbs including North Richland Hills, Weatherford, and White Settlement. The current Representative from District 12 is Republican Kay Granger, who has served since 1997. Granger was reelected with 69.4% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+18. One Democrat is running for the seat. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Jacob Leddy General election Polling Results District 13 The 13th district includes most of the Texas Panhandle, parts of Texoma and northeastern parts of North Texas. It winds across the Panhandle into the South Plains, then runs east across the Red River Valley. Covering over , it is the second-largest district geographically in Texas and larger in area than thirteen entire states. The principal cities in the district are Amarillo and Wichita Falls. The incumbent representative was Mac Thornberry, serving since 1995. He was reelected with 90.0% of the vote, without facing a Democratic candidate. The thirteenth's district PVI is R+33, making it the most Republican district in the country. Republican primary Libertarian District Convention Declared Calvin DeWeese General election Results District 14 The 14th district covers the Gulf Coast area of Texas, including Beaumont, Galveston, and League City. Republican Randy Weber is the incumbent, serving since 2013. He was reelected with 61.9% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+12. The sole Democratic candidate to declare candidacy, Adrienne Bell, was endorsed by Brand New Congress. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Don E. Conley III General election Endorsements Results District 15 The 15th district stretches from parts of South Texas including Edinburg, Hebbronville, and McAllen, to the northeastern suburbs of San Antonio such as Schertz and Seguin. The district's current Representative is Democrat Vicente González, elected in 2016. González was elected with 57.3% of the vote. The district's PVI is D+7. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Anthony Cristo Ross Lynn Leone General election Results District 16 The 16th district is centered around El Paso and the surrounding areas. The Representative from District 16 was Democrat Beto O'Rourke, serving since 2013. O'Rourke was reelected with 85.7% of the vote in 2016, without facing a Republican candidate. O'Rourke retired from his seat to challenge Senator Ted Cruz in the state's 2018 Senate election, in which O’Rourke was narrowly defeated by Cruz. The district's PVI is D+17. Primary results General election Results District 17 The 17th district is located in Central Texas including the Bryan-College station metro, Waco, and stretches to parts of North Austin. The district was represented by Republican Bill Flores, who had served since 2011. Flores was reelected with 60.8% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+12. Three Democrats are currently running for the seat. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Nicholas Becker Peter Churchman General election Polling Results District 18 The 18th district is centered on inner Houston and the surrounding area. It has been the Downtown Houston district since 1973. The current Representative from District 18 is Democratic Sheila Jackson Lee, serving since 1995. Jackson Lee won re-election in 2016 with 73.5%. The district's PVI D+27. Primary results Libertarian County Convention Declared Luke Spencer General election Results District 19 The 19th district is located in upper rural West Texas, including Abilene, Lubbock, and Plainview. The current Representative from the 19th District is Republican Jodey Arrington, serving since 2017. Arrington was elected 86.7% of the vote in 2016, without a Democratic opponent. The district's PVI is R+27. Primary results General election Results District 20 The 20th district is centered on the western half of San Antonio and the surrounding inner suburbs including Balcones Heights and Helotes. The incumbent representative is a Democrat Joaquín Castro, serving since 2013. He was reelected in 2016 with 79.7% of the vote without a Republican opponent. Primary results Libertarian County Convention Declared Chuck Pena Jeffrey Blunt Michael "Commander" Idrogo General election Results District 21 The 21st district starts in the San Antonio metro, including parts of north San Antonio and New Braunfels, extending into the Austin metro, taking in parts of San Marcos and south Austin. The current Representative is Republican Lamar Smith, serving since 1987. Smith was reelected with 57.0% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+10. In November 2017, Smith announced that he would retire at the end of his current term, and not seek re-election in 2018. Run-off debates were held on April 12 after the primary, one hour each for the two Democratic candidates (audio) and the two Republican candidates (audio). Republican primary Chip Roy and Matt McCall advanced to the runoff. Chip Roy, attorney, congressional aide Matt McCall, small business owner, businessman, 2014 and 2016 republican candidate for TX-21 William Negley, non-profit founder, organizer, CIA intelligence officer, congressional aide Jason Issac, consultant, business owner Jenifer Sarver, businesswoman, congressional aide, former Department of Commerce official Robert Stovall, former Chair of the Bexar County Republican Party, chemist, financial advisor Susan Narvaiz, former mayor of San Marcos, Texas, businesswoman, former president and CEO Core Strategies, Inc. Peggy Wardlaw, businesswoman and rancher Francisco Canseco, banker, attorney, former U.S. Representative for Texas's 23rd congressional district (2011–2013) Al Poteet, businessman, US Army veteran Ryan Krause, businessman Samuel Temple, psychologist, AT&T staffer Anthony White Eric Burkart, CIA officer, author, community planner, organizer Mauro Garza, business owner, scientist Foster Hagen Autry Pruitt, political commentator, author, activist Ivan Andarza, immigration attorney Primary results Democratic primary Mary Street Wilson and Joseph Kopser advanced to the runoff. Mary Street Wilson, pastor, teacher, math professor, social justice activist Joseph Kopser, aerospace engineer, US Military Veteran, businessman, entrepreneur Derrick Crowe, businessman, non-profit founder, congressional aide Elliott McFadden, businessman, Peace Corps member, former Executive Director of the Travis County Democratic Party, consultant, former Executive at AustinCarShare, Austin B-Cycle executive director, communications coordinator Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Gil Robinson Lee Santos Mark Loewe General election Polling Results District 22 The 22nd district is located Greater Houston taking in suburban areas of Friendswood, Pearland, and Sugar Land. The district is currently represented by Republican Pete Olson, serving since 2009. Olson was reelected with 59.5% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+10. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared John B. McElligott General election Results District 23 The 23rd district stretches from rural Southwestern Texas, including Alpine, Del Rio, and Socorro, into the Greater San Antonio area, taking in Hondo and the outer areas of San Antonio. It is a prominently Hispanic-majority district and its representative was Republican Will Hurd, serving since 2015. His opponent in November 2018 was Democrat Gina Ortiz Jones of San Antonio. Gina Ortiz Jones conceded the race on November 19, 2018, after losing by around 1,150 votes. Hurd was narrowly reelected in 2016, with 48.7% of the vote. The district's PVI is R+1. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian district convention Declared Ruben Corvalan General election Endorsements Polling Results District 24 The 24th district is centered around Mid-Cities suburbs of the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex including Bedford, Carrollton, and Euless. The incumbent representative was Republican Kenny Marchant, serving since 2005. Marchant won reelection in 2016 with 56.2% of the vote. The PVI is R+9. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Emmanuel Lewis Mike Kolls Roland Rangel General election Results District 25 The 25th district stretches from the outer suburbs of Fort Worth, including Burleson and Cleburne down into rural Central Texas, and takes in the Austin exurbs of Dripping Springs, Lakeway, West Lake Hills, as well as parts of downtown Austin. The current Representative from District 25 is Republican Roger Williams, serving since 2013. Williams was reelected with 58.4% of the vote in 2016. The district has a PVI of R+11. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Desarae Lindsey General election Results District 26 The 26th district is centered on the northern Dallas–Fort Worth suburbs, including Denton, Keller, and Lewisville. The current Representative is Republican Michael C. Burgess, serving since 2003. Burgess was reelected in 2016 with 66.4% of the vote. The district's PVI is R+18. Burgess is running for reelection. He is being challenged in the Republican primary by Veronica Birkenstock. Four Democrats and a Libertarian are also running. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Mark Boler, Libertarian nominee in TX-26 in 2012, 2014 and 2016 General election Results District 27 The 27th district is located in the Coastal Bend, anchored by Corpus Christi, and the surrounding areas including Port Aransas and Victoria. The most recent representative was Republican Blake Farenthold, who served from 2011 until April 2018. Farenthold was reelected with 61.7% of the vote in 2016, and the district's PVI is R+13. Farenthold retired from Congress and did not run for re-election in 2018. Farenthold resigned on April 6, 2018. Michael Cloud, the Republican nominee for the general election, won a June 30 special election to fill the remainder of the term. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Daniel Tinus General election Results District 28 The 28th district starts in parts of the Rio Grande Valley, including Laredo, Mission and Rio Grande City and stretches north into the San Antonio suburbs including Converse and Live Oak. The current Representative from District 28 is Democrat Henry Cuellar, who has served since 2005. Cuellar was reelected in 2016 with 66.2% of the vote. The district's PVI is D+9. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Arthur M. Thomas IV General election Results District 29 The 29th district is anchored by parts of Houston and the surrounding suburbs including Pasadena and South Houston. The current Representative from District 29 was Democrat Gene Green, who had served since 1993. Green was reelected with 72.5% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is D+19. In November 2017, Green announced that would not run for re-election in 2018. After Green's announcement, Democrats Sylvia Garcia, member of the Texas Senate for the 6th district, Armando Walle, member of the Texas House of Representatives for the 140th district, teacher Hector Morales and Republicans Adrian Garcia, the former Sheriff of Harris County, and businessman Robert Schafranek all announced their candidacy for the seat. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian County Convention Declared Cullen Burns Richard Saettone Ruben Perez General election Results District 30 The 30th district is centered around Dallas and its surrounding suburbs, including Cedar Hill and Lancaster. The current Representative from District 30 is Democrat Eddie Bernice Johnson, who has represented the district since its creation in 1993. She was reelected in 2016 with 77.9% of the vote. The district's PVI is D+29. Johnson ran for reelection. Primary results Libertarian County Convention Declared Shawn Jones General election Results District 31 The 31st district is located in north Austin and the surrounding suburbs including Georgetown and Round Rock. The district also stretches north into Killeen and Temple. Republican John Carter has served since 2003, this district's creation. He was reelected with 58.4% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is R+10. Carter is running for reelection. He is being challenged in the Republican primary by Mike Sweeney. Three Democrats ran. Primary results Runoff results Libertarian District Convention Declared Jason Hope General election Endorsements Polling Results District 32 The 32nd district is centered around the northeastern inner Dallas suburbs, including Garland, Richardson, and the Park Cities. It is represented by Republican Pete Sessions, serving since 1997. He was reelected with 71.1% of the vote in 2016 without a Democratic opponent. The district's PVI is R+5, due to 2016 Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton's performance in the district. In 2016, Sessions ran for reelection. Six Democrats also ran, including civil rights attorney and former NFL player Colin Allred, longtime Democratic operative Ed Meier, and former Department of Agriculture official Lilian Salerno. Allred won the Democratic nomination and the general eection. Primary results Runoff results The runoff election took place on May 22, 2018. Libertarian District Convention Declared Melina Baker General election Endorsements Polling Results District 33 The 33rd district is located in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, taking in parts of Arlington, Dallas, Fort Worth, and Irving, as well as the surrounding areas, including Forest Hill and Grand Prairie. It is currently represented by Democrat Marc Veasey, and has been since the district's creation in 2013. Veasey was reelected with 73.7% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is D+23. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Jason Reeves General election Results District 34 The 34th district is centered around the Rio Grande Valley, including Brownsville, Harlingen, and Weslaco. It is currently represented by Democrat Filemon Vela Jr. and has been since the district's creation in 2013. Vela was reelected with 62.7% of the vote in 2016. The district's PVI is D+10. Primary results General election Results District 35 The 35th district stretches from Downtown San Antonio up into Austin metro, including Lockhart, San Marcos, and parts of east Austin. In March 2017, a panel of federal judges ruled that the 35th district was illegally drawn with discriminatory intent. In August, 2017 there was another ruling that the district is unconstitutional. The district is currently represented by Democrat Lloyd Doggett, and has been since its creation in 2013. Doggett previously represented Texas's 25th congressional district before redistricting. Doggett won reelection in 2016 with 63.1% of the vote. The district's PVI is D+15 Doggett is running for reelection. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Clark Patterson General election Results District 36 The 36th district takes in the Bay Area outer suburbs of Houston, including Baytown, Deer Park, and La Porte. The district also includes rural Southeastern Texas, such as Lumberton and Orange. It is currently represented by Republican Brian Babin, who has served since 2015. Babin was reelected in 2016 with 88.6% of the vote, without a Democratic opponent. Two Democrats have announced their candidacy, scientist/environmental consultant Jon Powell and radio and television personality Dayna Steele. Primary results Libertarian District Convention Declared Robert Appelbaum General election Results See also 2018 United States House of Representatives elections 2018 United States elections References External links Candidates at Vote Smart Candidates at Ballotpedia Campaign finance at FEC Campaign finance at Center for Responsive Politics Official campaign websites of first district candidates Louie Gohmert (R) for Congress Shirley McKellar (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of second district candidates Daniel Crenshaw (R) for Congress Todd Litton (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of third district candidates Lorie Burch (D) for Congress Van Taylor (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of fourth district candidates Catherine Krantz (D) for Congress John Ratcliffe (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of fifth district candidates Lance Gooden (R) for Congress Dan Wood (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of sixth district candidates Jana Lynne Sanchez (D) for Congress Ron Wright (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of seventh district candidates John Culberson (R) for Congress Lizzie Pannill Fletcher (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of eighth district candidates Kevin Brady (R) for Congress Steven David (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of ninth district candidates Al Green (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of tenth district candidates Michael McCaul (R) for Congress Mike Siegel (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of eleventh district candidates Mike Conaway (R) for Congress Jennie Lou Leeder (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twelfth district candidates Vanessa Adia (D) for Congress Kay Granger (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirteenth district candidates Greg Sagan (D) for Congress Mac Thornberry (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of fourteenth district candidates Adrienne Bell (D) for Congress Randy Weber (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of fifteenth district candidates Vicente Gonález (D) for Congress Tim Westley (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of sixteenth district candidates Veronica Escobar (D) for Congress Rick Seeberger (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of seventeenth district candidates Bill Flores (R) for Congress Rick Kennedy (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of eighteenth district candidates Sheila Jackson-Lee (D) for Congress Ava Reynero Pate (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of nineteenth district candidates Jodey Arrington (R) for Congress Miguel Levario (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twentieth district candidates Joaquín Castro (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-first district candidates Joseph Kopser (D) for Congress Chip Roy (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-second district candidates Sri Preston Kulkarni (D) for Congress Pete Olson (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-third district candidates Will Hurd (R) for Congress Gina Ortiz Jones (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-fourth district candidates Kenny Marchant (R) for Congress Jan McDowell (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-fifth district candidates Julie Oliver (D) for Congress Roger Williams (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-sixth district candidates Mark Boler (L) for Congress Michael Burgess (R) for Congress Linsey Fagan (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-seventh district candidates Michael Cloud (R) for Congress Eric Holguin (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-eighth district candidates Henry Cuellar (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of twenty-ninth district candidates Phillip Aronoff (R) for Congress Sylvia Garcia (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirtieth district candidates Eddie Bernice Johnson (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-first district candidates John Carter (R) for Congress MJ Hegar (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-second district candidates Colin Allred (D) for Congress Pete Sessions (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-third district candidates Willie Billups (R) for Congress Marc Veasey (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-fourth district candidates Rey Gonzalez (R) for Congress Filemon Vela Jr. (D) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-fifth district candidates Lloyd Doggett (D) for Congress David Smalling (R) for Congress Official campaign websites of thirty-sixth district candidates Brian Babin (R) for Congress Dayna Steele (D) for Congress 2018 Texas United States House of Representatives

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Algorithmic cooling is an algorithmic method for transferring heat (or entropy) from some qubits to others or outside the system and into the environment, which results in a cooling effect. This method uses regular quantum operations on ensembles of qubits, and it can be shown that it can succeed beyond Shannon's bound on data compression. The phenomenon is a result of the connection between thermodynamics and information theory. The cooling itself is done in an algorithmic manner using ordinary quantum operations. The input is a set of qubits, and the output is a subset of qubits cooled to a desired threshold determined by the user. This cooling effect may have usages in initializing cold (highly pure) qubits for quantum computation and in increasing polarization of certain spins in nuclear magnetic resonance. Therefore, it can be used in the initializing process taking place before a regular quantum computation. Overview Quantum computers need qubits (quantum bits) on which they operate. Generally, in order to make the computation more reliable, the qubits must be as pure as possible, minimizing possible fluctuations. Since the purity of a qubit is related to von Neumann entropy and to temperature, making the qubits as pure as possible is equivalent to making them as cold as possible (or having as little entropy as possible). One method of cooling qubits is extracting entropy from them, thus purifying them. This can be done in two general ways: reversibly (namely, using unitary operations) or irreversibly (for example, using a heat bath). Algorithmic cooling is the name of a family of algorithms that are given a set of qubits and purify (cool) a subset of them to a desirable level. This can also be viewed in a probabilistic manner. Since qubits are two-level systems, they can be regarded as coins, unfair ones in general. Purifying a qubit means (in this context) making the coin as unfair as possible: increasing the difference between the probabilities for tossing different results as much as possible. Moreover, the entropy previously mentioned can be viewed using the prism of information theory, which assigns entropy to any random variable. The purification can, therefore, be considered as using probabilistic operations (such as classical logical gates and conditional probability) for minimizing the entropy of the coins, making them more unfair. The case in which the algorithmic method is reversible, such that the total entropy of the system is not changed, was first named "molecular scale heat engine", and is also named "reversible algorithmic cooling". This process cools some qubits while heating the others. It is limited by a variant of Shannon's bound on data compression and it can asymptotically reach quite close to the bound. A more general method, "irreversible algorithmic cooling", makes use of irreversible transfer of heat outside of the system and into the environment (and therefore may bypass the Shannon bound). Such an environment can be a heat bath, and the family of algorithms which use it is named "heat-bath algorithmic cooling". In this algorithmic process entropy is transferred reversibly to specific qubits (named reset spins) that are coupled with the environment much more strongly than others. After a sequence of reversible steps that let the entropy of these reset qubits increase they become hotter than the environment. Then the strong coupling results in a heat transfer (irreversibly) from these reset spins to the environment. The entire process may be repeated and may be applied recursively to reach low temperatures for some qubits. Background Thermodynamics Algorithmic cooling can be discussed using classical and quantum thermodynamics points of view. Cooling The classical interpretation of "cooling" is transferring heat from one object to the other. However, the same process can be viewed as entropy transfer. For example, if two gas containers that are both in thermal equilibrium with two different temperatures are put in contact, entropy will be transferred from the "hotter" object (with higher entropy) to the "colder" one. This approach can be used when discussing the cooling of an object whose temperature is not always intuitively defined, e.g. a single particle. Therefore, the process of cooling spins can be thought of as a process of transferring entropy between spins, or outside of the system. Heat reservoir The concept of heat reservoir is discussed extensively in classical thermodynamics (for instance in Carnot cycle). For the purposes of algorithmic cooling, it is sufficient to consider heat reservoirs, or "heat baths", as large objects whose temperature remains unchanged even when in contact with other ("normal" sized) objects. Intuitively, this can be pictured as a bath filled with room-temperature water that practically retains its temperature even when a small piece of hot metal is put in it. Using the entropy form of thinking from the previous subsection, an object which is considered hot (whose entropy is large) can transfer heat (and entropy) to a colder heat bath, thus lowering its own entropy. This process results in cooling. Unlike entropy transfer between two "regular" objects which preserves the entropy of the system, entropy transfer to a heat bath is normally regarded as non-preserving. This is because the bath is normally not considered as a part of the relevant system, due to its size. Therefore, when transferring entropy to a heat bath, one can essentially lower the entropy of their system, or equivalently, cool it. Continuing this approach, the goal of algorithmic cooling is to reduce as much as possible the entropy of the system of qubits, thus cooling it. Quantum mechanics General introduction Algorithmic cooling applies to quantum systems. Therefore, it is important to be familiar with both the core principles and the relevant notations. A qubit (or quantum bit) is a unit of information that can be in a superposition of two states, denoted as and . The general superposition can be written as where and . If one measures the state of the qubit in the orthonormal basis composed of and , one gets the result with probability and the result with probability . The above description is known as a quantum pure state. A general mixed quantum state can be prepared as a probability distribution over pure states, and is represented by a density matrix of the general form , where each is a pure state (see ket-bra notations) and each is the probability of in the distribution. The quantum states that play a major role in algorithmic cooling are mixed states in the diagonal form for . Essentially, this means that the state is the pure state with probability and is pure with probability . In the ket-bra notations, the density matrix is . For the state is called pure, and for the state is called completely mixed (represented by the normalized identity matrix). The completely mixed state represents a uniform probability distribution over the states and . Polarization or bias of a state The state above is called -polarized, or -biased, since it deviates by in the diagonal entries from the completely mixed state. Another approach for the definition of bias or polarization is using Bloch sphere (or generally Bloch ball). Restricted to a diagonal density matrix, a state can be on the straight line connecting the antipodal points representing the states and ("north and south poles" of the sphere). In this approach, the parameter () is exactly the distance (up to a sign) of the state from the center of the ball, which represents the completely mixed state. For the state is exactly on the poles and for the state is exactly in the center. A bias can be negative (for example ), and in this case the state is in the middle between the center and the south pole. In the Pauli matrices representation form, an -biased quantum state is . Entropy Since quantum systems are involved, the entropy used here is von Neumann entropy. For a single qubit represented by the (diagonal) density matrix above, its entropy is (where the logarithm is to base ). This expression coincides with the entropy of an unfair coin with "bias" , meaning probability for tossing heads. A coin with bias is deterministic with zero entropy, and a coin with bias is fair with maximal entropy (. The relation between the coins approach and von Neumann entropy is an example of the relation between entropy in thermodynamics and in information theory. Intuition An intuition for this family of algorithms can come from various fields and mindsets, which are not necessarily quantum. This is due to the fact that these algorithms do not explicitly use quantum phenomena in their operations or analysis, and mainly rely on information theory. Therefore, the problem can be inspected from a classical (physical, computational, etc.) point of view. Physics The physical intuition for this family of algorithms comes from classical thermodynamics. Reversible case The basic scenario is an array of qubits with equal initial biases. This means that the array contains small thermodynamic systems, each with the same entropy. The goal is to transfer entropy from some qubits to others, eventually resulting in a sub-array of "cold" qubits and another sub-array of "hot" qubits (the sub-arrays being distinguished by their qubits' entropies, as in the background section). The entropy transfers are restricted to be reversible, which means that the total entropy is conserved. Therefore, reversible algorithmic cooling can be seen as an act of redistributing the entropy of all the qubits to obtain a set of colder ones while the others are hotter. To see the analogy from classical thermodynamics, two qubits can be considered as a gas container with two compartments, separated by a movable and heat-insulating partition. If external work is applied in order to move the partition in a reversible manner, the gas in one compartment is compressed, resulting in higher temperature (and entropy), while the gas in the other is expanding, similarly resulting in lower temperature (and entropy). Since it is reversible, the opposite action can be done, returning the container and the gases to the initial state. The entropy transfer here is analogous to the entropy transfer in algorithmic cooling, in the sense that by applying external work entropy can be transferred reversibly between qubits. Irreversible case The basic scenario remains the same, however an additional object is present – a heat bath. This means that entropy can be transferred from the qubits to an external reservoir and some operations can be irreversible, which can be used for cooling some qubits without heating the others. In particular, hot qubits (hotter than the bath) that were on the receiving side of reversible entropy transfer can be cooled by letting them interact with the heat bath. The classical analogy for this situation is the Carnot refrigerator, specifically the stage in which the engine is in contact with the cold reservoir and heat (and entropy) flows from the engine to the reservoir. Information theory The intuition for this family of algorithms can come from an extension of Von-Neumann's solution for the problem of obtaining fair results from a biased coin. In this approach to algorithmic cooling, the bias of the qubits is merely a probability bias, or the "unfairness" of a coin. Applications Two typical applications that require a large number of pure qubits are quantum error correction (QEC) and ensemble computing. In realizations of quantum computing (implementing and applying the algorithms on actual qubits), algorithmic cooling was involved in realizations in optical lattices. In addition, algorithmic cooling can be applied to in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Quantum error correction Quantum error correction is a quantum algorithm for protection from errors. The algorithm operates on the relevant qubits (which operate within the computation) and needs a supply of new pure qubits for each round. This requirement can be weakened to purity above a certain threshold instead of requiring fully pure qubits. For this, algorithmic cooling can be used to produce qubits with the desired purity for quantum error correction. Ensemble computing Ensemble computing is a computational model that uses a macroscopic number of identical computers. Each computer contains a certain number of qubits, and the computational operations are performed simultaneously on all the computers. The output of the computation can be obtained by measuring the state of the entire ensemble, which would be the average output of each computer in it. Since the number of computers is macroscopic, the output signal is easier to detect and measure than the output signal of each single computer. This model is widely used in NMR quantum computing: each computer is represented by a single (identical) molecule, and the qubits of each computer are the nuclear spins of its atoms. The obtained (averaged) output is a detectable magnetic signal. NMR spectroscopy Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (sometimes called MRS - magnetic resonance spectroscopy) is a non-invasive technique related to MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) for analyzing metabolic changes in vivo (from Latin: "within the living organism"), which can potentially be used for diagnosing brain tumors, Parkinson's disease, depression, etc. It uses some magnetic properties of the relevant metabolites to measure their concentrations in the body, which are correlated with certain diseases. For example, the difference between the concentrations of the metabolites glutamate and glutamine can be linked to some stages of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. Some uses of MRS focus on the carbon atoms of the metabolites (see carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance). One major reason for this is the presence of carbon in a large portion of all tested metabolites. Another reason is the ability to mark certain metabolites by the 13C isotope, which is more easy to measure than the usually used hydrogen atoms mainly because of its magnetic properties (such as its gyromagnetic ratio). In MRS, the nuclear spins of the atoms of the metabolites are required to be with a certain degree of polarization, so the spectroscopy can succeed. Algorithmic cooling can be applied in vivo, increasing the resolution and precision of the MRS. Realizations (not in vivo) of algorithmic cooling on metabolites with 13C isotope have been shown to increase the polarization of 13C in amino acids and other metabolites. MRS can be used to obtain biochemical information about certain body tissues in a non-invasive manner. This means that the operation must be carried out at room temperature. Some methods of increasing polarization of spins (such as hyperpolarization, and in particular dynamic nuclear polarization) are not able to operate under this condition since they require a cold environment (a typical value is 1K, about -272 degrees Celsius). On the other hand, algorithmic cooling can be operated in room temperature and be used in MRS in vivo, while methods that required lower temperature can be used in biopsy, outside of the living body. Reversible algorithmic cooling - basic compression subroutine The algorithm operates on an array of equally (and independently) biased qubits. After the algorithm transfers heat (and entropy) from some qubits to the others, the resulting qubits are rearranged in increasing order of bias. Then this array is divided into two sub-arrays: "cold" qubits (with bias exceeding a certain threshold chosen by the user) and "hot" qubits (with bias lower than that threshold). Only the "cold" qubits are used for further quantum computation. The basic procedure is called "Basic Compression Subroutine" or "3 Bit Compression". The reversible case can be demonstrated on 3 qubits, using the probabilistic approach. Each qubit is represented by a "coin" (two-level system) whose sides are labeled 0 and 1, and with a certain bias: each coin is independently with bias , meaning probability for tossing 0. The coins are and the goal is to use coins to cool coin (qubit) . The procedure: Toss coins independently. Apply C-NOT on . Use coin for conditioning C-SWAP of coins . After this procedure, the average (expected value) of the bias of coin is, to leading order, . C-NOT step Coins are used for C-NOT operation, also known as XOR (exclusive or). The operation is applied in the following manner: , which means that is computed and replaces the old value of , and remain unchanged. More specifically, the following operation is applied: If the result of coin is 1: Flip coin without looking at the result Else (the result of coin is 0): Do nothing (still without looking at the result of ) Now, the result of coin is checked (without looking at ). Classically, this means that the result of coin must be "forgotten" (cannot be used anymore). This is somewhat problematic classically, because the result of coin is no longer probabilistic; however, the equivalent quantum operators (which are the ones that are actually used in realizations and implementations of the algorithm) are capable of doing so. After the C-NOT operation is over, the bias of coin is computed using conditional probability: If (meaning ): . Therefore, the new bias of coin is . If (meaning ): . Therefore, the new bias of coin is . C-SWAP step Coins are used for C-SWAP operation. The operation is applied in the following manner: , which means that are swapped if . After the C-SWAP operation is over: If : coins and have been swapped, hence coin is now -biased and coin is -biased. Else (): coin remains unchanged (still of bias ) and coin remains with bias . In this case, coin can be discarded from the system, as it is too "hot" (its bias is too low, or, equivalently, its entropy is too high). The average bias of coin can be calculated by looking at those two cases, using the final bias in each case and the probability of each case: Using the approximation , the new average bias of coin is . Therefore, these two steps increase the polarization of coin on average. Alternative explanation: quantum operations The algorithm can be written using quantum operations on qubits, as opposed to the classical treatment. In particular, the C-NOT and C-SWAP steps can be replaced by a single unitary quantum operator that operates on the 3 qubits. Although this operation changes qubits in a different manner than the two classical steps, it yields the same final bias for qubit . The operator can be uniquely defined by its action on the computational basis of the Hilbert space of 3 qubits: In matrix form, this operator is the identity matrix of size 8, except that the 4th and 5th rows are swapped. The result of this operation can be obtained by writing the product state of the 3 qubits, , and applying on it. Afterwards, the bias of qubit can be calculated by projecting its state on the state (without projecting qubits ) and taking the trace of the result (see density matrix measurement): , where is the projection on the state . Again, using the approximation , the new average bias of coin is . Heat-bath algorithmic cooling (irreversible algorithmic cooling) The irreversible case is an extension of the reversible case: it uses the reversible algorithm as a subroutine. The irreversible algorithm contains another procedure called "Refresh" and extends the reversible one by using a heat bath. This allows for cooling certain qubits (called "reset qubits") without affecting the others, which results in an overall cooling of all the qubits as a system. The cooled reset qubits are used for cooling the rest (called "computational qubits") by applying a compression on them which is similar to the basic compression subroutine from the reversible case. The "insulation" of the computational qubits from the heat bath is a theoretical idealization that does not always hold when implementing the algorithm. However, with a proper choice of the physical implementation of each type of qubit, this assumption fairly holds. There are many different versions of this algorithm, with different uses of the reset qubits and different achievable biases. The common idea behind them can be demonstrated using three qubits: two computational qubits and one reset qubit . Each of the three qubits is initially in a completely mixed state with bias (see the background section). The following steps are then applied: Refresh: the reset qubit interacts with the heat bath. Compression: a reversible compression (entropy transfer) is applied on the three qubits. Each round of the algorithm consists of three iterations, and each iteration consists of these two steps (refresh, and then compression). The compression step in each iteration is slightly different, but its goal is to sort the qubits in descending order of bias, so that the reset qubit would have the smallest bias (namely, the highest temperature) of all qubits. This serves two goals: Transferring as much entropy as possible away from the computational qubits. Transferring as much entropy as possible away from the whole system (and in particular the reset qubit) and into the bath in the following refresh step. When writing the density matrices after each iteration, the compression step in the 1st round can be effectively treated as follows: 1st iteration: swap qubit with the previously-refreshed reset qubit . 2nd iteration: swap qubit with the previously-refreshed reset qubit . 3rd iteration: boost the bias of qubit . The description of the compression step in the following rounds depends on the state of the system before the round has begun and may be more complicated than the above description. In this illustrative description of the algorithm, the boosted bias of qubit (obtained after the end of the first round) is , where is the bias of the qubits within the heat bath. This result is obtained after the last compression step; just before this step, the qubits were each -biased, which is exactly the state of the qubits before the reversible algorithm is applied. Refresh step The contact that is established between the reset qubit and the heat bath can be modeled in several possible ways: A physical interaction between two thermodynamic systems, which eventually results in a reset qubit whose temperature is identical to the bath temperature (equivalently - with bias equal to the bias of the qubits in the bath, ). A mathematical trace-out on the reset qubit, followed by taking the system in a product state with a fresh new qubit from the bath. This means that we lose the former reset qubit and gain a refreshed new one. Formally, this can be written as , where is the new density matrix (after the operation is held), is the partial trace operation on the reset qubit , and is the density matrix describing a (new) qubit from the bath, with bias . In both ways, the result is a reset qubit whose bias is identical to the bias of the qubits in the bath. In addition, the resulted reset qubit is uncorrelated with the other ones, independently of the correlations between them before the refresh step was held. Therefore, the refresh step can be viewed as discarding the information about the current reset qubit and gaining information about a fresh new one from the bath. Compression step The goal of this step is to reversibly redistribute the entropy of all qubits, such that the biases of the qubits are in descending (or non-ascending) order. The operation is done reversibly in order to prevent the entropy of the entire system from increasing (as it cannot decrease in a closed system, see entropy). In terms of temperature, this step rearranges the qubits in ascending order of temperature, so that the reset qubits are the hottest. In the example of the three qubits , this means that after the compression is done, the bias of qubit is the highest and the bias of is the lowest. In addition, the compression is used for the cooling of the computational qubits. The state of the system will be denoted by if the qubits are uncorrelated with each other (namely, if the system is in a product state) and their corresponding biases are . The compression can be described as a sort operation on the diagonal entries of the density matrix which describes the system. For instance, if the state of the system after a certain reset step is , then the compression operates on the state as follows: This notation denotes a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are listed within the parentheses. The density matrices represent the state of the system (including possible correlations between the qubits) before and after the compression step, respectively. In the above notations, the state after compression is . This sort operation is used for the rearrangement of the qubits in descending order of bias. As in the example, for some cases the sort operation can be described by a simpler operation, such as swap. However, the general form of the compression operation is a sort operation on the diagonal entries of the density matrix. For an intuitive demonstration of the compression step, the flow of the algorithm in the 1st round is presented below: 1st Iteration: After the refresh step, the state is . After the compression step (which swaps qubits ), the state is . 2nd Iteration: After the refresh step, the state is . After the compression step (which swaps qubits ), the state is . 3rd Iteration: After the refresh step, the state is . After the compression step (which boosts the bias of qubit ), the biases of the qubits are , which can be approximated (to leading order) by . Here, each bias is independently defined as the bias of the matching qubit when discarding the rest of the system (using partial trace), even when there are correlations between them. Therefore, this notation cannot fully describe the system, but can only be used as an intuitive demonstration of the steps of the algorithm. After the 1st round is over, the bias of the reset qubit () is smaller than the bias of the heat bath (). This means that in the next refresh step (in the 2nd round of the algorithm), the reset qubit will be replaced by a fresh qubit with bias : this cools the entire system, similarly to the previous refresh steps. Afterwards, the algorithm continues in a similar way. General results The number of rounds is not bounded: since the biases of the reset qubits asymptotically reach the bias of the bath after each round, the bias of the target computational qubit asymptotically reaches its limit as the algorithm proceeds. The target qubit is the computational qubit that the algorithm aims to cool the most. The "cooling limit" (the maximum bias the target qubit can reach) depends on the bias of the bath and the number of qubits of each kind in the system. If the number of the computational qubits (excluding the target one) is and the number of reset qubits is , then the cooling limit is . In the case where , the maximal polarization that can be obtained is proportional to . Otherwise, the maximal bias reaches arbitrarily close to . The number of rounds required in order to reach a certain bias depends on the desired bias, the bias of the bath and the number of qubits, and moreover varies between different versions of the algorithm. There are other theoretical results which give bounds on the number of iterations required to reach a certain bias. For example, if the bias of the bath is , then the number of iterations required to cool a certain qubit to bias is at least . References Quantum information science

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This page details the EuroLeague's individual season statistical basketball leaders since the 1991–92 season. Under previous EuroLeague competition formats, the "Regular Season" stats leaders were not counted as the official league stats leaders in the EuroLeague. Only the "Full Season" stats leaders were counted as the official league leaders of the EuroLeague. Therefore, playing solely in the "Regular Season" phase of previous EuroLeague season formats, did not qualify a player to be among the league's leaders. To qualify to be among the EuroLeague season stats leaders, a player must play in at least 51% of the possible games that can be played in a given season. Season by season league leaders Points Per Game Since the beginning of the 1991–92 season: 1991–92 - Nikos Galis (Aris): 32.25 (in 16 games) 1992–93 Zdravko Radulović (KK Cibona): 23.92 (in 13 games) 1993–94 - Nikos Galis (Panathinaikos): 23.80 (in 21 games) 1994–95 - Predrag Danilović (Virtus Bologna): 22.11 (in 17 games) 1995–96 Joe Arlauckas (Real Madrid): 26.42 (in 21 games) 1996–97 Carlton Myers (Fortitudo Bologna): 22.94 (in 19 games) 1997–98 - Peja Stojaković (PAOK): 20.93 (in 16 games) 1998–99 İbrahim Kutluay (Fenerbahçe): 21.41 (in 17 games) 1999–00 Miljan Goljović (Pivovarna Laško): 20.18 (in 16 games) 2000–01 - Miroslav Berić (KK Partizan): 23.25 (in 20 games) (FIBA SuproLeague) 2000–01 Alphonso Ford (Peristeri): 26 (in 12 games) (EuroLeague) 2001–02 Alphonso Ford (Olympiacos): 24.75 (in 20 games) 2002–03 - Miloš Vujanić (KK Partizan): 25.79 (in 14 games) 2003–04 Lynn Greer (Śląsk Wrocław): 25.07 (in 14 games) 2004–05 Charles Smith (Scavolini Pesaro): 20.65 (in 20 games) 2005–06 Drew Nicholas (Benetton Treviso): 18.45 (in 20 games) 2006–07 Juan Carlos Navarro (FC Barcelona): 16.77 (in 22 games) 2007–08 Marc Salyers (Chorale Roanne): 21.79 (in 14 games) 2008–09 Igor Rakočević (TAU Ceramica): 17.95 (in 21 games) 2009–10 Linas Kleiza (Olympiacos): 17.14 (in 22 games) 2010–11 Igor Rakočević (Efes Pilsen): 17.21 (in 14 games) 2011–12 - Bo McCalebb (Montepaschi Siena): 16.9 (in 17 games) 2012–13 Bobby Brown (Montepaschi Siena): 18.83 (in 24 games) 2013–14 - Keith Langford (Olimpia Milano): 17.56 (in 25 games) 2014–15 - Taylor Rochestie (Nizhny Novgorod): 18.9 (in 21 games) 2015–16 Nando De Colo (CSKA Moscow): 19.44 (in 27 games) 2016–17 Keith Langford (Unics Kazan): 21.75 (in 28 games) 2017–18 Alexey Shved (BC Khimki): 21.76 (in 34 games) 2018–19 Mike James (Olimpia Milano): 19.8 (in 30 games) 2019–20 - Shane Larkin (Efes): 22.2 (in 25 games) Rebounds Per Game Since the beginning of the 1991–92 season: 1991–92 Corny Thompson (Joventut Badalona): 11.72 (in 18 games) 1992–93 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 11.95 (in 20 games) 1993–94 Roy Tarpley (Olympiacos): 12.84 (in 19 games) 1994–95 Stojko Vranković (Panathinaikos): 12.19 (in 21 games) 1995–96 Charles Shackleford (Ülker): 12.38 (in 18 games) 1996–97 Warren Kidd (Stefanel Milano): 10.59 (in 22 games) 1997–98 - Dejan Tomašević (KK Partizan): 9.60 (in 23 games) 1998–99 Žan Tabak (Fenerbahçe): 10 (in 18 games) 1999–00 Hüseyin Beşok (Efes Pilsen): 10.04 (in 23 games) 2000–01 Roberto Chiacig (Montepaschi Siena): 9.38 (in 18 games) (FIBA SuproLeague) 2000–01 - Dejan Tomašević (KK Buducnost): 11.5 (in 12 games) (EuroLeague) 2001–02 - Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 12.76 (in 17 games) 2002–03 - Mirsad Türkcan (Montepaschi Siena): 11.81 (in 21 games) 2003–04 Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 10.72 (in 18 games) 2004–05 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 10.6 (in 20 games) 2005–06 - Mirsad Türkcan (Ülker): 8.94 (in 16 games) 2006–07 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 9.86 (in 14 games) 2007–08 Travis Watson (Olimpia Milano): 9.71 (in 14 games) 2008–09 - Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker): 8.64 (in 14 games) 2009–10 Travis Watson (Žalgiris Kaunas): 9.46 (in 13 games) 2010–11 - Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker): 7.33 (in 12 games) 2011–12 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 7.47 (in 17 games) 2012–13 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow): 7.31 (in 26 games) 2013–14 Joffrey Lauvergne (Partizan Belgrade): 8.63 (in 24 games) 2014–15 Boban Marjanovic (KK Crvena zvezda): 10.67 (in 24 games) 2015–16 Ioannis Bourousis (Saski Baskonia): 8.66 (in 29 games) 2016–17 - Ekpe Udoh (KK Fenerbahce): 7.77 (in 31 games) 2017–18 James Augustine (Unicaja Malaga): 6.69 (in 29 games) 2018–19 Vincent Poirier (Baskonia): 8.3 (in 34 games) 2019–20 Nikola Milutinov (Olympiacos): 8.2 (in 24 games) Assists Per Game Since the beginning of the 1991–92 season: 1991–92 Micheal Ray Richardson (KK Split): 6.07 (in 14 games) 1992–93 Nacho Azofra (Estudiantes Madrid): 5.58 (in 12 games) 1993–94 - Nikos Galis (Panathinaikos): 4.71 (in 21 games) 1994–95 Chuck Evans (CSKA Moscow): 6.15 (in 13 games) 1995–96 Vasily Karasev (CSKA Moscow): 7.15 (in 20 games) 1996–97 Michael Anderson (Caja San Fernando): 6.11 (in 17 games) 1997–98 Willie Anderson (AEK Athens): 4.41 (in 12 games) 1998–99 Tyus Edney (Žalgiris Kaunas): 6.13 (in 22 games) 1999–00 David Rivers (TOFAS Bursa): 4.93 (in 16 games) 2000–01 Raimonds Miglinieks (Śląsk Wrocław): 6.95 (in 20 games) (FIBA SuproLeague) 2000–01 Ivica Marić (KK Zadar): 5.9 (in 10 games) (EuroLeague) 2001–02 Elmer Bennett (Baskonia): 5.27 (in 15 games) 2002–03 - Ed Cota (Žalgiris Kaunas): 6.5 (in 14 games) 2003–04 - Ed Cota (Žalgiris Kaunas): 5.65 (in 20 games) 2004–05 Mire Chatman (EB Pau-Orthez): 6.21 (in 14 games) 2005–06 - Pablo Prigioni (Baskonia): 6.24 (in 25 games) 2006–07 Theo Papaloukas (CSKA Moscow): 5.4 (in 25 games) 2007–08 DeJuan Collins (Žalgiris Kaunas): 5.35 (in 20 games) 2008–09 Theo Papaloukas (Olympiacos): 5.18 (in 22 games) 2009–10 Omar Cook (Unicaja Málaga): 5.94 (in 16 games) 2010–11 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos): 6.23 (in 22 games) 2011–12 Omar Cook (Olimpia Milano): 5.69 (in 16 games) 2012–13 Zoran Planinić (Khimki): 6.32 (in 22 games) 2013–14 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos): 6.21 (in 29 games) 2014–15 Miloš Teodosić (CSKA Moscow): 7.0 (in 24 games) 2015–16 Thomas Heurtel (Efes): 7.92 (in 24 games) 2016–17 Miloš Teodosić (CSKA Moscow): 6.79 (in 29 games) 2017–18 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 8.03 (in 31 games) 2018–19 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 8.7 (in 33 games) 2019–20 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 9.1 (in 28 games) Steals Per Game Since the beginning of the 1991–92 season: 1991–92 Riccardo Pittis (Olimpia Milano): 3.73 (in 19 games) 1992–93 Clinton Wheeler (Bayer Leverkusen): 3 (in 17 games) 1993–94 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.92 (in 13 games) 1994–95 Sergei Panov (CSKA Moscow): 3 (in 19 games) 1995–96 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.63 (in 19 games) 1996–97 Michael Anderson (Caja San Fernando): 2.70 (in 17 games) 1997–98 David Rivers (Fortitudo Bologna): 2.85 (in 21 games) 1998–99 Gerald Lewis (KK Zadar): 2.53 (in 15 games) 1999–00 Andrea Meneghin (Pallacanestro Varese): 2.93 (in 16 games) 2000–01 Ralph Biggs (Telindus Oostende): 2.1 (in 20 games) (FIBA SuproLeague) 2000–01 Ivica Marić (KK Zadar) & Jemeil Rich (Lugano Snakes): 3.7 (in 10 games) (EuroLeague) 2001–02 - Manu Ginóbili (Virtus Bologna): 2.55 (in 22 games) 2002–03 Jorge Garbajosa (Benetton Treviso) & Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.27 (in 22 games) 2003–04 Fred House (KK Partizan): 3.38 (in 13 games) 2004–05 Chris Williams (Frankfurt Skyliners): 2.79 (in 14 games) 2005–06 Jeff Trepagnier (Ülker): 3.05 (in 20 games) 2006–07 Ricky Rubio (Joventut Badalona): 3.19 (in 16 games) 2007–08 - Shaun Stonerook (Montepaschi Siena): 2.58 (in 24 games) 2008–09 - David Logan (Asseco Prokom): 2.67 (in 15 games) 2009–10 - Bo McCalebb (KK Partizan) & Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow): 1.95 (in 22 games) 2010–11 Chuck Eidson (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 2.64 (in 22 games) 2011–12 Jamon Gordon (Galatasaray): 1.81 (in 16 games) 2012–13 - Bo McCalebb (Fenerbahçe Ülker): 1.91 (in 23 games) 2013–14 Jamon Gordon (Anadolu Efes): 2.00 (in 21 games) 2014–15 Tarence Kinsey (Nizhny Novgorod): 1.59 (in 17 games) 2015–16 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 2.00 (in 27 games) 2016–17 - Charles Jenkins (Crvena zvezda): 2.07 (in 30 games) 2017–18 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 1.74 (in 31 games) 2018–19 - Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos): 1.7 (in 33 games) 2019–20 Pierriá Henry (Baskonia): 1.6 (in 25 games) Blocks Per Game Since the beginning of the 2000–01 season: 2000–01 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 2.13 (in 22 games) (FIBA SuproLeague) 2000–01 Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 3.17 (in 12 games) (EuroLeague) 2001–02 Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 3.21 (in 14 games) 2002–03 Eduardo Hernández-Sonseca (Real Madrid): 1.5 (in 14 games) 2003–04 Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 1.61 (in 18 games) 2004–05 Eurelijus Žukauskas (Ülker): 1.82 (in 22 games) 2005–06 Darjuš Lavrinovič (Žalgiris Kaunas): 2.1 (in 20 games) 2006–07 Marcus Haislip (Efes Pilsen): 1.75 (in 20 games) 2007–08 Ömer Aşık (Fenerbahçe Ülker): 2.07 (in 15 games) 2008–09 Fran Vázquez (FC Barcelona): 1.74 (in 23 games) 2009–10 - D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.8 (in 20 games) 2010–11 Mirza Begić (Žalgiris Kaunas/Real Madrid): 1.5 (in 16 games) 2011–12 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 1.94 (in 17 games) 2012–13 - Shawn James (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.93 (in 27 games) 2013–14 - Bryant Dunston (Olympiacos): 1.31 (in 29 games) 2014–15 Artsiom Parakhouski (Nizhny Novgorod): 1.96 (in 23 games) 2015–16 - Ekpe Udoh (Fenerbahçe): 2.26 (in 27 games) 2016–17 - Ekpe Udoh (Fenerbahçe): 2.19 (in 31 games) 2017–18 - Bryant Dunston (Anadolu Efes Istanbul): 1.73 (in 30 games) 2018–19 Edy Tavares (Real Madrid): 1.7 (in 34 games) 2019–20 Edy Tavares (Real Madrid): 2.2 (in 28 games) Average Index Rating (PIR) Since the beginning of the 2000–01 season: 2000–01 - Dejan Tomašević (KK Buducnost): 30.92 (in 12 games) 2001–02 - Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 25.82 (in 17 games) 2002–03 - Mirsad Türkcan (Montepaschi Siena): 24 (in 21 games) 2003–04 Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 26.28 (in 18 games) 2004–05 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 24.88 (in 24 games) 2005–06 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 20.52 (in 25 games) 2006–07 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 21.73 (in 22 games) 2007–08 Marc Salyers (Chorale Roanne): 22.5 (in 14 games) 2008–09 -- D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 21.46 (in 13 games) 2009–10 - Aleks Marić (KK Partizan): 21.11 (in 18 games) 2010–11 Fernando San Emeterio (Baskonia): 19.05 (in 20 games) 2011–12 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 24.18 (in 17 games) 2012–13 Bobby Brown (Montepaschi Siena): 17.38 (in 24 games) 2013–14 Keith Langford (Olimpia Milano): 17.68 (in 25 games) 2014–15 Boban Marjanović (Red Star): 25.7 (in 24 games) 2015–16 Nando de Colo (CSKA Moscow): 24.3 (in 27 games) 2016–17 Keith Langford (Olimpia Milano): 21.8 (in 28 games) 2017–18 Luka Dončić (Real Madrid): 21.6 (in 33 games) 2018–19 Mike James (Olimpia Milano): 20.2 (in 30 games) 2019–20 - Shane Larkin (Efes): 25.8 (in 25 games) Free Throw Percentage Season statistical leaders by category 1991–92 Points per game: Nikos Galis (Aris Thessaloniki): 32.2 Velimir Perasović (Slobodna Dalmacija Split): 25.5 Zdravko Radulović (Cibona Zagreb): 24.3 Bill Varner (Maes Pils Mechelen): 24.1 Tiit Sokk (Tout Giannopoulos) (Kalev Tallinn): 23.4 Mike Mitchell (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 22.5 Doron Jamchi (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 22.1 Aivar Kuusmaa (Kalev Tallinn): 21.1 Hugues Occansey (Olympique d'Antibes): 20.6 Harold Pressley (Joventut Badalona): 20.3 Predrag Danilović (Partizan Belgrade): 19.3 Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 18.9 Rebounds per game: Corny Thompson (Joventut Badalona): 11.7 Lee Johnson (Olympique d'Antibes): 10.2 Zoran Savić (FC Barcelona): 9.7 Christian Welp (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 9.5 Darryl Dawkins (Philips Milano): 9.2 Anthony Avent (Phonola Caserta): 9 Sergei Babenko (Kalev Tallinn): 8.6 Ben Coleman (FC Barcelona): 8.4 Mychal Thompson (Phonola Caserta): 8.38 Harold Pressley (Joventut Badalona): 8.31 Bill Wennington (Knorr Bologna): 8.1 Rickie Winslow (Estudiantes Madrid): 8.0 Assists per game: Micheal Ray Richardson (Slobodna Dalmacija Split): 6.0 Guy Goodes (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 4.5 Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 4.2 Nacho Azofra (Estudiantes Madrid): 3.8 Aleksandar Đorđević (Partizan Belgrade): 3.7 Nikos Galis (Aris Thessaloniki): 3.6 Cornelis Van Rootselaar (Commodore Den Helder): 3.4 Rafael Jofresa (Joventut Badalona): 3.2 Robert Smith (Olympique d'Antibes): 3.0 Ferdinando Gentile (Phonola Caserta): 2.9 Riccardo Pittis (Philips Milano): 2.7 Aivar Kuusmaa (Kalev Tallinn): 2.6 Steals per game: Riccardo Pittis (Philips Milano): 3.7 Micheal Ray Richardson (Slobodna Dalmacija Split): 2.9 Predrag Danilović (Partizan Belgrade): 2.2 Darryl Dawkins (Philips Milano): 2.1 Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.0 Claudio Coldebella (Knorr Bologna): 2 1992–93 Points per game: Zdravko Radulović (Cibona Zagreb): 23.9 Žarko Paspalj (Olympiacos Piraeus): 23.8 Branislav Prelević (PAOK Thessaloniki): 21.58 Bill Varner (Maes Pils Mechelen): 21.52 Toni Kukoč (Benetton Treviso): 21.0 Michael Young (CSP Limoges): 20.947 Walter Berry (Olympiacos Piraeus): 20.941 Terry Teagle (Benetton Treviso): 19.7 Doron Jamchi (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 19.2 Predrag Danilović (Knorr Bologna): 18.7 Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 17.5 Gheorghe Mureșan (EB Pau Orthez): 17.3 Rebounds per game: Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 11.9 Cliff Levingston (PAOK Thessaloniki): 11.5 Walter Berry (Olympiacos Piraeus): 9.9 Corny Thompson (Joventut Badalona): 9.6 Stefano Rusconi (Benetton Treviso): 9.1 Emilio Kovačić (KK Zadar): 9 Gheorghe Mureșan (EB Pau Orthez): 8.8 Orlando Phillips (EB Pau Orthez): 8.57 Panagiotis Fasoulas (PAOK Thessaloniki): 8.52 Christian Welp (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 8.5 Ferran Martínez (Joventut Badalona): 8.1 Rickey Brown (Real Madrid): 8 Assists per game: Nacho Azofra (Estudiantes Madrid): 5.5 Toni Kukoč (Benetton Treviso): 5 Valéry Demory (EB Pau Orthez): 4.1 Didier Gadou (EB Pau Orthez): 3.9 Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 3.6 José Miguel Antúnez (Real Madrid): 3.3 Darko Pahlić (KK Zadar): 3.0 Branislav Prelević (PAOK Thessaloniki): 3 Pablo Martínez (Estudiantes Madrid): 2.9 John Korfas (PAOK Thessaloniki): 2.8 Jure Zdovc (CSP Limoges): 2.7 Henning Harnisch (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.7 Steals per game: Clinton Wheeler (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 3 Pete Myers (Scavolini Pesaro): 2.8 Haywoode Workman (Scavolini Pesaro): 2.52 Nadav Henefeld (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 2.5 Henning Harnisch (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.17 Toni Kukoč (Benetton Treviso): 2.11 1993–94 Points per game: Nikos Galis (Panathinaikos Athens): 23.8 Michael Young (CSP Limoges): 23.5 Žarko Paspalj (Olympiacos Piraeus): 20.9 Roy Tarpley (Olympiacos Piraeus): 20.8 Predrag Danilović (Buckler Bologna): 20 Jean-Jacques Conceição (Benfica Lisboa): 19.2 Bill Varner (Maes Pils Mechelen): 18.4 Carlos Lisboa (Benfica Lisboa): 18.3 Alexander Volkov (Panathinaikos Athens): 18.2 Geert Hammink (Clear Cantù): 18 Ivica Žurić (Cibona Zagreb): 17.8 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 17.4 Tony Massenburg (FC Barcelona): 17.4 Rebounds per game: Roy Tarpley (Olympiacos Piraeus): 12.8 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 11.8 Larry Richard (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 11.5 Jean-Jacques Conceição (Benfica Lisboa): 11.18 Stojan Vranković (Panathinaikos Athens): 11.15 Tony Massenburg (FC Barcelona): 10.7 Abdul Shamsid-Deen (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 9.5 Panagiotis Fasoulas (Olympiacos Piraeus): 8.789 Emilio Kovačić (Cibona Zagreb): 8.785 Mike Smith (Joventut Badalona): 8.3 Augusto Binelli (Buckler Bologna): 8.1 Alexander Volkov (Panathinaikos Athens): 8.0 Assists per game: Nikos Galis (Panathinaikos Athens): 4.7 Joseph Byrd (Guildford Kings): 4.1 Vladan Alanović (Cibona Zagreb): 3.53 Pedro Miguel (Benfica Lisboa): 3.5 Tom Garrick (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 3.4 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 3.3 Valéry Demory (EB Pau Orthez): 3.1 Frédéric Fauthoux (EB Pau Orthez): 2.937 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 2.933 Claudio Coldebella (Buckler Bologna): 2.8 José Miguel Antúnez (Real Madrid): 2.6 Alberto Rossini (Clear Cantù): 2.5 Steals per game: Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.9 Carlos Lisboa (Benfica Lisboa): 2.5 Ufuk Sarıca (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 2.3 Tom Garrick (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.25 Claudio Coldebella (Buckler Bologna): 2.23 Michael Koch (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.0 1994–95 Points per game: Predrag Danilović (Buckler Bologna): 22.1 Eddie Johnson (Olympiacos Piraeus): 21.9 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 21.8 Michael Young (CSP Limoges): 20.1 Žarko Paspalj (Panathinaikos Athens): 19.7 Joe Arlauckas (Real Madrid): 19.5 Dusan Hauptman (Smelt Olimpija Ljubljana): 19 Jean-Jacques Conceição (Benfica Lisboa): 18.9 Veljko Mršić (Cibona Zagreb): 18.7 Antonello Riva (Scavolini Pesaro): 17.7 Doron Jamchi (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.35 Ufuk Sarıca (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 17.33 Rebounds per game: Stojan Vranković (Panathinaikos Athens): 12.1 Jean-Jacques Conceição (Benfica Lisboa): 11.5 Arvydas Sabonis (Real Madrid): 11.1 Joe Binion (Buckler Bologna): 10.2 Dean Garrett (Scavolini Pesaro): 9.6 Radisav Ćurčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 9.2 Vitali Nosov (Smelt Olimpija Ljubljana): 9.1 Reggie Cross (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 9.0 Zoran Savić (PAOK Thessaloniki): 8.1 Howard Wright (Joventut Badalona): 8.0 Evgeni Kisurin (CSKA Moscow): 7.4 Ferran Martínez (FC Barcelona): 7.2 Assists per game: Chuck Evans (CSKA Moscow): 6.1 Guy Goodes (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 4.4 Pedro Miguel (Benfica Lisboa): 4.3 Vasily Karasev (CSKA Moscow): 4.1 Tom Garrick (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 3.8 Giorgos Sigalas (Olympiacos Piraeus): 3.5 Branislav Prelević (PAOK Thessaloniki): 3.4 José Miguel Antúnez (Real Madrid): 3.3 John Korfas (PAOK Thessaloniki): 3.08 Henning Harnisch (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 3.06 Rafael Jofresa (Joventut Badalona): 2.8 Gerrod Abram (Cibona Zagreb): 2.8 Steals per game: Sergei Panov (CSKA Moscow): 3 Chris Corchiani (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 2.7 Igor Kudelin (CSKA Moscow): 2.6 Gerrod Abram (Cibona Zagreb): 2.5 Nadav Henefeld (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 2.2 Reggie Cross (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 2.1 1995–96 Points per game: Joe Arlauckas (Real Madrid): 26.4 Tony Dawson (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 24.8 Arijan Komazec (Buckler Bologna): 24 Henry Williams (Benetton Treviso): 22 Tony White (Olympique d'Antibes): 22 Antoine Rigaudeau (EB Pau Orthez): 21.6 Artūras Karnišovas (FC Barcelona): 20.7 Dominique Wilkins (Panathinaikos Athens): 20.1 David Rivers (Olympiacos Piraeus): 19.6 Charles Shackleford (Ulker Istanbul): 19.5 Orlando Woolridge (Buckler Bologna): 19.3 Xavier McDaniel (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 18.3 Rebounds per game: Charles Shackleford (Ulker Istanbul): 12.3 Stojan Vranković (Panathinaikos Athens): 10.2 Kenny Miller (Unicaja Málaga): 9.8 Julius Nwosu (CSKA Moscow): 9.2 Xavier McDaniel (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 7.8 Evgeni Kisurin (CSKA Moscow): 7.5 Panagiotis Papachronis (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 7.4 Radisav Ćurčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 7.37 Dominique Wilkins (Panathinaikos Athens): 7.35 Jean-Jacques Conceição (Benfica Lisboa): 7.0 Tom Chambers (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 6.769 Panagiotis Fasoulas (Olympiacos Piraeus): 6.764 Assists per game: Vasily Karasev (CSKA Moscow): 7.2 Lefteris Kakiousis (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 5.5 Pablo Laso (Real Madrid): 4.8 David Rivers (Olympiacos Piraeus): 4.2 Chris Corchiani (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 4.18 Orhun Ene (Ulker Istanbul): 4.11 José Luis Galilea (FC Barcelona): 3.64 Davide Bonora (Benetton Treviso): 3.63 Didier Gadou (EB Pau Orthez): 3.2 Gundars Vētra (CSKA Moscow): 3.15 Igor Kudelin (CSKA Moscow): 3.1 Antoine Rigaudeau (Pau Orthez): 3.0 Steals per game: Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.6 Ignacio Rodríguez (Unicaja Málaga): 2.5 Chris Corchiani (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 2.3 David Rivers (Olympiacos Piraeus): 2.29 Nadav Henefeld (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 2.25 Vladan Alanović (Cibona Zagreb): 2.0 1996–97 Points per game: Carlton Myers (Teamsystem Bologna): 22.9 Arijan Komazec (Kinder Bologna): 21.9 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 20.5 Harper Williams (Estudiantes Madrid): 19.0 Delaney Rudd (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 18.0 Michael Anderson (Caja San Fernando Sevilla): 17.8 David Rivers (Olympiacos Piraeus): 17.17 Miroslav Berić (Partizan Belgrade): 17.15 Zoran Savić (Kinder Bologna): 17.0 Yann Bonato (CSP Limoges): 16.7 Damir Mulaomerović (Cibona Zagreb): 16.4 Dan Godfread (Ulker Istanbul): 16.3 Rebounds per game: Warren Kidd (Stefanel Milano): 10.5 Vitali Nosov (Dynamo Moscow): 10.1 Hansi Gnad (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 9.1 Kevin Rankin (Ulker Istanbul): 8.18 Conrad McRae (Teamsystem Bologna): 8.15 Dragan Tarlać (Olympiacos Piraeus): 8.10 Randy White (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 7.8 Dejan Tomašević (Partizan Belgrade): 7.7 Zoran Savić (Kinder Bologna): 7.5 Geert Hammink (Panionios Athens): 7.1 Evgeni Kisurin (Cibona Zagreb): 7.0 Dan Godfread (Ulker Istanbul): 6.8 Assists per game: Michael Anderson (Caja San Fernando Sevilla): 6.1 Delaney Rudd (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 5.7 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 4.4 Aleksandar Đorđević (FC Barcelona): 4.1 Saša Obradović (Alba Berlin): 3.88 Oleg Meleshchenko (Dynamo Moscow): 3.87 Sergei Bazarevich (CSKA Moscow): 3.75 Byron Dinkins (Panathinaikos Athens): 3.75 Henrik Rödl (Alba Berlin): 3.70 Giorgos Sigalas (Olympiacos Piraeus): 3.59 Damir Mulaomerović (Cibona Zagreb): 3.55 David Rivers (Olympiacos Piraeus): 3.4 Steals per game: Michael Anderson (Caja San Fernando Sevilla): 2.7 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 2.3 Arijan Komazec (Kinder Bologna): 2.1 Ronald Ellis (Spirou Charleroi): 2.06 Josip Vranković (Croatia Osiguranje Split): 2.06 Evgeni Kisurin (Cibona Zagreb): 2.05 1997–98 Points per game: Peja Stojaković (PAOK Thessaloniki) 20.9 Harun Erdenay (Ulker Istanbul) 20.0 Oded Kattash (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 19.5 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 19.1 Henry Williams (Benetton Treviso) 18.2 Dominique Wilkins (Teamsystem Bologna) 17.8 Radisav Ćurčić (Hapoel Jerusalem) 17.7 Željko Rebrača (Benetton Treviso) 17.6 Predrag Danilović (Kinder Bologna) 17.5 Artūras Karnišovas (Olympiacos Piraeus) 17.0 Wendell Alexis (Alba Berlin) 16.8 Nuno Marçal (FC Porto) 16.2 Rebounds per game: Dejan Tomašević (Partizan Belgrade): 9.6 Mirsad Türkcan (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 9.2 Conrad McRae (PAOK Thessaloniki): 8.7 Glen Whisby (Estudiantes Madrid): 8.2 Kenny Williams (Hapoel Jerusalem): 8 Marcus Webb (CSKA Moscow): 7.8 Rogelio Legasa (FC Porto): 7.7 Victor Alexander (AEK Athens): 7.5 Rickie Winslow (Turk Telekom Ankara): 7.5 Éric Struelens (PSG Racing Basket): 7.26 Richard Scott (Turk Telekom Ankara): 7.25 Roberto Chiacig (Teamsystem Bologna): 7.2 Assists per game: Willie Anderson (AEK Athens): 4.4 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 4.17 Aleksandar Đorđević (FC Barcelona): 4.11 Henrik Rödl (Alba Berlin): 3.9 Oded Kattash (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.63 Damir Mulaomerović (Cibona Zagreb): 3.61 Michael Anderson (Ulker Istanbul): 3.5 Sergei Bazarevich (Turk Telekom): 3.4 Michael Hawkins (Olympiacos Piraeus): 3.3 Predrag Danilović (Kinder Bologna): 3.1 Vasily Karasev (Alba Berlin): 3 Chucky Atkins (Cibona Zagreb): 3 Arsène Ade-Mensah (PSG Racing Basket): 3 Steals per game: David Rivers (Teamsystem Bologna): 2.8 Vladan Alanović (Croatia Osiguranje Split): 2.7 Sergei Panov (CSKA Moscow): 2.54 Michael Anderson (Ulker Istanbul): 2.5 Antoine Rigaudeau (Kinder Bologna): 2.45 Hugo Sconochini (Kinder Bologna): 2.4 1998–99 Points per game: İbrahim Kutluay (Fenerbahçe Istanbul): 21.4 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 20.2 Harun Erdenay (Ulker Istanbul): 20.1 Veljko Mršić (Varese Roosters): 19.6 Oded Kattash (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 19.07 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 19.05 Dino Rađa (Panathinaikos Athens): 17.4 Victor Alexander (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.3 Antoine Rigaudeau (Kinder Bologna): 17.28 Valeri Daineko (CSKA Moscow): 17.22 Walter Berry (PAOK Thessaloniki): 16.86 Predrag Danilović (Kinder Bologna): 16.85 Rebounds per game: Žan Tabak (Fenerbahçe Istanbul): 10 Hüseyin Beşok (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 9.6 Victor Alexander (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 8.9 Conrad McRae (Fenerbahçe Istanbul): 8.8 Gintaras Einikis (Avtodor Saratov): 8.6 Sherron Mills (TDK Manresa): 8.3 Tanoka Beard (Real Madrid): 8.2 Dino Rađa (Panathinaikos Athens): 8.1 Walter Berry (PAOK Thessaloniki): 7.86 Nikola Prkačin (Cibona Zagreb): 7.84 Kevin Rankin (Ulker Istanbul): 7.2 Dragan Tarlać (Olympiacos Piraeus): 6.7 Assists per game: Tyus Edney (Žalgiris Kaunas): 6.1 Delaney Rudd (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 5.9 Petar Naumoski (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 5.78 Gianmarco Pozzecco (Varese Roosters): 5.76 Elmer Bennett (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 5.6 Evgeniy Pashutin (Avtodor Saratov): 5.5 Michael Anderson (Ulker Istanbul): 5.2 Henrik Rödl (Alba Berlin): 4.2 José Lasa (Real Madrid): 3.8 Oded Kattash (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.7 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 3.6 Vasily Karasev (CSKA Moscow): 3.6 Steals per game: Gerald Lewis (KK Zadar): 2.53 Michael Anderson (Ulker Istanbul): 2.52 Ariel McDonald (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 2.4 Emilio Kovačić (KK Zadar): 2.3 Andrea Meneghin (Varese Roosters): 2.1 Alberto Herreros (Real Madrid): 2.0 1999–00 Points per game: Miljan Goljović (Pivovarna Lasko): 20.1 David Rivers (TOFAS Bursa): 19.7 Wendell Alexis (Alba Berlin): 18.5 Nate Huffman (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 18.1 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 17.2 Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 17.1 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 16.9 James Robinson (Olympiacos Piraeus): 16.4 Andrea Meneghin (Varese Roosters): 16.1 Gordan Giriček (Cibona Zagreb): 15.9 Carlton Myers (PAF Bologna): 15.7 Alberto Herreros (Real Madrid): 15.5 Rebounds per game: Hüseyin Beşok (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 10.0 Nate Huffman (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 9.3 Rashard Griffith (TOFAS Bursa): 9.1 Victor Alexander (PAOK Thessaloniki): 8.5 Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 8.4 Dragan Tarlać (Olympiacos Piraeus): 7.7 Nikola Prkačin (Cibona Zagreb): 7.6 Roberto Dueñas (FC Barcelona): 7.5 Marlon Maxey (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 7.2 Éric Struelens (Real Madrid): 7.1 Ioannis Giannoulis (PAOK Thessaloniki): 6.6 Stojan Vranković (PAF Bologna): 6.5 Assists per game: David Rivers (TOFAS Bursa): 4.93 Šarūnas Jasikevičius (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 4.90 Damir Mulaomerović (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 4.6 Moustapha Sonko (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 4.4 Aleksandar Đorđević (Real Madrid): 4.2 Vasily Karasev (CSKA Moscow): 4.1 Henrik Rödl (Alba Berlin): 3.8 Mindaugas Timinskas (Žalgiris Kaunas): 3.75 Ariel McDonald (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.70 Gianmarco Pozzecco (Varese Roosters): 3.6 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 3.6 Dragan Lukovski (Crvena Zvezda Belgrade): 3.5 Steals per game: Andrea Meneghin (Varese Roosters): 2.9 Marko Milič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 2.59 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 2.52 Andre Turner (Caja San Fernando Sevilla): 2.4 Steven Rogers (TOFAS Bursa): 2.37 Nikola Prkačin (Cibona Zagreb): 2.33 Henrik Rödl (Alba Berlin): 2.33 2000–01 FIBA SuproLeague Points per game: Miroslav Berić (Partizan Belgrade): 23.2 Carl Thomas (Plannja Luleå): 22.3 John Best (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 22.2 Bill Edwards (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 19.9 J. R. Holden (Telindus Oostende): 19.5 Nikos Chatzivrettas (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 19.3 Damir Mulaomerović (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 19.0 DeMarco Johnson (Scavolini Pesaro): 18.8 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 17.7 Nate Huffman (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.5 Adam Wójcik (Śląsk Wrocław): 17.2 Predrag Drobnjak (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 16.6 Rebounds per game: Roberto Chiacig (Montepaschi Siena): 9.3 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 9.2 Nate Huffman (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 9 Lazaros Papadopoulos (Iraklis Thessaloniki): 9 Virginijus Praškevičius (Telindus Oostende): 8.9 Dejan Koturović (Alba Berlin): 8.5 Hüseyin Beşok (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 8.3 Robertas Javtokas (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 8.2 Ben Handlogten (Ulker Istanbul): 7.9 Joseph McNaull (Śląsk Wrocław): 7.6 Yohance Nicholas (Plannja Luleå): 7.4 DeMarco Johnson (Scavolini Pesaro): 7.3 Assists per game: Raimonds Miglinieks (Śląsk Wrocław): 6.9 Laurent Sciarra (ASVEL Villeurbanne): 6.1 Chuck Evans (TSV Bayer 04 Leverkusen): 5.3 Damir Mulaomerović (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 4.9 Eric Elliott (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 4.1 J. R. Holden (Telindus Oostende): 3.75 Branko Milisavljević (Partizan Belgrade): 3.73 Derrick Phelps (Alba Berlin): 3.65 Andrius Giedraitis (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 3.6 Ariel McDonald (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.5 Miroslav Berić (Partizan Belgrade): 3.4 Melvin Booker (Scavolini Pesaro): 3.3 Steals per game: Ralph Biggs (Telindus Oostende): 2.1 Derrick Phelps (Alba Berlin): 2.0 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 1.954 Veselin Petrović (Partizan Belgrade): 1.952 Terrence Rencher (Croatia Osiguranje Split): 1.86 Carl Thomas (Plannja Luleå): 1.84 Blocks per game: Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow): 2.1 Andrei Fetisov (CSKA Moscow): 1.58 Dejan Koturović (Alba Berlin): 1.52 Jason Lawson (EB Pau Orthez): 1.3 Robertas Javtokas (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 1.2 Ben Handlogten (Ulker Istanbul): 1.0 2000–01 EuroLeague Basketball Points per game: Alphonso Ford (Peristeri Athens): 26.00 Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 22.92 Panagiotis Liadelis (PAOK Thessaloniki): 22.69 Louis Bullock (Müller Verona): 22.00 Derrick Hamilton (St. Petersburg Lions): 21.80 Jemeil Rich (Lugano Snakes): 21.50 Sani Bečirovič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 20.67 Gregor Fučka (PAF Bologna): 19.71 Kris Hill (Ovarense Aerosoles): 17.20 Mike Batiste (Spirou Basket): 16.10 Petar Naumoski (Benetton Basket): 15.86 Alphonso Reyes (Adecco Estudiantes): 15.83 Rebounds per game: Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 11.50 Dino Rađa (Olympiacos Piraeus): 9.79 Ronald Ellis (Spirou Charleroi): 9.60 Mike Batiste (Spirou Charleroi): 9.20 Rashard Griffith (Kinder Bologna): 8.71 Gregor Fučka (PAF Bologna): 8.41 Emilio Kovačić (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 8.21 Davor Pejčinović (KK Zadar): 7.90 Derrick Hamilton (St. Petersburg Lions): 7.70 Kris Hill (Ovarense Aerosoles): 7.60 Mate Skelin (Cibona VIP): 7.45 Fabricio Oberto (Tau Ceramica): 7.36 Assists per game: Ivica Marić (KK Zadar): 5.90 Elmer Bennett (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 5.45 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 3.77 Tyron McCoy (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 3.70 Byron Dinkins (Peristeri Athens): 3.58 Sani Bečirovič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 3.53 Raül López (Real Madrid): 3.25 Louis Bullock (Müller Verona): 3.18 Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 3.08 Angelos Koronios (PAOK Thessaloniki): 2.91 Gonzalo Martínez (Adecco Estudiantes): 2.90 Steve Woodberry (Zalgiris): 2.83 Steals per game: Jemeil Rich (Lugano Snakes): 3.70 Ivica Marić (KK Zadar): 3.70 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 3.38 Manu Ginóbili (Kinder Bologna): 2.91 Derrick Hamilton (St. Petersburg Lions): 2.30 Gregor Fučka (PAF Bologna): 2.29 Blocks per game: Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 3.17 Stojan Vranković (PAF Bologna): 2.60 Davor Pejčinović (KK Zadar): 2.50 Dino Rađa (Olympiacos Piraeus): 1.43 Éric Struelens (Real Madrid): 1.36 Rashard Griffith (Kinder Bologna): 1.29 Average Index Rating: Dejan Tomašević (Buducnost Podgorica): 30.92 Derrick Hamilton (St. Petersburg Lions): 28.30 Alphonso Ford (Peristeri Athens): 25.42 Gregor Fučka (PAF Bologna): 25.24 Louis Bullock (Müller Verona): 22.91 Panagiotis Liadelis (PAOK Thessaloniki): 21.38 Dino Rađa (Olympiacos Piraeus): 20.29 Sani Bečirovič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 20.13 Rashard Griffith (Kinder Bologna): 19.76 Kris Hill (Ovarense Aerosoles): 19.20 Grygorii Khiznhiak (Zalgiris): 18.83 Jameil Rich (Lugano Snakes): 18.30 2001–02 Points per game: Alphonso Ford (Olympiacos Piraeus): 24.75 Gordan Giriček (CSKA Moscow): 22.94 Jaka Lakovič (Krka Novo Mesto): 20.93 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 20.05 Vlado Šćepanović (Partizan Belgrade): 19.71 Gregor Fučka (Skipper Bologna): 19.05 Ruslan Avleev (Ural Great Perm): 18.60 Adam Wójcik (Peristeri Athens): 18.36 Marcus Goree (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 18.07 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 17.95 Igor Rakočević (Buducnost Podgorica): 17.71 Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 17.65 Rebounds per game: Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 12.76 Joseph Blair (Scavolini Pesaro): 11.93 Mate Skelin (Krka Novo Mesto): 9.79 Quadre Lollis (Ulker Istanbul): 8.50 Michalis Kakiouzis (AEK Athens): 8.25 Gregor Fučka (Skipper Bologna): 8.20 Jovo Stanojević (Partizan ICN Belgrade): 8.14 Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 8.07 Marcus Goree (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 8.07 Dejan Tomašević (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 7.60 Nate Huffman (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 7.40 Dimos Dikoudis (AEK Athens): 7.05 Assists per game: Elmer Bennett (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 5.27 Michael Hawkins (Idea Śląsk Wrocław): 5.00 John Celestand (Adecco ASVEL Villeurbanne): 4.77 Derrick Phelps (Alba Berlin): 4.08 Theo Papaloukas (Olympiacos Piraeus): 4.00 Ariel McDonald (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.80 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 3.789 Jaka Lakovič (Krka Novo Mesto): 3.785 Melvin Booker (Scavolini Pesaro): 3.75 Dragan Lukovski (EB Pau Orthez): 3.57 Curtis McCants (CSKA Moscow): 3.42 Šarūnas Jasikevičius (FC Barcelona): 3.39 Steals per game: Manu Ginóbili (Kinder Bologna): 2.55 Roger Huggins (Spirou Charleroi): 2.29 Marko Jarić (Kinder Bologna): 2.238 Derrick Phelps (Alba Berlin): 2.230 Ralph Biggs (Telindus Oostende): 2.14 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 2.11 Blocks per game: Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 3.21 Mikhail Mikhailov (Ural Great Perm): 1.63 Marcus Goree (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 1.50 Éric Struelens (Real Madrid): 1.44 Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 1.24 Frédéric Weis (Unicaja): 1.14 Average Index Rating: Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 25.82 Joseph Blair (Scavolini Pesaro): 25.14 Mate Skelin (Krka Novo Mesto): 25.07 Alphonso Ford (Olympiacos Piraeus): 23.45 Dejan Bodiroga (Panathinaikos Athens): 23.14 Ruslan Avleev (Ural Great Perm): 22.60 Jaka Lakovič (Krka Novo Mesto): 22.43 Ralph Biggs (Telindus Oostende): 21.64 Grigorij Khizhnyak (Žalgiris Kaunas): 21.57 Gregor Fučka (Skipper Bologna): 21.40 Marcus Goree (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 21.07 Gordan Giriček (CSKA Moscow): 20.56 2002–03 Points per game: Miloš Vujanić (Partizan Mobtel Belgrade): 25.79 Marcus Brown (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 19.63 Alphonso Ford (Montepaschi Siena): 17.86 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.60 Kaspars Kambala (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 17.10 Kornél Dávid (Žalgiris Kaunas): 16.92 Andrés Nocioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 16.84 Rod Sellers (EB Pau Orthez): 16.64 Victor Alexander (CSKA Moscow): 16.60 Melvin Booker (Ulker Istanbul): 16.55 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 16.50 Dejan Bodiroga (FC Barcelona): 16.09 Rebounds per game: Mirsad Türkcan (Montepaschi Siena): 11.81 Joseph Blair (Ulker Istanbul): 9.67 Quadre Lollis (Alba Berlin): 9.50 Kornél Dávid (Žalgiris Kaunas): 8.23 Kaspars Kambala (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 7.85 Andrés Nocioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 7.58 Ademola Okulaja (Unicaja Málaga): 7.53 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 7.10 Carlos Delfino (Skipper Bologna): 7.06 Vasco Evtimov (Adecco ASVEL Villeurbanne): 7.05 Denis Marconato (Benetton Treviso): 7.00 DeMarco Johnson (Olympiacos Piraeus): 6.80 Assists per game: Ed Cota (Žalgiris Kaunas): 6.50 Dragan Lukovski (EB Pau Orthez): 4.57 Gianmarco Pozzecco (Skipper Bologna): 4.56 Jon Robert Holden (CSKA Moscow): 4.41 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 4.33 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 4.09 Melvin Booker (Ulker Istanbul): 4.00 Stevin Smith (Adecco ASVEL Villeurbanne): 3.75 Vrbica Stefanov (Montepaschi Siena): 3.63 Jerome Allen (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 3.50 Gianluca Basile (Skipper Bologna): 3.42 Lucas Victoriano (Real Madrid): 3.38 Steals per game: Jorge Garbajosa (Benetton Treviso): 2.27 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Treviso): 2.27 Mirsad Türkcan (Montepaschi Siena): 2.14 Nikola Prkačin (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 2.05 Alphonso Ford (Montepaschi Siena): 2.00 Ariel McDonald (Panathinaikos): 1.94 Blocks per game: Eduardo Hernández-Sonseca (Real Madrid): 1.50 Dejan Koturović (Virtus Bologna): 1.39 Chuck Kornegay (Unicaja Málaga): 1.35 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow): 1.32 Rashard Griffith (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 1.23 Slavko Vraneš (Buducnost Podgorica): 1.21 Average Index Rating: Mirsad Türkcan (Montepaschi Siena): 24.00 Miloš Vujanić (Partizan Mobtel Belgrade): 24.00 Joseph Blair (Ulker Istanbul): 23.72 Kornél Dávid (Žalgiris Kaunas): 21.77 Marcus Brown (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 21.42 Quadre Lollis (Alba Berlin): 21.25 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 21.20 Kaspars Kambala (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 19.30 Jorge Garbajosa (Benetton Treviso): 19.27 Dejan Bodiroga (FC Barcelona): 18.91 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 18.22 Andrés Nocioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 18.00 2003–04 Points per game: Lynn Greer (Idea Śląsk Wrocław): 25.07 Horace Jenkins (AEK Athens): 20.08 Arvydas Macijauskas (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 19.45 Marcus Brown (CSKA Moscow): 18.71 Maurice Evans (Benetton Treviso): 17.40 Panagiotis Liadelis (Olympiacos Piraeus): 16.95 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 16.81 Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 16.67 DeJuan Collins (Alba Berlin): 16.64 Miloš Vujanić (Skipper Bologna): 16.30 Vlantimir Stergiou (Alba Berlin): 16.17 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 16.00 Rebounds per game: Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 10.72 Mirsad Türkcan (CSKA Moscow): 10.45 Quadre Lollis (AEK Athens): 9.75 Joseph Blair (Ulker Istanbul): 9.59 Dejan Tomašević (Pamesa Valencia): 8.71 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 8.10 Denis Marconato (Benetton Treviso): 7.89 Márton Báder (Krka Novo Mesto): 7.62 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 7.60 Rashard Griffith (Lottomatica Roma): 7.21 Đuro Ostojić (Partizan Mobtel Belgrade): 7.21 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 6.90 Assists per game: Ed Cota (Žalgiris Kaunas): 5.65 Lynn Greer (Idea Śląsk Wrocław): 5.50 Šarūnas Jasikevičius (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 4.76 Tyus Edney (Benetton Treviso): 4.56 Gianmarco Pozzecco (Skipper Bologna): 4.55 Dragan Lukovski (EB Pau Orthez): 4.42 Marcus Brown (CSKA Moscow): 4.24 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 4.05 Dejan Tomašević (Pamesa Valencia): 3.88 J. R. Holden (CSKA Moscow): 3.77 Ender Arslan (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 3.75 Riccardo Pittis (Benetton Basket): 3.74 Steals per game: Fred House (Partizan Mobtel Belgrade): 3.38 David Vanterpool (Montepaschi Siena): 2.41 Scoonie Penn (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 2.31 Dejan Tomašević (Pamesa Valencia): 2.12 Massimo Bulleri (Benetton Treviso): 2.08 Ariel McDonald (Panathinaikos Athens): 1.90 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 1.90 Blocks per game: Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 1.61 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.43 Denis Marconato (Benetton Treviso): 1.26 Adam Wójcik (Idea Śląsk Wrocław): 1.21 Patrick Femerling (FC Barcelona): 1.05 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow): 1.00 Average Index Rating: Arvydas Sabonis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 26.28 Lynn Greer (Idea Śląsk Wrocław): 24.29 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 22.24 Marcus Brown (CSKA Moscow): 21.57 Arvydas Macijauskas (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 20.40 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 20.00 Joseph Blair (Ulker Istanbul): 19.47 Horace Jenkins (AEK Athens): 19.33 Dejan Tomašević (Pamesa Valencia): 18.88 Jorge Garbajosa (Benetton Treviso): 18.06 Quadre Lollis (AEK Athens): 18.00 Đuro Ostojić (Partizan Mobtel Belgrade): 17.86 2004–05 Points per game: Charles Smith (Scavolini Pesaro): 20.65 Chris Williams (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 18.93 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 18.00 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.96 Arvydas Macijauskas (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 17.86 Robert Pack (Žalgiris Kaunas): 17.31 Louis Bullock (Real Madrid): 17.11 Serkan Erdoğan (Ulker Istanbul): 16.68 Miloš Vujanić (Climamio Bologna): 16.55 Mire Chatman (EB Pau Orthez): 16.36 Marcus Brown (CSKA Moscow): 15.96 Vladimir Boisa (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 15.79 Rebounds per game: Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 10.60 Rubén Garcés (Adecco Estudiantes Madrid): 8.71 Hüseyin Beşok (Adecco ASVEL Villeurbanne): 8.00 Jorge Garbajosa (Unicaja Málaga): 7.85 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid): 7.71 Stephane Pelle (Adecco ASVEL Villeurbanne): 7.29 Denis Marconato (Benetton Treviso): 7.23 Kerem Gönlüm (Ulker Istanbul): 7.18 David Andersen (CSKA Moscow): 7.00 Eurelijus Žukauskas (Ulker Istanbul): 7.00 Chris Williams (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 6.86 Andrija Zizić (Cibona Zagreb/Winterthur FC Barcelona): 6.80 Assists per game: Mire Chatman (EB Pau Orthez): 6.21 Šarūnas Jasikevičius (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 5.33 Nikos Zisis (AEK Athens): 4.40 Tomas Pačėsas (Prokom Trefl Sopot): 4.05 Marko Popović (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 4.00 Scoonie Penn (Scavolini Pesaro): 3.86 Theo Papaloukas (CSKA Moscow): 3.83 Kerem Tunçeri (Ulker Istanbul): 3.64 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.58 David Vanterpool (Montepaschi Siena): 3.578 Pascal Roller (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 3.57 Robert Pack (Zalgiris): 3.44 Steals per game: Chris Williams (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 2.79 Charles Smith (Scavolini Pesaro): 2.50 David Vanterpool (Montepaschi Siena): 2.16 Sašo Ožbolt (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 2.14 Scoonie Penn (Scavolini Pesaro): 2.14 Will Solomon (Efes Pilsen): 2.04 Blocks per game: Eurelijus Žukauskas (Ulker Istanbul): 1.82 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.54 Fran Vázquez (Unicaja Málaga): 1.50 Darjuš Lavrinovič (Žalgiris Kaunas): 1.36 Thierry Rupert (EB Pau Orthez): 1.36 Denis Marconato (Benetton Treviso): 1.05 Average Index Rating: Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 24.88 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 21.95 Chris Williams (Opel Frankfurt Skyliners): 21.50 Jorge Garbajosa (Unicaja Málaga): 21.23 Mire Chatman (EB Pau Orthez): 18.86 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 18.71 Charles Smith (Scavolini Pesaro): 18.30 Arvydas Macijauskas (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 18.27 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.90 David Andersen (CSKA Moscow): 17.74 Rubén Garcés (Adecco Estudiantes Madrid): 17.29 Luis Scola (Tau Ceramica): 16.88 2005–06 Points per game: Drew Nicholas (Benetton Treviso): 18.45 Scoonie Penn (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 17.05 Louis Bullock (Real Madrid): 15.80 Marcus Brown (Unicaja Málaga): 15.30 Rimantas Kaukėnas (Montepaschi Siena): 15.14 Juan Carlos Navarro (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 15.14 Goran Jagodnik (Prokom Trefl Sopot): 15.07 Will Solomon (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 15.00 Jorge Garbajosa (Unicaja Málaga): 14.89 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 14.84 Igor Rakočević (Real Madrid): 14.8 Luis Scola (Tau Ceramica): 14.76 Rebounds per game: Mirsad Türkcan (Ulker Istanbul): 8.94 Darjuš Lavrinovič (Žalgiris Kaunas): 8.30 Robertas Javtokas (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 8.20 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 8.07 Spencer Nelson (GHP Bamberg): 7.95 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid): 7.55 Travis Watson (Climamio Bologna): 7.35 Jorge Garbajosa (Unicaja Málaga): 6.94 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 6.88 Paulius Jankūnas (Zalgiris): 6.80 K'Zell Wesson (Strasbourg): 6.71 Luis Scola (Tau Ceramica): 6.68 Assists per game: Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 6.24 Tyus Edney (Olympiacos Piraeus): 4.48 Shammond Williams (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 4.28 Lonnie Cooper (EB Pau Orthez): 4.21 Theo Papaloukas (CSKA Moscow): 4.04 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.92 Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.76 Yotam Halperin (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 3.57 Aymeric Jeanneau (SIG Basket Strasbourg): 3.43 Roberts Štelmahers (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 3.38 Pepe Sánchez (Unicaja Málaga): 3.17 Christian Dalmau (Prokom Trefl Sopot): 3.15 Steals per game: Jeff Trepagnier (Ulker Istanbul): 3.05 Ricardo Greer (SIG Basket Strasbourg): 2.43 Nate Green (Climamio Bologna): 2.33 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens): 2.30 Yotam Halperin (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 2.21 Pablo Prigioni (Tau Ceramica): 2.20 Scoonie Penn (Cibona VIP): 2.20 Blocks per game: Darjuš Lavrinovič (Žalgiris Kaunas): 2.10 Robertas Javtokas (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 1.95 Venson Hamilton (Real Madrid): 1.68 Marcus Haislip (Ulker Istanbul): 1.59 Marcus Goree (Benetton Treviso): 1.40 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.32 Average Index Rating: Anthony Parker (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 20.52 Jorge Garbajosa (Unicaja Málaga): 19.33 Luis Scola (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 18.80 Darjuš Lavrinovič (Žalgiris Kaunas): 18.70 Mirsad Türkcan (Ulker Istanbul): 17.25 Mike Batiste (Panathinaikos Athens): 17.09 Scoonie Penn (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 16.95 Drew Nicholas (Benetton Treviso): 16.65 Ricardo Greer (SIG Basket Strasbourg): 16.36 Maceo Baston (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 15.60 Vassilis Spanoulis (Panathinaikos): 15.52 Yotam Halperin (Union Olimpija): 15.43 2006–07 Points per game: Juan Carlos Navarro (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 16.77 Igor Rakočević (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 16.23 David Blu (Climamio Bologna): 16.00 Kaspars Kambala (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 15.85 Rudy Fernández (DKV Joventut Badalona): 15.79 Predrag Drobnjak (Partizan Belgrade): 15.70 Luis Scola (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 15.52 Alex Scales (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 15.11 Michael Wright (EB Pau Orthez): 15.10 Kenny Gregory (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 14.93 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 14.91 Rebounds per game: Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 9.86 James Thomas (Climamio Bologna): 9.85 Brent Wright (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 8.00 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 7.59 Jeremiah Massey (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 7.40 Lazaros Papadopoulos (Dynamo Moscow): 7.24 Eric Campbell (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 7.07 Antonis Fotsis (Dynamo Moscow): 7.05 Paulius Jankūnas (Žalgiris Kaunas): 7.00 Mason Rocca (Eldo Napoli): 6.92 Assists per game: Theo Papaloukas (CSKA Moscow): 5.40 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 4.70 Nikos Zisis (Benetton Treviso): 4.30 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens): 3.92 Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.86 Drew Nicholas (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 3.80 Zoran Planinić (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 3.78 Tyson Wheeler (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 3.77 Aaron Miles (EB Pau Orthez): 3.70 Jaka Lakovič (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 3.52 Steals per game: Ricky Rubio (DKV Joventut Badalona): 3.19 Stefano Mancinelli (Climamio Bologna): 2.62 Mire Chatman (Lottomatica Roma): 2.53 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 2.48 Jonas Mačiulis (Žalgiris Kaunas): 2.43 David Hawkins (Lottomatica Roma): 2.35 Blocks per game: Marcus Haislip (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 1.75 Tomas Van Den Spiegel (CSKA Moscow): 1.29 Sandro Nicević (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 1.29 Fran Vázquez (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 1.17 Kosta Perović (Partizan Belgrade): 1.15 Average Index Rating: Nikola Vujčić (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 21.73 Lazaros Papadopoulos (Dynamo Moscow): 20.29 Eric Campbell (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 19.00 Jeremiah Massey (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 18.30 Tanoka Beard (Žalgiris Kaunas): 18.29 Luis Scola (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 17.91 Predrag Drobnjak (Partizan Belgrade): 17.70 Antonis Fotsis (Dynamo Moscow): 17.23 Michael Wright (EB Pau Orthez): 17.00 Juan Carlos Navarro (Winterthur FC Barcelona): 16.86 Brent Wright (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 16.86 Kaspars Kambala (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 16.85 2007–08 Points per game: Marc Salyers (Chorale Roanne): 21.79 Will Solomon (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 17.90 Jeremiah Massey (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 17.00 Hollis Price (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 16.85 Drew Nicholas (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 16.50 Nikola Peković (Partizan Igokea Belgrade): 16.43 Lynn Greer (Olympiacos Piraeus): 16.26 Marko Milič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana): 15.64 Chris Warren (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 15.64 Brion Rush (Chorale Roanne): 15.43 Rebounds per game: Travis Watson (Armani Jeans Milano): 9.71 Jeremiah Massey (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 8.45 Terence Morris (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 8.32 Sam Clancy (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 7.31 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid): 7.11 Nikola Peković (Partizan Igokea Belgrade): 6.87 Novica Veličković (Partizan Igokea Belgrade): 6.8 Marc Salyers (Chorale Roanne): 6.57 Loren Woods (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 6.50 Ademola Okulaja (Brose Baskets Bamberg): 6.46 Marko Milič (Union Olimpija Ljubljana). 6.36 Assists per game: DeJuan Collins (Žalgiris Kaunas): 5.35 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena): 4.92 Theo Papaloukas (CSKA Moscow): 4.57 Marc-Antoine Pellin (Chorale Roanne): 4.50 Raviv Limonad (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 4.14 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria): 4.12 Yotam Halperin (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 3.96 Will Solomon (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 3.90 Hollis Price (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 3.90 Lynn Greer (Olympiacos Piraeus): 3.63 Pepe Sánchez (AXA FC Barcelona): 3.57 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens): 3.26 Steals per game: Shaun Stonerook (Montepaschi Siena): 2.58 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena): 2.46 David Hawkins (Lottomatica Roma): 2.35 Chuck Eidson (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius): 2.17 Travis Watson (Armani Jeans Milano): 1.86 Brion Rush (Chorale Roanne): 1.86 Blocks per game: Ömer Aşık (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 2.07 Terence Morris (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 1.76 Eurelijus Žukauskas (Žalgiris Kaunas): 1.42 Boniface N'Dong (Unicaja Málaga): 1.42 Loren Woods (Efes Pilsen Istanbul): 1.38 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus): 1.24 Average Index Rating: Marc Salyers (Chorale Roanne): 22.50 Jeremiah Massey (Aris TT Bank Thessaloniki): 21.00 Nikola Peković (Partizan Igokea Belgrade): 19.61 Lynn Greer (Olympiacos Piraeus): 18.05 Will Solomon (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul): 18.00 Travis Watson (Armani Jeans Milano): 18.00 Terence Morris (Maccabi Tel Aviv): 17.76 Marc Jackson (Olympiacos Piraeus): 16.80 Sam Clancy (Le Mans Sarthe Basket): 16.54 Chris Warren (Cibona VIP Zagreb): 16.29 2008–09 Points per game: Igor Rakočević (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 17.95 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena) 17.26 David Logan (Asseco Prokom Sopot) 16.87 Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 15.36 D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 14.85 Rimantas Kaukėnas (Montepaschi Siena) 14.78 Sani Bečirovič (Virtus Lottomatica Roma) 14.77 Juan Carlos Navarro (Regal FC Barcelona) 14.71 Carlos Arroyo (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 14.6 Tiago Splitter (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 14.00 Lior Eliyahu (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 14.00 Rebounds per game: Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 8.64 D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 7.62 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 7.36 Ersan İlyasova (Regal FC Barcelona) 7.00 Pat Burke (Asseco Prokom Sopot) 6.87 Stéphane Lasme (Partizan Belgrade) 6.58 Lior Eliyahu (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 6.56 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid) 6.50 Kšyštof Lavrinovič (Montepaschi Siena) 6.41 Ronnie Burrell (Asseco Prokom Sopot) 6.19 Assists per game: Theo Papaloukas (Olympiacos Piraeus) 5.18 Omar Cook (Unicaja Málaga) 5.13 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena) 4.42 Pablo Prigioni (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 4.33 Carlos Arroyo (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 4.13 Sani Bečirovič (Virtus Lottomatica Roma) 3.85 Juan Carlos Navarro (Regal FC Barcelona) 3.62 Vassilis Spanoulis (Panathinaikos Athens) 3.53 J. R. Holden (CSKA Moscow) 3.38 Milenko Tepić (Partizan Belgrade) 3.26 Steals per game: David Logan (Asseco Prokom Sopot) 2.67 Shaun Stonerook (Montepaschi Siena) 2.40 Marques Green (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 2.00 Ibrahim Jaaber (Virtus Lottomatica Roma) 1.94 Blocks per game: Fran Vázquez (Regal FC Barcelona) 1.74 D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.69 Tiago Splitter (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 1.59 Stéphane Lasme (Partizan Belgrade) 1.53 Boniface N'Dong (Unicaja Málaga) 1.33 Average Index Rating: D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 21.46 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena) 19.84 Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 19.36 Sani Bečirovič (Virtus Lottomatica Roma) 17.85 Tiago Splitter (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 17.82 Lior Eliyahu (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 17.56 Igor Rakočević (TAU Ceramica Vitoria) 16.76 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 16.14 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid) 15.80 Immanuel McElroy (Alba Berlin) 15.75 Juan Carlos Navarro (Regal FC Barcelona) 15.14 2009–10 Points per game: Linas Kleiza (Olympiacos Piraeus) 17.14 Qyntel Woods (Asseco Prokom Gdynia) 16.85 Marko Tomas (Cibona VIP Zagreb) 16.44 Keith Langford (Khimki Moscow) 15.53 Mike Batiste (Panathinaikos Athens) 15.54 David Logan (Asseco Prokom Gdynia) 15.30 Josh Childress (Olympiacos Piraeus) 15.20 Trajan Langdon (CSKA Moscow) 15.05 Mirza Teletović (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 14.80 Nikola Peković (Panathinaikos Athens) 14.77 Aleks Marić (Partizan Belgrade) 14.56 Rebounds per game: Travis Watson (Žalgiris Kaunas) 9.46 Aleks Marić (Partizan Belgrade) 8.39 Lawrence Roberts (Partizan Belgrade) 7.38 Linas Kleiza (Olympiacos Piraeus) 6.50 Robertas Javtokas (Khimki Moscow) 6.38 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 6.27 Qyntel Woods (Asseco Prokom Gdynia) 6.15 Mario Kasun (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 5.75 Antonis Fotsis (Panathinaikos Athens) 5.50 Tiago Splitter (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 5.44 Assists per game: Omar Cook (Unicaja Málaga) 5.94 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena) 5.13 Theo Papaloukas (Olympiacos Piraeus) 5.05 Miloš Teodosić (Olympiacos Piraeus) 4.86 Pablo Prigioni (Real Madrid) 4.45 Ricky Rubio (Regal FC Barcelona) 4.09 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 4.05 Bojan Popović (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius/Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 3.88 Marcelinho Huertas (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 3.88 Jamont Gordon (Cibona VIP Zagreb) 3.80 Vassilis Spanoulis (Panathinaikos Athens) 3.64 Mantas Kalnietis (Žalgiris Kaunas) 3.63 Steals per game: Bo McCalebb (Partizan Belgrade) 1.95 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 1.95 Charles Smith (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 1.94 Terrell McIntyre (Montepaschi Siena) 1.88 Blocks per game: D'or Fischer (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.80 Slavko Vraneš (Partizan Belgrade) 1.50 Stéphane Lasme (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.40 Mirza Begić (Žalgiris Kaunas) 1.31 Robertas Javtokas (Khimki Moscow) 1.19 Fran Vázquez (Regal FC Barcelona) 1.14 Average Index Rating: Aleks Marić (Partizan Belgrade) 21.11 Linas Kleiza (Olympiacos Piraeus) 17.86 Ramūnas Šiškauskas (CSKA Moscow) 16.95 Miloš Teodosić (Olympiacos Piraeus) 16.82 Keith Langford (Khimki Moscow) 16.40 Romain Sato (Montepaschi Siena) 16.31 Kšyštof Lavrinovič (Montepaschi Siena) 16.25 Travis Watson (Žalgiris Kaunas) 16.15 Jamont Gordon (Cibona VIP Zagreb) 16.07 Qyntel Woods (Asseco Prokom Gdynia) 16.00 Tiago Splitter (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 15.81 Trajan Langdon (CSKA Moscow) 15.62 2010–11 Points per game: Igor Rakočević (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 17.21 Mirza Teletović (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 15.45 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 14.20 Juan Carlos Navarro (Regal FC Barcelona) 14.07 Kenny Gregory (Union Olimpija Ljubljana) 14.0 Joel Freeland (Unicaja Málaga) 13.87 Fernando San Emeterio (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 13.70 Mike Batiste (Panathinaikos Athens) 13.30 Roko Ukić (Asseco Prokom Gdynia) 13.21 Rebounds per game: Mirsad Türkcan (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 7.33 James Gist (Partizan mt:s Belgrade) 6.93 Paulius Jankunas (Žalgiris Kaunas) 6.88 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 6.56 Joel Freeland (Unicaja Málaga) 6.33 Kenny Gregory (Union Olimpija Ljubljana) 6.06 D'or Fischer (Real Madrid) 5.87 Jonas Valančiūnas (Lietuvos Rytas Vilnius) 5.8 Kerem Gönlüm (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 5.67 Assists per game: Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 6.23 Marcelinho Huertas (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 5.55 Omar Cook (Power Electronics Valencia) 5.52 Jeremy Pargo (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 4.27 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 4.25 Vlado Ilievski (Union Olimpija Ljubljana) 4.07 Theo Papaloukas (Olympiacos Piraeus) 3.83 Doron Perkins (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 3.63 Berni Rodríguez (Unicaja Málaga) 3.63 Miloš Teodosić (Olympiacos Piraeus) 3.61 Steals per game: Chuck Eidson (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 2.64 Charles Smith (Virtus Lottomatica Roma) 1.85 Omar Cook (Power Electronics Valencia) 1.81 Bo McCalebb (Montepaschi Siena) 1.80 Vlado Ilievski (Union Olimpija Ljubljana) 1.73 Blocks per game: Mirza Begić (Žalgiris Kaunas/Real Madrid) 1.50 D'or Fischer (Real Madrid) 1.43 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 1.33 Average Index Rating: Fernando San Emeterio (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 19.05 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 18.50 Joel Freeland (Unicaja Málaga) 17.47 Igor Rakočević (Efes Pilsen Istanbul) 15.00 Mike Batiste (Panathinaikos Athens) 14.60 Chuck Eidson (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 14.32 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 14.30 Ioannis Bourousis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 14.17 2011–12 Points per game: Bo McCalebb (Montepaschi Siena) 16.88 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 16.67 Sonny Weems (Žalgiris Kaunas) 15.53 Henry Domercant (UNICS Kazan) 15.47 Jaycee Carroll (Real Madrid) 14.19 Nenad Krstić (CSKA Moscow) 14.18 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow) 14.06 Malik Hairston (Olimpia Milano) 13.92 Sasha Vujačić (Anadolu Efes Istanbul) 13.88 Juan Carlos Navarro (Regal FC Barcelona) 13.63 Rebounds per game: Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow) 7.47 Joel Freeland (Unicaja Málaga) 6.79 Ioannis Bourousis (Olimpia Milano) 6.40 Felipe Reyes (Real Madrid) 6.31 David Andersen (Montepaschi Siena) 6.15 Luka Žorić (Unicaja Málaga) 6.13 Vladimir Veremeenko (UNICS Kazan) 6.00 D'or Fischer (Bizkaia Bilbao Basket) 5.95 Duško Savanović (Anadolu Efes Istanbul) 5.63 Paulius Jankūnas (Žalgiris Kaunas) 5.56 Assists per game: Omar Cook (Olimpia Milano) 5.69 Sergio Rodríguez (Real Madrid) 5.38 Miloš Teodosić (CSKA Moscow) 5.00 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 4.78 Kerem Tunçeri (Anadolu Efes Istanbul) 4.47 Marcelinho Huertas (Regal FC Barcelona) 4.38 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 3.95 Aaron Jackson (Bizkaia Bilbao Basket) 3.85 Mantas Kalnietis (Žalgiris Kaunas) 3.69 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 3.30 Steals per game: Jamon Gordon (Galatasaray Medical Park) 1.81 Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow) 1.53 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 1.48 Oliver Lafayette (Asseco Prokom Gdynia/Anadolu Efes Istanbul) 1.44 Yogev Ohayon (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.38 Bo McCalebb (Montepaschi Siena) 1.29 James Gist (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 1.25 Gerald Fitch (Unicaja Málaga) 1.23 Nick Calathes (Panathinaikos Athens) 1.22 Joshua Shipp (Galatasaray Medical Park) 1.20 Blocks per game: Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow) 1.94 Mirza Begić (Real Madrid) 1.67 Richard Hendrix (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.29 Kyle Hines (Olympiacos Piraeus) 1.14 D'or Fischer (Bizkaia Bilbao Basket) 1.11 Boniface N'Dong (Regal FC Barcelona) 1.10 Fran Vázquez (Regal FC Barcelona) 1.05 James Gist (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 0.94 Luka Žorić (Unicaja Málaga) 0.94 Stanko Barać (Anadolu Efes Istanbul) 0.93 Average Index Rating: Andrei Kirilenko (CSKA Moscow) 24.18 Nenad Krstić (CSKA Moscow) 18.41 Bo McCalebb (Montepaschi Siena) 17.29 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 16.43 Henry Domercant (UNICS Kazan) 16.26 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 15.95 Giorgi Shermadini (Bennet Cantù) 15.31 Erazem Lorbek (Regal FC Barcelona) 15.14 Nikola Mirotić (Real Madrid) 14.56 Luka Žorić (Unicaja Málaga) 13.69 2012–13 Points per game: Bobby Brown (Montepaschi Siena) 18.83 Boštjan Nachbar (Brose Baskets Bamberg) 16.09 Bojan Bogdanović (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 15.90 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 14.74 Curtis Jerrells (Beşiktaş J.K. İstanbul) 14.18 Maciej Lampe (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 13.89 Jordan Farmar (Anadolu Efes İstanbul) 13.76 Sonny Weems (CSKA Moscow) 13.71 Rudy Fernández (Real Madrid) 13.67 Ricky Hickman (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 13.52 Rebounds per game: Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 7.31 Ante Tomić (FC Barcelona Regal) 6.50 Shawn James (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 6.48 Stéphane Lasme (Panathinaikos Athens) 6.14 Maciej Lampe (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 6.14 Kyle Hines (Olympiacos Piraeus) 6.03 Semih Erden (Anadolu Efes İstanbul) 5.59 Paul Davis (BC Khimki) 5.52 Deon Thompson (Alba Berlin) 5.43 Nikola Mirotić (Real Madrid) 5.31 Assists per game: Zoran Planinić (BC Khimki) 6.32 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 5.78 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 5.48 Bobby Brown (Montepaschi Siena) 5.33 Miloš Teodosić (CSKA Moscow) 4.90 Thomas Heurtel (Caja Laboral Vitoria) 4.50 Omar Cook (Olimpia Milano/Caja Laboral Vitoria) 4.04 Jamon Gordon (Anadolu Efes İstanbul) 4.00 Sergio Rodríguez (Real Madrid) 3.93 Jordan Farmar (Anadolu Efes İstanbul) 3.90 Steals per game: Bo McCalebb (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 1.91 Jamon Gordon (Anadolu Efes İstanbul) 1.76 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 1.69 Rudy Fernández (Real Madrid) 1.52 Ricky Hickman (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.44 Dimitris Diamantidis (Panathinaikos Athens) 1.41 Omar Cook (Olimpia Milano/Caja Laboral Vitoria) 1.25 Earl Calloway (Unicaja Málaga) 1.22 Zoran Planinić (BC Khimki) 1.14 Curtis Jerrells (Beşiktaş J.K. İstanbul) 1.12 Blocks per game: Shawn James (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 1.93 Stéphane Lasme (Panathinaikos Athens) 1.86 Sasha Kaun (CSKA Moscow) 1.23 Sergei Monia (BC Khimki) 1.17 Kyle Hines (Olympiacos Piraeus) 1.16 Ante Tomić (FC Barcelona Regal) 1.10 Gašper Vidmar (Beşiktaş J.K. İstanbul) 1.09 Luka Žorić (Unicaja Málaga) 1.04 Paul Davis (BC Khimki) 0.96 Sharrod Ford (Brose Baskets Bamberg) 0.96 Average Index Rating: Bobby Brown (Montepaschi Siena) 17.38 Victor Khryapa (CSKA Moscow) 17.04 Nenad Krstić (CSKA Moscow) 16.83 Ante Tomić (FC Barcelona Regal) 16.77 Shawn James (Maccabi Tel Aviv) 16.56 Rudy Fernández (Real Madrid) 16.22 Paul Davis (BC Khimki) 16.09 Bojan Bogdanović (Fenerbahçe Ülker İstanbul) 15.48 Zoran Planinić (BC Khimki) 15.18 Vassilis Spanoulis (Olympiacos Piraeus) 15.13 References External links EuroLeague Official Web Page InterBasket EuroLeague Basketball Forum TalkBasket EuroLeague Basketball Forum EuroLeague statistics

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doc-en-13798

Richmond Park is a heritage-listed public park and sporting venue bounded by East Market, Windsor and March Streets, Richmond, City of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, Australia. It was proclaimed by Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810 and surveyed by James Meehan in 1811. The historic pavilion was designed by George Matcham Pitt Jr. in 1882 and built by Samuel Boughton in 1883–84. The park is owned by Hawkesbury City Council. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 5 March 2010. History Before any European colonisation of the Richmond area, the Hawkesbury region was once inhabited by the Dharug people. The riparian area along the Hawkesbury River had been a food source for the local Aboriginal people for over 50,000 years and, with relatively frequent floods that spread enriched alluvium throughout the surrounding land, the region was known to be an abundant and reliable resource for food. Following European colonisation, the new colonists quickly recognised the agricultural potential of the banks of the Hawkesbury River. This led to intensive farming of the area to supply food to the developing colony that was experiencing severe shortages in the early years. However, following flooding in 1799, 1800, 1806 and 1809, life for the colonists farming the flats of the Hawkesbury River was a hard one, fraught with potential devastation with any inundation of the river As one of the first tasks following his appointment as the Governor of New South Wales in 1810, Lachlan Macquarie was instructed by the British Government to survey and select five flood-free sites along the Hawkesbury River to determine which were best suited for new townships. To protect the future prosperity of the colony, the development of the selected towns was intended to expand food production and promote progress, self-sufficiency and sustainability amongst the settlers. Macquarie had intended to encourage the farming communities, established in the high-risk flood plains, to relocate and settle in the new townships, thus providing refuge and security for the farmers themselves as well as their livestock and crops. The five towns, personally and specifically selected by Governor Macquarie, were to become Windsor, Richmond, Castlereagh, Pitt Town and Wilberforce. Of these new sites, Richmond was the first to be chosen by Macquarie, officially defined in December 1810 and laid out by the Government Surveyor, James Meehan, on 10 January 1811. Originally, ten acres (four hectares) of land in the centre of the town was reserved by Macquarie as the location of "the great square", now Richmond Park. Located between two principal thoroughfares running from east to west, the position of this open space was conceived as a central marketplace for the new town and as a suitable site for the activities of the local community. Originally established when the town pattern was laid out in 1811, the size of the "Market Place" was reduced to its present size (3.2 hectares) after 1821 when the western strip of land, boarded by West Market Street, was reallocated for purposes of law and order. In 1811 the Government surveyor, James Meehan, established the grid pattern of streets including the "Market Square", bounded by Windsor and March Streets, East Market and West Market Streets. The reserved open space was reduced after 1821 to an area of 7 acres 3 roods 37 perches (i.e. the present area of 3.23 ha). The remaining portion of Crown reserve, between the "square" and West Market Street, was set aside for other purposes including building a watch house and later the Court House, post office, Masonic Lodge, School of Arts and public school. Although the "square" may have been used initially as a marketplace, as shown on the 1827 plan of Richmond, it appears that this parcel of public open space had become a popular venue for cricket and football (possibly rugby union), were played in latter years, cricket has remained the major sporting activity for over 160 years. Despite the reduction in size, the marketplace, at least in the 1820s and 1830s, was used for buying and selling stock and crops. In the 1840s however, the land was largely cleared of vegetation and the site underwent a change in use from a marketplace to an area for more active recreational purposes, particularly for athletics ('foot races') and cricket. By the 1840s almost all of the square's native vegetation of River Flat Eucalypt Forest (Alluvial Woodland) had been cleared with only a few original trees standing. The clearing of vegetation resulted in the ground becoming uneven and boggy after rain, strewn with fallen logs, tree stumps and noxious weeds. Up until the park was fenced in 1864, cattle and horses (a common feature of the Richmond streetscape) would graze untethered and without approval, leading to further degradation of the park grounds. The few remaining (original) trees disappeared over the years as successive improvements and overlays of planting of generic native and exotic trees, shrubs and borders were introduced. The aging River oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana), swamp mahoganies (Eucalyptus robusta) and river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) have all been introduced during later park embellishments. None of the original native vegetation survives today. Although the poor condition of the park was not an immediate issue for Richmond, in 1864 the town became more closely linked to Sydney with the construction of the Richmond railway line. With this line, came prosperity and an increasing public interest in developing and improving the town. Made up of local community members, the Improvement Committee was established around this time to focus on enhancing the appearance of the square and the facilities available to the public. With the help of the local community, this involved levelling the degraded parkland, laying turf to improve the quality of the cricket pitch, planting both native and exotic species of trees ('river oak, myall and red cedar and exotics English oak, conifers, beech (Fagus sp.), poplar, cork (Quercus suber) and Judas (Cercis siliquastrum) trees') and installing wooden seats for the comfort of the park users. With the renewed community effort to improve this area of public open space, the status of the square was changing and, in 1868, the site was officially gazetted for public recreation. It was also around this same time that the site became first known as Richmond Park. In 1872 Richmond became a borough and in 1873 the newly elected Richmond Municipal Council was appointed as trustee of the park by the Department of Lands. This provided the catalyst for a new phase of coordinated development. In its newly improved state and with the official change in status, a board of trustees made up of local community members was appointed to take responsibility for the ongoing maintenance of the Park. The local trustees were William Bowman (a local politician and grazier), Stephen Field (property owner) and Edward Powell (a farmer and Justice of the Peace). In an effort to further develop the park's design and collection of plantations, the trustees wrote in 1870 to Charles Moore, the Director of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, to request suitable trees (both exotics and Australian sub-tropical rainforest species) for planting around the boundary. A similar request to the Botanic Gardens was made again in 1873, this time from the Municipal Council who took over vested interest in the park from the local trustees in 1873, on behalf of the Crown The plants supplied by the Sydney Botanic Gardens, as well as Australian natives, included a mix of species commonly found in public places of Britain and Europe (including exotics such as poplars (Populus spp., planes (Platanus sp.), mixed conifers (Pinus and Cupressus spp.) and Australian sub-tropical rainforest species such as hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii), Bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii), red cedar (Toona ciliata), white cedar (Melia azedarach var. australasica), silky oak (Grevillea robusta), swamp mahogany and brush box (Lophostemon confertus). The African olive (Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata) on the Windsor Street frontage is believed to be one of the earliest plantings in the park. Other early introductions included the informal row of river oaks, a local native species (Casuarina cunninghamiana) along the western boundary. These were intermixed with local rainforest species (Araucaria, Toona and Melia spp.) and other introduced evergreen and deciduous ornamentals such as the Cape chestnut (Calodendrum capense) and hackberry/nettle tree (Celtis occidentalis). Swamp mahogany specimens remain on two sides of the park. Many of these trees continue to define the park's historic landscape character and visual integrity. An 1879 photograph clearly shows fenced plantations (the outer perimeter fence (i.e. painted hardwood post and double rail) was installed during this period and the boundary plantation was protected with a second double rail fence) around the park within the foreground trees from 2–6 m tall including hoop pines, silky oaks, Lombardy poplars (Populus nigra "Italica", big cone pine (Pinus coulteri), Mediterranean cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens) and other species. The large mature trees (some of which remain from at least the 1870s) include tall, dominant include four hoop pines (two on the western edge, two in the north-eastern corner), river oaks (two large trees on the western edge), a deliberate specimen planting of river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)(several in the south-western corner), Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) in the north-eastern corner, a red cedar (Toona ciliata) and silky oaks (Grevillea robusta). The inner park plantations were typically defined by an eclectic mix of botanical specimens. The park's boundary plantations of emergent hoop and Bunya pines with their dark, glossy foliage, distinctive symmetrical forms, towering dimensions and massive scale, were used for dramatic impact. 13 Bunya pines were planted possibly as early as the 1860s, but were later removed in 1946 due to the potential danger to the public from massive cones falling from their tops. The hoop pines were retained. Most of Sydney's 19th-century parks reflect this layout and palette pioneered by Charles Moore (director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney 1848–96) and that of Joseph Henry Maiden, Moore's successor as director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney (1896–1924). Their influence had a profound impact on Sydney's public parks and gardens. They provided Sydney with a lasting legacy of great 19th- and early 20th-century landscapes including the Botanic Gardens, Domain, Moore Park and Centennial Parklands. Creation of public parks in a common design was a global practice in the late nineteenth century and one that intended to provide an enjoyable pleasant environment for the community as well as, in Australia, reflect the picturesque and idealized landscape of Europe. During this period, the Park's collection of plantations grew increasingly complex and eclectic. Nursery suppliers and local people contributed to the collection - although some species added were not suited to the environment and ultimately failed, many flourished. By 1883, more than 143 trees were recorded in Richmond Park. The provision of these types of parks also had a scientific role in the community as arboretums. Diverse collections of plantations, many individually identified with plaques on trees bearing botanical and common names, was typical of early municipal parks. Some plaques remain today and these indicate that the educational purpose of Richmond Park continued well into the twentieth century (inter-war and post-war periods). To beautify the [ark, the 1880s saw a more elaborate design layout implemented by the Council. Three distinct areas of the Park were created - the "Outer Park" including the border plantations; the "Inner Park" including designed flower beds, shrubs and public seating that were interconnected by encircling pathways; and the "Central Area" with the large grassed oval that was increasingly being used for organised sporting activities. The "inner park" of 1879 consisted of exotic shrubs and border planting. This early garden layout is typical of the Gardenesque Style ( 1835–1890) which reflected the classical, formal influences of the Victorian, Georgian, Regency, Classical and Italianate architectural styles of the period. The park's design featured an elaborate layout of fenced triangular planting beds which were interconnected by a rigid geometric pattern of formal gravel pathways. The "inner park" gardens lay between the cricket oval (open space) and the outer perimeter tree plantation creating, for the first time, a multi-layered effect. In 1882 the park's oval boundary was formalised with a painted post and single-top Arris rail fence. Both the oval and outer boundary fences were later replaced with a timber post, tubular steel top rail and wire-mesh fence. This structural layout of the park established three separate and inter-related components - a defined central sporting space (cricket ground), surrounded by perimeter pathways and gardens and an outer wooded park boundary. Seating and public amenities were added and the park gained broad recognition for its quality. It was featured in the 1886 County of Cumberland Year Book. Further embellishment saw the incorporation of built elements. In 1882, the lack of any permanent buildings was recognised and it was decided that a pavilion, overlooking the sports field, should be constructed to add necessary distinction and amenity. The design was opened to a general competition that invited architects to design a structure that would seat about 300 people but cost no more than £300. It was also to be built of timber on brick piers, have a small room for the use of athletes and cricketers and be facing east across the oval. The competition generated much interest and, in March 1882, the entry named "Energy", designed by George Matcham Pitt junior was selected despite its cost, estimated to be 360 pounds. To build it there was only one tender. Samuel Boughton, a popular member of the local community, was given the job and, despite the "Erected 1883" inscription on one of the stone piers, construction was completed in early 1884. This pavilion has remained a dominant built feature since the 1880s and, although severely damaged by fire in 1980 and restored by 1994, it continues to bring a historic nineteenth-century resonance to the Park (. During the period that the pavilion was being constructed, work was also undertaken on improving the cricket ground. In 1882, at a price of over £120, the ground and pavilion were enclosed with a fence and a concrete wicket was laid on the oval. The request for these improvement works had come from the Richmond Cricket Club and, with the support of Mayor Holborow (a strong cricket supporter himself), the park was becoming an increasingly popular place for local and visiting teams (including a touring English team in 1887) to play cricket ( The park was also used, although to a much smaller extent, as a football ground. An application to install goal posts (presumably for rugby union) was received by Council in 1882, but approval was only granted with careful supervision to ensure the cricket oval was not affected. However, after being recognised as a safety concern for the football players, it was decided that the concrete pitch would be turfed in winter and exposed in spring and summer. Despite its use as a football ground, cricket has been the most popular sport played in the park throughout its history and the long-term community support for the sport is reflected in its continued dominance today. In 1892, with the opening of the Richmond Waterworks by the invited Governor Lord Jersey and his wife, Council decided to install a water fountain to commemorate the event. Initial plans indicate the fountain was to be placed in front of the pavilion but, in the days leading up to the event, the position was changed to the Windsor Street frontage. At a cost of 30 pounds, the modest but handsome statue was designed with three iron statues of a winged cherub with a mermaid's tail, anchored on a stone base plinth. Although the fountain remains today, the cherub statues have been stolen but bolt holes do indicate where they were once positioned on the fountain. The fountain also, for a significant period of time, has been dry and inactive, now surrounded by a garden bed. The fountain was a three-tiered iron fountain, which may well have been manufactured by Coalbrookdale and imported from England (grant application, 2011). Successive phases of park upgrades and embellishment, including tree planting were implemented throughout the early 20th century, albeit interrupted by two world wars and a depression. A large proportion of the park's trees (particularly along the eastern and southern boundaries) were introduced during the inter-war period (c.1915-40) and post-war period (c. 1940s–60s). Many of the park's evergreen and deciduous exotics such as camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora), jacarandas (Jacaranda mimosifolia), English oaks (Quercus robur), elms (Ulmus spp.), plane trees (Platanus spp.), hackberry/nettle trees (Celtis sp.), poplars, cypress (Cupressus sp.), California fan palms (Washingtonia robusta), 2 Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis) were planted during these two eras. They remain important visual and structural elements. The park's elms (Ulmus × hollandica) are believed to be a hybrid (Ulmus glabra x Ulmus minor) rather than a mix of Ulmus procera (English), Ulmus carpinifolia and Ulmus glabra (Scotch or wych). The massive big cone pine (Pinus coulteri) is an uncommon exotic planting in Sydney and likely dates from this latter phase of planting. Other mature trees include Chinese elms (Ulmus parvifolia), pin oaks (Quercus palustris), Photinia glabra, blue Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica 'Glauca'), brush box, Brazilian pepper trees (Schinus molle var.areira) and kurrajong (Brachychiton populneum). The inter-war period ushered in a period of significant change for Richmond Park with construction of the Richmond–Kurrajong railway line extension in 1924. A line from Richmond to Kurrajong (a significant producer of citrus, vegetables and firewood), was considered desirable for the town and given approval. Despite not being economically viable, with earnings not expected to cover the costs of running and maintaining the line, construction did proceed. The chosen route ran along March Street and cut across (and required excision of) the south-east corner of the Park, which resulted in the loss of landscape and a number of mature trees. There was a significant public outcry about placement of the line and its likely impact on the Park but, despite public meetings and lobbying, the trees were felled and the line was opened in 1924. The rail line typically carried one goods train, one passenger train and one mixed goods and passenger train each weekday. Although running at a loss for many years, in 1952, a flood near the North Richmond Bridge caused enough damage to the line to warrant a call to end all services. The Commissioner of Railways could not justify the cost to repair the damage and so the rails were removed and Richmond Park was restored to its original size and shape. Around the new plantings in this area of the Park, signage and a curvaceous brick pathway, although not accurately reflective of the former positioning of the rails, was installed in the s to interpret this period of the Park's history. The work was done by Windsor Municipal Council, Richmond Council having amalgamated with it in 1948. In the 1950s there was a proposal for shops to be built on park land facing Windsor Street. This did not happen, but the park did fall into disrepair at this time, according to Geyer. A war memorial, a common feature of Australian parks, has also been a part of the site, on the East Market Street frontage, since the early twentieth century. This monument now commemorates not only the two world wars, but also the efforts of the local soldiers in Vietnam and the early twenty-first century' "International Campaign Against Terror". The memorial was once fenced but, with the discovery and excavation of two 1855 cannons buried near the pavilion, the fencing was removed and the canons installed, flanking the monument. It appears that, after significant degradation, they were buried in the Inter-war period but, following their rediscovery in 1985, were unearthed and restored by the No. 2 Aircraft Depot at RAAF Base Richmond before being returned to Council in 1988. There was some debate about whether Council should donate the cannons to the RAAF or the Powerhouse Museum but it was decided to install the cannons alongside the memorial. About 1992 a mature Californian fan palm (Washingtonia robusta) was transplanted to the northern side of the war memorial. It was one of a row which began in the park (with no. 70) and continued along the side of the railway. When the line was electrified, State Rail paid to relocate the palm to the war memorial site. The new palm (no.69) at about 30m tall, is almost half as tall again as its companion. The children's playground was replaced and upgraded with new structures and soft fall areas. A sinuous brick pathway was built in 1988 to represent the railway extension in the park's south-east. In 1977 the Crown reserve was revoked and ownership of the park was invested with Windsor Municipal Council. In 1980 Council merged with Colo Shire Council to become Hawkesbury Shire Council (and Hawkesbury City Council in 1989). The park experienced considerable development throughout the last two decades of the 20th century. Many of these additions, however, have been somewhat unsympathetic towards the park's heritage values. As a result of increasing public concern and pressure, an interim conservation order was placed on the park by the Heritage Council in 1985. This lapsed in 1987 during a time of intense pressure to create job opportunities and projects during the lead-up to the Bicentennial celebrations in 1988. A number of capital works projects were subsequently initiated. For the Bicentenary some re-landscaping of the war memorial and south-eastern corners was done. A consultant, Jim Hutchinson, now Manager of City Parks for Sydney City Council, redesigned the war memorial area, removing a wire fence and shrub or annual beds and recommending planting of plane trees along East Market Street. Six specimens of planes (Platanus x hybrida) were planted at four-meter intervals. Further development occurred in the Park around the late twentieth and the early years of the twenty-first century. The pavilion (which had been damaged by fire in 1980) was restored in 1993–94. Public amenities and a maintenance/storage building were built in "Federation style" near the pavilion. A similar style of rotunda was added to the north-west corner of the Park in 2002, across an early pathway alignment. Flower beds and additional seating were introduced. A public artwork initiative was partially implemented. Although Richmond Park has undergone consistent change over the two centuries since Governor Macquarie designated the area as open space for the community, the site continues to be a distinguishing element in the townscape and one that is an important asset to the community. The focus and layout may have changed but the popularity and value of Richmond Park remains. Comparisons with similar parks In 1810, when Lachlan Macquarie was appointed as Governor of NSW, he personally selected five sites along the Hawkesbury River on which new townships were developed. At this time, the town planning instigated by Macquarie often included a designated central park that was open space to be used by the community. Of these five townships, three did contain reserved open public space. Along with Richmond, there are also parks in both Windsor and Wilberforce. In Windsor, the McQuade Park has been a public reserve used for recreation and activities for some 200 years. The Park is a significant asset to the local community who continue to use the site for recreation, celebrations, events and commemoration. The site also contains a war memorial and sporting oval (not unlike Richmond Park). The Wilberforce Park is another example of Macquarie's town planning. The site, like the others, is in a central location that provides an open space for the community in an urban environment. This park also has a war memorial and is used by the community for recreation and commemoration. The Wilberforce Park, however, is unique in that it remains the same size today that was originally designated by Governor Macquarie in 1810. Although not one of the five personally selected towns along the Hawkesbury River, Bigge Park in Liverpool was also public open space defined by Macquarie in 1810 and surveyed by James Meehan (the same surveyor for Richmond Park). The provision of public open space was a recurring feature in the town planning of Governor Macquarie and these parks, along with Richmond Park, are rare examples surviving in NSW today. Description Richmond Park sits on 3.2 hectares in a central location in the town, bounded by Windsor, March and East Market Streets. On the western boundary, the Park is neighboured by the Richmond School of Arts, the RSL, an apartment block, Neighbourhood Centre, Early Childhood Centre/Country Women's Association, Court House and former Richmond Post Office. The soil of the park is unusual for Western Sydney, being basaltic in origin. It is rich and deep and, the water table being fairly close to the surface, lack of moisture is usually not a problem. It is probably due to this soil that a number of English and European species have flourished in the park, although the climate of Richmond is more extreme than is ideal for these species, being drier than coastal Sydney, with more extreme temperatures, frosts and temperatures over 38 degrees each year. The open green space of the Park is an important element in the townscape and it is one that, although modified over the past two centuries, continues to be a valued space in the Richmond community. As a designed landscape, Richmond Park is clearly discernable into three separate but inter-related areas: "Outer Park" - border tree plantations "Inner Park" - shrubs, flower beds, public seating and pathways "Central area" - grassed oval for sporting activities The design of the Park intended to create an attractive public open space that would suit passive recreation and the needs of the community, as well as coexist harmoniously with the increasing use of the space for sporting activities. This intended design, although modified, is still extant today. The vegetation has changed, it is no longer native, but the presence of large mature trees in the "Outer Park" still reflect the original intention of using border plantations to frame the Park within the townscape. The aging River oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana), swamp mahoganies (Eucalyptus robusta) and river red gums (E.camaldulensis) have all been introduced during later park embellishments. None of the original native vegetation survives today. The inner park plantations were typically defined by an eclectic mix of botanical specimens. The park's boundary plantations of emergent hoop and Bunya pines with their dark, glossy foliage, distinctive symmetrical forms, towering dimensions and massive scale, were used for dramatic impact. 13 Bunya pines were planted possibly as early as the 1860s, but were later removed in 1946 due to the potential danger to the public from massive cones falling from their tops. The hoop pines were retained. In the north-western corner is a playground, dominated by a massive plane tree whose seasonal sun and shade are much appreciated. The northeastern corner is shady, especially in summer when planes and elms are in full foliage, and provides alternative seating. This corner has a skyline dominated by the hoop pines and the slash pine (no.29). Other tree species in the park include white cedar (Melia azederach var.australasica), Cape chestnut (Calodendron capense), Queensland pittosporum (P.rhombifolium), crepe myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), manna gum (Eucalyptus nichollii), sweet pittosporum (P.undulatum), African olive (Olea europaea var.africana), silky oak (Grevillea robusta), Mediterranean cypress/pencil pine (Cupressus sempervirens), trident maple (Acer buegerianum), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), Wheatley elm (Ulmus carpinifolia), Scotch elm (U.glabra), brown pine or Illawarra plum (Podocarpus elatus), camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora), Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara), sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua cv.), Bhutan cypress (Cupressus torulosa), rough barked cypress (C.glabra), juniper (Juniperus communis 'Stricta'), peach (Prunus persica cv.), red cherry plum (Prunus cerasifera 'Nigra'), tallow wood (Eucalyptus microcorys), white poplar (Populus alba) and coral tree (Erythrina indica). Shrub species in the park include flowering/Japanese quince (Chaenoemeles speciosa cv.), apple blossom (Abelia x grandiflora), rose of Sharon (Hibiscus rosa-syriacus cv.), may bush (Spiraea cantonensis 'Lanceata'), Camellia japonica as a feature of a small shrub bed (no. 132) along with more flowering quince (2)(133). By having fewer trees in the "Inner Park", the design also prevents limitations to the views across the open space. Within the "Inner Park", the layout includes garden beds, public seating, pathways and some built structures that provide for the community's use of the Park. Built structures A rotunda in a "Federation style" resembling the nineteenth-century pavilion, was installed in the north-west corner in 2002. This adjoins a modern children's playground. On the Windsor Street frontage, a modest iron fountain, although not in its original form, remains extant. The original fountain, installed in 1892, was designed with three statues of a winged cherub with a mermaid's tail on a stone base plinth. The fountain remains extant today but these statues are no longer part of the structure. A sign on the base explains what the fountain once looked like as well as outlining that the cherub statues had been stolen. There are visible bolt holes though, that do indicate where the statues were once positioned on the fountain. Today, this fountain is dry and has not contained water for many years. A flower bed, encircling the fountain, has since been installed. Along this northern boundary, there is also a small plinth with a sundial. A mounted plaque states "In appreciation of 49 years of continuous service to the Hawkesbury community by Rozzoli Family Jewellers, 1946–1995. Erected by: Richmond Chamber of Commerce". At the corner of Windsor and East Market Streets, a large "RICHMOND" sign has also been installed in the Park. There is a plaque on this sign stating that it is in memory of Samuel Boughton, a popular local personality and builder of the Park's 1884 Pavilion. Along the East Market Street frontage, is a war memorial in the form of an obelisk commemorating the war efforts of the local soldiers. Around the main World War I monument, are four smaller pillars, commemorating the effort and losses in World War II, Vietnam and the "International Campaign Against Terror". Following excavation and restoration, two 1855 canons (discovered at the site in 1985) have been installed. These canons now flank the war memorial. At the south-east corner of the Park, a brick pathway and interpretative signage was installed (in 1988) to highlight the former presence of the Richmond to Kurrajong railway line across this section of the Park. This curvaceous pathway, although intended to represent the rail line (removed in 1952), is largely inaccurate and misrepresentative of this episode in the Park's history. As a landscape, Richmond Park is dominated by the grassed cricket oval in the centre. Physically, this oval is a major component in the Park and it is where the organised sporting activities, particularly cricket, have been played throughout the Park's history. Since the late nineteenth century, the oval has been fenced and overlooked by the pavilion, the dominant built structure in the Park. As originally intended, the attractive timber and iron structure provides an amenity as well as bringing historical character to the Park. The current Pavilion was severely damaged by fire in 1980 but was comprehensively restored by 1994. This restoration was not entirely faithful to the detailing of the original building but the Pavilion that stands today does continue to display the historical character of the site, as well as being a focal point in Richmond Park. Since 1999, the Pavilion or grandstand has been named Rod McConville Stand. A plaque mounted on one of the brick piers explains that the naming was in memory of Rod McConville "for his outstanding service to the local community to sport especially cricket". Another plaque, on the second brick pier, notes the conservation works undertaken to restore the Pavilion in the early 1990s, following the 1980 fire. Condition The condition of Richmond Park, as a whole, is very good. Although not original, the extant plantations contribute to the amenity of the Park and coexist harmoniously with the built structures and sports field. The built features, namely the pavilion, rotunda, war memorial and fountain, are also in good condition. After a fire in 1980, the pavilion was comprehensively restored to reflect the original design. The rotunda, built in 2002, was also built to reflect the historic style of the neighbouring Pavilion. The fountain, although in reasonable condition, is missing the three cherub statues (having been apparently stolen). The war memorial is in good condition. Some of the mature native pines (Araucaria species) are showing dieback at their tops and outer branches, which may be due to ground compaction, dryness or air pollution. Although the current plantations may not be original and the layout may have been altered from the historic design, Richmond Park retains its integrity. Essentially, Governor Macquarie's intention for a public open space in a central location remains extant. The three distinct sections, the "Outer Park" (border plantations), "Inner Park" (flower beds and pathways) and Central area (grassed sporting oval), remain clear as well. The pavilion, even though not in its original state having been comprehensively restored following a fire in 1980, retains and contributes a historic resonance to Richmond Park. Being a nineteenth-century park, there has been some modern development that has intruded on the integrity of the site. The construction of the rotunda (built in 2002 but in a similar style to the 1884 pavilion), the playground and the small car park in the south-west corner are also fairly intrusive. However, the modern constructions do reflect the continuity of use of Richmond Park and its continued popularity and use by the community. Even though the different elements of the Park have undergone various changes, when viewed together they do reflect the original design of the landscape, thus contributing to the integrity of Richmond Park. Modifications and dates As a landscape, Richmond Park has undergone various changes over its 200-year history. From early documentation and photographs, it would appear the landscape design and plantations have changed somewhat but, as a cohesive environment, the Park retains its value within the Richmond townscape. Plantings over time in the "Outer" park have evolved. An 1879 photograph clearly shows fenced plantations around the park within the foreground trees from 2-6m tall including hoop pines (Araucaria cunninhamii), silky oaks (Grevillea robusta), Lombardy poplars (Populus nigra "Italica", stone pines (Pinus pinea), Mediterranean cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens) and other species. Silky oaks and hoop pines remain dominant species in the canopy of trees around the park today. Despite successive phases of improvements and embellishments throughout its history, Richmond Park retains the important visual and structural elements that contribute to the significance of the site to both the local community and the State. The pavilion, arguably the most dominant built structure within the Park, was built in 1882 but, following a fire in 1980, the Pavilion was severely damaged. After being comprehensively restored by 1994, although not entirely faithful to the original detailing of the building, the pavilion continues to be an important element in the historic character of the Park. The Inter-war period bought further change to Richmond Park with the introduction of the Richmond to Kurrajong railway line across the south-east corner of the Park in 1924. When the rail lines were installed, trees were felled and vegetation removed but after the line was closed in 1952, the rails were removed and this corner of the Park reinstated and revegetated. In the late 1980s, an interpretative brick pathway and informative signage was installed in the same corner of the Park to be a permanent reminder of this point in the history of Richmond Park. The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries also bought considerable development to Richmond Park and not all of this was sympathetic to it heritage values. A rotunda was constructed in the north-west corner in 2002, in a style resembling that of the adjacent pavilion. With a neighbouring modern playground, these additions have, in some form, diminished the integrity of the Park. The war memorial has also undergone some change, with the installation of two 1855 canons in the s. Heritage listing Richmond Park is of State significance as a rare surviving example of the town planning of Governor Lachlan Macquarie. Richmond was the first of five towns along the Hawkesbury River, personally selected by Governor Macquarie in 1810. When laying out the township in 1811, Macquarie reserved a central location for the development of this open green space for the community. Richmond Park has retained its original intention as an open public green space and continues to be a legible example of one of the key elements of Macquarie's town plan for Richmond. Its central location within the urban environment has contributed to the continuity of use of Richmond Park by the community for 200 years. The cohesive landscape design, surviving from the mid-nineteenth century, is representative of early municipal parks in NSW and today, it retains precisely the association with the layout of central Richmond envisaged by Macquarie in 1810. Richmond Park was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 5 March 2010 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. Historically, Richmond Park has State significance as a public park that was specifically reserved by Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810 for the new township of Richmond. The Park continues to demonstrate its original use as a marketplace, where the community could trade stock and crops, as well as its later use for more recreational activities (particularly as a cricket ground). Richmond Park also continues to demonstrate the early community efforts to beautify the Park (s) that resulted in the designed layout taking form. Although Richmond Park has undergone various changes over the two centuries since the land was first marked out in 1810, this open greenspace continues to reflect Macquarie's original intention and it retains its significance as a distinguishing element in the townscape. The place has a strong or special association with a person, or group of persons, of importance of cultural or natural history of New South Wales's history. Richmond Park has State significance for its association with Governor Lachlan Macquarie. Following his appointment as Governor of NSW in 1810, Macquarie was instructed by the British Government to select five sites best suited for new townships along the Hawkesbury River. Richmond was the first to be chosen and when laid out, a 10-acre (4-hectare) plot of land in the centre of the town was reserved for the creation of a public park. This dedication of Crown land for public use was common with Macquarie's town planning practices, and the reserved park was to become a central marketplace for the new town and a site for the activities of the community. The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. Richmond Park has local significance for its aesthetic values. As an open green space in the centre of town, the Park has always been a public landscape within an urban environment. The collection of plantations and cohesive design was intended to provide an attractive and pleasant environment for community recreation and, although the strength of the landscape design may have diminished since its inception, the Park retains its ability to provide an open green landscape for the enjoyment of the community. Its location and collection of fauna also continues to make the Park a distinguishing element in the Richmond townscape. The cultural features of the Park, namely the pavilion and war memorial, also contribute to the aesthetic value of the site. The pavilion, although comprehensively restored in 1994, is a dominant built structure in the Park and continues to reflect the nineteenth-century character of the site. The war memorial, an important element of many municipal parks in NSW, is also an attractive and socially valuable feature of Richmond Park. The place has strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group in New South Wales for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. Richmond Park has local significance for its social value to the community. Originally reserved as a market square for the people of the new township, Richmond Park has been an important asset to the community and one that has been consistently used over two centuries. With a grassed oval for active recreation (particularly cricket) and available seating within an attractive landscape for passive enjoyment, the Park has been a valued space for the community and an attractive element of the Richmond townscape for 200 years. By combining both active and passive recreation, commemoration and public sentiment, Richmond Park has been an open space well used by the local community. The types of use may have changed but its continuity of use has remained consistent. The presence of a war memorial at the Park is also a significant feature that enables the community to commemorate the effort and loss of local soldiers in active service. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. Richmond Park has been a greenspace site since European settlement and has undergone much change over the two centuries since its creation. As such, archaeological potential is likely to be low. The interpretative pathway and signage that indicates the positioning of the Richmond to Kurrajong railway line (that ran across the south-east corner of the Park from 1934 to 1952) is, in its current state, largely inaccurate and misleading. There is potential, therefore, to investigate this site for the original alignment of this railway line. The place possesses uncommon, rare or endangered aspects of the cultural or natural history of New South Wales. Richmond Park has State significance for its rarity value in NSW. When Governor Macquarie was appointed in 1810, he was instructed by the British Government to select and survey five suitable sites along the Hawkesbury River for new townships. Of these five sites, Richmond was the first to be laid out in January 1811. Originally conceived as a central marketplace for the new township, the survival of Richmond Park makes it a rare example of the town plan envisaged by Macquarie in 1810. The Park also retains its original intended use, being an open green space for the use of the community, which also contributes to its rarity value. (See Comparisons in History for other surviving public parks reserved by Governor Macquarie) The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a class of cultural or natural places/environments in New South Wales. Richmond Park has State significance as a representative example of a municipal park that has retained and expanded its use and community value over 200 years. Dedicating Crown land for public purposes was a common element in early town planning, both in NSW and around the world, and Richmond Park is a good example of how a Park can evolve to suit the needs of the local community. Positioned in the centre of Richmond, the Park has remained an open space for the activities of the local community throughout this time and, like many early parks, it has had a long history of cricket being played at the ground. Like many other parks in NSW, Richmond Park is a representative example of the simple and well-used landscape design of encircling a grassed cricket ground with a low fenced boundary and surrounding vegetation. The inclusion of a war memorial is also a common feature in Australian parks. A place for commemoration to honour the war effort of local soldiers is a significant aspect of many parks and Richmond Park is a good example of how this feature continues to be important to the community (the Park now includes a pillar honouring the efforts in the current (2009) "International Campaign Against Terror"). Richmond Park is also representative of the landscape design and layout of a nineteenth-century public park in NSW. Plant species were provided to the Park by the Sydney Botanic Gardens in 1870 and 1873 and, at this time, most parks in NSW were heavily influenced by the style pioneered by Charles Moore, the Director of the Botanic Gardens, and his successor, Joseph Henry Maiden. With the collection of plants becoming increasingly complex, Richmond Park also took on the role of an arboretum which was typical of early municipal parks in NSW. See also References Bibliography Attribution External links New South Wales State Heritage Register Richmond, New South Wales Sports venues in New South Wales Parks in New South Wales Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register

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Morehouse College is a private historically black men's liberal arts college in Atlanta, Georgia. Anchored by its main campus of near downtown Atlanta, the college has a variety of residential dorms and academic buildings east of Ashview Heights. Along with Spelman College, Clark Atlanta University, and the Morehouse School of Medicine, the college is a member of the Atlanta University Center consortium. Founded by William Jefferson White in 1867 in response to the liberation of enslaved African-Americans following the American Civil War, Morehouse adopted a seminary university model and stressed religious instruction in the Baptist tradition. Throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s, the college experienced rapid albeit financially unstable institutional growth by establishing a liberal arts curriculum. The three-decade tenure of Benjamin Mays during the mid-20th century led to strengthened finances, an enrollment boom, and increased academic competitiveness. The college has played a key role in the development of the civil rights movement and racial equality in the United States. The largest men's liberal arts college in the U.S., Morehouse has been home to 11 Fulbright Scholars, five Rhodes Scholars, and five Marshall Scholars, and is the alma mater of many African-American civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr. and Julian Bond, World Series MVP Donn Clendenon as well as entertainment icons Spike Lee and Samuel L. Jackson. Among Morehouse alumni, traditionally known as "Morehouse Men", the college has graduated numerous "African American firsts" in local, state and federal government as well as in science, academia, business, and entertainment. History Establishment Just two years after the American Civil War, the Augusta Institute was founded by the William Jefferson White, an Atlanta Baptist minister and cabinetmaker (William Jefferson White's half brother James E. Tate, was one of the founders of Atlanta University, now known as Clark Atlanta University), with the support of the Rev. Richard C. Coulter, a former slave from Atlanta, Georgia, and the Rev. Edmund Turney, organizer of the National Theological Institute for educating freedmen in Washington, D.C. The institution was founded to educate African American men in theology and education and was located in Springfield Baptist Church (Augusta, Georgia), the oldest independent black church in the United States. The institution moved from Augusta, Georgia, to Atlanta, Georgia, in 1879. The school received sponsorship from the American Baptist Home Mission Society, an organization that helped establish several historically black colleges. The institute's first president was Rev. Joseph T. Robert (1871–1884) (father of Brigadier General Henry Martyn Robert, author of Robert's Rules of Order). An anti-slavery Baptist minister from South Carolina and 1828 graduate of Brown University, Robert raised funds, taught the classes, and stabilized the institution. Early years In 1879, the institute moved to Atlanta and changed its name to the Atlanta Baptist Seminary. It later acquired a campus in downtown Atlanta. In 1885, Samuel T. Graves became the second president. That year the seminary moved to its present location, on land donated by prominent Baptist and industrialist, John D. Rockefeller. In 1890, George Sale became the seminary's third president. In 1899, William E. Holmes, who had been the first African American faculty member at the school, left to become the first president of Central City College in Macon, Georgia. In 1906 John Hope became the first African-American president and led the institution's growth in enrollment and academic stature. He envisioned an academically rigorous college that would be the antithesis to Booker T. Washington's view of agricultural and trade-focused education for African-Americans. In 1913, the college was renamed Morehouse College, in honor of Henry L. Morehouse, corresponding secretary of the American Baptist Home Mission Society (who had long organized Rockefeller and the Society's support for the college). Morehouse entered into a cooperative agreement with Clark College and Spelman College in 1929 and later expanded the association to form the Atlanta University Center. Samuel H. Archer became the fifth president of the college in 1931 and selected the school colors, maroon and white, to reflect his own alma mater, Colgate University. Benjamin Mays became president in 1940. Mays, who would be a mentor to Martin Luther King Jr., presided over the growth in international enrollment and reputation. During the 1960s, Morehouse students were actively involved in the civil rights movement in Atlanta. Mays' speeches were instrumental in shaping the personal development of Morehouse students during his tenure. In 1967, Hugh M. Gloster became the seventh president. The following year, the college's Phi Beta Kappa Honors Society was founded. In 1975, Gloster established the Morehouse School of Medicine, which became independent from Morehouse College in 1981. Gloster also established a dual-degree program in engineering with the Georgia Institute of Technology, University of Michigan and Boston University. Modern history Leroy Keith Jr., was named president in 1987. In 1995, alumnus Walter E. Massey, became Morehouse's ninth president. His successor, alumnus Robert Michael Franklin Jr. was the tenth president of the college. In November 2012, alumnus John Silvanus Wilson was announced as the institution's 11th president. In January 2018, David A. Thomas took office as the college's 12th president. In 2007, Morehouse graduated 540 men, one of the largest classes in its history. On May 16, 2008, Joshua Packwood became the first white valedictorian to graduate in the school's 141-year history. In August 2008, Morehouse welcomed a total of 920 new students (770 freshmen and 150 transfer students) to its campus, one of the largest entering classes in the history of the school. Morehouse celebrated several historic milestones in 2013. One century prior, in 1913, Atlanta Baptist College was renamed Morehouse College after Henry Lyman Morehouse, corresponding secretary for the American Baptist Home Mission Society. 2013 was also the 50th anniversary of the 1963 March on Washington, when Morehouse graduate Martin Luther King Jr., class of 1948, delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The year also marked the 50th anniversary of King's "Letter from Birmingham Jail." The college also celebrated the 25th anniversary of the "A Candle in the Dark" Gala, which is an annual event that honors some of the world's leaders and raises scholarship funds for Morehouse students. In May 2013, President Barack Obama became the first sitting president in three-quarters of a century to deliver a commencement address in Georgia when he took part in Morehouse College's 129th Commencement ceremony. Franklin Delano Roosevelt had given a summer commencement address at the University of Georgia in 1938. President Obama received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Morehouse. In April 2019, Morehouse announced that they will begin admitting transgender men for the first time in the year 2020. In May 2019, Robert F. Smith who received an honorary degree at Morehouse College's 135th commencement ceremony, promised to pay the educational loan debt for every spring 2019 graduate which totaled about $34 million. Smith's gift is the one of the largest single donations from a living donor to a HBCU in history. In June 2020, Reed Hastings and his wife Patty Quillin donated $40 million to Morehouse College to be used as scholarship funds for students enrolled at Morehouse. Their single donation is one of the largest in HBCU history and the largest ever for Morehouse. In July 2020, Morehouse received a $20 million donation from MacKenzie Scott. In early February 2021, Morehouse announced its online degree completion program for adult learners. Later in the month, the school launched its first online certificate course focused on athletics and social activism. In January 2022, Morehouse announced the establishment of the Black Men’s Research Institute. It is a unique research institute focusing on the cultural, economic, personal and social outcomes of issues affecting Black men, particularly where disparities exist in the world. Administration and organization Morehouse's governing body is its Board of Trustees. The Morehouse Board of Trustees has 37 members, including three student trustees and three faculty trustees. As of December 2014, five of the six executive board members and seven of the 31 general trustees are Morehouse alumni. The president of the college is the senior executive officer, appointed officially by the Board of Trustees. The current President of Morehouse is David A. Thomas. The President's Office has several leaders within its Executive Leadership Team including Academic Affairs (headed by the Senior Vice President for Academic Affairs), General Counsel, Business and Finance, Marketing and Communications, Information Technology, Institutional Advancement, External Relations, and Student Affairs. Morehouse's majors and programs are divided into seven divisions: Business Administration and Economics, Creative and Performing Arts, Experiential Learning and Interdisciplinary Studies, Humanities, Life Sciences, Mathematics and Computational Sciences, and Social Sciences and Cultural Studies. Each division is headed by a division chair. Morehouse's students are represented by two main bodies. The Morehouse Student Government Association is an executive board with 13 members who are elected annually. There is also the Campus Alliance for Student Activities (CASA), a 17-member board responsible for co-curricular planning across campus. Morehouse is also a member of the Atlanta University Center, a consortium of the historically black colleges and universities Spelman College, Clark Atlanta University, the Interdenominational Theological Center, and Morehouse School of Medicine. The AUC campuses are co-located in the city of Atlanta, which provides an opportunity for cross-registration and social intermingling amongst the students there, particularly the undergraduate population. Campus Morehouse is located on campus near downtown Atlanta. Buildings Archer Hall, named after the fifth president of Morehouse College, Samuel H. Archer, holds the college's recreational facilities such as its gymnasium, swimming pool, and game room. The gymnasium seats 1,000 people and was used by the college's basketball team before Franklin Forbes Arena was built. B. T. Harvey Stadium/Edwin Moses Track is a 9,000-seat stadium built in 1983. The track is named after the only alumnus to win an Olympic gold medal. At the time of the stadium's completion, it was the largest on-campus stadium at any private HBCU in the nation  Brawley Hall, named after Benjamin Griffith Brawley, houses the college's History, English, Language, and Art departments. Brazeal Hall is a dormitory built in 1991. It housed athletes during the time of the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Brazeal Hall originally housed upperclassmen, though it currently serves as a freshmen dorm. Ray Charles Performing Arts Center and Aretha Robinson Music Academic Building is a facility dedicated on September 29, 2010. The Emma & Joe Adams concert hall is named after Ray Charles' longtime manager and his wife. Joe Adams was president of the Ray Charles Foundation and played a significant fundraising role in the construction of the center., Chivers Hall/Lane Hall is the cafeteria of the college and has been featured in many movies. It seats 600 people and is attached to Mays Hall. The Sadie Mays lounge, named for the wife of Mays, connects Mays Hall and Chivers Hall. Dansby Hall houses the school's Physics, Psychology, and Mathematics departments. Douglass Hall (also known as LRC (Learning Resource Center)), named after Frederick Douglass was originally built as the school's student center but today serves as an academic readiness center, which features study spaces, conference rooms, and a computing lab. Most of the college's tutoring and academic support programming takes place here. DuBois Hall is a freshman dorm erected in 1973, named after philosopher W. E. B. Du Bois. Franklin L. Forbes Arena is a 5,700 capacity seat arena, built for the 1996 Olympic Games. It is now the main gymnasium for the college's basketball team and holds many events year-round. In 2018, for the first time in program history, Morehouse hosted the 2018 NCAA Division II Men's Basketball Tournament's South Region Championship and the 2018 McDonald's All American Dunk Contest in Forbes Arena. The arena has hosted many celebrities and politicians, including President Barack Obama and presidential hopefuls Stacey Abrams, Bernie Sanders, and Joe Biden. Graves Hall, named after the second president of Morehouse College, Samuel T. Graves, is home to the Howard Thurman Honors Program and Bonner Scholars. When constructed in the 1880s, it was the tallest building in Atlanta. When the college relocated to the West End area, student housing, classrooms, and administration offices were all contained within the building. Hope Hall was named after John Hope, the first African American president (fourth president) of Morehouse College. When erected, it was known as the Science Building, then later the Biology Building. Through the years, the building became too small for classroom use and now holds laboratories for departments that are in other buildings. Hope Hall includes the offices of the Public Health Sciences Institute. Hubert Hall is a freshman dorm named after Charles D. Hubert, who was an acting president from 1938 to 1940. Kilgore Campus Center houses administrative offices, as well as several seminar rooms and lounges. A separate area of the building serves as a dormitory. Archer Hall, B. T. Harvey Stadium, and the exterior of Graves Hall are featured in the Spike Lee film School Daze. Living Learning Center (LLC) was formerly known as Thurman Hall. It is one of the school's freshman dorms. Martin Luther King, Jr. International Chapel/Gloster Hall was built in 1978 as the new auditorium and administration building for Morehouse College, replacing Sale and Harkness halls (Harkness is now a Clark Atlanta University structure). It is home to the Gandhi–King–Ikeda Reconciliation Institute. Mays Hall was named after the sixth president of Morehouse College, Benjamin Mays. It houses dorm rooms and is the headquarters for residence life for the college. Merrill Hall, named after Charles E. Merrill Jr., a chairman of the college's Board of Trustees, became the chemistry building. The 2000s (decade) saw Merrill Hall undergo a renovation that doubled its size. Its new corridor is called John Hopps Technology Tower, which houses the Computer Science department as well as the office of Information Technology Services. Nabrit–Mapp–McBay Hall was erected in 1987. The building is also known as Bio-Chem''' from a plaque at the corridor stating that the building was built to house the Biology and Chemistry classrooms. It now holds the Biology department. It was named for distinguished science professors Samuel M. Nabrit, Frederick Mapp, and Henry McBay. Otis Moss Jr. Residential Suites are apartment, studio, and suite dwellings built in 2003. The Suites were renamed in spring 2006, after Otis Moss Jr. (class of 1956), former chair of Morehouse's Board of Trustees. Perdue Hall is a residences hall built around the time of the 1996 Summer Olympics. It housed athletes during the 1996 Olympic events. Robert Hall, named after Joseph T. Robert, the first president of the college, was erected to be the college's first residence hall. When built, there was a cafeteria in its basement. Today the basement houses a post office. Sale Hall, named after the third president, was built to contain classrooms. Today, it is the department building for religion and philosophy courses. On the second floor, a small auditorium, called the Chapel of the Inward Journey, was used for religious and commencement proceedings. Today, the chapel is used for recitals, pageants, and student government association election debates. Shirley A. Massey Executive Conference Center is named after the first lady of the ninth president of the college. It houses several large conference rooms and the Bank of America Auditorium. The building has hosted human rights film festivals, moving screenings, and panel discussions featuring international figures. Walter E. Massey Leadership Center houses the Business Administration and Economics departments, the Bonner Office of Community Service as well as other offices. It also has a 500-seat auditorium and an executive conference center. The building was completed in 2005 and is named after Walter E. Massey (ninth president). Wheeler Hall is a building used primarily by the Political Science and Sociology departments. White Hall is a freshman residence hall, named after the college's founder. Monuments A bronze statue of Martin Luther King Jr. stands at the eastern portion of the main entrance plaza of the Martin Luther King Jr. International Chapel. Inscribed in the base of the statue are the words of King. An obelisk named in honor of Howard Thurman stands at the western end of the main entrance plaza of King Chapel. The base of the Thurman Obelisk contains the remains of Thurman and his wife. The obelisk also houses a carillon. The grave sites of two presidents of Morehouse College are located on campus: A statue of Benjamin Mays stands atop a marble monument situated in front of Graves Hall. This monument marks the graves of President Mays and his wife, Sadie Gray Mays. Behind the graves are memoirs and a time capsule set to be opened in May 2095. Hugh Morris Gloster, seventh president of Morehouse College and founder of Morehouse School of Medicine, is buried in the eastern lawn of the college's main administration building bearing his name. Academics Morehouse College is accredited by the Commission and Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. Morehouse offers over 30 majors and the Howard Thurman Honors Program which is a selective four-year comprehensive program providing special learning opportunities for students of outstanding intellectual ability, high motivation, and broad interests. Additionally, students have many opportunities to participate in domestic exchange, study abroad, research, dual degree, internship, and leadership programs. Rankings For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Morehouse tied for 128th overall, and 18th for "Social Mobility", tied for 42nd "Most Innovative", and tied for 36th "Best Undergraduate Teaching" among liberal arts colleges in the U.S.; additionally, it ranked Morehouse 4th among "Historically Black Colleges and Universities. In 2019, The Alumni Factor ranked Morehouse among the best 50 colleges in the nation. As of 2018, Morehouse is the No. 1 institution of all types for producing the most black male Rhodes Scholars. As of 2016, Morehouse is the No. 1 baccalaureate-origin institution of black male doctorate recipients. In 2015, TrendTopper MediaBuzz College Guide ranked Morehouse as the No. 1 HBCU with the best brand. In 2015, Forbes ranked Morehouse No. 5 for "Most Entrepreneurial College" A 2008 National Science Foundation study found that of over 3,000 colleges and universities in the U.S., Morehouse College was the fifth biggest producer of African Americans who eventually earned PhDs in the STEM fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Morehouse is the No.1 feeder school for black men entering Harvard Law and Business Schools. Morehouse has conferred more bachelor's degrees on black men than any other institution in the nation. Library and collections Morehouse College, along with other members of the Atlanta University Center, share the Robert W. Woodruff Library. Morehouse College is home to a 10,000-piece collection of original documents written by Martin Luther King Jr. (referred to as the King Collection). The set was valued by the Library of Congress as being worth between $28 to $30 million and was originally scheduled by his family to be auctioned off to the general public in 2006, but private donors in Atlanta intervened and offered a pre-auction bid at $32 million. On June 29, it was announced by Atlanta mayor Shirley Franklin, a key catalyst in the buyout, that a new civil rights museum would be built in the city to make the documents available for research, public access and exhibits. Coca-Cola donated a land parcel valued at $10 million in order to assist with the development of the project. The collection includes King's 1964 Nobel Prize acceptance speech. Student life New Student Orientation Morehouse's New Student Orientation (NSO) is an eight-day experience that culminates with new students ceremoniously initiated as Men of Morehouse. They learn about the legacy of the college, traditions, academic divisions, the brotherhood, and the "Morehouse Mystique". These components complement academic success strategies designed to help them successfully matriculate to Morehouse Men (graduates) via the rite of final passage ceremony. NSO is led by student orientation leaders, staff and alumni; all new students are placed on midnight curfew during NSO. Residence halls Morehouse has 12 residence halls on campus. Approximately 60% of Morehouse students live on campus. Six residence halls are for first-year students only and five for upperclassmen. It is a tradition for students living in first-year only residence halls to compete in various friendly competitions (i.e. stroll-offs, chant-offs, pranks, fundraising, etc.) during the academic school year. Seniors are the only group automatically allowed to live off campus, non-seniors must get approval by the college. Regulation of campus attire In October 2009, Morehouse College initiated a campus wide attire policy that prohibits students from wearing women's clothes, jewelry on their teeth, pajamas as classroom attire, du-rags or bandanas on their heads, or pants which hang below the waist at official college-sponsored events. This dress code is part of the Five Wells which holds that "Morehouse Men are Renaissance Men with a social conscience and global perspective who are Well-Read, Well-Spoken, Well-Traveled, Well-Dressed and Well-Balanced." William Bynum, vice president for Student Services was quoted by CNN as saying, "We are talking about five students who are living a gay lifestyle that is leading them to dress [in] a way we do not expect in Morehouse men." These remarks and the attire policy itself have been the source of great controversy both on and off the campus. Then-university president Robert Michael Franklin Jr. sent out an email to the schools' alumni, clarifying that the university's attire policy was not intended as an affront to gay students. Activities and clubs Morehouse College offers organized and informal co-curricular activities including over 80 student organizations, varsity, club, intramural sports, and student publications. Morehouse is an NCAA Division II school and competes in numerous sports, including football, baseball, basketball, cross country, volleyball, and track & field. Morehouse Marching Band (House of Funk) The Morehouse College Marching Band, better known as the House of Funk, is known for their halftime performances which combine dance and marching with music from various genres, including rap, traditional marching band music, and pop music. They have performed at Super Bowl XXVIII, the Today Show, at Atlanta Falcons home games, and in a national commercial with Morehouse alumnus Samuel Jackson. They gave the halftime show during the 2013 NCAA Men's National Championship basketball game. Affectionately known as the "House of Funk" they march alongside Spelman's Maroon Mystique Color guard (flag spinning) squad and Mahogany-N-Motion danceline. Debate team Morehouse's debate team was formed in 1906 and has won many accolades since its founding. In 2005, Morehouse College became a member of the American Mock Trial Association (AMTA). The school is one of only four competing teams to come from a historically black college and is also the only all-male team in the AMTA. From 2006 to 2010, Morehouse consecutively won their regional championship competitions, and thus received direct trips to the AMTA national championship competitions in Iowa, Florida, and Minnesota. In 2016, Morehouse became the only HBCU, Georgia institution, and men's college selected to host the annual U.S. Universities Debating Championship which had nearly 200 teams from across the nation participate. In 2017, the Morehouse College Debate Team won an international first place title and a trip to Paris, France after defeating Vanderbilt University in the final round at the Lafayette Debates North American Championship in Washington D.C. Glee Club Founded in 1911, the Morehouse College Glee Club has a long and impressive history. The Glee Club performed at Martin Luther King Jr.'s funeral, President Jimmy Carter's inauguration, Super Bowl XXVIII, and the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. The Glee Club's international performances include tours in Africa, Russia, Poland and the Caribbean. The group also appeared on the soundtrack for the movie School Daze, directed by notable Morehouse alum (c/o 1979), Spike Lee. Most recently, the Morehouse College Glee Club was invited to perform at the ABCUSA 2011 Conference in Puerto Rico. Also, the glee club studio-recorded a song for Spike Lee's "Red Hook Summer" entitled Zachary and the Scaly-Bark Tree. The Maroon Tiger The college's weekly student-run newspaper is The Maroon Tiger. Founded in 1898 as The Athenaeum, it was renamed in 1925. American poet and writer Thomas Dent was a contributor while he attended from 1948 to 1952, as was Martin Luther King Jr. Maroon Tiger former editors and contributors include Geoff Bennett, Vann R. Newkirk II, Donovan Ramsey, Tre'vell Anderson, Lerone Bennett Jr., Shaun King as well as a host of others. The 2008–2009 staff sought to expand the newspaper into a news organization by creating Morehouse's first television news program, Tiger TV, and advancing online news coverage. Miss Maroon & White Several Spelman and Clark Atlanta juniors that advance past preliminary interviews vie for the prestigious title of Miss Maroon & White through a formal campaign and beauty pageant process during the spring semester of each year. Only Morehouse students can vote to determine the winner which is the contestant that best represents the ideal counterpart for a Morehouse Man. Miss Maroon & White and her royal court (two runners-ups known as attendants) collectively serve as official Morehouse ambassadors and represents the womanly embodiment of the institution for a year. The tradition of crowning a young woman as Miss Maroon & White began in 1936 with Miss Juanita Maxie Ponder of Spelman College winning the first crown. Miss Maroon & White is the longest active pageant title in the Atlanta University Center. The current reigning queen is Miss Kennedy Hayes of Spelman College, the 85th Miss Maroon & White National fraternities and honor societies Morehouse College has chapters of several national fraternities and honor societies on campus. About three percent of students are active in Morehouse's National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and Non-NPHC fraternities. NPHC Alpha Phi Alpha (Alpha Rho chapter) Kappa Alpha Psi (Pi chapter) Omega Psi Phi (Psi chapter) Phi Beta Sigma (Chi chapter) Iota Phi Theta (Alpha Pi chapter) Non-NPHC The Tiger 6 – MAA'T chapter of Groove Phi Groove Pershing Rifles Honor societies Phi Beta Kappa (Delta of Georgia chapter) Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia Phi Alpha Delta Phi Sigma Tau (Georgia Kappa Chapter) Kappa Kappa Psi Alpha Kappa Delta Beta Gamma Sigma Beta Kappa Chi Chi Alpha Epsilon Omicron Delta Epsilon (Iota of Georgia) Omicron Delta Kappa Pi Sigma Alpha National Society of Collegiate Scholars Religious organizations Campus religious organizations include the Atlanta University Center Catholic Student Coalition, King International Chapel Ministry, Martin Luther King International Chapel Assistants, King Chapel Choir, Muslim Students Association, New Life Inspirational Fellowship Church Campus Ministry, and The Outlet. Athletics In sports, the Morehouse College Maroon Tigers are affiliated with the NCAA Division II Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC). Morehouse College competes in football, baseball, basketball, cross country, tennis, track & field, volleyball, polo, and golf. In 2019, a $1 million grant enabled Morehouse and five other SIAC institutions to sponsor an intercollegiate men's volleyball team. Collectively, the six institutions are the first HBCUs to sponsor a men's volleyball team. Also in 2019, Morehouse became the first HBCU to establish an intercollegiate polo team as a member of the United States Polo Association. Notable alumni Morehouse alumni include notable African-Americans such as: Martin Luther King Jr., theologian Howard Thurman, filmmaker Spike Lee, filmmaker Robert G. Christie (a.k.a. Bobby Garcia), actor Samuel L. Jackson, civil rights leader Julian Bond, United States Senator Raphael Warnock, businessman and former 2012 Republican presidential candidate Herman Cain, Secretary of Homeland Security in 2013 Jeh Johnson, University president and health care executive Albert W. Dent, NFL Referee Jerome Boger, celebrity physician Corey Hébert, U.S. Congressman Sanford D. Bishop, Gang Starr rapper Guru, Four-time 400 meter hurdles world record holder and twice Olympic gold medalist Edwin Moses, U.S. District Court Judge George J. Hazel, Lloyd McNeill, Jazz flutist, USPS Kwanza Stamp designer, the first recipient of Howard University's MFA Degree, former Bank of America Chairman Walter E. Massey, the first African-American mayor of Atlanta Maynard Jackson, Major League Baseball first baseman and 1969 World Series MVP Donn Clendenon, former Secretary of Health and Human Services Louis W. Sullivan, former United States Surgeon General David Satcher, musician PJ Morton, rap producer Metro Boomin, Sunday Best season 7 winner Geoffrey Golden, Montgomery County Alabama Circuit Court Judge Greg Griffin and the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) scientist that attempted to stop the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Bill Jenkins. According to Morehouse's own "About Us" page, Morehouse was the first historically black college to produce a Rhodes Scholar. The school's first Rhodes Scholar, Nima Warfield, was named in 1994, the second, Christopher Elders, in 2001. A third, Oluwabusayo "Topé" Folarin, was named in 2004, the fourth, Prince Abudu, was named in 2015, and the fifth, Franck Nijimbere, was named in 2018. Morehouse has been home to 11 Fulbright Scholars. Since 1999, Morehouse has produced five Marshall Scholars, one Schwarzman Scholar, five Luce Scholars, four Watson Fellows and 2010 White House Fellow, Erich Caulfield. Presidents Barack Obama and Jimmy Carter hold honorary doctorates of laws from Morehouse, after giving commencement speeches. Oprah Winfrey Scholars In 1990, Oprah Winfrey pledged to put 100 deserving young men through Morehouse. She made a donation to establish the "Oprah Winfrey Endowed Scholarship Fund". The school uses the fund to select deserving students based on academic achievement and financial need. Selected students are deemed "Oprah Scholars" or "Sons of Oprah". Their financial support covers most of the costs of their education including prior student debt. Recipients must maintain their grade point average and provide additional volunteer support to the community. In 2004 Winfrey increased her donation by $5 million for a total donation of $12 million. The fund has since supported over 400 students. In 2011, several hundred Oprah Scholars surprised Winfrey by showing up at her final TV show carrying candles to thank her for her generosity. They, in turn, pledged $300,000 to help educate future Morehouse students. In 2019, Winfrey added $13 million to the scholarship program bringing her grand total donations to $25 million. Gandhi King Ikeda Awards Lawrence Carter, Professor of Religion and Dean of the Martin Luther King Jr. International Chapel at Morehouse College, founded the MLK Chapel Assistants Pre-seminarians Program. He commissioned the Gandhi Ikeda King Hassan Institute for Ethics and Reconciliation in 1999, and created the Gandhi–King–Ikeda Community Builder's Prize of the Morehouse Chapel in 2001. Named after Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948), Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968), and Daisaku Ikeda (born 1928), Morehouse's MLK Chapel awards the Gandhi, King, Ikeda Community Builders Prizes as well as the Gandhi King Ikeda Awards for Peace. References Sources Addie Louise Joyner Butler, The Distinctive Black College: Talladega, Tuskegee, and Morehouse (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1977). Leroy Davis, A Clashing of the Soul: John Hope and the Dilemma of African American Leadership and Black Higher Education in the Early Twentieth Century (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998). Edward A. Jones, A Candle in the Dark: A History of Morehouse College (Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1967). Moss Kendrix, P.R icon External links Educational institutions established in 1867 Historically black universities and colleges in the United States Men's universities and colleges in the United States Universities and colleges in Atlanta Universities and colleges accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Liberal arts colleges in Georgia (U.S. state) Private universities and colleges in Georgia (U.S. state) 1867 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)

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91001–91100 |-bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91001 || || — || January 18, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=002 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91002 || || — || January 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=003 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91003 || || — || January 25, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || V || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=004 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91004 || || — || January 26, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=005 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91005 || || — || January 24, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=006 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91006 Fleming || || || January 28, 1998 || Kleť || M. Tichý, Z. Moravec || MAR || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=007 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91007 Ianfleming || || || January 30, 1998 || Kleť || J. Tichá, M. Tichý || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=008 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91008 || || — || January 23, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=009 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91009 || || — || January 26, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=010 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91010 || || — || February 1, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=011 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91011 || || — || February 8, 1998 || Modra || A. Galád, A. Pravda || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=012 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91012 || 1998 DY || — || February 18, 1998 || Kleť || Kleť Obs. || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=013 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91013 || || — || February 20, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=014 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91014 || || — || February 23, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=015 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91015 || || — || February 25, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=016 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91016 || || — || February 22, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=017 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91017 || || — || February 25, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=018 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91018 || || — || February 20, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || NYS || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=019 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91019 || || — || February 26, 1998 || Blauvac || R. Roy || NYS || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=020 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91020 || || — || February 24, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=021 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91021 || || — || February 26, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=022 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91022 || || — || February 19, 1998 || Kushiro || S. Ueda, H. Kaneda || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=023 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91023 Lutan || || || February 23, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || BRG || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=024 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91024 Széchenyi || || || February 28, 1998 || Piszkéstető || K. Sárneczky, L. Kiss || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=025 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91025 || || — || February 27, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || EUN || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=026 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91026 || || — || February 27, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=027 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91027 || || — || February 26, 1998 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=028 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91028 || || — || February 24, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=029 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91029 || 1998 EY || — || March 2, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=030 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91030 || || — || March 2, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || GAL || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=031 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91031 || || — || March 2, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=032 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91032 || || — || March 1, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=033 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91033 || || — || March 3, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=034 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91034 || || — || March 1, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || H || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=035 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91035 || || — || March 5, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || EUN || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=036 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91036 || || — || March 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || |-id=037 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91037 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || |-id=038 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91038 || || — || March 22, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=039 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91039 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=040 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91040 || || — || March 25, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || HEN || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=041 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91041 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.3 km || |-id=042 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91042 || || — || March 26, 1998 || Kleť || Kleť Obs. || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=043 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91043 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.3 km || |-id=044 bgcolor=#FA8072 | 91044 || || — || March 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || |-id=045 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91045 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=046 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91046 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=047 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91047 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=048 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91048 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=049 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91049 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=050 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91050 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=051 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91051 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=052 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91052 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=053 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91053 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || MRX || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=054 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91054 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=055 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91055 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=056 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91056 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=057 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91057 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=058 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91058 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=059 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91059 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=060 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91060 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=061 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91061 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=062 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91062 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=063 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91063 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=064 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91064 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=065 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91065 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=066 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91066 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=067 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91067 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=068 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91068 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=069 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91069 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=070 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91070 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=071 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91071 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=072 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91072 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=073 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91073 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=074 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91074 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=075 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91075 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=076 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91076 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=077 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91077 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=078 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91078 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=079 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91079 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=080 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91080 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=081 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91081 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=082 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91082 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=083 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91083 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=084 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91084 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=085 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91085 || || — || March 31, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=086 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91086 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=087 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91087 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=088 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91088 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=089 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91089 || || — || March 24, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=090 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91090 || || — || March 29, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || |-id=091 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91091 || || — || March 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.3 km || |-id=092 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91092 || || — || March 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=093 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91093 || 1998 GS || — || April 3, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=094 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91094 || || — || April 2, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=095 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91095 || || — || April 2, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=096 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91096 || || — || April 15, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=097 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91097 || || — || April 2, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=098 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91098 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=099 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91099 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=100 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91100 || || — || April 25, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |} 91101–91200 |-bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91101 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EUN || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=102 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91102 || || — || April 18, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=103 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91103 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=104 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91104 || || — || April 18, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=105 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91105 || || — || April 18, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || HOF || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=106 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91106 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=107 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91107 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=108 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91108 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=109 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91109 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=110 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91110 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=111 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91111 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=112 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91112 || || — || April 25, 1998 || Woomera || F. B. Zoltowski || RAF || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=113 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91113 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=114 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91114 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRA || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=115 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91115 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=116 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91116 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=117 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91117 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=118 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91118 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || NEM || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=119 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91119 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=120 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91120 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=121 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91121 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=122 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91122 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=123 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91123 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=124 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91124 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=125 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91125 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=126 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91126 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=127 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91127 || || — || April 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=128 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91128 || || — || April 19, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=129 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91129 || || — || April 19, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=130 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91130 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || WIT || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=131 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91131 || || — || April 21, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=132 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91132 || || — || April 20, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=133 bgcolor=#C2E0FF | 91133 || || — || April 28, 1998 || Mauna Kea || Mauna Kea Obs. || plutinocritical || align=right | 134 km || |-id=134 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91134 || || — || April 29, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 7.0 km || |-id=135 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91135 || || — || April 19, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=136 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91136 || || — || May 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRU || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=137 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91137 || || — || May 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=138 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91138 || || — || May 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=139 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91139 || || — || May 22, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=140 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91140 || || — || June 1, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=141 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91141 || || — || June 3, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=142 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91142 || || — || June 20, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=143 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91143 || || — || June 19, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=144 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91144 || || — || June 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=145 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91145 || 1998 OX || — || July 20, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || EOS || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=146 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91146 || || — || July 20, 1998 || San Marcello || M. Tombelli, L. Tesi || EMA || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=147 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91147 || || — || July 16, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=148 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91148 || || — || July 20, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || URS || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=149 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91149 || 1998 PS || — || August 15, 1998 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || THM || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=150 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91150 || || — || August 26, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=151 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91151 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.7 km || |-id=152 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91152 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 12 km || |-id=153 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91153 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=154 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91154 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.9 km || |-id=155 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91155 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=156 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91156 || || — || August 31, 1998 || Modra || A. Galád, J. Tóth || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=157 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91157 || || — || August 26, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=158 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91158 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 9.1 km || |-id=159 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91159 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.9 km || |-id=160 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91160 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.1 km || |-id=161 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91161 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUP || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=162 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91162 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=163 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91163 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || ALA || align=right | 12 km || |-id=164 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91164 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 11 km || |-id=165 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91165 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=166 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91166 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || INA || align=right | 8.0 km || |-id=167 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91167 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=168 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91168 || || — || August 24, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=169 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91169 || || — || August 17, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=170 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91170 || || — || August 21, 1998 || Haleakala || NEAT || THM || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=171 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91171 || || — || August 23, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=172 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91172 || || — || September 15, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || VER || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=173 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91173 || || — || September 12, 1998 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=174 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91174 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=175 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91175 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=176 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91176 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.2 km || |-id=177 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91177 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 7.0 km || |-id=178 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91178 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 7.0 km || |-id=179 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91179 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=180 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91180 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=181 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91181 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=182 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91182 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || 2:1J || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=183 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91183 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=184 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91184 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=185 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91185 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=186 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91186 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=187 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91187 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || TIR || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=188 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91188 || || — || September 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=189 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91189 || || — || September 16, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || Tj (2.91) || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=190 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91190 || || — || September 29, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=191 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91191 || || — || September 16, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 15 km || |-id=192 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91192 || || — || September 17, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || URS || align=right | 12 km || |-id=193 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91193 || || — || September 19, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || ALA || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=194 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91194 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 9.2 km || |-id=195 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91195 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=196 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91196 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.1 km || |-id=197 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91197 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=198 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91198 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=199 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91199 Johngray || || || September 20, 1998 || La Silla || E. W. Elst || ALA || align=right | 10 km || |-id=200 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91200 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUP || align=right | 8.3 km || |} 91201–91300 |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91201 || || — || September 26, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=202 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91202 || || — || September 25, 1998 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=203 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91203 || || — || October 19, 1998 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=204 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91204 || || — || October 28, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 12 km || |-id=205 bgcolor=#C2E0FF | 91205 || || — || October 22, 1998 || Kitt Peak || M. W. Buie || plutinocritical || align=right | 111 km || |-id=206 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91206 || || — || November 24, 1998 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=207 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91207 || || — || December 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 11 km || |-id=208 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91208 || || — || December 15, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=209 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91209 || || — || December 14, 1998 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=210 bgcolor=#FA8072 | 91210 || || — || December 11, 1998 || Mérida || O. A. Naranjo || — || align=right | 1.2 km || |-id=211 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91211 || || — || December 17, 1998 || Caussols || ODAS || V || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=212 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91212 || || — || December 24, 1998 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=213 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91213 Botchan || || || December 22, 1998 || Kuma Kogen || A. Nakamura || FLO || align=right | 1.0 km || |-id=214 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91214 Diclemente || || || December 23, 1998 || San Marcello || A. Boattini, L. Tesi || — || align=right | 1.3 km || |-id=215 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91215 || 1999 AN || — || January 5, 1999 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková, L. Vašta || NYS || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=216 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91216 || || — || January 10, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=217 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91217 || || — || January 11, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=218 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91218 || || — || January 10, 1999 || Nachi-Katsuura || Y. Shimizu, T. Urata || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=219 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91219 || || — || January 11, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=220 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91220 || || — || January 13, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=221 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91221 || || — || January 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=222 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91222 || || — || January 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=223 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91223 || || — || January 13, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=224 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91224 || 1999 BH || — || January 16, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=225 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91225 || || — || January 20, 1999 || Kleť || Kleť Obs. || NYS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=226 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91226 || || — || January 22, 1999 || Kleť || Kleť Obs. || NYS || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=227 bgcolor=#FA8072 | 91227 || || — || January 22, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=228 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91228 || || — || January 24, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || FLO || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=229 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91229 || || — || January 26, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=230 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91230 || || — || January 16, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=231 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91231 || || — || January 18, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=232 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91232 || || — || January 18, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=233 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91233 || || — || February 6, 1999 || Dynic || Y. Ikari || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=234 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91234 || || — || February 7, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=235 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91235 || || — || February 7, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=236 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91236 || || — || February 6, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=237 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91237 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=238 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91238 || || — || February 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=239 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91239 || || — || February 15, 1999 || Baton Rouge || Highland Road Park Obs. || NYS || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=240 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91240 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=241 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91241 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.2 km || |-id=242 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91242 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=243 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91243 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.3 km || |-id=244 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91244 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=245 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91245 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=246 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91246 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=247 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91247 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=248 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91248 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=249 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91249 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=250 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91250 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=251 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91251 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=252 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91252 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=253 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91253 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=254 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91254 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=255 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91255 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=256 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91256 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=257 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91257 || || — || February 13, 1999 || Monte Agliale || E. Mazzoni || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=258 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91258 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=259 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91259 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=260 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91260 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=261 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91261 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=262 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91262 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=263 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91263 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=264 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91264 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=265 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91265 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=266 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91266 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=267 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91267 || || — || February 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=268 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91268 || || — || February 8, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=269 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91269 || || — || February 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=270 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91270 || || — || February 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || NYS || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=271 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91271 || || — || February 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=272 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91272 || || — || February 10, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=273 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91273 || 1999 DN || — || February 16, 1999 || Caussols || ODAS || HIL3:2 || align=right | 14 km || |-id=274 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91274 || || — || February 18, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević, M. Jurić || NYS || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=275 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91275 Billsmith || || || March 13, 1999 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || NYS || align=right | 1.2 km || |-id=276 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91276 || || — || March 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=277 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91277 || || — || March 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=278 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91278 || || — || March 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=279 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91279 || || — || March 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=280 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91280 || || — || March 15, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=281 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91281 || || — || March 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=282 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91282 || || — || March 16, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=283 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91283 || || — || March 16, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ERI || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=284 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91284 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Fountain Hills || C. W. Juels || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=285 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91285 || || — || March 22, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=286 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91286 || || — || March 23, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MAS || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=287 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91287 Simon-Garfunkel || || || March 21, 1999 || Wykrota || C. Jacques || FLO || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=288 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91288 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=289 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91289 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=290 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91290 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=291 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91291 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=292 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91292 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=293 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91293 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=294 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91294 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=295 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91295 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=296 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91296 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FLO || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=297 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91297 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=298 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91298 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=299 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91299 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=300 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91300 || || — || March 19, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 2.3 km || |} 91301–91400 |-bgcolor=#fefefe | 91301 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=302 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91302 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=303 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91303 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=304 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91304 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HIL3:2 || align=right | 18 km || |-id=305 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91305 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=306 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91306 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=307 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91307 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=308 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91308 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=309 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91309 || || — || March 20, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=310 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91310 || || — || April 6, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=311 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91311 || || — || April 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || PHO || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=312 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91312 || || — || April 13, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević, M. Jurić || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=313 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91313 || || — || April 7, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || MAS || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=314 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91314 || || — || April 9, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=315 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91315 || || — || April 9, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=316 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91316 || || — || April 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=317 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91317 || || — || April 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=318 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91318 || || — || April 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=319 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91319 || || — || April 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=320 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91320 || || — || April 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=321 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91321 || || — || April 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KON || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=322 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91322 || || — || April 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=323 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91323 || || — || April 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=324 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91324 || || — || April 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=325 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91325 || || — || April 6, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=326 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91326 || || — || April 11, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || FLO || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=327 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91327 || || — || April 11, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=328 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91328 || || — || April 12, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=329 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91329 || || — || April 9, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=330 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91330 || || — || April 20, 1999 || Kleť || Kleť Obs. || FLO || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=331 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91331 || || — || April 17, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || FLO || align=right | 1.4 km || |-id=332 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91332 || || — || April 17, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=333 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91333 || || — || May 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=334 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91334 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=335 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91335 || || — || May 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=336 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91336 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=337 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91337 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRU || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=338 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91338 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=339 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91339 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GERslow || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=340 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91340 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=341 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91341 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.1 km || |-id=342 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91342 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=343 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91343 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=344 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91344 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.6 km || |-id=345 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91345 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ERI || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=346 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91346 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=347 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91347 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=348 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91348 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=349 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91349 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=350 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91350 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=351 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91351 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=352 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91352 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=353 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91353 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=354 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91354 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || RAF || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=355 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91355 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=356 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91356 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=357 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91357 || || — || May 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=358 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91358 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=359 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91359 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=360 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91360 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=361 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91361 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=362 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91362 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=363 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91363 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=364 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91364 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=365 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91365 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=366 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91366 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=367 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91367 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=368 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91368 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=369 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91369 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=370 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91370 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=371 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91371 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=372 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91372 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=373 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91373 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=374 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91374 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=375 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91375 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=376 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91376 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=377 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91377 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=378 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91378 || || — || May 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=379 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91379 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.9 km || |-id=380 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91380 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=381 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91381 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.7 km || |-id=382 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91382 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=383 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91383 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 1.7 km || |-id=384 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91384 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || V || align=right | 1.8 km || |-id=385 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91385 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NYS || align=right | 1.5 km || |-id=386 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91386 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=387 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91387 || || — || May 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=388 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91388 || || — || May 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || CIM || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=389 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91389 || || — || May 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=390 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91390 || 1999 KL || — || May 16, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=391 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91391 || || — || May 16, 1999 || Bergisch Gladbach || W. Bickel || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=392 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91392 || || — || May 18, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GER || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=393 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91393 || || — || May 18, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=394 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91394 || 1999 LM || — || June 6, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=395 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91395 Sakanouenokumo || || || June 5, 1999 || Kuma Kogen || A. Nakamura || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=396 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91396 || || — || June 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=397 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91397 || || — || June 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=398 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91398 || || — || June 11, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EUN || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=399 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91399 || || — || June 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || PAL || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=400 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91400 || 1999 MW || — || June 23, 1999 || Farra d'Isonzo || Farra d'Isonzo || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |} 91401–91500 |-bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91401 || 1999 MY || — || June 22, 1999 || Woomera || F. B. Zoltowski || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=402 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91402 || 1999 NW || — || July 9, 1999 || Woomera || F. B. Zoltowski || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=403 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91403 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=404 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91404 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=405 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91405 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GER || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=406 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91406 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=407 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91407 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=408 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91408 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=409 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91409 || || — || July 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=410 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91410 || || — || July 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=411 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91411 || || — || July 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=412 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91412 || || — || July 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=413 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91413 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=414 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91414 || || — || July 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=415 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91415 || || — || July 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=416 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91416 || || — || July 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=417 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91417 || || — || July 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ADE || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=418 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91418 || || — || July 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=419 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91419 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=420 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91420 || || — || July 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=421 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91421 || || — || July 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=422 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91422 Giraudon || 1999 OH || || July 16, 1999 || Pises || Pises Obs. || ADE || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=423 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91423 || || — || July 16, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=424 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91424 || || — || August 10, 1999 || Ametlla de Mar || J. Nomen || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=425 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91425 || || — || August 7, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=426 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91426 || || — || August 13, 1999 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=427 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91427 || || — || August 14, 1999 || Ondřejov || P. Kušnirák, P. Pravec || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=428 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91428 Cortesi || || || August 20, 1999 || Gnosca || S. Sposetti || EUN || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=429 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91429 Michelebianda || || || August 30, 1999 || Gnosca || S. Sposetti || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=430 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91430 || 1999 RL || — || September 4, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=431 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91431 || 1999 RQ || — || September 3, 1999 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková || AGN || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=432 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91432 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || HOF || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=433 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91433 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=434 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91434 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=435 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91435 || || — || September 3, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=436 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91436 || || — || September 3, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=437 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91437 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=438 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91438 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=439 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91439 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=440 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91440 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=441 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91441 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=442 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91442 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=443 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91443 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=444 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91444 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=445 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91445 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=446 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91446 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=447 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91447 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=448 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91448 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=449 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91449 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=450 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91450 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=451 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91451 || || — || September 13, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=452 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91452 || || — || September 14, 1999 || Ondřejov || P. Kušnirák, P. Pravec || EOS || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=453 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91453 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=454 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91454 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=455 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91455 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=456 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91456 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=457 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91457 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || AGN || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=458 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91458 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=459 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91459 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=460 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91460 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=461 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91461 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || AGN || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=462 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91462 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=463 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91463 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=464 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91464 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=465 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91465 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FIR || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=466 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91466 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=467 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91467 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=468 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91468 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=469 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91469 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=470 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91470 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HOF || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=471 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91471 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=472 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91472 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=473 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91473 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=474 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91474 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HNA || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=475 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91475 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=476 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91476 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=477 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91477 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=478 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91478 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=479 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91479 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.2 km || |-id=480 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91480 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.9 km || |-id=481 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91481 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=482 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91482 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=483 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91483 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=484 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91484 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=485 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91485 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=486 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91486 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=487 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91487 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=488 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91488 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=489 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91489 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=490 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91490 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=491 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91491 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=492 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91492 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=493 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91493 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=494 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91494 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=495 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91495 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=496 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91496 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=497 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91497 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=498 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91498 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=499 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91499 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || CLO || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=500 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91500 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |} 91501–91600 |-bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91501 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=502 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91502 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=503 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91503 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || PAE || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=504 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91504 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || AER || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=505 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91505 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUN || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=506 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91506 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=507 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91507 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=508 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91508 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=509 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91509 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=510 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91510 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || CLO || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=511 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91511 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=512 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91512 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=513 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91513 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=514 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91514 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=515 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91515 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HOF || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=516 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91516 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=517 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91517 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=518 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91518 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=519 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91519 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=520 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91520 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=521 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91521 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=522 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91522 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HNS || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=523 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91523 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=524 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91524 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=525 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91525 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=526 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91526 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=527 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91527 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || 628 || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=528 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91528 || || — || September 11, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GAL || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=529 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91529 || || — || September 13, 1999 || Farpoint || G. Hug, G. Bell || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=530 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91530 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || YAK || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=531 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91531 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=532 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91532 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=533 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91533 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=534 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91534 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=535 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91535 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=536 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91536 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=537 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91537 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=538 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91538 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRU || align=right | 10 km || |-id=539 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91539 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=540 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91540 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=541 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91541 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=542 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91542 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=543 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91543 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.0 km || |-id=544 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91544 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=545 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91545 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=546 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91546 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=547 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91547 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=548 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91548 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=549 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91549 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || 627 || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=550 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91550 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=551 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91551 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=552 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91552 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Bergisch Gladbach || W. Bickel || — || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=553 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91553 Claudedoom || || || September 8, 1999 || Observatoire Royal de Belgique, Uccle || T. Pauwels || KOR || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=554 bgcolor=#C2E0FF | 91554 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Mauna Kea || J. X. Luu, C. Trujillo, D. C. Jewitt || SDO || align=right | 122 km || |-id=555 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91555 || || — || September 5, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=556 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91556 || || — || September 5, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=557 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91557 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || GEF || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=558 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91558 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=559 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91559 || || — || September 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=560 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91560 || || — || September 5, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=561 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91561 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=562 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91562 || || — || September 9, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=563 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91563 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EMA || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=564 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91564 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=565 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91565 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=566 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91566 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=567 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91567 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=568 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91568 || || — || September 11, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || LIX || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=569 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91569 || || — || September 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=570 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91570 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=571 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91571 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=572 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91572 || || — || September 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=573 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91573 || || — || September 16, 1999 || Observatoire Royal de Belgique, Uccle || T. Pauwels, S. I. Ipatov || — || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=574 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91574 || || — || September 22, 1999 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková || EOS || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=575 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91575 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=576 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91576 || || — || September 29, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=577 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91577 || || — || September 29, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=578 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91578 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || KOR || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=579 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91579 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=580 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91580 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=581 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91581 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=582 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91582 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=583 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91583 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=584 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91584 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=585 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91585 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=586 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91586 || || — || September 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=587 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91587 || || — || September 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=588 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91588 || 1999 TJ || — || October 2, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=589 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91589 || || — || October 1, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=590 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91590 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Fountain Hills || C. W. Juels || EOS || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=591 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91591 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=592 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91592 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková || EOS || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=593 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91593 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević, M. Jurić || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=594 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91594 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević, M. Jurić || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=595 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91595 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=596 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91596 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Fountain Hills || C. W. Juels || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=597 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91597 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=598 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91598 || || — || October 11, 1999 || Lime Creek || R. Linderholm || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=599 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91599 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Črni Vrh || Črni Vrh || slow || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=600 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91600 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Ondřejov || P. Pravec, P. Kušnirák || KOR || align=right | 2.6 km || |} 91601–91700 |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91601 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=602 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91602 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Modra || A. Galád, P. Kolény || EOS || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=603 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91603 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 8.2 km || |-id=604 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91604 Clausmadsen || || || October 14, 1999 || Uccle || T. Pauwels, H. Boffin || EOS || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=605 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91605 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 8.8 km || |-id=606 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91606 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=607 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91607 Delaboudiniere || || || October 5, 1999 || Goodricke-Pigott || R. A. Tucker || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=608 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91608 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=609 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91609 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=610 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91610 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=611 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91611 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=612 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91612 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EMA || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=613 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91613 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 11 km || |-id=614 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91614 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=615 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91615 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=616 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91616 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=617 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91617 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 13 km || |-id=618 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91618 || || — || October 1, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=619 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91619 || || — || October 1, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=620 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91620 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=621 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91621 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=622 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91622 || || — || October 5, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || AGN || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=623 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91623 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=624 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91624 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=625 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91625 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ANF || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=626 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91626 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=627 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91627 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=628 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91628 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || ALA || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=629 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91629 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=630 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91630 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=631 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91631 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=632 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91632 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=633 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91633 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 7.1 km || |-id=634 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91634 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=635 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91635 || || — || October 11, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || MIT || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=636 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91636 || || — || October 11, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=637 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91637 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=638 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91638 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=639 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91639 || || — || October 14, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=640 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91640 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=641 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91641 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FIR || align=right | 11 km || |-id=642 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91642 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.3 km || |-id=643 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91643 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=644 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91644 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=645 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91645 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=646 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91646 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.2 km || |-id=647 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91647 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=648 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91648 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=649 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91649 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=650 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91650 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=651 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91651 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ALA || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=652 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91652 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 18 km || |-id=653 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91653 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=654 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91654 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=655 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91655 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=656 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91656 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=657 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91657 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=658 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91658 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=659 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91659 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=660 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91660 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=661 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91661 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=662 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91662 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=663 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91663 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=664 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91664 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || DOR || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=665 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91665 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=666 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91666 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=667 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91667 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=668 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91668 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=669 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91669 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.8 km || |-id=670 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91670 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HNA || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=671 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91671 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=672 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91672 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=673 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91673 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || CRO || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=674 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91674 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || NAE || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=675 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91675 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=676 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91676 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=677 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91677 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=678 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91678 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=679 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91679 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=680 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91680 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=681 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91681 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.0 km || |-id=682 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91682 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=683 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91683 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || TEL || align=right | 3.2 km || |-id=684 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91684 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || 628 || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=685 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91685 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=686 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91686 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=687 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91687 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=688 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91688 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || K-2 || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=689 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91689 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=690 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91690 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=691 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91691 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || 628 || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=692 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91692 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.2 km || |-id=693 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91693 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=694 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91694 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KAR || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=695 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91695 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=696 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91696 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=697 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91697 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=698 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91698 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=699 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91699 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=700 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91700 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |} 91701–91800 |-bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91701 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=702 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91702 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=703 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91703 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || TIR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=704 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91704 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=705 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91705 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=706 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91706 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KAR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=707 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91707 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=708 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91708 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=709 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91709 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=710 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91710 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=711 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91711 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=712 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91712 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=713 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91713 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=714 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91714 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=715 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91715 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=716 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91716 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=717 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91717 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=718 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91718 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=719 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91719 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=720 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91720 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 8.8 km || |-id=721 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91721 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUP || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=722 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91722 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=723 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91723 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=724 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91724 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EUP || align=right | 9.5 km || |-id=725 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91725 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=726 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91726 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=727 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91727 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=728 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91728 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=729 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91729 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=730 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91730 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=731 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91731 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=732 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91732 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=733 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91733 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=734 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91734 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=735 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91735 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=736 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91736 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=737 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91737 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=738 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91738 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || 7:4 || align=right | 12 km || |-id=739 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91739 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.5 km || |-id=740 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91740 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=741 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91741 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=742 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91742 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=743 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91743 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=744 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91744 || || — || October 11, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=745 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91745 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=746 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91746 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=747 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91747 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=748 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91748 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.3 km || |-id=749 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91749 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=750 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91750 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=751 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91751 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=752 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91752 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=753 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91753 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 8.2 km || |-id=754 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91754 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=755 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91755 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=756 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91756 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=757 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91757 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=758 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91758 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=759 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91759 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=760 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91760 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=761 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91761 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=762 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91762 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=763 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91763 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=764 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91764 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=765 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91765 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || CRO || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=766 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91766 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=767 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91767 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=768 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91768 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=769 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91769 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=770 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91770 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=771 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91771 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.3 km || |-id=772 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91772 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=773 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91773 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=774 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91774 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=775 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91775 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.0 km || |-id=776 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91776 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || Tj (2.98) || align=right | 17 km || |-id=777 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91777 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=778 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91778 || || — || October 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || LUT || align=right | 9.4 km || |-id=779 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91779 || || — || October 14, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 9.0 km || |-id=780 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91780 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=781 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91781 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=782 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91782 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=783 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91783 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=784 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91784 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=785 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91785 || || — || October 15, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=786 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91786 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=787 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91787 || || — || October 1, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=788 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91788 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=789 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91789 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=790 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91790 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=791 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91791 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=792 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91792 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=793 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91793 || || — || October 1, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || TEL || align=right | 2.9 km || |-id=794 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91794 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=795 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91795 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=796 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91796 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || NAE || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=797 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91797 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || BRA || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=798 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91798 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || GEF || align=right | 2.6 km || |-id=799 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91799 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=800 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91800 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |} 91801–91900 |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91801 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=802 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91802 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=803 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91803 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=804 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91804 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=805 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91805 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=806 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91806 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=807 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91807 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=808 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91808 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=809 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91809 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=810 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91810 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=811 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91811 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=812 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91812 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.3 km || |-id=813 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91813 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.7 km || |-id=814 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91814 || || — || October 13, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=815 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91815 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || FIR || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=816 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91816 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=817 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91817 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=818 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91818 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=819 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91819 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=820 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91820 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=821 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91821 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=822 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91822 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=823 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91823 || || — || October 7, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=824 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91824 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=825 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91825 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=826 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91826 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.9 km || |-id=827 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91827 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=828 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91828 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=829 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91829 || || — || October 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=830 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91830 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=831 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91831 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 2.0 km || |-id=832 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91832 || || — || October 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=833 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91833 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 2.4 km || |-id=834 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91834 || || — || October 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 2.5 km || |-id=835 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91835 || || — || October 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=836 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91836 || || — || October 5, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=837 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91837 || || — || October 5, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || KOR || align=right | 3.9 km || |-id=838 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91838 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || LIX || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=839 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91839 || || — || October 8, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.4 km || |-id=840 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91840 || || — || October 12, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=841 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91841 || || — || October 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=842 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91842 || || — || October 2, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || ALA || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=843 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91843 || || — || October 16, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || TIR || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=844 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91844 || || — || October 19, 1999 || Ondřejov || P. Kušnirák, P. Pravec || — || align=right | 7.1 km || |-id=845 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91845 || || — || October 19, 1999 || Ondřejov || P. Kušnirák, P. Pravec || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=846 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91846 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Prescott || P. G. Comba || FIR || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=847 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91847 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=848 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91848 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP || KOR || align=right | 3.4 km || |-id=849 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91849 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Xinglong || SCAP || — || align=right | 14 km || |-id=850 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91850 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Ondřejov || L. Kotková || VER || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=851 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91851 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || slow || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=852 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91852 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || KOR || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=853 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91853 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=854 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91854 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=855 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91855 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.2 km || |-id=856 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91856 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.0 km || |-id=857 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91857 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || TIR || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=858 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91858 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=859 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91859 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=860 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91860 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=861 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91861 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=862 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91862 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=863 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91863 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=864 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91864 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 12 km || |-id=865 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91865 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=866 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91866 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.7 km || |-id=867 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91867 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=868 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91868 || || — || October 16, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=869 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91869 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=870 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91870 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=871 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91871 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=872 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91872 || || — || October 18, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 6.0 km || |-id=873 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91873 || || — || October 28, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || ALA || align=right | 9.6 km || |-id=874 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91874 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=875 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91875 || || — || October 29, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || ALA || align=right | 10 km || |-id=876 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91876 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=877 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91877 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=878 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91878 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 8.5 km || |-id=879 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91879 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=880 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91880 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 8.0 km || |-id=881 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91881 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Anderson Mesa || LONEOS || — || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=882 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91882 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || WAT || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=883 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91883 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || HYG || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=884 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91884 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || HYG || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=885 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91885 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=886 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91886 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=887 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91887 || || — || October 30, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=888 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91888 Tomskilling || || || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=889 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91889 || || — || October 31, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=890 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91890 Kiriko Matsuri || || || November 4, 1999 || Yanagida || A. Tsuchikawa || EOS || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=891 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91891 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || EOS || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=892 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91892 || || — || November 1, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || THM || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=893 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91893 || || — || November 1, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 7.8 km || |-id=894 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91894 || || — || November 6, 1999 || High Point || D. K. Chesney || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=895 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91895 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Oizumi || T. Kobayashi || EOS || align=right | 5.5 km || |-id=896 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91896 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Fountain Hills || C. W. Juels || — || align=right | 4.8 km || |-id=897 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91897 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Fountain Hills || C. W. Juels || — || align=right | 8.3 km || |-id=898 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91898 Margnetti || || || November 8, 1999 || Gnosca || S. Sposetti || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=899 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91899 || || — || November 7, 1999 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || — || align=right | 7.9 km || |-id=900 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91900 || || — || November 5, 1999 || San Marcello || L. Tesi, M. Tombelli || HYG || align=right | 6.2 km || |} 91901–92000 |-bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91901 || || — || November 2, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=902 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91902 || || — || November 2, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=903 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91903 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Farpoint || G. Bell, G. Hug || EUP || align=right | 8.6 km || |-id=904 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91904 || || — || November 7, 1999 || Reedy Creek || J. Broughton || THM || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=905 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91905 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Višnjan Observatory || K. Korlević || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=906 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91906 || || — || November 15, 1999 || Zeno || T. Stafford || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=907 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91907 Shiho || || || November 13, 1999 || Kuma Kogen || A. Nakamura || — || align=right | 6.6 km || |-id=908 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91908 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 13 km || |-id=909 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91909 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=910 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91910 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.5 km || |-id=911 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91911 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=912 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91912 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=913 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91913 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=914 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91914 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=915 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91915 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=916 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91916 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=917 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91917 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.1 km || |-id=918 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91918 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=919 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91919 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=920 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91920 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=921 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91921 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.3 km || |-id=922 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91922 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.1 km || |-id=923 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91923 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=924 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91924 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=925 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91925 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=926 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91926 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=927 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91927 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=928 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91928 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=929 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91929 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=930 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91930 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=931 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91931 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=932 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91932 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=933 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91933 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 10 km || |-id=934 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91934 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 5.0 km || |-id=935 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91935 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 8.5 km || |-id=936 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91936 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.9 km || |-id=937 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91937 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 12 km || |-id=938 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91938 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=939 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91939 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.7 km || |-id=940 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91940 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=941 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91941 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.1 km || |-id=942 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91942 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=943 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91943 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 9.5 km || |-id=944 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91944 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.2 km || |-id=945 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91945 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=946 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91946 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || TIR || align=right | 7.7 km || |-id=947 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91947 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=948 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91948 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=949 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91949 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.3 km || |-id=950 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91950 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || URS || align=right | 6.7 km || |-id=951 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91951 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 8.4 km || |-id=952 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91952 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.9 km || |-id=953 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91953 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=954 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91954 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=955 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91955 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=956 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91956 || || — || November 3, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=957 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91957 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=958 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91958 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=959 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91959 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.6 km || |-id=960 bgcolor=#fefefe | 91960 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || H || align=right | 1.1 km || |-id=961 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91961 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=962 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91962 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=963 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91963 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.4 km || |-id=964 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91964 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=965 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91965 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 6.5 km || |-id=966 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91966 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.6 km || |-id=967 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91967 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || MAR || align=right | 2.8 km || |-id=968 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91968 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.3 km || |-id=969 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91969 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.5 km || |-id=970 bgcolor=#E9E9E9 | 91970 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.1 km || |-id=971 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91971 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || KOR || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=972 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91972 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || EOS || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=973 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91973 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=974 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91974 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=975 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91975 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.4 km || |-id=976 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91976 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.0 km || |-id=977 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91977 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.1 km || |-id=978 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91978 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 3.7 km || |-id=979 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91979 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=980 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91980 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=981 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91981 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || HYG || align=right | 8.2 km || |-id=982 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91982 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=983 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91983 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 3.6 km || |-id=984 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91984 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 7.3 km || |-id=985 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91985 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.8 km || |-id=986 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91986 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || — || align=right | 6.4 km || |-id=987 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91987 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || TEL || align=right | 3.5 km || |-id=988 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91988 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=989 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91989 || || — || November 9, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EOS || align=right | 4.6 km || |-id=990 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91990 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 4.7 km || |-id=991 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91991 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.2 km || |-id=992 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91992 || || — || November 4, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || KOR || align=right | 2.7 km || |-id=993 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91993 || || — || November 5, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 3.0 km || |-id=994 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91994 || || — || November 6, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=995 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91995 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || EOS || align=right | 3.8 km || |-id=996 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91996 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || LUT || align=right | 6.9 km || |-id=997 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91997 || || — || November 8, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || — || align=right | 5.1 km || |-id=998 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91998 || || — || November 12, 1999 || Socorro || LINEAR || THM || align=right | 4.2 km || |-id=999 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 91999 || || — || November 10, 1999 || Kitt Peak || Spacewatch || — || align=right | 5.8 km || |-id=000 bgcolor=#d6d6d6 | 92000 || || — || November 11, 1999 || Catalina || CSS || EUP || align=right | 8.7 km || |} References External links Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (90001)–(95000) (IAU Minor Planet Center) 0091

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doc-en-15505

The following is a list of notable deaths in October 2010. Entries for each day are listed alphabetically by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship at birth, subsequent country of citizenship (if applicable), reason for notability, cause of death (if known), and reference. October 2010 1 Georgy Arbatov, 87, Russian political scientist. Dezső Bundzsák, 82, Hungarian football player and coach. Ian Buxton, 72, English footballer and cricketer, natural causes. Charles Caruana, 77, Gibraltarian Roman Catholic bishop of Gibraltar (1998–2010), complications from a fall. Bobby Craig, 75, Scottish footballer. Audouin Dollfus, 85, French astronomer. Marshall Flaum, 85, American Emmy Award-winning director (The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau), complications from hip surgery. Kilian Hennessy, 103, Irish patriarch of the Hennessy cognac company. Gerard Labuda, 93, Polish historian. Michel Mathieu, 66, French diplomat, cancer. David Aldrich Nelson, 78, American jurist, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit. William W. Norton, 85, American screenwriter (Gator, Brannigan), heart attack. William C. Patrick III, 84, American scientist, expert on germs, bladder cancer. Pamela Rooks, Indian film director and screenwriter. Mikhail Roshchin, 77, Russian playwright. Phillips Talbot, 95, American diplomat, Ambassador to Greece (1965–1969), President of the Asia Society (1970–1981). Lan Wright, 87, British science fiction writer. 2 David M. Bailey, 44, American singer-songwriter, glioblastoma. Brenda Cowling, 85, British actress. Maurice Foster, 77, Canadian politician, MP for Algoma (1968–1993), pulmonary fibrosis. Robert Goodnough, 92, American abstract expressionist painter, pneumonia. Stephen Griew, 82, Canadian gerontologist. Ruby Heafner, 86, American baseball player. Art Jarvinen, 54, American composer, teacher and musician (The California EAR Unit). *Kwa Geok Choo, 89, Singaporean lawyer, wife of Lee Kuan Yew, mother of Lee Hsien Loong. Sam Lesser, 95, British journalist. Gillian Lowndes, 74, British ceramicist. 3 Maury Allen, 78, American sportswriter (The New York Post), lymphoma. João Costa, 90, Portuguese Olympic fencer. Philippa Foot, 90, British philosopher. Sir Louis Le Bailly, 95, British admiral, Director-General of Intelligence. Claude Lefort, 86, French philosopher. Ben Mondor, 85, American baseball executive (Pawtucket Red Sox). Eddie Platt, 88, American saxophonist. Abraham Sarmiento, 88, Filipino jurist, Supreme Court Associate Justice (1987–1991). Dianne Whalen, 59, Canadian politician, Newfoundland and Labrador MHA for Conception Bay East and Bell Island (2003–2010), cancer. Ed Wilson, 65, Brazilian singer-songwriter, founder of Renato e Seus Blue Caps, cancer. 4 William Birenbaum, 87, American educator (Antioch College), heart failure. Maurice Broomfield, 94, British photographer. Henrique de Senna Fernandes, 86, Macanese author. Gordon Lewis, 86, British aeronautical engineer. Rajan Mehra, 76, Indian cricket umpire. Reinhard Oehme, 82, German-born American particle physicist. (body found on this date) Peter Warr, 72, British racing driver and Formula One team principal (Lotus), heart attack. Brian Williams, 54, British fantasy illustrator Sir Norman Wisdom, 95, British comedian and actor, after long illness. 5 Yakov Alpert, 99, Soviet-born American physicist. Roy Axe, 73, British car designer (Talbot Horizon, Rover 800), cancer. Roy Ward Baker, 93, British film director (A Night To Remember). Jack Berntsen, 69, Norwegian folk singer. Stan Bisset, 98, Australian rugby union player and World War II veteran. Alba Bouwer, 90, South African writer (Afrikaans children's literature), natural causes. Bernard Clavel, 87, French writer, natural causes. Mary Leona Gage, 71, American pageant queen, stripped of Miss USA (1957) title, heart failure. Karel Hardeman, 96, Dutch Olympic rower. Josephine Drivinski Hunsinger, 95, American politician. Member of the Michigan House of Representatives for District 1 (1973-1976). Moss Keane, 62, Irish rugby union player, bowel cancer. Jānis Klovāns, 75, Latvian chess master. Steve Lee, 47, Swiss musician (Gotthard), motorcycle accident. Julio Parise Loro, 90, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, Vicar Apostolic of Napo (1978–96). Karen McCarthy, 63, American politician, U.S. Representative from Missouri (1995–2005), Alzheimer's disease. Børge Raahauge Nielsen, 90, Danish Olympic bronze medal-winning (1948) rower. William Shakespeare, 61, Australian glam rock singer, heart attack. 6 Norman Christie, 85, Scottish football player and manager (Montrose F.C.). Jean Debuf, 86, French weightlifter, Olympic bronze medalist (1956). Don Goodsir, 73, Australian educator, author, and environmentalist. Ivor Hale, 88, English cricketer. Antonie Kamerling, 44, Dutch actor and singer, suicide. Ralph Kercheval, 98, American football player. Gran Naniwa, 33, Japanese professional wrestler, myocardial blockage. Colette Renard, 85, French singer and actress, after long illness. Henry Sommerville, 82, Australian Olympic fencer. Piet Wijn, 81, Dutch comics creator. 7 Ashab-ul-Haq, Bangladeshi politician. Metring David, 90, Filipino actress and comedian. Gail Dolgin, 65, American documentary filmmaker (Daughter from Danang), breast cancer. Rhys Isaac, 72, Australian historian, cancer. Kristin Johannsen, 52, American author, educator and environmentalist. Ljupčo Jordanovski, 57, Macedonian seismologist and politician, Acting President (2004). Chuck Leo, 76, American football player (Boston Patriots). Ian Morris, 53, New Zealand musician (Th' Dudes) and record producer. Milka Planinc, 85, Yugoslavian politician, Prime Minister (1982–1986). Guy Rouleau, 87, Canadian politician. A. Venkatachalam, 55, Indian politician, stabbed. 8 Frank Bourgholtzer, 90, American television reporter, first full-time NBC News White House correspondent. S. S. Chandran, 69, Indian comic actor and politician, member of the Rajya Sabha (2001–2007), heart attack. Jim Fuchs, 82, American shot putter, Olympic bronze medalist (1948, 1952). Nils Hallberg, 89, Swedish actor. John Huchra, 61, American astronomer, heart attack. Ryō Ikebe, 92, Japanese actor (Gorath), blood poisoning. Reg King, 65, British singer (The Action), cancer. Simbara Maki, 71, Ivorian Olympic hurdler. Malcolm Mencer Martin, 89, Austrian-British pediatric endocrinologist, injuries sustained after being hit by car. Sue Miles, 66, British counter-culture activist and restaurateur. David F. Musto, 74, American drug control expert, heart attack. Maurice Neligan, 73, Irish surgeon, performed Ireland's first heart transplant. Linda Norgrove, 36, British aid worker and hostage, killed during rescue attempt. Mohammad Omar, Afghan politician, Governor of Kunduz Province, bomb blast. Pleasant Tap, 23, American thoroughbred racehorse, euthanized due to laminitis. Melvin Lane Powers, 68, American real estate developer, acquitted of murdering his uncle. Karl Prantl, 86, Austrian sculptor, stroke. Neil Richardson, 80, English composer, arranger and conductor. Dale Roberts, 70, American baseball player (New York Yankees). Albertina Walker, 81, American gospel music singer (The Caravans), respiratory failure. 9 Maurice Allais, 99, French economist, winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1988). Mashallah Amin Sorour, 79, Iranian cyclist. Edmund Chong Ket Wah, 54, Malaysian politician, Member of Parliament (since 2004), motorcycle accident. Les Fell, 89, English footballer (Charlton Athletic, Crystal Palace). Aleksandr Matveyev, 84, Russian linguist, corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, natural causes. Isaia Rasila, 42, Fijian rugby player. Zecharia Sitchin, 90, Azerbaijani-born American author. 10 Louis F. Bantle, 81, American chairman of U.S. Tobacco Company, lung cancer and emphysema. Reinhold Brinkmann, 76, German musicologist. Solomon Burke, 70, American R&B singer-songwriter ("Everybody Needs Somebody to Love"), natural causes. Ger Feeney, Irish Gaelic footballer. Les Gibbard, 64, New Zealand-born British political cartoonist, during routine operation. John Graysmark, 75, British production designer and art director (Ragtime). *Hwang Jang-yop, 87, North Korean politician and defector, apparent heart attack. Éric Joisel, 53, French wet-folding origami artist, lung cancer. Richard Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, 4th Baron Acton, 69, British politician. David H. McNerney, 79, American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient, lung cancer. Adán Martín Menis, 66, Spanish politician, President of the Canary Islands (2003–2007). Rex Rabanye, 66, jazz, fusion and soulful pop musician. Franz Xaver Schwarzenböck, 87, German Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop of München und Freising (1972–1998). Solly Sherman, 93, American football player (Chicago Bears). A. Edison Stairs, 85, Canadian businessman and politician, New Brunswick MLA (1960–1978) and Minister of Finance (1974–1976), natural causes. Walter Staley, 77, American Olympic bronze medal-winning (1952) equestrian. Alison Stephens, 40, British classical mandolinist, cervical cancer. Dame Joan Sutherland, 83, Australian dramatic coloratura soprano. Richard S. Van Wagoner, 64, American historian of Mormonism and Utah. Frank Verpillat, 63, French director and inventor. 11 Tomislav Franjković, 79, Croatian Olympic silver medal-winning (1956) water polo player. Bill Harsha, 89, American politician, U.S. Representative from Ohio (1961–1981). Janet MacLachlan, 77, American actress (Archie Bunker's Place, Sounder), cardiovascular complications. Richard Morefield, 81, American embassy worker, hostage during Iran Hostage Crisis. Marian P. Opala, 89, American jurist, Associate Justice of the Oklahoma Supreme Court (1978–2010), stroke. Claire Rayner, 79, British author. Georges Rutaganda, 51, Rwandan Hutu paramilitary leader, convicted war criminal, after long illness. Robert Tishman, 94, American real estate developer (Tishman Speyer). Donald H. Tuck, 87, Australian science fiction bibliographer. Ian Turner, 85, American Olympic gold medal-winning (1948) rower. 12 Abul Hasnat Md. Abdul Hai, Bangladeshi politician. Manuel Alexandre, 92, Spanish actor, cancer. Jorge Ardila Serrano, 85, Colombian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Girardot (1988–2001). Austin Ardill, 93, British politician, member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland for Carrick. Challenger, 51, Bangladeshi actor. Michael Galloway, 85, American actor. Michel Hugo, 79, French-born American cinematographer (Dynasty, Melrose Place, Mission: Impossible), lung cancer. Angelo Infanti, 71, Italian actor, cardiac arrest. Lionel W. McKenzie, 91, American economist. Dick Miles, 85, American table tennis player, natural causes. Woody Peoples, 67, American football player (San Francisco 49ers, Philadelphia Eagles). Pepín, 78, Spanish footballer. Belva Plain, 95, American novelist (Evergreen). 13 Juan Carlos Arteche, 53, Spanish footballer, cancer. Eddie Baily, 85, English footballer (Tottenham Hotspur). General Johnson, 69, American musician and record producer (Chairmen of the Board), complications of lung cancer. Vernon Biever, 87, American photographer. Khoisan X, 55, South African political activist, stroke. Mary Malcolm, 92, British BBC announcer and television personality. Marzieh, 86, Iranian singer, cancer. Sol Steinmetz, 80, Hungarian-born American lexicographer and linguist, pneumonia. 14 Malcolm Allison, 83, English footballer (West Ham United) and manager (Manchester City, Crystal Palace), after long illness. Glenn J. Ames, 55, American historian, cancer. Carla Del Poggio, 84, Italian actress. Louis Henkin, 92, American international human rights law expert and academic (Columbia Law School). Alain Le Bussy, 63, Belgian science fiction author, complications following throat surgery. Simon MacCorkindale, 58, British actor (Falcon Crest, Death on the Nile, Manimal, Casualty), bowel cancer. Benoît Mandelbrot, 85, Polish-born American mathematician, pioneer of the study of fractals, pancreatic cancer. Constance Reid, 92, American mathematics author and biographer. Hermann Scheer, 66, German politician, member of the Bundestag (1980–2010) and Right Livelihood Award laureate (1999), after short illness. Larry Siegfried, 71, American basketball player (Boston Celtics), heart attack. 15 Jim Dougal, 65, Northern Irish journalist (BBC News, RTÉ, UTV). Mildred Fay Jefferson, 84, American pro-life activist, first black woman to graduate from Harvard Medical School. N. Paul Kenworthy, 85, American cinematographer (The Living Desert, The Vanishing Prairie), thyroid cancer. Georges Mathé, 88, French oncologist and immunologist, bone marrow transplant pioneer. Vera Rózsa, 93, Hungarian voice teacher. Johnny Sheffield, 79, American actor (Tarzan Finds a Son!, Bomba, the Jungle Boy, Knute Rockne All American), heart attack. 16 Barbara Billingsley, 94, American actress, polymyalgia (Leave It to Beaver, Airplane!, Muppet Babies). Alfredo Bini, 83, Italian film producer. Jack Butterfield, 91, Canadian-born American sports administrator, President of the American Hockey League (1969–1994). Chao-Li Chi, 83, Chinese-born American actor (Falcon Crest). Giannis Dalianidis, 86, Greek film director and screenwriter (Oi Thalassies oi Hadres, O katergaris), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Eyedea, 28, American rapper and musician (Eyedea & Abilities). Friedrich Katz, 83, Austrian anthropologist and historian, cancer. Masud Husain Khan, 91, Indian linguist. Ioannis Ladas, 90, Greek army officer, member of the 1967–1974 military junta. Betty S. Murphy, 77, American lawyer, first woman to chair the National Labor Relations Board, pneumonia. Aldo Maria Lazzarín Stella, 83, Italian-born Chilean Roman Catholic prelate, Vicar Apostolic of Aysén (1989–1998). Valmy Thomas, 81, Puerto Rican baseball player. Leigh Van Valen, 75, American evolutionary biologist (Red Queen's Hypothesis), respiratory infection. 17 Åsmund Apeland, 80, Norwegian politician. Jake Dunlap, 85, Canadian football player (Ottawa Rough Riders), cancer. John Baird Finlay, 81, Canadian politician, MP for Oxford (1993–2004). *Emmanuel Lê Phong Thuân, 79, Vietnamese Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Cân Tho (since 1990). Joe Lis, 64, American baseball player, prostate cancer. Freddy Schuman, 85, American baseball fan (New York Yankees), heart attack. Michael Tabor, 63, American Black Panther Party member, complications from a stroke. Dennis Taylor, 56, American saxophonist, heart attack. 18 Luc Agbala, 63, Togo football player and referee. Marion Brown, 79, American jazz saxophonist. Consuelo Crespi, 82, American-born Italian countess, fashion model and editor, stroke. David Fontana, 75, British psychologist and parapsychologist, pancreatic cancer. Margaret Gwenver, 84, American actress (Guiding Light). Hans Hägele, 70, German footballer, suicide by jumping from bridge. Mel Hopkins, 75, Welsh footballer (Tottenham Hotspur, Brighton & Hove Albion). Yertward Mazamanian, 85, American hippie. Peng Chong, 95, Chinese politician, former National Committee member. Billy Raimondi, 97, American baseball player Doug Wilson, 90, British Olympic athlete. Ken Wriedt, 83, Australian politician, Senator for Tasmania (1967–1980), Leader of the Tasmanian Opposition (1982–1986). 19 Tom Bosley, 83, American actor (Happy Days, Father Dowling Mysteries), heart failure. Craig Charron, 42, American ice hockey player, stomach cancer. Graham Crowden, 87, Scottish actor (If...., A Very Peculiar Practice, Waiting For God). André Mahé, 90, French road bicycle racer. Paul Steven Miller, 49, American disability rights leader, cancer. John Waterlow, 94, British physiologist. 20 Jean Asfar, 92, Egyptian Olympic fencer. Francisco Batistela, 79, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Bom Jesus da Lapa (1990–2009). Otey Clark, 95, American baseball player (Boston Red Sox). W. Cary Edwards, 66, American politician, New Jersey State Assemblyman (1978–1982) and Attorney General (1986–1989), cancer. Herbert Enderton, 74, American mathematician and logician, leukemia. Mariano Ferreyra, 23, Argentine left-wing militant, shot. Bob Guccione, 79, American photographer and founder of Penthouse, lung cancer. Eva Ibbotson, 85, Austrian-born British novelist (Journey to the River Sea, The Secret of Platform 13). Coleman Jacoby, 95, American television comedy writer, pancreatic cancer. D. Geraint James, 88, Welsh doctor. Bill Jennings, 85, American baseball player (St. Louis Browns). Robert Katz, 77, American writer, complications from cancer surgery. Max Kohnstamm, 96, Dutch historian and diplomat. Farooq Leghari, 70, Pakistani politician, President (1993–1997), heart complications. Sir George Mallet, 87, Saint Lucian politician, Governor-General (1996–1997), cancer. Eduard Novák, 63, Czech ice hockey player, Olympic silver (1976) and bronze (1972) medalist. Jenny Oropeza, 53, American politician, California State Assemblywoman (2000–2006) and State Senator (since 2006), after long illness. Robert Paynter, 82, British cinematographer (Michael Jackson's Thriller). Harvey Phillips, 80, American tuba player, Parkinson's disease. Gilbert Planté, 69, French Olympic footballer. Julian Roberts, 80, British librarian. Tony Roig, 81, American baseball player (Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Senators), after long illness. Parthasarathy Sharma, 62, Indian Test cricketer (1974–1977), cancer. Tikhon Stepanov, 47, Russian Orthodox prelate, Bishop of Arkhangelsk and Kholmogory (since 1996), heart attack. Ari Up, 48, German-born British punk musician (The Slits), cancer. Wendall Woodbury, 68, American television journalist and host (WGAL-TV), lymphoma. 21 Antonio Alatorre, 88, Mexican philologist. Mustapha Anane, 60, Algerian footballer, after long illness. A. Ayyappan, 61, Indian poet. José Carbajal, 66, Uruguayan singer, guitarist, and composer (Los Olimareños), cardiac arrest. Sir Leslie Froggatt, 90, British-born Australian business executive, CEO of Shell Australia (1969–1980), complications from Parkinson's disease. Kjell Landmark, 80, Norwegian poet and politician, cancer. James F. Neal, 81, American jurist, prosecuted Watergate figures, cancer. Howard Harry Rosenbrock, 89, British electrical engineer and scientist. Loki Schmidt, 91, German environmentalist, wife of Helmut Schmidt, illness after a fall and complications of a broken foot. Natasha Spender, 91, British musician and writer, widow of Stephen Spender. 22 Alex Anderson, 90, American cartoonist, created characters for The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show and Crusader Rabbit. Donald A. Andrews, 69, Canadian correctional psychologist and criminologist. Rune Blomqvist, 85, Swedish Olympic sprint canoer. Arthur M. Brazier, 89, American pastor and civil rights activist. Alí Chumacero, 92, Mexican writer and poet, pneumonia. Bill Henderson, 86, Northern Irish politician and newspaper proprietor. Helen Hunley, 90, Canadian politician, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta (1985–1991). Anne McDonald, 49, Australian disability rights activist, heart attack. Franz Raschid, 56, German footballer, pancreatic cancer. Eio Sakata, 90, Japanese professional Go player, aortic aneurysm. Denis Simpson, 59, Canadian actor (Polka Dot Door) and singer, brain hemorrhage. Kjell Stormoen, 89, Norwegian actor and theater director. René Villiger, 79, Swiss painter, cancer. 23 Ralph Belknap Baldwin, 98, American planetary scientist. Vince Banonis, 89, American football player (Chicago Cardinals, Detroit Lions). Ior Bock, 68, Finnish actor and tour guide, stabbing. George Cain, 66, American author, kidney failure. Fran Crippen, 26, American swimmer, heart attack. Leo Cullum, 68, American cartoonist (The New Yorker), cancer. Robert Fitzpatrick, 73, American manager and actor, lung disease. S. Neil Fujita, 89, American graphic designer, complications of a stroke. Princess Irmingard of Bavaria, 87, German noblewoman. Donald Leifert, 59, American science fiction actor. Chhewang Nima, 43, Nepalese mountaineer and guide, avalanche. Michael Porter, 59, American wrestling announcer. Stanley Tanger, 87, American businessman, founder of Tanger Factory Outlet Centers. David Thompson, 48, British-born Barbadian politician, Prime Minister (since 2008), pancreatic cancer. Tom Winslow, 69, American folk musician, complications from a stroke. 24 Ralph Anderson, 86, American architect, kidney cancer. Les Anthony, 88, Welsh rugby union player. Bob Courtney, 87, British-born South African broadcaster and actor. Mike Esposito, 83, American comic book artist (Spider-Man, The Flash, Wonder Woman). Georges Frêche, 72, French politician, cardiac arrest. Fritz Grösche, 69, German footballer and coach, cancer. Linda Hargrove, 61, American singer-songwriter. Andy Holmes, 51, British Olympic gold (1984, 1988) and bronze (1988) medal-winning rower, leptospirosis. Franciszek Jarecki, 79, Polish-born American jet pilot and defector. Lamont Johnson, 88, American actor and television director (The Twilight Zone, The Execution of Private Slovik), heart failure. Alex Oakley, 84, Canadian Olympic race walker. Pan Jin-yu, 96, Taiwanese last speaker of the Pazeh language. Ignacio Ramírez de Haro, 15th Count of Bornos, 92, Spanish noble, 15th Count of Bornos, Grandee of Spain, legionella. Burton B. Roberts, 88, American judge, New York Supreme Court Justice (1973–1998), respiratory failure. Willie Rutherford, 65, Australian soccer player. Sylvia Sleigh, 94, American painter, complications of a stroke. Jack Stackpoole, 93, Australian cricketer. David Stahl, 60, American conductor, lymphoma. Joseph Stein, 98, American playwright (Fiddler on the Roof, Zorba). 25 Hans Arnold, 85, Swiss-born Swedish artist. Sonny Ates, 75, American racecar driver. Lisa Blount, 53, American actress (An Officer and a Gentleman) and film producer (The Accountant). Sonia Burgess, 63, British immigration lawyer. Jeff Carter, 82, Australian photographer and author. Richard T. Gill, 82, American opera singer, heart failure. Douglas Hooper, 83, English psychotherapist, traffic collision. Gregory Isaacs, 59, Jamaican reggae singer, lung cancer. Andreas Maurer, 91, Austrian politician, Landeshauptmann of Lower Austria (1966–1981). Vesna Parun, 88, Croatian writer. Ada Polak, 96, Norwegian art historian. Rudy Rufer, 84, American baseball player (New York Giants). Roy Skinner, 80, American college basketball coach (Vanderbilt), respiratory failure. 26 Jaroslava Komárková, 83, Czech Olympic athlete. Glen Little, 84, American circus performer ("Frosty the Clown"). Mbah Maridjan, 83, Indonesian spiritual guardian of Mount Merapi (1982–2010), pyroclastic flow from Mount Merapi. Ricardo Montez, 87, Gibraltarian character actor. Paul the Octopus, 2, British-born World Cup oracle octopus (Sea Life Centre in Oberhausen, Germany), natural causes. James Phelps, 78, American gospel and R&B singer, complications of diabetes. Ana María Romero de Campero, 67, Bolivian journalist and politician, President of the Senate of Bolivia (2010), colorectal cancer. Romeu Tuma, 79, Brazilian politician, Senator (1995–2010), multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Ray Watson, 87, Australian judge. 27 Mary Emma Allison, 93, American co-creator of Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF. Denise Borino-Quinn, 46, American actress (The Sopranos), liver cancer. Gene Fodge, 79, American baseball player (Chicago Cubs). William Griffiths, 88, British Olympic silver medal-winning (1948) field hockey player. Chris Gulker, 59, American photographer, programmer and writer, brain cancer. Néstor Kirchner, 60, Argentine politician, President (2003–2007), First Gentleman (since 2007), Secretary General of UNASUR (2010), heart attack. Paul Kolton, 87, American chairman of the American Stock Exchange (1972–1977), lymphoma. Luigi Macaluso, 62, Italian businessman, President and Chairman of the Sowind Group, heart attack. Owen B. Pickett, 80, American politician, U.S. Representative from Virginia (1987–2001). *Saqr bin Mohammad al-Qassimi, 92, Emirati ruler of Ras al-Khaimah (since 1948). Hall W. Thompson, 87, American developer of a country club that did not admit black members. James Wall, 92, American actor (Captain Kangaroo) and stage manager, after short illness. 28 Isabella Abbott, 91, American ethnobotanist, first native Hawaiian to receive a doctorate in science. Ibrahim Ahmad Abd al-Sattar Muhammad, 54, Iraqi general, Armed Forces Chief of Staff (1999–2003), cancer. Harry Baldwin, 90, English footballer. Jack Brokensha, 84, Australian jazz musician, composer and arranger. Jesús Mateo Calderón Barrueto, 90, Peruvian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Puno (1972–1998). Robert Dickie, 46, British champion boxer, heart attack. Robert Ellenstein, 87, American character actor. Erling Fløtten, 72, Norwegian politician. Watts Humphrey, 83, American software engineer. Gerard Kelly, 51, British actor (City Lights), brain aneurysm. Liang Congjie, 78, Chinese environmentalist (Friends of Nature), lung infection. James MacArthur, 72, American actor (Hawaii Five-O, Swiss Family Robinson), natural causes. Jonathan Motzfeldt, 72, Greenlandic politician, Prime Minister (1979–1991; 1997–2002), brain hemorrhage. Paddy Mullins, 91, Irish racehorse trainer. Maurice Murphy, 75, British musician (London Symphony Orchestra). Ehud Netzer, 76, Israeli archaeologist, discovered tomb of Herod the Great, injuries from a fall. Walter Payton, 68, American jazz bassist and sousaphonist, complications from a stroke. Anna Prieto Sandoval, 76, American tribal leader (Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation), Native American gaming enterprises pioneer, diabetes. Jean Schmit, 79, Luxembourgian Olympic cyclist. John Sekula, 41, American guitarist (Mushroomhead). 29 Gerhard Beyer, 69, German Olympic sports shooter. Marcelino Camacho, 92, Spanish trade unionist. Ronnie Clayton, 76, English footballer (Blackburn Rovers). Geoffrey Crawley, 83, British photographer and editor, debunked Cottingley Fairies mystery. Mervyn Haisman, 82, British writer (Doctor Who). George Hickenlooper, 47, American documentary filmmaker, accidental drug overdose. Yisrael Katz, 82, Israeli public servant and government minister. Antonio Mariscal, 95, Mexican Olympic diver. Bärbel Mohr, 46, German author. Bernard de Nonancourt, 90, French businessman and member of the French Resistance, owner of Laurent-Perrier. Karlo Sakandelidze, 82, Georgian actor. Takeshi Shudo, 61, Japanese writer, creator of Pokémon, subarachnoid hemorrhage. 30 Randall Dale Adams, 61, American anti–death penalty activist, brain tumor. Douglas Argent, 89, British television producer and director (Fawlty Towers). Vladimir Arsenyev, 62, Russian Africanist, ethnographer, and exhibition curator. John Benson, 67, Scottish footballer and manager, after short illness. Romano Bonagura, 80, Italian bobsledder, Olympic silver medalist (1964). Leopoldo Alfredo Bravo, 50, Argentine diplomat, ambassador to Russia, cancer. Édouard Carpentier, 84, French-born Canadian professional wrestler. Ina Clare, 77, British actress (EastEnders). Meta Elste-Neumann, 91, American gymnast, Olympic bronze medalist (1948), cancer. Arthur Bernard Lewis, 84, American television producer and writer (Dallas), complications from pneumonia. Ananías Maidana, 87, Paraguayan teacher and politician, prostate cancer. Harry Mulisch, 83, Dutch writer (The Assault, The Discovery of Heaven), cancer. Nachi Nozawa, 72, Japanese voice actor, lung cancer. Clyde Summers, 91, American academic, complications of a stroke. Mateus Feliciano Augusto Tomás, 52, Angolan Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Namibe (since 2009). Howard Van Hyning, 74, American percussionist (New York City Opera), myocardial infarction. 31 Michel d'Aillières, 86, French politician. Evelyn Baghtcheban, 81–82, Turkish-Persian opera singer. Manfred Bock, 69, German Olympic decathlete, heart attack. Max Barandun, 68, Swiss Olympic sprinter. Roger Holloway, 76, British Anglican priest. Dick Loepfe, 88, American football player (Chicago Cardinals). Maurice Lucas, 58, American basketball player (Portland Trail Blazers, Phoenix Suns, Los Angeles Lakers), bladder cancer. John Selfridge, 83, American mathematician. János Simon, 81, Hungarian basketball player, EuroBasket winner (1955). Ted Sorensen, 82, American lawyer, White House counsel (1961–1964), stroke. Artie Wilson, 90, American baseball player (New York Giants, Birmingham Black Barons), Alzheimer's disease. References 2010-10 10

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The Ancient Greek infinitive is a non-finite verb form, sometimes called a verb mood, with no endings for person or number, but it is (unlike in Modern English) inflected for tense and voice (for a general introduction in the grammatical formation and the morphology of the Ancient Greek infinitive see here and for further information see these tables). It is used mainly to express acts, situations and in general "states of affairs" that are depended on another verb form, usually a finite one. It is a non declinable nominal verb form equivalent to a noun, and expresses the verbal notion abstractly; used as a noun in its main uses, it has many properties of it, as it will be seen below, yet it differs from it in some respects: (a) When used with no article, and in its major uses (subject/object), it can normally only be equivalent to either a nominative or an accusative case; used with the article, it may be in any case (nominative, genitive, dative and accusative). (b) It shows morphological formation according to aspect, voice (active, middle, passive) and tense (only the future infinitive). (c) It retains some verbal syntactic features: it governs the same oblique case (its object) as the verb to which it belongs, and it may have a subject of its own, in accusative case (See the section accusative and infinitive below). (d) It is modified by adverbials and not by adjectives. Uses Ancient Greek has both (a) the infinitive with the article (articular infinitive), for example "doing wrong, wrong-doing" and (b) the infinitive without the article, for example "to do wrong". The infinitive with the article The articular infinitive corresponds to a cognate verbal noun (in singular number only). It is preceded by the neuter singular article (, , , ) and has the character and function of both a noun and a verbal form. It can be used in any case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative) and thus participate in a construction just like any other noun: it can be subject, object (direct or indirect), predicative expression (rarely), or it may also serve as an apposition; it may have an adnominal (e.g. to be in a genitive construction as a possessive or objective genitive etc.) or an adverbial use (e.g. it can form a genitive that denotes cause etc.); it may form an exclamation (in poetry); it can also be the complement (object) of a preposition in any oblique case and denote many adverbial relations; finally, if in the genitive case, it can denote purpose, oftener a negative one. (The articular infinitive τὸ παρανομεῑν is somehow equivalent to the noun ἡ παρανομία "the unlawfulness", and here in nominative case serves as the subject of the verb δοκεῖ "seem, be-considered") To transgress the laws (= the act of transgressing the laws) against a herald and against ambassadors is considered by all other men to be impious. (as a predicative nominal in nominative), (as a nominative apposition to the demonstrative pronoun ) This is (the definition of) injustice: to seek to have more than other people. (as a dative complement of the verb ) Seeing that the lawful become richer than the unlawful, many, even though they are greedy of gain, very easily persist in not doing unjust acts. (as a dative complement of the preposition , denoting cause) He takes pride in being able to speak (= ...in his ability to speak) (τὸ ἀδικεῖν is the subject of the verb ὲστίν and τοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαι serves as a genitive of comparison depended on the comparative degree adjective ) Wrong-doing is not only by convention more base than suffering it, but also by nature. (as a genitive of purpose) Αtalante was fortified by the Athenians... to prevent pirates from ravaging Euboea. In all the preceding passages the articular infinitive is in the present tense stem; yet this is by no means a rule, since it can be used in any tense stem, denoting a variety of aspectual differences (For more details see below the discussion about the present and aorist dynamic infinitive). Infinitive without the article The infinitive without the article is of two sorts and has two discrete uses: the dynamic infinitive and the declarative infinitive. Traditionally they are said to be used not in indirect discourse and in indirect discourse respectively, yet this terminology is misleading; for infinitives of both sorts may be used in indirect discourse transformations (for example one may say (a) "I said that he will undertake an expedition" or (b) "I advised him to undertake/that he should undertake an expedition", where indirect discourse, one way and another, is employed: direct discourse for (a) "He will undertake...", and for (b) "Undertake/you should undertake..."). Dynamic infinitive A so-called dynamic infinitive may be governed by verbs of will or desire to do something ( or "to be willing, wish to", "pray, wish for", "pray against, imprecate curse to", "choose, prefer to", "to be about to, or: delay to", "urge, command to", "order to", "vote to", "allow to", "beg to" etc.), verbs of will or desire not to do anything ( "fear to", "be afraid to", "abstain from doing", "be ashamed to", "forbid to", "hinder, prevent" etc.) and verbs or verbal expressions denoting ability, fitness, necessity, capacity, etc. (, "be able to", , "know how to", "learn to", , "I am able to", "it is fair/right to", "it is necessary to", "it is time to" etc.). It can also be found after adjectives (and sometimes derived adverbs) of kindred meaning ( "skillful", "able", "able", "sufficient, capable" etc.). It stands as the object (direct or indirect) of such verbs or verbal expressions, or it serves as the subject if the verb/the verbal expression is used impersonally; it also defines the meaning of an adjective almost as an accusative of respect. An infinitive of this kind denotes only aspect or stage of action, not actual tense, and can be in any tense stem (mostly in the present and aorist (see also here), the perfect being rare enough) except the future one; only the verb "I am about to" may exceptionally take a dynamic future infinitive. The difference between the present and the aorist infinitive of this sort is aspect or stage of action, not the tense —despite their tense stem, such infinitives always have a future reference, because of the volitive meaning of their governing verb. More specifically, an infinitive in the present verb stem lays stress on "the process or course of the state of affairs", and in many cases has "an immediative" semantic force, while an infinitive in the aorist verb stem lays stress "on the completion of the state of affairs, expressing a well-defined or well-delineated state of affairs". Present dynamic infinitive (continuing stage of action): I want (for) you to go to Athens (=every time, or=to start/keep going to Athens etc.). It is necessary to fight (= to start/keep fighting). Aorist dynamic infinitive (completed stage of action): I want (for) you to go to Athens. (just once, a simple and sole occurrence of going) . I'm ashamed to tell you the truth. (just once, a simple occurrence of telling, as in the previous example) Analogous aspectual distinctions between the present and aorist verbal stem are present also in the use of finite moods as the imperative and the subjunctive and even the optative of wishes in independent clauses. So, in cases as those presented in the following examples, a dynamic infinitive somehow recalls a corresponding finite mood expressing will or desire, pray or curse, exhortation or prohibition etc. and indirect discourse is from one aspect employed: (aorist dynamic infinitive) He ordered the servants to set fire to the war engines and timber. Direct speech form: (2nd plural person, aorist imperative mood) "Set fire to the war engines and timber." (aorist dynamic infinitive) He prayed (to Apollo) that the Achaeans should suffer a penalty for his tears by means of his (:the god's) shafts. Direct speech form: . "Apollo, may the Achaeans suffer a penalty for my tears by means of your shafts". (aorist optative of wish, expressing curse) Declarative infinitive A so-called declarative infinitive (see also declarative sentence) is mostly used in connexion with verbs (or verbal expressions) of saying, thinking and (sometimes) perceiving such as , , , , , , etc. and it is usually used in oratio obliqua (in indirect speech or indirect discourse). The latter means that it represents a corresponding finite verb form of the oratio recta (of the direct speech or discourse), thus a declarative infinitive denotes both tense and aspect or stage of action. But the present infinitive represents either a present indicative or an imperfect one, and a perfect infinitive either a perfect indicative or a pluperfect one. A declarative infinitive with the particle is also the representative of a potential indicative or potential optative of the corresponding tense. (Present infinitive = present indicative) Men of the Senate, if anyone among you thinks that more people than the situation requires are being put to death, let him give consideration to the fact that these things happen wherever any system of government is transformed. Direct form: "More people are being put to death than the situation requires". (Aorist infinitive = aorist indicative; present infinitive = imperfect indicative) He said that they made drink offerings to the gods and they started betaking themselves to drinking. Direct form: "We made drink offerings to the gods and we started betaking ourselves to drinking". Future infinitive = future indicative I think that he will die. Direct form: "He will die". Future infinitive = future indicative. I was thinking that I would be released. Direct form: "I will be released". (Aorist infinitive = aorist indicative) But some people say that he died voluntarily by (drinking) poison. Direct form: "He died voluntarily by (drinking) poison". ... (anaphoric to ) ... which (anaphoric to "the fine these long orations") he said he had delivered as your spokesman before the Ten Thousand at Megalopolis in reply to Philip's champion Hieronymus. (the perfect infinitive can represent either a perfect indicative direct speech form "I have delivered orations" or a pluperfect one "I had delivered orations", the interpretation being left exclusively on contextual or deictic parameters) Aorist potential infinitive = aorist potential optative. I think that he would deserve to be put to death even for what he is doing right now. Direct form: "He would deserve to be put to death". Verbs that usually have a future reference, such as "swear", "promise", "expect, hope", "threaten", "expect" etc., either take the declarative infinitive (mostly the future, but less often some of them also take the present, aorist or perfect infinitive, even the infinitive with the particle representing a potential optative or indicative), and in this case indirect discourse is employed, or they are followed by the dynamic aorist (less often the present) infinitive, and they are constructed just like any verb of will, desire etc. The same constructional alternation is available in English (declarative content clause -a that clause- or to-infinitive), as shown below. (future, declarative, infinitive) I swear that I will give back the money. (present, dynamic, infinitive) I swear to start/keep giving back the money. (aorist, dynamic, infinitive) I swear to give the money back. For the difference between the present and aorist dynamic infinitive see the discussion in the above section. Yet in the last two examples another reading is also possible, considering and to be present and aorist declarative infinitive respectively: "I swear that I give (always, or in any relevant situation etc.) the money back. I swear that I gave the money back." The infinitive in subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions The ("dynamic") infinitive is used instead of the indicative mood, with substantial difference in meaning, in certain subordinate clauses introduced by specific conjunctions: "so as to, so that", () "before" or "until" and relative adjectives introducing relative clauses of result, such as "so much as enough to", "of such a short as to", or "(so...) that he could", in clauses introduced by the prepositional phrases or or with "with the proviso that". Note: a "declarative" infinitive is sometimes the mood of subordinated clauses in indirect speech, instead of a corresponding indicative (either a realis or conditional irrealis one) or optative mood, in modal assimilation to the main infinitive used to represent the independent clause of the direct speech; so after relative, temporal or conditional conjunctions such as: "who" or "whoever", or "since, when", "when", "if" etc. An example: He said that after his soul had departed from his body, it marched accompanied by many others, and they arrived in a marvellous place, where there were two openings side by side in the ground and also two more in the sky in opposite positions. And that judges were seated between these openings... Here, the main infinitives, those directly depended on the finite verb , namely and , attractivelly affect the mood of the embedded clauses introduced by , a temporal conjunction, and , a relative prepositional phrase. The corresponding mood form of the direct narration would have been the indicative: After my soul had departed from my body, it was marching accompanied by many others, and we were arriving in a marvellous place, where there were two openings side by side in the ground and also two more in the sky in opposite position. And judges were seated between these openings... Subject of the infinitive In general, Greek is a pro drop language or a null-subject language: it does not have to express the (always in nominative case) subject of a finite verb form (either pronoun or noun), unless it is communicatively or syntactically important (e.g. when emphasis and/or contrast is intended etc.). Concerning infinitives, no matter of which type, either articulated or not, and also either of the dynamic or declarative use, the following can be said as a general introduction to the infinitival syntax (:case rules for the infinitival subject): (1) When the infinitive has a subject of its own (that is, when the subject of the infinitive is not co-referential either with the subject or the object of the governing verb form), then this word stands in the accusative case (Accusative and Infinitive). (2) When the subject of the infinitive is co-referential with the subject of the main verb, then it is usually neither expressed nor repeated within the infinitival clause (Nominative and Infinitive). (3) When the infinitival subject is co-referential either with the object of the main verb or some other argument constructed in a higher syntactic level, eg. a dative of interest with an impersonal verb or verbal expression, then it is usually omitted within the infinitival clause, and any predicate adjective or participle etc. stands in whichsoever case the main verb's argument stands. But it is not unusual at all that an accusative be present or—more usually—understood by a predicate adjective, participle etc. in the accusative. These three main constructions available are desctribed in some detail in the sections below. Accusative and infinitive The construction where an accusative noun or pronoun functions as the subject of an infinitive is called accusative and infinitive (See also the homonymous Latin construction accusativus cum infinitivo (ACI), which is the rule -in indirect speech- even in cases where verb and infinitive have co-referential subjects). This construction can be used as an indirect speech mechanism, in many instances interchangeable with a complementary declarative clause introduced by "ὅτι/"ὡς" (or a supplementary participle). But with some verbs (normally with verbs of thinking, as , , , etc., with the verb "say, affirm, assert", with verbs denoting hope, oath or promise, such as "hope", "swear", "promise", etc.) the infinitival construction is the rule in classical Greek. Yet it can be also in use with any infinitival use, no matter whether indirect speech is involved or not. In the following examples the infinitival clause is put in square brackets []: say some-people [SocratesACC wiseACC beINF] literal translation (Subject and predicate adjective are in accusative case) Some people say that Socrates is (or: was) wise. idiomatic translation pro3rd pl consider [Socrates ACC wise ACC be INF] literal translation (as stated before) They consider Socrates to be (or: to have been) wise. idiomatic translation Oratio Recta/Direct speech for both above examples would have been: ΣωκράτηςNOM σοφόςNOM ἐστινFIN (or ). "Socrates is (or: was) wise". (Subject and predicate adjective of the finite verb in nominative case) Some actual examples from classic Greek literature: . [the most-wicked and ungodly called theACC mishapsACC chastenINF] propl 3rd say-they. literal translation (articulated subject in accusative case; the infinitival object τοὺς ὀνομαζομένους is also in accusative) People say [that the mishaps chasten those called utterly wicked and ungodly]. idiomatic translation Oratio recta/Direct speech would have been: τοὺς πονηροτάτους καὶ ἐξαγίστους ὀνομαζομένους αἱNOM συμφοραὶNOM σωφρονίζουσινFIN. "The mishaps chasten those called utterly wicked and ungodly". (Articulated substantive as subject of the finite verb would have been put in nominative case) . pro3rd pl think-they [theACC their natureACC more-ableACC beINF than-the by the gods chosen-as-best] literal translation (infinitival subject and predicate in accusative) They think that their nature is more competent than the one chosen by the gods as best. idiomatic translation Oratio recta/Direct speech would have been: ἡNOM ἡμετέρα φύσιςNOM ἱκανωτέραNOM ἐστὶFIN τῆς ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν προκριθείσης. "Our nature is more competent than the one chosen by the gods as best". (Articulated substantive -subject of the finite verb- and predicate adjective both in nominative case) And here is an example where no indirect speech is involved: . pro3rd pl wanted-they [seemINF himACC [unwillingACC and not willingACC informINF], so-that more-credible the revealing-of-information should-appear. literal translation (subject of the first infinitive in accusative, predicates with the second, embedded, infinitive in accusative also) Their will was that he could seem to be an informer unwillingly, and not willingly, so that the revealing of information should appear more credible. idiomatic translation This construction, accusative and infinitive, is also always in place when the main verb is an impersonal one or an impersonal verbal expression, and the infinitival clause functions as its subject (here also there is no indirect speech). Of course, in such cases the infinitive has a subject of its own. An example: [ ACC] ACC [YouACC] necessary-is [the same opinion having ACC the vote carry INF] literal translation (Subject of the infinitive is in accusative; the participle shows also concord with this pronominal form) It is necessary that you vote having the same opinion in mind. idiomatic translation Nominative and infinitive When the subject of the infinitive is identical (coreferential) with the subject of the governing verb, then normally it is omitted and understood in the nominative case. The phenomenon is traditionally understood to be some kind of case attraction (for a modern perspective and relevant modern terminology see also big PRO and little pro and control constructions). In the following examples infinitival clauses are bracketed []; coreferent items are indexed by means of a subscripted "i". οἱ Συρακόσιοιi ἐνόμιζον [PROi πολέμῳ οὐκέτι ἂν περιγενέσθαιINF]. (Potential infinitive) The Syracuseansi were-thinking [PROi by-war no-more could prevailINF]. (literal translation) The Syracuseansi believed [that theyi couldn't any more prevail in the war]. (idiomatic translation) Oratio Recta/Direct speech: "We could no more prevail in the war." (Potential optative) [i NOM] proi [PROi INF]. [Persiani NOM] proi said-he [PROi beINF] (literal translation) Hei said (that) hei was (a) Persiani. (idiomatic translation) Πέρσης is a predicate noun in the nominative, showing case agreement with an understood and omitted pronoun (Here we are dealing with coreferential proi and PROi). Oratio Recta/Direct speech: "I am (a) Persian". Note: there are certain cases where the subject of the infinitive, whether of the declarative or the dynamic type, is put in accusative case, even though it is co-referent with the subject of the main verb; in this mechanism emphasis or contrast is present. An example: σχεδόν τι proi οἶμαι [ἐμὲi ACC πλείω χρήματα εἰργάσθαι ἢ ἄλλους σύνδυοACC [οὕστινας βούλει] τῶν σοφιστῶν]. almost in-some-degree proi think-I [meACC more money have-earnedINF than othersACC two-togetherACC [whoever like-you] of-the sopisths]. (literal translation) Ii pretty well think Ii have earned more money than any other two sophists together of your choice. (idiomatic translation) Here the unemphatic dropped null-subject (if emphatic, a 1st person pronoun ἐγώi NOM should be present) of the main verb is emphatically repeated right after the verb within the infinitival clause in accusative case (ἐμέ, "I"). The meaning is ‘I believe that it is I who have made more money than any other two sophists together – you may choose whoever you like’. The comparative nominal phrase ἢ ἄλλους σύνδυο shows case agreement with ἐμέ. Oratio recta/Direct speech form: ἐγὼNOM πλείω χρήματα εἴργασμαι ἢ ἄλλοι σύνδυοNOM [οὕστινας βούλει] τῶν σοφιστῶν. "It is I who have made more money than any other..." Here now the subject ἐγώ of the finite verb εἴργασμαι (a perfect indicative) is emphatically uttered in nominative case; the second part of the comparison, ἢ ἄλλοι σύνδυο, agrees with this in nominative case. Subject omitted and understood in an oblique case (genitive, dative or accusative) When the infinitival subject is coreferent with a word constructed with the governing verb in a higher syntactic level, in other words, when the subject of the infinitive is itself (a second) argument of the governing verb, then it is normally omitted and understood either in the oblique case in which the second argument is put (see also in the previous paragraph the reference to PRO and control structures), or in the accusative as if in an accusative and infinitive construction (but with the accusative noun or pronoun obligatorily suppressed and implied). i DAT DAT now for-youDAT, Xenophon, is-possible [PROi man DAT become INF]. literal translation Now it is possible for you, Xenophon, [to become a man]. idiomatic translation (Predicate noun "a man" in case agreement with the dative "for you".) i GEN GEN CyrusI GEN pro were-begging-they [PROi as-zeal-as-possibleGEN towards the war beINF]. literal translation They were begging Cyrusi [to be as zeali as possible in the war]. idiomatic translation (Predicate adjective "willing" shows case agreement with the genitive object .) Πολέμαρχος ὁ Κεφάλου ἐκέλευσε τὸνACC παῖδα i ACC [PROi δραμόνταACC [περιμεῖναί ἑ] κελεῦσαι (ἡμᾶς)]]. Polemarchus the of-Cephalus ordered theACC ladACC [runningACC [waitINF for-him] orderINF (us)]]. literal translation Polemarchus the son of Cephalus ordered his lad [to run and bid (us) [wait for him]]. idiomatic translation In all the above examples the case of the subject of the infinitive is governed by the case requirements of the main verb and "the infinitive is appended as a third argument" (Concerning the second and third examples, in modern linguistic terms we have to do with an object control construction). As fas as the two first are concerned, traditionally this construction is sometimes called (in Latin terminology) dativus cum infinitivo or genitivus cum infinitivo (dative with the infinitive or genitive with the infinitive respectively) and is considered to be a case attraction, the dative or genitive being used instead of a predicate in the accusative: ; see also below. On the other hand, as it is indicated by predicate adjectives/sunstantives or participial constituents of the infinitival clause, it is not unusual at all for an accusative to be understood and be supplied by context as the subject of the infinitive, as the following examples illustrate. As far as the genitive is concerned, a predicate substantive or a participle normally stands in the accusative while an adjective may stand either in accusative or in genitive case. As far as the dative is concerned, the choice between a word in concord with a dative and an accusative case seems to be laid down by the speaker's/writer's preference. i DAT ACC For-LacedaemoniansDAT is-possible [to-you friendsACC] becomeINF]. literal translation It is possible for Lacedaemonians [to become friends to you]. idiomatic translation (Predicate adjective "friends" is in the accusative, in case agreement with an understood and omitted accusative subject "Lacedaemonians". It might be possible that the accusative is preferred by Thucydides here in order to avoid an accumulation of datives that would produce ambiguity or even incomprehensibility: Λακεδαιμονίοις-υμῖν-φίλοις) GEN [ACC are-begging-we then of-youGEN [listen-carefullyINF of-what-is-being-said, keeping-in-mindACC that...] literal translation We are begging you then [to listen carefully of what is said, keeping in mind that...] idiomatic translation (Participle "keeping in mind" in the accusative, agreeing in case with an omitted/understood accusative "you".) This construction is obligatory when the infinitive is governed by a participle in any oblique case, more usually an attributive one (and in the nominative also). Here the predicate adjective always shows concord with the case of the leading participle. So an embedded participial clause like "claiming that they are wise" or "Those who claim that they are wise" is declined this way -in any of the following word ordering, but in slightly different each time meaning (see topicalization and focusing): NOM ACC GEN GEN DAT DAT In the above phrasal structuring the predicate adjective "wise" is always put in the case of its governing participle "claiming". References Ancient Greek Greek grammar

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Fax (short for facsimile), sometimes called telecopying or telefax (the latter short for telefacsimile), is the telephonic transmission of scanned printed material (both text and images), normally to a telephone number connected to a printer or other output device. The original document is scanned with a fax machine (or a telecopier), which processes the contents (text or images) as a single fixed graphic image, converting it into a bitmap, and then transmitting it through the telephone system in the form of audio-frequency tones. The receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, printing a paper copy. Early systems used direct conversions of image darkness to audio tone in a continuous or analog manner. Since the 1980s, most machines modulate the transmitted audio frequencies using a digital representation of the page which is compressed to quickly transmit areas which are all-white or all-black. History Wire transmission Scottish inventor Alexander Bain worked on chemical mechanical fax type devices and in 1846 was able to reproduce graphic signs in laboratory experiments. He received British patent 9745 on May 27, 1843 for his "Electric Printing Telegraph". Frederick Bakewell made several improvements on Bain's design and demonstrated a telefax machine. The Pantelegraph was invented by the Italian physicist Giovanni Caselli. He introduced the first commercial telefax service between Paris and Lyon in 1865, some 11 years before the invention of the telephone. In 1880, English inventor Shelford Bidwell constructed the scanning phototelegraph that was the first telefax machine to scan any two-dimensional original, not requiring manual plotting or drawing. An account of Henry Sutton's "telephane" was published in 1896. Around 1900, German physicist Arthur Korn invented the Bildtelegraph, widespread in continental Europe especially following a widely noticed transmission of a wanted-person photograph from Paris to London in 1908, used until the wider distribution of the radiofax. Its main competitors were the Bélinographe by Édouard Belin first, then since the 1930s the Hellschreiber, invented in 1929 by German inventor Rudolf Hell, a pioneer in mechanical image scanning and transmission. The 1888 invention of the telautograph by Elisha Gray marked a further development in fax technology, allowing users to send signatures over long distances, thus allowing the verification of identification or ownership over long distances. On May 19, 1924, scientists of the AT&T Corporation "by a new process of transmitting pictures by electricity" sent 15 photographs by telephone from Cleveland to New York City, such photos being suitable for newspaper reproduction. Previously, photographs had been sent over the radio using this process. The Western Union "Deskfax" fax machine, announced in 1948, was a compact machine that fit comfortably on a desktop, using special spark printer paper. Wireless transmission As a designer for the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), in 1924, Richard H. Ranger invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic radio facsimile, the forerunner of today's "fax" machines. A photograph of President Calvin Coolidge sent from New York to London on November 29, 1924, became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile. Commercial use of Ranger's product began two years later. Also in 1924, Herbert E. Ives of AT&T transmitted and reconstructed the first color facsimile, a natural-color photograph of silent film star Rudolph Valentino in period costume, using red, green and blue color separations. Beginning in the late 1930s, the Finch Facsimile system was used to transmit a "radio newspaper" to private homes via commercial AM radio stations and ordinary radio receivers equipped with Finch's printer, which used thermal paper. Sensing a new and potentially golden opportunity, competitors soon entered the field, but the printer and special paper were expensive luxuries, AM radio transmission was very slow and vulnerable to static, and the newspaper was too small. After more than ten years of repeated attempts by Finch and others to establish such a service as a viable business, the public, apparently quite content with its cheaper and much more substantial home-delivered daily newspapers, and with conventional spoken radio bulletins to provide any "hot" news, still showed only a passing curiosity about the new medium. By the late 1940s, radiofax receivers were sufficiently miniaturized to be fitted beneath the dashboard of Western Union's "Telecar" telegram delivery vehicles. In the 1960s, the United States Army transmitted the first photograph via satellite facsimile to Puerto Rico from the Deal Test Site using the Courier satellite. Radio fax is still in limited use today for transmitting weather charts and information to ships at sea. Telephone transmission In 1964, Xerox Corporation introduced (and patented) what many consider to be the first commercialized version of the modern fax machine, under the name (LDX) or Long Distance Xerography. This model was superseded two years later with a unit that would truly set the standard for fax machines for years to come. Up until this point facsimile machines were very expensive and hard to operate. In 1966, Xerox released the Magnafax Telecopiers, a smaller, facsimile machine. This unit was far easier to operate and could be connected to any standard telephone line. This machine was capable of transmitting a letter-sized document in about six minutes. The first sub-minute, digital fax machine was developed by Dacom, which built on digital data compression technology originally developed at Lockheed for satellite communication. By the late 1970s, many companies around the world (especially Japanese firms) had entered the fax market. Very shortly after this, a new wave of more compact, faster and efficient fax machines would hit the market. Xerox continued to refine the fax machine for years after their ground-breaking first machine. In later years it would be combined with copier equipment to create the hybrid machines we have today that copy, scan and fax. Some of the lesser known capabilities of the Xerox fax technologies included their Ethernet enabled Fax Services on their 8000 workstations in the early 1980s. Prior to the introduction of the ubiquitous fax machine, one of the first being the Exxon Qwip in the mid-1970s, facsimile machines worked by optical scanning of a document or drawing spinning on a drum. The reflected light, varying in intensity according to the light and dark areas of the document, was focused on a photocell so that the current in a circuit varied with the amount of light. This current was used to control a tone generator (a modulator), the current determining the frequency of the tone produced. This audio tone was then transmitted using an acoustic coupler (a speaker, in this case) attached to the microphone of a common telephone handset. At the receiving end, a handset's speaker was attached to an acoustic coupler (a microphone), and a demodulator converted the varying tone into a variable current that controlled the mechanical movement of a pen or pencil to reproduce the image on a blank sheet of paper on an identical drum rotating at the same rate. Computer facsimile interface In 1985, Hank Magnuski, founder of GammaLink, produced the first computer fax board, called GammaFax. Such boards could provide voice telephony via Analog Expansion Bus. In the 21st century Although businesses usually maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology has faced increasing competition from Internet-based alternatives. In some countries, because electronic signatures on contracts are not yet recognized by law, while faxed contracts with copies of signatures are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business. In Japan, faxes are still used extensively as of September 2020 for cultural and graphemic reasons. They are available for sending to both domestic and international recipients from over 81% of all convenience stores nationwide. Convenience-store fax machines commonly print the slightly re-sized content of the sent fax in the electronic confirmation-slip, in A4 paper size. Use of fax machines for reporting cases during the COVID-19 pandemic has been criticised in Japan for introducing data errors and delays in reporting, slowing response efforts to contain the spread of infections and hindering transition to work from home. In many corporate environments, freestanding fax machines have been replaced by fax servers and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email (which may be secured). Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office. The once ubiquitous fax machine has also begun to disappear from the small office and home office environments. Remotely hosted fax-server services are widely available from VoIP and e-mail providers allowing users to send and receive faxes using their existing e-mail accounts without the need for any hardware or dedicated fax lines. Personal computers have also long been able to handle incoming and outgoing faxes using analog modems or ISDN, eliminating the need for a stand-alone fax machine. These solutions are often ideally suited for users who only very occasionally need to use fax services. In July 2017 the United Kingdom's National Health Service was said to be the world's largest purchaser of fax machines because the digital revolution has largely bypassed it. In June 2018 the Labour Party said that the NHS had at least 11,620 fax machines in operation and in December the Department of Health and Social Care said that no more fax machines could be bought from 2019 and that the existing ones must be replaced by secure email by March 31, 2020. Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, generally viewed as digitally advanced in the NHS, was engaged in a process of removing its fax machines in early 2019. This involved quite a lot of e-fax solutions because of the need to communicate with pharmacies and nursing homes which may not have access to the NHS email system and may need something in their paper records. In 2018 two-thirds of Canadian doctors reported that they primarily used fax machines to communicate with other doctors. Faxes are still seen as safer and more secure and electronic systems are often unable to communicate with each other. Capabilities There are several indicators of fax capabilities: group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations. Since the 1968 Carterphone decision, most fax machines have been designed to connect to standard PSTN lines and telephone numbers. Group Analog Group 1 and 2 faxes are sent in the same manner as a frame of analog television, with each scanned line transmitted as a continuous analog signal. Horizontal resolution depended upon the quality of the scanner, transmission line, and the printer. Analog fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured. ITU-T Recommendations T.2 and T.3 were withdrawn as obsolete in July 1996. Group 1 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendation T.2. Group 1 faxes take six minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch. Group 1 fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured. Group 2 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.3 and T.30. Group 2 faxes take three minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 96 scan lines per inch. Group 2 fax machines are almost obsolete, and are no longer manufactured. Group 2 fax machines can interoperate with Group 3 fax machines. Digital A major breakthrough in the development of the modern facsimile system was the result of digital technology, where the analog signal from scanners was digitized and then compressed, resulting in the ability to transmit high rates of data across standard phone lines. The first digital fax machine was the Dacom Rapidfax first sold in late 1960s, which incorporated digital data compression technology developed by Lockheed for transmission of images from satellites. Group 3 and 4 faxes are digital formats and take advantage of digital compression methods to greatly reduce transmission times. Group 3 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.4. Group 3 faxes take between 6 and 15 seconds to transmit a single page (not including the initial time for the fax machines to handshake and synchronize). The horizontal and vertical resolutions are allowed by the T.4 standard to vary among a set of fixed resolutions: Horizontal: 100 scan lines per inch Vertical: 100 scan lines per inch ("Basic") Horizontal: 200 or 204 scan lines per inch Vertical: 100 or 98 scan lines per inch ("Standard") Vertical: 200 or 196 scan lines per inch ("Fine") Vertical: 400 or 391 (note not 392) scan lines per inch ("Superfine") Horizontal: 300 scan lines per inch Vertical: 300 scan lines per inch Horizontal: 400 or 408 scan lines per inch Vertical: 400 or 391 scan lines per inch ("Ultrafine") Group 4 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.563, T.503, T.521, T.6, T.62, T.70, T.411 to T.417. They are designed to operate over 64 kbit/s digital ISDN circuits. The allowed resolutions, a superset of those in the T.4 recommendation, are specified in the T.6 recommendation. Fax Over IP (FoIP) can transmit and receive pre-digitized documents at near-realtime speeds using ITU-T recommendation T.38 to send digitised images over an IP network using JPEG compression. T.38 is designed to work with VoIP services and often supported by analog telephone adapters used by legacy fax machines that need to connect through a VoIP service. Scanned documents are limited to the amount of time the user takes to load the document in a scanner and for the device to process a digital file. The resolution can vary from as little as 150 DPI to 9600 DPI or more. This type of faxing is not related to the e-mail–to–fax service that still uses fax modems at least one way. Class Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer's CPU to the fax modem. Class 1 (also known as Class 1.0) fax devices do fax data transfer, while the T.4/T.6 data compression and T.30 session management are performed by software on a controlling computer. This is described in ITU-T recommendation T.31. What is commonly known as "Class 2" is an unofficial class of fax devices that perform T.30 session management themselves, but the T.4/T.6 data compression is performed by software on a controlling computer. Implementations of this "class" are based on draft versions of the standard that eventually significantly evolved to become Class 2.0. All implementations of "Class 2" are manufacturer-specific. Class 2.0 is the official ITU-T version of Class 2 and is commonly known as Class 2.0 to differentiate it from many manufacturer-specific implementations of what is commonly known as "Class 2". It uses a different but standardized command set than the various manufacturer-specific implementations of "Class 2". The relevant ITU-T recommendation is T.32. Class 2.1 is an improvement of Class 2.0 that implements faxing over V.34 (33.6 kbit/s), which boosts faxing speed from fax classes "2" and 2.0, which are limited to 14.4 kbit/s. The relevant ITU-T recommendation is T.32 Amendment 1. Class 2.1 fax devices are referred to as "super G3". Data transmission rate Several different telephone-line modulation techniques are used by fax machines. They are negotiated during the fax-modem handshake, and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax. {| class="wikitable" !ITU standard !Released date !Data rates (bit/s) !Modulation method |- |V.27 |1988 |4800, 2400 |PSK |- |V.29 |1988 |9600, 7200, 4800 |QAM |- |V.17 |1991 |, , 9600, 7200 |TCM |- |V.34 |1994 | |QAM |- |V.34bis |1998 | |QAM |- |ISDN |1986 | |digital |} Note that "Super Group 3" faxes use V.34bis modulation that allows a data rate of up to 33.6 kbit/s. Compression As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size) of the image being faxed, the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image. The two methods defined in T.4 are: Modified Huffman (MH). Modified READ (MR) (Relative Element Address Designate), optional. An additional method is specified in T.6: Modified Modified READ (MMR). Later, other compression techniques were added as options to ITU-T recommendation T.30, such as the more efficient JBIG (T.82, T.85) for bi-level content, and JPEG (T.81), T.43, MRC (T.44), and T.45 for grayscale, palette, and colour content. Fax machines can negotiate at the start of the T.30 session to use the best technique implemented on both sides. Modified Huffman Modified Huffman (MH), specified in T.4 as the one-dimensional coding scheme, is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace. As most faxes consist mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes. Each line scanned is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor. Modified READ Modified READ, specified as an optional two-dimensional coding scheme in T.4, encodes the first scanned line using MH. The next line is compared to the first, the differences determined, and then the differences are encoded and transmitted. This is effective, as most lines differ little from their predecessor. This is not continued to the end of the fax transmission, but only for a limited number of lines until the process is reset, and a new "first line" encoded with MH is produced. This limited number of lines is to prevent errors propagating throughout the whole fax, as the standard does not provide for error correction. This is an optional facility, and some fax machines do not use MR in order to minimise the amount of computation required by the machine. The limited number of lines is 2 for "Standard"-resolution faxes, and 4 for "Fine"-resolution faxes. Modified Modified READ The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of Modified Modified READ (MMR), which simply allows a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4. This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors, such as digital ISDN. In this case, the number of lines for which the differences are encoded is not limited. JBIG In 1999, ITU-T recommendation T.30 added JBIG (ITU-T T.82) as another lossless bi-level compression algorithm, or more precisely a "fax profile" subset of JBIG (ITU-T T.85). JBIG-compressed pages result in 20% to 50% faster transmission than MMR-compressed pages, and up to 30 times faster transmission if the page includes halftone images. JBIG performs adaptive compression, that is, both the encoder and decoder collect statistical information about the transmitted image from the pixels transmitted so far, in order to predict the probability for each next pixel being either black or white. For each new pixel, JBIG looks at ten nearby, previously transmitted pixels. It counts, how often in the past the next pixel has been black or white in the same neighborhood, and estimates from that the probability distribution of the next pixel. This is fed into an arithmetic coder, which adds only a small fraction of a bit to the output sequence if the more probable pixel is then encountered. The ITU-T T.85 "fax profile" constrains some optional features of the full JBIG standard, such that codecs do not have to keep data about more than the last three pixel rows of an image in memory at any time. This allows the streaming of "endless" images, where the height of the image may not be known until the last row is transmitted. ITU-T T.30 allows fax machines to negotiate one of two options of the T.85 "fax profile": In "basic mode", the JBIG encoder must split the image into horizontal stripes of 128 lines (parameter L0 = 128) and restart the arithmetic encoder for each stripe. In "option mode", there is no such constraint. Matsushita Whiteline Skip A proprietary compression scheme employed on Panasonic fax machines is Matsushita Whiteline Skip (MWS). It can be overlaid on the other compression schemes, but is operative only when two Panasonic machines are communicating with one another. This system detects the blank scanned areas between lines of text, and then compresses several blank scan lines into the data space of a single character. (JBIG implements a similar technique called "typical prediction", if header flag TPBON is set to 1.) Typical characteristics Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a resolution of 204×98 (normal) or 204×196 (fine) dots per square inch. The transfer rate is 14.4 kbit/s or higher for modems and some fax machines, but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s and typically operate at 9600 bit/s. The transferred image formats are called ITU-T (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4. Group 3 faxes have the suffix .g3 and the MIME type image/g3fax. The most basic fax mode transfers in black and white only. The original page is scanned in a resolution of 1728 pixels/line and 1145 lines/page (for A4). The resulting raw data is compressed using a modified Huffman code optimized for written text, achieving average compression factors of around 20. Typically a page needs 10 s for transmission, instead of about 3 minutes for the same uncompressed raw data of 1728×1145 bits at a speed of 9600 bit/s. The compression method uses a Huffman codebook for run lengths of black and white runs in a single scanned line, and it can also use the fact that two adjacent scanlines are usually quite similar, saving bandwidth by encoding only the differences. Fax classes denote the way fax programs interact with fax hardware. Available classes include Class 1, Class 2, Class 2.0 and 2.1, and Intel CAS. Many modems support at least class 1 and often either Class 2 or Class 2.0. Which is preferable to use depends on factors such as hardware, software, modem firmware, and expected use. Printing process Fax machines from the 1970s to the 1990s often used direct thermal printers with rolls of thermal paper as their printing technology, but since the mid-1990s there has been a transition towards plain-paper faxes: thermal transfer printers, inkjet printers and laser printers. One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in color; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability. There is a standard called ITU-T30e (formally ITU-T Recommendation T.30 Annex E ) for faxing in color; however, it is not widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer. Stroke speed Stroke speed in facsimile systems is the rate at which a fixed line perpendicular to the direction of scanning is crossed in one direction by a scanning or recording spot. Stroke speed is usually expressed as a number of strokes per minute. When the fax system scans in both directions, the stroke speed is twice this number. In most conventional 20th century mechanical systems, the stroke speed is equivalent to drum speed. Fax paper As a precaution, thermal fax paper is typically not accepted in archives or as documentary evidence in some courts of law unless photocopied. This is because the image-forming coating is eradicable and brittle, and it tends to detach from the medium after a long time in storage. Internet fax One popular alternative is to subscribe to an Internet fax service, allowing users to send and receive faxes from their personal computers using an existing email account. No software, fax server or fax machine is needed. Faxes are received as attached TIFF or PDF files, or in proprietary formats that require the use of the service provider's software. Faxes can be sent or retrieved from anywhere at any time that a user can get Internet access. Some services offer secure faxing to comply with stringent HIPAA and Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act requirements to keep medical information and financial information private and secure. Utilizing a fax service provider does not require paper, a dedicated fax line, or consumable resources. Another alternative to a physical fax machine is to make use of computer software which allows people to send and receive faxes using their own computers, utilizing fax servers and unified messaging. A virtual (email) fax can be printed out and then signed and scanned back to computer before being emailed. Also the sender can attach a digital signature to the document file. With the surging popularity of mobile phones, virtual fax machines can now be downloaded as applications for Android and iOS. These applications make use of the phone's internal camera to scan fax documents for upload or they can import from various cloud services. Related standards T.4 is the umbrella specification for fax. It specifies the standard image sizes, two forms of image-data compression (encoding), the image-data format, and references, T.30 and the various modem standards. T.6 specifies a compression scheme that reduces the time required to transmit an image by roughly 50-percent. T.30 specifies the procedures that a sending and receiving terminal use to set up a fax call, determine the image size, encoding, and transfer speed, the demarcation between pages, and the termination of the call. T.30 also references the various modem standards. V.21, V.27ter, V.29, V.17, V.34: ITU modem standards used in facsimile. The first three were ratified prior to 1980, and were specified in the original T.4 and T.30 standards. V.34 was published for fax in 1994. T.37 The ITU standard for sending a fax-image file via e-mail to the intended recipient of a fax. T.38 The ITU standard for sending Fax over IP (FoIP). G.711 pass through - this is where the T.30 fax call is carried in a VoIP call encoded as audio. This is sensitive to network packet loss, jitter and clock synchronization. When using voice high-compression encoding techniques such as, but not limited to, G.729, some fax tonal signals may not be correctly transported across the packet network. image/t38 MIME-type SSL Fax An emerging standard that allows a telephone based fax session to negotiate a fax transfer over the internet, but only if both sides support the standard. The standard is partially based on T.30 and is being developed by Hylafax+ developers. See also Black fax Called subscriber identification (CSID) Error correction mode (ECM) Fax art Fax demodulator Fax modem Fax server Faxlore Fultograph Image Scanners Internet fax Junk fax Radiofax—image transmission over HF radio Slow-scan television T.38 Fax-over-IP Telautograph Telex Teletex Transmitting Subscriber Identification (TSID) Wirephoto References Further reading Coopersmith, Jonathan, Faxed: The Rise and Fall of the Fax Machine (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2015) 308 pp. "Transmitting Photographs by Telegraph", Scientific American article, 12 May 1877, p. 297 External links Group 3 Facsimile Communication a '97 essay with technical details on compression and error codes, and call establishment and release. ITU T.30 Recommendation 1843 introductions American inventions Computer peripherals English inventions German inventions Italian inventions ITU-T recommendations Japanese inventions Office equipment Scottish inventions Telecommunications equipment

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Mercedes-AMG GmbH, commonly known as AMG, is the high-performance subsidiary of Mercedes-Benz AG. AMG independently hires engineers and contracts with manufacturers to customize Mercedes-Benz AMG vehicles. The company has its headquarters in Affalterbach, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. AMG was originally an independent engineering firm specializing in performance improvements for Mercedes-Benz vehicles. DaimlerChrysler AG took a controlling interest in 1999, then became the sole owner of AMG in 2005. Mercedes-AMG GmbH is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Mercedes-Benz AG, which is in turn owned by the Mercedes-Benz Group. AMG models typically have more aggressive looks, a higher level of performance, better handling, better stability and more extensive use of carbon fibre than their regular Mercedes-Benz counterparts. AMG models are typically the most expensive and highest-performing variant of each Mercedes-Benz class. AMG variants are usually badged with two numerals, as opposed to regular Mercedes-Benz vehicles, which have three (e.g. "C 63" as opposed to "C 320"). The numerals do not always indicate engine size, but are rather a tribute to earlier heritage cars, such as the 300 SEL 6.3 litre. For example, newer-model AMG V8s such as the C 63 actually have 4.0L V8s. The world's first stand-alone Mercedes-AMG dealership, AMG Sydney, was opened in Sydney, Australia in 2018. History AMG was founded as a racing engine forge in 1967 under the name AMG Motorenbau und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH (German for 'AMG Engine Production and Development Limited') by former Mercedes-Benz engineers Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher in Burgstall an der Murr, near Stuttgart. The initialism 'AMG' stands for Aufrecht, Melcher and Großaspach (Aufrecht's birth town). In 1976, most of AMG moved to Affalterbach, with the racing-engine development remaining at the old location in Burgstall. At this time, Erhard Melcher ceased to be a partner, but he continued to be an employee at the Burgstall location. In 1993, with AMG having become a high-profile purveyor of modified Mercedes-Benz cars, Daimler-Benz AG and AMG signed a contract of cooperation, allowing AMG to leverage Daimler-Benz's extensive dealer network and leading to commonly developed vehicles (the first one being the Mercedes-Benz E 50 AMG, in 1993). On 1 January 1999, DaimlerChrysler AG (as it was called between 1998 and 2007) acquired 51 percent of AMG shares, and AMG was renamed to Mercedes-AMG GmbH. Racing engine development was divested and continues to exist in Burgstall under the name HWA (Aufrecht's initials). On 1 January 2005, Aufrecht sold his remaining shares to DaimlerChrysler, and since then, Mercedes-AMG GmbH has been a wholly owned subsidiary of the Mercedes-Benz Group. Development of the product range AMG started off by designing and testing racing engines. It expanded its business into building custom road cars based upon standard Mercedes cars. AMG initially produced a range of unofficial upgrade and accessories packages mainly for the Mercedes-Benz R107 and C107 (1971–1989 SL roadster), Mercedes-Benz W116 (1972–1980 S-class), Mercedes-Benz W123 (1976–1985 E-class predecessor), Mercedes-Benz W124 (1984–1997 E-class), Mercedes-Benz W126 (1979–1992 S-class), Mercedes-Benz R129 (1989–2001 SL roadster), and Mercedes-Benz W201 (1990–1993 C-class) models. During the early 1980s and up until 1990, AMG offered a variety of engine performance packages, alloy wheels and styling products as an entirely independent company from Daimler-Benz. In 1990, AMG signed a co-operation agreement with Daimler-Benz, and AMG options and cars were then offered in Mercedes-Benz showrooms; in 1999 Daimler AG, then known as DaimlerChrysler AG, bought the controlling share of AMG and made them part of the official Mercedes-Benz line-up. Typical AMG performance enhancements, which the buyer could custom order, included increased engine displacements (5.2 litre, 5.4 litre), performance top ends with port and polished heads and intake, lightened valve train, and more aggressive cams. The DOHC 32V engine had also just been developed and was the pinnacle of AMG performance. A Getrag five-speed manual transmission could be ordered from AMG, and Mercedes had not offered a manual transmission V8 since the early 1970s. The performance wheels offered during the same period were 15-inch or 16-inch ATS AMG Five Spoke Road Wheels, commonly referred to as Pentas. Penta was actually a UK-based company that supplemented the high demand for the AMG wheel at the time with a replica and only a very slight styling difference, but they were not made or endorsed by AMG. The genuine AMG wheels were often coupled with an AMG performance suspension package that included uprated and lowered springs, and re-valved shock absorbers. Another popular cosmetic upgrade were the AMG body kits. These ranged from subtle front spoilers to aggressive Wide Body kits for the W126 coupes. Other options included Recaro seats, smaller diameter steering wheels, instrument clusters, chrome delete option (all brightworks colour-coded or painted satin black), refrigerators, shift knobs, hi-fi stereo systems, custom upholstery and enhanced interior wood packages. The release of the AMG Hammer sedan in 1986, based on the W124 E-Class, took AMG's performance modifications for a fast midsized sedan to a new level. AMG made the world's fastest passenger sedan at the time, nicknamed the Hammer, by squeezing Mercedes 5.6-litre V8 tuned by AMG to 360 hp into a midsized sedan. It was very aggressive for the era, with 32-valve cylinder heads and twin camshafts, and said to be faster than the Lamborghini Countach from 60 to 120 mph. Later models were even more powerful and introduced the 17-inch AMG Aero 1 Hammer wheels. 1986 was also the year Mercedes introduced the 560 M117 engine. This provided yet another opportunity for customers to order the largest AMG displacement available at the time, the 6L 100 mm bore SOHC or DOHC engines available for both the W126 coupe and sedans. Through the early 2000s, AMG focused principally on supercharged V8 and V6 engines, but the company officially abandoned this technology in 2006 with the introduction of the naturally aspirated 6.2 L M156 V8. On 16 January 2006, Mercedes-AMG Chairman Volker Mornhinweg told AutoWeek that the company would use turbocharging for higher output rather than supercharging. For 2011, AMG released the M157 5.5L bi-turbo V8, which has supplanted the M156 in its full-sized cars such as the S-Class and CL-Class (and is trickling down to the CLS, E-Class, and ML-class). In 2012, Mercedes-AMG Chairman Olla Kallenius said that Mercedes-AMG will not produce diesel engines to compete with BMW's tri-turbo diesels (BMW M Performance range). Although there were some AMG models in the 1980s with manual transmissions, almost all recent models have used automatics (5G-Tronic and later 7G-Tronic with Speedshift), in contrast to BMW M, which used manual and recently automatic transmissions (the current type being a dual clutch transmission). Starting in 2009, however, AMG began adopting the seven-speed AMG SpeedShift MCT automatic transmission. Although these are considered the most well known in-house tuning divisions, Mercedes-AMG has a considerably different philosophy than BMW M. Compared to BMW M, Mercedes-AMG is "less narrow in its sporting focus, yet still combining sledgehammer performance with relaxed handling, cultured comfort, and practicality". While founders Hans Werner Aufrecht and Erhard Melcher had emphasized proper racing cars, Mercedes-AMG had diverged considerably from this philosophy in recent years, with their offerings being well known for straight-line acceleration but poor handling dynamics. However, current Mercedes-AMG chairman Volker Mornhinweg has urged the division to return to its roots of building sports cars. Motor racing In the late 1960s and early 1970s, AMG entered the big Mercedes-Benz 300SEL 6.3 V8 saloon, affectionately named the "Red Sow", in the 1971 Spa 24 Hours, and the European Touring Car Championship. AMG and Mercedes worked together on Mercedes-Benz W201 cars for the 1988 Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM, German Touring Car Championship). AMG was made the official partner. When DaimlerChrysler acquired a majority share of AMG in 1999, the motor racing department was divested into HWA AG. Their first car was the ill-fated Mercedes-Benz CLR. Since 2000, HWA builds and runs the cars for Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), as well as the M271 engine tuned for use in Formula 3. In 2000, an extensively modified one-off Mercedes-Benz AMG CLK 55 was built by the AMG Factory as a purpose-built race car to compete in the 2001 Targa Tasmania 7 day road race. Mick Doohan was the works Mercedes-Benz AMG driver. Six successive lightly modified Mercedes-Benz AMG models (including, most recently, a C190 GT R) have acted as the safety cars for the FIA Formula One World Championship. Since 2010, the SLS AMG GT3 and the AMG GT3 has been competing in GT competitions around the world, such as the FIA GT3 European Championship, Blancpain Endurance Series, Blancpain Sprint Series, VLN, 24 Hours of Nürburgring, British GT Championship, Super GT, Australian GT Championship, Bathurst 12 Hour, Dubai 24 Hour, Macau GT Cup and Pirelli World Challenge. In late 2011, after the end of the Formula One season, Mercedes GP Petronas announced that it would be using the AMG branding for its F1 efforts, changing its name to Mercedes AMG Petronas for the 2012 season onwards. Three AMG E-Class V8 Supercars competed in the Australian Supercars Championship from 2013 to 2015, operated by Erebus Motorsport under the AMG Customer Sports Program. Relationship with Pagani AMG also provides engines for the Zonda and Huayra cars. The M297 7,291 cc displacement V12 engines were originally used in the 1995 SL 73 AMG. It is the largest displacement naturally aspirated engine provided by AMG and is now exclusively used by Pagani. Relationship with Aston Martin On 25 July 2013, Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd and Daimler AG announced moves towards a technical partnership with Mercedes-AMG GmbH. The deal will see Aston Martin access significant Mercedes-AMG GmbH and Mercedes-Benz Cars' resources, allowing the development of bespoke V8 powertrains and the use of certain components of electric/electronic architecture. Daimler AG now owns a stake of 5% of non-voting shares in Aston Martin, joining existing shareholders Investment DAR, Adeem Investment and Investindustrial. The technical partnership will support Aston Martin's launch of a new generation of models and newly developed bespoke V8 powertrains. For the 2021 Formula One World Championship, the German marque will share the role of official Safety Car supplier with Aston Martin. Relationship with Lotus AMG also provides engines for the Lotus Emira. The M139 I4 engine that was originally used in the CLA 45 AMG. Current AMG models All AMG engines - with the exception of the "35" M260 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo and "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo engine, as well as various other "43" and "53" models using the new M256 inline 6 engine - are hand built using a "one man, one engine" philosophy at the current AMG plant in Affalterbach, Germany. To signify this, each AMG engine builder stamps the engines they produce with an engraved plaque depicting their signature. According to Mercedes-Benz, there are only about 50 AMG engine builders. As part of the official Mercedes product line, the AMG models are sold side by side with regular production models, unlike those offered by other Mercedes tuning firms such as Brabus. "35" M260 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo Mercedes-AMG A 35 Mercedes-AMG CLA 35 Mercedes-AMG GLA 35 Mercedes-AMG GLB 35 "45" M139 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo Mercedes-AMG A 45/A 45 S 4MATIC+ Mercedes-AMG CLA 45/CLA 45 S 4MATIC+ Mercedes-AMG GLA 45/GLA 45 S 4MATIC+ At and 500 nm in the 45 S variant, the M139 with twin-scroll turbo is the world's most powerful four-cylinder engine in serial production with a specific output of 208 hp per litre or 104 hp per cylinder. "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo Mercedes-AMG GLC 43 With the launch of the 3.0l V6 gasoline engine with direct injection and twin turbo-charging, called M276 DE30AL, a new member has been added to the approved M276 V6 gasoline engine series. "43" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo Mercedes-AMG GT 43 4-Door Coupé "53" M256 3.0 L Inline-6 Turbo Mercedes-AMG E 53 (A238/C238/W213/S213) Mercedes-AMG CLS 53 (C257) Mercedes-AMG GT 53 4-Door Coupé Mercedes-AMG GLE 53 These are powered by the new Mercedes-Benz M 256 inline six cylinder engine. "55" M177 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo Mercedes-AMG SL 55 4MATIC+ "63" M177/M178 4.0 L V8 Bi-Turbo Mercedes-AMG C 63 Mercedes-AMG C 63 Coupe Mercedes-AMG E 63 Mercedes-AMG GT Mercedes-AMG SL 63 4MATIC+ Mercedes-AMG GT 63 4-Door Coupé Mercedes-AMG S 63 Mercedes-AMG GLC 63 Mercedes-AMG GLC 63 Coupe Mercedes-AMG G 63 (W463) second generation Launched in the UK market in April 2015, the 4-litre M178 V8 uses an unusual configuration where the position of the intake and exhaust are reversed, to create a more compact engine and hence vehicle design. This "hot inside v" configuration, as AMG calls it, has the exhaust gasses exiting into the central v area of the engine block where the engine's twin turbochargers are also mounted. Previous AMG models In addition to the models listed above, there were also predecessors to the current AMG models. "65" M275 6.0 L V12 Bi-Turbo The models listed below were powered by a variant of the Mercedes-Benz M275 engine. 2004–2013 S65 AMG 2004–2014 CL65 AMG 2004–2011 SL65 AMG 2012–2018 G65 AMG 2012–2018 Mercedes-AMG SL 65 2014–2019 Mercedes-AMG S 65 The AMG power-plant has an all-new design of the bi-turbo system, which features larger turbochargers and a new, more powerful charge-air cooling system, and the increase in the engine displacement (to 5980 cc) as well as many other engine design measures. This allows it to produce a claimed 621 horsepower and of torque. "65" models used a 5-speed automatic transmission for a long time, as the newer 7G-Tronic wasn't able to handle the torque from the V12 engines. This was changed with the introduction of 2012 SL 65 AMG, which uses the same AMG SpeedShift MCT transmission as the rest of the AMG line-up. Coinciding with the facelift of the CL-Class for the 2011 model year, the 2011 CL 65 AMG had an enhanced engine. AMG redesigned the exhaust gas turbochargers and added new engine electronics. It produced 621 horsepower, pushing the car from in 4.2 seconds (0.2 seconds faster than the 2011 CL 63), with an electronically limited top speed of . The update also improved fuel economy and reduced carbon emissions by 3.5% over the outgoing model. "63" M157 5.5 L V8 Bi-Turbo The models listed below were powered by the M157 variant of the Mercedes-Benz M278 engine. Mercedes-AMG CLS 63 (W219) Mercedes-AMG E 63 (W212) Mercedes-AMG G 63 (W463) Mercedes-AMG GL 63 (X166 pre-facelift) Mercedes-AMG GLE 63 (W166 facelift) Mercedes-AMG GLS 63 (X166 facelift) Mercedes-AMG M 63 (W166 pre-facelift) Mercedes-AMG S 63 (W222 pre-facelift) Mercedes-AMG SL 63 (R231) Rumoured in 2009 and confirmed in 2010, AMG developed the M157, a 5.5-litre V8 with direct fuel injection and twin turbochargers. Power is rated at up to at 5,250-5,750rpm with a peak torque of made between 2,000rpm and 4,500rpm (the amount of power and torque depends on model, but these are the maximum ratings). Both engines are mated to Mercedes-Benz's 7-speed MCT transmission. Unlike the M156 naturally aspirated 6.2 L V8, which was developed entirely within AMG, the M157 is based upon the M278 used in the regular Mercedes-Benz S-Class and CL-Class. The M157 boasts 25% better fuel economy (10.5 litres per 100 kilometres versus 14.4 L/100 km in the European driving cycle) over the M156, meaning it avoids the US Gas Guzzler Tax for the first time ever, despite having up to 47 horsepower more. The M157's increased torque from both the regular version and performance package means the engine can be shifted into a taller gear sooner, keeping engine revs and fuel consumption to a minimum. The new M157 has an engine start/stop mode and is lightweight at 204 kg. The M157 is said to be ideal for powering full-size sedans such as the S-Class, but the older M156 remains in production, as its more precise throttle response is still well suited to smaller sportier models (the C-Class), until the 2015 model arrives, which is powered by a 4.0 liter V8. 5.5 L V8 BiTurbo models carry the "63" model designation, shared with the 6.2L V8 models. Visually, the 2011 S 63 AMG is differentiated from the 2010 model (itself face-lifted over the 2009 S 63) by the more angular design of the chromed dual exhaust tips, which also sport embossed AMG logos, as well as new forged wheels. For the CL 63 AMG, the new M157 engine coincides with the facelift of the CL-Class for the 2011 model year. Despite common belief, 63 AMG models are typically faster than their 65 AMG counterparts. An S 63 AMG accelerates faster and handles better than an S 65 AMG (due to 4-wheel drive and decreased weight), and an SL 63 AMG accelerates faster than an SL 65 AMG due to decreased torque, lower weight, and better balance by use of the V8. Since 2013, AMG models with the S-Model package feature all-wheel drive, which allows for better handling and better acceleration. The Mercedes-Benz CLS 63 AMG S has been tested to accelerate to 60 mph in just 3.2 seconds, with a quarter mile time of 11.6 seconds. This made it the quickest production sedan at the time. MotorTrend tested the 2014 E 63 AMG S with the M157 engine to produce an estimated and . "63" M156 6.2 L V8 2008 C63 AMG, C63 AMG Black Series (Sedan and Wagon) (facelifted for the 2012 model year) Mercedes E63 AMG (W211) Mercedes-Benz CLK 63 AMG, CLK 63 AMG Black Series Mercedes-Benz S63 AMG (2009-2012) Mercedes-Benz CL63 AMG Mercedes-Benz ML63 AMG Mercedes-Benz E63 AMG (W212, 2009-2011) 2010 SLS AMG (M159) AMG developed its own V8 engine (dubbed M156 in development) for the DTM series. The M156 produces 451 horsepower and 443 ft-lbs of torque. The M156, in various states of tune, was used in models such as the SL 63, E 63, CLS 63, and S 63 until it was replaced by the M157 5.5 L Biturbo V8. In 2009, AMG developed the M159 engine, which is based on the M156 engine, to use in SLS AMG. The M159 produces 583 horsepower and 489 lb-ft of torque in the Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG GT, and 622 horsepower and 468 lb-ft in the SLS AMG Black Series. There are also other AMG nameplates no longer in production: 1988–1993 190E AMG 3.2 1988–1993 300E AMG 3.4E, AMG 3.4CE, AMG 3.4TE 1992 "The Hammer" AMG Widebody Coupe 1993–1994 E 60 AMG 1994–1995 E 36 AMG 1995, 1997 S 70 AMG 1995, 1998–2001 SL 73 AMG 1996–1998 SL 60 AMG 1995–1997 C 36 AMG 1997–2000 C 43 AMG 1996–1998 E 36 AMG 1996–1997 E 50 AMG 1998–2002 E 55 AMG 1998–2002 CLK-GTR AMG 2001–2004 SLK 32 AMG 2002–2004 C 32 AMG 2005–2006 C 55 AMG 2005–2006 CLK DTM AMG 2007 R 63 AMG 2009 CLK 63 AMG and CLK 63 AMG Black Series "55" M152 5.5 L V8 AMG SLK 55 The M152 is a naturally aspirated, detuned version of the M157 Biturbo V8. This V8 will be used for the 2012 SLK 55 AMG, and it produces 415 hp and 398 lb-ft. This engine was discontinued in 2016 with the introduction of the SLC 43 AMG. "43" M276 3.0 L V6 Bi-Turbo Mercedes-AMG E 43 Mercedes-AMG GLE 43 Mercedes-AMG C 43 4MATIC+ Mercedes-AMG GLC 43 4MATIC+ Mercedes-AMG C 43 Mercedes-AMG SLC 43 "45" M133 2.0 L Inline-4 Turbo Mercedes-AMG GLA 45 Mercedes-AMG A 45 The 2.0 L Turbo I4 was created for use in the smaller, 45 AMG models, such as the A-Class, CLA-Class, and GLA-Class, which all share the same platform. The M133 (2015 onwards) produces 381 PS (375 HP) and 350 lb-ft (475 Nm), making it the most powerful turbo 4-cylinder in production, and with a 190.5-horsepower per liter, one of the most power dense engines in production. Models with the M133 Turbo 4 are paired with a 7-speed AMG SPEEDSHIFT Dual-Clutch Transmission. The CLA45 AMG can accelerate from in 4.2 seconds, according to Motor Trend's first test of the vehicle. "30" 3.0 L I5 diesel OM612 3.0 L "30" I5 Diesel models C 30 CDI AMG (sedan, wagon, and Sportcoupé) "32" 3.2 L V6 KOMPRESSOR Powertrain consists of AMG Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission mated to an AMG 3.2-litre V6 Kompressor engine with an output of 260 kW/349 hp and at 4,400 rpm. The engine is a special version of the 3.2 L (3199 cc) M112 E32, fitted with a helical twin-screw supercharger and water-to-air intercooler. The supercharger was developed in conjunction with IHI and features Teflon-coated rotors producing overall boost of 14.5 psi (1 bar). Compared to the standard M112 engine, the AMG version also has a new crankshaft, new connecting rods and pistons, an oil pump with a 70-percent increased capacity, lightweight camshafts, and harder valve springs for a redline of 6200 rpm, an increase of 200 rpm. While rival BMW M developed the SMG-II automated manual for the BMW M3, the C 32 and SLK 32 have a 5-speed automatic transmission's "Speedshift" system, which now has quicker response (up to 35 percent) to accelerator and shift selector movements. The C 32 had a smaller engine than its predecessors, the C 36 AMG with the M104 3.6L I6 engine, and the C 43 AMG powered by the M113 4.3L V8 engine. The C 32 AMG can do 0– in 5.2sec 0–100 in 12.6 with a 1/4 mile of 13.6 at 106 mph (C&D comparison test May 2003). 3.2 L Supercharged M112 V6 AMG 2002–2004 C 32 AMG (sedan, wagon (S203), and Sportcoupé) 2001–2004 SLK 32 AMG 2005–2006 Chrysler Crossfire SRT-6 "55" 5.4 L V8 KOMPRESSOR This model was nicknamed the "Hammer" after the original 1986 AMG Hammer (a W124 E-Class sedan with an AMG-tuned 360 hp 5.6-litre V8). The 2003 E 55 AMG could do 0– in 4.4 seconds. The main engine is a 5.4 L V8 engine This engine comes in two configurations. The first configuration is a naturally aspirated V8 with that is used in the C 55 AMG, CLK 55 AMG, E 55 AMG (1999-2002), SLK 55 AMG, and ML 55 AMG. The C 43 AMG (model years 1998–2000) was powered by a naturally aspirated V8 engine from the M113 family, but at a reduced displacement of 4.3L, hence the '43' designation. The other configuration is a similar unit but with a highly efficient Lysholm type twin screw supercharger. manufactured by Eaton, is in the rest of the AMG 55 models, which are typically midsized or larger vehicles. The published output according to Mercedes varies from to and to , depending on various methods of power measurements and different ECU programming for national legislations. For instance, the E 55 AMG's engine was at the low end, nonetheless it was still Mercedes-Benz's fastest sedan at the time, while the SL55 AMG's engine had the top output. Mercedes has claimed that a more restrictive exhaust system was responsible for cutting output on the E 55 AMG, however some enthusiasts have managed to bump up horsepower to 505 on the E 55 by incorporating some parts from the SL 55. The supercharged 5.4 L 24 valve V8 engine was mated to the Speedshift 5-speed automatic transmission, which has a torque capacity of , as the newer 7G-Tronic introduced in 2003 is limited to , not enough to handle the torque from the supercharged V8. The V8 S 55 AMG had a comparable output to the V12-powered S600 throughout their production. The S 55 AMG (2001–02) was outfitted with a 5.4 L V8 motor while the later versions (2003–06) sported the same motor, but supercharged to a rated . The S600 (2001–02) was outfitted with a 5.8L V12 engine while the later versions (2003–06) sported a twin-turbocharged (or Bi-Turbo) 5.5L V12. The justification for having two models with the same power is that the S 55 AMG is sportier and more responsive, while the costlier S600 is more luxurious with a smoother ride. AMG phased out both the naturally aspirated and supercharged 5.4 L engines in favor of the new M156 V8 beginning in 2006, which was paired with 7G-Tronic. However, some enthusiasts were disappointed because the M156 produces less torque than the M113K (which is supercharged). For the Model Year 2009: M113 5.4 L "55" V8 models (naturally aspirated) SLK 55 AMG M113 5.4 L "55" V8 models (supercharged) G 55 AMG Previous 55 AMG models 1999–2002 E 55 AMG 2003–2006 E 55 AMG 2000–2003 ML 55 AMG 2003–2005 C 55 AMG 2001–2002 CLK 55 AMG 2003–2006 CLK 55 AMG 2004–2007 CLS 55 AMG 2001–2008 SL 55 AMG 2001–2006 S 55 AMG 2001–2006 CL 55 AMG 2005–2006 C 55 AMG 2001–2009 G 55 AMG "63" M137 6.3 L V12 The "63" badging was used on the short-lived 2001 S 63 AMG, 2001 CL 63 AMG and 2002 G 63 AMG. These were produced in limited quantities for one month and only offered through AMG to select customers in Europe and Asia, purportedly state leaders. The CL 63 AMG was the rarest C215 CL of all, and just 26 examples were built in November 2001 (51 plate), with some UK being and one for France registered in March 2002. These had a base price of £110,000 (~US$200,000). The G 63 AMG was the rarest W463 of all with just 5 examples built in September 2002 and sold in Germany at over €250,000 each. These are powered by a naturally aspirated 6.3L V12 producing . This engine is based on the M137 5.8L V12 used in the S 600 and CL 600, but the AMG variants have a larger displacement, a new management system, a new crank case and cooling system, weight-optimized pistons, and a new camshaft with greater valve lift and modified valves. of torque are available between 2500–5800rpm with a peak of at 4400 rpm while horsepower grows by almost 80 over the 5.8L V12. It is mated to a 5-speed automatic transmission. The 2001 S 63 AMG V12 had 100 hp more than the 2001 S 55 AMG, and was a few tenths faster. "60", "73", "70", "55" The Mercedes-Benz SL-Class (R129) had several AMG variants during its production run from 1989 to 2001. The SL 60 AMG was the most numerous of these rare cars. Sold from 1993 to 1998, it used a 6.0 litre V8 engine producing at 5500 rpm. AMG claimed a 0– speed of 5.6 seconds. Its top speed was limited to , but with the limiter removed, it was capable of approximately . AMG later unofficially conceded that was more like 5.0 seconds and the engine produced between 405 and 410 bhp. Extremely rare was the SL 73 AMG, sold through Mercedes-AMG in 1995, and offering the most powerful V12 engine ever put into an SL up to that time. After a brief hiatus, the SL 73 was offered again from 1998 to 2001. The same 7.3 L V12 was later used by Pagani in the Zonda. Even rarer is the SL 70 AMG (7.0 L (7055 cc) V12 engine). The SL 55 AMG was sold in the R129 body style from 1998 to 2001 in limited numbers (5.4L V8, at 5500 rpm). It was the predecessor of the production R230 SL 55 AMG sold later, albeit was normally aspirated in the R129 and not supercharged as in its R230 successor. "63" M156 6.2 L V8 The "63" M156 is currently in production in the C 63 AMG and tuned as the M159 in the SLS AMG, although there were many models that were previously in production. This naturally aspirated V8 will also be used to replace most of the "55" models. The published output according to Mercedes varies from on the C 63 AMG, to on the C/CLK/R/ML/GL/S/SL/CL/E 63 AMG. The 2008 S 63/CL 63/SL 63s that used the M156 engine at 518 horsepower edged out that of the S600/CL600/SL600, the latter powered by the 510 horsepower 5.5-liter twin-turbo V12, while also having a higher redline. However, the S600/CL600/SL600 is more expensive and has more torque at . The S 63/CL 63/SL 63, however, do have quicker acceleration times than their S600/CL600/SL600 counterparts and are the fastest in the lineup in 2014, due to the added weight and torque of the 65s, thus decreasing the 0-60 times and the handling limits. Compared to the "55" supercharged 5.4 L V8 engine—which was restricted to the Speedshift 5G-Tronic five-speed automatic transmission, as it had a torque capacity of —the reduced torque of the "63" M156 6.2L V8 means it can be mated with the more efficient 7G-Tronic, which can withstand a limit of . Despite the reduction in torque, the increased horsepower and more efficient transmission enable the 63 models to match or surpass the acceleration of the "55" models. Most of the M156-engined models used the 7G-Tronic automatic transmission, however the more recent 2009 SL 63, 2010 E 63, and 2012 C 63 use the 7-speed MCT transmission. Previous M156 Models 2007–2010 S 63 AMG 2006–2010 CL 63 AMG 2007–2011 ML 63 AMG 2007 R 63 AMG 2006–2009 CLK 63 AMG (introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show) (used as Safety Car for the 2006 and 2007 F1 World Championship) 2007–2011 CLS 63 AMG (introduced at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show) 2007–2009 E 63 AMG (Sedan and Wagon) 2009–2012 SL 63 AMG 2010–2012 E 63 AMG (Sedan and Wagon) Black Series SLK 55 AMG Black Series CLK 63 AMG Black Series SL 65 AMG Black Series C 63 AMG Black Series SLS AMG Black Series AMG GT Black Series The AMG Performance Studio in Affalterbach is responsible for the upgrades that make an AMG into an AMG Black Series model. The Black Series treatment is only available on 2 door vehicles, which includes weight reduction, bucket seats, exterior alterations, interior alterations, higher power, greater traction, handling, and significantly greater overall performance. Black Series models are known as street-legal race cars. The SLS AMG Black Series was tested by Motor Trend to have a 0-60 time of 3.2 seconds, and a quarter mile time of 11.1 seconds at 129.8 mph. The SLS AMG Black Series "demolished" the Motor Trend figure eight in just 23.1 seconds, beating the McLaren MP4-12C, Ferrari 458 Italia, Audi R8 V10 Plus, and the SRT Viper. The SLS AMG Black Series is currently the 22nd fastest car to lap the Nürburgring. The SLS AMG Black Series had the same 1:19 time as the Lamborghini Murciélago LP670-4 SuperVeloce, the Ferrari Enzo, and beat the Ferrari 458 Italia, Lamborghini Gallardo LP 560-4, Porsche 997 GT2, and Nissan GT-R around the Top Gear test track. Electric Drive In 2013, Mercedes-AMG announced the SLS AMG Coupe Electric Drive, which was to be the first zero emissions vehicle from AMG. The vehicle used technology derived from Formula 1, and was the fastest electric car. The SLS AMG Electric Drive has 740 horsepower and 738 lb-ft of torque, and Mercedes-AMG claims a time of 3.9 seconds. See also List of German cars Alpina Audi Sport GmbH BMW M Brabus Gran Turismo Opel Performance Center Mitsubishi Debonair References Notes Bibliography External links Official motorsports and performance division of automakers Mercedes-Benz Auto parts suppliers of Germany Wheel manufacturers Automotive companies established in 1967 1967 establishments in West Germany German brands Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters teams FIA GT Championship teams 24 Hours of Le Mans teams

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Field Marshal William Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside, (6 May 1880 – 22 September 1959) was a senior officer of the British Army, who served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff during the first year of the Second World War. Ironside joined the Royal Artillery in 1899, and served throughout the Second Boer War. This was followed by a brief period spying on the German colonial forces in South-West Africa. Returning to regular duty, he served on the staff of the 6th Infantry Division during the first two years of the First World War, before being appointed to a position on the staff of the newly raised 4th Canadian Division in 1916. In 1918, he was given command of a brigade on the Western Front. In 1919, he was promoted to command the Allied intervention force in northern Russia. Ironside was then assigned to an Allied force occupying Turkey, and then to the British forces based in Persia in 1921. He was offered the post of the commander of British forces in Iraq, but was unable to take up the role due to injuries in a flying accident. He returned to the Army as Commandant of the Staff College, Camberley, where he advocated the ideas of J. F. C. Fuller, a proponent of mechanisation. He later commanded a division, and military districts in both Britain and India, but his youth and his blunt approach limited his career prospects, and after being passed over for the role of Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) in 1937 he became Governor of Gibraltar, a traditional staging post to retirement. He was recalled from "exile" in mid-1939, being appointed as Inspector-General of Overseas Forces, a role which led most observers to expect he would be given the command of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the outbreak of war. However, after some political manoeuvring, General Gort was given this command and Ironside was appointed as the new Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Ironside himself believed that he was temperamentally unsuited to the job, but felt obliged to accept it. In early 1940 he argued heavily for Allied intervention in Scandinavia, but this plan was shelved at the last minute when the Finnish-Soviet Winter War ended. During the invasion of Norway and the Battle of France he played little part; his involvement in the latter was limited by a breakdown in relations between him and Gort. He was replaced as CIGS at the end of May, and given a role to which he was more suited: Commander-in-Chief Home Forces, responsible for anti-invasion defences and for commanding the Army in the event of German landings. However, he served less than two months in this role before being replaced. After this, Ironside was promoted to Field Marshal and raised to the peerage as Baron Ironside. Lord Ironside retired to Morley Old Hall in Norfolk to write, and never again saw active service or held any official position. Early life Ironside was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 6 May 1880. His father, Surgeon-Major William Ironside of the Royal Horse Artillery, died shortly afterwards, leaving his widowed wife to bring up their son on a limited military pension. As the cost of living in the late nineteenth century was substantially lower in mainland Europe than in Britain, she travelled extensively around the Continent, where the young Edmund began learning various foreign languages. This grasp of language would become one of the defining features of his character; by middle age, he was fluent enough to officially interpret in seven, and was proficient in perhaps ten more. He was educated at schools in St Andrews before being sent to Tonbridge School in Kent for his secondary education; at the age of sixteen he left Tonbridge to attend a crammer, having not shown much academic promise, and was admitted to the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in January 1898 at the age of seventeen. At Woolwich he flourished, working hard at his studies and his sports; he took up boxing, and captained the rugby 2nd XV as well as playing for Scotland. He was built for both of these sports, six feet four inches tall and weighing seventeen stone (108 kg), for which he was nicknamed "Tiny" by his fellow students. The name stuck, and he was known by it for the rest of his life. Boer War After attending the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich he was commissioned into the army as a second lieutenant with the Royal Artillery on 25 June 1899. Later that year his unit, 44th Battery Royal Field Artillery, was despatched to South Africa. He fought throughout the Second Boer War being wounded three times, and was mentioned in despatches in 1901. He was also promoted lieutenant on 16 February 1901. At the end of the war in May 1902, he was a member of the small force which escorted Jan Smuts to the peace negotiations. He then disguised himself as an Afrikaans-speaking Boer, taking a job as a wagon driver working for the German colonial forces in South West Africa. This intelligence work ended unsuccessfully when he was identified, but managed to escape. This escapade later led to claims that he became the model for Richard Hannay, a character in the novels of John Buchan; Ironside was always amused by these novels when reading about Mr Standfast in the implausibly romantic setting of the passenger seat of an open-cockpit biplane flying from Iraq to Persia. He left Cape Town on the HMT Britannic in early October 1902, and arrived at Southampton later the same month. Ironside was subsequently posted to India, where he served with I Battery Royal Horse Artillery (RHA), and South Africa, with Y Battery RHA. He was promoted to captain in February 1908, appointed to the Staff in September of the same year, and then as a Brigade-Major in June 1909. He returned home in September 1912, in order to attend the Staff College, Camberley. First World War Ironside's two-year course at the Staff College, which he found unstimulating, was cut short by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914; on 5 August, he was confirmed in his appointment as a Staff Captain, and assigned to Boulogne-sur-Mer and then St. Nazaire, both large Army bases supporting the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). By some accounts, he was one of the first British officers to arrive in France. He was promoted to Major and attached to the newly arrived 6th Division at the end of October 1914, ranked as a General Staff Officer, Grade 3 (GSO3). He was promoted to temporary Lieutenant-Colonel and appointed GSO1 in March 1916. He had expected to be made GSO1 – Divisional Chief of Staff – to the 6th Division, but to his surprise he was assigned to the newly formed 4th Canadian Division. Ironside pushed for a hard training regime, intending to get the division to the front as quickly as possible and prevent it being broken up to feed reinforcements to the other three divisions of the Canadian Corps. Because of the inexperience of the divisional commander, Major-General David Watson – a volunteer soldier with little professional experience – he found himself almost commanding the division on occasions, noting in his memoirs that Watson regularly authorised Ironside's orders in his name. On its arrival in France in late 1916, the division participated at the end of the Battle of the Somme, before being moved north to prepare for the attack at Vimy Ridge. During the final phase of the fighting at Vimy, Ironside again was required to take unofficial command of the division, overruling an ambiguous order from Watson – who was out of contact at headquarters – to halt the attack, and personally ordering the leading battalions into action. He remained with the division through 1917, when it fought at the Battle of Passchendale, and in January 1918 was appointed to an administrative posting, as commandant of the Small Arms School, with the rank of acting Colonel. He quickly returned to the Western Front, however, when he was appointed to command 99th Brigade as temporary Brigadier-General at the end of March. Russia and Iran Ironside remained with 99th Brigade for only six months; in September 1918, he was attached to the Allied Expeditionary Force fighting the Bolsheviks in northern Russia, and in November given command of the force, retaining his temporary rank of Brigadier-General. This was his first independent command, and he threw himself fully into it; for over a year, he travelled continually along the Northern Dvina to keep control of his scattered international forces, at one point narrowly escaping assassination. However, the Red Army managed eventually to gain a superior position in the Civil War and in late 1919 he was forced to abandon the White Army to their fate. In November he handed command over to Henry Rawlinson, who would supervise the eventual withdrawal, and returned to Britain. Ironside was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, and promoted to substantive Major-General for his efforts; this made him one of the youngest Major-Generals in the British Army. In early 1920 he commanded a military mission which supervised the withdrawal of Romanian Forces left in Hungary after the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919, and in the summer was attached to the force occupying İzmit, Turkey, as it prepared to withdraw. His third overseas posting of the year was to Persia in late August, where – among other things – he appointed Reza Khan (after ousting the Russian officer Vsevolod Starosselsky and having his offered position declined by Sardar Homayoun) to command the élite Cossack Brigade; Reza Khan would later seize control of the country, and rule as Shah from 1925 to 1941. The precise level of British involvement in Reza Khan's coup remains a matter of historical debate, but it is almost certain that Ironside himself at least provided advice to the plotters. On his departure from Persia in 1921, the Shah awarded him the Order of the Lion and the Sun. After Persia, he attended the Cairo Conference, where Winston Churchill persuaded him to take command of the newly reorganised British force in Iraq; however, returning to Persia in April, the aircraft he was flying in crashed and he was invalided home after several months in hospital. Interwar period After recovering from his injuries on half-pay, Ironside returned to active duty as Commandant of the Staff College in May 1922. He spent a full four-year term there, running the college efficiently as well as publishing several articles and a book on the Battle of Tannenberg. Most importantly for his future career, he became the mentor of J. F. C. Fuller, who was appointed a lecturer at the College at the same time, and became a close acquaintance of Sir Basil Liddell-Hart. Fuller's views were deeply influential on Ironside, who became a supporter of reforming the Army as an élite armoured force with air support, and of forming a single central Ministry of Defence to control the services. He argued frequently over the need for faster modernisation and rearmament, and the problem of the 'old men' still filling the upper ranks of the army; in the end, he was reprimanded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Sir George Milne. After Camberley he was appointed to command 2nd Division in England, a post he held for two years with little effect or interest – he was frustrated by the task of training an infantry force with no modern equipment – and then sent to command the Meerut district, in India, in 1928. He enjoyed life in India, but found the military situation to be equally uninteresting; the equipment was old-fashioned, as were the regimental officers and the overall strategic plans. He was promoted to Lieutenant-General in March 1931, and left for England in May, where he returned to half-pay with the sinecure of Lieutenant of the Tower of London. He was then posted to India as Quartermaster-General in 1933, where he travelled extensively, crossing the country to visit regiments and oversee the Indianisation process. For all this, however, it was the best of a bad job; he was still far from the War Office, and unable to make significant impact on the army's preparation for a future war. Preparation for war He returned home in 1936, recently promoted to full General, to lead Eastern Command, one of the corps-level regional commands in the United Kingdom, responsible for a single Regular division and three Territorial Army divisions. Here, he realised that a European War would come sooner rather than later, and that the Army was in a parlous state to defend the country. However, he found that as with his earlier posts, he could achieve little in Eastern Command – the most important decisions being made in Whitehall. He himself seemed to lose his opportunity for higher office in 1937, when he was rebuked over his mishandling of a mobile force in the annual exercises; until this point, he had been considered a possible candidate as Chief of the Imperial General Staff, but was dropped from consideration in favour of Lord Gort, whom Ironside considered unfit for the job. The Secretary of State for War, Leslie Hore-Belisha, gave him official notice that he was deemed too old for the post, aged 57. Thus, he was appointed an Aide-de-Camp to HM the King in October, a purely ceremonial position, and early in 1938 accepted the offer of Governor of Gibraltar, generally seen as a quiet role where to retire. He was helped to accept Gibraltar by the suggestion that, in the event of war, he could be transferred to command the forces in the Middle East; as he believed no major force could usefully be sent to France, this seemed to him likely to be the main focus of British attention in the war. He took up the governorship in November 1938, and threw himself into preparing the colony for war; here, finally, he had free rein. Under his tenure, the defences were strengthened and the garrison prepared for a long siege. In December 1938, only a month after he had taken up the post, Hore-Belisha had begun to consider the possibility of recalling Ironside to become Inspector-General of Overseas Forces. The position gave him overall responsibility for the readiness of forces based outside the United Kingdom, and many at the War Office worried that he might interpret this as a precursor to being given formal command of the Expeditionary Force on the outbreak of war. However, after some debate, Hore-Belisha went ahead and offered Ironside the position in May, appointing a corresponding Inspector-General of Home Forces at the same time, both under Lord Gort's command. The decision to recall Ironside may have been helped by the fact that Hore-Belisha was particularly reliant on the advice of Liddell Hart, an old acquaintance of Ironside's, who was already beginning to fall out with Gort. As expected, Ironside chose to interpret the posting as indicating that he was the presumptive Commander-in-Chief, and soon began to clash with Lord Gort over their respective powers. Whilst Gort was nominally in the more senior position, Ironside had seniority of rank and a far more dominant personality, and had concluded several months earlier that Gort was "out of his depth" as CIGS; he is unlikely to have shown much deference. He held the post of Inspector for a few months, visiting Poland in July 1939 to meet with the Polish High Command. Whilst his sympathetic manner reassured the Poles, the visit may have unintentionally given the impression that Britain was intending to provide direct military assistance. He returned able to report that the Polish Government was unlikely to provoke Germany into war, but warned that the country would be quickly overrun and that no Eastern Front was likely to exist for long. His warnings, however, were broadly ignored. Second World War His appointment on 3 September 1939 as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) came as something of a surprise to Ironside; he had been led to believe he would be appointed as the Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), and indeed had already despatched his Assistant to Aldershot to begin preparing his headquarters. The reorganisation was politically driven; Hore-Belisha had fallen out heavily with Viscount Gort during 1939, and the outbreak of war provided an excellent pretext for Gort to leave Whitehall. This left the post of CIGS vacant, and after heavy lobbying by Churchill, Ironside was chosen over Sir John Dill, then the General Officer Commanding, Aldershot Command. As CIGS, Ironside adopted a policy of rapidly building up a strong force in France, aiming to put some twenty divisions in the field. However, this force would be broadly defensive, acting to support the French Army, and he aimed to influence the course of the war by forming a second strong force in the Middle East, which would be able to operate in peripheral operations in the Balkans. He strongly supported the development of a close-support air force, preferably under Army command, but at the same time argued that when a German offensive began in the West, the RAF should throw its main strength into strategic bombing of the Ruhr rather than attacking the forward units. Norway Ironside's enthusiasm for "peripheral" operations led him to plans for Allied intervention in Scandinavia; rather than the limited approach of simply mining Norwegian waters to stop Swedish iron-ore shipments to Germany, he argued for landing a strong force in northern Norway and physically occupying the Swedish orefields. If successful, this would allow the resupply of Finland – then fighting the Soviet Union, and aligned loosely with the Allied forces – as well as interdicting Germany's ore supply, and could potentially force Germany to commit troops on a new and geographically unfavourable front. Both Ironside and Churchill supported the plan enthusiastically, but it met with opposition from many other officers, including from Gort – who saw his forces in France being depleted of resources – and from Cyrill Newall, the Chief of the Air Staff. Planning continued through the winter of 1939-1940, and by March 1940 a force of around three divisions was prepared to sail. On 12 March, however, Finland sued for peace, and the expedition had to be abandoned. Following the German invasion of Norway in April 1940 as part of Operation Weserübung, the Norwegian Campaign of April–June 1940 saw significant British forces committed to action for the first time in the Second World War. Flaws in the command system quickly began to show. War Cabinet meetings dragged on at great length to little effect, as did meetings of the Chiefs of Staff, both to Ironside's great frustration. He also found it hard to cope with Churchill's mood swings and insistence on micromanagement of the campaign, and a gulf began to grow between the two. Ironside's main contribution to resolving the Norwegian campaign was to insist on a withdrawal when the situation worsened, and he pushed through the evacuation of central Norway at the end of April despite ministerial ambivalence. Battle of France Ironside himself was sent to France in May 1940 to liaise with the BEF and the French in an attempt to halt the German advance. He was not well-qualified for this task, having a deep dislike and distrust for the French, whom he considered "absolutely unscrupulous in everything". At a conference in Lens he clashed with the French Generals Billotte and Blanchard, whom he considered defeatists. He wrote: "I lost my temper and shook Billotte by the button of his tunic. The man is completely defeated." Although Billotte was supposed to be co-ordinating the British, French and Belgian armies' operations in Belgium, Ironside took over the job himself, ordering Gort and Blanchard to launch a counter-attack against the Germans at Arras. This attack achieved some local success, but the German onslaught proved unstoppable. The French Commander-in-Chief, General Maxime Weygand, so resented Ironside's actions that he said he would "like to box Ironside's ears." Ironside, despairing of the French Army's unwillingness to fight, accepted Gort's view that evacuation of the BEF was the only answer. Home Defence In his diary on the afternoon of 25 May, Ironside wrote that "I am now concentrating upon the Home Defence ... [The Cabinet] want(s) a change to some man well-known in England. They are considering my appointment". That night, he spoke to Churchill, offering to take up the new post, and – again from his diary: His appointment as Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces was announced to the public on 27 May, succeeding Sir Walter Kirke. Ironside was succeeded as CIGS by his deputy, Sir John Dill. In his new command, Ironside commanded a force which amounted – on paper – to fifteen Territorial Infantry divisions, a single armoured division, fifty-seven home-defence battalions, and the Local Defence Volunteers (later the Home Guard). However, all of these were deficient in training and organisation, as the operational units had already been sent to France. They were also lacking in equipment; the force as a whole had almost no modern artillery or anti-tank guns, and the armoured division had just a small number of light tanks. The deficiencies with equipment led to an overall lack of mobility, which coupled with the limited training of the units meant that very few were capable of organised offensive counter-attacks against an invading force. As a result, the only way they could practically be used would be to commit them to static defence; Ironside planned to steadily pull units away from the coast and into a central mobile reserve, but this was not possible until they were trained and equipped for the role. He threw himself into the details of the strategy, laying out plans for the static defence of village strongpoints by the Home Guard, patrols of "Ironsides" armoured cars to strengthen the divisions, and light artillery mounted on trucks as improvised tank destroyers. He agreed to release two divisions for the Second BEF in early June, but was dubious about Churchill's decision to bring home troops from the Middle East and India; even after the fall of France and the potential collapse of the defences in Britain, he still held to his pre-war position that "[it] is essential to hold the East firmly, whatever happens here". By mid-June, he had begun to collect a scanty mobile reserve – the 8th RTR, with infantry tanks, and six regiments of armoured cars beginning to form – and the pillboxes and coastal defences were being prepared, though he emphasised to the local commanders that the latter "are only meant as delaying lines, and are meant to give the mobile columns a chance of coming up to the threatened points." The fall of France led to a brief interlude where the Cabinet debated sending Ironside on a diplomatic mission to meet Charles Noguès, the French commander in North Africa and a personal acquaintance of Ironside's, but decided to retain him in Britain and send Lord Gort instead. On 25 June, he was called to the War Cabinet to brief them on the plans for Home Defence; his system of defence in depth provided for: A defensive "crust" along the coast, able to fight off small raids, give immediate warning of attack, and delay any landings. Home Guard roadblocks at crossroads, valleys, and other choke points, to stop German armoured columns penetrating inland. Static fortified stop lines sealing the Midlands and London off from the coast, and dividing the coastal area into defensible sectors A central corps-sized reserve to deal with a major breakthrough Local mobile columns to deal with local attacks and parachute landings The plan was "on the whole" approved by the Cabinet, and by the Chiefs of Staff later in the week. He was clear in his diaries that he saw the static focus as an undesirable option – "[the] eternal preaching of the defensive and taking cover behind anti-tank articles has been the curse of our tactics" – but that it was the only practical way to make use of untrained and badly-equipped forces. By early July, he was optimistic that more troops could soon be pulled out of static positions and used in a mobile role, with the Home Guard taking over the local defences, but strongly resisted orders from Churchill to pull divisions out of the coastal areas before they could be effectively replaced. However, criticism of the "Ironside plan" was soon manifest. On 26 June (only a day after the plan's approval) at a meeting of the Vice-Chiefs of Staff, Air Marshal Richard Peirse pointed out that many of the RAF's main operational airfields would be overrun by an invader before they reached Ironside's principal stop line, the "GHQ Line". The conclusion of the meeting was that the plan was "completely unsound". Although Ironside managed to placate the Chiefs of Staff, discontent amongst his subordinates was growing; one divisional commander wrote "We have become pill-box mad". There was widespread concern that troops were spending their time constructing defences rather than on the training which they desperately needed. Another critic was Major-General Bernard Montgomery, who later wrote that he found himself "in complete disagreement with the general approach to the defence of Britain and refused to apply it." When Churchill visited Montgomery's 3rd Infantry Division on 2 July, he described to the prime minister how his division, which was fully equipped except for transport, could be made into a mobile formation by the requisitioning of municipal buses, able to strike at the enemy beachheads rather than strung out along the coast as ordered. Ironside's credibility was not improved by his association with "Boney" Fuller, a senior member of the British Union of Fascists. Finally, on 17 July, Churchill had a long drive with Lieutenant-General Alan Brooke, the commander of Southern Command, whose views on creating mobile reserves held close to possible landing sites were in accordance with his own. On 19 July, Ironside was summoned to the War Office and informed that he was to be replaced by Brooke as C-in-C Home Forces, effective immediately. The formal reason was that the Cabinet wished to have someone with recent combat experience in command, and Ironside accepted the dismissal gracefully – "I was quite prepared to be released. I had done my best ... I can't complain. Cabinets have to make decisions in times of stress. I don't suppose that Winston liked doing it, for he is always loyal to his friends." On his arrival at Home Forces HQ, Brooke was astonished that Ironside had not stayed to apprise him of the situation; neither had he left him any notes except for a brief memo to say that he had arranged for Brooke to use his staff car. Retirement and writing At the end of August, a month and a half after his resignation as Commander-in-Chief of Home Forces, Ironside was appointed a field marshal . He was raised to the peerage in the New Year Honours, on 29 January 1941, as "Baron Ironside of Archangel and of Ironside in the County of Aberdeen", and retired to Morley Old Hall in Norfolk with his family. He never received another military posting, and ostracised by the Army establishment, rarely visited London, and never spoke in the House of Lords. He turned to lecturing and writing books, including a study of the Archangel expedition, and farming his estates in Norfolk. After almost two decades in retirement, having survived a driving accident, he was injured in a fall at his home; he was taken to Queen Alexandra Military Hospital in London where he died on 22 September 1959, aged 79. His coffin was escorted to Westminster Abbey with full military honours, and he was buried near his home at Hingham, Norfolk. He is commemorated by a memorial plaque in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. Ironside kept a diary throughout his life, starting as a subaltern at the turn of the century, with the goal of keeping a clear recollection of what had happened during the day and allowing him to reflect on the day's events. These were written directly into bound foolscap volumes, a page or more a day, each night; throughout his life, he totalled some twelve volumes and the best part of a million words. He did not ask for these to be destroyed on his death, though their content was sometimes quite contentious, but did write a will – in 1930 – asking that they not be published. In the late 1950s, however, a former colleague persuaded him to allow extracts to be published as part of an account of the run-up to the Second World War, although he died shortly before it saw print. This was published as The Ironside Diaries: 1937–1940, edited by Colonel Roderick Macleod and Denis Kelly, in 1962; the material was selected from May 1937 to his retirement in June 1940, and published as numbered daily entries with editorial notes. A second volume, High Road to Command: the diaries of Major-General Sir Edmund Ironside, 1920–1922, was published in 1972, edited by his son; this covered the period from 1920 to 1922, during his service in the Middle East. The book was assembled by Ironside shortly before his death and, whilst it drew heavily on the diaries, it was written in a more conventional narrative form rather than as a strict day-by-day account, with editorial remarks kept to a minimum. Honours Ribbon bar: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in the 1938 King's Birthday Honours (9 June 1938); (KCB: 1 August 1919) Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) on 1 January 1918. Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in the 1915 King's Birthday Honours (23 June 1915). Knight of the Most Venerable Order of Saint John in June 1939. Mentioned in despatches (10 September 1901, 4 December 1914, 22 June 1915, 15 June 1916, 15 May 1917, 11 December 1917, 20 December 1918, 21 May 1920) Queen's South Africa Medal (clasps: Cape Colony, Orange Free State, Transvaal) King's South Africa Medal (clasps: South Africa 1901, South Africa 1902) 1914 Star British War Medal Victory Medal General Service Medal (1918) North-West Persia Clasp Virtuti Militari (Poland) Cross of St. George (Russia) Knight of the Order of St Anna (Russia) Order of the Lion and the Sun (Persia, 1921) Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd Class (6 February 1922, Japan). Grand Croix de la Légion d'Honneur in 1946 (France), previously Officier. Croix de Guerre avec Palme (France). Order of St. Vladimir (Russia) Baron Ironside of Archangel and of Ironside in the County of Aberdeen, in the 1941 New Year Honours (29 January 1941). Notes Bibliography Articles Primary and secondary sources Official despatches Operations carried out by the Allied Forces under my Command during the period from 1 October 1918, to 11 August 1919 in Operations carried out by the Allied Forces under my Command during the period from 11 August 1919, to 27 September 1919. in Books Other External links British Army Officers 1939−1945 Generals of World War II www.burkespeerage.com 1880 births 1959 deaths Military personnel from Edinburgh People educated at Tonbridge School Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley Royal Artillery officers Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War British Army personnel of World War I British field marshals of World War II Scottish soldiers Scottish diarists British spies Chiefs of the Imperial General Staff Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Knights of the Order of St John Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France) Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Recipients of the Virtuti Militari Recipients of the Cross of St. George Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir British Army personnel of the Second Boer War British Army personnel of the Russian Civil War Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom British Empire in World War II War Office personnel in World War II Commandants of the Staff College, Camberley Peers created by George VI

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The Mansions is a heritage-listed row of six terrace houses at 40 George Street (corner of Margaret Street), Brisbane City, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by G.H.M. Addison and built in 1889 by RE Burton. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 August 1992. The architectural style is Victorian with Italianate influences. History The Mansions, built in 1889 and located near Parliament House on the George Street ridge at the corner of Margaret Street, was designed by architect George Henry Male Addison as six attached elite masonry houses. Constructed by RE Burton for £11,700, it was an investment for three Queensland politicians - Boyd Dunlop Morehead, then Premier; William Pattison, Treasurer; and John Stevenson, member for Clermont - during a decade of enormous population growth and land development in Brisbane. Since the 1820s, the north bank and adjacent ridgeline of the Brisbane River, now containing William and George Streets, has always featured a concentration of government and associated activities and uses. Over the period of the Moreton Bay penal settlement, buildings constructed along this ridgeline, were used by government officials for "accommodation, administration and control". When the settlement was closed in 1842, the remnant penal infrastructure was used by surveyors as a basis for the layout for the new town of Brisbane. Set at right angles to the river, the prisoner's barracks determined Queen Street, while the line of buildings along the ridge determined William Street. Streets surveyed parallel to these streets including George Street, formed Brisbane's rectangular grid. While a range of buildings and activities occurred along George and William Streets from the 1840s, the government maintained its dominant presence in the area. At some sites (such as the former Commissariat Store and Brisbane Botanic Gardens) earlier uses were continued. The establishment phase following the separation of Queensland in 1859 saw the new colonial government reserve land parcels and construct a range of buildings to facilitate its functions. The building of Government House (now Old Government House) and Parliament House along the eastern end of the George Street alignment in the 1860s firmly entrenched the physical reality of a government precinct in the area. The siting of Parliament House had a pronounced effect on the built environment around lower George Street. Many of Queensland's early politicians were pastoralists, a reflection of their economic dominance in the colony. Together with a growing workforce of public servants, these politicians required accommodation when in Brisbane. From the 1860s to the 1880s, a range of buildings, many built by, or for politicians, were built to address these needs. Throughout the 1880s Brisbane was transforming into a colonial city. Many of Queensland's immigrants remained in the capital, swelling the population from almost 40,000 in 1881 to well over 90,000 in 1891. This growth stimulated building, municipal organisation, amenities and services, and cultural and leisure outlets. The flourishing building activity caused Brisbane's practising architects to treble in number, and builders and contractors to rise from 16 in 1882 to 87 in 1887. Brisbane's centre sprouted a host of impressive new stone buildings including the Customs House, additions to the Government Printing Office, the first wing of the Treasury Building and the Alice Street facade of Parliament House. The number of inhabited dwellings in the capital almost doubled between 1881 and 1891 from 5,814 to 10,321, causing the town to overshoot its old boundaries. Consequently, land speculation was extensive and the capital value of metropolitan land rose towards its peak in 1890, a level not approximated again until 1925. The land on which The Mansions was later erected, lots 1 and 2 of Portion 38, was originally purchased as Town Lot 56 in 1852 by land speculator James Gibbon. By 1863 he had subdivided the land into three lots, but lots 1 and 2 remained vacant. The land was transferred in 1882 to William Williams, a successful Brisbane businessman associated with the Australian Steam Navigation Shipping Company. He in turn sold the vacant land in August 1888 to Pattison, Morehead and Stevenson who were members of parliament, business associates and friends. BD Morehead (1843-1905) was a pastoralist, businessman and politician who served in both the Queensland Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council. With AB Buchanan he established BD Morehead and Co. in 1873 which comprised a mercantile and trading business and a stock and station agency. He experienced financial disaster in the 1893 economic crisis. William Pattison (1830–96), a businessman, mine director and politician, served in the Queensland Legislative Assembly between 1886 and 1893. He was one of the original shareholders and later chairman of directors of the Mount Morgan Gold Mining Company but was damaged politically and economically by the 50% collapse of the company's share price from mid-1888. John Stevenson was a pastoralist who bought into the firm of BD Morehead and Co., managing the stock and station business until 1896 when he formed the business J Stevenson and Co. He was a member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly from 1875 to 1893. These three men engaged architect George Henry Male Addison to design a row of houses for the George Street site. Addison had moved from Melbourne to Brisbane and established a branch of Oakden, Addison and Kemp, which in 1888 won the competition to build a new exhibition hall for the National Agricultural and Industrial Association on Gregory Terrace (now known as the Old Museum Building). Addison was an accomplished designer, his buildings stylistically eclectic and more ornately and highly finished than any previously seen in the city. The distinctive use of face brickwork relieved with stone or rendered detailing and steep dominant roof forms are characteristics of his work. Other Addison-designed buildings include the Albert Street Uniting Church in Brisbane and the Strand Theatre in Toowoomba Addison's skills and distinctive style of domestic architecture were recognised and attracted business from Queensland's leading professionals. Noteworthy houses designed by him are Cliveden Mansions in Brisbane; Kirkston in Brisbane; Oonooraba in Maryborough, and Ralahyne, and Cumbooquepa both in South Brisbane. Addison called tenders for the construction of The Mansions viz "city residences in George street" in the Brisbane Courier on 29 September 1888, closing on 15 October. RE Burton's tender of £11,600 was accepted. The Mansions was designed to be impressive and aesthetically pleasing, using high quality materials, generous use of ornamentation and careful composition of building forms, the six individual houses being unified by the overriding use of arcades and the arrangement, in alternating pairs, of entries and roof dormers. The design was well suited to the climate, the arcades providing shade without impeding ventilation. Soon after the residences were completed in late 1889 The Boomerang described them as:"unique in their way, being built after the Queen Anne style of red brick with stone facing. They have been constructed to suit the climate. The mantelpieces are very rich and were specially imported. In fact, its as fine a terrace as any in Australia".Addison published a drawing of The Mansions in 1890 in the Building and Engineering Journal of Australia, describing them as:"convenient and roomy having three reception rooms and ten bedrooms, exclusive of servants" quarters. The front is of brick, relieved with Oomaroo [sic] stone, the total cost £11,700...".The Mansions as terraced houses were a type of land use that was uncommon in colonial Queensland due to the enactment of the Undue Subdivision of Land Prevention Act 1885. This legislation enforced a minimum lot size of and a minimum frontage of effectively stopping the building of terraced housing in Queensland except as a rental investment. Early pre-legislation versions of terraced housing in Brisbane included Harris Terrace and Hodgson's Terrace (demolished) in George Street; Athol Place in Spring Hill (1860s); Princess Row in Petrie Terrace (1863) and a group of four houses () in Wellington Road, Petrie Terrace. Terraces built around 1885 or afterwards included Byrne Terrace on Wickham Terrace (1885–86, architects John Hall and Son, demolished); O'Keefe Terrace on Petrie Terrace (1886–87, architect Andrea Stombuco and Son); Cook Terrace (1889, possibly Taylor and Richer) on Coronation Drive; Cross Terrace in Red Hill (1886); Petrie Mansions on Petrie Terrace (1887–88); Brighton Terrace in West End (1890 John Beauchamp Nicholson); and two terrace houses on Wellington Street, Petrie Terrace (1894/95). Of these, The Mansions was the grandest and most ambitious architecturally. Elite tenants began to occupy the well-located residences from 1889 but the economic downturn which culminated in the 1893 depression denied full occupancy. Although the Queensland economy experienced problems from the mid-1880s, the downturn only became apparent from 1889 after local confidence waned and British investment funds dried up. The building industry was affected first and most severely, then depression spread to other sectors of the economy. The severest years of the depression in Queensland were from 1891 to 1893. Brisbane's economic experiences followed those of the Queensland economy overall but with different emphases. The phenomenal growth of the 1880s had culminated in widespread speculation in land and buildings, which created an excess capacity of offices and dwellings. Brisbane's descent into depression began with a crash in the construction and building materials industries and the collapse of building societies towards the end of 1891 after the climax of its land and building boom. Land and rent values began dropping in 1890, reaching their lowest level in 1893-1894. Empty dwellings became a common sight in the city and suburbs - some deserted while other recently built ones had never been occupied. All three investors in The Mansions suffered severe financial losses during this depression. By 30 November 1889 two of the villas were occupied by members of parliament, William Pattison and the Hon. Hume Black. Advertisements in the Brisbane Courier for tenants to let both the "George Street Mansions and Harris Terrace" on the opposite corner of Margaret Street appeared in the Brisbane Courier during December 1889. Other early residents were doctors - in 1890 Dr Fourness Simmons and a Dr Bennett. The 1891 Post Office Directory listed four houses as unoccupied and two occupied by doctors, EM Owens and A Bennett. In December 1891, Dr Lilian Cooper, Queensland's first woman doctor and Australia's first female surgeon, established her consulting rooms in The Mansions and resided there for several years after the 1893 floods. Pattison moved from The Mansions in July 1891 and a Mrs Prince, previously of Glencairn, Wickham Terrace advertised that she had leased:"the Hon. W Pattison's late residence, The Mansion, George Street' and would be "pleased to receive applications for Accommodation. The buildings are situated close to Parliament House and are therefore highly suited to members".In 1892 The Mansions housed a Mrs Probyn who resided in "The Grange" (possibly a boarding house) and which was replaced the following year by Elizabeth Bird's boarding house. Between 1896 and 1954 The Mansions was used primarily as boarding houses, which operated under various names. Guests included professional families such as barrister and later University of Queensland Registrar Frank Cumbrae-Stewart and family from 1906, the Commissioner of Public Health John Simeon Colebrook Elkington and wife in 1912, District Court Judge Allan Wight McNaughton and electrical engineer William Muir Nelson. Some doctors such as Arthur Benjamin Carvosso continued to practice from The Mansions. Despite ownership of The Mansions changing a number of times, this did not result in changes of use. The property was transferred to the Queensland National Bank in August 1898 and was sold in 1912 to Gerard Ralph Gore and Christiana Gore, pastoralists on the Darling Downs, in order to recoup the loan for its construction. In 1925 the property was sold again but due to the owner's death quickly transferred to the Queensland Trustees. In 1947 the property was sold to three new owners, two of whom ran three boarding houses using the property's six villas. The boarding houses (from the Alice Street end) were named Lonsdale (24-26 George Street), Glenmore (28-30) and Binna Burra (32-44). In 1954 The Mansions was offered at public auction, but passed in when the reserve was not reached. Subsequently, the Queensland Government purchased the property for use as government offices as part of its acquisition of buildings in George Street under what was then officially known as the "George Street Plan". A shortage of accommodation for administrative offices in State-owned buildings had been identified immediately after World War II when the Queensland Government began to expand their activities considerably in Brisbane city. Most public servants were then located in the Treasury and Executive Buildings in George Street and in offices in Anzac Square. The shortage of office accommodation in the Brisbane central business district, and the need to address future requirements, led to a phase of governmental property acquisition in the city. The purchase of properties on George and William Streets between the Government Printing Office and Parliament House was a key focus, in addition to other acquisitions on Charlotte, Mary and Margaret Streets. Properties in William Street were purchased in 1946-1947 and the expenditure in 1954 on properties for this purpose in George, William and Margaret Streets, including The Mansions, was £60,500. Despite their varying condition and former uses, many of these newly acquired buildings were quickly adapted for government use. At this time the Department of Public Works prepared measured drawings of The Mansions. "Lonsdale" and "Glenmore" were described as:"a three storey double brick building...conducted as a residential and compris[ing] 32 rooms, 16 of which are let as flatettes and 16 as serviced rooms".Linings and ceilings were plaster except at the top floor where ceilings were beaded pine. Floors were mainly pine. There were 10 fireplaces of which two were marble and the remainder "ornamental timber". There was one "set of 4 foot [1.2m] wide twin cedar staircases in excellent condition". Four bathrooms, two shower rooms, two laundries and six sewerage units served the property. The condition of the properties was considered to be fair. At the rear of the land, there were two double storey brick dormitories and a garage, which were of much inferior construction and finish to the main building. Conversion of The Mansions into government offices cost £45,054. Drawings prepared for the conversion show that the general configuration of the houses was changed. Walls were removed, new doorways made, fireplaces blocked, internal partitions installed, concrete floors for toilets added and all stairs except one at the rear of no. 28-30 were removed or altered. Original details including dado panelling in the halls and dining rooms, and leadlight sidelights on the front doors were removed. Evidence of the original asymmetrical arrangement of bay windows at ground floor level was lost except in no. 24-26 and new load-bearing partitions were installed on the first and second floor levels above the dining rooms. A range of government departments occupied The Mansions until the 1970s. The Government Statistician's Office was located on the ground floor from and by 1961 the Medical boards, Licensing Commission, Prices Branch, Department of Public Works and Probation Office occupied the first floor. Replanning of the Medical boards' offices took place in 1967 and remodelling of the ground floor for the Comptroller-General of Prisons occurred in 1972. The consolidation of government ownership and usage along George and William streets led to a number of schemes in being investigated by the state to further the development of a "government precinct". By 1965, a masterplan had been developed involving the demolition of all buildings between the Executive Building (Land Administration Building) and Parliament House, to enable the construction of three high-rise office buildings in a "plaza setting". In November 1965 the government announced the proposed demolition of its George Street office buildings. A new Executive Building was completed in 1971 as part of this plan (scheduled for demolition in 2017 as part of the Queen's Wharf Redevelopment). However, by the early 1970s this plan for the precinct was considered no longer suitable and a number of other proposals for the area were explored. A 1974 "George Street Masterplan" involved lower rise buildings spread out over greater areas and the demolition of the Bellevue Hotel and The Mansions. A major influence in ultimately shaping the layout of the area during the 1970s was the growing community support for the retention of older buildings within the government precinct. In 1973 the National Trust of Queensland began a public campaign to save both The Mansions and its next-door neighbour in George Street, the Bellevue Hotel, from demolition under the Queensland Government's "George Street Masterplan". The campaign highlighted the government-related associations and links between buildings, their architectural qualities, and aesthetic contributions to the area in submissions to the government and in the public sphere. In 1973, a green ban was imposed on The Mansions by the Builders Labourers Federation to stop its destruction to make an office block, along with green bans on Queensland Club and Bellevue Hotel. The unannounced June 1974 removal of the balconies of the Bellevue Hotel was a deliberate action by the Queensland Government to degrade the visual appearance of the area, and drew further attention to the conservation cause. Ultimately the Bellevue Hotel was demolished in April 1979 after Cabinet adopted a recommended schedule of demolition work to further the development of the government precinct. The Bellevue Hotel was to be demolished, but The Mansions and the original section of Harris Terrace were to be retained, renovated and adapted. On 21 April, three days after this decision, the Bellevue Hotel was demolished in the early hours of the morning, a notorious event in the history of heritage conservation in Queensland causing a furore of public complaint. The Mansions servants' wings and stables were demolished later in 1979 in accordance with the Cabinet decision. However, this did not cause a complete loss of the area to the rear of The Mansions, which may still reveal archaeological information about foundations and material culture related to servants' occupation of this area of the site. Subsequently, several schemes were prepared for the reconstruction and conservation of The Mansions. Measured drawings of the remaining sections of the building were prepared and exteriors photographed. Plans for the renovations and alterations were prepared by Lund Hutton Ryan Architects in 1980 and in 1982 further plans for the restoration were prepared by Conrad and Gargett in association with the Department of Public Works. At this time it was reported that there were problems with rising damp; the existing roof framing was generally sound; none of the original staircases survived; all internal walls were plastered brick or plaster and lathe on timber framing; the few original ceilings on the ground and first floors were plaster and lathe while on the second floor they were tongue and groove pine; some original skirtings, architraves, cornices and ceiling roses remained; some original fire surrounds and grates survived; many original doors and windows survived but were in disrepair; and hardware had been changed. A final renovation scheme was prepared then carried out in 1983-1984. This development removed most of the 1950s fit-out as well as removing original material, reconstructing features and adding new features such as a lift and air conditioning plant. A transverse corridor was created by enclosing parts of the rear courtyards in glass requiring reconfiguration of the rear verandahs. Stairs and toilets were installed in the second reception room at the ground floor level. Walls which formed the small front room at the first floor level were removed. All the ceilings and the remaining evidence of the original off centre bay layout of no. 24-26 at ground floor level and the surviving dining room fireplace in no. 40 were removed. Castings of ceiling roses were installed throughout the rooms. Most of the wall plaster was removed. Most door and window joinery was reconstructed. New stairs were constructed using detail and parts from the original but in a new configuration. The roof sheeting was replaced, new finials constructed and the rear verandahs rebuilt. New dormer windows at roof level were constructed facing south-west over the new rear verandahs. Most of the ground floor and second floor ceiling framing and some of the roof framing was replaced. All floors were re-laid with plywood and hearths removed, concrete slabs were laid in wet areas, tie downs were installed and new ceramic tile paving was laid on verandah floors. On 28 April 1986 Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen officially opened the Government Precinct Development incorporating the State Works Centre, the renovated Harris Terrace and The Mansions. After the redevelopment, The Mansions housed a variety of professional offices and exclusive specialist retail stores. A restaurant also operated in the building. Since this refurbishment only minor alterations have occurred to the buildings, apart from updating of services and the provision of disability access. A freestanding roof was constructed next to the south-east rear verandah of the house at the Alice Street end for the restaurant tenant in 1988. In 1990 there was a proposal to sell The Mansions with the Port Office and Smellies building but this did not proceed. In 2002, the Mansions was featured in a television advertisement for the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, which starred Steve Irwin. In 2005 timber decking and ramps were added in Queen's Place for access at the Alice Street end. In 2015, it was announced that The Mansions would be restored and used as an up-market tea house, dining and bar, and serviced apartments as part of the Queen's Wharf Redevelopment. Description The Mansions is a three-storeyed brick and stone terrace on the corner of Margaret and George Street, Brisbane. The building stands in an urban context, on a high ridge of land, with open landscaped space behind and beside it. The precinct is dominated by mid-to-late nineteenth and early twentieth century state government-related buildings including the nearby Parliament House, Queensland Club, Harris Terrace, the former Government Printing Office, former Land Administration Building, and the former Treasury Building. It makes a strong contribution to the George and Margaret Streets streetscapes as a prominent, decorative and striking form. The Mansions is a face brick structure with limestone dressings and a painted corrugated steel roof. It sits back slightly from the George Street alignment behind a brick pier fence with wrought iron panels. However, it is built to the Margaret Street alignment. The building is visibly separated into six houses unified by the facade - a deep arcade of arches on the ground and first floors along both street fronts. The second floor is partially incorporated within the roof space behind a decorative parapet. Each house has an octagonal bay projecting onto the arcade on both levels that is carried through onto the roof as a multi-faced hip perpendicular to the main roof. Although fully cohesive, the design is perceptibly five houses facing George Street that are mirrors of each other in plan with a sixth house, on the corner, primarily facing Margaret Street that is of an individual layout and superior scale. The sixth house has two octagonal bays and they are larger and project fully to the street alignment. The entrance to the sixth house is from Margaret Street. The building is designed in a Victorian style with Italianate influences. The arcade is decoratively treated. Short cast iron colonettes (thin columns) have Ionic order capitals incorporating garland swags, carved limestone panels, and entrances accentuated by triangular pediments. Two sculpted limestone cats sit atop the parapet of the George Street facade. The white details and cat sculptures were rendered in Oamaru limestone imported from New Zealand. Wings with timber verandahs on their ground and first floors extend off the rear and are separated by courtyards. Rear walls feature cement render indicating the profile of demolished service wings. The interior of the building is considerably altered. Room layouts indicate original separate tenancies but openings in the party walls now connect them. Fittings, though ornate, are reproductions and suspended ceilings conceal air-conditioning ducts. A lift and other modern facilities are also installed. Heritage listing The Mansions was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 August 1992 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history. The Mansions (1889) is important in demonstrating the evolution of urban development in colonial Queensland as a result of the 1880s land boom, especially in the capital city Brisbane. It demonstrates the pattern of development of the Brisbane CBD with lower George Street as a prestigious residential area associated with parliament and the site of professional offices from the 1860s. The Mansions is a distinctive example of this residential development of lower George Street. It also demonstrates, through its purchase and refit for government offices, the development of lower George Street as a government office precinct post World War II. The survival of The Mansions, despite 1960s plans for its demolition, demonstrates how increased public concern about the preservation of heritage buildings influenced government redevelopment plans during the 1970s and 1980s. The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage. The Mansions demonstrates nineteenth century terraced housing - a form of housing, which was uncommon and is now rare in Queensland. The building is a distinctive and exceptional example of prestigious, late nineteenth century terraced housing. The place has potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of Queensland's history. The Mansions has potential to contribute to a greater understanding of Queensland's history. Potential exists at the rear of The Mansions for archaeological materials including footings and foundations associated with the former servants' and kitchen wings, and objects and refuse commonly found within domestic contexts, particularly ceramic, glass and personal items. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. The Mansions is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of late nineteenth century, terraced housing. Defining elements of this style of housing include its shared dividing walls, repetition of form and linear house plan. Comprising six residences, the building is a fine and rare Queensland example of prestigious, late nineteenth century terrace housing and exemplifies the urban lifestyle experienced by affluent Queenslanders of this period. The Mansions are also an excellent example of the work of George Henry Male Addison, a designer who made an important contribution to Queensland's built environment. Stylistically these highly finished and ornate terrace houses are unlike any others in Queensland but are characteristic of Addison's work as an accomplished designer achieving maximum effect with roof form and face brickwork relieved with stone detailing. The place is important because of its aesthetic significance. The Mansions is important for its architectural attributes. The skilful and complex composition of face brickwork, stone detailing, shady arcaded verandahs, integrated gardens and fencing, and complex roof form are of aesthetic beauty and make a strong contribution to the George and Margaret Streets streetscape and to the government precinct in George and William Streets. The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons. The Mansions has a strong association for its cultural heritage significance with Queenslanders concerned about heritage issues. It was the focus of the National Trust of Queensland's campaign to save the Belle Vue Hotel and The Mansions during the 1970s, which had wide public support and resulted in The Mansions not being demolished. Newspaper, film, magazine and journal articles from the period demonstrate this association. Gallery References Attribution External links Queensland Heritage Register Heritage of Brisbane George Street, Brisbane Margaret Street, Brisbane 1889 establishments in Australia Houses completed in 1889 Houses in Brisbane Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register Green bans

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Asian Latin Americans or Latinasians are Latin Americans of full or partial Asian descent. The term generally refers to those of East Asian background, but can encompass other Asian ethnic groups. Asian Latin Americans have a centuries-long history in the region, starting with Filipinos in the 16th century. The peak of Asian immigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries. There are currently more than four million Asian Latin Americans, nearly 1% of Latin America's population. Chinese, Japanese and the Lebanese are the largest Asian ancestries; other major ethnic groups include Indians, Koreans and Filipinos. Brazil is home to the largest population of East Asian descent, estimated at about 2.08 million by majority are Japanese. With as much as 5% of their population having some degree of Chinese ancestry, Mexico has the highest ratio of any country for East Asian descent with 1.9 million. While Peru has more Japanese influences in their culture from Japanese immigrants. There has been notable emigration from these communities in recent decades, so that there are now hundreds of thousands of people of Asian Latin American origin in both Japan and the United States. Mexico has the highest Southeast Asian descent with as much as 2-5 million Mexicans of Filipino ancestry which is traced back from the Manila-Acapulco galleon period. History The first Asian Latin Americans were Filipinos who made their way to Latin America (primarily to Mexico and secondarily to Colombia) in the 16th century, as sailors, crews, prisoners, slaves, adventurers and soldiers during the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines. For two and a half centuries (between 1565 and 1815) many Filipinos and Chinese sailed on the Manila-Acapulco Galleons, assisting in the Spanish Empire's monopoly in trade. Some of these sailors never returned to the Philippines and many of their descendants can be found in small communities around Baja California, Sonora, Mexico City, and others, thus making Filipinos the oldest Asian ethnic group in Latin America. While South Asians had been present in various forms in Latin America for centuries by the 1800s, it was in this century that the flow into the region spiked dramatically. This rapid influx of hundreds of thousands of mainly male South Asians was due to the need for indentured servants. This is largely tied to the abolition of black slavery in the Caribbean colonies in 1834. Without the promise of free labor and a hostile working class on their hands, the Dutch colonial authorities had to find a solution – cheap Asian labor. Many of these immigrant populations became such fixtures in their adopted countries that they acquired names of their own. For example, the Chinese men who labored in agricultural work became known as "coolies". While these imported Asian laborers were initially just replacement for agricultural slave labor, they gradually began to enter other sectors as the economy evolved. Before long, they had entered more urban work and the service sector. In certain areas, these populations assimilated into the minority populations, adding yet another definition to go on a casta. In some areas, these new populations caused conflict. In Northern Mexico, tensions became inevitable when the United States began to shut off Chinese immigration in the early 1880s. Many who were originally bound for the USA were re-routed to Mexico. The rapid increase in population and rise to middle/upper class standing generated strong resentment among existing residents. These tensions lead to riots. In the state of Sonora, the entire Chinese population was expelled in 1929. Today, the overwhelming majority of Asian Latin Americans are either of East Asian (namely Chinese, Japanese or Korean), or West Asian descent (mostly the Lebanese or Syrians). Many of whom arrived during the second half of the 1800s and the first half of the 1900s. Japanese migration mostly came to a halt after World War II (with the exception of Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic), while Korean migration mostly came to an end by the 1980s and Chinese migration remains ongoing in a number of countries. Settlement of war refugees has been extremely minor: a few dozen ex-North Korean soldiers went to Argentina after the Korean War and some Hmong went to French Guiana after the Vietnam War. Roles in labor Asian Latin Americans served various roles during their time as low wage workers in Latin America. In the second half of the nineteenth century, nearly a quarter of a million Chinese migrants in Cuba worked primarily on sugar plantations. The Chinese "coolies" who migrated to Peru took up work on the Andean Railroad or the Guano Fields. Over time the Chinese progressed to acquiring work in urban centers as tradesmen, restaurateurs and in the service industry. By the second decade of the nineteenth century, approximately 25,000 Chinese migrants in Mexico found relative success with small businesses, government bureaucracy, and intellectual circles. In the 1830s, the British and Dutch colonial governments also imported South Asians to work as indentured servants to places such as Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname, Curaçao and British Guiana (later renamed Guayana). At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Japanese immigrants reached Brazil, Mexico and Peru. Much like the Chinese, the Japanese often worked as indentured servants and low wage workers for planters. Japanese work contracts were notably more short term than those of the Chinese and the process was closely monitored by the Japanese government to dissuade abuse and foul play. In both cases, the influx of Asian migrant workers was to fill the void left in the Latin American work forces after the abolition of slavery. Employers of all kinds were desperate for a low cost replacement for their slaves so those who did not participate in any illegal slave operations turned to the Asian migrants. Geographic distribution Four and a half million Latin Americans (almost 1% of the total population of Latin America) are of Asian descent. The number may be millions higher, even more so if all who have partial ancestry are included. The Chinese are the most populous Asian Latin Americans. Significant populations of Chinese ancestry are found in Peru, Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Argentina, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Panama, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Mexico and Costa Rica (where they make up about 1% of the total population; or about 9,000 residents). Nicaragua is home to 14,000 ethnic Chinese; the majority reside in Managua and on the Caribbean coast. Smaller communities of Chinese, numbering just in the hundreds or thousands, are also found in Ecuador and various other Latin American countries. Many Latin American countries are home to barrios chinos (Chinatowns). Most who are of Japanese descent reside in Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Mexico, Bolivia and Paraguay. Japanese Peruvians have a considerable economic position in Peru. Many past and present Peruvian Cabinet members are ethnic Asians, but most particularly Japanese Peruvians have made up large portions of Peru's cabinet members and former president Alberto Fujimori is of Japanese ancestry who is currently the only Asian Latin American to have ever served as the head of any Latin American nation (or the second, if taking into account Arthur Chung). Brazil is home to the largest Japanese community outside Japan, numbering about 1.7 million with ancestry alone. Brazil is also home to 10,000 Indians, 5,000 Vietnamese, 4,500 Afghans, 2,900 Indonesians and 1,000 Filipinos. Korean people are the third largest group of Asian Latin Americans. This group is the largest (specially in Southeast region) with a population of 51,550. The largest country in Latin america with Koreans is Mexico with about 40,000-60,000. second largest is in Argentina, with a population of 23,603 and with active Koreatowns in Buenos Aires. More 10,000 in Guatemala, and Mexico, This last with active communities in Monterrey, Guadalajara, Yucatan and Mexico City. More than 1,000 in Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Honduras and Peru where Jung Heung-won, a Korean Peruvian, was elected mayor in City of Chanchamayo. He is the first Mayor of Korean origin in Peru and all of Latin America. There are small and important communities (less 1,000 peoples) in Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Bolivia, Costa Rica, Panama, Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Puerto Rico and Haiti. There is also a Hmong community in Argentina. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Venezuela also have small Asian Indian communities. Emigrant communities Canada Canada has been a destination for Asian Latin American emigration. The immigrants usually settle in the largest cities, such as Vancouver and Toronto and integrate into the overall Asian Canadian communities. Japan Japanese Brazilian immigrants to Japan numbered 250,000 in 2004, constituting Japan's second-largest immigrant population. Their experiences bear similarities to those of Japanese Peruvian immigrants, who are often relegated to low income jobs typically occupied by foreigners. United States Most Asian Latin Americans who have migrated to the United States live in the largest cities, often in Asian American or Hispanic and Latino communities in the Greater Los Angeles area, New York metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, San Francisco Bay area, Greater Houston, the San Diego area, Imperial Valley, California, Dallas–Fort Worth and South Florida (mainly Chinese Cubans). They and their descendants are sometimes known as Asian Hispanics and Asian Latinos. In the 2000 US Census, 119,829 Hispanic or Latino Americans identified as being of Asian race alone. In 2006 the Census Bureau's American Community Survey estimated them at 154,694, while its Population Estimates, which are official, put them at 277,704. Some notable Americans of Asian Hispanic/Latino heritage include Harry Shum Jr., Franklin Chang Díaz, Carlos Galvan, Kelis, Kirk Acevedo and Chino Moreno. In the United States, there are Facebook groups that are devoted to Asian Hispanics in New York, California and Bay Area. Composition Notable persons Argentina Juliana Awada, former First Lady of Argentina, Lebanese Argentine. Carlos Balá, actor of Lebanese descent. Yamila Diaz-Rahi, model of Lebanese descent. Dumbfoundead, rapper Argentine-born Korean American Rapper. Liu Song, table tennis player; Chinese Argentine. Ignacio Huang, actor; Taiwanese Argentine. Hoshitango Imachi, ex-sumo wrestler, Jewish-Argentine citizen of Japan. Mario Alberto Ishii, political and mayor of the region José C. Paz, Japanese Argentine. Natalia Kim, actress and model, Korean Argentine. Chang Sung Kim, actor, Korean Argentine. María Kodama, writer of Japanese descent. Katsutoshi Kurata, martial artist, Japanese Argentine. Margarita Lee "Señorita Lee"; model, actress and television host; Korean Argentine. Yoshihiro Matsumura, martial artist, Japanese Argentine. Carlos Menem, lawyer and politician, former president of Argentina, Syrian Argentine. Eduardo Menem, politician and brother of Carlos Menem, Syrian Argentine. Jessica Michibata, fashion model; Japanese Argentine. Sergio Nakasone producer and tv director, Japanese Argentine. Leonardo Nam, actor; Korean Argentine. Jae Park, Korean American singer-songwriter born in Argentina. Kazuya Sakai, painter, Japanese Argentine. María Eugenia Suárez, actress and singer; Japanese Argentine. Alicia Terada, politician, Japanese Argentine. Chang Sung Kim, actor, Korean Argentine. Marco, actor; Korean Argentine. Bolivia Chi Hyun Chung, politician; Korean Bolivian Juan Pereda, politician; Palestinian Bolivian Pedro Shimose, poet; Japanese Bolivian Brazil Erica Awano, manga artist; Japanese Brazilian Suresh Biswas, adventurer; Indo-Brazilian Ken Chang, singer; Chinese Brazilian Sérgio Echigo, former footballer; Japanese Brazilian Boris Fausto, historian, political scientist and writer; Turkish Brazilian Alexandr Fier, chess grandmaster; Japanese Brazilian Ashok Gandotra, cricketer; Indo-Brazilian Kaio Felipe Gonçalves, striker; Japanese Brazilian Luiz Gushiken, union leader and politician; Japanese Brazilian Sandro Hiroshi, footballer; Japanese Brazilian Hugo Hoyama, tennis player; Japanese Brazilian Fabiane Hukuda, judoka; Japanese Brazilian Kaisei Ichirō, sumo wrestler; Japanese Brazilian Thereza Imanishi-Kari, professor; Japanese Brazilian Ryoki Inoue, the world's most prolific writer; Japanese Brazilian Vânia Ishii, judoka; Japanese Brazilian Cláudio Kano, table tennis player; Japanese Brazilian Nathalia Kaur, model and actress; Indian descent Reishin Kawai, aikido practitioner and acupuncturist; Japanese Brazilian Pedro Ken, footballer; Japanese Brazilian Allam Khodair, race car driver; Japanese Lebanese Brazilian Felipe Kitadai, judoka; Japanese Brazilian Paulinho Kobayashi, footballer; Japanese Brazilian Caroline Kumahara, table tennis player; Japanese Brazilian Yanna Lavigne, actress and model; Japanese Brazilian Iara Lee, producer, director and activist; Korean Brazilian Gui Lin, table tennis player; Chinese Brazilian Lovefoxxx, singer; Japanese Brazilian Manabu Mabe, painter; Japanese Brazilian Lyoto Machida, mixed martial artist; Japanese Brazilian Mitsuyo Maeda, judo master and developer of Brazilian jiu-jitsu; Japanese Brazilian Daniel Matsunaga, model, host, actor and footballer; Japanese Brazilian Jo Matumoto, former pro baseball player; Japanese Brazilian Froilano de Mello, microbiologist; Indo-Brazilian Paulo Miyashiro, triathlete; Japanese Brazilian Carlos Morimoto, author; Japanese Brazilian Andrews Nakahara, MMA fighter; Japanese Brazilian Mariana Ohata, triathlete; Japanese Brazilian Ruy Ohtake, architect; Japanese Brazilian Tomie Ohtake, artist; Japanese Brazilian Oscar Oiwa, painter, visual artist and architect; Japanese Brazilian Leandro Okabe, model; Japanese Brazilian Tetsuo Okamoto, swimmer; Japanese Brazilian Poliana Okimoto, long-distance swimmer and gold medalist; Japanese Brazilian Pedro Okuda, baseball shortstop; Japanese Brazilian Luís Onmura, judoka; Japanese Brazilian Hiroo Onoda, former Japanese Army officer; Japanese Brazilian Angela Park, golfer; Korean Brazilian Andrew Pi, martial artist; Chinese Brazilian Rogério Romero, swimmer; Japanese Brazilian Lucas Salatta, backstroke swimmer; Japanese Brazilian Silvio Santos, television host and entrepreneur; Turkish Brazilian Daniella Sarahyba, model; Lebanese descent Akihiro Sato, model; Japanese Brazilian Sabrina Sato, model; Japanese and Lebanese descent Luis Shinohara, former judoka; Japanese Brazilian Lígia Silva, table tennis player; Japanese Brazilian Marcos Sugiyama, volleyball player; Japanese Brazilian Mahau Suguimati, track hurdler; Japanese Brazilian Jung Mo Sung, lay theologian; Korean Brazilian Manabu Suzuki, racer; Japanese Brazilian Rafael Suzuki, racer; Japanese Brazilian Rodrigo Tabata, footballer; Japanese Brazilian Marlon Teixeira, model; Japanese Brazilian Alex Yuwan Tjong, badminton player; Indonesian Brazilian Geovanna Tominaga, television host and actress; Japanese Brazilian Gustavo Tsuboi, table tennis player; Japanese Brazilian Felipe Wu, sport shooter; Chinese Brazilian Jenifer Widjaja, tennis player; Indonesian Brazilian Stênio Yamamoto, sports shooter; Japanese Brazilian Mario Yamasaki, MMA fighter; Japanese Brazilian Carlos Yoshimura, baseball pitcher; Japanese Brazilian Marcus Tulio Tanaka, football player; Japanese Brazilian Chile Alfonso Leng, composer; Chinese Chilean Carlos Ominami, economist and politician; Japanese Chilean Rafael Tarud, politician, Palestinian Chilean Colombia Shakira, of partial Lebanese descent Farina, Colombian rapper and reggaeton singer of Peruvian and Lebanese descent. Yokoi Kenji, speaker; Japanese Colombian. José Kaor Dokú, ex-soccer player and ex-military; Japanese Colombian. Maru Yamayusa, Colombian actress, partial Japanese descent. Yu Takeuchi, mathematical; Japanese Colombian. Yuriko Yoshimura, actress and model; Japanese Colombian. Paublo Ng Choi, Chef, Chinese Colombian. Laura González, Miss Colombia 2017; Lebanese descent. Jordy Monroy, footballer, born in Colombia; Armenian origin Sayaka Osorio, Karateka, Korean Colombian. Nydia Quintero Turbay, former First Lady of Colombia, Lebanese descent. Manuel Teodoro, American journalist of Colombian and Filipino descent. Costa Rica Franklin Chang-Diaz, former NASA astronaut; Chinese Spanish Costa Rican Cheng Siu Chung, retired football player, coach; Chinese Costa Rican Eduardo Li, president of the Costa Rican football federation; Chinese Costa Rican Harry Shum Jr., actor; Chinese Costa Rican Cuba Fulgencio Batista, former President of Cuba; of partial Chinese heritage Yamil Chade, boxing manager; Lebanese Cuban Yat-Sen Chang, ballet dancer; Chinese Cuban Emilio Estefan, musician; Lebanese Cuban Wifredo Lam, artist; Afro-Chinese-Cuban Alfredo Abon Lee, army officer; Chinese Cuban Jeronimo Lim Kim, Korean Cuban known for being a part of the Cuban Revolution Dominican Republic Elías Wessin y Wessin, politician; Lebanese Dominican Wu Xue, table tennis player; Chinese Dominican Akari Endo, Japanese-Dominican actress Lian "Jenifer" Qian, Chinese Dominican table tennis player Ecuador Li Jian - midfielder; Chinese Ecuadorian Jinsop, singer; Korean Ecuadorian Alberto Dahik, politician; Lebanese Ecuadorian Carlos Moncayo, co-founder and CEO of Asiam; Chinese Ecuadorian Jaime Nebot, lawyer and former mayor Guayaquil; Lebanese Ecuadorian Julio Teodoro Salem, politician; Lebanese Ecuadorian El Salvador Nayib Bukele, Politician and El Salvador's President of Palestine descent. Takeshi Fujiwara, sprinter and athlete; Japanese Salvadorean Hiroyuki Ikeuchi, Japanese Actor of Salvadorean descent. Guatemala Myrna Mack, anthropologist; Chinese and Maya descent Helen Mack Chang, businesswoman and human rights activist; Chinese Guatemalan Honduras Rodrigo Wong Arevalo, journalist and Tv host; Chinese Honduran Hajime waki, Musician; Japanese Honduran Mexico Alberto Arai, architect, theorist and writer; Japanese Mexican Eduardo Auyón, artist and cultural promoter; Chinese Mexican Jesús Chong, boxer; Chinese Mexican Miguel Ángel Osorio Chong, secretary of the interior of Mexico; Chinese Mexican Axel Didriksson, writer and professor; Japanese Mexican Ana Gabriel, Mexican singer and composer; Chinese on her mother's side Zhenli Ye Gon, businessman and alleged drug trafficker; Chinese Mexican Xóchitl Hamada, pro wrestler; Japanese Mexican Hiromi Hayakawa, singer; Japanese Mexican Salma Hayek, actress and producer; Lebanese descent Gilberto Hirata, state deputy; Japanese Mexican Tomoki Kameda, undefeated Boxer; Japanese Mexican Su Muy Key, actress and dancer; Chinese Mexican Pandurang Sadashiv Khankhoje, revolutionary, scholar, agricultural scientist and historian; Indo-Mexican Pablo Larios, goalkeeper; Japanese Mexican Juan Manuel Ley, founder and chairman of Casa Ley; Chinese Mexican Alejandro Gómez Maganda, politician and former governor of the state of Guerrero; Filipino Mexican Eizi Matuda, botanist; Japanese Mexican Lyn May, actress, exotic dancer and acrobat; Chinese Mexican Patricia Castañeda Miyamoto, swimmer; Japanese Mexican Daiwon Moon, martial artist; Korean Mexican Kenya Mori, actress; Japanese Mexican Noé Murayama, actor; Japanese Mexican Úrsula Murayama, actress; Japanese Mexican Fumiko Nakashima, artist; Japanese Mexican Carlos Nakatani, artist; Japanese Mexican Isidoro Montes de Oca, revolutionary general; Filipino Mexican Ramón Fabié, revolutionary soldier; Filipino Mexican Luis Pinzón, revolutionary soldier; Filipino Mexican Francisco Mongoy, revolutionary soldier; Filipino Mexican Kiyoto Ota, sculptor; Japanese Mexican Sanjaya Rajaram, agronomist; Indo-Mexican M.N. Roy, nationalist revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist; Indo-Mexican Catarina de San Juan, the China Poblana; Indo-Mexican Sugi Sito, pro wrestler; Chinese Mexican Romeo Villalva Tabuena, painter and printmaker; Filipino Mexican Nancy Taira, actress; Japanese Mexican Huang Yiguang, politician and aviator; Chinese Mexican Nicaragua Arlen Siu, martyr of the 1979 Sandinista revolution; Chinese Nicaraguan Zach King, American internet personality, filmmaker, and illusionist; Chinese Nicaraguan Paraguay Mario Abdo Benítez, President of Paraguay; Lebanese descent. Mitsuhide Tsuchida, footballer, Japanese Paraguayan. Panama Jorge Cham, web comic creator of Piled Higher and Deeper,Chinese Panamanian. Bruce Chen, pitcher for the Cleveland Indians, Chinese Panamanian. Roberto Chen, Panamanian footballer of Chinese descent Marelissa Him, model, part Chinese on her father's side Shey Ling Him Gordon, Panama's delegate to the Miss World 2007 competition, Chinese Panamanian. Sigrid Nunez, American writer (Chinese-Panamanian father, German mother) Mehr Eliezer - Winner of Señorita Panamá 2019, Indian Panamanian. Peru Ernesto Arakaki, footballer; Japanese Peruvian José Antonio Chang, former Prime Minister of Peru; Chinese Peruvian Alberto Fujimori, President of Peru from 1990 to 2000; Japanese Peruvian Keiko Fujimori, Congresswoman; Japanese Peruvian Kenji Fujimori, Congressman; Japanese-Peruvian Susana Higuchi, politician and engineer; Japanese Peruvian Jorge Hirano, international football player; Japanese Peruvian Fernando Iwasaki, writer and historian; Japanese Peruvian Haruki Kanashiro, goalkeeper; Japanese Peruvian Elena Keldibekova, volleyball player; Kazakh Peruvian Humberto Lay, architect and cleric; Chinese Peruvian Iván Miranda, tennis player; Chinese Peruvian Aldo Miyashiro, artist; Japanese Peruvian Augusto Miyashiro, engineer and politician; Japanese Peruvian Kaoru Morioka, futsal player; Japanese Peruvian José Pereda, retired footballer; Japanese Peruvian Víctor Polay, one of the founders of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement; Chinese Peruvian Venancio Shinki, painter; Japanese Peruvian Hector Takayama, former footballer; Japanese Peruvian Eduardo Tokeshi, artist; Japanese Peruvian Tilsa Tsuchiya, artist; Japanese Peruvian Edwin Vásquez, Olympic shooter; Chinese Peruvian José Watanabe, poet; Japanese Peruvian Víctor Joy Way, former Prime Minister of Peru; Chinese Peruvian Alan Wong, chef; Chinese Peruvian Erasmo Wong, businessman, owner of various retail chains; Chinese Peruvian Patty Wong, model; Chinese Peruvian Ricardo Wong, politician; Chinese Peruvian Rafael Yamashiro, politician; Japanese Peruvian César Ychikawa, vocalist; Japanese Peruvian David Soria Yoshinari, footballer; Japanese Peruvian Jaime Yoshiyama, politician; Japanese Peruvian Carlos Yushimito, writer; Japanese Peruvian Pedro Zulen, philosopher; Chinese Peruvian Puerto Rico Aravind Enrique Adyanthaya, writer, performer and theater director; Indo-Puerto Rican Eduardo Bhatia, politician and senator; Indo-Puerto Rican Lakshmi Singh, newscaster on NPR Ruth D. Thorne, author; Indo-Puerto Rican Bruno Mars, singer, songwriter, record producer, musician and dancer; Filipino and Puerto Rican Uruguay Alberto Abdala, Former Vice-President of Uruguay; Lebanese Uruguayan Barbara Mori, Uruguyan-born Mexican actress; Japanese and Lebanese descent Venezuela Fred Armisen, American actor, has Venezuelan roots on his mother and Korean on his father's side; Korean Venezuelan Alex Cabrera Suzuki, Venezuelan first baseman and right-handed batter who played in Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball; Japanese Venezuelan Hana Kobayashi, singer; Japanese Venezuelan Kamala Lopez, American actress, director, and political activist (born in New York City but raised in Venezuela); Indian Venezuelan Naomi Soazo, Venezuelan judoka; Japanese Venezuelan Henry Zakka, Venezuelan actor; Japanese Venezuelan Tarek William Saab, Prosecutor General of Venezuela and former ombudsman; Lebanese Venezuelan Tareck El Aissami, former Vice President of Venezuela; Lebanese Venezuelan Elías Jaua, Minister of Education, former Foreign Minister and Vice President of Venezuela; Lebanese Venezuelan Mariam Habach, Miss Venezuela 2015; Syrian descent See also Latin Americans Chinese Latin American cuisine Ethnic groups Asian Argentines Asian Brazilians Asian Mexicans Asian Peruvians Chinese Chinese Argentines Chinese Brazilians Chinese people in Chile Chinese people in Costa Rica Chinese Colombians Chinese Cubans Ethnic Chinese in the Dominican Republic Chinese immigration to Mexico Chinese Nicaraguans Ethnic Chinese in Panama Chinese Peruvians Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico Chinese Uruguayans Chinese Venezuelans Filipinos Filipino immigration to Brazil Filipino Cubans Filipinos in Honduras Filipino immigration to Mexico Indians Indians in Argentina Indian immigration to Brazil Indians in Chile Indians in the Dominican Republic Indian Mexicans Indians in Panama Indians in Peru Indian Uruguayans Indians in Venezuela Lebanese Lebanese Argentines Lebanese Brazilians Lebanese Chileans Lebanese Colombians Lebanese Ecuadorians Lebanese Mexicans Lebanese Paraguayans Lebanese Uruguayans Lebanese Venezuelans Japanese Japanese Argentines Japanese Bolivians Japanese Brazilians Japanese Chileans Japanese migration to Colombia Japanese Cubans Japanese settlement in the Dominican Republic Japanese Mexicans Japanese Paraguayans Japanese Peruvians Japanese Uruguayans Japanese Venezuelans Koreans Koreans in Argentina Korean Brazilians Koreans in Chile Korean Colombians Koreans in Cuba Koreans in Guatemala Koreans in Mexico Koreans in Paraguay Koreans in Peru Korean Uruguayans Asian Latin American enclaves Chinatowns in Latin America Japantown Koreatown References Further reading Affigne, Tony, and Pei-te Lien. "Peoples of Asian descent in the Americas: Theoretical implications of race and politics." Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002): 1-27. Avila-Tàpies, Rosalia, and Josefina Domínguez-Mujica. "Postcolonial migrations and diasporic linkages between Latin America and Japan and Spain." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 24.4 (2015): 487-511. Chee Beng Tan, and Walton Look Lai, eds. The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean (2010) excerpt Fu, Puo-An Wu. "Transpacific Subjectivities:" Chinese"--Latin American Literature after Empire." in Chinese America: History and Perspectives (2018): 13-20. Hu-Dehart, Evelyn. "The Chinese of Peru, Cuba, and Mexico." in The Cambridge survey of world migration (1995): 220-222. Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. "Coolies, Shopkeepers, Pioneers: The Chinese of Mexico and Peru (1849–1930)." Amerasia Journal 15.2 (1989): 91-116. Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi, eds. New worlds, new lives: Globalization and people of Japanese descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Stanford University Press, 2002. Hu-DeHart, Evelyn. "Latin America in Asia-Pacific Perspective Evelyn Hu-DeHart." Asian Diasporas: New Formations, New Conceptions (2007): 29+. Jingsheng, Dong. "Chinese emigration to Mexico and the Sino-Mexico relations before 1910." Estudios Internacionales (2006): 75-88. Kikuchi, Hirokazu. "The Representation of East Asia in Latin American Legislatures." Issues & Studies 53.01 (2017): 1740005. doi: 10.1142/S1013251117400057 Kim, Hahkyung. "Korean Immigrants’ Place in the Discourse of Mestizaje: A History of Race-Class Dynamics and Asian Immigration in Yucatán, Mexico." Revista Iberoamericana (2012). Lee, Rachel. "Asian American cultural production in Asian-Pacific perspective." boundary 2 26.2 (1999): 231-254. online Lim, Rachel. "Racial Transmittances: Hemispheric Viralities of Anti-Asian Racism and Resistance in Mexico." Journal of Asian American Studies 23.3 (2020): 441-457. Masterson, Daniel M. The Japanese in Latin America. University of Illinois Press, 2004. 0252071441, 9780252071447. Min, Man-Shik. "Far East Asian immigration into Latin America." Korea & world affairs 11.2 (1987): 331+ Pan, Lynn, ed. The encyclopedia of the Chinese overseas (Harvard UP, 1998). pp 248–2630. Rivas, Zelideth María. "Literary and Cultural Representations of Asians in Latin America and the Caribbean." in Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature (2019). Romero, Robert Chao, and Kevin Escudero. "“Asian Latinos” and the US Census." AAPI Nexus: Policy, Practice and Community 10, no. 2 (2012): 119-138. online Seijas, Tatiana. "Asian migrations to Latin America in the Pacific World, 16th–19th centuries." History Compass 14.12 (2016): 573-581. online Tigner, James L. "Japanese immigration into Latin America: a survey." Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 23.4 (1981): 457-482. External links Asian-Latino Intermarriage in The Americas The Importance of Being Japanese in Bolivia Ethnic groups in Latin America Ethnic groups in Central America Ethnic groups in the Caribbean Ethnic groups in North America Ethnic groups in South America Immigration to North America Immigration to South America

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Operation Halyard (or Halyard Mission), known in Serbian as Operation Air Bridge (), was an Allied airlift operation behind Axis lines during World War II. In July 1944, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) drew up plans to send a team to the Chetniks force led by General Draža Mihailović in the German-occupied Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia for the purpose of evacuating Allied airmen shot down over that area. This team, known as the Halyard team, was commanded by Lieutenant George Musulin, along with Master Sergeant Michael Rajacich, and Specialist Arthur Jibilian, the radio operator. The team was detailed to the United States Fifteenth Air Force and designated as the 1st Air Crew Rescue Unit. It was the largest rescue operation of American Airmen in history. According to historian Professor Jozo Tomasevich, a report submitted to the OSS showed that 417 Allied airmen who had been downed over occupied Yugoslavia were rescued by Mihailović's Chetniks, and airlifted out by the Fifteenth Air Force. According to Lt. Cmdr. Richard M. Kelly (OSS) grand total of 432 U.S. and 80 Allied personnel were airlifted during the Halyard Mission. Background Targets for United States Bombing After the successful Allied invasion of Sicily, Italy capitulated in the autumn of 1943, the Allies occupied the whole of southern Italy. In late 1943, the 15th Air Force of the United States Army Air Forces, under the command of General Nathan Twining, was transferred from Tunisia to an airfield near Foggia. This airfield became the largest American air base in southern Italy, and was used for attacking targets in southern and Eastern Europe. The 15th Army Air Force also used the nearby airfields of Bari, Brindisi, Lecce and Manduria. The 15th Air Force bombed targets in Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, the Independent State of Croatia, the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania. Some of the most important targets were sources of petroleum and petroleum refineries in Romania. These installations were the driving force of Hitler's war machine and the main targets in the Oil Campaign of World War II. The Ostro Romano refinery in Ploiești, provided one quarter of the Third Reich's fuel needs and was one of the priority targets. All flights targeting the oil-fields and refineries in Romania, near the town of Ploiești north of Bucharest, passed over the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia. Flight path From October 1943 to October 1944, the 15th Air Force conducted about 20,000 sorties with fighters and bombers. During this time it lost almost fifty percent of its aircraft but only about ten percent of its personnel. To carry out combat missions, the Fifteenth Air Force had at its disposal 500 heavy bombers (B-17 Flying Fortresses and B-24 Liberators) and about 100 fighter escorts. The flight path from southern Italy to the targets in Romania was repeated every day from the spring of 1944, (over the Adriatic Sea, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria to Romania). Two-thirds of these flights were carried out against objectives in Bulgaria, Romania and the German-occupied zone of Serbia. The Germans had at their disposal a limited number of fighter aircraft whose most frequent targets were Allied planes that had already been damaged by Axis anti-aircraft defenses in Bulgaria and Romania, planes that because of such damage had to fly slowly at low altitude. In the spring of 1944, the USAAF intensified the bombing of targets in Bulgaria and Romania, with the result that American aviators were being forced to bail out of damaged aircraft over Yugoslavia in increasing numbers. Some crews fell into the hands of Romanian, Bulgarian, Croatian or German troops and were sent to prisoner of war camps. By August 1944, 350 bombers had been lost. Many of the crews survived: some came down in territory held by Marshal Tito's Partisans, while others found refuge in Serbia with Draža Mihailović`s Chetniks. The first American airmen bailed out over the German-occupied zone of Serbia on 24 January 1944. That day two Liberators were shot down, one of them over Zlatibor, the other over Toplica. One bomber, damaged by German fighter planes, made an emergency landing between Pločnik and Beloljin. A crew of nine were rescued by the Chetnik Toplica Corps under the command of Major Milan Stojanović. The crew were placed in the home of local Chetnik leaders in the village of Velika Draguša. Another bomber was shot down that same day, the crew bailing out over Mount Zlatibor. They were found by members of the Zlatibor Corps. A radiogram message on the rescue of one of the crews was sent by Stojanović to Mihailović on 25 January. Major Stojanović wrote that the previous day about 100 bombers flew from the direction of Niš towards Kosovska Mitrovica, and that they were followed by nine German fighter aircraft. After a half-hour battle, one plane caught fire and was forced to land between the villages of Pločnik and Beloljin, in the Toplica River valley. By early July 1944, over one hundred airmen were in areas under Chetnik control. The German and Bulgarian occupation forces in Serbia that had spotted the damaged aircraft and open parachutes pursued the airmen. However, Chetniks under the control of Mihailović had already reached them. The Germans offered cash to the local Serbian population for the capture of Allied airmen. The peasants accepted the airmen into their homes and fed them for months without Allied help. Hospitals for sick and wounded airmen were established in Pranjani village. Creation of the Air Crew Rescue Unit Office of Strategic Services officers already had secured Marshal Tito's cooperation to retrieve downed airmen. In January 1944 Maj. Linn M. Farish and Lt. Eli Popovich had parachuted into Partisan HQ at Drvar to arrange assistance in rescuing American flyers. Following a meeting with Tito on 23 January 1944, orders went out to all partisan units to do everything possible to locate downed airmen and conduct them safely to the nearest Allied liaison team. Efforts to retrieve aircrews from Chetnik controlled areas ran afoul of the tangled web of Balkan politics. The British, who considered that part of the world within their sphere of interest, had shifted their support to Tito and were determined to sever all ties with Mihailović lest they offend the Communist leader. American attempts to maintain contact with Mihailović had been rebuffed by London. Nonetheless, General Nathan F. Twining, Commander of the 15th Air Force, was determined to rescue his downed airmen. On 24 July 1944, thanks to the efforts of Twining and several OSS officers, General Ira C. Eaker (from April 1945 Deputy Commander of the Army Air Forces) directed the 15th Air Force to establish an Air Crew Rescue Unit (ACRU). This independent organization of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, attached to the 15th Air Force would be responsible for locating and evacuating Allied airmen throughout the Balkans. Selected to head the ACRU was Col. George Kraigher of the AAF Transport Command. Kraigher had flown for the Royal Serbian Air Force in World War I. Prior to World War II Kraigher played a key role in developing Pan American Airways air route from Miami to the Middle East via Brazil and West Africa. Taking over the rescue unit, Kraigher formed two parties. One would work with Tito's partisans; the other would go to Mihailović's Chetniks. Lt. George Musulin, an OSS officer who had led a liaison mission to Mihailović and one of the foremost advocates of maintaining contact with the Chetniks, was named commander of ACRU 1 (known as the Halyard Mission). Musulin, as Lt. Nelson Deranian, chief of OSS Special Operations Branch (SO) Bari suggested, possessed "the rugged character required to meet the hardships involved". M/Sgt. Michael Rajacich, borrowed from OSS Secret Intelligence Branch (S1) for this particular assignment, and Navy Specialist 1st Class Arthur Jibilian, the mission's OSS radio operator, rounded out Musulin's team. Rescue of American airmen On the night of 2–3 August 1944, after several abortive attempts, the Halyard Mission team parachuted into Mihailović's headquarters at Pranjani. Airman Richard Felman (415th Bombardment Squadron, 98th Bombardment Group, 15th Air Force), who was at Pranjani, recalls the scene when the mission arrived at the airfield: "The one who was in the lead was the of a mob of Chetniks—they were kissing him and cheering him with tears in their eyes. He was in an American uniform and was one of the biggest chaps I'd ever seen. He walked over to us and put out his hands. 'I'm George Musulin', he said. Lt. Musulin arranged a meeting with a committee of the airmen to discuss the preparations that would need to be made before evacuation could take place. He discovered that there were approximately 250 airmen divided into six groups and housed within a ten-mile radius of the airstrip at Galovića polje (Galovica field) near Pranjani. Musulin established a courier service between the mission and the various groups in order to provide daily news on the progress being made towards the evacuation. He also distributed funds to enable the airmen to purchase needed supplies. At the same time Mihailović assigned the First Ravna Gora Corps to provide security for the operation. According to Professor Kirk Ford, the airmen assembled at Pranjani awaiting evacuation represented a potential source of intelligence, particularly concerning Serbia. "They had witnessed the civil war between Chetnik and Partisan forces and had experienced the full range of Chetnik-German relations, from open hostility to wary tolerance and at times accommodation. They had seen Chetnik soldiers give their lives to save them from capture and had been protected and well-treated by Mihailović's forces and by the Serbian peasantry. Their very presence at Pranjani under Chetnik was itself a clear evidence that Mihailović remained a well-disposed toward the United States and was no collaborator in the true sense of the word." According to statistics compiled by the US Air Force Air Crew Rescue Unit, between 1 January and 15 October 1944, a total of 1,152 American airmen were airlifted from Yugoslavia, 795 with the assistance of the Yugoslav Partisans and 356 with the help of the Serbian Chetniks. Serbian-American Lt. Eli Popovich, part of the Halyard Mission attached to partisan HQ, kept in radio contact with Arthur Jibilian to co-ordinate the rescue of all US and foreign airmen in Yugoslavia from Mihailović's HQ (where radio operator Jibilian was attached). Airstrip construction In early-March 1944, 25 rescued pilots were brought to Pranjani. Captain Zvonimir Vučković of the First Ravna Gora Corps was responsible for their security. Mihailović ordered Vučković to build an improvised airstrip from which the aviators could be evacuated. Vučković selected a field near Pranjani. Construction of the airstrip was managed by Captain Nikola Verkić. Vučković stated: British authorities thought the airstrip was too short. Eleven airmen, including John P. Devlin, wanted to go on foot to the Adriatic Sea. Mihailovic provided supporting units and they started out on 19 April, after a ceremonial send-off in Pranjani. The remaining aviators were unable to walk due to injuries and illness. A few dozen more airmen reached Pranjani in late-April. Vučković divided them into two groups. The first, from the Takovo district, was guided by Sergeant Bora Komračević. The second group from the Dragačevo district was guided by Mihailo Paunović, who did not speak English. Ground combat Due to the collection of rescued aviators near Pranjani, fighting occurred between the Chetniks and German and Bulgarian occupation forces. On 14 March 1944 the Germans moved into the village of Oplanić, near Gružа, looking for the crew of a downed Liberator. Captain Nikola Petković's 4th battalion of the Gruža brigade opened fire on the German armored vehicles to lure them away from the portion of the village where the aviators were hiding. Three Chetniks were killed and two more captured during the firefight. After the war, the communists destroyed their gravestones. The 1st Dragačevo Brigade of the First Ravna Gora Corps engaged German forces attempting to capture an American aircrew bailing out over the Čačak - Užice road. Vučković reported the deaths of a few Chetnik soldiers in the fight. The fallen Chetniks were buried in a cemetery in Dljin village. Lieutenant Colonel Todor Gogić, commander of the Morava group Corps sent a radiogram to Mihailović on 17 April, "On 15 April at about 11 hours, due to engine failure, a B-24 Liberator with a crew of 10 made an emergency landing near the village of Drenovac south of Paraćin. We managed to rescue nine crew members from the Germans and Bulgarians, but one airmen was captured. The crew is from the 861st Squadron, 460th bomber group." Departure of Chetnik political mission The British SOE military mission led by Brigadier Charles Armstrong was ready for evacuation by late-May 1944. Following agreement with their Bari headquarters, three Douglas Dakota cargo aircraft (C-47s) landed at Pranjani on 29 May. In addition to the SOE mission, 40 rescued Allied airmen were also evacuated. Mihailović had decided to send a political mission to London using the same evacuation. The mission was led by the President of the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia, Živko Topalović. Topalović had been a member of the Labour and Socialist International party before the war. He intended to meet with British political leaders to influence them to change Winston Churchill's decision to abandon Mihailović and support Josip Broz Tito. Topalović's mission was a failure. The British did not allow him to leave southern Italy. Radio link The Democratic Yugoslavia news agency bulletin reports Reports about the rescued airmen were sent to the "Democratic Yugoslavia" news agency, which belonged to the High Command of the Yugoslav Army in the fatherland of Mihailović. This agency had an office and radio station in New York City. A report was received by the Yugoslav Embassy in Washington, DC. Staff headed by the Ambassador Konstantin Fotić, forwarded the report to the US Army, so that the families of airmen, especially their mothers, who were in some cases previously notified that their offspring were "missing in action". The reports almost always contained the names and addresses of the airmen. Mirjana Vujnovich was working at the Yugoslav Embassy in Washington when she learned of reports that Serbian guerrillas were sheltering Allied airmen. She passed the information on to her husband, George Vujnovich, who put together a rescue plan. Lieutenant George Vujnovich, worked for the OSS in Brindisi, in southern Italy. He received a letter from his wife which mentioned the American airmen's plight: "there are hundreds... can you do something for them? It would be great if [they] are evacuated". It was the turning point which led to the planning and execution of Operation Halyard. Evacuation In late-May 1944, for the first time since 1941, there were no Allied liaison officers with the Chetniks. Mihailovich's headquarters had attempted to establish direct radio contact with the Allied Mediterranean Command, but failed. On 15 July 1944, while returning in a severely damaged airplane (B-17G, 840th BS, 483rd BG,15th AF, Sterparone, Italy) on a mission to an important enemy oil refinery in Ploesti, Captain Leo C. Brooks [West Point, June 1943] was forced to bail out over Yugoslavia (Ljig, Serbia). Immediately on landing he was approached by members of the Chetnik army who offered him assistance. At Captain Brooks' request to see their commanding officer (Kapetan Marko Muzikravić), he was led through the mountains for several days. On 26 July 1944 he reached a British landing strip (Pranjani, Serbia) that had been prepared for the evacuation of escapees. In the villages surrounding this field there were already some 150 American airmen who were awaiting an expected evacuation, and more were coming in every day. As the ranking American officer, he took command of the Americans present. In conjunction with the Chetnik area commander he determined the best policy to follow in quartering and protecting the men and in effecting a high degree of camouflage discipline. Due to his careful planning, tact, and diplomacy, Captain Brooks obtained maximum aid and assistance from the Chetnik Army. Two entire army corps totaling 3,000 men were provided him to insure ample defense against possible German interference. At Captain Brooks' suggestion, all men to be evacuated were split into six groups with an American officer in charge of each. The first of these groups was composed of all the sick and injured who were quartered near a hospital so that they could receive medical attention. The rest of the groups were dispersed in the neighboring mountains, the most distant being two hours walking distance away. Keeping with him a staff of six officers to handle staff work, Captain Brooks then directed that, to insure the most orderly and expeditious evacuation possible, a list be drafted by name, rank, and serial number of all Americans in the area together with the date of their being shot down. Meanwhile, two men (one was 1st Lt. Tom Oliver (West Point, June 1943, B-24, 756th BS, 459th BG, 15th AF, Giulia, Italy and, ironically, academy roommate of Captain Brooks) who had been sent to contact General Mihailovic's headquarters, brought back word that on one of three specified nights friendly planes would land to evacuate those present. Captain Brooks inspected the airfield, improvised a night-lighting system with several kerosene lamps and then set up a watch to signal the planes when they came over. Only one plane arrived, however, and it did not land, dropping supplies and three men by parachute instead. These three men (OSS team, 1st Lt. Musulin, Master Sergeant Rajacich, and Navy Petty Officer Jibilian) had been sent in as an Allied mission from Italy and had brought along a radio. The officer in charge of the mission brought word that the landing strip was not considered usable by 15th Air Force and that no landing would be made until a great amount of work had been done to it. After setting up an improvised radio station with the new equipment, Captain Brooks left one officer in charge of the construction work necessary at this particular field, gave him detailed instructions on how to complete the project, and procured for him through the Chetnik Army Commander a large number of Yugoslav laborers. The remaining six officers, including himself, he divided into two-man teams to investigate possible sites for another field. In this manner two better locations were discovered, and work was immediately begun on those fields as well. In the meantime, radio contact with 15th Air Force was reestablished. A request was made for urgently needed supplies and a message sent regarding the work that was being done on the first field. Two transports came shortly thereafter and dropped a considerable quantity of needed supplies. Acting under instructions previously issued by Captain Brooks, the group quartered nearest the dropping site successfully brought in all these supplies. Several days later when construction on the first field had progressed to the point where it was usable, the 15th Air Force was notified. A message came back from headquarters that eight aircraft would arrive that evening, each with a capacity of 12 men. Captain Brooks then sent runners to alert the first 96 men scheduled to go. The field was cleared and signal fires built. One officer was put in charge of the men and ordered to have each group of twelve men leave the woods only when its plane was ready. During this time no one else was to be on the field. Another officer was detailed to meet the planes as they landed and park them for loading. A third officer was detailed to guide them out for takeoff. Only four aircraft (C-47A, 60thTCG, 12thAF Brindisi, Italy) came in that night, the first carrying a doctor, several assistants, and medical supplies. These four airplanes were landed, unloaded, loaded with evacuees, and successfully dispatched. Captain Brooks learned from the pilot of the first plane to land, that the operation was to continue throughout the following morning with friendly fighter cover. He immediately sent runners to all the different groups. By 07:00 on 10 August 1944 all the remaining evacuees had been assembled in the woods adjacent to the field. To assist the aircraft, Captain Brooks had had the field marked with strips of parachutes. As each airplane came in that morning 20 men were dispatched to it and it took off. Only after all the other evacuees had been loaded did Captain Brooks get aboard the last airplane. After this last airplane had been loaded, the pilot counted 21 men aboard, one more than the maximum. Assuming that one would have to be left on the ground Captain Brooks immediately left the airplane as the volunteer who would stay behind. A recount by the pilot, however, brought out that he had only 20 passengers instead of 21. After reassuring himself that the safety of the others would not be imperiled, Captain Brooks did board again. A total of 240 Americans, seven British, 12 Russians, five French, and five Italian officers and men were evacuated in this operation. Airlift from Pranjani to Bari At midnight on 2 August 1944, an American plane flew over Pranjani, near Mihailovic's headquarters in central Serbia, where a fire burned as a previous agreed signal. Three parachutes opened just behind and below the aircraft, they supported OSS intelligence agents Captain George Musulin, Lieutenant Michael Rayachich, and Sergeant Arthur Jiblian and their radio equipment; they were there to set the operation up. Captain Musulin's first task was to request from Mihailović that all the rescued airmen be gathered in the area for the forthcoming evacuation. Musulin was assured that the Chetniks had done everything possible for the airmen, including medical care. They were to have armed escorts to the evacuation point. In the meantime, to allow for a possible German attack on Pranjani, Mihailović was instructed to build a reserve airstrip in the Dragačevo district. Mihailović decided to send additional representatives to Italy to assist Topalović with his mission. They were; the president of the Independent Democratic Party Adam Pribićević, Supreme Court judge Dr. Vladimir Belajčić, Captain Zvonimir Vučković, and Ivan Kovač, a Slovene who taught King Peter II before the war. Meanwhile, on Sunday, 6 August 1944, The New York Times published an interview with Mihailović by journalist Cyrus Leo Sulzberger. Near Pranjani, Chetnik sentries detained a civilian identified as Ivan Popov; one sentinel had his suspicions aroused because he thought he had seen Popov leave a Gestapo building in Belgrade in a German officers' uniform. Captain Vučković ordered the man to be executed. However, the civilian was reprieved at the last minute when he showed Vučković a letter signed by Mihailović. The incident was reported to the general, who ordered that he be sent to his headquarters. Popov was a double agent for the Yugoslavs and British in the Gestapo. He was also Dušan Popov's brother. Popov (British codenamed Dreadnought, Yugoslav (Chetnik) codenamed Eskulap), was evacuated along with American airmen to Italy. The young aviators had no idea that one of the passengers was a former Gestapo officer. The largest evacuation from Pranjani began at 03:00 on 10 August. Four C-47s flew in; they were followed by a further six. Other sources give twelve or fourteen US transport aircraft used. These aircraft may have been protected by 50 (P-51 Mustang and P-38 Lightning) fighters of the Fifteenth Air Force, but one source indicates they were protected by six Royal Air Force Spitfires. Ground security was provided by the Morava group under Captain Aleksandar Milošević. A total of 237 men were evacuated. The operation was repeated on 12, 15, and 18 August; a further 210 airmen were evacuated. A new OSS unit, under Operation Ranger, was led by Colonel Robert H. McDowell. Musulin flew out of Pranjani on 29 August, in the same aircraft that McDowell had arrived in. Musulin's replacement was Captain Nick Lalich, who flew to Pranjani on 10 August. Evacuation from Koceljeva On the eve of the invasion by the Red Army in September 1944, the supreme command of the Yugoslav Army, along with the Halyard and Ranger missions, left Pranjani and transferred to Mačva. Another improvised airstrip at Koceljeva had been built. The runway was 400 meters long. It was constructed between 15–17 September. Twenty airmen, a Frenchman, a few Italians, and two US medical officers were evacuated on 17 September. Evacuation from Boljanić A third improvised airstrip was built between 22 October-1 November at Boljanić near Doboj in eastern Bosnia. It was used to evacuate the Supreme Command of the Yugoslav Army and 15 US airmen on 27 September. These aviators had jumped from two damaged aircraft in June 1944 into Milino Selo, in eastern Bosnia. They were accommodated in the houses of Luke Panić and several prominent farmers in the village Boljanić, and rescued by the Chetniks Ozren Corps Major Cvijetin Todić. Two C-47s, covered by seven fighters, landed. The evacuees, including Captain John Milodragovich and Lieutenant Michael Rajachich (both OSS), were taken to Bari. McDowell tried to persuade Mihailović to accompany him to Italy, but he refused, saying: "I prefer to lose my life in my country, than to live as an outcast in strange land. I'll stay with my soldiers and my people to the end, in order to fulfill duty that my King gave to me. For King and Fatherland – Freedom or Death!" Two C-47s, one piloted by Colonel George Kraigher, (a pioneer in the development of Pan American World Airways ), the other by First Lieutenant John L. Dunn, left Italy at 11:00 on 27 December 1944. Escorted by 16 P-38s, they reached the emergency landing field at Boljanić at 12:55. Spotting a hole in the overcast, Kraigher led the way in, to land on a 1,700-foot strip that was frozen just enough to support the weight of a C-47. The transports were met by Captain Lalich. The aircraft were quickly loaded with 20 American airmen, one US citizen, two Yugoslavian (Chetnik) officers, four French, four Italian army personnel, and two remaining Halyard team members, Lalich and his radio operator, Arthur Jibilian. Lalich tried once more to persuade Mihailović to accompany them to Italy. Mihailović remained consistent in his intention to stay with his soldiers. The aircraft took off at 13:15. Number of rescued airmen 237 men evacuated from Pranjani on 9–10 August 210 men evacuated from Pranjani on 12, 15, 18 August 20 men evacuated from Koceljeva on 17 September 15 men evacuated from the village of Boljanić on 1 November 20 men evacuated from Boljanić on 27 December A total of 417 Allied airmen were airlifted from Chetnik territory during Operation Halyard, of which 343 were Americans. Members of the Halyard Mission Captain George Musulin (Head of Mission from 2–19 August 1944) - Legion of Merit. George Vujnovich, helped organize and supervise the mission - Bronze Star Medal. Lieutenant Michael "Mike" Rayachich (member of mission from 2–19 August, then a member of the Renger mission to 1 November 1944) - Legion of Merit with oak leaf cluster. Radio operator Navy Specialist 1st Class Petty Officer (the equivalent of Staff Sgt.) Arthur Jibilian (member of mission from 2 August-27 December 1944) - Silver Star Captain Nick Lalich (member of mission from 10–28 August, Head of Mission from 29 August-27 December 1944) - Legion of Merit. Captain Jack Mitrani, MD, with two medical assistants (Dr Mitrani headed the medical team mission of Halyard from 10 August-17 September 1944). Mission This operation took place between August and December 1944 from a crudely constructed forest airfield created by Serbian peasants in Pranjani. It is little known today, and largely unknown to most Americans. It is the subject of the 2007 book The Forgotten 500: The Untold Story of the Men Who Risked All For the Greatest Rescue Mission of World War II, by author Gregory A. Freeman. In his book, he describes it as one of the greatest rescue stories ever told. It tells the story of how the airmen were downed in a country they knew nothing about, and how the Serbian villagers were willing to sacrifice their own lives to save the lives of the air crews. The OSS planned an elaborate rescue involving C-47 cargo planes landing in enemy territory. It was an extremely risky operation, involving the planes not only entering enemy territory without being shot down themselves, but also landing, retrieving the downed airmen, then taking off and flying out of that same territory, again without being shot down themselves. The rescue was a complete success, but received little to no publicity. This was partly due to the timing, the world's attention being focused on the conflict in northern France. Because of this operation, and due to the efforts of Major Richard Felman, United States President Harry S. Truman posthumously awarded Mihailović the Legion of Merit for his contribution to the Allied victory during World War II. Initially, this high award and the story of the rescue was classified secret by the U.S. State Department so as not to offend the-then Communist government of Yugoslavia. Such a display of appreciation for the Chetniks would not have been welcome as the Western Allies, who had supported the Chetniks early in World War II, switched sides to Josip Broz Tito's Partisans for the latter part of the war. The award was presented to Mihailović's daughter Gordana Mihajlovic by the US State Department on May 9, 2005. Commemoration Authority to erect a monument to Mihailovich was given in 1989 by the National Committee of American Airmen in Washington, District of Columbia, in recognition of the role he played in saving the lives of more than five hundred United States airmen in Yugoslavia during World War II. On September 12, 2004, five years after the NATO armed conflict against Yugoslavia, four American veterans, Clare Musgrove, Arthur Jibilian, George Vujnovich and Robert Wilson, visited Pranjani for the unveiling of a commemorative plaque. A bill introduced in the US House of Representatives by Bob Latta on July 31, 2009, requested that Jibilian be awarded the Medal of Honor for his part in Operation Halyard. On Veterans' Day, 2007, the U.S. Ambassador to Serbia, Cameron Munter, visited Pranjani and presented the citizens of the area with a proclamation signed by the Governor of the State of Ohio expressing gratitude to the Serbian families that rescued hundreds of U.S. airmen whose aircraft had been shot down by Nazi forces in World War II. On October 17, 2010, George Vujnovich was awarded the Bronze Star in a ceremony in New York City for his role in the operation. Vujnovich trained the volunteers who carried out the rescue, teaching them how to blend in with other Serbians, by mastering mundane tasks conforming to local custom, such as tying and tucking their shoelaces and pushing food onto their forks with their knives during meals. The U.S. Embassy in Belgrade, in cooperation with the Euro-Atlantic Initiative and the citizens of Pranjani, initiated a project to construct a library and youth center in Pranjani which will help the education of local children and enhance commemoration of the Halyard Mission. The project will mark a historical bond between the Serbian and American people and the state partnership between Serbia and the State of Ohio, which was established in 2006. The project will include an effort to educate both the Serbian and American public about the Halyard Mission, through photographic exhibitions, an internet presentation and the production of a documentary movie. The library-youth center project consists of the construction of a multipurpose facility. It will serve as a library and the center for multimedia education of young people and farmers from the Pranjani area. It will be equipped with Internet access and as a memorial center for the Halyard Mission which will include a permanent exhibition of photographs, objects and documents related to the evacuation mission of Allied airmen and the wartime alliance between the people of Serbia and the U.S. Part of the Center's exhibits will be given to the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Base in Ohio where a special exhibition area will be opened about Serbia's role in the rescue of the airmen in World War II. Similar to the Vietnam Memorial in Washington, D.C., one wall of the Pranjani center will include the names of all the Allied airmen that were rescued during the Halyard Mission and the Serbian families that hid and cared for them. The Library will be built immediately adjacent to the primary school and Pranjani church, which was the place used for ceremonies of friendship and cooperation by citizens of the area, the Ravna Gora movement (Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland), and the U.S. mission. Another segment will be built on Galovića field in Pranjani where the U.S. Air Force evacuated the airmen. This part of the project envisions the construction of a hangar and the placement of one C-47 aircraft inside it. In addition, multi-language plaques and maps will be erected that will allow history lovers and interested tourists to become acquainted with the Halyard Mission and the historic heritage of the area. Notes References Freeman, Gregory A. The Forgotten 500: The Untold Story of the Men Who Risked All For the Greatest Rescue Mission of World War II NAL Hardcover 2007, Karchmar, Lucien. Draža Mihailović and the Rise of the Četnik Movement, 1941-1942. New York: Garland Pub., 1987. Lees, Michael. The Rape of Serbia: The British Role in Tito's Grab for Power, 1943-1944. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991. Martin, David. Ally Betrayed: The Uncensored Story of Tito and Mihailović. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1946. Martin, David. Patriot or Traitor: The Case of General Mihailović: Proceedings and Report of the Commission of Inquiry of the Committee for a Fair Trial for Draja Mihailović. Hoover Archival Documentaries. Hoover Institution Publication, volume 191. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 1978. Martin, David. The Web of Disinformation: Churchill's Yugoslav Blunder. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990. Trew, Simon. Britain, Mihailović, and the Chetniks, 1941–42. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press in association with King's College, London, 1998. External links Poor villagers, Chetniks and American Airmen during Halyard Mission in the Nazi-occupied Serbia - Photos by Art Jibilian Operation Halyard and the Forgotten 500 – Documentary on YouTube Halyard Mission - AFNEuropa on YouTube Site of Operation Halyard on YouTube Rescue Behind Enemy Lines by Kevin Morrow, World War II Magazine, March 20, 2008 Mihaliovich and I by Richard L. Felman (1964) U.S. Marines at the Halyard Mission memorial at USMC by Army Sgt. Sean Mathis, Headquarters Marine Corps, February 9, 2009 Trying to right a wrong WWII airmen honored for role in rescue operation by Jack Kelly, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 31, 2009 Canton man a big part of greatest untold story of WWII by Jay Turner Citizen Staff (Canton Citizen), November 11, 2010 The Great Escape by Phil Scott; Air & Space Magazine, January 1, 2011 Bronze Star Awarded to Unsung WWII Hero CBS NEWS, October 17, 2010 Halyard 1944 in Yugoslavia Yugoslavia in World War II Airlifts Serbia–United States relations 1944 in Serbia Serbia in World War II 1944 in Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina in World War II Escapes and rescues during World War II

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The 2003–04 season was the 106th in the history of Arsenal Football Club. It began on 1 July 2003 and concluded on 30 June 2004, with competitive matches played between August and May. The club ended the Premier League campaign as champions without a single defeat – a record of 26 wins and 12 draws. Arsenal fared less well in the cups, eliminated in the FA Cup and League Cup semi-finals to Manchester United and Middlesbrough respectively, and at the quarter-final stage of the UEFA Champions League to Chelsea. The main addition to the first team was goalkeeper Jens Lehmann for £1.5 million; striker José Antonio Reyes was later purchased in the winter transfer window. Arsenal retained their best players and successfully negotiated new contracts for captain Patrick Vieira and midfielder Robert Pires. The stability of the squad meant Arsenal were considered front-runners for the Premier League title, along with Manchester United, and Chelsea who were taken over by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich. A strong start to the season saw Arsenal top the league table after four matches. The team's draw at Manchester United in September marked an unsavoury episode between both clubs: several Arsenal players were charged and fined accordingly by The Football Association for their part in a mass brawl that occurred after the match. In November, Arsenal beat Dynamo Kyiv by a single goal and more impressively scored five against Inter Milan at the San Siro – two results which kick-started their Champions League campaign. At the turn of the year, the team won nine league matches in a row to consolidate first position. In the first week of April, they were eliminated from the FA Cup and Champions League, but by the end of the month had secured their status as league champions, with a 2–2 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotspur. 34 different players represented the club in five competitions and there were 15 different goalscorers. Arsenal's top goalscorer for the third year running was Thierry Henry, who scored 39 goals in 51 games. The Frenchman was given the accolade of PFA Players' Player of the Year by his fellow peers and the FWA Footballer of the Year by football writers. Although the Arsenal team were unsuccessful in cup competitions, their dominance in the league was regarded by many commentators as a standalone achievement. They acquired the nickname "The Invincibles", much like the Preston North End team that went unbeaten in the inaugural Football League season. The club was awarded a golden replica trophy by the Premier League once the season concluded and they remained unbeaten for 49 games, setting a new record. In 2012, the Arsenal team of 2003–04 won the "Best Team" category in the Premier League 20 Seasons Awards. Background Arsenal had finished the previous season as runners-up in the Premier League, overhauled by Manchester United in the final ten weeks of the season. The club did, however, retain the FA Cup, with a 1–0 win against Southampton. Such was Arsenal's effective start to the 2002–03 campaign, manager Arsène Wenger suggested his team could remain the whole season undefeated in all competitions:It's not impossible as A.C. Milan once did it but I can't see why it's so shocking to say it. Do you think Manchester United, Liverpool or Chelsea don't dream that as well? They're exactly the same. They just don't say it because they're scared to look ridiculous, but nobody is ridiculous in this job as we know anything can happen. The team lost to Everton a month after Wenger's proclamation; teenager Wayne Rooney scored the match winner, which ended a run of 30 league games without defeat. By February 2003, Arsenal moved five points clear of Manchester United at the top of the league table, but injuries to key players, not least captain Patrick Vieira, had destabilised the team. Draws in April, coupled with a defeat to Leeds United at home, mathematically ended Arsenal's chances of retaining the title. Wenger refuted opinions from the media that their season was a failure and said: In the close season, Chelsea was sold to Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich for £140 million, the biggest takeover in British football history at the time. Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein however was displeased, and quipped that Abramovich had "parked his Russian tanks on our lawn and is firing £50 notes at us", Abramovich was said to have placed a bid for Arsenal striker Thierry Henry, which was turned down at once. Arsenal's transfer activity in the summer was relatively quiet, given the financial constraints that came with the club's new stadium project. The club were able to keep the core of its team, successfully negotiating new contracts for Vieira and winger Robert Pires. German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was the only major addition to the first team; he replaced David Seaman who joined Manchester City. Ukrainian defender Oleh Luzhnyi ended his four-year association with the club by joining Wolverhampton Wanderers on a free transfer, while striker Graham Barrett moved to Coventry City. Striker Francis Jeffers, who found opportunities limited in the first team, joined his former club Everton on a season-long loan. Giovanni van Bronckhorst moved to Barcelona on a similar deal, with a view to a permanent transfer at the end of the season. Several young players were acquired from academies abroad, namely Gaël Clichy from Cannes and Johan Djourou, formerly of Étoile Carouge. In January 2004, Arsenal signed Spanish striker José Antonio Reyes from Sevilla and in April agreed a deal with Feyenoord for winger Robin van Persie. Wenger at the start of the season prioritised regaining the league title: "I feel it is very important in our minds to do this and I know the hunger is strong to do it," and named Newcastle United and Liverpool, along with Manchester United and Chelsea, as Arsenal's main rivals for the Premier League. Former Arsenal midfielder Paul Merson asserted that his old club were favourites because they had the "best players … If they all remain fit week-in week-out then they will not be beaten." Glenn Moore of The Independent wrote of Arsenal's chances: "They will be thereabouts, but unless Wenger finally puts his faith in youth, and the likes of Jérémie Aliadière, Jermaine Pennant and Phillipe Senderos repay him, they may lack the depth to sustain a title campaign." Defender Sol Campbell however believed the squad was "strong enough for the league and FA Cup", but doubted their chances of winning the UEFA Champions League. The club's home strip remained unchanged from the previous season; a red jersey with white sleeves, shorts and socks. The new away kit, a retro yellow jersey with a blue collar trim and shorts, was based on the Arsenal strip worn in the 1979 FA Cup Final. Transfers In Out Loans in Loans out Pre-season To prepare for the forthcoming season, Arsenal played a series of friendlies across Western Europe. Their first match ended in defeat against Peterborough United of the Second Division; goalkeeper Stuart Taylor was forced to come off the field after colliding with Peterborough substitute Lee Clarke in the second half. Arsenal then played out a draw against Barnet, where trialist Yaya Touré – the brother of Kolo, was included in the team. In a 2011 interview, Wenger recalled Yaya's performance as being "completely average on the day" and noted his impatience stopped him from joining Arsenal; Touré went on to play for Barcelona before joining Manchester City in 2010. Arsenal undertook a tour in Austria, a year after crowd troubles forced their match in Eisenstadt to be abandoned. Wenger was absent with a stomach upset so assistant manager Pat Rice took charge of Arsenal against SC Ritzing on 22 July 2003; the team came from two goals down to draw their second consecutive friendly. Rice was pleased with Philippe Senderos' cameo in defence and said: "Still some rough edges but he will only get better working with Martin Keown and Sol Campbell." Arsenal recorded their first win of the pre-season against Austria Wien. Bergkamp capped off a "superb individual display" by scoring the first goal and setting up the second for Jeffers. The final match of the tour was against Beşiktaş, which required tightened security given the history between English and Turkish football supporters. Bergkamp scored the only goal of the match in the second half. An Arsenal XI in England two days later faced St Albans City, where they won 3–1. The main squad then travelled to Scotland to play Celtic on 2 August 2003. Both goals in the one-all draw came in the second half; the match marked the return of Vieira after three months out with a knee problem. Wenger revealed afterwards that he intended to use the pre-season as an experiment for his defence. He partnered centre back Campbell with Touré, who for much of last season played in midfield. Wenger was pleased with Touré's performance against Celtic and said: "He has quality. He was originally a central defender and, because we have kept a few clean sheets recently and he's played well, I thought we'd keep him there." An Arsenal XI travelled to Belgium for a game against Beveren and conceded two goals in the final five minutes to draw the match 2–2. Arsenal rounded off their pre-season preparations with a 3–0 win against Rangers on 5 August 2003. Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw; Red = opponents win. FA Community Shield The 2003 edition of the FA Community Shield, an annual English football match, was contested between Manchester United and Arsenal at Cardiff's Millennium Stadium on 10 August. Arsenal participated in the match as a result of their FA Cup win in 2002–03, while Manchester United were the league champions. Lehmann made his first competitive start for Arsenal and Touré continued to partner Campbell in central defence. United took a 15th-minute lead through Mikaël Silvestre, but Henry equalised for Arsenal soon after, from a free-kick. Jeffers was sent off in the second half for kicking out at Phil Neville and no further goals scored meant the outcome of the match was decided by a penalty shoot-out. Goalkeeper Tim Howard saved Van Bronckhorst and Pires' spot kicks as United won the game 4–3 on penalties. Wenger made reference to Arsenal's low crowd turnout after the match and suggested it meant there was "less and less appetite" for the Shield. He was unhappy with the league season commencing on the following Saturday: "I would have preferred to have had two more weeks, especially for the French players who were in the Confederations Cup. We certainly were not as fit as Manchester United and know many of our players were behind them fitness-wise." Premier League The 2003–04 season of the Premier League saw 20 teams play 38 matches; two against every other team, with one match at each club's stadium. Three points were awarded for each win, one point per draw, and none for defeats. At the end of the season the top two teams qualified for the group stages of the UEFA Champions League; teams in third and fourth needed to play a qualifier. August–October Arsenal hosted Everton at Highbury on the opening weekend of the season. Campbell was sent off in the 25th minute, for a professional foul on Everton midfielder Thomas Gravesen. Arsenal, despite their man disadvantage, went two goals up after 58 minutes, before Tomasz Radzinski scored for the visitors late on. A trip to the Riverside Stadium to face Middlesbrough a week after ended in a 4–0 win; the first three goals, scored by Henry, Gilberto Silva and Sylvain Wiltord all came in the first half. Three days later, Campbell and Henry each scored as Aston Villa were beaten by two goals. Arsenal continued their perfect start to the season, with an away win against Manchester City on 31 August 2003. As Campbell was suspended, Martin Keown came into the first team to partner Touré. Although Arsenal conceded first – a "comical" own goal by Lauren – and played "the worst 45 minutes that any of their fans could remember" according to journalist Matt Dickinson, Wiltord equalised in the second half, before Freddie Ljungberg had taken advantage of a Seaman error to score the winning goal. After four matches, Arsenal stood in first position, three points clear of Manchester United. Due to international fixtures, Arsenal did not play another game for two weeks. On the resumption of club football, they faced newly promoted Portsmouth at home. Striker Teddy Sheringham gave the visitors a deserved lead, before Arsenal were awarded a penalty when Pires was adjudged to have been fouled in the penalty area by Dejan Stefanović. Henry scored, and though their performance noticeably improved in the second half, the game ended in a draw. Portsmouth manager Harry Redknapp complained about the penalty decision post-match and felt Pires "…was going to get a yellow card [for diving]." The player himself denied accusations that he deceived the referee: "I did not dive and I am not a cheat. That is not the way I play." A week later, Arsenal travelled to face Manchester United at Old Trafford. Pires and Wiltord were dropped by Wenger in favour of Ray Parlour and Ljungberg; Campbell did not travel due to family bereavement. In the 80th minute, Vieira was sent off for a second bookable offence; he attempted to kick out at striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, which was seen by referee Steve Bennett. With the score 0–0, United were awarded a penalty in the 90th minute, but Van Nistelrooy's spot kick hit the bar and rebounded back into play. At the final whistle, Van Nistelrooy was immediately confronted by several Arsenal players, which escalated into an altercation between both teams. Six of Arsenal's players (Ashley Cole, Lauren, Keown, Parlour, Lehmann, Vieira) were later charged with improper conduct by The Football Association (FA), while the club were fined £175,000, the largest ever given to a club by the FA. Lauren received a four-game ban, whereas Vieira and Parlour were given one-match suspensions. In their next match, Arsenal defeated Newcastle United by three goals to two; the winner was a penalty scored by Henry. Vieira suffered an injury during the game; this commenced a period of him being in and out of the side, for two months. Arsenal then faced Liverpool on the first weekend of October at Anfield. In the absence of Vieira, Parlour was on duty as captain, while Campbell replaced Keown in defence. Aliadière was paired alongside Henry in attack. Arsenal went a goal down after 11 minutes, but equalised when Sami Hyypiä unintentionally diverted Edu's header, from an Arsenal free-kick. Pires scored the winner in the second half, which maintained the team's lead at the top of the league table. The Times correspondent Oliver Kay described Arsenal's comeback as "spirited" and noted a difference with the team, in comparison to the previous season: A tightly-fought match against Chelsea at home was settled by a second half error by goalkeeper Carlo Cudicini, which presented Henry with his seventh league goal in nine matches. Both teams up until that point were level on points at the top of the table and unbeaten. Wenger noted after the match that Chelsea's bigger squad would serve them well as the season progressed, but stressed his smaller squad had stability: "We have been together for years and have the comfort of knowing we have won things before. When we are challenged, we become even more united." Arsenal ended October with a 1–1 draw against Charlton Athletic. After 10 games, Arsenal garnered 24 points. The point earnt at Charlton was enough for the team to move back into first position, which had been occupied by Chelsea. November–December Arsenal began November with a trip to Elland Road to face Leeds United. There were no changes to the team from the Charlton game; for Leeds, Pennant started against his parent club after being granted permission by Wenger. Arsenal's victory by four goals to one was identical to the scoreline in the corresponding fixture of last season. In a match report for the News of the World, journalist Martin Samuel picked Henry as the man of the match and asserted Arsenal remained the team to beat. Attention soon turned to the North London derby, where Arsenal played Tottenham Hotspur on 8 November 2003. Tottenham had not beaten their rivals since November 1999 and their last win at Highbury had come a decade previously. Kanu was brought into the starting line-up to partner Henry, as Wiltord was ruled out with a calf strain. Arsenal conceded an early goal after Darren Anderton capitalised on a defensive mix-up, but they scored two late goals in what was described as "another stuttering" performance in The Observer. The result put Arsenal four points clear in first, albeit temporarily as Chelsea's win at home to Newcastle United 24 hours later cut their gap to one point. Arsenal did not play another game for a fortnight because of the international football break. On the resumption of club football, they played Birmingham City away from home. As suspensions came into action and there were injuries to first-team players, Wenger was forced to reshuffle his team. Clichy was handed his full debut and Pascal Cygan made his first start of the season, partnering Campbell. Ljungberg opened the scoring for Arsenal inside four minutes and further goals by Bergkamp and Pires ensured the team won their third straight match of November. By extending their unbeaten run from the start of the season to 13 league matches, Arsenal set a new Premier League record. They were then held by Fulham to a goalless draw who became the first team to deny Arsenal from scoring in 46 league matches at Highbury. The Guardian correspondent David Lacey summarised Arsenal's football on the day as "strong in the string section but short on percussion" and noted they reverted to the pattern of scoring a perfect goal, instead of being efficient. Chelsea's 1–0 win over Manchester United meant Arsenal moved down to second place on the final day of November. Two more points were dropped in Arsenal's next match, away to Leicester City on the first weekend of December. Henry was absent from the starting team as was captain Vieira. Arsenal had taken the lead at the hour mark through a Gilberto header, but conceded the equaliser in stoppage time. What made matters worse was the dismissal of Cole for a two-footed lunge on Ben Thatcher; he missed the team's next three fixtures as a result. Wenger said afterwards: "It looked like Ashley wanted to get the ball but it was a two-footed tackle that was too high, it was a red card and we have to accept it." A goal from Bergkamp earned Arsenal a 1–0 win the following week, at home to Blackburn Rovers. Chelsea's defeat a day before meant the win for Arsenal was enough to take them back top, a point clear of Manchester United, who were now in second place. Arsenal then travelled to the Reebok Stadium to play Bolton on 20 December 2003, the setting where their title challenge faltered eight months ago. Although they again picked up just a point, Wenger believed it was a useful one: "Provided Bolton keep playing like that, we will look back at this result and feel very happy. They are as good as a team as we have played." On Boxing Day, Henry scored twice for Arsenal in a 3–0 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Three days later, the team played Southampton. The only goal of the match came in the first half: Henry's through pass found Pires "who slid the ball beneath the exposed Antti Niemi". The win meant Arsenal had gone half the season without losing and the team according to The Times had begun to "establish an aura of invincibility". Arsenal ended the calendar year in second place, with 45 points from 19 matches. They were one point behind leaders Manchester United and three ahead of Chelsea. January–February On 7 January 2004, Arsenal played Everton at Goodison Park. Wenger made a host of changes: Cygan was recalled in central defence, which meant Touré was shifted onto the right and Lauren was dropped, while Parlour started in place of Gilberto in midfield. Kanu had given Arsenal the lead in the first half, only for Radzinski to score a "richly deserved late equaliser" for Everton with fifteen minutes remaining. Manchester United's victory at Bolton on the same night increased the champions' lead at the top to three points. Three days after the Everton match, Arsenal hosted Middlesbrough and put on a display Wenger described as one of the season's best: "We kept playing our natural game and could have scored more," he said. The 4–1 win meant Arsenal moved back top of the league, albeit alphabetically as their points, goal difference and goals scored were identical to that of Manchester United. A week later Arsenal beat Aston Villa by two goals to nil; both of the team's goals were scored by Henry. Controversy surrounded the Frenchman's first goal, a quickly taken free-kick which prompted confusion amongst Villa's players and brought about a reaction towards referee Mark Halsey, who signalled it was permissible. After 22 games played, Arsenal were in first place, two points clear of Manchester United. Arsenal remained unbeaten throughout February, winning all five matches. In a home match against Manchester City, Reyes made his first appearance for the club, coming on as a substitute in the second half. He had no part in the winning goal, a "crunching, beautifully judged 25-yarder" scored by Henry. Arsenal recorded an away win at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 7 February 2004, their 24th league match, which bettered a club record of games unbeaten from the start of the season (originally held by George Graham's team of 1990–91). Wenger in his post-match press conference played down the record, and said of the unbeaten run: "You need a little bit of luck and mental qualities." Henry reached a personal landmark against Southampton three days later, scoring his 100th and 101st Premier League goals. The victory moved Arsenal five points clear at the top, although they had played one more game than Manchester United. A Saturday lunchtime kick-off against Chelsea saw the return of Henry; he was absent in Arsenal's FA Cup fifth round win against the same opposition. Arsenal found themselves a goal down after 27 seconds, but responded with an equaliser in the 15th minute – Bergkamp's "delicately curving pass" found Vieira on the left side to shoot the ball past goalkeeper Neil Sullivan. The winner came six minutes later: Sullivan misjudged a corner taken by Henry, which allowed Edu to shoot into an empty net. Arsenal's lead was now seven and it represented "a stronger position than any they held last season" according to Wenger. Touré's transition into a defender was highlighted in The Times football supplement: The final match of the month was against Charlton at Highbury. Arsenal scored twice in the space of the opening four minutes, but by the end were "clinging to their lead like nervous kittens". After 27 games, the team stood in first position and had accumulated 67 points. They were nine points clear of both Chelsea and Manchester United. March–May Arsenal carried their good form into March; Henry and Pires scored in the defeat of Blackburn Rovers. It was a laboured performance from the league leaders, one which served a "…reminder of the old maxim that championships are won by teams who can pick up points when they are not playing well." Arsenal then played Bolton Wanderers at home; Wenger made one change from the previous match – Bergkamp replaced Reyes upfront. The blustery conditions forced the game to be delayed by 15 minutes, approximately the same amount of time it took Pires to score Arsenal's opener. By the 24th minute, it was 2–0: Henry's cross found Bergkamp who shot the ball past Jussi Jääskeläinen at the first attempt. Although Bolton's performance improved after scoring just before half time, the result was a ninth straight league win for Arsenal and kept them nine points clear at the top. The visit of Manchester United on 28 March 2004 provided a stern test for Arsenal; it was both clubs' first meeting since the fiasco at Old Trafford. Cole, injured in the midweek Champions League game against Chelsea, was replaced by Clichy in the starting line-up, while Bergkamp was dropped for Reyes. Henry gave Arsenal the lead, with a long range shot that swerved past goalkeeper Roy Carroll. With five minutes of the game left, Louis Saha evaded the Arsenal defence and scored the equaliser for Manchester United. Arsenal came close to a winner in injury time, only for Lauren to have his shot saved. The draw was no good for Sir Alex Ferguson, the manager of Manchester United, who afterwards conceded his team's chances: "They'll (Arsenal) go on to win the league now – I'm sure of that. They are playing with great determination … a very strong team, so should win the league really". In avoiding defeat, Arsenal set a new all-time league record of 30 matches unbeaten from the start of the season, originally held by Leeds and Liverpool. They remained in first position at the end of March and were seven points in front of Chelsea, with eight matches remaining. After two cup exits in the space of a week, Arsenal faced Liverpool on Good Friday at Highbury. Hyypiä opened the scoring for the visitors after five minutes, and in spite of Henry's equaliser just after the half-hour mark, Liverpool led again before the interval. Arsenal responded by scoring twice in a minute; Henry's second goal saw the player hold off Dietmar Hamann in midfield, weave through defender Jamie Carragher and place the ball past Jerzy Dudek. The striker completed his hat-trick in the 78th minute, after good work by Bergkamp. Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier likened Arsenal to a "wounded animal" after the match and believed Henry was "the man who made the difference … he set the tempo". Arsenal played out a goalless draw with Newcastle United on Bank Holiday Monday, and five days later faced Leeds United. On a night where Henry scored four goals and was described by his manager as "the best striker in the world", Arsenal moved to within two wins of regaining the league title. With Chelsea unable to garner maximum points in their next two matches, Arsenal knew before their game away at Tottenham that a draw would guarantee their status as champions. Cole returned for the derby, after sitting out the Leeds match with an ankle injury. Arsenal took an early lead when Vieira finished off a counter-attacking move. Incisive football brought about the second goal, ten minutes before the break. Bergkamp passed the ball to Vieira, who cut it back for Pires to sidefoot. Tottenham replied in the second half by scoring twice – the equaliser a penalty – but it did not stop the Arsenal players celebrating at the final whistle "in front of their supporters' White Hart Lane enclave". This marked the second time the club had been crowned league champions at their rivals' ground: the first time had been in 1971. Wenger praised his team for their success, telling the BBC: "We've been remarkably consistent, haven't lost a game and we have played stylish football. We have entertained people who just love football." In May, successive draws at home to Birmingham City and Portsmouth left Arsenal with 84 points from 36 games. Reyes scored the only goal of the match against Fulham; he profited from a mistake by goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar: "The Dutchman tried to go past the Arsenal forward, but instead gifted possession and with it the easiest of open goals." Arsenal's final game of the league season was against Leicester City. They conceded the opening goal, but turned the match around in the second half through goals from Henry and Vieira. With 26 wins, 12 draws and no defeats, the team became the first since Preston North End in 1888–89 to go through a league season undefeated. Reviewing the match and overall season, Amy Lawrence of The Observer wrote: "Arsenal's achievement may not make them 'great' in everyone's opinion – those who define greatness only by European Cups, back-to-back titles, and triple cartwheels on the way to every goal – but it is staggering in its own right." Matches Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw. League table Results by round FA Cup The FA Cup is English football's primary cup competition. It was first held in 1871–72 with only 15 teams entering; the growth of the sport and changes to the competition's structure meant that by 2000, more than 600 teams took part. Clubs in the Premier League enter the FA Cup in the third round and are drawn randomly out of a hat with the remaining clubs. If a match is drawn it is replayed, ordinarily at the ground of the team who were away for the first game. As with league fixtures, FA Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage and this often can be influenced by clashes with other competitions. In the case of Arsenal, all but one of their ties (fourth round) was televised to the British audience. Arsenal entered the 2003–04 edition as holders of the cup. The team were undefeated in 14 cup ties since their 2–1 loss to Liverpool in the 2001 FA Cup Final, and aimed to win the competition for a third season in succession, something last achieved by Blackburn Rovers from 1884 to 1886. Henry believed Arsenal's good cup form showed they were "interested" in the competition and hoped their success would continue. The FA Cup was not high in Wenger's priority list – "The [Premier League] and the Champions League are more important," but he clarified this never meant Arsenal intended to neglect the competition: "You win what you can and go as far as you can." Arsenal were drawn to face Leeds United away in the third round; the match was played on the first weekend of January. Wenger made six changes to the team which started at Southampton in the league, including Cole replacing Clichy at left-back after serving his three-match suspension. After eight minutes, Leeds went ahead when Lehmann's goal clearance hit striker Mark Viduka and rebounded into the net. Arsenal equalised through Henry, who converted Ljungberg's cross from the right on a volley. Additional goals from Edu, Pires and Touré inflicted a third consecutive 4–1 defeat for Leeds against Arsenal at Elland Road. At home to Middlesbrough in the fourth round, Bergkamp opened the scoring for Arsenal, following good play from Parlour. Joseph-Désiré Job equalised for the away team four minutes after, but Ljungberg restored Arsenal's lead with a shot outside the penalty box and scored a second, direct from a corner. George Boateng was sent off for the visitors in the 86th minute for two bookable offences and substitute David Bentley added a fourth goal for Arsenal, chipping the ball over goalkeeper Schwarzer in the last minute of normal time. In the fifth round, Arsenal played Chelsea at Highbury. Five minutes before the end of the first half, striker Adrian Mutu gave Chelsea the lead, with a shot from 20 yards. Reyes, who replaced Henry in the starting eleven for the tie, levelled the scoreline with a long range effort. He beat goalkeeper Sullivan for pace to score his second, which later proved to be the winning goal of the match. The quarter-final pitted Arsenal against Portsmouth at Fratton Park on 6 March 2004. Henry opened the scoring in the 25th minute and further goals from himself, Ljungberg and Touré secured the team's passage into the last four of the competition. Edu was singled out for praise by The Guardian correspondent Kevin McCarra, who enthused over the visitors' performance: "Arsenal echoed the Ajax philosophy as players swapped position and kept changing the point of attack before the mesmerised eyes of the opposition." Manchester United were Arsenal's opponents for the semi-final, staged at Villa Park on 3 April 2004. Both teams had settled for a draw in the league the previous Sunday, but given this was for a place in the final, the stakes were much higher. United defender Gary Neville described the game as his team's "most important" of the season after they were eliminated from the Champions League and he deemed them "too far behind" in the Premier League. Wenger rested Henry, mindful of the team's upcoming fixture congestion. Although Arsenal started the better of the two teams, it was United midfielder Paul Scholes who scored the only goal of the game which ensured their progress into the final. Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Red = opponents win. Football League Cup The Football League Cup is a cup competition open to clubs in the Premier League and Football League. Like the FA Cup it is played on a knockout basis, with the exception of the semi-finals, which are contested over a two-legged tie. Wenger's tenure at Arsenal has seen him use the competition to field younger and lesser known players, something he and Ferguson were initially criticised for in 1997. While Ferguson felt it was an unwanted distraction at the time, Wenger said: "If the competition wants to survive it must offer the incentive of a European place." The winners of the League Cup in the 2003–04 season earnt entry into the UEFA Cup, unless they qualified for the UEFA Champions League through their league position. League Cup matches are subject to change in the event of games being selected for television coverage, inclement weather and potential competition clashes. All rounds up until the final are played in midweek. Arsenal entered the League Cup in the third round and were drawn at home to Rotherham United. Wenger handed midfielder Cesc Fàbregas his debut at 16 years and 177 days; as of 2016 is still the youngest player to turn out for the club. Arsenal led from the 11th minute through an Aliadière goal, but conceded an equaliser late on which forced extra time. Rotherham goalkeeper Mike Pollitt was sent off for handling the ball outside his penalty area; his substitute Gary Montgomery denied Wiltord from scoring the winner. As there were no further goals, the match was decided on penalties which Arsenal won 9–8 in the shootout. Fellow divisional opponents Wolverhampton Wanderers were defeated 5–1 by Arsenal in the fourth round; Vieira, absent through injury in September and October, made his first team return and played the full match. In the fifth round, Arsenal travelled to The Hawthorns to play West Bromwich Albion. Wenger added experience to the side to complement youth, with Parlour, Edu, Kanu and Keown all featuring. Arsenal took the lead in the 25th minute through Kanu. Lauren's cross from the right-hand side deflected in the direction of the striker. His header was saved by goalkeeper Russell Hoult, who was unable to deny Kanu shooting the rebounded ball into the net. Aliadière scored Arsenal's second goal of the match following Hoult's poor clearance. Arsenal exited the competition in the semi-finals against Middlesbrough. At Highbury, the setting for the first leg, Juninho scored the only goal of the tie. Arsenal's task of progressing was made more difficult after Keown was sent off in the second leg and Boudewijn Zenden doubled Middlesbrough's aggregate scoreline. Though Edu equalised for Arsenal on the night, Reyes' own goal earnt Middlesbrough the win. Wenger opined of the result: "I don't think we deserved to lose; even when we were down to 10 men we were running the game." Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw; Red = opponents win. UEFA Champions League The UEFA Champions League is a continental club football competition organised by UEFA. Founded in the 1950s as the European Champion Clubs' Cup, the competition was open to champion clubs of each country and arranged as a straight knockout tournament. The growth of television rights saw the format rebranded in the 1990s to include a group stage and permit multiple entrants. Arsenal had qualified for every Champions League season since 1998–99, but the club never progressed further than the quarter-final stage. Ahead of the new campaign, Wenger assessed his team needed to perform in the home games, adding: "We are mature enough now and we must add that little bit of sparkle to make the difference." Group stage Arsenal were drawn in Group B, along with Italian club Inter Milan, Lokomotiv Moscow of Russia and Ukraine's Dynamo Kyiv. Wenger believed the trips to Eastern Europe threatened his team's chances of winning the Premier League: "The other English teams have more comfortable groups than we do. It is tough to go to Russia – I always say that if you have to travel more than two hours it is difficult. Sometimes the players pay a high price in the games that follow the Champions League matches." Arsenal opened their Champions League campaign with a 3–0 defeat against Inter Milan. Goals from Julio Ricardo Cruz, Andy van der Meyde and Obafemi Martins all in the first half extended Arsenal's run of six home games in the competition without a win. Wenger said afterwards: "We can complain and cry the whole night but that will not change the result. The only thing we can do is to respond." The team, without Campbell and Vieira, earned a draw away to Lokomotiv Moscow, but remained bottom of the group. Arsenal lost to Dynamo Kyiv in late October; Wenger's decision to shift from his preferred 4–4–2 formation caused the team to play more narrow than usual. Cole scored the winning goal in the reverse fixture at Highbury. A cross by Wiltord was flicked on by Henry in the direction of an incoming Cole, who dived to head the ball past goalkeeper Oleksandr Shovkovskyi. The team scored four goals in the second half against Inter Milan and won 5–1. Wenger felt the result showed there was "…a special mental strength in the team", while Cole compared it to England's victory against Germany in 2001 but added "this was even better." Arsenal won 2–0 against Lokomotiv Moscow to top Group B. Jacob Lekgetho's dismissal in the eighth minute meant the visitors played the remainder of the match with ten men. Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw; Red = opponents win. Knockout phase Round of 16 Arsenal were paired up against Celta Vigo in the last 16 stage and the first leg was held at the Balaídos. Although they conceded two goals from set pieces, Arsenal scored three times to win the game which put the team in a favourable position given the away goals rule. Their passage was secured with a 2–0 win on 10 March 2004; Henry scored both goals for the team. Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw; Red = opponents win. Quarter-finals In the quarter-finals, Arsenal met fellow English club Chelsea. The draw disappointed vice-chairman Dein: "One of the joys of playing in Europe is playing teams from overseas – and having played Chelsea three times, it is a bit anti-climactic." The first leg, played at Stamford Bridge ended in a draw with Guðjohnsen and Pires scoring for their respective clubs. Arsenal were unable to take advantage of Marcel Desailly's dismissal in the second half, but Wenger felt his team were in a good position to progress: "Our main aim will be to win the game at Highbury and we know we can do that." Henry, rested for the FA Cup semi-final match, started alongside Reyes for the second leg. It was the latter forward who gave Arsenal the lead in injury time of the first half, but Frank Lampard equalised for Chelsea in the 51st minute. With three minutes remaining of the match, defender Wayne Bridge scored to eliminate Arsenal from the competition. Colour key: Green = Arsenal win; Yellow = draw; Red = opponents win. Player statistics Arsenal used a total of 34 players during the 2003–04 season and there were 15 different goalscorers. There were also three squad members who did not make a first-team appearance in the campaign. The team played in a 4–4–2 formation throughout the season, with two wide midfielders. Touré featured in 55 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign and Lehmann started in all 38 league matches. The team scored a total of 114 goals in all competitions. The highest scorer was Henry, with 39 goals, followed by Pires who scored 19 goals. Three of Arsenal's goals in the 2003–04 season (Henry against Manchester City and Liverpool, Vieira against Tottenham Hotspur) were shortlisted for Goal of the Season by viewers of ITV's The Premiership. Five Arsenal players were sent off during the season: Jeffers, Vieira, Campbell, Cole and Keown. Key No. = Squad number Pos = Playing position Nat. = Nationality Apps = Appearances GK = Goalkeeper DF = Defender MF = Midfielder FW = Forward = Yellow cards = Red cards Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute. Players with name struck through and marked left the club during the playing season. Source: Awards In recognition of the team's achievement, Wenger was awarded the Barclaycard Manager of the Year. A spokesperson of the awards panel said of the decision: "Arsène Wenger is a very worthy recipient of this accolade and has sent his team into the history books. Arsenal have played exciting attacking football throughout the season and finishing it unbeaten is a feat that may not be repeated for another 100 years." Henry was given the accolade of PFA Players' Player of the Year by his fellow peers and the FWA Footballer of the Year by football writers for the second consecutive season. He came runner-up in both the 2003 FIFA World Player of the Year and the 2003 Ballon d'Or. Three Arsenal players received the Premier League Player of the Month award – Henry twice in January and April 2004, and Bergkamp and Edu shared the accolade in February 2004 after the judges "felt it was appropriate that we make a joint award". Wenger was the Premier League Manager of the Month in August 2003 and February 2004. Aftermath and legacy A day after the Leicester City match, Arsenal paraded the Premier League trophy on an open-top bus, in front of more than 250,000 fans. The victory parade commenced at Highbury and ended at Islington Town Hall. At the town hall balcony, Vieira addressed the crowd: "It has been a fantastic season. We achieved something unbelievable but we couldn't have done it without the fans." In an interview with the BBC, Dein added: "We've seen history made and I'd be surprised if it happens again. It's just been a privilege to watch Arsenal this season." Arsenal's achievement of going through the league season unbeaten received considerable praise from those involved in football. Derek Shaw, the chairman of Preston offered his congratulations as they equalled his club's record of completing a league season without defeat, set 115 years previously. Brazilian Roberto Carlos likened Arsenal's style of play to "samba football" while Michel Platini applauded the team's "great flair and spirit". Former Arsenal manager George Graham attributed the success to defensive improvements, since mistakes the previous season had proved costly and former striker Alan Smith felt the team were "certainly the best Highbury's ever seen". The British press unanimously praised Arsenal's feat once the season drew to a close; the News of the World branded the team as "Immortals", while The Sunday Times led with the headline "Arsenal the New Invincibles". In an otherwise positive reflection of Arsenal's season, Glenn Moore wrote for The Independent: "There may thus have been some truth in Arsène Wenger's declaration that Arsenal's achievement was a greater triumph than winning the Champions' League. Arsenal's prolonged celebrations reflected the scale of this landmark and yet, when they reflect in the summer break, how many players will agree with Wenger?". A one-off golden replica trophy was commissioned by the Premier League thereafter; it was awarded to Arsenal before their first home game of the following season. The team eclipsed the league record of 42 matches without defeat (set by Nottingham Forest) against Blackburn Rovers and went seven more matches unbeaten until they lost – away to Manchester United in October 2004. Although Arsenal regained the FA Cup – on penalties against United – they finished second to Chelsea in the league. The move to the Emirates Stadium in 2006 coincided with a transitional phase for the club. Several experienced first teamers were displaced in favour of youth and the style of football shifted more towards ball retention. Arsenal have since failed to regain the league title; they nevertheless remained a fixture in the Champions League under Wenger's stewardship in the years after. The title win at White Hart Lane came third in a list of Arsenal's Greatest 50 Moments, and the performance at the San Siro was ranked tenth. In 2012, the Arsenal team of 2003–04 won the "Best Team" category in the Premier League 20 Seasons Awards. See also 2003–04 in English football List of Arsenal F.C. seasons Notes References Specific Sources External links Tribute to the Invincibles at Arsenal.com Arsenal F.C. seasons Arsenal 2004

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The city of Jacksonville, Florida, has been home to many notable people, groups, and organizations. Those listed may have been born or raised in Jacksonville, been influenced by the city while living, working or retiring there, or lived in a nearby suburb, such as Ponte Vedra Beach, St. Johns, Amelia Island or Orange Park. Civil rights leaders Listed chronologically by year of birth: James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938), educator, lawyer, diplomat, songwriter, and civil rights activist; wrote The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man and the words to "Lift Every Voice and Sing" A. Philip Randolph (1889–1979), African-American civil rights activist Rodney Hurst (born 1944), youth sit-in leader during Ax Handle Saturday Political and government leaders Listed chronologically by year of birth: Saturiwa (16th century), paramount chief of the Saturiwa chiefdom, comprising 30 Mocama Timucua villages in present-day Jacksonville Jean Ribault (1520–1565), French naval officer who led the first recorded expedition to the Jacksonville area René Goulaine de Laudonnière (c. 1529–1574), founder of Fort Caroline in modern Jacksonville, the first French settlement in North America Isaiah Hart (1792–1861), plantation owner and founder of Jacksonville Ossian B. Hart (1821–1874), 10th governor of Florida 1873–1874 and Florida Supreme Court Justice Francis P. Fleming (1841–1908), 15th governor of Florida 1889–1893 Napoleon B. Broward (1857–1910), 19th governor of Florida 1905–1909; Jacksonville Sheriff 1888–1894 Duncan U. Fletcher (1859–1936), two-term mayor of Jacksonville and U.S. Senator 1909–1936 Claude L'Engle (1868–1919), United States Representative from Florida St. Elmo W. Acosta (1875–1947), city commissioner, state legislator and parks commissioner Ion Farris (1878–1934), former Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives and member of the Florida Senate John W. Martin (1884–1958), former Jacksonville mayor and 24th governor of Florida 1921–1925 Emory H. Price (1899–1976), U.S. Representative from Florida Fuller Warren (1905–1973), 30th governor of Florida 1949–1953 Charles Edward Bennett (1910–2003), U.S. representative from 2nd/3rd congressional district 1949–1993 W. Haydon Burns (1912–1987), 35th governor of Florida 1965–1967; Jacksonville mayor 1949–1965 Dorcas Drake (1916–1993), Duval County judge and philanthropist Jerry E. Hinshaw (1917–2003), Arkansas state representative from 1981 to 1996; worked for Ralston-Purina in Jacksonville after World War II Alan Stephenson Boyd (1922–2020), the first United States Secretary of Transportation Ed Austin (1926–2011), former mayor of Jacksonville Willye Dennis (1926–2012), Florida House of Representatives: 15th District 1992–2009 Edward L. Howard (1926–2011), Pennsylvania State Senator: 10th District 1971–1986 Claude R. Kirk, Jr. (1926–2011), 36th governor of Florida 1967–1971 Lou Ritter (1926–2010), former mayor of Jacksonville Hans Tanzler (1927–2013), former mayor of Jacksonville Don Davis (1931–2008), city council president, Florida legislator and civic leader Lou Frost (1931–2008), lawyer and public defender 1968–2005 Maurice M. Paul (1932–2016), United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida Judge Don Fuqua (born 1933), U.S. representative from 9th/2nd congressional district 1963–1987 Jake Godbold (1933–2020), former mayor of Jacksonville Frank F. Ledford, Jr. (1934–2019), former Surgeon General of the U.S. Army Bill Birchfield (1935–2016), state legislator 1970–1974, lawyer, civic leader Tom Slade, Jr. (1936–2014), legislator, lobbyist, businessman James E. King (1939–2009), State Representative 1986–1999; State Senator 1999–2009 Harry Shorstein (born 1941), lawyer and State Attorney, 4th Judicial Circuit 1991–2008 Tillie Fowler (1942–2005), U.S. representative: 4th congressional district 1993–2001; Jacksonville City Council: 1985–1992 Nat Glover (born 1943), first African-American sheriff of Jacksonville, 1995–2003 Ander Crenshaw (born 1944), State Representative 1972–1978; State Senator 1986–1994; U.S. Representative: 4th congressional district 2001–2008+ Mike Blouin (born 1945), U.S. Representative for Iowa's Second Congressional District Tommy Hazouri (1945–2021), former Jacksonville mayor and current Duval school board member Corrine Brown (born 1946), U.S. representative John Rutherford (born 1952), Sheriff of Jacksonville 2004–2015, U.S. Congressman 2017-present Angela Corey (born 1954), lawyer and State Attorney, 4th Judicial Circuit 2009–2012 John Delaney (born 1956), former mayor of Jacksonville and former president of the University of North Florida Randy Brinson (born 1957), gastroenterologist and Christian right activist Thom Tillis (born 1960), U.S. Senator Alvin Brown (born 1961), first African-American mayor of Jacksonville 2011–2015 John Peyton (born 1964), Jacksonville mayor 2004–2011 Ron DeSantis (born 1978), U.S. representative from Florida's 6th Congressional District, current governor of Florida Business and civic leaders Listed chronologically by year of birth: Zephaniah Kingsley (1765–1843), major slaveholder and owner of Kingsley Plantation Anna Kingsley (1793–1870), former slave, common-law wife of Kingsley, who became a businesswoman and slaveholder Henry Morrison Flagler (1830–1913), tycoon, real estate promoter, railroad developer and partner in Standard Oil Alexander Darnes (c.1840–1894), born into slavery, gained his medical degree and became first black doctor of Jacksonville Alfred I. duPont (1864–1935), industrialist, financier and philanthropist Abraham Lincoln Lewis (1865–1947), businessman and developer of American Beach, Florida Cora Crane (1865–1910), journalist, brothel owner known for her relationship with Stephen Crane, lived in the Jacksonville area multiple from 1894 Arthur Pratt Warner (1870–1957), aviator Henry John Klutho (1873–1964), Prairie School architect who influenced redevelopment of Jacksonville following the Great Fire of 1901 Eartha M. M. White (1876–1974), African-American philanthropist and humanitarian Maxey Dell Moody (1883–1949), founder of M. D. Moody & Sons, Inc. Jessie Ball duPont (1884–1970), teacher and philanthropist Charles E. Merrill (1885–1956), co-founder of Merrill, Lynch & Company Ed Ball (1888–1981), businessman who ran the Alfred I. duPont Testamentary Trust for 46 years H. Terry Parker (1890–1970), philanthropist; co-founder of Gulf Life Insurance Co., vice president of A.B. Farquhar Company Leslie R. Nicholas (1902–1948), The Guardian Life Insurance Company of America executive and Pacific War veteran Louis Wolfson (1912–2007), Wall Street financier, race horse owner-breeder and philanthropist Maxey Dell Moody, Jr. (1913–1987), businessman and founder of MOBRO Marine, Inc. Denham Fouts (1914–1949), prostitute, socialite and literary muse J. J. Daniel (1916–1990), lawyer, businessman and civic leader Claude Yates (1916–1988), business executive and "father of Jacksonville Consolidation" Taylor Hardwick (1925–2014), architect of Jacksonville schools, businesses and parks Herb Peyton (born 1926), businessman and civic leader Homer G. Lindsay, Jr. (1927–2000), influential preacher and former pastor of the nation's third largest Southern Baptist church Leslie Nicholas Jr. (1927–2007), Southern Bell executive Raymond K. Mason (born 1927), businessman and protégé of Ed Ball Frank Cerveny (born 1933), Episcopal bishop of Florida Lex Hester (1935–2000), key architect of Jacksonville's consolidated government Wayne Weaver (born 1935), shoe mogul and former owner of Jacksonville Jaguars from (1993 to 2011) MaVynee Betsch (1935–2005), Black activist and environmentalist for American Beach Jerry Vines (born 1937), president, Southern Baptist Convention, and former pastor of the nation's third-largest Southern Baptist church Preston Haskell (born 1938), founder and chairman, The Haskell Company; minority owner of Jacksonville Jaguars Tom Petway (born 1941), businessman, Jacksonville Jaguars minority partner, civic leader Theodore Roosevelt IV (born 1942), businessman and great-grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt Norman E. Thagard (born 1943), NASA astronaut Maxey Dell Moody III (born 1944), businessman Donald Moran (born 1945), chief judge of 4th judicial circuit Steve Pajcic (born 1946), lawyer, state representative, Florida Gubernatorial candidate and philanthropist Gary Pajcic (1947–2006), athlete, lawyer and philanthropist Elizabeth Edwards (1949–2010), attorney, law professor and wife of Senator John Edwards Shahid Khan (born 1950), entrepreneur and owner of the Jacksonville Jaguars Samuel Johnson Howard (born 1951), Episcopal bishop of Florida Carey Cavanaugh (born 1955), professor and former American ambassador/peace mediator John Palumbo (born 1958), motivational speaker, businessman and salesman John Michael Phillips (born 1975), attorney, motivational speaker and news commentator Diana Eng (born 1983), fashion designer and contestant on Season 2 of Project Runway Zoe Keffer (born 2006), first junior handler to win Best of Breed in Rottweilers at the Best of Breed at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show Artists Augusta Savage (1892–1962), sculptor associated with the Harlem Renaissance David Johnson (born 1926), photographer of San Francisco's Fillmore District, first African American student of Ansel Adams Mildred Thompson (1935–2003), painter, printmaker and sculptor Writers Listed chronologically by year of birth: Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896), author and abolitionist, best known for Uncle Tom's Cabin Stephen Crane (1871–1900), author of The Red Badge of Courage, lived in Jacksonville for a few weeks in 1896 and 1897; the stay inspired "The Open Boat" Zora Neale Hurston (1891–1960), author and anthropologist, known for Their Eyes Were Watching God, lived in Jacksonville during several periods from 1904 Pat Frank (1908–1964), journalist and novelist Stetson Kennedy (1916–2011), author, folklorist and human rights activist who infiltrated the Ku Klux Klan, exposing its secrets to authorities and the outside world Madeleine L'Engle (1918–2007), author of A Wrinkle in Time E. L. Konigsburg (1930–2013), Newbery-winning novelist Rebecca Heflin (born 1963), women's fiction and romance novelist Charles Martin (born 1969), New York Times-bestselling author Deesha Philyaw (born c. 1971), author of The Secret Lives of Church Ladies Dawnie Walton (born 1976), journalist and author of The Final Revival of Opal & Nev Greg Wrenn (born c. 1980), poet and nonfiction writer Dantiel Moniz (born c. 1990), author of Blood Milk Heat Scientists and scholars Mazie O. Tyson (c. 1900–1975), geographer, college professor John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008), theoretical physicist Philip Don Estridge (1937–1985), "Father of the IBM PC," led development of original IBM Personal Computer Michael Persinger (born 1945), neuroscientist, psychologist and noted philanthropist Susana Urbina (born 1946), psychologist, professor at the University of North Florida Charles T. Meide (born 1971), maritime archaeologist and Director of LAMP at the St. Augustine Lighthouse Kevin Folta (born 1967), professor of horticultural sciences at the University of North Florida Athletes Listed chronologically by year of birth: Bob Gandy (1893–1945), MLB outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies Paul Schreiber (1902–1982), MLB pitcher and coach for the New York Yankees Coley Wallace (1927–2005), heavyweight boxer and actor Tom Scott (1930–2015), NFL linebacker for the Philadelphia Eagles and New York Giants Don Bessent (1931–1990), MLB pitcher for the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers John Chaney (1932–2021), Temple University basketball coach Dennis Viollet (1933–1999), Manchester United, Stoke City soccer player, Jacksonville University men's soccer coach Al Frazier (1935–2018), college all-American and Denver Broncos football player LeeRoy Yarbrough (1938–1984), NASCAR driver Al Denson (born 1942), NFL wide receiver for the Denver Broncos and Minnesota Vikings Bob Hayes (1942–2002), 1964 Olympic gold medalist (2) sprinter; Hall of Fame NFL wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys Joseph Dube (born 1944), Olympic medalist 1968 Summer Olympics and world champion 1969 World Weightlifting Championships Sam Davis (1944–2019), offensive guard for Pittsburgh Steelers Tug McGraw (1944–2004), pitcher for New York Mets, Jacksonville Suns and Philadelphia Phillies; father of Tim McGraw Ron Sellers (born 1947), NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots, Dallas Cowboys and Miami Dolphins Ken Burrough (born 1948), NFL wide receiver for the Houston Oilers and New Orleans Saints Harold Carmichael (born 1949), NFL wide receiver with Philadelphia Eagles for 14 seasons Larry Brown (born 1949), NFL tight end Ray Nettles (1949–2009), Canadian Football League Hall of Fame linebacker Boobie Clark (1950–1988), NFL fullback with Cincinnati Bengals for six seasons Ed Jenkins (born 1950), NFL wide receiver with four teams Jack Youngblood (born 1950), NFL Hall-of-Fame defensive end with the Los Angeles Rams Tom Sullivan (1950–2002), NFL running back with the Philadelphia Eagles and Cleveland Browns Noah Jackson (born 1951), NFL offensive lineman with the Chicago Bears and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Mark McCumber (born 1951), professional golfer Greg Coleman (born 1954), NFL punter for the Cleveland Browns, Minnesota Vikings and Washington Redskins Ron Meeks (born 1954), CFL player and NFL coach Derrick Gaffney (born 1955), NFL wide receiver for the New York Jets Fred Funk (born 1956), professional golfer Terry LeCount (born 1956), NFL wide receiver for the San Francisco 49ers and Minnesota Vikings Ron Duguay (born 1957), NHL player and ACHL and WHA coach Calvin Muhammad (born 1958), NFL wide receiver with the Los Angeles Raiders, Washington Redskins and San Diego Chargers Patty Moise (born 1960), NASCAR driver Vince Coleman (born 1961), MLB left fielder, St. Louis Cardinals Glenn Davis (born 1961), MLB first baseman for the Houston Astros and Baltimore Orioles "Merciless" Ray Mercer (born 1961), WBO World Heavyweight Champion 1991 and Olympic gold medalist Norris Coleman (born 1961), NBA forward for the Los Angeles Clippers, 1994 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP Nancy Hogshead-Makar (born 1962), national and 1984 Olympic gold medalist swimmer Mike Oliphant (born 1963), NFL running back for the Washington Redskins and Cleveland Browns Vijay Singh (born 1963), professional golfer Bryan Barker (born 1964), punter for six NFL teams Otis Smith (born 1964), NBA player and GM Orlando Magic Willie Smith (born 1964), NFL player Joel Davis (born 1965), Major League Baseball pitcher for the Chicago White Sox Alvin Heggs (born 1967), NBA player with the Houston Rockets Rena Mero (born 1967), Rena Greek aka "Sable," WWE wrestler and actress Rick Wilkins (born 1967), MLB catcher with the Chicago Cubs Steve Lofton (born 1968), NFL cornerback with four teams Gary Alexander (born 1969), basketball player Dexter Jackson (born 1969), IFBB pro bodybuilder, 2008 Mr Olympia and nine-time Arnold Classic Champion Edgar Bennett (born 1969), Green Bay Packers running back Shawn Jefferson (born 1969), NFL wide receiver and coach Martin Lopez Zubero (born 1969), Olympic swimming gold medalist Dee Brown (born 1969), NBA player, Boston Celtics, Toronto Raptors, and Orlando Magic Jim Furyk (born 1970), professional golfer David Duval (born 1971), professional golfer Chipper Jones (born 1972), MLB third baseman, Atlanta Braves Nate Campbell (born 1972), professional boxer and lightweight title holder Derrick Alexander (born 1973), NFL defensive end for the Minnesota Vikings and Cleveland Browns Brian Dawkins (born 1973), NFL safety, Philadelphia Eagles Chris Terry (born 1975), NFL center, Kansas City Chiefs Sam Cowart (born 1975), NFL linebacker for the Buffalo Bills, New York Jets and Minnesota Vikings Paul Rigdon (born 1975), MLB pitcher for the Cleveland Indians and Milwaukee Brewers Micah Ross (born 1975), NFL wide receiver for the Jacksonville Jaguars, San Diego Chargers and Carolina Panthers Rahim Abdullah (born 1976), NFL and CFL player Travis Tomko (born 1976), "TomKo," TNA professional wrestler Ryan Freel (1976–2012), MLB infielder and outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds Laveranues Coles (born 1977), NFL wide receiver for the New York Jets Rod Gardner (born 1977), NFL wide receiver for the Kansas City Chiefs Daniel Hollie (born 1977), WWE professional wrestler Lito Sheppard (born 1977), NFL cornerback for the Philadelphia Eagles Travis Chapman (born 1978), MLB third baseman for the Philadelphia Phillies Elijah Burke (born 1978), TNA professional wrestler Roosevelt Williams (born 1978), NFL cornerback for the Chicago Bears Travis Taylor (born 1978), wide receiver for six NFL teams Matt Lehr (born 1979), guard for six NFL teams Khalid Abdullah (born 1979), NFL and CFL linebacker Michael Jennings (born 1979), NFL wide receiver for the Indianapolis Colts Chris Barnwell (born 1979), MLB infielder for the Milwaukee Brewers Ryan Jorgensen (born 1979), MLB player for the Florida Marlins, Cincinnati Reds and Minnesota Twins Dez White (born 1979), NFL wide receiver for the Chicago Bears and Atlanta Falcons Jabar Gaffney (born 1980), NFL wide receiver for the New England Patriots Jonathan Papelbon (born 1980), MLB pitching closer for the Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, Washington Nationals Rashean Mathis (born 1980), NFL cornerback for the Jacksonville Jaguars Brett Myers (born 1980), MLB relief pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies Ben Nowland (born 1980), Arena Football League player Brian Buscher (born 1981), MLB third baseman for the Minnesota Twins Bubba Dickerson (born 1981), professional golfer Amer Delic (born 1982), professional tennis player Lionel Gates (born 1982), NFL running back for the Buffalo Bills and Tampa Bay Buccaneers Ciatrick Fason (born 1982), NFL running back for the Minnesota Vikings Darren O'Day (born 1982), MLB pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles, Los Angeles Angels, New York Mets and Texas Rangers Guss Scott (born 1982), NFL safety for the New England Patriots and Houston Texans Leon Washington (born 1982), NFL running back for the New York Jets Brian Clark (born 1983), former NFL and CFL wide receiver Jamaal Fudge (born 1983), NFL safety for Jacksonville Jaguars Howie Kendrick (born 1983), MLB player for the Washington Nationals Stephen Nicholas (born 1983), NFL linebacker for the Atlanta Falcons Christian Gaddis (born 1984), NFL center for the Buffalo Bills, Cleveland Browns and Indianapolis Colts Reggie Lewis (born 1984), NFL and CFL cornerback Dee Webb (born 1984), NFL cornerback for the Jacksonville Jaguars Daniel Murphy (born 1985), MLB infielder for the Washington Nationals Bobby Cassevah (born 1985), MLB pitcher for the Los Angeles Angels Clarence Denmark (born 1985), NFL and CFL wide receiver Marcus Thomas (born 1985), NFL defensive tackle Billy Butler (born 1986), MLB DH for the Kansas City Royals Sha'reff Rashad (born 1986), NFL safety for the New York Giants Tony Carter (born 1986), NFL cornerback for the Denver Broncos Derwin Kitchen (born 1986), basketball player for Ironi Nahariya of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Josh Sitton (born 1986), NFL offensive guard for the Green Bay Packers Riley Skinner (born 1986), quarterback at Wake Forest University Tim Tebow (since age three; born 1987 in the Philippines), 2007 Heisman Trophy winner, Florida Gators, NFL quarterback, former professional baseball player Byron Hardmon (born 1981), former University of Florida football player, current defensive ends coach at Troy University Gerard Ross (born 1987), NFL player for the Seattle Seahawks Jaime Harper (born 1987), Clemson Tigers running back Kelly Kelly (born Barbara Jean Blank in 1987), actress, model, former WWE professional wrestler, former WWE Divas Champion Brian Ferlin (born 1992), NHL forward for the Boston Bruins Hayden Hurst (born 1993), former University of South Carolina player, NFL tight end, former professional baseball player Ryan Murphy (born 1995), Olympic swimming gold medalist Grayson Allen (born 1995), NBA guard for the Milwaukee Bucks Mac Jones (born 1998), former University of Alabama Quarterback, Heisman Trophy Runner-Up, NFL quarterback Nassir Little (born 2000), NBA player for the Portland Trail Blazers Entertainers Listed chronologically by year of birth: Merian C. Cooper (1893–1973), Hollywood director, producer and writer, King Kong Rosalie King-Simpson (1902–1997), stage actress and singer Professor Backwards (born 1910), comedian with 23 appearances on the Ed Sullivan Show Ruth Hall (1910–2003), actress William Tuttle (1912–2007), Hollywood makeup artist for over 300 movies and television shows Frankie Manning (1914–2009), dancer and choreographer Meinhardt Raabe (1915–2010), actor, played the Coroner Munchkin in The Wizard of Oz; resided at Penny Farms Retirement Community Dorothy Shay (1921–1978), chanteuse, "The Park Avenue Hillbillie" David Jack Holt (1927–2003), child actor, groomed to be the male Shirley Temple Wanda Hendrix (1928–1981), actress, married World War II hero Audie Murphy Leonard Jackson (1928–2013), actor, starred on PBS shows Sesame Street and Shining Time Station Dave Madden (1931–2014), actor, known for starring in the 1970s sitcom The Partridge Family, in which he played the group's manager, Reuben Kincaid Paula Kelly (1943–2020), dancer and actress best known for Sweet Charity and The Andromeda Strain Gene Deckerhoff (born 1945), the voice of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Florida State Seminoles Patrika Darbo (born 1948), television actress, Days of Our Lives Ken Fallin (born 1948), caricaturist Richard Chaves (born 1951), actor, known for playing "Poncho" in Predator Henriette Allais (born 1954), model, Playboy Playmate March, 1980 Michael Emerson (born 1954), film, television, and stage actor Rex Smith (born 1955), actor and singer, The Pirates of Penzance Linden Ashby (born 1960), actor, known for playing Johnny Cage in Mortal Kombat and Sheriff Noah Stilinski in the MTV series Teen Wolf Donna Deegan (born 1962), television news anchor Leanza Cornett (1971–2020), 1993 Miss America, television actress Al Letson (born 1974), radio host; host of National Public Radio's Reveal Nichole Van Croft (1973–2018), model, Playboy Playmate October, 2000 Kat Candler (born 1974), film writer, producer, and director Rahman Johnson (born 1976), radio personality, politician Lil Duval (born 1977), comedian Jennifer Rovero (born 1978), model, Playboy Playmate July, 1999 Emily Swallow (born 1979), film and television actor Aaron Staton (born 1980), film and television actor Daniel Breaker (born 1980), stage actor Jessica Morris (born 1980), television actress, One Life to Live Yoanna House (born 1980), fashion model, winner of cycle 2 of America's Next Top Model Patrick Heusinger (born 1981), film, television, and stage actor Tiffany Selby (born 1981), model, Playboy Playmate July, 2007 Whitney Thompson (born 1987), fashion model, winner of tenth cycle of America's Next Top Model Ashley Greene (born 1987), actress, best known as Alice Cullen in Twilight Ned Fulmer (born 1987), YouTuber, host of The Try Guys RJ Cyler (born 1995), actor Musicians and composers Listed chronologically by year of birth: Frederick Delius (1862–1934), English composer, wrote Florida Suite; studied music in Jacksonville, lived nearby John Rosamond Johnson (1873–1954), musical composer, brother of James Weldon Arthur "Blind" Blake (1896–1934), influential blues guitarist George Paxton (1914–1989), big band jazz leader, saxophonist, composer, producer Billy Daniels (1915–1988), big band singer, actor Samuel Jones (1924–1981), jazz bassist and cellist Ray Charles (1930–2004), blind, soulful singer Luther Dixon (1931–2009), record producer and songwriter Jack Sheldon (1931–2019), bebop and West Coast jazz trumpeter, singer and actor Pat Boone (born 1934), popular 1950s singer, actor and teen idol Nick Todd (born 1935), pop singer Jo Ann Campbell (born 1938), country and pop singer, actress Scott McKenzie (1939–2012), rock and roll singer Johnny Tillotson (born 1939), pop singer, songwriter, actor Gary U.S. Bonds (born 1939), R&B singer Alan Jabbour (1939–2017), old-time fiddler and folklorist J.R. Cobb (1944–2019), guitarist and songwriter; member of Classics IV and Atlanta Rhythm Section Jackie Moore (1946–2019), R&B singer Claude "Butch" Trucks (1947–2017), drummer of Allman Brothers Band Ronnie Van Zant (1948–1977), singer-songwriter, founder of Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd Rick Dees (born 1950), radio disc jockey, recorded novelty hit "Disco Duck" Danny Joe Brown (1951–2005), songwriter and former singer for the band Molly Hatchet Gary Rossington (born 1951), guitarist, songwriter and founding member of Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd Allen Collins (1952–1990), guitarist, songwriter and founding member of Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd Donnie Van Zant (born 1952), lead singer of Southern rock band .38 Special Johnny Van Zant (born 1959), lead vocalist for Lynyrd Skynyrd since reforming in 1987 Glenn Jones (born 1962), R&B and gospel singer Marcus Roberts (born 1963), jazz pianist, composer, arranger, bandleader, and teacher Vic Chesnutt (1964–2009), folk rock singer-songwriter Fred Durst (born 1970), lead singer, founder of Nu metal band Limp Bizkit James MacDonough (born 1970), former Iced Earth and Megadeth bass player Greg Eklund (born 1970), drummer of Everclear Scooter Ward (born 1970), singer, founder of post-grunge/alternative metal band Cold Jeremy Marshall (born 1971), bassist for the band Cold Terry Balsamo (born 1972), lead guitar for the band Evanescence Rogue (born 1972), lead singer for the goth/electropop band The Crüxshadows Kelly Hayes (born 1973), lead guitarist for the band Cold Scott Borland (born 1977), former keyboard player for the band Limp Bizkit Sam Rivers (born 1977), bass player for the band Limp Bizkit Sam McCandless (born 1978), drummer for the band Cold Ryan Key (born 1979), lead singer of the punk rock band Yellowcard Derek Trucks (born 1979), child prodigy on guitar, member of Allman Brothers Band and Derek Trucks Band Ben Cooper (born 1982), singer-songwriter, Electric President and Radical Face Shannon Wright, singer-songwriter Asia Cruise (born 1990), contemporary R&B singer YK Osiris (born 1998) singer-songwriter Bands Listed chronologically by year the band was formed: Classics IV (1965), pop rock The Allman Brothers Band (1969), Southern rock Lynyrd Skynyrd (1970), Southern rock Blackfoot (1972), rock/Southern rock Molly Hatchet (1975), Southern rock .38 Special (1975), rock 69 Boyz (1993), hip hop Limp Bizkit (1994), nu-metal Inspection 12 (1994), pop punk Quad City DJ's (1995), hip hop Cold (1996), post-grunge Yellowcard (1997), pop punk Swirl 360 (1998), pop rock Skyliner (2000), power metal Burn Season (2001), hard rock Evergreen Terrace (2001), melodic hardcore Shinedown (2001), rock Greyfield (2001), pop punk Whole Wheat Bread (2003), punk rock Casey Jones (2003), hardcore Electric President (2003), indie/electronic Radical Face (2003), experimental/folk/indie The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus (2003), rock Astronautalis (2003), hip hop The Summer Obsession (2006), pop rock Black Kids (2006), indie rock Fit For Rivals (2008), rock Tedeschi Trucks Band (2010), rock, blues rock, blues, soul Breaking Through (2011), rock The Black Pine (2014), indie/alternative rock Serial killers Listed chronologically by year of birth: Henry Lee Lucas (1936–2001), serial killer George Ronald York (1943–1965), executed spree killer Paul John Knowles (1946–1974), serial killer nicknamed The Casanova Killer Ottis Toole (1947–1996), serial killer and probable murderer of Adam Walsh Gary Ray Bowles (1962-2019), serial killer Paul Durousseau (born 1970), serial killer nicknamed the Killer Cabbie References Jacksonville, Florida Jacksonville, Florida-related lists Jacksonville

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Brand awareness is the extent to which customers are able to recall or recognize a brand under different conditions. Brand awareness is one of two dimensions from brand knowledge, an associative network memory model. Brand awareness is a key consideration in consumer behavior, advertising management, and brand management. The consumer's ability to recognize or recall a brand is central to purchasing decision-making. Purchasing cannot proceed unless a consumer is first aware of a product category and a brand within that category. Awareness does not necessarily mean that the consumer must be able to recall a specific brand name, but they must be able to recall enough distinguishing features for purchasing to proceed. Creating Brand Awareness is the main step in advertising a new product or bringing back the older brand in light. Brand awareness consists of two components: brand recall and brand recognition. Several studies have shown that these two components operate in fundamentally different ways as brand recall is associated with memory retrieval, and brand recognition involves object recognition. Both brand recall and brand recognition play an important role in consumers’ purchase decision process and in marketing communications. Brand awareness is closely related to concepts such as the evoked set and consideration set which include the specific brands a consumer considers in purchasing decision. Consumers are believed to hold between three and seven brands in their consideration set across a broad range of product categories. Consumers typically purchase one of the top three brands in their consideration set as consumers have shown to buy only familiar, well-established brands. As brands are competing in a highly globalized market, brand awareness is a key indicator of a brand's competitive market performance. Given the importance of brand awareness in consumer purchasing decisions, marketers have developed a number of metrics designed to measure brand awareness and other measures of brand health. These metrics are collectively known as Awareness, Attitudes and Usage (AAU) metrics. To ensure a product or brand's market success, awareness levels must be managed across the entire product life-cycle - from product launch to market decline. Many marketers regularly monitor brand awareness levels, and if they fall below a predetermined threshold, the advertising and promotional effort is intensified until awareness returns to the desired level. Importance of brand awareness Brand awareness is related to the functions of brand identities in consumers’ memory and can be measured by how well the consumers can identify the brand under various conditions. Brand awareness plays an important role in the consumer's purchasing decision-making process. Strong brand awareness can be a predictor of brand success. Brand awareness is strengthened by its brand-related associations such as the consumers’ evaluation of the brand and their perceived quality of the brand. Consequently, brands focus on improving customer satisfaction and invest in advertising to increase consumers’ brand awareness. Brand awareness is a key indicator of a brand's market performance. Brands competing in a highly globalized market invest in global advertising and distribution to compete for consumers’ attention and awareness. As capitalism and global transport contribute to consumer behavior, many marketers regularly monitor brand awareness levels. If these levels fall below a predetermined threshold, the advertising and promotional effort is intensified until awareness returns to the desired level. In marketing planning and brand management, it is important to set objectives to promote brand awareness to motivate consumers to purchase a given brand's products. Brand awareness is one of the major brand assets that adds value to the product, service or company. Investing in building brand awareness can lead to sustainable competitive advantages, thus, leading to long-term value. Brand Equity Brand equity is the sum of assets and liabilities relating to a brand, its name and logo, and the sum or difference is the value that is offered by the product or service or a company or the company's customers. For the assets and liabilities to have effect on brand equity, they have to be related to the name or logo of the brand. If the brand's name or logo changes, then, it can either have a positive or a negative impact on the assets and liabilities of the brand, with some of them getting transferred to the new name and logo. The brand equity stands on the assets and liabilities and it can differ from factor to factor such as, brand loyalty, brand name awareness, how a customer perceives the quality of a brand, and other proprietary assets such as patent and trademark. Types of brand awareness Brand awareness is divided into two components: brand recall (also known as unaided recall or occasionally spontaneous recall) and brand recognition (also known as aided brand recall). These types of awareness operate in entirely different ways with important implications for marketing strategy and advertising. Brand recall Brand recall is also known as unaided recall or spontaneous recall and refers to the ability of the consumer to correctly generate a brand from memory when prompted by a product category. When prompted by a product category, most consumers can only recall a relatively small set of brands, typically around 3–5 brand names. In consumer tests, few consumers can recall more than seven brand names within a given category and for low-interest product categories, most consumers can only recall one or two brand names... Research suggests that the number of brands that consumers can recall is affected by both individual and product factors including; brand loyalty, brand knowledge, situational and usage factors, and education level. For instance, consumers who are highly experienced with a given product category or brand may be able to recall a slightly larger set of brand names than those who are less experienced with a given product category or brand. Brand recognition Brand recognition is also known as aided recall and refers to the ability of the consumers to confirm that they have seen or heard of a given brand before. This does not necessarily require that the consumers have to identify the brand name. Instead, it means that consumers can recognize the brand upon presentation, either at the point-of-sale or after viewing its visual packaging. Top-of-mind awareness Consumers will normally purchase one of the top three brands in their consideration set. This is known as top-of-mind awareness. Consequently, one of the goals for most marketing communications is to increase the probability that consumers will include the brand in their consideration sets. By definition, top-of-mind awareness is "the first brand that comes to mind when a customer is asked an unprompted question about a category." When discussing top-of-mind awareness among larger groups of consumers (as opposed to a single consumer), it is more often defined as the "most remembered" or "most recalled" brand name(s). A brand that enjoys top-of-mind awareness will generally be considered as a genuine purchase option, provided that the consumer is favorably disposed to the brand name. Top-of-mind awareness is relevant when consumers make a quick choice between competing brands in low-involvement categories or for impulse type purchases. Marketing implications of brand awareness Brand awareness is closely related to the concepts of the evoked set (defined as the set of brands that a consumer can elicit from memory when contemplating a purchase) and the consideration set (defined as the “small set of brands which a consumer pays close attention to when making a purchase decision”). One of the central roles of advertising is to create both brand awareness and brand image, in order to increase the likelihood that a brand is included in the consumer's evoked set or consideration set and regarded favorably. Consumers do not learn about products and brands from advertising alone. When making purchase decisions, consumers acquire information from a wide variety of sources in order to inform their decisions. After searching for information about a category, consumers may become aware of a larger number of brands which collectively are known as the awareness set. Thus, the awareness set is likely to change as consumers acquire new information about brands or products. A review of empirical studies in this area suggests that the consideration set is likely to be at least three times larger than the evoked set. Awareness alone is not sufficient to trigger a purchase, consumers also need to be favorably disposed to a brand before it will be considered as a realistic purchase option. The process of moving consumers from brand awareness and a positive brand attitude through to the actual sale is known as conversion. While advertising is an excellent tool for creating awareness and brand attitude, it usually requires support from other elements in the marketing program to convert attitudes into actual sales. Other promotional activities, such as telemarketing, are vastly superior to advertising in terms of generating sales. Accordingly, the advertising message might attempt to drive consumers to direct sales call centers as part of an integrated communications strategy. Many different techniques can be used to convert interest into sales including special price offers, special promotional offers, attractive trade-in terms or guarantees. Percy and Rossiter (1992) argue that the two types of awareness, namely brand recall and brand recognition, operate in fundamentally different ways in the purchase decision. For routine purchases such as fast moving consumer goods (FMCG), few shoppers carry shopping lists. For them, the presentation of brands at the point-of-sale acts as a visual reminder and triggers category need. In this case, brand recognition is the dominant mode of awareness. For other purchases, where the brand is not present, the consumer first experiences category need then searches memory for brands within that category. Many services, such as home help, gardening services, pizza delivery fall into this category. In this case, the category need precedes brand awareness. Such purchases are recall dominant, and the consumer is more likely to select one of the brands elicited from memory. When brand recall is dominant, it is not necessary for consumers to like the advertisement, but they must like the brand. In contrast, consumers should like the ad when brand recognition is the communications objective. The distinction between brand recall and brand recognition has important implications for advertising strategy. When the communications objectives depend on brand recognition, the creative execution must show the brand packaging or a recognizable brand name. However, when the communications objectives rely on brand recall, the creative execution should encourage strong associations between the category and the brand. Advertisers also use jingles, mnemonics and other devices to encourage brand recall. Brand dominance occurs when, during brand recall tests, most consumers can name only one brand from a given category. Brand dominance is defined as an individual's selection of only certain brand names in a related category during a brand recall procedure. While brand dominance might appear to be a desirable goal, overall dominance can be a double-edged sword. A brand name that is well known to the majority of people or households is called a household name and may be an indicator of brand success. Occasionally a brand can become so successful that the brand becomes synonymous with the category. For example, British people often talk about "Hoovering the house" when they actually mean "vacuuming the house." (Hoover is a brand name). When this happens, the brand name is said to have "gone generic." Examples of brands becoming generic abound; Kleenex, Sellotape, Nescafé, Aspirin and Panadol. When a brand goes generic, it can present a marketing problem because when the consumer requests a named brand at the retail outlet, they may be supplied with a competing brand. For example, if a person enters a bar and requests "a rum and Coke," the bartender may interpret that to mean a "rum and cola-flavoured beverage," paving the way for the outlet to supply a cheaper alternative mixer. In such a scenario, The Coca-Cola Company is the ultimate loser because it does not get the sale. Measuring brand awareness Just as different types of brand awareness can be identified, there are a variety of methods for measuring awareness. Typically, researchers use surveys, carried out on a sample of consumers asking about their knowledge of the focus brand or category. Two types of recall test are used to measure brand awareness:<ref>Hsia, H.J., Mass Communications Research Methods: A Step-by-Step Approach," Routledge"</ref> Unaided recall tests. where the respondent is presented with a product category and asked to nominate as many brands as possible. Thus, the unaided recall test provides the respondent with no clues or cues. Unaided recall tests are used to test for brand recall. Aided recall tests, where the respondent is prompted with a brand name and asked whether they have seen it or heard about it. In some aided recall tests, the respondent might also be asked to explain what they know about the brand e.g. to describe package, color, logo or other distinctive features. Aided recall tests are used to test for brand recognition. In addition, to recall tests, brand research often employs a battery of tests, such as brand association tests, brand attitude, brand image, brand dominance, brand value, brand salience and other measures of brand health. Although these tests do not explicitly measure brand awareness, they provide general measures of brand health and often are used in conjunction with brand recall tests. To measure brand salience, for example, researchers place products on a shelf in a supermarket, giving each brand equal shelf space. Consumers are shown photographs of the shelf display and ask consumers to name the brands noticed. The speed at which consumers nominate a given brand is an indicator of brand's visual salience. This type of research can provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of packaging design and brand logos. Metrics used to measure brand effects are collectively termed AAU metrics (Awareness, Attitudes and Usage). Brand awareness and the hierarchy of effects Brand awareness is a standard feature of a group of models known as hierarchy of effects models. Hierarchical models are linear sequential models built on an assumption that consumers move through a series of cognitive and affective stages, beginning with brand awareness (or category awareness) and culminating in the purchase decision. In these models, advertising and marketing communications operate as an external stimulus and the purchase decision is a consumer response. A number of hierarchical models can be found in the literature including DAGMAR and AIDA. In a survey of more than 250 papers, Vakratsas and Ambler (1999) found little empirical support for any of the hierarchies of effects. In spite of that, some authors have argued that hierarchical models continue to dominate theory, especially in the area of marketing communications and advertising. The hierarchy of effects developed by Lavidge in the 1960s is one of the original hierarchical models. It proposes that customers progress through a sequence of six stages from brand awareness through to the purchase of a product: Stage 1: Awareness - The consumer becomes aware of a category, product or brand (usually through advertising) ↓ Stage 2: Knowledge - The consumer learns about the brand (e.g. sizes, colors, prices, availability etc.) ↓ Stage 3: Liking - The consumer develops a favorable/unfavorable disposition towards the brand ↓ Stage 4: Preference - The consumer begins to rate one brand above other comparable brands ↓ Stage 5: Conviction - The consumer demonstrates a desire to purchase (via inspection, sampling, trial) ↓ Stage 6: Purchase - The consumer acquires the product Hierarchical models have been widely adapted and many variations can be found, however, all follow the basic sequence which includes Cognition (C)- Affect (A) - Behavior (B) and for this reason, they are sometimes known as C-A-B models. Some of the more recent adaptations are designed to accommodate the consumer's digital media habits and opportunities for social influence. Selected alternative hierarchical models follow: Basic AIDA model: Awareness→ Interest→ Desire→ Action E. St Elmo Lewis, Financial Advertising. (The History of Advertising), USA, Levey Brothers, 1908 Modified AIDA model: Awareness→ Interest→ Conviction →Desire→ Action AIDAS Model: Attention → Interest → Desire → Action → Satisfaction AISDALSLove model: Awareness→ Interest→ Search →Desire→ Action → Like/dislike→ Share → Love/ Hate Lavidge et al's Hierarchy of Effects: Awareness→ Knowledge→ Liking→ Preference→ Conviction→ Purchase DAGMAR Model: Awareness → Comprehension → Attitude/ Conviction → Action Rossiter and Percy's communications effects: Category Need → Brand Awareness → Brand Preference (Ab) → Purchase Intent→ Purchase Facilitation Marketing Implications of hierarchical models It should be evident that brand awareness constitutes just one of six stages that outline the typical consumer's progress towards a purchase decision. While awareness is a necessary precondition for a purchase, awareness alone cannot guarantee the ultimate purchase. Consumers may be aware of a brand, but for different reasons, may not like it or may fail to develop a preference for that brand. Hence, brand awareness is an indicator of sales performance, but does not account for all sales performance. For these reasons, marketers use a variety of metrics, including cognitive, affective and behavioral variables, to monitor a brand's market performance. As consumers move through the hierarchy of effects (awareness→ knowledge→ liking→ preference→ conviction→ purchase), they rely on different sources of information to learn about brands. While main media advertising is useful for creating awareness, its capacity to convey long or complex messages is limited. In order to acquire more detailed knowledge about a brand, consumers rely on different sources such as product reviews, expert opinion, word-of-mouth referrals and brand/ corporate websites. As consumers move closer to the actual purchase, they begin to rely on more personal sources of information such as recommendations from friends and relatives or the advice of sales representatives. For example, the opinion of an influential blogger might be enough to shore up preference/conviction while a salesperson might be necessary to close the actual purchase. All hierarchical models indicate that brand awareness is a necessary precondition to brand attitude or brand liking, which serves to underscore the importance of creating high levels of awareness as early as possible in a product or brand life-cycle. Hierarchical models provide marketers and advertisers with basic insights about the nature of the target audience, the optimal message and media strategy indicated at different junctures throughout a product's life cycle. For new products, the main advertising objective should be to create awareness with a broad cross-section of the potential market. When the desired levels of awareness have been attained, the advertising effort should shift to stimulating interest, desire or conviction. The number of potential purchasers decreases as the product moves through the natural sales cycle in an effect likened to a funnel. Later in the cycle, and as the number of prospects becomes smaller, the marketer can employ more tightly targeted promotions such as personal selling, direct mail and email directed at those individuals or sub-segments likely to exhibit a genuine interest in the product or brand. Creating and maintaining brand awareness Brand advertising can increase the probability that a consumer will include a given brand in his or her consideration set. Brand-related advertising expenditure has a positive effect on brand awareness levels. Virtually anything that exposes consumers to a brand increases brand awareness. “Repeat brand exposure in stores improves consumers' ability to recognize and recall the brand.” Increased exposure to brand advertising can increase consumer awareness and facilitate consumer processing of the included information, and by doing this it can heighten consumers brand recall and attitude towards the brand. To increase the probability of a product's acceptance by the market, it is important to create high levels of brand awareness as early as practical in a product or brand's life-cycle. To achieve top-of-mind awareness, marketers have traditionally, relied on intensive advertising campaigns, especially at the time of a product launch. To be successful, an intensive campaign utilizes both broad reach (expose more people to the message) and high frequency (expose people multiple times to the message). Advertising, especially main media advertising, was seen as the most cost efficient means of reaching large audiences with the relatively high frequency needed to create high awareness levels. Nevertheless, intensive advertising campaigns can become very expensive and can rarely be sustained for long periods. Alhaddad (2015) indicates that advertising awareness plays as a good source of meaning and identity for a brand by enhance brand awareness and brand image in social media As new products enter the market growth stage, the number of competitors tends to increase with implications for market share. Marketers may need to maintain awareness at some predetermined level to ensure steady sales and stable market share. Marketers often rely on rough and ready 'rules-of-thumb' to estimate the amount of advertising expenditure required to achieve a given level of awareness. For instance, it was often held that to increase brand awareness by just one per cent, it was necessary to double the dollars spent on advertising. When a brand becomes established and attains the desired awareness levels (typically outlined in the marketing plan), the brand advertiser will shift from an intensive advertising campaign to a reminder campaign. The objective of a reminder campaign is simply to keep target audiences aware of the brand's existence and to introduce new life into the brand offer. A reminder campaign typically maintains broad reach, but with reduced frequency and as a consequence is a less expensive advertising option. Reminder advertising is used by established brands, often when they are entering the maturity stage of the product lifecycle.'' In the decline stage, marketers often shift to a caretaker or maintenance program where advertising expenditure is cut back. While advertising remains important for creating awareness, a number of changes in the media landscape and to consumer media habits have reduced the reliance on main media advertising. Instead, marketers are seeking to place their brand messages across a much wider variety of platforms. An increasing amount of consumer time and attention is devoted to digital communications devices—from computers and tablets through to cellphones. It is now possible to engage with consumers in a more cost efficient manner using platforms such as social media networks that command massive audiences. For example, Facebook has become an extremely important communications channel. Moreover, social media channels allow for two-way, interactive communications that are not paralleled by traditional main media. Interactive communications provide more opportunities for brands to connect with audience members and to move beyond simple awareness, facilitating brand preference, brand conviction and ultimately brand loyalty. The rise of social media networks has increased the opportunities for opinion leaders to play a role in brand awareness. In theory, anyone can be an opinion leader e.g. celebrities, journalists or public figures, but the rise of the digital environment has changed our understanding of who is a potentially useful influencer. Indeed, the digital environment has created more opportunities for bloggers to become important influencers because they are seen as accessible, authentic and tend to have loyal followings. Bloggers have become key influencers in important consumer goods and services including fashion, consumer electronics, food and beverage, cooking, restaurant dining and bars. For example, a survey by Collective Bias showed that when it comes to product endorsements digital influencers are more popular than celebrities. Findings showed that only 3% of participants said they would consider buying a celebrity-endorsed item, in comparison to 60% who said they had been influenced by a blog review or social media post when shopping. For marketers, the digital landscape has made it somewhat easier to identify social influencers. Popular examples of brand advertising and promotion The following examples illustrate how brand awareness and brand advertising are used in practice. Coca-Cola "Share a Coke" campaign Coca-Cola is a well-established brand with a long history and one that has achieved market dominance. For any brand, such as Coke, that controls some 70 percent of market share, there are relatively few opportunities to enlist new customers. Yet Coca-Cola is always on the lookout for novel communications that not only maintain its brand awareness, but that bring the brand to the attention of new audiences. The company launched a campaign which became known as "Share a Coke", with the campaign objectives; "to strengthen the brand’s bond with Australia’s young adults – and inspire shared moments of happiness in the real and virtual worlds." The campaign, originally launched in Australia, became so successful that it was subsequently rolled out to other countries. The concept was to introduce personalized Coke bottles or cans. Popular names were written in a 'look-alike Spencerian script' which is part of the Coke brand's distinctive brand identity. The campaign organisers seeded social media by targeting "opinion leaders and influencers to get them to […] lead the conversation and encourage others to seek out 'Share a Coke' for themselves". Within days celebrities and others with no connection to Coke were spreading the concept across social networks. The campaign extended the audience reach as more people were exposed to the messages. According to Coke's creative team, "That [Australian] summer, Coke sold more than 250 million named bottles and cans in a nation of just under 23 million people". This campaign helped Coke extend its awareness across a broader age profile as they interacted with each customer on a personal level. Ronald McDonald and other anthropomorphic brand characters Consumers experience few difficulties assigning a personality to a brand and marketing communications often encourage consumers to think about brands as possessing human characteristics. When brands are infused with human-like characteristics, it can assist in communicating a brand's values and creating distinctive brand identities that serve to differentiate an offering from competing brands. "In an increasingly competitive marketplace, [some] companies rely on brand characters to create awareness, convey key product/service attributes or benefits, and attract consumers" (Keller, 2003). The use of anthropomorphic characters has a long history. For example, the Michelin man, employed as a memorable character to sell Michelin car tires, was introduced as early as 1894. These characters benefit the brand by creating memorable images in the consumer's mind while conveying meanings that are consistent with the brand's values. McDonald's created a similar anthropomorphic brand character known as Ronald McDonald as part of its brand identity. For younger consumers, Ronald McDonald injects a sense of fun and mystery into the McDonald's brand. For parents, the character clearly signals that McDonald's is a family friendly venue. Characters help to carry the brand's identity and can be seen as non-human "spokes-character", contributing to a strong brand differentiation. The likeability of the brands character can "positively influence attitudes towards the brand and increase [consumers'] purchase intention" Mini British automotive manufacturer Mini investigated its brand perception in the UK by carrying out 55 in-depth interview designed to elicit key feedback about the brand's values. Consumers felt that the symbolic elements which represented the brand were that it was "fun, stylish and sporty image". Customer engagement with the Mini brand on a Facebook fan-page, promoted "positive effects on consumers’ brand awareness, through WOM activities and the purchase intention was achieved". The brand, therefore, connected with users at an emotional level. See also Advertising management - creating brand awareness is the primary function of advertising Attitude-toward-the-ad models Brand - creating and maintaining high levels of brand awareness is one of the primary functions of brand management Consumer behaviour - detailed overview of how consumers move from awareness through to the actual purchase Marketing management Product life-cycle management (marketing) - explains how levels of brand awareness change over a product's life cycle Purchase funnel - explains how brand awareness changes as different segments of the market begin to adopt a product or brand References Brand management Branding terminology

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The Civil Affairs Staging Area (CASA) also known as the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area was a combined U.S. Army, U.S Navy military formation authorized by the Joint Chiefs of Staff on June 18, 1944, during World War Two for military government theater planning, training and provision of military government personnel to areas of the Far East liberated from the Empire of Japan, including East China, Formosa and Korea. CASA had two divisions: The Operations and Training Division focused on language instruction and execution of civil affairs duties at a local level. These duties varied greatly and, as an example, included mass feeding of civilians, camp sanitation, provision of medical supplies, containment of epidemic diseases, labor relations and rodent control. The Theatre Planning & Research Division developed plans for military government at a national level such as control of Japan's economic institutions, control of Japan's education system and methods for increasing the overall supply of food throughout, not only Japan, but also previously occupied areas like East China. CASA provided comprehensive training and planning in civil affairs administration to officers coming from six schools of military government established at various universities throughout the United States. Army and Navy personnel trained by CASA numbered in the thousands, with more than 1,000 officers assigned to a wide variety of civil affairs positions for the initial occupation of Japan alone. The goal of the U.S. Army's Civil Affairs Division in the creation of CASA was to replicate the same success in the Far East experienced by the Civil Affairs Division in the European Theatre. General John H. Hilldring ordered Colonel Hardy C. Dillard, Commander of the Civil Affairs Training Division for the European Theater of Operations, to take command of CASA from Colonel William A. Boekel and implement the European Civil Affair's planning and training program. Colonel Dillard was relieved of command on 20 July 1945 by Brigadier General Percy L. Sadler. Background of Civil Affairs planning for the Far East The China-Burma-India Theater Shortly after the establishment of a Civil Affairs Division in the War Department in March 1943, a circular letter was sent to the commanding generals of all theaters offering the services of the Civil Affairs Division and of trained Civil Affairs officers. In response to a request from the Commanding General, United States Army Forces, China Burma India Theatre, Colonel William A. Boekel and Colonel (then Lt. Colonel) Mitchell Jenkins were ordered to New Delhi, where they arrived 4 May and 14 May respectively. Their first month was spent familiarizing themselves with the general situation in the countries of Southeast Asia. The American Civil Affairs officers received the distinct impression that the British officers regarded Burma and other British territory as definitely a British Civil Affairs area, with which the Americans should have no concern. As a result of policy conferences, this attitude was translated into a formal statement of basic policy, approved by American and British headquarters. Once established, this policy left American Civil Affairs officers no function except that of liaison with British agencie Colonel Boekel and Lt. Colonel Jenkins continued their studies of the countries of Southeast Asia, as well as the question of United States Civil Affairs activities in Japan proper, China, Korea and Manchukuo. Their work resulted in the formulation of certain tentative plans for the military government of Japan, and for the procurement, training and organization of Civil Affairs officers for the Far East. Their conclusions were embodied in a series of letters, of 26 August, 19 October, and 6 November 1943. The recommendations contained in these letters were approved by the Commanding General, China Burma India Theater, and transmitted by him to the War Department. In the preparation of the last two letters, assistance was given by Mr. John Davies, Political Adviser to Lieutenant General Joseph W. Stillwell, and by Mr. Monroe Kail, member of the American Mission in New Delhi. Both of these gentlemen concurred fully with the plans and recommendations contained in the letters. The Civil Affairs Division - War Department Colonel Boekel was ordered, December 1943 to duty with the Civil affairs Division at Washington, although he was technically still assigned to Headquarters, USAF (United States Army Forces), CBI Theater. Upon reporting to Major General John H. Hilldring, Commander, Civil Affairs Division, Colonel Boekel was directed to assist the General in Civil Affairs planning and training for the Far East. The Civil Affairs Division directed its primary effort toward procuring a State Department, War Department (Operations Division); and Joint Chiefs of Staff declaration of policy with respect to United States Civil Affairs administration in the Far East. Such a statement was dependent, in large measure, upon certain long-range policy decisions within the State Department. General Hilldring wrote to the Chief, Naval Office for Occupied Areas, 25 January 1944: "It is anticipated that at an early date the State Department will issue written decisions of policy defining the current and postwar interests of the American Government in the above referred to areas. Upon receipt thereof, appropriate directives will be issued to the several military commanders in these areas... No definitive statement has thus far been made by the Army with reference to Korea and Manchukuo because the question as to whether or not there will be American participation in the administration of these areas is one which still awaits State Department determination." The Civil Affairs Division's project, that of bringing together the various agencies involved in arriving at a joint decision, progressed satisfactorily. After four months in Washington, Colonel Boekel was able to report that "On 13 May 1944 J,C,S.. Paper 819/2 was issued by the J.C.S. approving certain basic assumptions for Civil Affairs planning purposes for specific areas in the Far East and Pacific Ocean. This Paper is substantially responsive to the inquiries and policy recommendations made by the Commanding General, USAF (United States Army Forces), China Burma India Theater in his letters to the War Department dated respectively 26 August, 19 October, and 8 November, 1943. The Paper as approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff embodies the composite views of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of War, the State Department, the Civil Affairs Division (CAD) and of the U.S. Navy, and was 'sweated' through twenty-one drafts. General Hilldring regards the paper as of primary importance in that it gives initial direction and impetus to Civil Affairs "planning." In addition to policy planning, the Civil Affairs Division was concerned with plans for the procurement, training and organization of Civil Affairs officers for the Far East. As early as January 1944, it was reported to General Hilldring that, "the program is well under way for the training of 1500 officers for use in the operational and administrative functions." The Navy was invited to participate in the Army-training program as well as in the subsequent Civil Affairs administration of Japan to the extent of twenty-five per-cent of the personnel required. This invitation was confirmed later in papers of 10 December and 22 December 1943." Initial planning at the School of Military Government The procurement of fifteen hundred officers for Civil Affairs work in the Far East was provided for in War Department Circular No. 136, 8 April 1944. The first exclusively Far Eastern class at the School of Military Government, Charlottesville, Virginia, opened 12 June 1944 at the [University of Virginia]. While the Civil Affairs Division in Washington was busy coordinating the planning activities of the numerous agencies concerned with Civil Affairs, the School of Military Government in Charlottesville, VA was developing an informal Civil Affairs Planning Staff. Colonel Boekel wrote to General Ferris, 23 January 1944, that he would be in Charlottesville to interview 4 officers 'earmarked' for Asiatic Theater duty and to lay the foundation for the organization of the nucleus planning staff, which initially consisted of 4 Army and 3 Navy officers. A week later, Colonel Boekel wrote, that An embryonic planning section had been set up at the School of Military Government in Charlottesville, Virginia, consisting of five U.S. Army and three U.S. Navy officers and that Lt. Col Arthur Dobson was tentatively earmarked for General Albert Wedemeyer but was to be retained at the School of Military Government pending determination of the larger question of policy as to the extent of participation in SEAC (South East Asia Command). Colonel Boekel summarized personnel in the initial planning group as follows: Majors Faxon, Hudson and Dapert originally designated for assignment to the China Burma India Theater were held at the School of Military Government (SOMG) pending the determination of other policy questions. Major Isaacs was selected out of a group of 11 as an additional planner. Major Isaacs was born in Japan, speaks Japanese and is a successful San Francisco fisheries expert. Senior Surgeon - William W. Nesbitt. Lt. Comdr. Robert T. Secrest - a graduate of the Navy Military Government School and of the Wimbledon Military Government School. Lt. Warren S. Hunsberger - a learned and accomplished economist. The planning section completed and maintained a current and basic Military Government plan for Japan Proper and its personnel were added to from time to time in the ratio of 75% Army and 25% Navy. According to Colonel Boekel in a letter to Colonel Jenkins dated 14 April 1944, the informal planning group at the SMG (School of Military Government) was, "involved in some very rough spade work in anticipation of what the several theater commanders or Navy Area Commanders may require to complete their planning when a directive is issued to them." Colonel Boekel noted that the theater commanders would not be bound by anything planned by the Far East initial planning group at the SMG (School of Military Government). The group, according to Colonel Boekel, served best as the focus for the procurement of survey data from the dozen or more federal agencies charged with the responsibility of getting out handbooks and guides for specific areas. Planning for a Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area Planning for the establishment of a Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area is first mentioned in a memorandum of Colonel Boekel's, written 15 January 1944, in preparation for a discussion with Colonel David Marcus, relative to planning for Civil affairs administration in the Far East. It was Colonel Boekel's opinion that, "As soon as the American (Army and Navy) officers and enlisted men personnel are trained, they should be organized into teams or provisional units with appropriate T/O's (tables of organization) and moved to Hawaii for final integration with the Theater Headquarters Planning Staff. The facilities of the University of Hawaii may be available. There the personnel should be broken up into teams for special areas and be ready to take over any thereof as the military situation requires. If there is to be British participation, the amalgamation thereof with the Americans should take place in Hawaii or the final Theater School and Staging Area. The Asiatic Theater Commander has already stated that for logistical and other reasons, the staff could not be trained in India and introduced into Japan via the Himalayan hump; nor over the Burma Road." In furtherance of the plan to establish the Holding and Staging Area in Hawaii, Colonel Boekel conferred with Captain Mercer- Secretary to Admiral Nimitz, 10 March 1944. Captain Mercer stated that the Navy would be opposed to the immediate reception and quartering of any large number of Civil Affairs officers in Hawaii, because of the paucity of shipping space, subsistence and quarters. He indicated, however, that the Navy would give a sympathetic reception to the 'survey' committee which is to go to Hawaii from Civil Affairs Division and Captain Pence's office, particularly if the proposal is based upon a progressive transfer starting with a small number on or about 1 June and continuing through the ensuing period of CATS (Civil Affairs Training Schools). Colonel Boekel also reported that during the previous week he had a conference with Captain Moore of Lt. General Richardson's staff. Captain Moore indicated that there would be no difficulty in transferring the Planning Section and successive increments of CATS (Civil Affairs Training Schools) to Hawaii. Colonel Boekel went to Hawaii in May 1944 to confer directly with Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander of the Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas, and with Lt. General Richardson, Commanding General, United States Army Forces, Central Pacific Area concerning the site of the Holding and Staging Area about to be established. The decision arrived at as a result of this conference was that it would be impractical to locate the Holding and Staging Area in Hawaii. The search for a site was then transferred to the west coast of continental United States. A committee from Washington, composed of Colonel Boekel, Colonel Harry Jones, Chief of the Personnel and Training Branch, Civil affairs Division, and Colonel H. E. Robison, of the Provost Marshal General's Office, visited several potential sites in California. They inspected Camp McQuaide at Santa Cruz; the Presidio of San Francisco; Camp Beale, at Sacramento; and Fort Ord, at Monterey. Their choice fell upon the last named site. The formal establishment of the holding and staging area is referred to in a Joint Chiefs of Staff document. Establishment of CASA at Fort Ord At the time of the arrival of the advance party at Fort Ord, 15 July 1944, there was still some uncertainty as to which buildings would be assigned to CASA. After an inspection of the available buildings in the 17AC area, as well as other available troop quarters, a message was sent to the Ninth Service Command at Fort Douglas, and confirmation received, of the assignment to CASA of the WAC (Warfare Area Commander) area. This consisted of the administration building, a mess hall and three barracks. One additional building was still occupied by WAC personnel. The space assigned as regarded as adequate for the initial group of about one hundred officers and twenty-eight enlisted men on a single-cot basis, and provided, in addition a room for assembly, research and conference purposes. The Civil Affairs Staging Area, Fort Ord, California, was activated 15 July 1944, by CASA General Order No 1, which also announced Colonel Boekel's assumption of command as Acting Commanding Officer. CASA advanced party The immediate task of the advance party, in preparation for the arrival of the first contingent, 1 August, was that of cleaning and equipping the assigned buildings. In order to fit the physical facilities for efficient use, there was also considerable minor carpentry, plumbing, signal and engineering work to be done, as well as Quartermaster and Commissary supplies to be drawn. As a result of strenuous work by the members of the advance party, carried out over long hours, the physical task of moving in was completed by Saturday evening, 22 July 1944. On the following Monday morning, a field ration mess was opened. Movement of CASA to Presidio of Monterey CASA personnel strength showed little growth from the time of activation of Civil affairs Holding and Staging, Area to the end of the year, five months later. The arrival of eight hundred seventy-six (876) Navy enlisted men, plus additional Army and Navy officers, during the last days of the calendar year brought the total strength to one thousand one hundred twenty-four (1,124). Considerable additional growth was presaged by the increasing numbers of Army and Navy officers in Civil Affairs Training Schools at six universities. This rapid increase of CASA personnel had already put considerable pressure on the physical facilities assigned to CASA by the Ninth Service Command. As early as September 1944, Commander Dillard wrote, that "It is important that we immediately freeze space either here or at the Presidio of San Francisco in anticipation of future needs" Continuing studies of space needs occupied the attention of the command staff. Colonel Jenkins, the Executive Officer, reported to the Commanding Officer, 14 November 1944, as follows, "On the basis that- we may not be able to have The Presidio at Monterrey and must stay here, I have again made a survey of East Garrison of Fort Ord. Just in case we cannot get additional space in the Main Garrison beyond what has now been allocated to us and CAD (Civil Affairs Division) insists that we must care for more than 1200 bodies, which as I wrote you is the maximum that our present space can accommodate. Under these circumstances, East Garrison would be our only alternative. It will take care of us, but I hope we will not have to go there." Colonel Harry P. Jones, Chief of Personnel and Training Branch, CAD (Civil Affairs Division), replied to the above memorandum that the original authority to locate at Fort Ord provided for freezing space for 1625 men and officers. He added that a new request was being submitted, increasing the number to be provided for up to 3000, and including a paragraph to the effect that if Fort Ord, Main Garrison is not available, the Presidio of Monterey would be made available. The Commanding Officer stated, in response to Colonel Jones' letter, that, "There has never been any question of lack of accommodations at Fort Ord. The only question is, where in Fort Ord. Ground Forces are freezing, from Washington a steadily increasing amount of space in Main Garrison. Every indication pointed to a growing monopoly which, unchecked; would have split us between Main Garrison and East Garrison or even pushed us over to East Garrison." The Civil Affairs Division, War Department, then recommended that a survey be made of the facilities of Camp Beale in order to compare them with those of East Garrison. In the memorandum reporting this comparison the Commanding Officer expressed his judgment that, "East Garrison, while less desirable than Main Garrison or the Presidio of Monterey, is much more desirable in every respect than Camp Beale." He stated also that Colonel Jenkins, Executive Officer, and Major Dickey, Chief of POR Branch of S-3, concurred with him in this judgment. Colonel Dillard maintained that, "It would be impossible to secure a better location for CASA than the Presidio of Monterrey."The primary obstacle to be overcome in securing the Presidio of Monterey for CASA was the fact that this permanent installation had been inactivated. The War Department was experiencing considerable pressure to inactivate more installations, as the result of large scale shipments of personnel to overseas duty. To reactivate the Presidio of Monterrey was indeed a difficult task. The difficulties were eventually overcome, however, and Colonel Dillard was able to write on, 24 January 1945 that, "Upon my return from a trip to San Francisco and Shoemaker I learned the welcome news that the Presidio of Monterrey had been procured for us." War Department Circular No. 4-0, dated 1 February 1945, and General Order No 12 Headquarters, Ninth Service Command, 10 formally placed the Presidio of Monterey in active status, effective 18 January 1945 and established the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging area as an activity of the Presidio, effective 10 February 1945. Operations and Training Division Physical Processing and Training Branch The organization and functions of the Physical Processing and Training Branch of the Operations Division (S3) included: Training Group A Instruction in small arms Conduct of ranges Training Group B Field Training in subjects such as booby traps, land mines, camouflage, hand grenades, infiltration, slit trench, fox hole preparation, landing net, amphibious operations, chemical warfare, use of field equipment, tent pitching, hikes and assistance in the conduct of bivouacs. Training Group C Physical conditioning, construction and maintenance of facilities, demonstrations and classes in Judo and general hand-to-hand combat. Training Group D First echelon maintenance and operation of motor vehicles (classes), and conduct of examinations for motor vehicle operators' permits. The advance party devoted most of its time during the second week at CASA to planning the details of the training program which began immediately. Unit Training Branch The mission of the Unit Training Branch was to train military government units for the successful completion of any Military Government mission in the field, or for any specific Military Government mission assigned by a Theater Commander. Planning Section The planning section included plans on courses, field problems, panels, demonstrations; estimates of supply and transport needed to execute plans and the supervision of execution needed to complete the plans. The planning section also included the provision of administrative assistants to execute unit training programs as assigned, to revise programs in the light of operation experience, to complete staff work submitted by the Problem Planning Section, to submit original oral or written memoranda for the unit training problems and programs, to undertake the planning and execution of special programs required by higher authority on short notice and to check all Field and Military Government problems with provision headquarters and appropriate functional specialists. Civilian camp layout A full size civilian camp for displaced persons, occupying approximately ten acres was staked out and outlined in white tape on the Presidio of Monterrey. The camp layout was based on a recommended plan submitted to the Headquarters from the Theater.....Barbed wire fences, sanitary facilities and typical sections of barracks and other buildings were constructed in the area - with detachments participating in the construction. It was anticipated that the camp would make field problems relating to camps take on a more realistic aspect in addition to the training aid, which the actual layout would provide. Civilian camp layout models During the summer of 1945, several paper and plaster models of hilly terrain were provided, also small models of buildings, sanitary facilities, water tanks, etc. Training groups were then given the opportunity to set up a model civilian camp. Each of these camp layouts was photographed, as the basis for a team contest to see which group could set up the best camp. Considerable interest was aroused by this realistic approach to a practical problem. Information and Indoctrination Branch The mission of the Information and Indoctrination Branch was to disseminate general information which would be useful to Military Government officers in the field, provide speakers with Far Eastern experience instructional films, the organization of educational panels, to secure education pamphlets and similar materials, prepare and supervise a weekly "convocation" or assembly, to procure and project film for all divisions of CASA, and to install and operate a public address system for all divisions. Language Branch Language work was initially included in the Interior Training Section of the Planning, Processing and Training Branch, Functional Division, with Major Wilbur L. Williams, CMP, as Section Chief. There were two language supervisors, 1st Lt Harold K. Brown, INF, and 1st Lt Suyeki Okumura, INF. Instruction was carried on initially by five enlisted instructors of Japanese ancestry, S/Sgt Hironobu Hino, T/4 Randolph K. Inoue, T/4 Clarence M. Kimura, S/Sgt Masaru Nakagawa, and S/Sgt Paul J. Sakai, The Divisional reorganization at CASA of 22 November 1944 set up a separate Language Section, with Major Myron I. Barker, AUS, as Chief of Section, and 1st Lt. Suyeki Okumura, INF, as Assistant Chief. Two additional Japanese language informants arrived at the end of December, and fifteen more arrived 5 January 1945, bringing the total to twenty-two. In February, eleven Navy officers were assigned to the Language Section for duty. They constituted a research and production unit. Each officer was given a definite project, and attached to him was a group of informants who worked closely with him. Two more informants were added to the group in March. By 20 July, the end of the first year of CASA, the total number of informants stood at thirty-nine. The number of classes in Japanese language was slightly more than fifty, and the number of classes in the Chinese language was fourteen. At the end of the first month of Japanese language instruction, the officers in charge of the program, 1st Lt Harold K. Brown, INF, and 1st Lt. Suyeki Okumura, INF, made a report to the Commanding Officer. They mentioned certain problems which had become apparent during the course of the month. For one thing, the instructors had not received any teaching materials from Military Intelligence School, Camp Savage, Minnesota, from which all of them had come. For reasons of security, they had been asked to turn in all their language materials before they left, but were promised that materials would be shipped as soon as requested by proper authority. Request had been made, but no materials had arrived. Another problem was created by the different systems of spelling used, (Hepburn and Block-Kennedy) some of the officers having been trained in one system and some in the other. This difficulty was met by mimeographing all teaching materials in both systems. One paragraph of this report is of special interest. A difficult situation was created by the wide variation in language experience and previous training of the officers at CASA, The report mentioned above, points out that there were four distinct groups, for each of which a distinct type of language work had to be provided. These groups were: University of Chicago - Class 1 Approximately three months of training which was presented differently from the training given to Class II at the same school. In addition to this difference in training, these officers had served in the field for three months, immediately prior to assignment at CASA, during which time, the majority had lost all contact with the language. Some instruction had been received in reading and writing. University of Chicago - Class 2 Seven and one-half months of training in the language, with no loss of contact prior to assignment at CASA. Elementary training in reading and writing and use of the dictionary. University of Virginia Group Approximately three months of training at the School of Military Government at the University of Virginia. During this training, Naganuma's Standard Reader was used as a text, and the officers were learning to read and write simultaneously while learning to speak the language. Beginners Group Officers with no previous training in the language, and Navy officers who had received very little training at the Navy School at Columbia University. Observations by Commander Boekel An interesting and significant observation of the language experience of the officers was made by the Acting Commanding Officer, Colonel Boekel, in his weekly report to the Commander, Civil Affairs Division (CAD), dated 25 August 1944. He wrote, "I have made it a practice, whenever possible, to audit the language refresher conferences being conducted here under the supervision of the five language sergeants. I derived the very clear impression that the practical vocabularies of the CASA Officers and their ability to weave the spoken words into a simple sentence structure were woefully inadequate. I gained the impression too that the vocabulary thus far achieved had to do principally with the ordinary amenities of gracious living and that no special effort had been made thus far to teach Civil Affairs officers a vocabulary and language structure which would enable them to make practical applications thereof in simple Civil Affairs tasks. Motivated by the foregoing impressions, we prepared a questionnaire. Today one hour was devoted to the procurement of ninety-one (91) CASA officers' self-evaluation of their Area E linguistic ability. In addition, the five sergeant language instructors were directed to regard themselves as the average CASA linguist and, without consultation with each other, to furnish a rating of the average CASA officer in the same questionnaire...the more significant facts brought out in the questionnaire. The officers in rating themselves claimed a vocabulary which averaged 704 words, and asserted their ability to use 208 words fluently, 275 words fairly well and 192 with difficulty. The Japanese sergeant instructors, in rating the average CASA. officers, gave them credit for the retention of a 204 word vocabulary of which they could use 97 fluently, 70 fairly well, and 82 with difficulty. The answers to interrogatory 4 in the questionnaire (i.e., the Civil Affairs problem) indicate that 71% of the officers consider that they are not sufficiently qualified in the use of the language to accomplish the Civil Affairs mission therein stated. If of this percentage figure there is added the qualified "yes" answers, then only seven (7) officers or approximately 8% themselves equal to the questionnaire language task and 92% are unqualified. Four of the sergeant instructors stated emphatically and one of them qualified that the average CASA officer would not be able to handle the language part of the Civil Affairs mission in question. The instructors had been working with these officers for only two weeks and therefore their basis for judgment was perhaps not sufficient. As to the method of instruction at CATS (Civil Affairs Training Schools), the preponderant opinion seems to be that more emphasis should be placed on conversation and drill in the actual vocabulary required for the accomplishment of the Civil Affairs mission." Perhaps in part as a result of this investigation, vocabularies and drill materials developed at CASA did emphasize the use of Civil Affairs situations, and were therefore realistic and practical. A large amount of such material was developed at CASA. Language work was initially included in the Interior Training Section of the Planning, Processing and Training Branch, Functional Division, with Major Wilbur L. Williams, CMP, as Section Chief. There were two language supervisors, 1st Lt Harold K. Brown, INF, and 1st Lt Suyeki Okumura, INF. Instruction was carried on initially by five enlisted instructors of Japanese ancestry, S/Sgt Hironobu Hino, T/4 Randolph K. Ideue, T/4 Clarence M. Kimura, S/Sgt Masaru Nakagawa, and S/Sgt Paul J. Sakai, The Divisional reorganization of 22 November 1944 set up separate Language Section, with Major Myron I. Barker, AUS, as Chief of Section, and 1st Lt Suyeki Okumura, INF, as Assistant Chief. Two additional Japanese language informants arrived at the end of December, and fifteen more arrived 5 January 1945, bringing the total to twenty-two. In February, eleven Navy officers were assigned to the Language Section for duty. They constituted a research and production unit. Each officer was given a definite project, and attached to him was a group of informants who worked closely with him. Two more informants were added to the group in March. 3. By 20 July, the end of the first year of CASA, the total number of informants stood at thirty-nine, the number of classes in Japanese language; was slightly more than fifty, and the number of classes in the Chinese language was fourteen. The Language Branch rendered service to other CASA activities by providing translators, chosen from its staff of Nisei informants, insofar as this could be done without interfering with the instructional program. These translators were of special value to the CASA Outpost of the Office of Strategic Services, and to the research Group of S-5 in connection with the writing of Military Government handbooks and manuals. Japanese language instruction The officers studying Japanese were organized into small groups, and met with the Japanese-American enlisted instructors two hours each day, five days a week. Relatively little emphasis was placed on reading and writing the Japanese language. The primary concern was to develop facility in the use of the spoken language. Much attention was given to the development of mimeographed language materials (dialogues, conversations, etc.) dealing specifically with Military Government situations. Chinese language instruction The classes in Chinese language were developed primarily because of the possibility that CASA might be called upon to, send Civil Affairs officers to the Theater for use in Formosa or on the China coast. A few officers who had some experience in the use of spoken Chinese (Mandarin) were called upon to serve as instructors. Madame Ling-fu Yang, formerly curator of the National Museum, Peking became an instructor in this department, and conducted additional classes for the CASA officers who were acting as instructors. Instruction Branch (Functional Training) Functional training was concerned with the preparation of officers for the many specialized functions performed by Civil Affairs/Military Government. Training of this nature was carried on from the beginning. At first, however, it was so closely integrated with Theater Survey and Planning that no separate branch or section was established for it. When an S-5 Division was created, in December 1944, functional training was declared to be the primary mission of the new division. It was not until 3 March 1945 that functional training was transferred to the S-3 or "Training" Division. Special Order No 38, 6 March, assigned personnel to the "Functional Training Branch" of the S-3 Division. The name of the Branch was changed, 10 April, to 'Instruction Branch" at the same time that its responsibilities were expanded. General Administration Section Officers in the General Administration Section studied the governments of the area at the national, prefecture, city, village and township levels. Public Safety Section Students in the Public Safety Section concentrated on the public safety operations of the area including: police, fire and civilian defense. Arrangements were made with the Chief of Police, San Francisco, and with the Warden of San Quentin Prison, to send groups of CASA Public Safety Officers to the San Francisco Bay area for training in their specialty. Legal and Property Control Section Officers in the Legal and Property Control Section studied the laws and machinery for the administration of justice in the area and in addition, property control. Agricultural, Fishing Section Curriculum consisted of a course in Oriental Agriculture, given at the University of California College of Agriculture at Davis. and courses of instruction in Japanese agriculture at CASA. Field trips were taken to Biggs, California, to study USDA Rice Experiment Station; to Sacramento, California, to inspect the Bercut-Richards Canning Factory, which packed fruit for the Armed Forces and the F.H. Woodruff & sons Seed Company plant, packaging vegetable seeds for foreign shipment; to the Delta Area of California, south of Sacramento, to study fruit and vegetable production and the handling of Japanese labor; and to the California Agricultural. Exp. Station Orchard in Winters, California, where subtropical fruits were observed and studied on the tree. Stops were made at Vacaville to inspect the Basic Products Company, onion dehydrating plant; and at Berkeley, to study hydroponics (water culture of plants) in the U.S. Army Air Forces Laboratory. Economics and Labor Section Officers in the Economics and Labor Section studied economics in its different ramifications including agriculture, fisheries, communications, public works and utilities, transportation, industry and resources, and labor relations. Fiscal Section Training curriculum included mechanisms of banking, public finance and currency control involved in the liberated area. Engineering Section Training Curriculum included coursework in public works, transportation, utilities and communications. Additional training was conducted at Camp Parks, California, Navy Construction Battalion station. Arrangements were made through the Military Government Liaison Officer, Twelfth Naval District, San Francisco. First contingent of officers reported to Camp Parks 4 March 1945. Subject matter included: Seabee administration, history and advanced base policy. Functional components included: cargo stowage; mosquito control; camp sanitation - including drainage; water purification; refrigeration equipment and native materials. These subjects were presented by class lectures, motion pictures and field demonstrations. Mess Supervisors Section The coursework for Mess Supervisors covered several areas that had an immediate impact on civilian sustenance: Civilian Camp Feeding: Civilian camp feeding instruction included: improvisation of field cooking facilities, preparation of Oriental foods and dishes of minimum subsistence diet, sanitation, food handling, food distribution, control and storage of food. Preparation of dehydrated foods. Mass Feedings: Organization, administration and supervision of civilian mass feedings. Organization, administration and supervision of officers and enlisted men's mess. Inventory, control and requisition. Food preparation. Civilian Welfare: Organization and delivery of essential civilian commodities. Related Functions: Camp maintenance. General sanitary policies. Organization of civilian groups for feeding and other purposes. Improvising of shelter. Related Training: A six-day course at the School for Bakers and Cooks, covering preparation of dehydrated foods, improvising of field facilities, field sanitation, minimum subsistence diet and food storage. Instruction by officers -in-charge of CASA messing included study of mess hall operations, analysis of personnel functions, planning of menus and preparation of food. Field trips and exercises including: improvising of facilities and actual direction of enlisted personnel in preparation of a camp diet. Meetings with various staff members acquainted with camp operation and oriental feeding habits. Sanitary Section A training section in Sanitation, under the Surgeon, was originated in early January 1945, when Capt. W.D. Sheets, reported for duty. Water-treating equipment and other sanitary equipment and supplies were immediately ordered. During January the Sanitary Demonstration area, lectures and training films were utilized in the training program, since no other training aids were available. With the removal of CASA to the Presidio, early in February, use of the Fort Ord Sanitary Demonstration Area was eliminated. By the latter part of February, three other Sanitary Officers had reported for duty, Majors Milton O Lee and Howard E. Dorst, and Capt. W.R. Bradlee. The training program was then organized with four hours of instruction in water sanitation (Capt. Sheets), two hours in waste disposal (Capt. Bradlee), four hours in food sanitation (Maj. Lee), four hours in insect and rodent control (Maj. Dorst), and four hours in field sanitation by all of the above officers. Major Dorst, the senior officer, was designated Chief of Section, and Capt. Sheets continued as property officer. As more training equipment was received, floor space available in the Dispensary became inadequate and the Sanitary Training Section was moved to larger quarters in Building 5. Sanitary Demonstration Area A new Sanitary Demonstration Area was constructed at the Presidio of Monterey, at first by officer trainees, and later be enlisted men and prisoners of war. This area contained about forty appliances, and was completely constructed from salvage material, except for cement, with about 1500 man hours of labor. A practice construction area ordered the permanent installations. During training a number of these appliances were in operation. To inaugurate the Area, all of the Headquarters Staff was conducted on a tour in late May. Food was prepared on the field ranges and the noon meal was served in the field, mess gear was washed and waste disposal carried out in the field incinerators. Water sanitation Water sanitation instruction included: a general discussion of sources of supply, types of equipment, sterilization methods, water discipline, etc. Training aids consisted of: lister bag, knapsack filter, testing sets, automatic chlorinator, pumps, pumping and hypo-chlorinator, purification set No. 1 filter, mobile purification unit, distillation unit, charts, water cans and water trailer. Excreta and waste disposal Instruction on excreta and waste disposal problems, improvisation in the field, operation and maintenance of facilities, selection of disposal sites, etc. Use of training aids included: TF 8-1174 "Disposal of Human waste", Blackboard; sanitation models (table size), latrine box, pail latrine, barrel latrine, trough urinal, pipe urinal, sewage ditches; flush toilets, tip buckets, automatic siphon; Imhoff tank, Septic tank. Mess sanitation Discussion of food selection, preparation, serving and storage in the field; principles of mess sanitation. Training aids included: Films - FS 8-10 "Disposal of wastes"; FS 8-61 "Mess sanitation11; FS 10-106 "Refrigeration in the field'; FS 10-100 "Mobile Kitchen"; and TF 10-1215 " Combat Zone rations, unit messing". Army field range No 1; M 1937 range and equipment; Stove, cooking M 1942, two burner; dehydrated foods; K ration; C ration. Insect and rodent control Insect and rodent control instruction included: general discussion of diseases transmitted to man, insect vectors, methods of extermination, and demonstration of use of all types of equipment. Training aids included: Films: TF 1-3343 "Malaria Discipline"; and TF 8-1288 " Louse-borne diseases". Blackboard, Repellents (612, Indalone, Dimethyphthalate, Combination 6-2-2, Bednet in place, head nets, mosquito protective gloves, plastic screen, 16x18 mesh screen, aerosol bomb, methyl bromide, fumigation bag, fly spray, fly trap, sodium arsenite, DDT dust plus talc, DDT dust plus pyrophyllite, DDT 5% kerosene spray, paris green undiluted, paris green 5% with flour, fuel oil, borax, paradichlchlorobenzene rotary duster, knapsack sprayer, hand sprayer, delousing duster, motor driven duster, motor-driven sprayer, mosquito larva, pupa and adult specimens, fly egg, larva, pupa and adult specimens, flea larva, pupa and adult specimens, Phlebotomus adult specimens, louse egg, nymph and adult specimens, bedbug egg, nymph and adult specimens, cockroach egg, nymph and adult specimens, rat poisons (barium carbonate, zinc phosphide, calcium cyanide, cyanide discoids), rat traps, bait box. Field sanitation Explanation and demonstration of sanitary appliances used in the field included: training aids; (Actual appliances in operation constructed from salvage material), water storage basin, lister bag and soakage pit, water heating unit, vapor burner, flash burner, shower, washing platform, hand laundry, barrel washer, mess gear pre-sterilization, heating units, kitchen fly, kitchen tables, serving table, garbage stand, fly traps mess gear washer, garbage pit, underground cooling box, suspended food box, barrel incinerator, garbage strainer, log can inclined plane incinerator, barrel inclined plane incinerator, ash barrel grease trap, barrel baffle grease trap, box baffle grease trap, soakage pit, soakage trench, hand washer, straddle trenches, latrine box, pail latrine, trough urinal, squatter box, pipe urinal, square trough urinal, pedal hand washer, feces burner. General orientation - heath and sanitation This course involved an introduction to the CASA training plan, objectives and responsibilities of Civil Affairs/Military Government teams and discussion of general health problems and their solution as applied to MG staff and civilians, with special emphasis on, "Health as a Command function." Supplementary lectures Officers from the Sanitation Section gave 20 one hour lectures on responsibilities and duties of Sanitary officers on Military Government teams. These lectures were given to personnel assigned to teams as administrative, legal, public safety, public welfare, engineering, supply, labor, and economics of officers. A two and one half day functional training course for engineering and medical officers was given on operation of water treatment equipment. A two and one half day course was organized on water borne sewage. This course included lectures on principles of waste disposal and a trip to two sewage disposal plants at Carmel and Salinas. The training aids included flow charts, syphon flush toilets, tip bucket, flush latrine, tip can flush latrine, Imhoff tank, septic tank, and several types of sewage conduits. Medical Section The instruction under the Medical Section included a course on first aid and a lecture tour of the Sanitary Demonstration Area at the East Garrison of Fort Ord. In addition, a -day functional training course was given to engineering and medical officers on operation of water-treating equipment. This instruction included operation of the following equipment: knapsack-type, hand-operated water filter; automatic hypochlorinator, pumping and hypochlorinating unit, purification unit No 1 (pressure filter), mobile purification unit, and distillation unit. Supplementing the above, instruction and a four-hour lecture tour was given at the Ninth Service Command laboratory on the chemical and bacteriological analyses of water. This course included lectures on principles of waste disposal and a trip to two sewage disposal plants at Carmel and Salinas. Endemic and epidemic diseases This course covered endemic and epidemic diseases of the Pacific Area. The course included general symptomatology, methods of spread and special control measures for cholera, plague, scrub typhus, schistosomiasis, filariasis, etc. Medical Supply Section In addition to medical training and sanitary training, there was also a section devoted to medical supply training. This course had as its objectives. To train Civil Affairs officers in medical supply problems and programs of Military Government Train and prepare Medical Department personnel in their responsibilities and functions with respect to medical supplies. Training aids included War Department film strips and training films. Theater Planning and Research Division Internal Affairs Branch Governmental Organization and Administration Section The work of the Governmental Organization and Administration Section began in May 1945 with an analysis of the various Ministries of Japan's government. The group made suggestions with regard to Military Government organization for Japan at the national level. It drew up plans for the Ministries subsection and for the Legislative subsection, Military Government, Japan. It developed and printed a "Military Government Functional Chart" which shows the progressive stages of Military Government by functions, the availability of native governmental organizations for administration and recommendations for their use. It prepared draft copies of directives for Military Government, Japan. In June the group began preliminary studies of and an outline for a Manual on Military Government, Japan. Public Health Section The Public Health Section prepared a list and a map showing location of hospitals and other medical facilities in Japan, and a list of medical personnel in Japan. It also brought out a functional chart for Public Health. It outlined and began work on a Technical Manual. It made a listing of basic drugs to supplement the CAD Medical Units, a flow chart of Medical supplies and the draft of a nutrition plan for Japan. Public Welfare Section The Public Welfare Section prepared a list of projects as a guide for its own activities. This list was superseded almost immediately by a new list of projects received from higher authority. The projects listed were charts of the Japanese Welfare Ministry, objectives and policies of Military Government public welfare work (also to be put into chart form), directives and proclamations, and a series of forms and records. Education Section The Education Section prepared a series of memoranda including immediate objectives of the Education Section, Japan, long range plans for education, administrative organization, and staff requirements in headquarters and in the field. The group undertook the collection of a large number of Japanese school textbooks and of other works on education in Japan. The Chief of Section spent five weeks visiting major educational institutions on the Pacific Coast, collecting Japanese textbooks and other materials, and interviewing persons who had some personal experience with education in Japan. The group secured the services of translators who began the translation of the more important of the textbooks. Two additional memoranda were written; a suggested editorial policy for the revision of Japanese textbooks and a proposal that Katakana be adopted as the official language. Public Safety Section The Public Safety section prepared a Standing Operating Procedure for Public Safety, Japan. It made a government vehicle survey, Japan. It also studied opium and other narcotic controls. The Fire subsection made a survey of fire protection methods in Japan, and studied the water system and firefighting equipment of Japan. Counter Intelligence Section In addition to the usual tasks performed by all branches and sections, the Counter Intelligence Section carried on research on Japanese associations and societies, and on subversive individuals. Finance Branch The Finance Branch initiated and forwarded a request to the Treasury Department, Washington, for data on property in Japan, Korea, Formosa and Manchukuo. Supply Branch It was the function of the Supply Branch to consolidate and revise the T/0 and E's (table of organization and equipment) submitted to it by all the other branches and sections of the Planning Staff. It also prepared a plan for overall Theater supply procedures - Military Government, Japan. Economics Branch The Economics Branch included a large number of sections, subsections, units, and produced a considerable quantity of material of a research and survey nature and also a series of plans for the control of Japan's economic institutions. Agricultural Section Among many other items, the Section produced a memorandum of basic policies and activities considered essential to maximizing the availability of supplies of food in Japan, a study of Japanese agriculture and related problems, a systematic digest of Japanese agricultural agencies, channels of authority and functions of various units, a study of land tenure in relation to farm labor, a study on problems of increasing agricultural production, an outline of policies plans, procedure, etc., with reference to land reclamation, and a study of the organization and operation of the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition to its work on Japanese agriculture, the Section did considerable work of highly classified nature on agricultural problems of the East China Coast. This was based on the assumption that S-5(planning) might be charged with the responsibility for planning Military Government operations for this area. Transportation and Communications Branch One of the projects proposed by the Water Transportation Subsection and approved by the Steering Committee was that of surveying port petroleum problems. This study had three parts. Port petroleum problems in general, and specific problems in the United States, as a background for the work on Japan Port petroleum problems of Japan The development of plans for Military Government Port petroleum administration - Japan. Legal Branch The Legal Branch prepared a series of overlay maps showing the location of various types of courts and penal institutions in Japan. Its primary efforts were devoted to the study of the Ministry of Justice. The group prepared a chart of the organization and bureaus of the Ministry. It undertook a detailed study of the functions of the Ministry, and prepared the outline of a plan for Military Government supervision of the Ministry. Public Works and Utilities Branch The Public Works and Utilities Branch prepared a draft memorandum on the scope and principal functions of the electric power and water utilities of Japan. It initiated a population study of each of the forty-six prefectures and of two hundred municipalities of Japan with the object of determining the utilities requirements of Japan, In July 1945 the group began to compile an index of the water works of Japan. Research Branch Prefecture Manuals (Research Unit #1) Research Unit#1 operated over a longer period of time with a much larger staff than any other research group. Its objective was to produce an informational volume, covering a great many aspects of Japanese life, on each of the forty-six prefectures of Japan. The number of pages in each completed volume varied from 125 to 335 with an approximate average of 175 pages. The amount of research necessary to secure adequate information for the writing of these volumes was enormous. The cooperation of OSS/Casa Outpost enabled the Research Group to secure access to materials drawn from all over the United States, and even from foreign countries. Translation facilities of OSS were provided, as were also the facilities of the translation pool of the Japanese Language School, University of Michigan, and the translation pool. Provost Marshal General's Office, Washington. Work on the manuals was delayed by the inability of the Research Staff to secure the services of an adequate number of typists. References to this difficulty are repeated many times in the weekly reports of the division. Finally, when a deadline was set, it became necessary to transfer typists from other activities, and of course, for everyone to work under considerable pressure. By 20 July, 7 of the manuals had been completed and sent to OSS/San Francisco for off-set printing. Even a cursory examination of the completed prefectural manuals shows that the Group did a highly commendable job. Most of the members of the research group were not trained in research. They had to work under pressure and do all kinds of work, even to editing and proofreading, and in some cases, typing. The completed volumes probably contain more information about Japan than is to be found in any other single source in the English language. Finance Group (Research Unit #2) The Finance Group requested, during the week prior to 1 June 1945, that they be authorized to initiate a project which developed into a technical manual named A Manual on the Administration of Japanese Public and Private Finance The request for authorization was approved by the Steering Committee. The outline of the volume was as follows: Like the prefectural manuals, the above work required a tremendous amount of research, which, in turn, necessitated the procurement of documentary material from many outside sources. The completed volume of 550 pages is probably the most complete source of financial information on Japan that is available in English. Government Group (Research Unit #3) The Government research group was absorbed into the planning section on Governmental Organization and Administration, and the two groups worked as one. For this reason, there are no separate reports on the work of Research Unit #3. Public Relations Group (Research Unit #4) This project began in March 1945 as an effort to explain something of the psychology of the Japanese people with the objective of using this psychology in connection with Military Government control of civilians. The title of the project, as originally stated, was:, Field Techniques of Japanese Civilian Control. The group was, however, reorganized, the title and outline changed, and the work became a Handbook on Japanese Behavior and Customs By the latter part of July 1945 the volume was completed in rough draft form, preparatory to editing and revision. Public Health Group (Research Unit #5) The main efforts of the Public Health Research Group were devoted to the compilation of a Japanese-English Medical Vocabulary and Phrase book The vocabulary items to be used were first selected by a group of medical officers assigned to this group. The English terms were then translated into Japanese by the Japanese language instructors at CASA. Agricultural Research Group - Japan and China Coast (Research Unit #6) The agricultural research group, like the Government research group, worked with its section of the planning staff so completely that little distinction is possible. It spent considerable time studying the fruit and vegetable production of Japan, the forests and forest products of Japan, and undertook a classified study of food supplies and agriculture on the East China Coast. The East China Coast study included such items as problems of an adequate supply of protein foods, problems of administration, food storage, currency, price control, rationing, etc. Special investigations At the request of the Theater, Major Irwin M. Isaacs carried on two investigations. To determine the type of equipment required for processing the offal fish and to determine the availability of fish reduction plants with a capacity of one and two tons per hour. To secure technical information on soap plants in the Pacific area, with a view to finding the type of plants suitable for making soap from the oils of copra and vegetable products. Office of Strategic Services (OSS) CASA Outpost Establishment The Office of Strategic Services established an Outpost at the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area, Fort Ord, California, effective 1 February 1945. This activity was established as the result of a request made by the Director, Civil Affairs Division, Washington, to(then) Brigadier General William Donovan Director, Office of Strategic Services. The request had its origin in the desire of Major General Hilldring, Director, CAD (Civil Affairs Division), to duplicate for the Pacific Theater the successful work of the OSS at Shrivenham, England, in helping plan for Military Government in the European Theater The understanding arrived at between the OSS and the Civil Affairs Division included the following salient points: The OSS Outpost detachment was to be composed of personnel and facilities exclusively from the agency's Research and Analysis Branch. The primary function of the Outpost was to provide expert consultation service in its work with the Planning and Research Division (S-5), CASA. A secondary function was to serve the CASA divisions and activities with intelligence materials and staff to the extent that time would permit. In addition to permanent staff members, OSS was to rotate highly specialized personnel when CASA and OSS programs would benefit and when demands upon OSS by the Joint Chiefs of Staff would permit such rotation. Physical facilities such as office space, equipment and supplies, etc. were to be provided by CASA, as well as quarters and post privileges comparable to those accorded officers. The Outpost was to have independent status and was to report its activities directly to OSS/Washington. Personnel The OSS personnel who served at the CASA Outpost were specialists in various professional fields. The permanent staff was selected to provide a wide range of such specialties, and consultants who were brought in from time to time were also selected for their specialized knowledge. The staff and consultants included Army, Navy, Marine Corps officers and civilian personnel. Permanent positions at OSS Outpost Chief's Office Chief of Office, Administrative Assistant, Staff Secretary, Clerk-Typist. Analysis Section Senior Economist, Junior Economist Senior Geographer, Junior Geographer Senior Political Analyst, Junior Political Analyst Map Section Map Intelligence Specialist, Cartographer. Research Section Senior Research Analyst, Junior Biographical Records Analyst, Research Reference Specialists Consultants A total of thirty-five consultants came to the Outpost for periods varying from one day to a week each. The consultants came to help the permanent Outpost staff, and to advise and consult with the Planning and Research Division (S-5) CASA, or to render service to both. Functions The functions of the Outpost fell into three broad categories: The Prefectural Project Consultation on Planning Miscellaneous Functions The Prefectural Project CASA early conceived the idea of producing an intelligence manual for each of the Japanese prefectures. The purpose of the manual was to provide the military government officer with a single volume of information, not elsewhere available in organized form, of a local and regional nature. OSS was asked to provide research materials of a classified nature, expert direction and supervision of research methods and techniques, and final editing and approval of each manual. In addition, a map packet was to constitute an integral part of each manual. Each map-packet was to contain 20 to 30 maps selected by OSS, covering the prefecture and its parts, and was also to include a map made especially for Military Government. OSS was to procure maps already produced from its own collection, from the hydrographic Office, G-2, and Army Map Service. The map, which was to be especially made for Military Government, was to be produced by CASA officers, making base maps and overlays, and OSS/Washington was to care for drafting and reproduction. Assignment of officers For research and writing of the textual part of the manuals, CASA assigned an average of 75 Army and Navy officers, who worked about six months on the project. OSS provided classified documentary material and aided the CASA library in the procurement of non classified material. OSS also established the research techniques and methods, evaluated materials, and worked directly with the officers in the collection of data and writing of text. Production volume The production volume was large: The Provost Marshal General's Office arranged for the printing of 75,000 volumes of manuals, the number of copies for each prefecture varying with the importance of the prefecture involved. Each manual averaged 175 pages. About 1,000,000 maps were required for map packets. Expediting of process As the pace of operations in the Pacific Theater increased, it became apparent that the program, as originally timed, would not be completed quickly enough. CASA and OSS therefore greatly expedited the production of a few copies each of manuals on thirteen leading prefectures. OSS/San Francisco cooperated to accomplish reproduction, and the first copies, together with map packets, were sent to the Theater in time to arrive there by the time American occupation began. The regular edition, was produced later over a number of weeks. Reception of manuals OSS/Washington made a major contribution to the Prefectural project by making available its research resources, its facilities, and its personnel in an advisory capacity. OSS/San Francisco also stood by at all times with assistance and took over entirely the reproduction of the provisional edition of manuals on thirteen prefectures. The manuals were received with commendation and appreciation by all those, interested in intelligence materials pertaining to the Far East, who had an opportunity to examine them. Consultation on planning The planning activities of the Outpost were consultative in nature. A few outstanding contributions by the OSS Outpost include: Chart creation Creation of two detailed charts. These charts were jointly produced by OSS and S-5 Division, CASA and were reproduced in quantity by OSS/San Francisco. Since the charts were incorporated in various economic directives, effects of this research and analysis are far-reaching. The two charts were: The Role of the Munitions Ministry in the Control of Japanese Wartime Industries The Dual Administration of War Production in Japan Proclamations & ordinances Final review and approval by OSS consultants of all proclamations and ordinances prepared at CASA for use by Military Government in occupying Japan. This was done under short deadlines and was accomplished by the Outpost furnishing two experts on Japanese law and Japanese language. One of the experts was formally commended by the CASA command for his participation in this project. Review of bibliographies Review of proposed bibliographies to be taken to the Theater by various planning groups. In this task, the accumulated knowledge of 0SS staff members was of great help to the CASA planning sections. Miscellaneous functions This category of functions contains some of the most outstanding services performed by the Outpost. These services were rendered to various divisions and in some instances were of incalculable benefit to CASA and the Military Government program for the Far East. Among the most noteworthy of these services, are the following: Map intelligence From its inception, the Outpost included in its staff a map intelligence analyst. The analyst selected and recommended all the maps for map packets in the prefectural project, procured and maintained on a catalogue basis all important maps covering the Far East and provided maps for cartographers making maps for the prefectural project. The collection was estimated at approximately 30,000 sheets and this represented virtually the heart of all map activity at CASA. Not only did the analyst provide maps, but he also prepared written articles, met with discussion groups and served as an expert consultant to CASA groups on all map matters. For example, in arriving at a decision as to what maps were to be included in kits for Military Government officers, the primary selection was made by the map intelligence analyst. The CASA map instruction program was revised with his assistance. Requests made upon the Outpost for service averaged upward of 300 each month and there was at all times a large number of maps in circulation. Requests originated largely from the Training Division (S-3) and the Planning and Research Division (S-5), but OSS also provided, maps required for a variety of purposes, from supplying maps for the map-room operated by S-2 to meeting occasional requests from Fort Ord. Maps provided, covered a wide range in scales topics subject and purpose. Although OSS came as a consultant and therefore could not attempt to supply maps in quantity, help was given CASA in obtaining maps through the Army Map Service, and the development of a map function by the CASA library was accomplished with the help of OSS. Advice on Orientalia and information materials Although the Outpost maintained a large collection of classified documents covering the Far East, there was careful avoidance of assuming a library function. The Outpost did, however, maintain close liaison with the CASA library and endeavored to be helpful in obtaining various materials needed for planning and training. The OSS experts were familiar with all types of source material, both domestic and foreign, and provided much information on what was needed and where it was obtainable. Maintenance of research files In a very few weeks the Outpost built up an impressive collection of the best available documentary intelligence on the Far East. This collection was constantly increased through the close cooperation of OSS/Washington, various OSS offices in continental United States, and offices and Outposts throughout the world. Some of the documents maintained by the OSS Outpost included. Various joint Army -Navy Intelligence Studies covering the Far East. Prisoner of War Reports OSS/R&A Reports Joint Target Group Folders Foreign Economic Administration reports Strategic Engineering Studies (US Engineers) Civil Affairs Guides MIS Bulletin Maintenance of biographical records This file consisted of approximately 15,000 items covering key Japanese personalities. Not only was the file of great value to the prefectural project, but also to training groups and to various planning sections. Translation Although the Outpost had clearly specified to CASA that OSS could not provide translation, the dire need at CASA led the agency on several occasions to provide translations by its Outpost staff, by its Washington staff or from other OSS sources. In addition, the Outpost endeavored to help CASA obtain an adequate number of translators so that CASA could more effectively do its job. Creation of special intelligence reports For about three months after its inception the Outpost published a weekly bulletin entitled, Far East Intelligence Notes This weekly contained various analytical articles prepared by Outpost personnel and was based upon information from classified sources and of interest to Military Government officers. The Notes frequently included maps. The pressure of work led to the suspension of the weekly and the Outpost began irregular publication of Special Intelligence Reports Each report covered one topic, was concerned with Military Government problems in the Far East and was issued at intervals of ten days to two weeks. As in the case of the Far East Intelligence Notes, information was drawn from classified sources. The circulation list of the Notes was small but impressive. Copies were sent to all Civil Affairs Training Schools, to the School of Military Government, Charlottesville, Virginia, to the OSS Washington, to the Civil Affairs Division, Washington, to the Provost Marshal General's Office, Washington to CinCPAC (Commander in Chief Pacific), CinCPOA (Commander in Chief Pacific Ocean Areas) and to various OSS outposts. The Reports were distributed only at CASA. Special events President Roosevelt memorial ceremony From: Casalog Vol I, No 2, 18 April 1945, ROOSEVELT MEMORIAL CEREMONY 14 April 1945. CASA paid tribute to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the man who gave his life for humanity, at one o'clock last Saturday afternoon on Soldier's Field. At the same time, (4 PM Eastern War Time) simple funeral services were being held in the East Room of the White House, where his body lay draped in state. The ceremony here was part of the memorial service conducted by all Army installations in this country and many overseas. It was attended by all CASA training companies. Headquarters Company, Ship's Company, members of the CASA staff, and civilian employees. Concerning President Roosevelt, Colonel Hardy C. Dillard, Commanding Officer, said, Bronze Star Award From: Casalog Vol I, No 2, 18 April 1945, AWARD OF BRONZE STAR TO LT COL PRESLEY W. MELTON. 25 April 1945. Civil Affairs activities received additional recognition ... when Lieutenant Colonel Presley W. Melton, Ordnance Corps, received the Bronze Star for meritorious service in connection with military operations as a member of the G-5 Section of General Eisenhower's Headquarters, European Theater of Operations. The award was presented at a simple ceremony before the CASA staff by Colonel Hardy C. Dillard, Commanding Officer. Citations References Takemae, Eiji 2003, "The Allied Occupation of Japan", Continuum Williams, Justin Sr., "From Charlottesville to Tokyo: Military Government Training and Democratic Reforms in Occupied Japan", Pacific Historical Review ,51,1982. War Department Special Staff 1946, "History of the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area", Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, Vol.1 War Department Special Staff 1946, "History of the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area", Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, Vol.2 War Department Special Staff 1946, "History of the Civil Affairs Holding and Staging Area", Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, Vol.3 External links Presidio of Monterey Defense Language Institute United States in World War II Civil affairs units and formations of the United States

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Connersville is a city in Fayette County, east central Indiana, United States, east by southeast of Indianapolis. The population was 13,481 at the 2010 census. The city is the county seat of and the largest and only incorporated town in Fayette County. The city is in the center of a large rural area of east central Indiana; the nearest significant city is Richmond, to the northeast by road. Connersville is home to the county's one and only high school. The economy is supported by local manufacturing, retail and healthcare. Employment and population have been declining since the 1960s and it is among the poorest areas of the state in median household income and other economic measures. The city is among the oldest cities in Indiana and the former Indiana Territory, having been established in 1813 by its namesake John Conner. Geography and climate Connersville is located at (39.653931, -85.137709). The town is oriented roughly north-south, extending north-south and east-west from center of town, with most of the town located in the southern 2/3. The center of town is roughly Central Ave and 5th street in the southern portion. Annexations have pushed the city limits of Connersville north along Indiana 1 (Western Avenue) to the county line. According to the 2010 census, Connersville has a total area of , of which (or 99.81%) is land and (or 0.19%) is water. Most of the town is located on the north bank of the west fork of the Whitewater River. The town is at modest elevation, a little over above sea level. The local area has nearly flat to gently rolling topography. The local region (and all of Fayette County and the state of Indiana) are part of the Eastern (U.S.) Broadleaf Forest Environment biome. Much of the surrounding Whitewater Valley vegetation would be classified as riparian woodland or gallery forest. There are 124 native tree species, including 17 varieties of oak, as well as black walnut, sycamore, and tulip tree (yellow poplar), the state tree. Fruit trees—apple, cherry, peach, and pear—are common. Common native mammals are the red fox, common cottontail, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, and several types of squirrel. Connersville gets 41 inches of rain per year. Snowfall is 22 inches. About 1/3 of days have measurable precipitation. About half the days are sunny. The July high averages 84 degrees, and the January low averages 16. The hottest month is August, the coolest February, and the wettest December. Floods, major storms, and tornados are relatively infrequent, but do occur. Economics The economic base is mostly manufacturing, followed by retail and health care. Little remains of the old industrial base. There are fewer than 600 union employees in the town. The closure of the Visteon plant in 2007, resulting in loss of over 900 jobs was a chief contributing factor in the town reaching the brink of bankruptcy in Mar. 2014. The largest employers are Stant, Walmart, and Howden Roots (formerly Roots/Dresser), followed by various retail establishments and schools. Wayzata Home Products Connersville, a unit of 6 Square Cabinet Co. based in Minnetonka, Minnesota,. began production in March 2014, but has since closed. The mean house price in 2012 was $67,000, and the median household income $29,000 (versus $47,649 for all of Indiana). Primarily due to loss of unionized manufacturing jobs and labor, the population of Connersville has been declining since the 1960s. The unemployment rate in Connersville and surrounding Fayette County is among the highest in the state, and has been for most of the last decade and even longer. In 2018, it ranged around 5%. A significant portion of workers in Connersville are employed in Shelbyville, Greensburg, and other outlying towns with better local economies. The city is the economic center of a micropolitan statistical area of the same name. It is also part of Richmond-Connersville, IN Combined Statistical Area. Government Connersville is a chartered city under the state of Indiana, with an elected mayor, clerk/treasurer, and 7-member city council. Five council members are by district, and two are at-large. City government consists of eight departments: Mettel Field/Airport, EMS/First Aid, Fire, Parks & Recreation, Police, Street, Connersville Utilities (water, sewer, storm drains), and Transfer Station & Recycling. Each department is headed by a full-time salaried department head. Courts and jails are located in the city but administered by the county. History Connersville is named for settler John Conner, older brother of William Conner, an early Indiana settler and politician. There was also, at least through 1795, Connerstown, a small Shawnee village near Lancaster, Ohio, named for John's father, Richard Conner. Whitewater Valley and pre-European inhabitants The Whitewater River Valley running north-south through eastern Indiana and southwestern Ohio was created by the Late Wisconsin Glaciation ending 13,600 years ago. Fayette County was at the southern fringe of the glaciation at that time. The Ice Age was punctuated by several prolonged warm periods during which the glaciers disappeared entirely from the temperate latitudes and a climate similar to today or even warmer prevailed. The flood waters produced resulted in lakes; breaching of the lakes resulted in rivers and streams carving the hills and valleys we see today. In the Northwest Territory during the latter half of the 18th century, the Miami Indians were dominant in the region, but the Potawatomi and Shawnee had a significant presence. Delaware Indians, displaced from their eastern homelands by European settlement, migrated west and settled along the forks of the Whitewater River. The Whitewater Valley and Ohio River Valley area had also been inhabited earlier by other Native Americans called mound builders for their characteristic large burial mounds still in evidence today. The geological aspects of the Whitewater River Valley contributed to early settlement after defeat of the Delaware Indians by Gen. Anthony Wayne at Fallen Timbers in 1794, followed on August 3, 1795, by the Treaty of Greenville (Ohio) ceding most of Ohio and a sliver of southeastern Indiana to the United States. The valley, running south and southeasterly from east central Indiana to the Ohio River Valley, provided a convenient conduit for migration through Fort Washington (Cincinnati) from points east, settlements on the Ohio River, and settlers from Kentucky to northern and central Indiana Territory. Squatters engaged in agriculture and trading were occupying federal lands well before land sales in Indiana Territory began in 1801. An Indian trail paralleled the river from the Ohio Valley northward to the forks, then went along the East Fork to Eli Creek, thence taking a northwesterly direction passing through what was later Connersville, and then on to the Delaware villages strung along the White River from north of present-day Indianapolis to modern Muncie. Conner's Post John Conner, his brother William, and others arrived in the Whitewater Valley from south central Ohio in 1802, establishing a fur trading post in an unpopulated area near what was later to become Cedar Grove on the Whitewater River (Franklin County) at the very fringe of the European penetration into the wilderness of Indiana. By 1808, as a result of reduction of Indian hunting grounds by treaty, the trading post, known as "Conner's Post", had been relocated north on the Whitewater River junction with an Indian trail between the Ohio River to the southeast and hunting grounds to the north. According to research by J.L. Heineman, the trading post was located in the middle of what is now Eastern Avenue, at the west end of Charles Street. At that time, the region was inhabited by Delaware Indians. In 1809 the Treaty of Fort Wayne was signed, by the terms of which the land locally known as the "Twelve Mile Purchase" was ceded by the Indians to the government. This tract included a strip in width lying west of the 1795 Greenville treaty line which ran from the midpoint of the Indiana/Ohio border southwest to the Ohio River cutting off a thin wedge of southeastern Indiana. The strip included most of Fayette County except the extreme northern portion (part of the later "New Purchase"). Sales of public land by the United States Government in Indiana began in 1801. In that year the Cincinnati, Ohio, Land Office began selling land in a wedge of government land in southeastern Indiana known as the "Gore" (organized as Dearborn County in 1803) which included all of what is today Fayette County. Conner obtained title to his plat in 1811. First 50 years – through the Civil War The exodus of the Delaware Indians from Indiana after the War of 1812, completed by June 1813, deprived John Conner of his field for trading. After 1812, Indian resistance to settlement in the Indiana Territory became nearly non-existent, so Conner busied himself with another task. John Conner laid out the town on the north side of the west fork of the Whitewater River in March 1813, adjacent to the fur trading post. The original plat was for 62 lots bounded by what are today Central Avenue to the west and Water Street to the east, Third Street to the south, and Sixth Street to the north. The first constructions in the town were a saw mill and grist mill north of town utilizing water power, and a general store and distillery in town. The influx of settlers was initially sparse – as late as 1815, there were only four cabins in the town. The boundary lines for Fayette County were established in December 1818, and Connersville was chosen as the county seat. Conner served briefly as sheriff of the newly organized Fayette County. In 1820, John Conner helped plat the new capital of Indianapolis, and in 1822 relocated his fur trading business to Noblesville, north of Indianapolis. He also served as state senator and representative. He died in Indianapolis in April 1826 and was buried there. No trace remains of his grave. The first post office in Connersville opened in January, 1818. The first courthouse was started in 1819 and finished in 1822. The first newspaper, the Indiana Statesman, was started in 1824. The first church in the village was Presbyterian, constructed in 1824. A seminary building was constructed in 1828, later razed, and the first regular school building in Connersville was constructed on the site in 1858. The Indiana Gazetteer in 1833 stated the population of Connersville as 500. The village was incorporated as a town in 1841. Connersville served as an important link on the Whitewater Canal linking the Whitewater River to the Ohio River, opened in 1847. The canal ceased to be used for through traffic in 1849, though limited local commerce continued. The first railroad, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Indianapolis Railroad, reached Connersville in 1862. It extended from Rushville through Connersville and Oxford to Hamilton, Ohio. For many years prior to the Civil War, and even for some time after that struggle, the main industries of the town were milling, pork packing, and woolen manufacturing. In 1857, a separate village, East Connersville, was platted on the south bank of the west fork of the Whitewater River, and had its own government. It was annexed by Connersville some time in the 1920s. Early growth – pre-industrial age The Roots blower, a type of air turbine, was invented by the Roots brothers in Connersville in the 1850s, patented in 1859, and manufactured in Connersville for over 150 years. The town of Connersville became a chartered city in June 1869, and William H. Beck was chosen as its first mayor. The first high school opened in 1875. In 1882, James H. Fearis, of Connersville, started the Bell telephone exchange. The Connersville Electric Light Company commenced operations in August 1890 as the first supplier of electric power in the city. Central Avenue was paved with brick in 1902, and became the first paved street in the city. Prior to the advent of automotive manufacturing, Connersville for decades was colloquially known as the "furniture and buggy town" because of the dominance of those two industries in the town. In 1898, Stant was founded in Connersville, and became the world's largest producer of piano tuning pins. During the school year 1906–07, Dr. W. Otto Miessner established the first public high school band in the U.S. at Connersville High School. Automotive and industrial age to 1960s In the early 20th century, the town became known as "Little Detroit" because of its importance to the automobile industry. Automobiles manufactured in Connersville include Auburn, Cord, Duesenberg, Ansted, Empire, Lexington, and McFarlan. The Willys MB Jeep body was manufactured in Connersville during the 1940s. Much of the western portion of town was occupied by light industry for the 150 years prior to 1990. Companies included Roots Blower (later Dresser Industries), Stant, McQuay Norris, Design & Manufacturing Co. (D&M), H.H. Robertson, Visteon, Philco Ford. The 1980s were the beginning of the end for Connersville automotive manufacturing, which had been on the wane for more than a decade. McQuay-Norris, manufacturer of auto parts based in St. Louis, got its start in Connersville in 1921 by acquisition of Wainwright Engineering, a privately held local company manufacturing automotive engines. In 1969, it was acquired by Eaton, Yale & Towne, and closed its Connersville and Indianapolis plants in 1983. Design & Manufacturing (D&M) company got its start when Rex Regenstrief purchased American Kitchens in 1958 and renamed the company. By 1972, D&M controlled 25% of the nation’s dishwasher market. Design & Manufacturing’s assets were sold to White Consolidated Industries in 1987 and the firm was dissolved in 1990. Architectural Products Division of H. H. Robertson purchased land owned by the defunct Lexington Motor Car Co. in February 1960. Robertson was a victim of hard times for the industry in the late 1980s and the Connersville plant was merged with operations in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, starting in 1986. Decline from 1960s onward Due to high cost of local union labor and economies of scale elsewhere, most industry departed in the 1980s and 1990s. Connersville union labor is down from a high of 10,000 to about 600 workers in 2012. Connersville’s role in automobile manufacturing ceased when the Visteon factory shut down in 2007. Part of the decline may be logistical – with the construction of the interstate highway system in the 1950s, Connersville found itself not directly in line with routes between major cities: I-70 from Indianapolis to Columbus, I-74 from Indianapolis to Cincinnati, and U.S. 40 from Indianapolis to Richmond, none intersecting Connersville. The former Roots Blower/Dresser Industries, now GE Energy, remains, but with a skeleton staff of fewer than 100 full-time employees. Stant also remains with a little over 200 employees. There are still some furniture making, machine shops, and other local manufacturing establishments. In March 2014, the city declared a fiscal emergency when revenue fell short of expenses, and the city nearly fell into bankruptcy. Culture and recreation Fayette County Public Library is located in the city. There is a golf course west of town known as Willowbrook Country Club. Connersville has an indoor movie theater, Showtime Cinemas. There is a basketball stadium at the old high school at 19th and Grand ave, and a football field at the high school on Ranch Road where high school events are held. Both are available for other events, gymnastics, track and field, etc. Overnight and long-term camping are available at the Whitewater River Campground south of town. The Heritage MusicFest takes place every year in June at the campground. Local bands ranging in style from bluegrass to rock perform. Parks and preserves Roberts Park, located in the northeast corner of town, contains a public pool, community center, grandstand, and racetrack. It hosts the annual Fayette County Free Fair, a week-long event held late in the summer. Whitewater Memorial State Park is located adjacent to Brookville Lake about southeast by east of Connersville near Liberty, Indiana. Manlove Park, about northwest of downtown near Milton, is a recreation area around Manlove Lake. Shrader-Weaver Woods Nature Preserve, about northwest of Connersville, is 108 acres of pristine old growth woodland offering hiking, sightseeing and bird watching. The Mary Gray Bird Sanctuary, over of forest, meadow, prairie, and ponds, provides hiking, picnicking, camping. and bird watching. It is located about southwest of Connersville. Doc-O-Lake, a lake and recreation area north of town, features camping, boating and limited fishing (not a stocked lake). Historic places Elmhurst, an estate south of town on St. Rd. 121 built in 1831, was the home of Caleb Blood Smith, who served in Abraham Lincoln's cabinet. It also serves as the site of an annual re-enactment of the American Civil War. The estate was formerly known as Conners Elm Park. The Whitewater Valley Railroad is a long operating scenic railroad and museum between Connersville and Metamora. Fayette County Historical Museum is located in the city. The Canal House, built in 1842 as headquarters for the Whitewater Canal Company, is in the city. In addition to the Canal House and Elmhurst, the Fayette County Courthouse and Roberts Park are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Demographics As of 2019, the population is estimated to be 12,796 people. About 55% of Fayette county's population lives in the town. 2010 census As of the census of 2010, there were 13,481 people, 5,582 households, and 3,506 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 6,450 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.7% White, 2.1% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0% of the population. There were 5,582 households, of which 31.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% were married couples living together, 15.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 37.2% were non-families. 31.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.95. The median age in the city was 39.4 years. 24.2% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.6% were from 45 to 64; and 17.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female. 2000 census As of the census of 2000, there were 15,411 people, 6,382 households, and 4,135 families residing in the city. Transportation There is no commercial air or bus service to Connersville. There is Amtrak (passenger) and CSX (freight) rail service. The Whitewater River, while mostly navigable, is not commercially viable as a means of transportation. Freight moves into and out of Connersville by truck, principally via State Road 1 north and Interstate 70 to Indianapolis, and State Road 1 south, U.S. Route 52, and Interstate 74 to Cincinnati. State Road 44 is mostly local and in-county traffic. SR 1 and SR 44 are both narrow two-lane state roads. The nearest large cities are Cincinnati to the southeast; Indianapolis to the west; Dayton, Ohio, . to the east; Louisville, Kentucky, to the south; and Columbus, Ohio, to the east. Airport Mettel Field is a private aviation airport located three nautical miles (6 km) north of the central business district of Connersville. There is no commercial service. It is owned by the Connersville Board of Aviation Commissioners. The nearest commercial airport is Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, to the southeast. Railroad Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Connersville. Each of two trains provides service three days a week. The westbound train provides service to Indianapolis, Lafayette, and Chicago. The eastbound train provides service to Cincinnati, cities in Kentucky, and points east ending at New York City. Bus and taxi service There is no transit bus service to Connersville, but local public transit is available to all residents by calling the public transit office. There is 1 local taxi service in town. Highways Indiana State Road 1 runs north-south through downtown Connersville north to beyond Fort Wayne and south to Lawrenceburg Indiana State Road 44 runs east-west through downtown Connersville west to Martinsville and east to the Ohio state line Indiana State Road 121 runs north-south from intersection with SR44 in downtown Connersville south to Metamora Interstate 70, to the north via SR1 runs east-west from Indianapolis to Columbus, Ohio U.S. Route 40, to the north via SR1 runs east-west from just south of Indianapolis to Richmond, IN. Cemeteries Connersville City Cemetery in the middle of town, Dale Cemetery just west of downtown, and Tullis Chapel Cemetery southwest of town, are the only local cemeteries. There are a few private and church cemeteries located in outlying unincorporated areas. Hospital Reid Health operates the hospital and associated entities in Connersville, having purchased most of the assets of the former Fayette Regional Health System after it filed for bankruptcy in 2018. Schools and churches About 44% of the population is affiliated with a religious congregation. 25% are Roman Catholic, followed by United Methodist, Southern Baptist, and non-denominational Christian. In town, there are churches representing Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Episcopal and Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saint faiths, as well as about a dozen non-denominational Christian churches. There are also a number of Pentecostal (including Charismatic and Revival) churches and organizations. All public schools belong to the Fayette County School Corporation. There are about 1,200 students in high school, 700 in middle school, 1,800 in public elementary schools, and 300 in parochial elementary schools (as of 2012). Public elementary schools and some parochial elementary schools include kindergarten. The Whitewater Technical Career Center is a secondary school including grades 11–12 with an enrollment of over 500; it prepares non-college-bound students for careers in the trades. There are no institutions of higher learning in Connersville. The Connersville Center offers extension courses through Indiana University East. The nearest four-year colleges are IU East and Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, and Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, all about away by road. The Fayette County School Corporation garnered national attention in November 2017 with a series of articles on CBS News on the subject of school nutrition programs, nationwide—featuring Connersville schools' partnership with a food service company, Chartwell's, to offer free breakfast, lunch and supper services to all children in their schools—integrating breakfasts with classroom learning activity, offering a "second chance" breakfast for teens, and providing after-school movies with a free supper. Middle, high and trade schools Connersville High School Connersville Middle School (formerly Junior High North formerly Connersville Sr. High) Whitewater Career Center (formerly Connersville Area Vocational School) Elementary schools Eastview Grandview Frazee Fayette Central Everton Parochial elementary schools St. Gabriel's (Catholic) Community (Christian) Faith (Christian) Media Connersville has a daily newspaper called The News Examiner in continuous publication (including predecessor papers) since 1849. Radio station WLPK-AM 1580, owned by Rodgers Broadcasting Corporation and licensed to Connersville, operates with local programming and a classic hits format; the station simulcasts on FM frequency 106.9. For many years Connersville simulcast AM/FM WCNB/WIFE radio. The FM which was located at 100.3 was sold to Radio One Communications for $18 million in 2006 and re-located to Cincinnati, Ohio. There is now a WIFE-FM radio station (94.3), whose tower is located in Rush County, Indiana. Connersville High School's daily TV news program, CHS Today, was the first student-produced TV news program in the United States. It began in 1970 with presenters Dennis Sullivan and Ron Stevens. At first, it was broadcast only to the school via closed-circuit TV. Later it expanded and now airs live at 11:00 a.m. weekdays to the community and re-airs twice in the evening at 6:45 and 10:45pm via TV3 on local cable. Notable people Phil Cox, 1972 Indiana Mr. Basketball, 1972 Graduate of Connersville High School, and member of 1972 Indiana High School basketball champions. Howard Garns, creator of the logic game Sudoku, was born in Connersville on March 2, 1905. Finly H. Gray was a US Congressman elected to represent Indiana's 6th and 10th Districts in the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1911 to 1917 and 1933 to 1939. He also served as Mayor of Connersville from 1904 to 1910. Gray is buried in Dale Cemetery, located on Memorial Drive in Connersville. Gray Road, on the west side of Connersville, is named for him. Scott Halberstadt, television actor, was born in Connersville in 1976 and graduated from Connersville High School in 1994. Tom T. Hall, country singer and Grand Ole Opry member, spent time in Connersville early in his career and wrote "Thank You, Connersville" about the experience. Matt Howard, a three-time Academic All-American starting forward for Butler University's men's basketball team who has since played professionally for several European teams, is a 2007 graduate of Connersville High School. He played in the 2010 and 2011 NCAA Championship games. In February 2011, Howard was selected as the top Academic All-American in the University category (chosen from all twelve Academic All-America teams, including football). Virginia Claypool Meredith, "Queen of American Agriculture," born in Connersville James N. Huston, Treasurer of the United States 1889–91, lived in Connersville most of his life, founding a local bank, Citizen's Bank. Carol J. Pereyra, founder of Going Bonkers Magazine, raised in Connersville, Indiana and attended middle school and high school. Betsy Ross, former ESPN anchor, graduate of Connersville High School, now freelance broadcaster/emcee in Cincinnati, Ohio. Caleb Blood Smith was a Congressman and the Secretary of the Interior in the Lincoln administration. He was the second occupant of the Elmhurst mansion. Oliver H. Smith was a Congressman and Senator. He built the Elmhurst mansion at the south edge of Connersville in 1831. Dan Toler, rock musician with the Allman Brothers Band and Gregg Allman Band (died 2013) Robert Wise, one of Hollywood's most acclaimed directors and producers, graduated from Connersville High School in 1932. The CHS auditorium, the Robert E. Wise Center for Performing Arts, was named in his honor. Wise is known for his direction of "The Sound of Music" and "West Side Story". Mark Rose, vice president of design and engineering at Busch Gardens in Tampa, Florida. E. L. Cord, Industrialist/Automaker purchased assets from Lexington/Ansted to begin manufacturing Cord, Auburn, and Duesenberg (parts only) in Connersville. He later founded American Airlines in Dallas, Texas. Newton Claypool, Former member of the Indiana House of Representatives and Indiana Senate (1825-1845). Patriarch of the Claypool Family in Indiana. Grandfather of Virginia Claypool Meredith. Newton's son Austin, served as one of the first Trustees for Purdue University 1874-1875 Joey Sturgis music producer, sound engineer, musician, drummer. See also List of cities in Indiana Connersville Township, Fayette County, Indiana References Further reading A Little Journey to Connersville, Elbert Hubbard, 1917, Roycrofters, N.Y. 23pgs. Sons of the Wilderness: John and William Conner, Charles N. Thompson, 1988, Clerisy Press, KY. 283pgs. External links City of Connersville, Indiana website http://www.newsexaminer.com http://fayettein.schooldesk.net/ https://connersvillehistory.wordpress.com/ Cities in Indiana Cities in Fayette County, Indiana Populated places established in 1813 Micropolitan areas of Indiana County seats in Indiana 1813 establishments in Indiana Territory

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The History of the Argentina national rugby union team starts with the first international played by an Argentine side against the British Isles in 1910 when they toured on South America. Argentina gained recognition in 1965, when the team toured South Africa playing a series of friendly matches there. In that tour the national team was nicknamed Los Pumas, a name that became an identity mark for Argentina, remaining to present days. Argentina has taken part in all the Rugby World Cups since the first edition in 1987, being their best performance the 3rd place achieved in 2007. The national side also plays the Rugby Championship since the 2012 edition, after joining the competition one year before. Background At the middle of the 19th century the Irish immigrants in Argentina introduced sports and contributed to establish clubs in the country, although the first clubs in Argentina only admitted English members. Natives were rarely accepted, most of the cases as an exception. The first rugby union match in Argentina was played in 1873, in the Buenos Aires Cricket Club Ground, located in Palermo, Buenos Aires. Both teams were formed by members of the BACC and they play a mix between football and rugby. On 29 June 1886, it is recorded that Buenos Aires F.C. (predecessor of current Buenos Aires Cricket & Rugby Club) and Rosario A.C. played the first inter-clubs match in Plaza Jewell, Rosario, Santa Fe. In 1899, four clubs in Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires, joined together to form the River Plate Rugby Football Union and organised the first club championship that same year. 1910–1936: From the first matches to World War I In 1910 a side managed by Oxford University –supposedly the England national team, but including three Scottish players— toured Argentina as part of the celebrations for the 100th anniversary of the May Revolution. The people of Argentina termed it the "Combined British", also known as "Great Britain XV". Argentina made its international debut against this team under the name "The River Plate Rugby Football Union" on 12 June. The match was played at Sociedad Sportiva Argentina of Palermo and Argentina lost 28–3. The only try for the Argentine squad (the first international try) was scored by Buenos Aires F.C. player Frank Heriot. The Argentina line-up was: J.E. Saffey; C. McCarthy, Oswald Gebbie (cap), F. Heriot, Henry Talbot; Carlos Mold, W.A. Watson; Barry Heatlie, L.H. Gribell, W.M. Hayman; F. Henrys, F.W. Saywer; A. Bovet, A. Donelly, Alvan Reid., all of them descendant of British immigrants. Argentina's most notable players were captain Oswald St. John Gebbie and Barrie Heatlie, a South African that had been played for the Springboks. In 1927 the British Lions toured Argentina for second time, with the Lions winning all nine encounters; the tour did however become a financial success for Argentine rugby. Of the nine encounters, four tests were played, which Argentina lost by over 30 points in all. All the games took place in Buenos Aires. The important fact was that all the players on the field were Argentine-born. 1927 also saw the first time Argentina wore the traditional light blue and white jersey, after a proposal from Mr. Abelardo Gutiérrez of Gimnasia y Esgrima de Buenos Aires. That request was accepted and Argentina wore the striped uniform v. the British Lions. Five years passed until another international team would return to Argentina, which would be the Junior Springboks which arrived in the country for the first time in 1932 to play a series of friendly matches v. local clubs and combined teams. On July 16 and 23 the JS played Argentina, winning both matches, 42–0 and 34–3, respectively. The line-up for the first match was R. de Abelleyra; H. Maurer, A. Turner, C. Echeverría, N. Escary ; E.J. Stanfield, J.E. Bridger; J.L. Francombe, N. C. Tozer, G.A. Stewart, Ernesto Cilley, A. Navajas, K.A.M. Cookson, Arturo Rodríguez, C.A. Huntley Robertson (captain) Two of the members of the Junior Springboks, Rybeck Elliot and Wollie Wolheim, would return to Argentina one year later to play for Hindú Club. In 1936 the British Isles visited Argentina again, winning all ten of their matches and only conceding nine points in the whole tour. Only one test was played on the tour, with Argentina losing 23–0. The following month Argentina left the country to play their first away tests – against Chile in Valparaíso. Argentina won the first test (and their first game), 29–0. The second match was won by a similar margin. Two years later Argentina hosted Chile, which resulted in Argentina winning by 30 points. Post war period Argentina hosted the first South American tournament, in 1951. The other teams participating were Uruguay and Chile. Argentina won the tournament after large victories over Uruguay (62–0) and Brazil (72–0) being the last v. Chile by 13–3. All the matches were played at Estadio G.E.B.A. In 1954 the French national team toured Argentina and Chile playing with the national team on August 29 at Gimnasia y Esgrima. Argentina lost the match by 8–22. On September 12, both teams played a second test match at the same venue, with another victory for France which won by 30–3. At the second South American tournament, in 1958, Argentina accounted for Uruguay 50–3 and Peru 44–0, and finally Argentina emerged victorious against the hosts Chile in Santiago, by 14–0 to win their second title. In 1959 the Junior Springboks returned to South America to play a series of friendly matches in Buenos Aires and Rosario against local clubs and combined teams. The South African played Argentina in two test-matches at GEBA, winning both fixtures 14–6, and 20–5. The JS played a total of 15 matches in Argentina, winning all of them. The third edition of the South American competition, in 1961 held in Uruguay found Argentina to win their third consecutive title after defeating Chile (11–3), Brazil (thrashing them by 60–0) and local team Uruguay by 36–3, with all the matches being played at Carrasco Polo of Montevideo. Argentina won their four South American title in 1964 with victories over Uruguay (25–6), Brazil and Chile (both with the same score, 30–8). 1960s: The birth of Los Pumas In 1960, France visited Argentina and Uruguay for a series of 13 matches, 3 of them against Argentina. The hosts still could not get their first win over the French, with France winning all three tests 37–3, 12–3 and 29–6, all of them played at Estadio G.E.B.A. The Argentine line-up for the first game was 15.Rodolfo Devoto, 14.Enrique Krossler, 13.Esteban Karplus, 12.Ricardo Oliveri, 11.Enrico Neri, 10.Isidro Comas (cap), 9.Eduardo González del Solar, 8.Florencio Varela, 7. Glauco Wessek, 6.Jorge Pulido, 5.Aitor Otano, 4.Rodolfo Schmidt, 3.Eduardo Sorhaburu, 2.Juan Casanegra, 1.Elías Gavina The following year Argentina again showed their dominance on a continental level, winning the South American tournament held in Montevideo, by beating Brazil 60–0, Uruguay 36–3 and Chile 11–3. In 1964 a new version of the South American tournament was played in San Pablo and Argentina again achieved huge victories over Uruguay (25–6), Brazil (30–5) and Chile (30–8). In the late 1960s the four home unions began tours to Argentina, and after Wales struggled in both tests in Buenos Aires in 1967 it became clear that Argentina would be a difficult place to win a series. Scotland lost the first test in 1968, but won a close second test two weeks later. The first trip of the Argentina national rugby team to the other side of the Atlantic was to Rhodesia and South Africa in 1965. The team acquired the nickname Pumas, from a local journalist of The Weekly Farers after their first tour match, a defeat on 8 May by Rhodesia in Salisbury 17–12. The journalist mistook the animal that appeared on the UAR emblem (a yaguareté) for a puma, probably because it was an unknown species in South Africa. Nevertheless, the nickname has remained as a mark of identity for the team since then. After defeats by Salisbury and Northern Transvaal, the first win came against Western Transvaal, another against South West Africa Country Districts and finally against the Southern Universities. The Pumas scored a landmark win of 11–6 against the Junior Springboks on June 19 at Ellis Park Stadium. The line-up for that historic day was Roberto Cazenave; Enrico Neri, Marcelo Pascual, Arturo Rodríguez Jurado (h), Eduardo España; Eduardo Poggi, Adolfo Etchegaray; Raúl Loyola, Héctor Silva, Eduardo Scharenberg; Rodolfo Schmidt, Aitor Otaño (c); Ronnie Foster, Nicanor González del Solar, Luis García Yáñez. That victory over the Junior Springboks was widely praised by the media, being considered as the first landmark of the Argentine rugby since the beginning of this sport in the country. Argentina played a total of 16 matches, with 11 won and only 4 lost over two months. The players were welcomed home to Buenos Aires by a huge crowd. A match was then organised against the French champions Section Paloise, although the match was remembered for the uproar and misconduct of both teams rather than the Argentine victory. Then Oxford & Cambridge arrived, a team that the Pumas had never beaten. The first match finished level at 19–19 and the second saw the University students triumph 9–3. 1965 ended with a match against Chile, which the Pumas won 23–11. In 1966, the Gazelles –a kind of a Junior Springboks B team– arrived in Argentina. The visitors took two victories 9–3 and 20–15. In September 1967, Argentina played in Buenos Aires in the South American Championship with victories over Uruguay 38–6 and Chile 18–0. Wales arrived in Buenos Aires in 1968 and for the first time in their history the Pumas were able to triumph in a series, winning the first match 9–5 and drawing the second 9–9. The first great decade in Argentine rugby came to a close with the arrival of Scotland in 1969. The first match saw a big Argentine victory 20–3, but in the second game the visitors narrowly won 6–3. In 1968 Wales toured on Argentina to play six games. Argentina defeated Wales in the first test by 9–6, with the following line-up: 15.Jorge Seaton, 14.Mario Walther, 13.Arturo Rodriguez Jurado, 12.Marcelo Pascual, 11.Alejandro Travaglini, 10.Jorge Dartiguelongue, 9.Adolfo Etchegaray, 7.Miguel Chesta, 8. Hector Silva, 6.Raul Loyola, 5.Aitor Otano, 4.Adrian Anthony, 3.Marcelo Farina, 2.Ricardo Handley, 1.Luis Garcia Yanez. The second test finished in a 9–9 tie. The 1970s: multiple tours Through the 1970s, Argentina confirmed its steady rise towards top-tier status under the influence of its first truly world-class player, fly-half Hugo Porta. In 1971 Argentina made a second tour on South Africa that included a series of 14 matches played in June and July. The "Pumas" didn't play against Springboks (playing meanwhile in Australia, but against the Gazelles, the selection of emerging under-23 players). Originally was scheduled also a match in Rhodesia, but it was cancelled after a prohibition of Argentine government. Argentina won 9 games, being defeated 4 times. The line-up v. the Gazelles was D. Morgan; M. Pascual, R. Matarazzo, A. Rodríguez Jurado (h), A. Travaglini; R. Espagnol, G. Blaksley; H. Silva (c), J. Wittman, N. Carbone; B. Otaño, A. Anthony; R. Foster, R. Handley, L. García Yáñez. Two years later Los Pumas went on a tour to Ireland and Scotland, playing 8 matches in October and November. Argentina won only two games, losing four with two draws. In the matches v. national sides, Argentina lost to Ireland by 21–8 on November 10. The other game vs a national team was v. Scotland, 14 days later, which Argentina lost by 12–11. The second Argentine tour on Europe came in 1975 when the team played seven matches in France during October. Argentina won 3 matches, with 4 losses, two of them vs. the France national team (29–6 and 36–21). One year later Argentina went on a tour around Wales and England to play 6 matches. During their tour, the Pumas came tantalizingly close to a historic victory at Cardiff Arms Park over Wales, then the dominant force in the Northern Hemisphere. Only a Phil Bennett penalty on a foul by Gabriel Travaglini at the death allowed the Welsh to escape with a 20–19 victory. The line-up for Argentina v. Wales was Martin Sansot; Daniel Beccar Varela, Alejandro Travaglini, Gonzalo Beccar Varela, Jorge Gauweloose; Hugo Porta, Adolfo Etchegaray (C); Jorge Carracedo, Ricardo Mastai, Carlos Neyra; José Fernández, Eliseo Branca; Rito Iraneta, Jose Costante, Fernando Insúa. Argentina played a total of 6 matches, winning 3 with 3 losses. Some of the club teams Argentina faced were Cardiff and Aberavon. Two years later Argentina returned to competitions for their tour on England, Ireland and Italy. The team held a virtually full-strength England XV to a 13–13 draw, before losing 6–19 to Italy in the first test match between them. Argentine also played the Wales B team, being beat by 17–14. The tour captain, Hugo Porta, played all nine games, scored 94 of the team's 157 points on tour and established himself as one of the world's great players on the tour. The last tour of the Argentine side was in 1979 when the team trip to New Zealand to play a series of nine games. Argentina won 6 of them, losing 3 games. On September 18, Argentina played the All Blacks for the first time in their history. The match, held at Carisbrook, was won by New Zealand by 18–9. The Argentine line-up was Martín Sansot; Adolfo Cappelletti, Marcelo Loffreda, Rafael Madero, Marcelo Ocampo; Hugo Porta, Alfredo Soares Gache; Gabriel Travaglini, Tomas Petersen, Héctor Silva; Marcos Iachetti, Alejandro Iachetti; Enrique Rodriguez, Javier Pérez Cobo, Hugo Nicola. The second test-match, played one week later, ended in a new victory for New Zealand by 15–6. That same year, the Australian side toured on Argentina by the first time. During October and November, Australia played a series of seven games. In the first test match, Argentina defeated Australia by 24–13 on October 27 at Ferro Carril Oeste stadium. In the second game (played on November 3) Argentina was defeated by 17–12. 1980s: the relevance During the 1980s, several teams toured on South America also reaching Argentina. This allowed the Pumas to face some of the most important sides of the world, such as England, France, New Zealand and Australia national rugby union team. From the late seventies to the early nineties, Argentina never lost the two matches of a series held in Buenos Aires. After the British Lions visits in 1909 and 1927, the England national team arrived in Argentina for the first time in 1981. The English side played seven matches in the country, with Argentina achieving a 19–19 tie at Ferro Carril Oeste stadium on May 31. Six days later, England won the second test by 12–6. In 1985 France toured on South America, playing a series of 7 matches in Argentina. The national side achieved its first victory over a French national team, a 24–16 on 22 June at Ferro Carril Oeste stadium. The line-up was: B. Miguens; J. Lanza, Turnes, Cuesta Silva, Annichini; Porta, J. Miguens; Allen, Ure, Petersen; Milano, Branca; Cash, Cubelli, Morel. The second test match would be won by France. That same year, Los Pumas played the All Blacks, which were in a tour on the country to play a series of matches in October and November. Argentina lost the first match by 33–20. Nevertheless, the national side achieved a historic 21–21 tie on November 2 at Ferro C. Oeste, with all points converted by Hugo Porta. The line-up for that notable match was Diego Cash; Alejandro Cubelli, Fernando Morel; Eliseo Branca, Gustavo Milano; Tomás Petersen, Jorge Allen, Ernesto Ure; Guillermo Holmgren, Hugo Porta (c); Pedro Lanza, Diego Cuesta Silva, Fabián Turnes, Juan Lanza, Bernardo Miguens. Due to those results, some journalists widely regard 1985 as the best year in Los Pumas' history. France returned to Argentina in 1986 as part of their Oceania tour. Argentina achieved their second victory over France on May 31 by 15–13 at Vélez Sársfield stadium of Buenos Aires. Seven days later, Argentine was defeated by France at the same venue. In 1987, Argentina played the first Rugby World Cup held in New Zealand and Australia. The team made a poor campaign, losing to Fiji and New Zealand in the first stage, with only one victory over Italy. The team finished 3rd of Pool 3, being eliminated. After the WC, Australia arrived in Argentina in 1987 to play a series of nine matches. Argentina remained unbeaten in the two test-matches played vs. the Australian side, with a 19–19 tie in the first game and an outstanding victory by 2719 in the second match on November 7 at Vélez Sársfield. The line-up was Rafael Madero; Diego Cuesta Silva, Marcelo Loffreda, Fabián Turnes, A. Scolni; H. Porta (c), A.Soares Gache; J. Allen, G. Milano, P. Garretón; A. Iachetti, E. Branca; Diego Cash, A. Courreges, Serafín Dengra. France toured again on Argentina in 1988 (the third time in that decade). Argentina lost the first test by 15–18 and won the second, played on June 25, by 18–6. The line-up was A. Scolni; D. Cuesta Silva, Loffreda, Turnes, Mendy; R. Madero, Baetti; Allen (c), Milano, Garretón; Iachetti, Branca; Cash, Courreges, Dengra. Both games played at Vélez Sarsfield. 1990s: process of transition Over the following years, the retirement of many of Argentina's most experienced players, and the defection of many others to professional leagues (UAR's regulations of the time prevented any player who played professionally from playing for the national team) left Argentina with an inexperienced side. This led to disappointing performances in the 1991 and 1995 World Cups, although in the latter Argentina presented a powerful pack which was praised by the international media. Argentina's tighthead prop, Patricio Noriega and hooker, Federico Méndez, went to play in Australia and South Africa respectively after their performance. Noriega even played for the Wallabies. The Pumas toured the British Isles in 1990, playing their first away match versus the England senior team and their first ever test-matches versus the Ireland and Scotland senior squads. Despite Argentina had a two-point loss to Ireland hand (20–18), the squad was smashed by England (51–0) and Scotland (49–3). In 1991 the All Blacks returned to Argentina. The national team was defeated in both tests, 28–14 and 36–6, at Vélez Sársfield. Argentina went on a new tour on Europe in 1992, where the team defeated Spain, Romania and France (24–22). Two years later Argentina toured South Africa to play six matches, losing both tests to the Springboks (42–22 and 46–26). The 1995 tour on Australia continued with poor results, losing to the national side (53–7 and 30–13). In 1996 Argentina went to England, losing 20–18 at Twickenham. The 1997 tour on New Zealand found Argentina being hardly defeated by the All Blacks (93–8 –the biggest defeat in the team's history– and 62–10). One year later Argentina would be beat by Japan, Italy, France and Wales in the same tour. The only positive result for the national side was a 31–22 victory over 1999 Five Nations Championship Scotland on August 21 at the Murrayfield Stadium, during the 1999 tour on the British Isles. A more experienced and somewhat under-rated squad made it to the World Cup quarter-finals for the first time. In the WC, Argentina lost the first game to Wales (23–18), then defeating Samoa (32–16) and Japan (33–12), finishing second in their group to Wales, and went onto the quarter-final play-offs. After a vibrant 28–24 win against Ireland, the Pumas were eliminated by France, 28–47, in the quarter-final. Gonzalo Quesada was the highest overall points scorer in the tournament with 102. The outstanding performance by Quesada earned him to win the Olimpia de Oro (Golden Olimpia), the top sports award of Argentina. The new millennium In April 2000, Marcelo Loffreda was appointed coach of Argentina. Argentina participated in the 2003 World Cup, but missed out on progressing to the quarter-finals due to a 15–16 loss to Ireland. Because of the fixture list, Argentina had to play four games in a fortnight, whereas Ireland played the same number of games in four weeks. In 2004 Argentina showed good form, splitting a midyear two-test home series with Wales. Los Pumas handed defending Six Nations champion France a 24–14 loss in November 2004 at Marseille, before losing 21–19 to Ireland on a last-minute drop goal. After returning to Argentina, the Pumas lost 39–7 to the visiting Springboks; however, the Pumas were without 10 regular starters who had returned to their club teams in Europe. Perhaps one of the Pumas' best matches of the decade came on 23 May 2005, when they played the British & Irish Lions in Cardiff before the Lions' tour to New Zealand. The Pumas chose a side of second- and third-choice players as 25 players were unavailable due to club commitments. An inspired Pumas performance, combined with lacklustre play by a mostly second-choice Lions side, put Argentina on the verge of a great upset until a Jonny Wilkinson penalty at the death salvaged a 25–25 draw and the Lions avoided a humiliating defeat. When the Springboks returned to Argentina in November of that year at Vélez Sársfield, they faced a much stronger Pumas side, with most of their European-based players present. The Pumas took a 20–16 lead into the half-time break, before fading the second half and losing 34–23. The following week, the Pumas defeated Scotland 23–19 Murrayfield for the Pumas fifth consecutive win over Scotland since 1990. In the 2006 mid-year tests, Argentina swept Wales in a two-test tour for their first test series win over Wales. Argentina won the first test 27–25, in the first Argentina test in Patagonia. The second test at Vélez Sársfield saw the Pumas win 45–27, Argentina's largest win ever over Wales. Los Pumas next hosted the All Blacks at Vélez Sársfield. The All Blacks survived a Pumas assault in the final minutes to hang on to win 25–19 and to deny Argentina a huge upset. Argentina then defeated Chile 60–13 in Santiago and defeated Uruguay 26–0 at home to qualify for the 2007 Rugby World Cup. The 2006 end-of-year Tests began with a bang for Los Pumas, as they handed a 25–18 defeat at Twickenham, resulting in the fans booing the England team off the pitch. Further success followed for the Pumas, defeating Italy in Rome, and coming within one point of beating France in Paris. The Sunday Times of London reported in February 2007 that the IRB was brokering a deal with SANZAR, the body that organises the Tri Nations, to admit Los Pumas to the competition. However, The Sunday Times indicated that one of the biggest stumbling blocks was the UAR's commitment to amateurism. By August of that year, it became clear that the competition would not be expanded until the key SANZAR media contract with News Corporation expired in 2010. An IRB spokesman noted the contract, Southern Hemisphere fixture congestion, and the lack of a professional structure in Argentina as reasons that Los Pumas could not be admitted any sooner. 2007 World Cup semifinal Los Pumas began their final preparation for the 2007 Rugby World Cup with a summer two-test series against visiting Ireland, with a 22–20 win at Santa Fe, and a 16–0 win at Vélez Sársfield. Los Pumas then completed a clean sweep of their mid-year tests with a 24–6 win over in Mendoza. They split their final warmup tests, defeating 70–14 at CASI in Buenos Aires, before losing to Wales 20–27 at Millennium Stadium. At the World Cup, Los Pumas were drawn into the so-called pool of death, featuring two other teams ranked in the top six in the IRB rankings—Ireland and the hosts France. On top of this, they opened the World Cup at Stade de France against the French, marking the third consecutive World Cup in which they played against the host nation in the World Cup opener. The Pumas took a 17–9 lead into the half, and held on for a surprising 17–12 win. The Pumas subsequently beat Georgia 33–3 at the Stade de Gerland, Lyon. Argentina then beat Namibia 63–3 in Marseille, the biggest winning margin in Argentine World Cup history. They then secured a 30–15 victory against Ireland, which ensured that Argentina topped the group. Argentina then defeated Scotland 19–13 in the quarter-final at the Stade de France. The Pumas' improbable run towards the Webb Ellis trophy ended in a comprehensive 37–13 defeat by the Springboks in the semi-final at Stade de France. However, the Pumas recovered to beat France for the second time in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, a 34–10 win in the 3rd/4th place playoff. The 3rd place showing for the Pumas in the 2007 Rugby World Cup was Argentina's best ever result in Rugby World Cup history. Argentina's performance marked the first time that a team from outside the Six Nations or Tri Nations competition reached the semifinals of the Rugby World Cup, and gave renewed momentum propelling Argentina towards joining one of those competitions. During their World Cup run, the normally football-crazed Argentines embraced the Pumas so much that El Superclásico, the Buenos Aires football derby between Boca Juniors and River Plate, was rescheduled so that it would not conflict with the Pumas' quarter-final match. As the only major Spanish language country in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, the Pumas also had considerable support from rugby fans in Spain, Uruguay, and other Latin American countries during their impressive five-game winning streak. After the 2007 World Cup In November 2007, in the wake of Argentina's World Cup run, the future status of Los Pumas was a key topic of discussion at an IRB conference on the future worldwide growth of the sport. The decisions made at the conference regarding Argentina were: The Pumas will play more annual tests, increasing from the previous six tests per year to nine by 2010. The team would play four tests in the June test window, three in November, and two during the Six Nations window in February and March. Between 2008 and 2010, Argentina would develop a domestic professional structure, with the goal of having the majority of Argentine professionals playing at home. Sometime around 2012, Los Pumas will then be "fully integrated into the Southern top-flight Rugby playing structure" (read "Tri Nations"). On March 13, 2008, Santiago Phelan was named as the coach of the Argentine rugby union team, filling the vacancy left by Marcelo Loffreda. On 7 June 2008, the Pumas beat Scotland 21–15 in Rosario, Argentina, thus maintaining their position as the third highest ranked team in the IRB rankings. In June 2009 the British media reported that Argentina were lobbying for the 2013 British & Irish Lions tour to Australia to incorporate provincial games and test matches in Argentina, but nothing came of this proposal. Argentina failed to get a test series victory under Phelan, with a draw against Scotland in 2008 and England in 2009, before losing 2–0 to Scotland in 2010. 2011 Rugby World Cup World Cup preparations for Los Pumas began with a drawn 1–1 series against the French Barbarians, a 78–15 win against a South American Invitational XV, and a 21–15 victory against the Aviva Premiership club Worcester Warriors. In their only international test warm-up match, Los Pumas lost 28–13 to Wales in Cardiff. Los Pumas kicked off their 2011 World Cup with a 13–9 loss against England, a match which they led for over 60 minutes. They next beat Romania 43–8. The following match against Scotland decided which team would reach the quarterfinals. A late try by replacement fullback Lucas González Amorosino and a successful conversion meant Los Pumas won 13–12. Argentina finished the pool stage by winning 25–9 against Georgia. Argentina's final match of the tournament was the quarterfinal against eventual champions All Blacks. In a surprisingly close first half, Argentina led 7–6 after 30 minutes following a try by Julio Farías Cabello. As the game went on, the All Blacks began to dominate, leading to a final score of 33–10. While not as glamorous as the 2007 tournament for the Pumas, their campaign was considered relatively successful as they qualified for the quarterfinals from a pool that featured England and Scotland, and put up a valiant quarterfinal display against the All Blacks. It marked the first time that Argentina qualified for the quarterfinals in two consecutive World Cup tournaments. 2012: The Rugby Championship In 2012, Argentina again drew a test series against France. 2012 saw a major breakthrough for the Pumas, as they joined The Rugby Championship (formerly known as the Tri Nations) against New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. This was the first time Argentina participated in an annual Tier 1 international competition. Argentina played its first match of the 2012 Rugby Championship against South Africa in Cape Town on 18 August 2012, losing 27–6. Argentina quickly recovered one week later in Mendoza to achieve a 16–16 score against South Africa, its first draw in history against the Springboks. Argentina acquitted themselves well against Australia, losing 19–23 and then 19–25 to earn a losing bonus point in each match. Argentina also played respectably against the All Blacks in New Zealand, with Argentina keeping the score 5–6 at the half before losing 5–21. Despite ending bottom of the table with just 4 points and no wins in their inaugural season, Argentina proved hard to beat when home. In the November 2012 test series, Argentina beat Wales at the Millennium Stadium, and lost against France and Ireland also on the road. In June 2013, the team lost both matches against England in Argentina, and beat tier 2 squad Georgia. Argentina lost 2–0 to England in 2013 including a record 32–3 defeat in the opening test, the biggest losing margin Argentina has had against England on home soil. Argentina achieved the occasional "upset", including a 9–6 win over Scotland at Murrayfield Stadium in Edinburgh and a 26–12 win over Wales, who at the time were the Six Nations Grand Slam Champions, at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. In 2013, Argentina began their second tournament with a record breaking 73–13 defeat by South Africa, which was South Africa's biggest winning margin over Argentina. In the reverse fixture at home in round 2, Argentina proved to be a formidable team, but lost narrowly to South Africa 17–22. In round 3 they played New Zealand who was victorious in the match 28–13. In Round 4, they lost to Australia in Perth 14–13. In the corresponding home fixture, Argentina lost 54–17 to Australia, a record losing margin against Australia at home. It was the second year in a row with Argentina finishing bottom of the table at the Rugby Championship, this time losing all matches. On October 21, 2013, Phelan stepped down from his post as Los Pumas head coach, one year early from the end of his contract. Over the 45 matches that he coached in his 5-year tenure, he earned 13 wins, 31 defeats and 1 draw. Daniel Hourcade was hired as new Pumas head coach in October 2013. In November 2013, the Pumas were beaten by England and Wales in Twickenham and Cardiff, and later won against Italy in Rome. In the 2014 mid-year rugby union internationals, Argentina lost their games against Ireland and Scotland. On 5 October 2014, Los Pumas achieved their first ever win in the Rugby Championship, defeating Australia 21–17 at the Estadio Malvinas Argentinas in Mendoza, their first win over Australia in 17 years. Despite that win, Argentina finished in last place in the Rugby Championship for the third consecutive year. In the 2014 European end-of-year tests, Argentina lost to Scotland, and beat Italy and France, In the 2015 Rugby Championship, Argentina beat South Africa for the first time 37–25. In the 2020 edition, again convert in a Tri Nations format because of the Pandemic, (South Africa did not play), Argentina defeat the All Blacks for the first time in history. Argentina dominated in almost every facet to notch a deserved 25-15 victory at Sydney's Bankwest Stadium. Fly half Nicolas Sánchez scored all 25 points. 2015 Rugby World Cup Argentina followed their growing competitiveness in the Rugby Championship with a strong showing in the 2015 World Cup, reaching the semi-finals for the second time. Argentina opened the tournament with a close fought match against favourites New Zealand, leading 13–12 at half time before eventually conceding two second half tries to lose 26–16. They followed this with a string of convincing wins against Georgia, Tonga and Namibia to qualify for the quarterfinals. A feature of Argentina's rugby in the 2015 World Cup was their free-flowing, entertaining and attacking style of play which resulted in them scoring 22 tries in pool play. In the quarter final against Ireland, Argentina scored two tries in the opening 10 minutes to jump out to an early 17–0 lead. Ireland regrouped and scored two tries of their own either side of half time to narrow the gap to 20-17 early in the second half. However, Argentina rallied in the late stages of the match, running in late tries by Juan Imhoff and Joaquín Tuculet to eventually finish with a convincing 43–20 win. As a result, they advanced to their second semi-final against Australia. The situation was reversed in the semi-final, when Argentina conceded 2 tries in the opening 10 minutes as Australia gained a 19–6 lead after 30 minutes. Argentina dominated the territory and possession of the remainder of the match, gaining a number of penalties at the scrum to gradually reduce Australia's lead. The match was finely balanced with Australia leading 22-15 after 70 minutes, when Australian winger Drew Mitchell produced a match winning run, beating 4 Argentinian tacklers before passing to Adam Ashley-Cooper to score the winning try. The match finished with Australia winning a fast-paced and entertaining clash 29–15. Notes References Argentina national rugby union team A A rugby union team

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Wolodumir "Walter" Stadnick (born 3 August 1952), also known as "Nurget", is a Canadian outlaw biker and gangster who was the third national president of the Hells Angels in Canada. Stadnick is generally credited with turning the Hells Angels into the dominant outlaw biker club in Canada. The journalists Michel Auger and Peter Edwards wrote that much about Stadnick is mysterious, ranging from what is the meaning of his sobriquet "Nurget", to how a unilingual Anglo Canadian from Hamilton became the leader of the then largely French-Canadian Hells Angels. In 2004, the journalist Tu Thanh Ha wrote that Stadnick is "a secretive man little known to the public", but "he is one of Canada's most pivotal organized-crime figures." From the Cossacks to the Wild Ones Wolodumir Stadnik was born on the "upper side" of Hamilton atop of "the Mountain", as locals call the Niagara Escarpment, to a family of Ukrainian immigrants. His parents were Andriy and Valentina Stadnik, who lived at 98 East 16th Street, in a working-class neighborhood known for its high rate of petty crime. In elementary school, he changed the spelling of his surname to Stadnick and preferred to be called Walter rather than Wolodumir. As a child, he regularly attended the local Uniate Catholic church and was described as quiet and well behaved. One former teacher said about him: "He clearly had a great deal of natural intelligence, but he was impossible to motivate. It was almost like he didn't want to succeed". As a teenager, Stadnick was known as the resident drug dealer at his high school, and by 1970, he was already known by his nickname "Nurget". It remains a mystery why Stadnick's nickname is "Nurget"; one Hamilton police officer says it goes back to his high school days when as the neighborhood hash dealer, Stadnick always had a "nugget" of hash to sell. As a high school student, he began a lifelong practice of dressing flamboyantly by wearing bright jewelry such as rings and chains. Stadnick did well in auto shop at the Hill Park Secondary School, but was otherwise an indifferent student. Those who knew him in high school considered Stadnick to be a "tough little guy" who, despite his short stature, was known as a fighter. He was very ambitious; joining a biker gang as a teenager in Hamilton called the Cossacks, who were noted for their habit of growing their hair long and drilling holes in their bike helmets, into which they would run their hair through. Stadnick named the gang the Cossacks as a reference to his Ukrainian heritage. On 23 October 1970, Stadnick was arrested after a police officer found LSD tablets in his pocket. Stadnick was charged, but made bail. Subsequently, Stadnick was arrested for the second time for the possession of hash with the intention to distribute. On 6 January 1971 when the preliminary hearing was held to decide whatever Stadnick's case would go to trial or not, Stadnick's biker friends showed up and misbehaved in court, leading the judge to expel them from the courtroom. Outside the courtroom, Stadnick's biker associates began to swear at and threaten one of the policeman scheduled to testify against him, leading to a brawl in the hallway. Standick was convicted of drug possession with the intention to sell. For a time, Stadnick was friendly with his future archenemy, Mario "the Wop" Parente, the president of the Hamilton chapter of Satan's Choice outlaw biker gang, but the two reportedly fell out when Parente vetoed the 5'4 Stadnick's attempt to join Satan's Choice under the grounds that he was too short. Satan's Choice were the most powerful outlaw biker club in Ontario in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1973, the Hells Angels offered Bernie Guindon, the national president of Satan's Choice, the opportunity to have his club "patch over" to become Hells Angels, an offer the Canadian nationalist Guindon promptly rejected, saying he rather keep his club Canadian. Unable to join Satan's Choice, Stadnick instead joined the Wild Ones outlaw biker club in 1977. As the Wild Ones were more a senior club than the Cossacks, being allowed to join was a step-up for Stadnick. Stadnick was known for being quiet, for never smoking or doing drugs, and for drinking in moderation. One Satan's Choice biker, Cecil Kirby, who first saw Stadnick at a bikers' convention in Wasaga Beach in 1977, recalled that Stadnick seemed to be trying too hard to pass himself as a "hardcore" biker, remembering: "I didn't like him. I thought he was a sort of a poser". On 1 July 1977, Parente together with the rest of the Hamilton chapter of the Satan's Choice "patched over" to join the Outlaws Motorcycle Club, who wanted to expand into Canada. On 5 December 1977, the Popeye Moto Club of Montreal, generally considered to be the most violent of all of Quebec's many outlaw biker clubs, "patched over" to become the first Hells Angels chapter in Canada. On 17 February 1978, a biker war began between the Outlaws and the Hells Angels. The conflict was started when the Hells Angel Yves "Apache" Trudeau shot two Outlaws in Montreal, killing one. By 1978, Stadnick had become the leader of the Wild Ones. In the 1970s, outlaw biker clubs were very much subordinate to the Mafia and other organized crime groups like the West End Gang, who employed outlaw bikers to do "dirty work" that they did not wish to do themselves. The Wild Ones worked as subcontractors for the Mafia, being used to bomb businesses that refused to pay extortion money. A Hamilton police detective, Ken Roberston, who investigated the bombings stated: "It was quite a sophisticated operation". Another Hamilton police officer, John Harris, said of Stadnick: "He was a little short guy. He certainly wasn't the most visible member of the gang. He was just a face in the crowd. He was almost invisible – but he did have a head on his shoulders". The journalist Alex Caine, who met Stadnick several times, described him as "a vindictive little man with the charisma of a hockey puck" who appeared to be trying to over-compensate due to his diminutive stature. The Wilds Ones were considered to be one of the lesser outlaw biker clubs in Hamilton, and the Outlaw chapter tolerated their existence as they were not seen to be a threat. In October 1978, Stadnick went to Montreal to contact Yves Buteau, the national president of Hells Angels Canada, to discuss having the Wild Ones "patch over" to become the first Hells Angels chapter in Ontario. During his trip to Montreal, Stadnick survived Le Tourbillion massacre on 12 October 1978 when the Outlaws stormed into Le Tourbillion bar to shoot the Angels and Wild Ones who were meeting there, killing one of the Angels and two of the Wild Ones. Two American Outlaws, one from Miami and the other from Detroit, had entered Le Tourbillion after following the Angels around. One Angel, Louis "Ti-Oui" Lapierre, rose to confront the two American Outlaws, only to be gunned down when one of the Outlaws pulled out his handgun while the other pulled out a sawed-off shotgun and opened fire on the party in the booth. One of the Angels, Jean Brochu, was killed, while Lapierre and another Angel, Bruno Coulombe, were badly wounded. Of the Wild Ones, George "Chico" Mousseau and Gary "Gator" Davies were killed. Stadnick survived by hiding under the table. Buteau learned that the man who hired the two American Outlaws was Roland "Roxy" Dutemple of the Outlaw Montreal chapter and sent his ace assassin, Yves Trudeau, after him. Trudeau killed Dutemple with a car bomb on 29 March 1979. The Hamilton chapter of the Outlaws for their part started killing the Wild Ones and after 5 members of the Wild Ones were killed, the gang disbanded themselves. When Stadnick returned from Montreal, he found his gang had voted themselves out of existence, but Stadnick chose to continue as a Hells Angel, operating in Montreal and alone in Hamilton. Hells Angels Despite not speaking any French, Stadnick joined the Montreal South "mother chapter" of the Hells Angels and quickly rose through the ranks. He received his full patch on 26 May 1982. In December 1982, Stadnick returned to Hamilton after living in Montreal for a number of years together with another Wild One turned Hells Angel, Noel "Frenchy" Mailloux, who had served as Stadnick's translator during his time in Montreal. Despite orders from Stadnick not to attract attention, Mailloux together with his stripper girlfriend Connie Augustin went on a lengthy cocaine binge. On 17 February 1983, in a moment of cocaine-induced paranoia, Mailloux attempted to murder Augustin, shooting her several times, while at the same time killing her four-year son Stewart Hawley and her best friend Cindy Lee Thompson. Mailloux was found afterwards wandering the streets of Hamilton, high on cocaine, blabbing nonsense, and trying to fire his empty gun at anybody he met on the streets. The incident badly damaged the image of the Hells Angels in Ontario, making them look to be out of control and dangerous, and Stadnick was forced to suspend his efforts at trying to set up a Hells Angels chapter in Ontario for some time. In July 1983, Buteau established the first Angel chapters outside of Quebec when he persuaded the three-chapter-strong Satan's Angels biker gang, based in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia and on Vancouver Island, to "patch over" to join the Hells Angels. On 17 July 1983, while riding through northern Ontario, Parente happened to see two Hells Angels from Montreal, Michel "Jinx" Genest and Jean-Marc Nadeau, on the bus to Vancouver to attend the ceremony. Enraged, Parente and the other Outlaws proceeded to shoot up the bus when it stopped at the Mr. Mugs coffee and doughnut shop in Wawa in an attempt to kill the two Hells Angels. Although no one was killed, the Wawa incident showed strongly Parente felt about Hells Angels moving into Ontario. On 21 July 1983, the "patch over" took place in Vancouver, establishing the Hells Angels in British Columbia. On 8 September 1983, Stadnick's patron Buteau was assassinated by an Outlaw, Gino Goudreau, in Longueuil which many assumed at the time would be the end of Stadnick's career as he did not speak any French while being a member of what was then a predominately French-Canadian outlaw biker club. At the time of his assassination, Buteau was meeting Guy Gilbert, an emissary of the Kitchener chapter of Satan's Choice, who was also killed by Goudreau, to discuss "patching over" to become Hells Angels. Buteau's successor as national president, Michel "Sky" Langlois, together with his right-hand man, Réjean "Zig Zag" Lessard, both decided that Stadnick offered their best hope of establishing the Hells Angels in Ontario. It was around this time that Stadnick started wearing a "Filthy Few" patch that the police say is awarded to those who kill for the gang. The underworld of Hamilton at that time was dominated by the three Mafia families, the Papalia crime family, the Musitano crime family and the Luppino crime family, together with the local Outlaw chapter, which made Hamilton a dangerous place for Stadnick and required him to keep a low profile. The leader of the Papalia family, Johnny "the Enforcer" Papalia, one of the most feared man in the Canadian Mafia, was well known for his dislike of outlaw bikers, and made it clear he did not want a Hells Angels chapter in Hamilton. On 8 September 1984, Stadnick was badly injured in a traffic incident that saw him run his motorcycle into a car driven by a Catholic priest in Drummondville, Quebec. Stadnick was on his way to attend a memorial service for Buteau, who was killed on that day in 1983, when a Catholic priest who was speeding on his way to Montreal to see Pope John Paul II, who was visiting Canada, led to the traffic incident. The fire caused by the traffic incident left much of Stadnick's body covered with third-degree burns. Stadnick's face was badly burned, leaving him with what were described as "horrific" scars to his face. As a result of the burns to his body, Stadnick lost much of his nose and half of two of his fingers. Initially, Stadnick went to a hospital in Montreal, but as none of the nurses spoke English, he transferred over to a hospital in his hometown. Lessard arranged for members of the 13th Tribe biker gang from Halifax, who were hoping to join the Hells Angels, to guard Stadnick. Stadnick went to St. Joseph's Hospital in Hamilton, and believing that his archenemy Parente would try to kill him, asked the Hamilton police to guard him during his stay at St. Joseph's. Stadnick had some doubts about the competence of the 13th Tribe to guard him and instead the Hamilton police protected him as he recovered. As a reward for guarding Stadnick, the 13th Tribe were allowed to join the Hells Angels on 5 December 1984, becoming the first Angel chapter in Atlantic Canada. As a result of his face becoming grotesquely deformed, Stadnick is described by Harris as becoming more introverted than before.  By 1986, Stadnick was living in a trailer park in the Hamilton suburb of Carlisle. One of his neighbors recalled: "He never caused any problems; he was always friendly. I didn't even know he was a biker – he always drove a car up here". In the summer of 1986, one of Stadnick's neighbors found a plastic container full of amphetamines. Detective Harris stated "it was full of amphetamines and we knew it was his. So we put the container back where it was found and kept an eye on it". However, Stadnick stayed away from the container, leading Harris to say: "He was pretty smart. If nothing else, he had the ability to keep himself out of trouble". Harris described Stadnick as being "civil enough, but he never had a sense of humor". Stadnick was careful enough to always hold his discussions with other bikers outside to avoid police bugs. Stadnick did not own, but was described as running the Rebel Roadhouse bar in Hamilton. One Hamilton police officer stated: "He had an office in the back, through the kitchen. It was good place to entertain visiting Angels". Stadnick used the Rebel Roadhouse as a place to conduct his business. The Outlaws planned to assassinate Stadnick by firing a rocket launcher at the Rebel Roadhouse, but the police arrested those involved in the plot before the attack occurred. Detective Harris stated about the failed plot: "When Parente was running the show, they would had done it; but after he went to prison they didn't have the guts". During his frequent visits to meet the Hells Angels national leaders at the "mother chapter" in Montreal, Stadnick first met in 1986 another Hells Angel, Maurice Boucher. Despite the fact that Stadnick spoke no French and Boucher no English, forcing them to use translators, the two men became friends. From 1987 onward, Stadnick was closely associated with Boucher who had become a "full patch" Hells Angel on 1 May 1987.   In 1987, Stadnick went to Toronto to try to persuade an outlaw biker club, the Vagabonds, to "patch over" to become Hells Angels. The Vagabonds had about 70 members and were active in the Toronto drug trade. The president of the Vagabonds, Donald "Snorkel" Melanson, wanted to "patch over" to join to the Hells Angels and, as a prelude, agreed to buy his cocaine only from the Montreal "mother chapter" of the Hells Angels. However, Melanson – who owed his nickname to his practice of snorting cocaine with a snorkel – consumed much of the cocaine he was supposed to sell and he was soon $80,000 in debt to the Hells Angels. After remortgaging his house, Melanson contacted the Hells Angels to say he had some $50,000 in cash of the $80,000 that he owed and he would meet them in a room in a hotel on Yonge Street to hand it over, promising he would pay off the remaining $30,000 soon. On the night of 2 September 1987, Melanson went to the hotel to hand over the money to the Hells Angels. On the morning of 3 September 1987, the cleaners at the hotel discovered Melanson's corpse with two bullets in his head while the money was gone. The murder of Melanson created much ill will towards the Hells Angels in the Vagabonds for some time, and the plans to "patch over" were aborted. On 5 November 1987, Stadnick was arrested for the first time since 1971. However, the offense was merely drunk driving, for which he was fined $750 dollars. Aiding Stadnick was the conviction in 1988 of his archenemy, Parente, who had become the national president of the Outlaws, of manslaughter in connection with the shooting death of Jimmy Lewis. In 1988, Stadnick become the national president of the Canadian Hells Angels. In the spring of 1988, Langlois fled to Morocco to escape charges of first-degree murder in connection with his role in the Lennoxville massacre of 1985, and Stadnick was chosen to be his successor. After the Lennoxville massacre, the Angels ace assassin, Yves Trudeau had turned Crown's evidence, testifying against dozens of Hells Angels. In 1988, the Canadian Hells Angels were in decline; of the 50 members of the club in Quebec, 19 were in prison after being convicted of murder on the basis of Trudeau's testimony; 13, including the previous national president Langlois, were on the run to escape murder charges; and another five were in jail facing charges of murder. The Angels seemed to have chosen Stadnick as their president as the best man to turn around the fortunes of the club and allowed the Angels to expand into the other provinces. At the time, most of the Angels' chapters were in Quebec, although there were also three chapters in British Columbia and one chapter in Nova Scotia. National president As national president, Stadnick immediately appointed Boucher his Quebec lieutenant and informed him that he would largely run Hells Angels operations in Quebec, while Stadnick focused on expanding the Angels into the rest of Canada. In one of his first acts as president, Stadnick together with Boucher went to Quebec City on 28 May 1988 to meet the leaders of an outlaw biker club called the Vikings. The meeting went so well that the Vikings agreed to "patch over" to become Hells Angels' Quebec City chapter the same night. On 23 August 1988, Stadnick was arrested at the home of Douglas Freeborn, a former Satan's Choice member and a prominent drug dealer in Hamilton. Found with him were eleven ounces of hash, which led the police to charge him with intention to sell drugs, but the charges were dropped were Freeborn sworn in court that the hash belonged to him and Stadnick had nothing to do with his drug-dealing. By 1990, Stadnick was being monitored by the police in both Quebec and Ontario who considered him to be one of the most dangerous Hells Angels in Canada. For Standick, the two most important provinces to expand into were Manitoba and Ontario. Southern Ontario, especially the "Golden Horseshoe" area, as the greater Toronto area is known, was the most wealthy part of Canada and hence the most lucrative area for an outlaw biker club to operate in. The journalists Julian Sher and William Marsden wrote that Manitoba was crucial because it was "the axis of distribution for any drugs moving east and west in the country". Caine described Stadnick as the superior strategist compared to Parente as Stadnick saw establishing the Angels in Winnipeg as important to creating a national club while Parente was only focused on Ontario. Caine described Parente as a traditional biker leader, the working-class tough guy, while Stadnick was a modern biker leader who was more alike to a corporate CEO. Since Stadnick had connections across the country, he became the Hells Angels ambassador, traveling all over the country to recruit bikers and proceed with drug sales. The modern Hells Angels organization in Canada was largely Stadnick's work. Jean-Pierre Lévesque of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) said of Stadnick: "He travelled the country. He knew almost everybody. He had a country-wide vision. He knows it's good for business – the bigger the name, the better the business". In the underworld circles, Stadnick was considered to be an excellent judge of talent, and he was well known for recruiting the ablest criminals into the Hells Angels. Most outlaw biker clubs welcomed a chance to meet the president of the Canadian Hells Angels, the best known outlaw biker club in the world. Ernie Dew, the president of los Bravos outlaw biker club in Winnipeg, which later became the first Hells Angel chapter in Manitoba, said of the Angels: "This was the club. You've gone from the farm team to the major leagues".  Unlike his Quebec lieutenant "Mom" Boucher, who sought to annihilate the rival Rock Machine in the Quebec biker war, Stadnick had a more diplomatic and conciliatory approach, favoring having the majority of the other Canadian outlaw biker clubs "patching over" to become Hells Angels while leaving the rest to "wither on the vine and die". The journalist Jerry Langton stated: "An informant told me that if he could boil down Walter's philosophy to one sentence, it would be: 'He would rather buy his rival a drink than kick his head in.'" There are three ways to expand an outlaw biker club – recruiting local criminals to found a new chapter; having members of an existing chapter move to a new city to establish another chapter; or having an outlaw biker club "patch over" to join another club. Stadnick tried a variety of all three, but tended to prefer "patching over" most of all. Throughout the 1990s, he worked hard to establish a network of drug dealers in northern Ontario that served as the basis for expanding the Hells Angels into southern Ontario. Stadnick chose northern Ontario because of the relative smaller number of outlaw biker clubs there as compared to southern Ontario, and because of the lack of competition. In the process, Stadnick recruited a criminal from Thunder Bay into the Hells Angels, Donald "Bam Bam" Magnussen, a huge, hulking, muscular man notorious in the Thunder Bay underworld for his brutality and aggressiveness. When Bernie "the Frog" Guindon, the national president of Satan's Choice, was released from prison in 1991, Stadnick was one of the first to greet him upon his release and asked if he was willing to have Satan's Choice "patch over" to join the Hells Angels, an offer Guindon rejected.  Stadnick was known in the 1990s for his flamboyant way of dressing, wearing a full-length coat made from wolf's fur and a snakeskin belt with a solid gold belt buckle in the form of the Hells Angels' winged death's head that was hollowed inside to allow him to carry cash. On 26 June 1992, Stadnick was arrested at the Winnipeg International Airport with over $80,000 worth of cash being found on him, and charged with living off the proceeds of organised crime. Of the $80,000 he was carrying, $15,000 was hidden inside of an opening carved into the gold belt buckle. In August 1992, Stadnick and Magnussen were involved in a brawl with two off-duty Winnipeg police officers that led them to be charged with assault, but the charges were dropped. In June 1993, Stadnick went to Wasaga Beach to attend a convention of the Loners outlaw biker gang and to meet their leader, Frank "Cisco" Lenti, to discuss having the Loners "patch over" to become Hells Angels. Stadnick disliked Lenti, but he know that the Loners were one of the strongest outlaw biker clubs in Ontario, making them the ideal candidates to become Hells Angels. However, the meeting ended badly, with Lenti rejecting Stadnick's offer. Stadnick continued to offer Lenti a chance to "patch over" several times in 1993 and 1994, but he declined, instead offering Stadnick a chance to join the Loners. Although the Loners refused to "patch over" to the Hells Angels, Stadnick is reported to have become their chief supplier of drugs from 1993 onward and to have been behind the rumors that Lenti was stealing from his own club, which led to Lenti being expelled in 1994. Besides for Lenti, Stadnick stayed in contact with Guindon in attempts to persuade the Satan's Choice to "patch over" to the Hells Angels. Stadnick had more success with bringing the four Hells Angels chapters in British Columbia under the control of the Montreal "mother chapter", and by 1993 had ensured that all of the Angel chapters in Canada answered to Montreal. Shortly before his trial for living off the proceeds of crime was due to start on 4 October 1993, the Winnipeg Sun ran an article on Stadnick, which led his lawyer to ask for the charges to be dropped, claiming the story by the journalist Melanie Verhaeghe had jeopardised his ability to get a fair trial. Verhaeghe found that Magnussen was following her around in an attempt to intimidate her, while Stadnick's lawyer went to court to try to force her to reveal her sources. Stadnick's lawyer told Verhaghe that he had a "file" on her, saying Stadnick had hired a private detective to investigate her. Stadnick was unable to force Verhaege to reveal her sources and the judge rejected the attempt to stay the proceedings, but the effort had delayed his trial for 15 months. Charges were dropped when he settled on forfeiting the money. "Patching over": consolidation of Canadian outlaw biking Stadnick spent much of the 1990s living in Winnipeg, where he courted and was courted by the city's two biggest outlaw biker clubs, the Spartans under Darwin Sylvester and los Bravos under Ernie Dew. In 1984, a pact had been signed by the Satan's Choice chapter in Thunder Bay, the Grim Reapers outlaw biker gang in Alberta and los Bravos gang to keep the Hells Angels out of western Canada. Stadnick regarded Winnipeg as the weakest point in the alliance, and believed that if he could establish the Angels there, his club could expand into western Canada. Unlike Thunder Bay and the Albertan cities that the Grim Reapers were active in, Winnipeg had two outlaw biker clubs and moreover, both the Spartans and los Bravos largely engaged in auto theft. Stadnick offered them the possibility of selling cocaine, which required less work and was more profitable than auto theft, to the two Winnipeg outlaw biker clubs. Most of the cocaine in Canada arrived in Montreal, and Stadnick sold both clubs cocaine at prices that allowed them to make handsome profits. Stadnick used the rivalry between the Spartans and los Bravos as a way to gradually establish Hells Angels influence in Winnipeg, becoming powerful enough by 1993 to impose a truce and end the biker war in Winnipeg that began in 1991. Between 1991 and 1993, the biker war between los Bravos and the Spartans caused at least 31 acts of violence in Winnipeg. Initially, Stadnick favored the Spartans over los Bravos, which caused the latter gang to reach out to him to gain his favor. In November 1993, in what appeared to be an attempt to undermine Guindon's leadership of Satan's Choice, Stadnick met in Thunder Bay with several Satan's Choice chapter presidents, most notably Andre Wattel of the Kitchener chapter. In January 1994, Stadnick founded a puppet club in Toronto called the Demon Keepers headed by Dany Kane, while at the same time trying to persuade the Satan's Choice and Para-Dice Riders gangs to "patch over" to become Hells Angels. On 29 January 1994, the Demon Keepers rode out from Montreal to Toronto, renting a luxury apartment in the Yonge and Eglinton district as their collective home. The Demon Keepers were all French-Canadians, most of whom could barely speak English, and their poor social skills made them stand out in Toronto. During their short existence, the Demon Keepers failed to make a single drug sale in Toronto. In April 1994, the Demon Keepers puppet club collapsed ignominiously, an experience that so embittered Kane that he decided to become a RCMP informer. Kane came to believe that Stadnick had engineered the failure of the Demon Keepers to humiliate him, but Langton argued against this theory, stating that Stadnick was desperate to have the Hells Angels enter Ontario, and the failure of the Demon Keepers set back his plans by a number of years. Stadnick's principle rival within the Hells Angels was an American living in Montreal named Scott Steinert, who was an extremely aggressive and ambitious man who aspired to be the Hells Angels' national president. Steinert mocked Stadnick for the failure of the Demon Keepers and, reflecting Stadnick's damaged status, Magnussen switched over to serving as Steinert's bodyguard. During the Quebec biker war of 1994–2002, Stadnick visited Montreal at least once a month to confer with Boucher. During his visits to Montreal, Stadnick was paranoid about being assassinated by the rival Rock Machine and always stayed at the Angels' heavily fortified clubhouse in Sorel. Regarding the Quebec biker war, the prosecutor at Stadnick's 2004 trial, Randall Richmond, stated: "This was a highly sophisticated war engaging many people, a lot of planning, preparation and money. The Hells didn't just wait until they happened to run into their enemies on the street. They hunted them down like animals." In 1995, Stadnick had the Angels' puppet club in Montreal, the Rockers, set up a puppet club in Winnipeg called the Redliners. A Winnipeg police officer, Ray Parry, said of the Redliners: "They were the most polished. Their hair was well trimmed... The way they conducted themselves was a carbon copy of the Hells Angels' thinking at the time and was completely foreign to the way things had operated in the West". As a puppet club of a puppet club, the police reported the "triple insulation" made it difficult to tie Stadnick to the Redliners. Kane, who was secretly a RCMP informer, told his handlers in April 1995 that Stadnick was frequently making trips to Winnipeg "in order to establish a corridor for drug sales from Thunder Bay, Ontario to Winnipeg". Stadnick was also active in continuing to woo the Satan's Choice in Ontario, often visiting Kitchener to meet Andre Wattel, the president of the local Satan's Choice chapter, who was most interested in joining the Hells Angels. He also went to Thunder Bay to woo the local Satan's Choice chapter. Besides for chapter presidents, Stadnick continued to meet Satan's Choice national president, Guindon, taking him to dinner in the most expensive restaurants in Toronto and the most expensive strip clubs in Oshawa to press him to "patch over". However, Guindon was an intense Canadian nationalist who had rejected offers from both the Outlaws and the Hells Angels in the 1970s and 1980s to "patch over", and was still opposed to having the outlaw biker club he had founded in 1965 absorbed into a larger American club. Even through most Satan's Choice members favored joining the Hells Angels, Guindon would not hear of it throughout the 1990s. On 24 June 1995, Stadnick and close friend Maurice Boucher founded the Nomad chapter with eight other members. The Nomads, which had no geographical limit, were a "dream team" of the strongest Hells Angels, serving as an elite chapter that dominated Hells Angels operations across Canada. Members of the Nomads were Stadnick, Boucher, Donald "Pup" Stockford, David "Wolf" Carroll, Gilles "Trooper" Mathieu, Richard "Bert" Mayrand, Luc Bordeleau, Pierre Laurin, Louis "Me-Lou" Roy, Richard "Rick" Vallée, André Chouinard, Michel Rose, Denis "Pas Fiable" Houle, Normand Robitaille, Normand "Biff" Hamel, and René "Balloune" Charlebois. Within the Nomad chapter, there was an elite within the elite called La Table of five members with the exclusive authority to set the price for drugs. La Table was made up of Boucher, Chouinard, Rose, Houle and Robitaille. The journalist Julian Sher stated: "In Quebec, the Nomads were just the toughest and meanest and most powerful. Stadnick and his partners were able to build a pyramid structure that put the Nomads on top of all the other clubs, which you don't see anywhere else. And La Table was a powerful clique, which is why they amassed such huge fortunes." About the Nomads, Richmond stated: "They had their own special job to do. Everyone in the Nomads club had a role. But all of those roles were part of the overall picture, which was to take control of the drug market and get rich". Richmond called the Hells Angels "a pyramid scheme" under which the ordinary members risked their livelihoods and sometimes their lives while the bulk of the profits went to the Nomads. Stadnick spent so much time in Winnipeg in the 1990s working to establish the Hells Angels on the Prairies that he rented an apartment in that city and fathered a son by his common-law wife, whom he named Damon, which is nomad spelled backwards. Stadnick was also regularly seen in Ontario, attending outlaw biker events sponsored by both the Loners and the Satan's Choice gangs throughout the 1990s. Langton stated: "Part of Walter's genius is he went to parts of Canada where the Mafia didn't exist. There is no Mafia in Thunder Bay – but there are bikers. Same as Saskatoon and North Battleford. And you know what? People there want drugs, too." By April 1996, Kane reported that drug couriers were regularly smuggling cocaine from Montreal to Winnipeg on behalf of Stadnick. A Rocker, Stéphane Sirois, travelled with Stadnick during his trips to Winnipeg, serving as his bodyguard. Sirois later became a police informer and testified at Stadnick's trial in 2004 that the latter had told him that it was his dream to have the Hells Angels become the only outlaw biker club in all of Canada, with the "bottom rockers" (the lower part of the biker club jacket) read Canada instead of the provinces. Sirois testified that Stadnick had told him in 1996 that what he wanted was "The Hells Angels only, throughout Canada, with no other biker clubs". Stadnick also frequently traveled to Saskatoon to meet the leaders of the Rebels outlaw biker club to discuss having them "patch over" to become Hells Angels. Kane's reports mentioned that Stadnick was often in conflict with Steinert, and alleged that Stadnick wanted Steinert's bodyguard, Donald "Bam Bam" Magnussen, killed. Magnussen had killed David Boyoko, a member of los Bravos, in a moment of drunken rage at a party in Halifax on 12 May 1996, an act which reportedly very much angered Stadnick as it set back his plans to have los Bravos "patch over" to the Hells Angels. After attending Boyokio's funeral, Stadnick was denied permission to enter los Bravos' clubhouse in West Winnipeg as feelings in the gang were much against the Hells Angels. In October 1996, Kane reported to the RCMP that Stadnick had offered him $10,000 to kill Magnussen. Officer Don Bell of the Ontario Provincial Police's Biker Enforcement Unit said of Stadnick: He's been pretty good at eluding prosecution. Everyone knew who he was and what he was all about, but he was good at what he did. He was good at isolating himself. He worked in the depths of criminal activity and kept himself one step away, which made it difficult to collect the necessary evidence and charge him. To a biker investigator, he sort of epitomized – I hate to say this – the professionalism of the Hells Angels and the way they did business. Stadnick sued John Harris of the Hamilton police for $500, claiming mental distress at damage that Harris allegedly did to Stadnick's golden death's head belt buckle, which ended with the judge siding with Harris. Harris called Stadnick "a hard guy to nail. You start to realize this guy is smart. He does know his way around the system, and he's got the money to afford decent lawyers". Despite owning a home in Hamilton and his rivalry with his archenemy Parente, Stadnick never tried to create a Hells Angel chapter in Hamilton, apparently out of a desire to avoiding attracting police and media attention in his hometown. One Hamilton police detective, Steve Pacey, said: "Stadnick did not want a chapter here because it would result in more heat. Walter has been able to carry out his business for a long time. Why would he want a chapter? He doesn't need it". Stadnick had no job, but owned a house on the Cloverhill Road in Hamilton that was valued at $156,000. Stephan Frankel, the Hamilton lawyer who has represented Stadnick since 1979, replied when asked about Stadnick's job: "What does Walter do for a living? I don't know. I really don't know". Stadnick's right-hand man, a film stuntman and Hells Angel who served as the Nomad vice-president, Donald "Pup" Stockford, lived in neighboring Ancaster. In early 1997, the Loners split into two factions, with one staying loyal to national president Jimmy Raso and another loyal to Frank Grano breaking away to join the Para-Dice Riders. Police sources claim that Stadnick was behind the split, hoping to create a new pro-Angel club. On 31 May 1997, Johnny "The Enforcer" Papalia, the long-time leader of the Papalia family, was assassinated by Kenneth Murdock, a hitman hired by the rival Musitano family headed by the brothers' Angelo and Pasquale "Fat Pat" Musitano. On 23 July 1997, Murdock assassinated Carmen Barillaro, Papalia's right-hand man, effectively crippling the Papalia family and creating a void in the Hamilton underworld. Murdock was arrested for the murders in 1998 and turned Crown's evidence, making a plea bargain where he pledged guilty to the murders in exchange for testifying against his employers. In 2000, the Musitano brothers were convicted on the basis of Murdock's testimony. With Papalia – who hated outlaw bikers – out of the way, Stadnick moved in and made contact in the summer of 1997 with a locally prominent criminal, Gerald "Skinny" Ward who lived in Wellend. Ward, who had been tried for murder three times, was the leader of a criminal gang involved in a variety of activities such as drug dealing in the Niagara peninsula. One police officer, Shawn Clarkson, of the Niagara Falls Police stated: "There was nobody to stand up to the Hells Angels the way Barillaro or Papalia would have. Papalia, even though he was 73 when he died, he wouldn't have put up with that". In July 1997, Stadnick persuaded the Grim Reapers gang of Calgary to "patch over" to become Hells Angels, while also opening a new Hells Angels chapter in Edmonton, establishing the Hells Angels as the dominant outlaw motorcycle club in Alberta. On 3 September 1997, Stadnick visited Toronto and met with Donny Petersen, the president of the Para-Dice Riders. Later that month, it emerged that four Spartans had gang-raped a teenage girl in their clubhouse. To avoid the infamy of associating with the Spartans, Stadnick threw his support behind los Bravos, granting them hang-around status with the Angels on 18 October 1997. Shortly afterwards, the Redliners joined los Bravos, which increased Stadnick's influence in los Bravos. A meeting in October 1997 at los Bravos' clubhouse in Winnipeg attended by Stadnick and Stockford, together with the Rockers and Satan's Choice Thunder Bay chapter, was described as tense, with the Rockers almost coming to blows with the Choice members. Matters calmed down subsequently when Stadnick and Stockford sat down with several Choice members. On 4 November 1997, Steinert, together with his bodyguard Magnussen, were last seen alive leaving the Lavigueur mansion where they lived to see Boucher. Their bodies were later found floating in the St. Lawrence River with their heads bashed into bloody pulps after being repeatedly hit with baseball bats and hammers. Expansion On 7 April 1998, Jeffrey LaBrash and Jody Hart, two leaders of the Outlaws biker gang, were gunned down leaving a strip club, the Beef Baron, by two men known to be associated with the Hells Angels in London, Ontario. LaBrash was the president of the London chapter of the Outlaws, and his killers were the brothers Paul and Duane Lewis. The significance of the killing of LaBrash and Hart was that for first time, people associated with the Hells Angels had killed within Ontario, showing the Hells Angels were deadly serious about their plans to expand into the province from Quebec. In June 1998, the Spartans gang disbanded themselves after their leader Darwin Sylvester vanished without trace. Sylvester is generally believed to have been murdered. After the Spartans disbanded themselves, the only other outlaw biker club in Winnipeg other than los Bravos were los Montoneros biker gang, whom Stadnick had declared to be unfit to be Hells Angels. Langton wrote the general level of intelligence within los Montoneros can be seen in that the gang believed their name meant "the wolf pack" in Spanish, but los montoneros actually means "the workers" in Spanish. A police officer stated that by 1998 Stadnick was "supplying virtually all of the drugs in Winnipeg" and had become the largest drug supplier in the three Prairie provinces. Len Isnor of the OPP's Anti-Biker Unit once saw Stadnick at Toronto's Exhibition Grounds and was surprised to the crowd part to allow Stadnick and his bodyguards walk up to Andre Wattel, the president of Satan's Choice Kitchener chapter. The men talked for about 45 minutes and then Stadnick departed. Isnor recalled: "I had never seen anything like it. It was like he was a rock star or something". In the summer of 1998, Standick and the entire Hells Angels chapter from Sherbrooke arrived in Niagara Falls for what the police call a crime "summit" with Ward. Ward was not an outlaw biker, but he was the leader of a locally powerful criminal gang, and Stadnick wanted to do business with him. Ward had been buying his cocaine from the Magaddino family of Buffalo, New York, and was considered to be the most powerful drug dealer in the Niagara peninsula. The Hells Angels' Sherbrooke chapter is known as one of the most violent in Canada, and Stadnick taking the entire Sherbrooke chapter with him to Niagara Falls is believed to have been an act of subtle intimidation on his part. It was agreed at the "crime summit" that henceforward Ward would only buy his drugs from the Hells Angels, thereby establishing Angels' influence in the Niagara peninsula. Clarkson stated: "I don't think (Ward) really wanted to do it, but I don't think they gave him a choice. It was either... he joined up, or the Hells Angels would bring in ten guys from Quebec to do it. That would be the last thing he'd want." Although Ward and his gang did not formally become an Angels chapter until 2000, to all intents and purposes the Ward gang were a part of the Angels from 1998 onward. A bikers' "rodeo" was held by the shores of Lake Simcoe in August 1998, hosted by the Loners gang and attended by members of the Satan's Choice, Red Devils, Vagabonds, Last Chance and Para-Dice Riders outlaw biker clubs. The "rodeo" was interrupted when the Hells Angels' elite Nomads chapter led by Stadnick, rode in unannounced from Montreal to join in. Stadnick and the rest of the Hells Angels favored some of the bikers at the "rodeo" with their company while snubbing others. It was clear within the Ontario outlaw biker scene that henceforward one could be either for or against the Hells Angels and that the Hells Angels would be entering Ontario soon. On 7 September 1998, Stadnick persuaded the Rebels outlaw biker gang of Saskatoon to "patch over", allowing the Hells Angels to enter Saskatchewan. By the end of 1998, the only provinces without Hells Angels chapters were Manitoba, Ontario, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. Stadnick tried to have the Loners gang of Ontario "patch over", but president of the Loners' St. Thomas chapter, Wayne Kellestine, was adamantly opposed, expelling all of the Loners who wanted to join the Hells Angels and had one pro-Hells Angels Loner beaten and pistol-whipped before he was expelled. One of the Loners in the St. Thomas chapter, Jimmy Coates, had a brother, John, who was a member of the Sherbrooke chapter of the Hells Angels, and together the Coates brothers worked against Kellestine, attempting to foment a mutiny against Kellestine's leadership of his chapter of the Loners. On 22 October 1999, in a drive-by shooting, a pro-Hells Angels Loner, Davie "Dirty" McLeish, and a Hells Angel from Sherbrooke, Philippe "Philbilly" Gastonguay, opened fire with a shotgun on Kellestine, who was sitting in his truck at a stop at the only intersection in Iona Station. McLeish and Gasonguary put several bullets into Kellestine's truck, but failed to kill him. The Globe and Mail reported in 2004 about the Hells Angels' push into south-western Ontario: "From 1999 to 2002, when the conflict reached a peak, beatings, brawls and shootings became common". In 1999, the Hells Angels approached Danny Wolfe, the imprisoned leader of the Indian Posse gang, which is one of the largest organized crime groups in western Canada, with the offer to become exclusive wholesalers, selling the Indian Posse drugs, which in turn they would sell on the streets. Wolfe rejected the offer, saying the Indian Posse should be treated as equals to the Angels, not subordinates. In a phone call that was recorded by prison officials, Wolfe was heard to say: "We just told them [the Hells Angels], 'Hey man, we won't fucking stand in front, we won't stand behind you'. We're going to stand side by side if we do this... They wanted control. We just said 'No'. And ever since then, we had to back them off". The Indian Posse has since emerged as one of the Hells Angels' major rivals in western Canada. Stadnick's triumph In June 2000, La Table faction of the Nomads met with Vito Rizzuto, the boss of Canada's most powerful Mafia family, the Rizzuto family, in a Montreal restaurant to negotiate the price of cocaine in Canada  It was agreed that the price of cocaine was to be $50,000 per kilogram of cocaine, and Montreal was divided into territories controlled by the Rizzuto family and the Hells Angels to prevent competition between the two most powerful organized crime groups in Canada. The penalty for those who sold cocaine for less than $50,000 per kilo was death. Stadnick had created a drug distribution network under which all Hells Angels chapters in Canada had to buy cocaine and other drugs from the Nomad chapter. The only exception was the Sherbrooke chapter, which uniquely was allowed to buy cocaine from the Rizzuto family directly. Stadnick's franchising business model has usually been compared to that of McDonald's under which he allowed other biker gangs to join the Angels in exchange for they had to buy their supplies from him. Sher stated: "[Stadnick] is part of that key cocaine industry that turns the Hells Angels from basically gofer boys of the Mafia into powerbrokers who are sitting down with the Mafia and negotiating the price of cocaine". By the 21st century, the five Angels' chapters in British Columbia had become the wealthiest Angel chapters in the world with control of much of the drug smuggling into the United States. On 21 July 2000 Stadnick promoted los Bravos headed by Ernie Dew up to "prospect" status from the "hang-around" status they had been granted in October 1997. The next day, Stadnick was observed by the Winnipeg police going into a strip club where he met several presidents of Satan's Choice chapters from Ontario. In the summer of 2000, Stadnick made an offer to most of the Ontario outlaw biker gangs that was too sweet for them to refuse; namely they could join the Hells Angels "patch for patch", allowing them to enter the Hells Angels with patches equivalent to their current patches. Under Stadnick's offer, current "full patch" outlaw bikers could join the Hells Angels as "full patch" members without having the humiliation of going through the "hang-around" and "prospect" stages, provided they did so by the end of the year. Putting the pressure onto Stadnick was the fact that the rival Rock Machine had expanded out of Quebec by opening three chapters in Ontario while the same time the Rock Machine was moving towards "patching over" to join the Texas-based Bandidos, one of the "big four" American outlaw biker clubs. On 30 November 2000, Stadnick called a Montreal Nomad, David "Wolf" Carroll to tell him over a phone line that the police were listening into: "We'll be on the South Shore at 12. I know where we'll be, but I don't want to tell you verbally". On 22 December 2000, Stadnick arranged for Dew and los Bravos gang to join the Hells Angels as "full patch" members after only five months of waiting as prospects instead of the normal year. On 29 December 2000, Stadnick arranged for a mass "patch over" in Montreal where various Ontario outlaw biker gangs all joined the Hells Angels. On 29 December 2000, in a much publicized ceremony, most of the Ontario outlaw biker gangs such as Satan's Choice, the Vagabonds, the Lobos, the Last Chance, the Para-Dice Riders and some of the Loners travelled to Hells Angels' "mother chapter" clubhouse in Sorel, just south of Montreal to join the Hells Angels, making them at one stroke the dominant outlaw biker club in Ontario. On that day, dozens of chartered buses from Ontario arrived at the Sorel clubhouse, carrying the bikers. As a result of the mass "patch-over" in Montreal, with 168 outlaw bikers becoming Hells Angels, the greater Toronto area went from having no Hells Angels chapters to having the highest concentration of Hells Angels' chapters in the world. In terms of sheer numbers, the Canadian Hells Angels are outnumbered only by the American Hells Angels. Sher stated about the "patch over" that: "If you can't beat them, buy them. That's exactly what he did...It was a brilliant strategy." One police officer told Langton about the mass "patch over" in Montreal: "They [the Angels] were truly scraping the bottom of the barrel. They were trading patch for patch the legendary Hells Angel patch for some of the lowest of the low". Unlike the rival Bandidos who required that new members join as "prospects", Stadnick allowed the Ontario outlaw biker gangs to all join the Hells Angels "patch for patch", which was most unusual. The vast majority of the Ontario outlaw bikers clubs preferred to join the Hells Angels instead of the rival Bandidos as Stadnick allowed them to maintain their dignity with his "patch for patch" offer. Outlaw biker clubs operate in a very authoritarian, hierarchical manner and patches are extremely important for the self-image of outlaw bikers with those having obtained "full patch" status jealously guarding their status and expecting the "prospect" and "hang-around" members to defer to them at all times. Stadnick asked for and received permission from the Hells Angels American leaders for the mass "patch over" as only once before, in Germany in 1999, had the Hells Angels accepted en masse a number of outlaw bikers from other clubs on a "patch for patch" basis. The minutes of a Hell Angels meeting on 3 February 2001 stated: "the patch-for-patch is over tonight. We resume the...tradition as of today." The decision to admit Ward and his gang as the Hells Angel chapter for the Niagara peninsula despite the fact that Ward was not a biker and did not know how to ride a motorcycle prompted some resentment, requiring Stadnick to visit Toronto, where he declared that the new Niagara chapter as the Ward gang had become would be only "prospects" instead of "full patch" members. The Niagara chapter under Ward became the richest Hells Angel chapter in Ontario as Ward had something very close to a monopoly on selling cocaine in the Niagara peninsula. The police estimated that Ward and the Niagara chapter were responsible for selling about 75% of cocaine in the Niagara region. David Atwell, a Para-Dice Rider turned Hells Angel who later became a police informer last spoke with Stadnick while serving as a guard at that meeting, where he mentioned that Stadnick was cordial, but always very cagey and careful about what he said. Atwell also reported that Dew and the Winnipeg chapter expressed much resentment about the way that Stadnick had allowed the Ontario gangs to enter the Hells Angels on a "patch-for-patch" basis, unlike the way that he forced Dew had to wait three years before allowing him the "full patch". Stadnick still refused to open a Hells Angel chapter in Hamilton, even through the city had 11 Angels living within it who all belonged to the chapters in Montreal, Toronto and Kitchener. Pacey stated: "Hells Angels influence is subtle, behind the scenes. It isn't so much in your face. I think that's the way Walter does business". Stadnick tried to maintain a respectable image in Hamilton, as he always drove his elderly parents to the local Uniate Catholic church every Sunday. The police officers who monitored him were struck by the deference that he was shown by other outlaw bikers, noting when he visited Toronto that the "hang-arounds" served as his bodyguards when he dined at expensive restaurants, standing guard outside even in the winter to keep out any would-be assassins. One Toronto police officer who monitored the 5'4 Stadnick commented: "You look at him walking down the street and you think "What he's got?"" Operation Springtime On 28 March 2001, as part of Operation Springtime (a police crackdown on the Hells Angels), a warrant was issued for Stadnick's arrest for 13 charges of first-degree murder. During the police raid on Stadnick's house in Hamilton, Detective Pacey was surprised to find that Stadnick had a photograph of him prominently displayed in his bedroom. Found inside of Stadnick's house was a note from his 10-year niece that complained he spent too much time in Montreal and pointedly asked: "Are you still the leader of the Hells Angels? I hope you can move the club to Canada and out of Quebec". It turned out that Stadnick was in Jamaica, where he was arrested by officers of the Jamaica Constabulary Force at the resort he was staying at in Montego Bay, following an extradition request from Canada. Stadnick's common-law wife accused the Jamaican police of putting him in a "hellhole" jail cell. The jail that Stadnick was held at in Montego Bay was badly overcrowded and had one bucket that served as a toilet for the entire cell block. He did not contest his extradition to Canada, returning on 10 April 2001. Langton dismissed the theory that Stadnick had advance knowledge of Operation Springtime, stating if Stadnick did know, then he would have gone to a country with no extradition treaty with Canada like Brazil rather than Jamaica, which does. After his return to Canada, Stadnick told a RCMP officer, Tom O'Neill: "I don't drink much and I don't do drugs. I'm kind of a quiet guy". When O'Neill noticed that Stadnick had a "Filthy Few" tattoo-reportedly awarded to those who killed for the Hells Angels-Stadnick claimed the tattoo was because: "Oh, that's because I like to party when I stay out with the boys". When O'Neill pointed out the contradiction, Stadnick fell silent. When O'Neill asked Stadnick if he remembered Dany Kane of the Rockers, Stadnick stated he knew him, but not very well as he does not speak French. When O'Neill told him that Kane had been a police informer since 1994, he reported that Stadnick looked worried. As part of Operation Springtime, the police seized the records from the Nomad "bank" in Montreal. The records showed that Stadnick's codename was Gertrude and that between 30 March 1999 – 19 December 2000, the Nomads had sold $111.5 million worth of cocaine and hashish all over Canada. The records also showed that Stadnick brought 267 kilos of cocaine and 173 kilos of hashish worth $11.1 million from the Mafia and made profits of $3 million during this period. With Stadnick behind bars awaiting trial, a biker war broke out in southwestern Ontario between the Outlaw London chapter headed by Thomas Hughes vs. the Hells Angels London chapter headed by Jimmy Coates, formerly of the Loners. The Outlaws clubhouse in Woodstock was burned down in a case of arson in June 2001 while an Outlaw was arrested on his way to the Hells Angels London clubhouse with a pipe-bomb a week later. On 7 January 2002, members of the Angels London puppet club, the Jackals, were involved in a shoot-out outside of the home of Hughes that saw a Jackal shot in the stomach. The shoot-out ended with the Jackals fleeing in their automobile as Hughes and another Outlaw Marcus Cornelisse ran down the street shooting at them. In February 2002, a brawl nearly erupted on the floor of a motorcycle show in London between the Angels and the Outlaws with only the police keeping them apart. On 10 March 2002, two members of the Rockers (the Angels' Montreal puppet club), Marc Bouffard and Daniel Lamer, were pulled over by the OPP, leading to a shoot-out that saw Lamer killed after he opened fire on the policemen. Found inside of the truck of the car were two handguns, a silencer, and pictures of the Bandidos. In July 2002, the Angels new national leadership consisting of Gerald "Skinny" Ward, president of the Niagara chapter, and Billy Miller, president of the North Toronto chapter, summoned the Coates brothers and Georges "Bo-Boy" Beaulieu, president of the Sherbrooke chapter, to a meeting in Toronto to tell them to end the violence as the Ontario market was large enough to share with other gangs and the negative publicity was attracting unwanted attention. Ward and Miller expressed much confidence that rival clubs such as the Outlaws and the Bandidos would soon fade into irrelevance, making biker wars unnecessary. In turn, Ward and Miller were believed to acting on behalf of Stadnick. In 2003, Stadnick was brought to trial for "13 counts of murder, 3 counts of attempted murder, 1 count of conspiracy to commit murder, two counts of narcotics trafficking and two counts of attempting to smuggle narcotics". Besides Stadnick, Donald "Pup" Stockford and another Hells Angel, Michel Rose, were also tried. In his trial in Montreal, Stadnick opted for his constitutional right to have the trial in English and hired Edward Greenspan and Alan B. Gold as his defense lawyers. The Crown Attorney prosecuting Stadnick was Randall Richmond. Greenspan and Gold were able to delay the trial by demanding that the Crown translate all 500,000 papers of documents and ten CD-ROMs worth of evidence into English, a request that the Quebec government refused as it would cost more than $23 million. Greenspan and Gold appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, which refused their request in January 2003 to have all the evidence translated into English given that both Greenspan and Gold were fluent in French and Stadnick's trial started afterwards. Richmond told the court that Stadnick and Stockford were the key figures in the rise of the Hells Angels, saying: "More than anyone else in the Hells Angels, Stadnick and Stockford were the ones who worked to bring into the Hells Angels organization into other motorcycle clubs in Ontario and Manitoba." Richmond argued at at the trial that Stadnick was guilty of the 13 counts of first-degree murders of members of the Rock Machine because: "Just as a general is liable for any war crimes his men commit, we are convinced Stadnick knew about the murders and did nothing to stop them". Conviction "On September 13, 2004, Stadnick was sentenced to 20 years' jail for a collection of convictions including conspiracy to murder, drug trafficking involvement in gang activities." In sentencing Stadnick and Stockford, Justice Jerry Zigman stated: "They are hardened criminals who show little or no hope of being able to straighten out their lives and cease participating in criminal activities. They are violent people who are a danger to society. They have expressed no remorse for their acts." Stadnick was "transferred from a medium to a maximum-security prison in 2006 and 2009 for illegal trafficking activities and large-scale loansharking" in the Kingston area prison. When filing for his taxes, Stadnick never claimed more than an annual income of $35, 000 dollars, but after his conviction Revenue Canada performed an audit of his illegally obtained income, which was also taxable. In 2006, Stadnick was reassessed by Revenue Canada and told to pay $1.2 million in back taxes. In 2008, Stadnick filed for personal bankruptcy, claiming to be unable to afford to pay his back taxes. Stadnick was paroled in June 2014, lasting less than a month due to suspicion that he was associating with people with criminal records as well as the biker club. He was able to convince the board to reinstate his freedom in December 2014. The Parole Board ruled in December 2014: "He will have unrestricted freedom beginning April 12, 2019. Until then, Stadnick is under extremely strict conditions, including: avoid people in street and motorcycle gangs (any person known to be a hang around or wannabe of any outlaw motorcycle gang), barred from owning more than one cellphone and must show his parole officers detailed billing statements for it, including documentation of who he texts and emails and what social media sites he visits. He also can't consume alcohol or go to bars or own or operate a motorcycle or work in motorcycle repair. He must also obey a curfew that runs between 9 p.m and 6 a.m. Given his past criminal spending habits, and amounts of money within drug trafficking the Board will monitor his revenues and expenses." One of his parole conditions was that Stadnick was not to enter Quebec. Stadnick was described as being "polite and respectful inmate", but one who refused to admit that he had been a Hells Angel or admit any guilt. In 2018, it was reported that Stadnick was working as a construction worker. After his parole conditions forbidding him to associate with the Hells Angels expired in April 2019, Stadnick renewed his associations. On 18 August 2019, he attended the funeral in Delta, British Columbia of a murdered Hells Angel, Suminder "Allie" Grewal. Legacy Despite his conviction in 2004, Stadnick had raised the Hells Angels up to such a level of dominance that the club continued to function well without him and remained the most powerful outlaw biker club in Canada. Stadnick changed the status of outlaw bikers from being subcontractors for the Mafia which was the norm when he began his career as an outlaw biker to being the equals of the Mafia. In 2004 Ha wrote:"...in his home province, Mr. Stadnick's legacy lives on, with 184 Hells Angels now operating in the country's largest drug market". In 2015, Detective Sergeant Len Isnor of the OPP's anti-biker unit told the media: "The Hells dominate nearly every province in the country". Peter Edwards, the crime correspondent for the Toronto Star described the Hells Angels in 2016 as the most powerful organized crime group in Canada, saying "In Ontario, you had the Hells Angels and the people the Hells Angels let exist. They either worked with you or they didn't care about you." Pierre de Champlain, an expert on bikers for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, stated: "Since 2000, the Hells Angels have had complete control over Quebec, from Sept-Iles to Granby. No one wants to work against the Hells Angels independently because it's not in their interest." In 2016, it was estimated the Hells Angels had about 450 members with chapters in almost every province, giving them a level of dominance that no other organized crime group in Canada could match. Notes References . . 1952 births Living people 20th-century Canadian criminals 21st-century Canadian criminals Canadian male criminals People from Hamilton, Ontario Canadian people of Ukrainian descent Canadian Eastern Catholics Canadian people convicted of drug offences Canadian gangsters Canadian crime bosses Hells Angels Organized crime in Hamilton, Ontario

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The Gallipoli campaign was a military campaign in the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern Turkey), from 17 February 1915 to 9 January 1916. The Entente powers, Britain, France and Russia, sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire, one of the Central Powers, by taking control of the Turkish straits. This would expose the Ottoman capital at Constantinople to bombardment by Allied battleships and cut it off from the Asian part of the empire. With Turkey defeated, the Suez canal would be safe, and a year-round Allied supply route could be opened through the Black Sea to warm water ports in Russia. The attempt by the Allied fleet to force the Dardanelles in February 1915 failed and was followed by an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915. In January 1916, after eight months' fighting, with approximately 250,000 casualties on each side, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force withdrawn. It was a costly campaign for the Entente powers and the Ottoman Empire, as well as for the sponsors of the expedition, especially the First Lord of the Admiralty (1911–1915), Winston Churchill. The campaign was considered a great Ottoman victory. In Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the history of the state, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire retreated. The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli, as founder and president. The campaign is often considered to be the beginning of Australian and New Zealand national consciousness; 25 April, the anniversary of the landings, is known as Anzac Day, the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in the two countries, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day). Background On 29 October 1914, two former German warships, the Ottoman and , still under the command of German officers, conducted the Black Sea Raid, in which they bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several ships. On 31 October, the Ottomans entered the war and began the Caucasus campaign against Russia. The British briefly bombarded forts in Gallipoli, invaded Mesopotamia and studied the possibility of forcing the Dardanelles. Allied strategy and the Dardanelles Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived, the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near Alexandretta on the Mediterranean, an idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914. This plan was developed by the Secretary of State for War, Field Marshal Earl Kitchener to sever the capital from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Empire's railway network—its capture would have cut the empire in two. Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse, Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, ordered Captain Frank Larkin of to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914. The and the French cruiser were also there. Kitchener was working on the plan as late as March 1915 and was the beginning of the British attempt to incite an Arab Revolt. The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence, a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912. By late 1914, on the Western Front, the Franco-British counter-offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the Belgians, British and French had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders. The war of manoeuvre had ended and been replaced by trench warfare. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east. The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front; the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy) and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. While the Ottomans remained neutral, supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war, the straits had been closed; in November the Ottomans began to mine the waterway. The French Minister of Justice, Aristide Briand, proposed in November to attack the Ottoman Empire but this was rejected and an attempt by the British to bribe the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed. Later that month, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength. Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships, which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet, in a Dardanelles operation, with a small occupation force provided by the army. It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece (formerly Ottoman possessions) into the war on the Allied side. On 2 January 1915, Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans, who were conducting the Caucasus campaign. Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles, to divert Ottoman troops from Caucasia. Attempt to force the Straits On 17 February 1915, a British seaplane from flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits. Two days later, the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo-French task force, including the British dreadnought , began a long-range bombardment of Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. The British had intended to use eight aircraft from Ark Royal to spot for the bombardment but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these, a Short Type 136, unserviceable. A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines. After this, Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale and Seddülbahir, while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez. Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries, which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits, Churchill began pressuring the naval commander, Admiral Sackville Carden, to increase the fleet's efforts. Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill, stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Istanbul within 14 days. A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition. When the message was relayed to Carden, it was agreed the main attack would be launched on or around 17 March. Carden, suffering from stress, was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and command was taken over by Admiral John de Robeck. 18 March 1915 On the morning of 18 March 1915, the Allied fleet, comprising with an array of cruisers and destroyers began the main attack against the narrowest point of the Dardanelles, where the straits are wide. Despite some damage to the Allied ships engaging the forts by Ottoman return fire, minesweepers were ordered along the straits. In the Ottoman official account, by 2:00 p.m. "all telephone wires were cut, all communications with the forts were interrupted, some of the guns had been knocked out ... in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably". The struck a mine, causing her to capsize in two minutes, with just 75 survivors out of a total crew of 718. Minesweepers, manned by civilians, retreated under Ottoman artillery fire, leaving the minefields largely intact. and struck mines and Irresistible was sunk, with most of her surviving crew rescued; Inflexible was badly damaged and withdrawn. There was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage; some participants blamed torpedoes. was sent to rescue Irresistible but was disabled from an artillery shell, struck a mine, and was evacuated, eventually sinking. The French battleships and sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before and were also damaged. The losses forced de Robeck to sound the "general recall" to protect what remained of his force. During the planning of the campaign, naval losses had been anticipated and mainly obsolete battleships, unfit to face the German fleet, had been sent. Some of the senior naval officers like the commander of Queen Elizabeth, Commodore Roger Keyes, felt that they had come close to victory, believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition but the views of de Robeck, the First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher and others prevailed. Allied attempts to force the straits using naval power were terminated, due to the losses and bad weather. Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land, to open the way for the ships began. Two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and the strong currents. Prelude Allied landing preparations After the failure of the naval attacks, troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery, which was preventing the Allied minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels. Kitchener appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF). Soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) were encamped in Egypt, undergoing training prior to being sent to France. The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, comprising the volunteer 1st Australian Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division. The ANZAC troops were joined by the regular 29th Division and the Royal Naval Division. The French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient (Orient Expeditionary Corps), initially consisting of two brigades within one division, was subsequently placed under Hamilton's command. Over the following month, Hamilton prepared his plan and the British and French divisions joined the Australians in Egypt. Hamilton chose to concentrate on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Seddülbahir, where an unopposed landing was expected. The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers. The naïveté of the Allied planners was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt, The underestimation of Ottoman military potential stemmed from a "sense of superiority" among the Allies, because of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign, in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides. The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark, causing a long delay which meant that many troops, including the French at Mudros, were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle. A five-week delay until the end of April ensued, during which the Ottomans strengthened their defences on the peninsula; although bad weather during March and April might have delayed the landings anyway, preventing supply and reinforcement. Following preparations in Egypt, Hamilton and his headquarters staff arrived at Mudros on 10 April. The ANZAC Corps departed Egypt in early April and assembled on the island of Lemnos in Greece on 12 April, where a small garrison had been established in early March and practice landings were undertaken. The British 29th Division departed for Mudros on 7 April and the Royal Naval Division rehearsed on the island of Skyros, after arriving there on 17 April. That day, the British submarine tried to run the straits but hit a submarine net, ran aground and was shelled by a Turkish fort, killing its commander, Lieutenant Commander Theodore S. Brodie and six of his crew; the survivors were forced to surrender. The Allied fleet and British and French troops assembled at Mudros, ready for the landings but poor weather from 19 March grounded Allied aircraft for nine days and on 24 days only a partial programme of reconnaissance flights were possible. Ottoman defensive preparations The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the 5th Army. This force, which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route, was a conscript force, commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders. Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German. Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula. All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula. There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces. Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles (the southern tip of the peninsula) and Gaba Tepe were the likely areas for landing. Mustafa Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula; at Gaba Tepe, the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Allies could easily reach the Narrows (the right-angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles). Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion, since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there. Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula, to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula. The 19th Division (Kemal) and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula. Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve, leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast. The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Istanbul in early April, bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans to which Sanders concentrated in three groups. A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered, to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points; troops moved at night to avoid Allied air reconnaissance. Sanders' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders, including Kemal, who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches. Kemal thought Sander's classic strategy was suitable when there was strategic depth to the front, but Gallipoli did not offer that. His commander Esat Passa was not forceful enough in making the objection. Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups, particularly the 19th Division near Boghali, in general reserve, ready to move to Bulair, Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore. The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders, Colonel Hans Kannengiesser and other German officers, supported by Esat Pasha (III Corps) had more time to prepare their defences. Sanders later noted, "the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation ... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken". Roads were constructed, small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows, beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads. Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy. Kemal, whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme, observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali, near Maidos. The Ottomans created Ottoman Aviation Squadrons with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February, conducting reconnaissance and army co-operation sorties. From 11 April, an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros, keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli. Landings The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore, capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries for a naval force to advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Istanbul. Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather, landings were to be made at five beaches on the peninsula. The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir. The ANZACs, with the 3rd Australian Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault, were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, from where they could advance across the peninsula, cut off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir and stop reinforcements from reaching Cape Helles. This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as ANZAC; the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles. The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re-embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector. The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair and a New Zealand officer, Bernard Freyberg, swam ashore under fire to light flares to distract the defenders from the real landings; Freyberg was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order. Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings, with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings. No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close-support and it was left to the initiative of ships' captains. A reluctance to approach the shore later affected the landings at 'V' and 'W' beach where some of the worst losses among the infantry occurred, while naval gunfire was of some assistance at 'S', 'X' and ANZAC. Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore, the broken terrain, thick vegetation and the lack of observation. Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from 3 Squadron, RNAS (Commander Charles Samson) which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March. The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning, the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance, although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps. After the landings, Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance, observed naval gunfire, reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids. ANZAC Cove Allocated the northern landing, Birdwood's force included the 1st Australian Division (Major General William Bridges) and the New Zealand and Australian Division (Major General Sir Alexander Godley), about The force was to land and advance inland to cut the lines of communication to the Ottoman forces in the south. The 1st Australian Division would land first, with the 3rd Infantry Brigade leading as a covering force moving inland to establish positions on Gun Ridge. The 2nd Infantry Brigade was to follow and to capture the higher ground on Sari Bair. The 1st Infantry Brigade would land last as the divisional reserve. The New Zealand and Australian Division was to come ashore and form up to advance across the peninsula. The force was to assemble at night and land at dawn to surprise the defenders and on the evening of 24 April, the covering force embarked on battleships and destroyers, with the follow on forces in on transports. The troops would disembark from the transports into ships' boats and be towed close to the shore by steamboats and then row ashore. At around 2:00 a.m., an Ottoman observer on a hill at Ariburnu saw a multitude of ships far on the horizon. Captain Faik, in charge of a company from the 27th Infantry Regiment verified it with his binoculars and immediately informed his commanding officer, Ismet Bey, at Kabatepe. By 3:00 a.m., the moon was covered and the ships were no longer visible to the Ottomans. The Ottomans were not sure if this was a real landing or a diversion. Once the intense artillery was heard, at around 6:00 a.m. the two remaining battalions of the 27th Infantry Regiment were ordered to make their way to Ariburnu urgently. Sanders had left his HQ and was at Bulair, distracted by the few Allied ships that had appeared; he had been confident that this was where the landings would take place. For two days, he remained at Bulair with the 5th Division waiting for the real landing. His absence created problems in chain of command and delays in decision making which negated his defence scheme that relied on rapid movement of troops. At 4:00 a.m. on the morning of 25 April the first wave of troops from the 3rd Brigade began moving towards the shore on lighters and ships' boats. The covering force landed approximately too far north, in a bay just south of Ari Burnu, due to undetected currents or a navigational error. The landing was more difficult, over ground which rose steeply from the beaches, unlike the objective to the south, which was more open. The landing site was garrisoned by only two Ottoman companies but from positions on commanding ground the Ottomans inflicted numerous casualties on the Australians before being overcome. The broken terrain prevented a coordinated drive inland, with the Australians on unfamiliar ground and with inaccurate maps. In the maze of steep ravines, spurs and dense scrub, Australian parties that got forward quickly lost contact and were broken up into small groups. Some Australian troops reached the second ridge but fewer still reached their objectives and having become dispersed, the covering force could provide little support to the follow-up force. The 1st and 2nd Brigades, then the New Zealand and Australian Division, landed on the beaches around Ari Burnu but became entangled, which took time to sort out. About four hours after the landings began, the bulk of the 1st Australian Division was ashore safely and its leading elements were pushing inland. By mid-morning Kemal had reorganised the defenders for a counter-attack on the commanding heights of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair. The right flank of the small lodgement taken by the Australians was driven in at with most of being lost. During the afternoon and evening the left flank was pushed back from and the Nek. By evening, Bridges and Godley recommended re-embarkation; Birdwood agreed but after advice from the navy that re-embarkation was impossible, Hamilton ordered the troops dig-in instead. The Ottoman counter-attack was eventually repulsed and the Australians established a perimeter roughly from Walker's Ridge in the north to Shell Green in the south. ANZAC casualties on the first day numbered around killed or wounded. The failure to secure the high ground led to a tactical stalemate, with the landings contained by the defenders in a perimeter less than long. The Australian submarine (Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker) penetrated the Straits on the night of 24/25 April. As landings began at Cape Helles and ANZAC Cove at dawn on 25 April, AE2 reached Chanak by 6:00 a.m. and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk-i Şevket-class cruiser then evaded a destroyer. The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free. Shortly after refloating, the periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew. AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and at Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall. At around , AE2 surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet. The landing at Cape Helles was going well but the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the Anzac commander, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, contemplated the re-embarkation of his troops. The success of AE2 was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about AE2 were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale. Stoker was ordered to "generally run amok" and with no enemies in sight, he sailed into the Sea of Marmara, where AE2 cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships, which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes. Cape Helles The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division (Major General Aylmer Hunter-Weston). The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula, named 'S', 'V', 'W', 'X' and 'Y' Beaches from east to west. On 1 May, the 29th Indian Brigade (including 1/6th Gurkha Rifles) landed, took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by 1/5th Gurkha Rifles and 2/10th Gurkha Rifles; the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April. At 'Y' Beach, during the first engagement, the First Battle of Krithia, the Allies landed unopposed and advanced inland. There were only a small number of defenders in the village but lacking orders to exploit the position, the 'Y' Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach. It was as close as the Allies ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment, checking any further movement. The main landings were made at 'V' Beach, beneath the old Seddülbahir fortress and at 'W' Beach, a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland. The covering force of Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier, , which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark along ramps. The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at 'V' Beach and the Lancashire Fusiliers at 'W' Beach in open boats, on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire. On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed. Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on River Clyde were shot by machine-gunners at the Seddülbahir fort and of the first to disembark, reached the beach. The Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore. By the morning of 25 April, out of ammunition and with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair, the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal "I do not order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time which passes until we die, other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places". Every man of the regiment was either killed or wounded. At 'W' Beach, thereafter known as Lancashire Landing, the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defenders despite the loss of from . Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at 'W' Beach. A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the 'V' Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way inland. Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position, the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness. After the landings, so few men remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into The Dubsters. Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing, while of the who landed, just the Gallipoli campaign unscathed. After the landings, little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation, apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men. The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops. Land campaign Early battles On the afternoon of 27 April, the 19th Division, reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division, counter-attacked the six Allied brigades at Anzac. With the support of naval gunfire, the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night. The following day the British were joined by French troops transferred from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near 'S' Beach at Morto Bay. On 28 April, the Allies fought the First Battle of Krithia to capture the village. Hunter-Weston made a plan which proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field. The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddülbahir village, which was captured after much fighting on 26 April. The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia around having inflicted As Ottoman reinforcements arrived, the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac became a battle of attrition. On 30 April, the Royal Naval Division (Major General Archibald Paris) landed. The same day, Kemal, believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat, began moving troops forward through Wire Gulley, near the and Lone Pine. Eight battalions of reinforcements were dispatched from Istanbul a day later and that afternoon, Ottoman troops counter-attacked at Helles and Anzac. The Ottomans briefly broke through in the French sector but the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine-gun fire, which inflicted many casualties on the attackers. The following night, Birdwood ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division to attack from Russell's Top and Quinn's Post towards The Australian 4th Infantry Brigade (Colonel John Monash), the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and Royal Marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack. Covered by a naval and artillery barrage, the troops advanced a short distance during the night but got separated in the dark. The attackers came under massed small-arms fire from their exposed left flank and were repulsed, having suffered about On 30 April, the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the , then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth, then broke the surface again at the stern. Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine, puncturing the pressure hull. Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship, scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner. AE2s achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations. On 27 April, (Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle), entered the Sea of Marmara on a three-week patrol, which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign, in which four ships were sunk, including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying and a field battery to Gallipoli. While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor, the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant; Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross. Following the success of AE2 and E14, the French submarine attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands. (Several weeks earlier another French boat, , had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point.) Operations: May 1915 On 5 May, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division was dispatched from Egypt. Believing Anzac to be secure, Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, along with field guns, to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia. Involving a force of , it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight. French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British, Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba. After of artillery preparation, the assault began at mid-morning on 6 May. The British and French advanced along the Gully, Fir Tree, Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies, fortified by the Ottomans. As the attackers advanced, they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strong points and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain. Under artillery and then machine-gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance, the attack was stopped; next day, reinforcements resumed the advance. The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May; with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village. Late in the afternoon, the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line. Amidst small arms and artillery-fire, the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained , about short of the objective, with Near Fir Tree Spur, the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians, although the British were held up and the French were exhausted, despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective. The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in, having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba. A brief period of consolidation followed; the Allies had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences. The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry. Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres. The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near "Steele's Post" and died of his injuries on the hospital ship on 18 May. At the end of April Birdwood told GHQ MEF (General Headquarters Mediterranean Expeditionary Force) that he could not land 6,000 horses at Anzac Cove as there was no water for them. GHQ MEF was unhappy that the ANZAC force would be immobilised on the beachhead, but they would have been no use. Some of the thousands of men and horses remained on board ship for up to a month. Birdwood signalled on 17 May that 17 transports would be returning to Alexandria to offload 5,251 horses accompanied by 3,217 men. GHQ MEF insisted that some of the men remain in Alexandria to look after the horses and guard ANZACs "many vehicles and mountains of baggage". Ottoman counter-offensive: 19 May On 19 May, troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the and New Zealanders back into the sea. Short of artillery and ammunition, the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May, the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations. The Ottomans suffered in the attack, of which were killed; Australian and New Zealand casualties were and . The dead included a stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac; afterwards, his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign. Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May, to bury the dead lying in no man's land, which led to a camaraderie between the armies, much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front. An eyewitness account from Private Victor Laidlaw of the Australian 2nd Field Ambulance described the day: The truce was not repeated formally. The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship was torpedoed on 13 May by the . A German submarine, , sank on 25 May and on 27 May. More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U-21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered" between sorties, which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector. The submarine (Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople Harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf. The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire between early May and the first week of June. After the defeat of the counter-attack at Anzac in mid-May, the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults. Late in the month, the Ottomans began tunneling around Quinn's Post in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May, despite Australian counter-mining, detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment. The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter-attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day, before being relieved by New Zealand troops. Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation, minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper-fire. Operations: June–July 1915 In the Helles sector, which had been extensively entrenched by both sides, the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again, in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June, with the 29th Division, Royal Naval Division, 42nd Division and two French divisions. The attack was repulsed and with it, the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended; trench warfare resumed, with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards. Casualties were approximately on both sides; the British lost from and the French from . Ottoman losses were according to the Turkish Official History and to another account. In June, the seaplane carrier arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No. 3 Wing RNAS. The 52nd (Lowland) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine, which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet. On 30 June, the French commander, Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d'Amade, was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud. Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost out of the Royal Naval Division had and French losses were Ottoman losses were about and . At sea, the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara. The third tour began on 21 July, when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti-submarine net placed near the Narrows. The next attempt was made by on 27 July, which was caught in the net, forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries; Mariotte was scuttled. On 8 August, E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of and sank a gunboat, seven transports and 23 sailing vessels. August offensive The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on in the Battle of Chunuk Bair. Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen. The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla, north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north-west. At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade. The Allies had , mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros, which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs; Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos. The Ottomans had , of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low-level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield. Allied aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air-launched torpedo. The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition; the British commander, Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford, had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized. The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills, preventing the British from penetrating inland, which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare. The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions, at Helles, where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate. At Anzac, the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine, led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade, captured the main Ottoman trench line and diverted Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and failed. The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning. On the morning of 7 August, the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek, to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences. The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon, which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure. An attack on never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night. Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders, at great cost to the Allies. The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August, led by Mustafa Kemal, swept them from the heights. Of in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit, casualties. With the Ottoman recapture of the ground, the Allies' best chance of victory was lost. The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th (Irish) Division on 7 August, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which began landing on 8 August, the 54th (East Anglian) Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August. On 12 August, the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe, crossing the Anafarta Plain. The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac. Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September. The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division. On 25 September, Kitchener proposed detaching two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli. Instead, a counter proposal from Sir Ian Hamilton was agreed to; only the 10th (Irish) Division and the 156th Infantry Division (France) were withdrawn from the peninsula. By the end of September these troops were concentrating at Mudros for conveyance to the new front. Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate, an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon's washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a "constant traffic" of gifts being thrown across no-man's land, dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side. Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population. Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid. The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated, which caused supply and shelter problems. A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles, while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths. Evacuation After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton's performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch, Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and other reporters. Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro. Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered frostbite. The Serbian defeat in the Serbian campaign in autumn 1915 prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli campaign to Greek Macedonia; the Macedonian front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia. On 4 September, the submarine was caught in the Ottoman anti-submarine net as it began another tour. Despite such reverses, by mid-September, Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U-boats and U-21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Istanbul on 13 September. The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was but it was forced to turn back; on 30 October, when returning through the straits, it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact. The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered, including a scheduled rendezvous with on 6 November. The rendezvous was kept by the German U-boat instead, which torpedoed and sank E20, killing all but nine of the crew. The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. In early October 1915, the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika, by moving two divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements. A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches, especially on the confined front at Anzac, modern aircraft and experienced crews. In late November, an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro-Hungarian and artillery units arrived, providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery. Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener, who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean. After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles, IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac, Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet, who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December. Due to the narrowness of no man's land and the winter weather, many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation. The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a rainstorm on 26 November 1915. The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December. Rain flooded trenches, drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines; the following snow killed still more men from exposure. Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December, the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December. Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses, such as William Scurry's self-firing rifle, which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger, were used to disguise the Allied departure. At Anzac Cove, troops maintained silence for an hour or more, until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs opened fire. This incident successfully discouraged the Ottomans from inspecting when the actual evacuation occurred. A mine was detonated at the Nek, which killed soldiers. The Allied force was embarked, with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands. Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December. Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove, Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal. Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies, Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure. Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7/8 January, under the cover of a naval bombardment, the British troops began to fall back from their lines to the beaches, where makeshift piers were used to board boats. The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04:00 on 8 January 1916. The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916. Among the first to land, remnants of The Plymouth Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula. Despite predictions of up to and mules, and of equipment were removed; that could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and were left behind with smashed wheels. As at Anzac, large amounts of supplies (including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed), gun carriages and ammunition were left behind; hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans. A sailor was killed by debris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost. Shortly after dawn, the Ottomans retook Helles. In the final days of the campaign, Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German–Ottoman fighter squadron, which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles, when three shot down two RNAS aircraft. Aftermath Military repercussions Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign's result. Broadbent describes the campaign as "a close-fought affair" that was a defeat for the Allies, while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate. Peter Hart disagrees, arguing that the Ottoman forces "held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease", while Haythornthwaite calls it a "disaster for the Allies". The campaign did cause "enormous damage to ... [Ottoman] national resources", and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans, but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful. While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East, the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front, and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side. The Allied campaign was plagued by ill-defined goals, poor planning, insufficient artillery, inexperienced troops, inaccurate maps, poor intelligence, overconfidence, inadequate equipment, and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels. Geography also proved a significant factor. While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage, the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well-sited defences that limited the ability of Allied forces to penetrate inland, confining them to narrow beaches. The campaign's necessity remains the subject of debate, and the recriminations that followed were significant, highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those who favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany's "soft underbelly", its allies in the east. British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli campaign, forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route. Between April and December 1915, nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols, sinking one battleship, one destroyer, five gunboats, 11 troop transports, 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara. During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara, sometimes two; in October 1915, there were four Allied submarines in the region. E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916, the last British submarine in the region. Four E-class and five B-class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles. By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area, while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed. The official German naval historian, Admiral Eberhard von Mantey, later concluded that had the sea-lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe. As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety, posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses, effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways. Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford, but Hunter-Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. The competence of Australian brigade commanders, John Monash (4th Infantry Brigade) and Harry Chauvel (1st Light Horse Brigade, New Zealand and Australian Division), was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command. The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915, partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over-ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915, when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest. The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies. In Mesopotamia, the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara, forcing their surrender in April 1916. Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt. Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of the materials to complete the military railway necessary for such an operation, marked the end of that ambition. The optimism gained from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war. The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982. The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continue to influence US amphibious doctrine. In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars, the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in Britain and United States. In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal". Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to "a belief among most of the armed forces of the world" that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy, Tarawa and the Gilberts, arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944. Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918, the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile was overcome. The memory of Gallipoli weighed upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943. In September, the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea. The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland. Political effects Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle, Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill. The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying, forced the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party. The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes, which had done much to "destroy its faltering reputation for competence". The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition, the first report being issued in 1917, with the final report published in 1919. Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition, Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the MEF, was recalled to London in October 1915, ending his military career. Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front, where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916. Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916, when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister. Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet-level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet. The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment. Casualties Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001, Edward J. Erickson wrote that in the Gallipoli Campaign over were killed, including and around and French soldiers. Using the Ottoman Archives, Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were died from all causes, were wounded or injured and went missing or were captured. In 2001, Carlyon gave figures of killed or missing, including In September 1915 Godley complained that too few of the recovered sick or wounded casualties from Gallipoli were being returned from Egypt, and General John Maxwell replied that "the appetite of the Dardanelles for men has been phenomenal and wicked". There were nearly during the campaign, with the British History of the Great War listing losses including sick as and troops (with some Turkish (sic) sources referring to Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001, Tim Travers gave casualty figures of and ranks (battle and non-battle); included among this may be Sanders estimated that the Ottomans suffered casualties, including and that returned to duty. The New Zealand semi-official history (1919, by Fred Waite) estimated that 8,556 New Zealanders served at Gallipoli and contained an estimate of battle casualties including In 2000, McGibbon wrote that had been killed, about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula; other estimates were 2,701 (Pugsley) or 2,779 (Stowers). A 2019 study by New Zealand historians John Crawford and Matthew Buck arrived at a higher estimate for the numbers of New Zealand soldiers who served at Gallipoli, over 16,000, perhaps 17,000 (rather than earlier revised figures of 13,000 to 14,000 and the 1919 figure of 8,556). Sickness Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions, especially from typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea. Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, the British official historian, reported that Empire soldiers were evacuated for illness during the campaign. A total of troops fell sick, not counting Dominion or Indian troops; of these, exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front. Aspinall-Oglander gave the number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with infected and another having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with gonorrhea and rheumatic fever French casualties during the campaign amounted to around 47,000. Of the French casualties, 27,169 were killed, wounded or missing with an implied 20,000 who fell sick. Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, hospitals had been built with and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British responded that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia, in turn, claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, and Vperiod but the Ottoman Government replied that the vessels had been the victims of mines. No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported to the theatre quantities of gas, which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later, during the Second Battle of Gaza and the Third Battle of Gaza in 1917. Graves and memorials The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty-Wylie VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing". The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom. There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers). Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds. Makeshift graves were created during the campaign, often with simple wooden crosses or markers. However, some graves were decorated more extensively, such as that of John Hancox (pictured). There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula, located at Seddülbahir. There are no large Ottoman/Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials, the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial at Morto Bay, Cape Helles (near 'S' Beach), the Turkish Soldier's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open-air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn's Post (Bomba Sirt). There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles, demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula. Subsequent operations Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt. French forces (renamed the in late October) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika. In Egypt, the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika, became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray. They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire, consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with . In March 1916, Murray took command of both these forces, forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and reorganising the units for service in Europe, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East. While the ANZAC was disbanded, the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed. These units moved to the Western Front in mid-1916. The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised, forming the 74th (Yeomanry) Division and a portion of the 75th Division. Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division, later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division, participated in the Sinai and Palestine campaign. The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916, while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Istanbul and partitioned the Ottoman Empire. The occupation ended in 1923. Legacy The significance of the Gallipoli campaign is felt strongly in both Australia and New Zealand, despite their being only a portion of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a "baptism of fire" and had been linked to their emergence as independent states. Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 16,000 to 17,000 New Zealanders. It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac spirit". The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as "Anzac Day". The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916, at churches in Melbourne, Brisbane and London, before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923. The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s. Organised marches by veterans began in 1925, in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph. During the 1980s, it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended. Over 10,000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey, New Zealand, Britain and Australia. Dawn services are also held in Australia; in New Zealand, dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day. Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day). Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand. Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland, and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook, Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries. Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including in film, television and song. In 1971, Scottish-born Australian folk singer-songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda" which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be an iconic anti-war song. In Turkey, the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state's emergence, although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale, where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915. For the Turks, 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders, it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies. The campaign's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal, who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war. "Çanakkale geçilmez" (Çanakkale is impassable) became a common phrase to express the state's pride at repulsing the attack and the song "Çanakkale içinde" (A Ballad for Chanakkale) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle. Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin created a movie called Children of Canakkale. See also Timeline of the Gallipoli Campaign Gallipoli, a 1981 Australian film directed by Peter Weir Çanakkale 1915, a 2012 Turkish film based on some of the major political events of the Gallipoli campaign The Water Diviner, a 2014 Australian film directed by Russell Crowe Topical song "Suvla Bay" collected 1949 by British publishers "Blamey's Boys" by Pte Thomas Norman, 2nd Battalion, AIF "Heroes of the Dardanelles" 1915 by bugler Pte Reginald Stoneham service number 82, South Australia Contingent (Boer War) Gallipoli Star, a Turkish military award "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda", a 1971 song by Eric Bogle Notes Footnotes References Books Diaries Newspapers Journals Websites Further reading External links Winston Churchill & Gallipoli – UK Parliament Living Heritage 1915 in the Ottoman Empire 1916 in the Ottoman Empire Adrianople vilayet Australia–Turkey relations Battles of World War I involving Australia Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary Battles of World War I involving British India Battles of World War I involving France Battles of World War I involving Germany Battles of World War I involving Newfoundland Battles of World War I involving New Zealand Battles of World War I involving the Ottoman Empire Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom Battles of World War I involving Russia Campaigns and theatres of World War I Conflicts in 1915 Conflicts in 1916 History of Australia (1901–1945) History of the Royal Marines Middle Eastern theatre of World War I New Zealand–Turkey relations Ottoman Empire in World War I Winston Churchill galipoli ANZAC Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom Royal Newfoundland Regiment

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In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Demeter (; Attic: Dēmḗtēr ; Doric: Dāmā́tēr) is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over grains and the fertility of the earth. She is also called Deo (). Her cult titles include Sito (), "she of the Grain", as the giver of food or grain, and Thesmophoros (, thesmos: divine order, unwritten law; , phoros: bringer, bearer), "giver of customs" or "legislator", in association with the secret female-only festival called the Thesmophoria. Though Demeter is often described simply as the goddess of the harvest, she presided also over the sacred law, and the cycle of life and death. She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a religious tradition that predated the Olympian pantheon, and which may have its roots in the Mycenaean period c. 1400–1200 BC. One of the most notable Homeric Hymns, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, tells the story of Persephone's abduction by Hades and Demeter's search for her. Demeter was often considered to be the same figure as the Anatolian goddess Cybele, and she was identified with the Roman goddess Ceres. Etymology It is possible that Demeter appears in Linear A as da-ma-te on three documents (AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), all three apparently dedicated in religious situations and all three bearing just the name (i-da-ma-te on AR Zf 1 and 2). It is unlikely that Demeter appears as da-ma-te in a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription (PY En 609); the word , da-ma-te, probably refers to "households". On the other hand, , si-to-po-ti-ni-ja, "Potnia of the Grain", is regarded as referring to her Bronze Age predecessor or to one of her epithets. Demeter's character as mother-goddess is identified in the second element of her name meter () derived from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *méh₂tēr (mother). In antiquity, different explanations were already proffered for the first element of her name. It is possible that Da (), a word which corresponds to Gē () in Attic, is the Doric form of De (), "earth", the old name of the chthonic earth-goddess, and that Demeter is "Mother-Earth". Liddell & Scott find this "improbable" and Beekes writes, "there is no indication that [da] means "earth", although it has also been assumed in the name of Poseidon found in the Linear B inscription E-ne-si-da-o-ne, "earth-shaker". John Chadwick also argues that the dā element in the name of Demeter is not so simply equated with "earth". M. L. West has proposed that the word Demeter, initially Damater, could be a borrowing from an Illyrian deity attested in the Messapic goddess Damatura, with a form dā- ("earth", from PIE *dʰǵʰ(e)m-) attached to -matura ("mother"), akin to the Illyrian god Dei-paturos (dei-, "sky", attached to -paturos, "father"). The Lesbian form Dō- may simply reflect a different dialectal pronunciation of the non-Greek name. According to a more popular theory, the element De- might be connected with Deo, an epithet of Demeter and it could derive from the Cretan word dea (), Ionic zeia ()—variously identified with emmer, spelt, rye, or other grains by modern scholars—so that she is the Mother and the giver of food generally. This view is shared by British scholar Jane Ellen Harrison, who suggests that Démeter's name means Grain-Mother, instead of Earth-Mother. Wanax (wa-na-ka) was her male companion (Greek: Πάρεδρος, Paredros) in Mycenaean cult. The Arcadian cult links her to the god Poseidon, who probably substituted the male companion of the Great Goddess; Demeter may therefore be related to a Minoan Great Goddess (Cybele). An alternative Proto-Indo-European etymology comes through Potnia and Despoina, where Des- represents a derivative of PIE *dem (house, dome), and Demeter is "mother of the house" (from PIE *dems-méh₂tēr). R. S. P. Beekes rejects a Greek interpretation, but not necessarily an Indo-European one. Iconography Demeter was frequently associated with images of the harvest, including flowers, fruit, and grain. She was also sometimes pictured with her daughter Persephone. Demeter is not generally portrayed with any of her consorts; the exception is Iasion, the youth of Crete who lay with her in a thrice-ploughed field, and was killed afterwards by a jealous Zeus with a thunderbolt. Demeter is assigned the zodiac constellation Virgo the Virgin by Marcus Manilius in his 1st century Roman work Astronomicon. In art, constellation Virgo holds Spica, a sheaf of wheat in her hand and sits beside constellation Leo the Lion. In Arcadia, she was known as "Black Demeter". She was said to have taken the form of a mare to escape the pursuit of her younger brother, Poseidon, and having been raped by him despite her disguise, dressed all in black and retreated into a cave to mourn and to purify herself. She was consequently depicted with the head of a horse in this region. A sculpture of the Black Demeter was made by Onatas. Description As goddess of agriculture In epic poetry and Hesiod's Theogony, Demeter is the Corn-Mother, the goddess of cereals who provides grain for bread and blesses its harvesters. This was her main function at Eleusis, and became panhellenic. In Cyprus, "grain-harvesting" was damatrizein. The main theme in the Eleusinian Mysteries was the reunion of Persephone with her mother Demeter, when new crops were reunited with the old seed, a form of eternity. According to the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates, Demeter's greatest gifts to humankind were agriculture, particularly of cereals, and the Mysteries which give the initiate higher hopes in this life and the afterlife. These two gifts were intimately connected in Demeter's myths and mystery cults. In Hesiod, prayers to Zeus-Chthonios (chthonic Zeus) and Demeter help the crops grow full and strong. Demeter's emblem is the poppy, a bright red flower that grows among the barley. Demeter was also zeidoros arοura, the Homeric "Mother Earth arοura" who gave the gift of cereals (zeai or deai). As an earth and underworld goddess In addition to her role as an agricultural goddess, Demeter was often worshipped more generally as a goddess of the earth. In Arcadia, she was represented as snake-haired, holding a dove and dolphin, perhaps to symbolize her power over the underworld, the air, and the water. In the cult of Flya, she was worshiped as Anesidora, one who sends up gifts from the underworld. There was a temple of Demeter under this name in Phlya in Attica. In Sparta, she was known as Demeter-Chthonia (chthonic Demeter). The Athenians called the dead "Demetrioi", and this may reflect a link between Demeter and ancient cult of the dead, linked to the agrarian-belief that a new life would sprout from the dead body, as a new plant arises from buried seed. This was probably a belief shared by initiates in Demeter's mysteries, as interpreted by Pindar: "Happy is he who has seen what exists under the earth, because he knows not only the end of life, but also his beginning that the Gods will give". In the mysteries of Pheneos in Arcadia, Demeter was known as Cidaria. Her priest would put on the mask of Demeter, which was kept in a secret place. The cult may have been connected with both the underworld and a form of agrarian magic. As a poppy goddess Theocritus described one of Demeter's earlier roles as that of a goddess of poppies: For the Greeks, Demeter was still a poppy goddess Bearing sheaves and poppies in both hands. — Idyll vii.157 Karl Kerényi asserted that poppies were connected with a Cretan cult which was eventually carried to the Eleusinian Mysteries in Classical Greece. In a clay statuette from Gazi, the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. According to Kerényi, "It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis and it is almost certain that in the Cretan cult sphere opium was prepared from poppies." Robert Graves speculated that the meaning of the depiction and use of poppies in the Greco-Roman myths is the symbolism of the bright scarlet color as signifying the promise of resurrection after death. Other functions and titles Demeter's epithets show her many religious functions. She was the "Corn-Mother" who blesses the harvesters. Some cults interpreted her as "Mother-Earth". Demeter may be linked to goddess-cults of Minoan Crete, and embody aspects of a pre-Hellenic Mother Goddess. The most common epithets of Demeter are: Achaea, Ἀχαία (" probably from achaine: loaf ,or achos: grief"). She was worshipped at Athens by the Gephyraeans who had emigrated from Boeotia. Aganippe, Ἀγανίππη ("the Mare who destroys mercifully", "Night-Mare"). Anesidora, Ἀνησιδώρα ("sender-up of gifts") at Phlya in Attica. Cabeiraea, Καβειραία΄ ("Related with the Cabeiri") at Thebes. Chloe, Χλόη, ("Green"), that invokes her powers of ever-returning fertility, as does Chthonia. Chthonia, Χθονία, ("under or beneath the earth") in Laconia. Despoina, Δέσποινα ("mistress of the house"), a Greek word similar to the Mycenean potnia. This title was also applied to Persephone, Aphrodite and Hecate. Europa, Εὐρώπη, "broad face or eyes" at Livadeia of Boeotia. She was the nurse of Trophonios to whom a chthonic cult and oracle was dedicated. Eleusinia, Ἐλευσίνια in the Mysteries at Pheneus. Erinys, Ερινύς, ("Fury"), with a function similar with the function of the avenging Dike (Justice), goddess of moral justice based on custom rules who represents the divine retribution, and the Erinyes, female ancient chthonic deities of vengeance and implacable agents of retribution. Ioulo Ἰουλώ, ("related with corn-sheafs") Karpophorus, Καρποφόρος ("fruit bearing"). Kidaria, Κιδαρία ("kidaris : Arcadian dance") at Pheneus. Lusia, Λουσία, ("Bather"). Malophorus, Μαλοφόρος, ("Apple-bearer" or "Sheep-bearer") at Megara and Selinus. Melaina, Μέλαινα ("black") . Mysia, Μυσία at Pellene. Potnia, Πότνια, ("mistress") in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Hera especially, but also Artemis and Athena, are addressed as "potnia" as well. Prosymne, Προσύμνη ("to whom one addresses hymns") at Lerna. Thermasia, Θερμασία ("Warmth") at Hermione. Thesmia, Θεσμία ("law goddess") in the Mysteries at Pheneus. Thesmophoros, Θεσμοφόρος, ("giver of customs" or "legislator"), a title connected with the Thesmophoria, a festival of secret women-only rituals connected with marriage customs. Worship In Crete The earliest recorded worship of a deity possibly equivalent to Demeter is found in Linear B Mycenean Greek tablets of c. 1400–1200 BC found at Pylos. The tablets describe worship of the "two queens and the king", which may be related to Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon. An early name which may refer to Demeter, si-to-po-ti-ni-ja (Sito Potnia), appears in Linear B inscriptions found at Mycenae and Pylos. In Crete, Poseidon was often given the title wa-na-ka (wanax) in Linear B inscriptions, in his role as king of the underworld, and his title E-ne-si-da-o-ne indicates his chthonic nature. In the cave of Amnisos, Enesidaon is associated with the cult of Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, who was involved with the annual birth of the divine child. During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cults, and Wanax (wa-na-ka) was her male companion (paredros) in the Mycenean cult. Elements of this early form of worship survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: "the mighty Potnia had born a strong son." On the Greek mainland Tablets from Pylos record sacrificial goods destined for "the Two Queens and Poseidon" ("to the Two Queens and the King" :wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te). The "Two Queens" may be related with Demeter and Persephone, or their precursors, goddesses who were no longer associated with Poseidon in later periods. Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia) Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna (Sicily), and Samothrace. An ancient Amphictyony, probably the earliest centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele (Ἀνθήλη), which lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly. This was the locality of Thermopylae. After the "First Sacred War", the Anthelan body was known thenceforth as the Delphic Amphictyony Mysian Demeter had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia. The geographer Pausainias passed the shrine to Mysian Demeter on the road from Mycenae to Argos, and reports that according to Argive tradition the shrine was founded by an Archive named Mysius who venerated Demeter. Festivals Demeter's two major festivals were sacred mysteries. Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only. Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class. At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as Mother and Persephone as her daughter. Conflation with other goddesses In the Roman period, Demeter became conflated with the Roman agricultural goddess Ceres under the Interpretatio graeca. The worship of Demeter was formally merged with that of Ceres around 205 BC, along with the ritus graecia cereris, a Greek-inspired form of cult, as part of Rome's general religious recruitment of deities as allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War. The cult originated in southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) and was probably based on the Thesmophoria, a mystery cult dedicated to Demeter and Persephone as "Mother and Maiden". It arrived along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods "with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention". The new cult was installed in the already ancient Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera, Rome's Aventine patrons of the plebs; from the end of the 3rd century BC, Demeter's temple at Enna, in Sicily, was acknowledged as Ceres' oldest, most authoritative cult center, and Libera was recognized as Proserpina, Roman equivalent to Persephone. Their joint cult recalls Demeter's search for Persephone, after the latter's abduction into the underworld by Hades (or Pluto). At the Aventine, the new cult took its place alongside the old. It made no reference to Liber, whose open and gender-mixed cult continued to play a central role in plebeian culture, as a patron and protector of plebeian rights, freedoms and values. The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new "greek style" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality. Unmarried girls should emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women should seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful Mother. Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest, and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries. Beginning in the 5th century BCE in Asia Minor, Demeter was also considered equivalent to the Phrygian goddess Cybele. Demeter's festival of Thesmophoria was popular throughout Asia Minor, and the myth of Persephone and Adonis in many ways mirrors the myth of Cybele and Attis. Some late antique sources syncretized several "great goddess" figures into a single deity. The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, identified Ceres (Demeter) with Isis, having her declare: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses. My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name. The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; ... the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; ... and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis. --Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny. The Golden Ass Mythology Lovers and children Some of the earliest accounts of Demeter's relationships to other deities comes from Hesiod's Theogony, written c. 700 BC. In it, Demeter is described as the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Demeter's most well-known relationship is with her daughter, Persephone, queen of the underworld. Both Hesiod and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter(2), describe Persephone as the daughter of Zeus and his older sister, Demeter, though no myths exist describing her conception or birth. The exception is a fragment of the lost Orphic theogony, which preserves part of a myth in which Zeus mates with his mother, Rhea, in the form of a snake, explaining the origin of the symbol on Hermes' staff. Their daughter is said to be Persephone, whom Zeus in turn mates with to conceive Dionysus. According to the Orphic fragments, "After becoming the mother of Zeus, she who was formerly Rhea became Demeter." Before her abduction by Hades, Persephone was known as Kore ("maiden"), and there is some evidence that the figures of Persephone Queen of the Underworld and Kore daughter of Demeter were originally considered separate goddesses. However, they must have become conflated with each other by the time of Hesiod in the 7th century BC. Demeter and Persephone were often worshiped together and were often referred to by joint cultic titles. In their cult at Eleusis, they were referred to simply as "the goddesses", often distinguished as "the older" and "the younger"; in Rhodes and Sparta, they were worshiped as "the Demeters"; in the Thesmophoria, they were known as "the thesmophoroi" ("the legislators"). In Arcadia they were known as "the Great Goddesses" and "the mistresses". In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called the "queens" (wa-na-ssoi). Both Homer and Hesiod, writing c. 700 BC, described Demeter making love with the agricultural hero Iasion in a ploughed field. According to Hesiod, this union resulted in the birth of Plutus. According to Diodorus Siculus, in his Bibliotheca historica written in the 1st century BC, Demeter and Zeus were also the parents of Dionysus. Diodorus described the myth of Dionysus' double birth (once from the earth, i.e. Demeter, when the plant sprouts) and once from the vine (when the fruit sprouts from the plant). Diodorus also related a version of the myth of Dionysus' destruction by the Titans ("sons of Gaia"), who boiled him, and how Demeter gathered up his remains so that he could be born a third time (Diod. iii.62). Diodorus states that Dionysus' birth from Zeus and his older sister Demeter was somewhat of a minority belief, possibly via conflation of Demeter with her daughter, as most sources state that the parents of Dionysus were Zeus and Persephone, and later Zeus and Semele. In Arcadia, a major Arcadian deity known as Despoina ("Mistress") was said to be the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon. According to Pausanias, a Thelpusian tradition said that during Demeter's search for Persephone, Poseidon pursued her. Demeter turned into a horse in order to avoid her younger brother's advances, but he turned into a stallion and mated with the goddess, resulting in the birth of the horse god Arion and a daughter "whose name they are not wont to divulge to the uninitiated". Elsewhere he says that the Phigalians assert that the offspring of Poseidon and Demeter, was not a horse but in fact Despoina, "as the Arcadians call her". In Orphic literature, Demeter seems to be the mother of the witchcraft goddess Hecate. Abduction of Persephone Demeter's daughter Persephone was abducted to the underworld by Hades, who received permission from her father Zeus to take her as his bride. Demeter searched for her ceaselessly, preoccupied with her grief. The seasons halted; living things ceased their growth, then began to die. Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeus sent his messenger Hermes to the underworld to bring Persephone back. Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm; but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds. This bound her to Hades and the underworld for certain months of every year, either the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought, or the autumn and winter. There are several variations on the basic myth; the earliest account, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, relates that Persephone is secretly slipped a pomegranate seed by Hades and in Ovid's version, Persephone willingly and secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but is discovered and made to stay. Contrary to popular perception, Persephone's time in the underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime. Demeter's descent to retrieve Persephone from the underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries. The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek. In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (pithoi). Similar subterranean pithoi were used in ancient times for funerary practices. At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother Demeter, for at this time the old crop and the new meet each other. According to the personal mythology of Robert Graves, Persephone is not only the younger self of Demeter, she is in turn also one of three guises of the Triple Goddess – Kore (the youngest, the maiden, signifying green young grain), Persephone (in the middle, the nymph, signifying the ripe grain waiting to be harvested), and Hecate (the eldest of the three, the crone, the harvested grain), which to a certain extent reduces the name and role of Demeter to that of group name. Before her abduction, she is called Kore; and once taken she becomes Persephone ('she who brings destruction'). Demeter at Eleusis Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone took her to the palace of Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. She assumed the form of an old woman, and asked him for shelter. He took her in, to nurse Demophon and Triptolemus, his sons by Metanira. To reward his kindness, she planned to make Demophon immortal; she secretly anointed the boy with ambrosia and laid him in the flames of the hearth, to gradually burn away his mortal self. But Metanira walked in, saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright. Demeter abandoned the attempt. Instead, she taught Triptolemus the secrets of agriculture, and he in turn taught them to any who wished to learn them. Thus, humanity learned how to plant, grow and harvest grain. The myth has several versions; some are linked to figures such as Eleusis, Rarus and Trochilus. The Demophon element may be based on an earlier folk tale. Demeter and Iasion Homer's Odyssey (c. late 8th century BC) contains perhaps the earliest direct references to the myth of Demeter and her consort Iasion, a Samothracian hero whose name may refer to bindweed, a small white flower that frequently grows in wheat fields. In the Odyssey, Calypso describes how Demeter, "without disguise", made love to Iasion. "So it was when Demeter of the braided tresses followed her heart and lay in love with Iasion in the triple-furrowed field; Zeus was aware of it soon enough and hurled the bright thunderbolt and killed him." However, Ovid states that Iasion lived up to old age as the husband of Demeter. In ancient Greek culture, part of the opening of each agricultural year involved the cutting of three furrows in the field to ensure its fertility. Hesiod expanded on the basics of this myth. According to him, the liaison between Demeter and Iasion took place at the wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia in Crete. Demeter, in this version, had lured Iasion away from the other revelers. Hesiod says that Demeter subsequently gave birth of Plutus. Demeter and Poseidon In Arcadia, located in what is now southern Greece, the major goddess Despoina was considered the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios, Horse-Poseidon. In the associated myths, Poseidon represents the river spirit of the underworld, and he appears as a horse as often happens in northern European folklore. The myth describes how he pursued his older sister, Demeter, who hid from him among the horses of King Onkios, but even in the form of a mare, she could not conceal her divinity. In the form of a stallion, Poseidon caught and raped his older sister. Demeter was furious at Poseidon's assault; in this furious form, she became known as Demeter Erinys. Her anger at Poseidon drove her to dress all in black and retreat into a cave in order to purify herself, an act which was the cause of a universal famine. Demeter's absence caused the death of crops, of livestock, and eventually of the people who depended on them (later Arcadian tradition held that it was both her rage at Poseidon and her loss of her daughter that caused the famine, merging the two myths). Demeter washed away her anger in the River Ladon, becoming Demeter Lousia, the "bathed Demeter". "In her alliance with Poseidon," Kerényi noted, "she was Earth, who bears plants and beasts, and could therefore assume the shape of an ear of grain or a mare." She bore a daughter Despoina (: the "Mistress"), whose name should not be uttered outside the Arcadian Mysteries, and a horse named Arion, with a black mane and tail. At Phigaleia, a xoanon (wood-carved statue) of Demeter was erected in a cave which, tradition held, was the cave into which Black Demeter retreated. The statue depicted a Medusa-like figure with a horse's head and snake-like hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, which probably represented her power over air and water: Demeter and Baubo In the Orphic tradition, a mortal woman named Baubo received Demeter as her guest, and offered her meal and wine. Demeter declined them both, on account of her mourning over the loss of Persephone. Baubo then, thinking she had displeased the goddess, lifted her skirt and showed her genitalia to the goddess, simultaneously revealing Iacchus, Demeter's son. Demeter was most pleased with the sight, and delighted she accepted the food and wine. This tale survives in the account of Clement of Alexandria, a Christian who tried to discredit pagan practices and mythology. However several Baubo figurines (figurines of women revealing their vulvas) have been discovered, supporting the story. Demeter and Erysichthon Another myth involving Demeter's rage resulting in famine is that of Erysichthon, king of Thessaly. The myth tells of Erysichthon ordering all of the trees in one of Demeter's sacred groves to be cut down. One tree, a huge oak, was found to be covered with votive wreaths, symbols of the prayers Demeter had granted, and so Erysichthon's men refused to cut it down. The king used an axe to cut it down himself, killing a dryad nymph in the process. The nymph's dying words were a curse on Erysichthon. Demeter punished the king by calling upon Limos, the spirit of unrelenting and insatiable hunger, to enter his stomach. The more the king ate, the hungrier he became. Erysichthon sold all his possessions to buy food, but was still hungry. Finally, he sold his own daughter, Mestra, into slavery. Mestra was freed from slavery by her former lover, Poseidon, who gave her the gift of shape-shifting into any creature at will to escape her bonds. Erysichthon used her shape-shifting ability to sell her numerous times to make more money to feed himself, but no amount of food was enough. Eventually, Erysichthon ate himself. Psyche In the tale of Eros and Psyche, Demeter along with her sister Hera visited Aphrodite, raging with fury about the girl who had married her son. Aphrodite asked the two of them to search for her; the two of them try to talk sense into her, arguing that her son is not a little boy, although he might appear as one, and there's no harm in him falling in love with Psyche. Aphrodite took offence at their words. Sometime later, Psyche in her wanderings came across an abandoned shrine of Demeter, and sorted out the neglected sickles and harvest implements she found there. As she was doing so, Demeter appeared to her, and called from afar; she warned the girl of Aphrodite's great wrath and her plan to take revenge on her. Then Psyche begged the goddess to help her, but Demeter answered that she could not interfere and incur Aphrodite's anger at her; and for that reason Psyche had to leave the shrine, or else be kept as a captive of hers. Ascalabus While she was travelling far and wide looking for her daughter, Demeter arrived exhausted in Attica. A woman named Misme took her in and offered her a cup of water with pennyroyal and barley groats in it, for it was a hot day. Demeter, in her thirst, swallowed the drink clumsily. Witnessing that, Misme's son Ascalabus laughed and mocked her and asked her if she would like a deep jar of that drink. Demeter then poured her drink over him and turned him into a gecko, hated by both men and gods. It was said that Demeter showed her favour to those who killed geckos. Minthe Before Hades abducted her daughter, he had kept the nymph Minthe as his mistress. But after he married Persephone, he set Minthe aside. Minthe would often brag about being lovelier than Persephone, and saying Hades would soon come back to her and kick Persephone out of his halls. Demeter, hearing that, grew angry and trampled Minthe; from the earth then sprang a lovely-smelling herb named after the nymph. In other versions, Persephone herself is the one who kills and turns Minthe into a plant for sleeping with Hades. Pelops Once Tantalus, a son of Zeus, invited the gods over for dinner. Tantalus, wanting to test them, cut his son Pelops, cooked him and offered him as meal to them. They all saw through Tantalus' crime except Demeter, who ate Pelops' shoulder before the gods brought him back to life. Other wrath myths In the Argive version of this myth, when Demeter arrived in Argolis, a man named Colontas refused to receive her in his house, whereas his daughter Chthonia disapproved of his actions. Colontas was punished by being burnt along with his house, while Demeter took Chthonia to Hermione, where she built a sanctuary for the goddess. Demeter pinned Ascalaphus under a rock for reporting, as sole witness, to Hades that Persephone had consumed some pomegranate seeds. Later, after Heracles rolled the stone off Ascalaphus, Demeter turned him into a short-eared owl instead. Demeter also turned the Sirens into half-bird monsters for not helping her daughter Persephone when she was abducted by Hades. Other favour myths Demeter gave Triptolemus her serpent-drawn chariot and seed, and bade him scatter it across the earth (teach mankind the knowledge of agriculture). Triptolemus rode through Europe and Asia until he came to the land of Lyncus, a Scythian king. Lyncus pretended to offer what's accustomed of hospitality to him, but once Triptolemus fell asleep, he attacked him with a dagger, wanting to take credit of his work. Demeter then saved Triptolemus by turning Lyncus into a lynx, and ordered Triptolemus to return home air-borne. Hyginus records a very similar myth, in which Demeter saves Triptolemus from an evil king named Carnabon who additionally seized Triptolemus' chariot and killed one of the dragons, so he might not escape; Demeter restored the chariot to Triptolemus, substituted the dead dragon with another one, and punished Carnabon by putting him among the stars holding a dragon as if to kill it. During her wanderings, Demeter came upon the town of Pheneus; to the Pheneates that receives her warmly and offered her shelter she gave all sorts of pulse, except for beans, deeming it impure. Two of the Pheneates, Trisaules and Damithales, had a temple of Demeter built for her. Demeter also gifted a fig tree to Phytalus, an Eleusinian man, for welcoming her in his home. When her son Philomelus invented the plow and used it to cultivate the fields, Demeter was so impressed by his good work she immortalized him in the sky by turning him into a constellation, the Boötes. Besides giving gifts to those who were welcoming to her, Demeter was also a goddess who nursed the young; all of Plemaeus's children born by his first wife died in cradle; Demeter took pity of him and reared herself his son Orthopolis. Plemaeus built a temple to her to thank her. Demeter also raised Trophonius, the prophetic son of either Apollo or Erginus. Genealogy See also Family tree of the Greek gods 1 Ceres, the first asteroid and dwarf planet discovered, named after Demeter's Roman equivalent and called Demeter in Greek 1108 Demeter, a main belt asteroid 26 km in diameter, which was discovered in 1929 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth at Heidelberg. Greek mythology in popular culture Isis and Osiris Law of Demeter, a software design guideline named in honor of Demeter. Notes References Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992). Online version at the Topos Text Project. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Apuleius, The golden ass, or, Metamorphoses. E. J. Kenney. 2004. London: Penguin Books. Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. . Callimachus, Callimachus and Lycophron with an English Translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English Translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921. Internet Archive. Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8, translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. . Online version at Harvard University Press. Online version by Bill Thayer. Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). Graf, Fritz. "Demeter," Brill's New Pauly, Ed. Hubert Cancik and et al. Brill Reference Online. Web. 27 September 2017. Graves, Robert; The Greek Myths, Moyer Bell Ltd; Unabridged edition (December 1988), . Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . Halieutica in Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodorus. Oppian, Colluthus, and Tryphiodorus. Translated by A. W. Mair. Loeb Classical Library 219. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1928. Online version at topos text. Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . Google Books. Harrison, Jane Ellen (1908), Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, second edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908. Internet Archive. Harrison, Jane Ellen (1928), Myths of Greece and Rome, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, Doran & Company, Inc., 1928. Online version at Internet Sacred Text Archive. Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hesiod, Works and Days, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Homeric Hymn 2 to Demeter, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus translated and edited by Mary Grant. University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. Kerényi, Karl (1967), Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter, Princeton University Press, 1991. . Kerényi, Karl (1976), Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1996. . Kern, Otto. Orphicorum Fragmenta, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive. Lycophron, Alexandra (or Cassandra) in Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A. W. Mair ; Aratus, with an English translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921 . Internet Archive. Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology, Eighth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007. . Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion, 1940. Sacred-texts.com Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. . Online version at Harvard University Press. The Oxford Classical Dictionary, second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. . Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). . West, M. L. (1983), The Orphic Poems, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. . West, M. L. (2007), Indo-European Poetry and Myth, OUP Oxford, 2007. . Google Books. External links Hymn to Demeter, Ancient Greek and English text, Interlinear Translation edited & adapted from the 1914 prose translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, with Greek-English glossary, notes and illustrations. Foley P. Helene, The Homeric hymn to Demeter: translation, commentary, and interpretive essays, Princeton Univers. Press, 1994. with Ancient Greek text and English translation. Text of Homeric Hymn to Demeter Online book of Martin P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion "The Political Cosmology of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter" "The Sophian Prayer to Demeter" Agricultural goddesses Chthonic beings Fertility goddesses Harvest goddesses Nature goddesses Primordial teachers Mythological rape victims Divine women of Zeus Women of Poseidon Metamorphoses characters Characters in Greek mythology Rape of Persephone Greek goddesses Women in Greek mythology

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Nero ( ; full name: Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was the fifth Roman emperor and the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his suicide in 68. He was adopted by the Roman emperor Claudius at the age of 13 and succeeded him to the throne. Nero seems to have been popular with the members of his Praetorian Guard, and with lower-class commoners in Rome and the provinces, but was deeply resented by the Roman aristocracy. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent and debauched. After being declared a public enemy by the Roman Senate, he committed suicide aged 30. Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, a great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus. When Nero was two years old, his father died. His mother married the emperor Claudius, who eventually adopted Nero as his heir; when Claudius died in 54, Nero became emperor, with the support firstly of the Praetorian Guard, and then of the Senate. In the early years of his reign Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but he soon sought to rule independently, and to rid himself of restraining influences. His power struggle with his mother was eventually resolved when he had her murdered. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of his wife Claudia Octavia – supposedly so that he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and of his foster-brother Britannicus. Most Roman sources present Nero as sexually dissolute. He is said to have "married" a freedman Pythagoras, acting the part of bride at the ceremony. After Poppaea's death in unclear circumstances, Nero in short succession married an aristocratic woman Statilia Messalina and another freedman, Sporus, whom he had castrated. Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, promoted athletic games and contests, and made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer. This scandalised his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers and infamous persons. The provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens, but his performances undermined the Imperial dignity. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented. During Nero's reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and made peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt in Britain led by the Iceni's queen Boudica. The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman senator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, Nero was declared a public enemy and condemned to death in absentia. He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 he committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed that the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House". Tacitus claims that Nero seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice but by personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of the ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" in order to gain popular support. Early life Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December 37ADin Antium (modern Anzio). He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Caligula. Nero was also the great-great grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia). The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position". Suetonius also mentions that when Nero's father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the birth of his son, he replied that any child born to him and Agrippina would have a detestable nature and become a public danger. Domitius died in 40 AD. A few years before his father's death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal. His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were exiled to a remote island in the Mediterranean Sea. His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula. Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida the Younger, the mother of later emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina. After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new Roman Emperor. Nero's mother married Claudius in 49AD, becoming his fourth wife. By February, 49 AD, his mother had persuaded Claudius to adopt her son Nero. After Nero's adoption by the emperor, "Claudius" became part of his name: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption. Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making." However, David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s. Nero formally entered public life as an adult in 51AD at approximately 14 years old. When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between the years 51AD and 53AD, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire. Claudius died in 54AD; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death in 54AD has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son". He also notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina. Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does not mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars. Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was subsequently able to assume power without incident. Reign (54–68 AD) Most of what we know about Nero's reign comes from three ancient writers: Tacitus, Suetonius, and Greek historian Cassius Dio. According to these ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined". Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public-works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles. Early reign Nero became emperor in 54 AD, aged sixteen years. This made him the youngest sole emperor until Elagabalus, who became emperor aged 14 in 218. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Nero adopted the royal titulary Autokrator Neron Heqaheqau Meryasetptah Tjemaahuikhasut Wernakhtubaqet Heqaheqau Setepennenu Merur ('Emperor Nero, Ruler of rulers, chosen by Ptah, beloved of Isis, the sturdy-armed one who struck the foreign lands, victorious for Egypt, ruler of rulers, chosen of Nun who loves him'). Nero's tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime". H.H. Scullard writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators." His respect of the Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the Roman Senate. Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, a great grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's obverse side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two lictors during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the Vestalis Maxima. In AD55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him. Nero, who was having an affair with Acte, exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia. Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in 58AD. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis. Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan. Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities. After the affair of Lucius Pedanius Secundus who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities. Residences Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Rome he built 3 artificial lakes with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa. He stayed at the Villa of Nero at Olympia, Greece, during his participation at the Olympic Games of 67 AD. Matricide The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in 59AD are "not fully understood". According to Tacitus, the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when the affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink". A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62AD. Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman." According to Suetonius, Nero had his former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck; Agrippina survived the wreck, swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide. Decline Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the Nile river sources with a successful expedition. After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death. Miriam T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as 55AD with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct". He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60. It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, with the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc. In 62AD, Nero's adviser Burrus died. That same year Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus. He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable." After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian Prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire. According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her. After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus and she was executed. In 64AD during the Saturnalia, Nero married Pythagoras, a freedman. Great Fire of Rome The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant's shops on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus, or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds. Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings and temples on the Aventine, Palatine and Caelian hills. The fire burned for over seven days;then it subsided, and then it started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's fourteen districts and severely damaged seven more. Some Romans thought the fire an accident; the merchant shops where it probably started were timber-framed, they sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed that it was arson, committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by Pliny the Elder, Suetonius and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned, palatial Golden House. This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero, sited more or less where the Colosseum would eventually be built. Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned. The popular legend that Nero played the fiddle while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of Flavian propaganda [...] which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule". Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds. After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire. According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive". Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty. Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation. In particular heavy tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire. To meet at least a proportion of the costs, Nero devalued the Roman currency, increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history. Later years In 65AD, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the Republic. The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus. As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Lucan, the poet. Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero. Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65AD, before she could have his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth. Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous state funeral, divine honors, and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where. In 67, Nero married Sporus, a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated, tried to make a woman out of him, and married him in a dowry and bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea. Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion. In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero. At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide. However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him. While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy". The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba. In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum. Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber. Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, located outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. At this time Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy. Nero prepared himself for suicide, pacing up and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist dies in me"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task. When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!" He died on 9 June 68, the anniversary of the death of his first wife Claudia Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it is unclear whether Nero took his own life. With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. Chaos would ensue in the year of the Four Emperors. After Nero According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper class. The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but had been bribed to overthrow him. Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character" and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them". Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia". Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal". Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive. This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae). Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death. Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer-blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the United Kingdom (see damnatio memoriae). The civil war during the year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. Galba began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies. One such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of Emperor Caligula. Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament. It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself. Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero. After Nero's death in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422. At least three Nero impostors emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of Titus (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed. Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up, and the matter almost came to war. Military conflicts Boudica's uprising In Britannia (Britain) in 59AD, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client king of Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King (leaving control of the Iceni to his daughters) was denied. When the roman procurator Catus Decianus scourged the former King Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the Celtic Trinovantes tribe and their uprising became the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st centuryAD. Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a substantial body of Roman legion infantry were eliminated. The governor of the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces and defeated the Britons. Although order was restored for some time, Nero considered abandoning the province. Julius Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over. Nero decided to adopt a more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus. Peace with Parthia Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the Parthian king Vologeses set his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne. Around 57AD and 58AD Domitius Corbulo and his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capital Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia. The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in 63 AD to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his diadem from Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy 66AD. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you as Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero in the East including "The New Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly relations were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia. First Jewish War In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order. This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death. This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Pursuits Nero studied poetry, music, painting and sculpture. He both sang and played the cithara (a type of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class. Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well." In 67 AD Nero participated in the Olympics. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate, and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners. Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have been oblivious of reality." Nero established the Neronian games in 60AD. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included "music" "gymnastic" and "questrian" contents. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the Campus Martius. Historiography The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero. The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events. Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost. There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised. The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero. Cassius Dio Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk. Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared: Epictetus Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man. Josephus The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said: Lucan Although more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed. Philostratus Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172–250) spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East. Pliny the Elder The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind". Plutarch Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better. Seneca the Younger It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC–65 AD), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero. Suetonius Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, Nero raped the vestal virgin Rubria. Tacitus The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66AD. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced: Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true. Girolamo Cardano In 1562 Girolamo Cardano published in Basel his Encomium Neronis, which was one of the first historical references of the Modern era to portray Nero in a positive light. In Jewish and Christian tradition Jewish tradition At the end of 66AD, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the Second Temple to be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess lived in the time of the Mishnah, and was a prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule. Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the third generation (139–163). According to the Talmud, his father was a descendant of Nero who had converted to Judaism. His wife Bruriah is one of the few women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage in the Mishnah. Roman and Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism. There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months. Christian tradition Non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64. Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so because they are "given to a new and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with the fire. Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine." Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God". as does Sulpicius Severus. However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit"). These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2). Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul The first text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is a letter by Clement to the Corinthians traditionally dated to around AD 96. The apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century, says, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to Nero. Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero. He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. However, several other accounts going back to the 1st century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to Hispania, before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death. Peter is first said to have been crucified specifically upside-down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200). The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians. By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul. Antichrist The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction. Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this. In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,' he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist." Some modern biblical scholars such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford Study Bible and Harper Collins Study Bible, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero, a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries. The statement concerns Revelation 17:1-18, "the longest explanatory passage in Revelation", which predicts the destruction of Rome by work of an "eighth emperor" who was also one of the "seven kings" of the most extended and powerful empire ever known in the human history: according to this lecture, Babylon the Great is identified with Rome which has poured the blood of saints and martyrs (verse 6) and subsequently become the seat of the Vatican State, reigning over all the kings existing on Earth. See also Nero in popular culture List of Roman emperors Notes References Bibliography Primary sources Tacitus, Histories, I–IV (c. 105) Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117) Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II–VI (c. 94) Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94) Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229) Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110) Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of Nero (c. 121) Secondary sources Benario, Herbert W. Nero at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Cronin, Vincent. Nero. London: Stacey International, 2010 (). Grant, Michael. Nero. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (). Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ); London / New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ). Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ). Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 4, La vie de Poppée, femme de Néron, pp. 97–120 (). Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ). (Russian) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky "The Pisonian Conspiracy" (Заговор Пизона) docudrama based on Tacitus Annals 15 and other sources. Failed conspiracy against Nero led to tragic death of 26-year-old Great Roman poet Lucan and his famous uncle Seneca, executed by order of Nero. Moscow, Wagrius plus, 2008. Nero Nero: The Actor-Emperor Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Nero basic data & select quotes posted by Romans On Line The Life and Times of Nero By Carlo Maria Franzero (BTM format). Nero's depiction in Tacitus' Annals Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus entry in the Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. External links International Society for Neronian Studies Nero, Roman Emperor, Encyclopædia Britannica online The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero, PBS.org Nero (37 AD – 68 AD), BBC.co.uk Emperor Nero: Facts & Biography, Live Science online Roman Emperor Nero: Rethinking Nero, National Geographic online PBS: Secrets of the Dead-documentary "The Nero Files – Cause for a Cold Case Investigation?" 37 births 68 deaths 1st-century Roman emperors Ancient Roman adoptees Ancient Romans who committed suicide Children of Claudius Claudii Nerones Domitii Ahenobarbi Ancient LGBT people LGBT royalty LGBT heads of state Matricides People from Anzio People of the Year of the Four Emperors Anti-Christian sentiment in Europe Persecution of Christians Poppaea Sabina Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Roman-era Olympic competitors Roman pharaohs Roman philhellenes Talmud people Uxoricides

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Francis William Petre (27 August 1847 – 10 December 1918), sometimes known as Frank Petre, was a New Zealand-born architect based in Dunedin. He was an able exponent of the Gothic revival style, one of its best practitioners in New Zealand. He followed the Catholic Church's initiative to build places of worship in Anglo-Saxon countries inspired by Romance forms of architecture. His basilica Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, in Christchurch was demolished in 2021. Able to work competently in a wide diversity of architectural styles, he was also notable for his pioneering work in concrete development and construction. He designed numerous public and private buildings, many of which are still standing in and around Dunedin. His outstanding buildings are a few of his churches and seminaries, the basis of his international reputation. Early life Petre was a descendant of Dorothy Wadham, a progenitrix of an English crypto-Catholic family and the foundress of Wadham College at Oxford in England in the 17th century. In the 19th century the family was again able to declare its faith. The architect's grandfather invested in the second New Zealand Company. The Petres were an aristocratic family from Ingatestone in Essex, England. Francis Petre's immediate family was one of the first and most prominent colonial families of New Zealand; Petre Bay, Chatham Island was named after them, as—originally—was the town of Wanganui in the North Island. The Wellington suburb of Thorndon was named after their Thorndon Hall estate in England. Petre was the son of the Hon Henry William Petre, who first came to New Zealand in 1840 as director of the New Zealand Company of which his own father, William Henry Francis Petre, 11th Baron Petre, had been chairman. The New Zealand Company had been set up to promote the colonisation of New Zealand, and bought, sometimes dubiously, thousands of hectares of land from the Māori. Consequently, Henry Petre was one of the founders of Wellington. He was also colonial treasurer of New Munster Province. Henry seems to have been a man of strange appearance, from the description by his contemporary, the New Zealand social commentator Charlotte Godley: "He is immensely tall and thin and looks like a set of fire irons badly hung together". Francis Petre was born in 1847 at Petone, today a suburb of Lower Hutt in the North Island, which was one of the earliest British settlements in New Zealand. In 1855, in the then British colonial tradition, Petre was sent to England to be educated. He attended the Jesuit school Mount St Mary's College near Sheffield in the north of England. After four years, he left to attend the Royal Naval College, then at Portsmouth (the college moved to Greenwich in 1869). Finding himself unsuited to a naval career he pursued his education in France, where he attended the charismatic priest Benoit Haffreingue's college at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Returning to England, he completed his education at Ushaw College, Durham. Members of British aristocratic families would generally be possessed of a private income and often entered one of the military services or the church, although other professions were becoming increasingly common. As the third son of the younger son of a peer, it was always clear that Petre would have to provide his own income, and consequently he was apprenticed from 1864 to 1869 to Joseph Samuda of London, a shipbuilder and engineer. Here he received his training in the techniques and skills of concrete manufacturing, which he was to employ with great acclaim in his later architectural career. Around 1869 Petre qualified as an architect and engineer, and after a brief period in private practice in London working for architect and engineer Daniel Cubitt Nicholls he returned to New Zealand in 1872. He was then employed as an engineer by railway contractors Brogden and Sons. During this period, he oversaw the construction of both the Blenheim–Picton and Dunedin–Balclutha railway lines, as well as the draining of parts of the Taieri Plains and the construction of tunnels on the Otago Central Railway, some of which are today open to the public as part of the Otago Central Rail Trail. When these tasks were completed, he set up his own practice as an engineer and architect in Liverpool Street, Dunedin. Architect From 1875 Petre seems to have devoted his life to architecture. Working by the standard of his day he designed in the Gothic revival style, which he praised for the great richness and delicacy of detail, and the closer application of geometrical rules to architecture–more especially in the window tracery which exhibits greater variety of design, together with an easier and more perfect flow into the various parts of the whole structure. The English Gothic revival style had become popular for Protestant church architecture in the British colonies, as it had in Britain itself, following the rise of the Oxford Movement—a school of Anglo-Catholic intellectuals who felt that medieval Gothic architecture inspired a greater spirituality than other styles based on non-Christian temples. The Roman Catholic Church, however, of which Petre was a member, wishing to be distinctive, adopted southern continental forms of Gothic and Renaissance architecture. Thus it was that the Catholic Church gave Petre his greatest opportunities of proving his worth as an architect by producing Cathedrals, Basilicas and churches in revived French and Italian styles. Petre's early speciality was his work in mass concrete, at the time a novel building material in New Zealand. Widely used by the ancient Romans the formula for making it was lost and a new one only invented in the 18th century. Three of Petre's earliest projects were all constructed in this material: Judge Chapman's house (today known as "Castlamore"), the clifftop villa nicknamed Cargill's Castle in 1876, and St. Dominic's Priory in 1877. However, according to the whims of his patrons, he did also work with more conventional building materials. St Dominic's Priory, Dunedin Petre described the style of his 1876–77 creation, St Dominic's Priory, as Anglo-Saxon, referring to the straight-sloped window apertures. The style of the building, however, was very much of Petre's own interpretation and only lightly influenced by Anglo-Saxon architecture. The building is notable for its use of poured concrete, a comparatively new building material in 1870s New Zealand, but one well suited to the creation of the large number of windows in the building's facade. The structure is simultaneously grand and austere, reflecting well its use as a convent. St Dominic's Priory was the largest un-reinforced concrete building in the southern hemisphere (steel reinforcing being then a little used construction method), and earned Petre the lasting nickname of "Lord Concrete". Cathedrals F. W. Petre designed three of New Zealand's cathedrals, each distinguished by a different architectural style: St Joseph's Cathedral in Dunedin, the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart in Wellington and the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament in Christchurch. 1878 St Joseph's Cathedral, Dunedin While Petre designed many churches, schools, public buildings, and private houses, his largest and grandest project, the Roman Catholic cathedral at Dunedin, was never fully completed. The entrance facade and the nave are built to the original design, and reveal the cathedral as a prime example of the French Gothic Revival. St Joseph's Cathedral, standing next to St Dominic's Priory, is reminiscent of many of the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe, with its twin towers and central rose window—Chartres and Notre Dame come to mind, although the original design if completed with its tower would have produced a building more like Rouen Cathedral. The architect's intention was for a mighty structure, with the twin towers dwarfed by a lofty spire some 60 metres (200 ft) in height, which would have been a magnificent edifice. In the event, the project stalled when a prudent Roman Catholic diocese reluctant to incur unnecessary debt with the onset of the 1880s depression postponed further work. Petre's intention, which is clear from the almost 90 pages of drawings held in the diocesan archives, was to design the most impressive cathedral in Australasia. Building began in 1878 and the structure was consecrated in 1886. Its construction is notable for its foundations: 40 massive concrete piles, each over 1.2 metres (four feet) in width, sunk 10 metres (35 ft) into the ground, give the cathedral a firm foundation on the volcanic bedrock. The nave is 24 metres (80 ft) in length and 16 metres (52 ft) in height. The walls are in black basalt with dressings of white Oamaru stone, a combination for which Dunedin and Christchurch architecture is noted (see also Dunedin Railway Station). Petre was later to have two further opportunities for cathedral design, but St. Joseph's remains his largest work in the Gothic style. 1901 Cathedral of the Sacred Heart, Wellington That Wellington's principal Roman Catholic cathedral is today a small, but quite perfect, Romano-Grecian temple is entirely the result of chance. The Sacred Heart Basilica, now a cathedral, was originally designed and conceived as a church to mark the site of the fire-gutted St Mary's Cathedral. Petre had strong family connections to the site, as it and an adjacent plot, now the site of St Mary's College, had been given to the Roman Catholic Church by his father and grandfather. The original cathedral, a grand Gothic structure complete with flying buttresses, had been built in 1850 but was destroyed by fire in 1898. Within two days Petre had been asked to design a new church on the site. A decision was taken, however, to build the new Cathedral nearer the more densely populated areas of Wellington, Te Aro and Newtown. Petre later published plans for this cathedral in 1903, describing his proposed structure as "Roman, bordering on to Florentine Renaissance, treated liberally". This cathedral project never came to fruition, but what was quickly constructed was the Church, or Basilica, of "The Sacred Heart" on the razed cathedral site. Architectural ideas of the mid-19th century advanced by such architects as Pugin, and still adhered to by the recently deceased prominent New Zealand architect Benjamin Mountfort, decreed that only Gothic was suitable for Christian worship. Ignoring these old-fashioned and now expensive rules, Petre designed the new church in the Palladian style, which in this country had only a few years before been considered almost too heretical for worship. The design was theatrical in the extreme. The imposing principal facade of Oamaru Stone consisted almost solely of one huge portico constructed of six ionic columns, while the facade was crowned by a high pediment more in the style of Vitruvius than Palladio, and behind the great facade stretched the single body of the church, with the remaining facades in a less severe Romanesque style. Considering that his brief was that "a serviceable church in brick should be erected on the site of the old Cathedral", it is amazing that such an almost avant-garde style should have been permitted. The completed structure would not be out of place in 17th century or 18th century Rome or Venice. The interior of the church continued the Palladian theme. The large nave was colonnaded, with the columns supporting a clerestory of arch-topped windows, while the chancel was approached through an enormous arch that mirrored the classic Palladian Serlian arch, providing theatre and drama at the high altar. The flat compartmentalised ceiling is a more restrained version of that of the church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, Venice. Unfortunately, the church's twin bell towers had to be removed following an earthquake in 1942. The cost of the new church was taken from funds intended for the construction of the new cathedral, thus delaying that project. After seventy years of delays, the intention to build the new cathedral was finally abandoned. In 1984, following new enlargements and additions, Petre's church of the Sacred Heart was reconsecrated as Wellington's principal Roman Catholic Cathedral. In 1901 when the church was designed, Petre's use of the Palladian as a style for such a high-profile building would have been unusual in New Zealand. 1904 Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, Christchurch Of all Petre's many designs, the most outstanding is usually considered to be the Roman Catholic Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament in Christchurch, commonly known as the Christchurch Basilica. Commenced in 1901, it replaced a smaller wooden church designed by Benjamin Mountfort that had been in use since 1864. The cathedral was officially opened on 12 February 1905, a mere four years after construction began. The building, said by some to be based on the 19th-century Church of Vincent-de-Paul in Paris, has been held to be the finest renaissance style building in Australasia. Forsaking Mountfort's 19th-century Gothic, Petre designed the new church in a Renaissance, Italian basilica style, albeit with one major exception. Ignoring Renaissance convention, Petre obtained a greater visual impact by siting the Italianate green copper-roofed dome not above the crossing (as in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome), but directly above the sanctuary. In Petre's opinion, this design element, coupled with the Byzantine apse, added extra grandeur and theatre to the high altar set in the tribune. The nave and chancel roofs were supported by colonnades of ionic columns and the entrance facade of the cathedral was flanked by twin towers in the manner of many of Europe's great renaissance churches. While often likened to St. Paul's Cathedral in London, it is conceivable that the greatest influence behind this great structure was Benoit Haffreingue. During Petre's formative years studying under Haffreingue in France, Haffreingue had been the driving force of the reconstruction of the Basilica of Notre-Dame in Boulogne-sur-Mer, a French cathedral that has a very similar plan to that of The Blessed Sacrament, including the controversial siting of the dome over the altar rather than the centre of the cathedral. The cathedral, constructed of concrete sheathed in Oamaru limestone, was widely acclaimed, causing the famous author George Bernard Shaw to describe Petre as a "New Zealand Brunelleschi". Fifty men were employed on the site, and in excess of 120,000 cubic ft (3400 m³) of stone, 4000 cubic ft (110 m³) of concrete, and 90 tons of steel were used in the construction. Problems with finding suitable stone for the construction of such a large structure caused financial difficulties during the construction, and a special bill was pushed through parliament by then Premier Richard Seddon to aid with the financing of the building. The total cost to the Roman Catholic diocese was £52,000. After sustaining minor damage in the 2010 Canterbury earthquake, the cathedral was seriously damaged by the February 2011 earthquake. Both bell towers collapsed and the main dome was destabilised. The upper parts of the cathedral are being dismantled, and the main dome has been removed. In August 2019, there is well founded and widespread speculation that the cathedral would have to be demolished as complete renovation would too costly, and partial renovation would leave the building “not fit for purpose.” Other churches Apart from the many smaller churches Petre designed (see List of buildings by Francis Petre) there are several notable ones in a similar design to the Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament and St Patrick's Basilica, Oamaru. These are St Patrick's Basilica, Waimate, St. Mary's Basilica, Invercargill, Sacred Heart Basilica, Timaru, (the Timaru Basilica), and St Patrick's Basilica, South Dunedin. All are large and impressive churches. St Patrick's Basilica, South Dunedin explores a Palladian Revival style, and was Petre's first departure form the neo-gothic style of St Joseph's Dunedin. The building has many significant architectural features. This photograph shows how the walls are constructed using a succession of arches surmounted by stone which forms part of the roofs of the aisles. Domestic architecture The styles in which F. W. Petre designed his private houses were as diverse as those of his cathedrals and churches. It seems that, unlike many notable architects, he designed according to the wishes of his clients: those who wanted a castle received a castle, and those who wished for a small mansion disguised as an English Tudor cottage were equally fortunate. A large private residence designed by Petre can be found in Lovelock Avenue, Dunedin. It was originally built for Judge Chapman in 1875 and christened "Woodside", though it has been known throughout much of its history as "Castlamore". This imposing structure sits on the slopes of the Dunedin Botanic Gardens close to the University of Otago, and is an exercise in restraint. The castle atmosphere is there, almost a Scottish baronial castle, but the battlements are merely hinted at by stepped gables. Large bay windows, allowing light to flood in, again merely hint at the Gothic; one has to study them closely to perceive that they consist of a series of lancet type windows. The large octagonal chimneys reflect the design rather than being ostentatious. Thus, the design appears as a comfortable dwelling complete with loggia and conservatory. A lesser architect might not have been able to resist the addition of a small turret or pinnacle. Petre's ingenuity lay in knowing how to mix large windows and more comfortable features with the medieval, and then ascertaining the exact moment to halt the Gothic theme before it became a pastiche of the original. In this way Petre was referring in a modest way to the original Gothic revival period as conceived by such architects as James Wyatt, rather than the later Gothic, after it had fallen under the ecclesiastical Anglo-Catholic influences of such architects as Augustus Pugin in England, and Benjamin Mountfort in New Zealand. One of Petre's abilities was that he could vary his styles of architecture. In 1883 he built a mansion in Christchurch known as "Llanmaes" for a local merchant. The style selected came to be known in New Zealand as the "English Cottage" style. This was a complete reversal of his previous work: rather than impressive grandeur, this style was intended to evoke nostalgic rustic charm. Similar in nature to the work of George Devey at a similar time in England, the style was a form of idealised Tudor with half-timbered black beams set into white painted walls, beneath beamed gables and tiled roofs. This form of design eventually became very popular in New Zealand from around 1910. Two of Petre's "English Cottages" exist close to each other in Cliffs Road, Dunedin, overlooking the sea in the suburb of St Clair. Pinner House (pictured below) is a perfect example of this traditional style, adapted for the brighter and warmer southern climate, with large windows and verandahs. It was built in the 1880s for Aufrere Fenwick, one of Dunedin's main stockbrokers. Opposite, a very similar house was constructed by Petre for his own residence. Personal life One of Petre's first large houses, the folly-like Cargill's Castle, was built for Edward Cargill, at the time a local politician, a former member of parliament (1862–1865), and later a mayor of Dunedin. It is also very likely that Petre was the supervisor of the construction of a tunnel that Cargill had driven to a private secluded beach below the castle (today known as Tunnel Beach). The Italianate mansion (called a castle) was gutted by fire in the 1940s, and is today a preserved ruin. While designing the house, Petre fell in love with Cargill's daughter Margaret. After a difficult courtship (due to Petre's staunch Catholicism and the Cargill family's equally staunch Presbyterianism) the couple were eventually permitted to marry, the wedding taking place in the villa's principal salon on 1 March 1881. Petre and his wife had thirteen children; Petre himself had been the third child of sixteen. In 1903, Petre was appointed Consular Agent for Italy in Dunedin following the death of Edward Cargill. He was a founder member of the New Zealand Institute of Architects, was elected a Fellow in 1905, and was president of the institute in 1907–08. Unusually for a man at the peak of his profession, Petre was known as congenial and popular. He died at Dunedin, in December 1918, following 42 years of architectural practice and two days after the opening of the finally completed St Patrick's Basilica, Oamaru. He was buried at the Andersons Bay Cemetery, Dunedin. Evaluation Dunedin was a dynamic place for an architect to be in the late 19th century, due to its great prosperity and subsequent expansion just before and after 1900. These were largely the result of the Central Otago goldrush of the 1860s, the subsequent development of the refrigerated meat export trade and then the gold-dredging boom. Petre certainly did not obtain his many important commissions because of a lack of competing architects. The equally versatile R. A. Lawson was responsible for several important buildings in the city including the neoclassical ANZ Bank building and the Gothic revival Presbyterian First Church. W. B. Armson designed the Italian Renaissance Bank of New Zealand building in 1879, and George Troup was responsible for the magnificent Dunedin Railway Station. Nor did Petre obtain work, with the possible exception of the Sacred Heart Basilica at Wellington, because of his family connections. On the contrary, his Catholicism, at the height of the British Empire, possibly lost him more ecclesiastical commissions than those for which he was ever engaged. What stood out was his engineer's practicalities at overcoming almost impossible difficulties. St. Joseph's Cathedral was built not only on the side of a hill, but also in a gully. His pioneering work with concrete and steel was of enormous value in a country where earthquakes were a constant risk. Petre's buildings, in whatever style, all have one common denominator: an attention to the smallest detail. It was said that his drawings of stones, window traceries, arches and ornamentation were so precise that stonemasons could execute his intentions from one single drawing. It is this attention to detail which is outstanding, whether the simple carving on the capital of an Ionic column or the heavy ornate work on the monumental corbel of a Gothic design. While this precision enabled him to work as successfully in a wide range of styles as he did, it in no way inhibited his sense of developing design. In his own words, an architectural style could be "treated liberally", and this is the key to the individuality of his designs. Dunedin's Royal Exchange building is a Palladian town Palace, yet has an almost Rastrellian restrained baroque design. Cargill's Castle would not have looked out of place in the Cimini Hills; it also has an almost hacienda spirit. His work in the Gothic style was lighter and more delicate than that of Alfred Waterhouse, and equal in detail to Augustus Pugin's. It has been said of his work that he never fully developed his vision or overcame the limitations of his training, but his experience as an engineer equipped him to find sound innovative solutions to construction problems. His placing the dome at the Blessed Sacrament over the altar has also been criticised, as many feel it does not cohere to the design. However, others feel it was a stroke of genius, enhancing the interior. Francis Petre's work cannot be judged against that of the great classical architects of the northern hemisphere, who so clearly influenced him. He did not create a style or have a revival period named after him. His achievement was adapting and developing so many established styles well; whether through the new techniques of steel or concrete, or through more traditional building methods. He was given amazing opportunities to prove himself worthy as an accomplished and inspired architect; the many monumental buildings with which he provided New Zealand are testimony to his talent. See also List of buildings by Francis Petre Notes References Dictionary of New Zealand Biography Volume Two (1870–1900) (1993). Hamilton PR. (1986) Francis Petre: 1847–1918. An Investigation into New Zealand Architectural Biography. MA Thesis, University of Auckland. Knight, H., and Wales, N. (1988). Buildings of Dunedin. Dunedin: John McIndoe Ltd. . New Zealand Tablet published Dunedin. Issues of; 27 Apr 1877, 12 Sep 1884, 28 Sep 1877, 17 Nov 1882, 13 Jul 1883, 11 Nov 1887, 18, May 1888, 25 Jan 1889, 15 Jan 1892, 29 Jan 1892, 12 Feb 1892, 11 Nov 1892, 15 Dec 1893, 4 May 1894, 1 Jul 1894, 11 Oct 1895, 20 Dec 1895, 13 Mar 1896, 11 Feb 1898, 3 Jun 1898, 10 Jun 1898, 24 Jun 1898, 26 Jan 1899, 13 Apr 1899, 17 May 1900, 21 Mar 1901, 4 Jul 1901, 20 Feb 1902, 18 Jun 1903, 22 Oct 1903, 8 Jun 1905, 3 May 1906, 22 Aug 1907, 22 Apr 1909, 1 Jul 1909, 16 Feb 1905, 20 Jun 1907, 22 Aug 1907 NZ Historic Places magazine, June 1984, p. 10–11. March 1995, p. 33–34 Stacpoole, J. (1976). Colonial architecture in New Zealand. A H & A W Reed. The Cyclopedia of New Zealand 1903. Entry for Petre, Francis William. full text portrait Further reading Herd, J., and Griffiths, G.J. (1980). Discovering Dunedin. Dunedin: John McIndoe Ltd. . External links Llanmaes. Petre's English Cottage style Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, Christchurch NZ Wellington Cathedral His profile in Peerage.com 19th-century New Zealand architects New Zealand people of English descent People from Dunedin 1847 births 1918 deaths Francis Burials at Andersons Bay Cemetery People educated at Mount St Mary's College New Zealand ecclesiastical architects Alumni of Ushaw College Architects of cathedrals New Zealand Roman Catholics Cargill family (New Zealand) Architects of Roman Catholic churches 20th-century New Zealand architects

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Congee or conjee ( ) is a type of rice porridge or gruel eaten in Asian countries. When eaten as plain rice congee, it is most often served with side dishes. When additional ingredients such as meat, fish, and flavourings are added while preparing the congee, it is most often served as a meal on its own, especially for people who are ill. Names for congee are as varied as the style of its preparation. Despite its many variations, it is usually a thick porridge of rice largely disintegrated after prolonged cooking in water. Etymology The English word congee is derived from the Tamil word kanji (, kañci, ). In Chinese, it is known as zhou (). The earliest reference to rice porridge or congee can be traced back to the Chinese Zhou dynasty (circa 1000 BCE). It is also mentioned in the Book of Rites and noted in Pliny’s account of India circa 77 CE. Preparation To prepare the dish, rice is boiled in a large amount of water until it softens significantly. Congee can be made in a pot or in a rice cooker. Some rice cookers have a "congee" setting, allowing it to be cooked overnight. The type of rice used can be either short- or long-grain, depending on what is available and regional cultural influences. Culture also often dictates the way congee is cooked and eaten. In some cultures, congee is eaten primarily as a breakfast food or late supper; some may also eat it as a substitute for rice at other meals. It is often considered particularly suitable for the sick as a mild, easily digestible food. Because of this, it is commonly served as a staple meal for patients in healthcare facilities. Regional varieties East Asia China While plain congee is a staple dish in China, it is called congee only in Hong Kong English but is more commonly recognised as jūk. Natively, plain congee is known by other local names such as báizhōu () in Central and Northern China. Another common Chinese name for it in the Mandarin dialect is xīfàn (). Chinese congees () vary considerably by region. For example, to make Cantonese congee, white rice is boiled in many times its weight in water for a long time until the rice breaks down and becomes a fairly thick, white porridge. Congees made in other regions may use different types of rice with different quantities of water, producing congees of different consistencies. It can be left watery, or cooked until it has a texture similar to Western oatmeal porridge. Congee can also be made from brown rice, although this is less common and takes longer to cook. Congee made from other grains, such as cornmeal, millet, barley, and sorghum, are common in the north of China where rice does not grow as well as other grains suited for a colder climate. Multigrain congee mixes are sold in the health food sections of Chinese supermarkets. Savory congee, generally cooked with salt and often fresh ginger and other flavorful ingredients, is usually eaten with zhacai, salted duck eggs, lettuce and dace (Chinese mud carp paste), bamboo shoots, youtiao, rousong, pickled tofu, wheat gluten, with other condiments, meats and organ meats including tripe and intestine, crab or hundred-year eggs. Other seasonings such as white pepper and soy sauce may be added after the congee is cooked. Grilled or steamed and deboned fish may be mixed in to provide a different texture. Plain congee is commonly eaten with youtiao (lightly salted fried crullers) as breakfast in many areas in China. Congee with mung beans is usually eaten with sugar, as is red bean congee, or in Laba congee. Besides being an everyday meal, congee is considered to be food therapy for the unwell. Ingredients can be determined by their supposed therapeutic value as well as flavor. It is also used to feed infants. The origin of congee is unknown, but from many historical accounts, it was usually served during times of famine, or when numerous patrons visited the temples, as a way to stretch the rice supply to feed more people. The autumn porridge festival is celebrated by villagers eating congee together on that day, the meaning being that they pray for everything to go smoothly and to build a good relationship with the neighborhood. A village called Lingshuicun to the West of Beijing celebrates Liu Maoheng, a Qing-era Juren who helped villagers during a period of famine, through the autumn porridge festival. Taiwan In Taiwan, congee is known as xifan () or zhou（粥). Congee is often consumed for breakfast or as an easily digestible food for children and those who are ill. Sweet potato, taro root, or century egg is often added for taste. Ground pork is also a common ingredient added with century egg, creating the dish known as pidan shourou zhou（皮蛋瘦肉粥). Japan , or often is the name for the type of congee eaten in Japan, which typically uses water to rice ratios of 5:1 or 7:1 and is cooked for about 30 minutes. Kayu may be made with just rice and water, and is often seasoned with salt. Eggs can be beaten into it to thicken it into gruel. Toppings may be added to enhance flavour; Welsh onion, salmon, roe, ginger, and umeboshi (pickled ume fruit) are among the most common. Miso or chicken stock may be used to flavor the broth. Most Japanese electric rice cookers have a specific setting for cooking congee. In Japan kayu – because it is soft and easily digestible – is regarded as a food particularly suitable for serving to invalids and the elderly. For similar reasons kayu is commonly the first solid food served to Japanese infants; it is used to help with the transition from liquids to normally cooked "plain" rice, the latter being a major part of the Japanese diet. A type of kayu referred to as nanakusa-gayu (, "seven herb porridge") is traditionally eaten on 7 January with special herbs that some believe protect against evils and invite good luck and longevity in the new year. As a simple, light dish, nanakusa-gayu serves as a break from the many heavy dishes eaten over the Japanese New Year. Kayu is also used in Shinto divination rituals. is a similar dish, which uses already cooked rice, rather than cooking the rice in the soup. Korea (; ) is a Korean category for porridges made by boiling rice or other grains or legumes, such as beans, sesame, nuts, and pumpkin, with much more water than . is often eaten warm, especially as a morning meal, but is now eaten at any time of the day. Depending on the ingredients and consistency, can be considered as food for recuperation, a delicacy, or famine food. It is known to have nutritional benefits, and is considered to be beneficial to digestion because of its soft texture. It is a staple "get well" dish; a dish to eat when one is sick or recovering from bad health. is also considered an ideal food for babies, the ill or elderly, as it is easily eaten and digested. It is also sold commercially by many chain stores in South Korea, and is a common takeout dish. There are more than forty varieties of mentioned in old documents. The most basic form of , made from plain rice, is called (; 'rice porridge') or (; 'white porridge'). Being largely unflavored, it is served with a number of more flavorful side dishes, such as (salted seafood), various types of kimchi, and other side dishes. Notable varieties include made from finely ground pine nuts, made with abalones, made from (Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen), and made from red beans. The following list are examples of juk: () – jujube porridge, () – chicken porridge, () – sweetfish porridge, () – black sesame porridge, () – pumpkin porridge, () – beef porridge, () – pine nut porridge, () – abalone rice porridge, () – red bean porridge, () – milk porridge. Southeast Asia Myanmar In Myanmar, rice congee is called hsan byoke or hsan pyoke, literally "(uncooked) rice boiled". It is plain porridge, often made with just rice and water, but sometimes with chicken or pork stock and served with a simple garnish of chopped spring onions and crispy fried onions. Cambodia In Khmer congee is called babor (). It is one of the options for breakfast along with kuy teav, another popular Cambodian breakfast dish. Congee is eaten throughout Cambodia both in the countryside and in the cities. Congee can be eaten plain or with a variety of side dishes and toppings such as soy sauce, added to enhance taste, as well as dried salted fish or fried breadsticks (, ). There are two main versions of congee: plain congee, and chicken congee (, ). It is usually eaten during the colder dry season or when someone is sick. After the congee is prepared a variety of toppings can be added to enhance the flavour such as bean sprouts, green onions, coriander, pepper, along with the dried fish and fried breadsticks on the side. The chicken congee is the same as plain congee but contains more herbs and chicken. Indonesia In Indonesian, congee is called bubur, and it is a favourite breakfast food in the country. Travelling bubur ayam vendors frequently pass through residential streets in the morning selling the dish. A popular version is bubur ayam, which is rice congee with shredded chicken meat. It is also served with many condiments, such as green onion, crispy fried shallot, fried soybean, Chinese crullers (youtiao, known as in Indonesia), both salty and sweet soy sauce, and sometimes it is topped with yellow chicken broth and kerupuk (Indonesian style crackers). Unlike many other Indonesian dishes, it is not spicy; sambal or chili paste is served separately. The food hawkers sometimes have sate to go with it, made from quail egg or chicken intestine, liver, gizzard, or heart. On Bali's north coast, famously in a village called Bondalem, there is a local congee dish called mengguh, a popular local chicken and vegetable rice congee that is spicier than common bubur ayam and more similar to tinutuan, using a spice mix of onions, garlic, coriander seeds, pepper and chili. In another region of Indonesia — the city of Manado in North Sulawesi, there is a very popular type of congee called tinutuan, or also known as bubur Manado (Manadonese porridge). It is rice porridge served with ample amount of vegetables. A bit different from the one sold in Java, it is made from rice porridge, enriched with vegetables, including kangkung (water spinach), corn kernels, yam or sweet potato, dried salted fish, kemangi (lemon basil) leaves and melinjo (Gnetum gnemon) leaves. Sago flour is made into porridge in eastern Indonesia, as the staple food of Maluku and Papuan people. The sago congee is called papeda, and usually is eaten with yellow soup made from tuna or mubara fish spiced with turmeric and lime. Laos In Laos, congee is called khao piak, literally "wet rice" (, ). It is cooked with rice and chicken broth or water. The congee is then garnished with fried garlic, scallions and pepper. The dish will sometimes be served with chicken, quail eggs, century eggs or youtiao. In Laos, congee is usually eaten as breakfast and during the cold season. Malaysia In Malaysia, congee is known simply as porridge when no distinction is required. Philippines Lugaw (pronounced ) is the Filipino generic term for rice gruel. It encompasses a wide variety of dishes, ranging from savory dishes very similar to Chinese-style congee to dessert dishes. In the Visayan regions, savory lugaw are known as pospas. Lugaw typically use glutinous rice (Tagalog: malagkit; Visayan: pilit). It is usually thicker than other Asian congees, retaining the shape of the rice, yet with a similar texture. Savory versions of lugaw are flavored with ginger and traditionally topped with scallions and toasted garlic. Dried red safflower (kasubha) may also be used as a topping, mainly as a visual garnish and to impart a more appealing yellow tinge to the dish. As with Japanese okayu, fish or chicken stock may be used to flavor the broth. The most popular variants of lugaw include arroz caldo (chicken), goto (beef tripe), lugaw na baboy (pork), lugaw na baka (beef), and lugaw na tokwa't baboy (diced tofu and pork). Other versions can also use tinapa (smoked fish), palaka (frog legs), utak (brain [of pig]), dila (tongue [of pig]), and litid ([beef] ligaments). They are traditionally seasoned with calamansi, fish sauce (patis), soy sauce (toyo), and black pepper. It is often served to the ill and the elderly, and is favored among Filipinos living in colder climates because it is warm, soft, and easy to digest. Dessert versions of lugaw include champorado (lugaw with home-made chocolate topped with milk), binignit (lugaw in coconut milk with various fruits and root crops), and ginataang mais (lugaw with sweet corn and coconut milk), among others. Like the savory versions, they are usually eaten for breakfast, but can also be eaten as a snack. In Hiligaynon-speaking areas, lugaw may refer to binignit. Singapore In Singapore, Teochew porridge or Singapore-style porridge is a version of Singapore congee. In Singapore, it's considered a comfort food for both breakfast and supper. Teochew porridge dish often accompanied with various small plates of side dishes. Usually, it's served as a banquet of meats, fish egg and vegetables eaten with plain rice porridge. The recipes that early immigrants prepared in Singapore have been modified over the generations to suit local tastes. Singapore Teochew style porridge is usually consumed with a selection of Singaporean Chinese side dishes like Nasi Padang. There is no fixed list of side dishes, but in Singapore, accompaniments typically include lor bak (braised pork), steamed fish, stir-fried water spinach (kangkong goreng), salted egg, fish cake, tofu, omelette, minced meat, braised tau kway, Hei Bee Hiang (fried shrimp chilli paste), and vegetables. Thailand In Thai cuisine, rice congee, known as Chok or Jok (, , a loanword from Min Nan Chinese), is often served as breakfast with a raw or partially cooked egg added. Minced pork or beef and chopped spring onions are usually added, and the dish is optionally topped with a small donut-like pathongko, fried garlic, slivered ginger, and spicy pickles such as pickled radish. Although it is more popular as a breakfast dish, many stores specializing in Jok sell it throughout the day. Variations in the meat and toppings are also frequently found. It is especially popular during Thailand's cool season. Plain rice congee, known as khao tom kui (), is served at specialty restaurants, which serve a multitude of side dishes to go with it, such as yam kun chiang (a Thai salad made with sliced dried Chinese sausages), mu phalo (pork stewed in soy sauce and five-spice powder), and mu nam liap (minced pork fried with chopped Chinese olives). Notable Jok eateries in Bangkok can be found in areas like Bang Rak on Charoen Krung, home to Jok Prince which received the Bib Gourmand from Michelin Guidebook, Talat Noi in Chinatown beside Wat Traimit near Hua Lamphong, and the Jok Chai neighbourhood in Lat Phrao, where the dish is available 24 hours a day. Khao tom kui is found in areas such as the Yaowarat and Wong Wian Yi Sip Song Karakadakhom (July 22 Circle) neighbourhoods. In a popular reference within the 2011 US comedy film The Hangover Part II set in Thailand, Jok is described as being a food for ″small babies and very old people″ with ″no taste″ that is nourishment ″everybody can digest″. The reference is used to describe the character of the protagonist Stu Price (portrayed by Ed Helms). Vietnam In Vietnam, rice congee, called cháo (), is sometimes cooked with pandan leaves or Asian mung bean. In its simplest form (plain rice porridge, known as cháo hoa), it is a food for times of famine and hardship to stretch the rice ration. Alternately, as is especially common among Buddhist monks, nuns and lay persons, it can be a simple breakfast food eaten with pickled vegetables or fermented tofu (chao). Despite its ubiquity among the poor, it is also popular as a main dish when cooked with a variety of meats. For example, cháo gà is cooked with chicken, garlic, and ginger. The rice porridge is cooked in chicken broth, and when the chicken is cooked, the meat is sliced and layered on a bed of shredded raw cabbage and sliced scallions and drizzled with a vinegar-based sauce, to be eaten as a side dish. Other combinations include cháo vịt (duck porridge), which is cooked in the same manner as chicken porridge. Cháo lòng heo is made with lòng heo, a variety of offal from pork or duck with sliced portions of congealed pork blood. Cháo is typically served with quẩy on the side. is a congee containing pig kidney (). A specialty of the Hóc Môn District in Ho Chi Minh City, it is typically eaten in rural areas of southern Vietnam. Well-known vendors include , , and . Another typical Vietnamese dish is , a congee with mushrooms. Youtiao is usually added to congee especially at congee vendors. It is also common to eat cháo when ill, as it is believed the porridge is easy to digest while being fortifying. For such purposes, the cháo is sometimes cooked with roasted white rice, giving the porridge broth a more nuanced body and a subtle, nutty flavor. In some parts of Vietnam, local customs call for making cháo as offerings for the "wandering souls" during the Buddhist Vu Lan summer feast. South Asia India In Karnataka a plain rice porridge, or the thick supernatant water from overcooked rice, is known as (). Kanji is also prepared with different grains available in different parts of Karnataka, for example minor millet or pearl millet, finger millet, broken wheat, maize. In Kerala it is eaten as a porridge with green lentils or chutney. is prepared with rice or ragi. Nuts and spices are added to the depending on the economic status or health requirements. Rice is prepared by boiling rice in large amounts of water. To this preparation, either milk and sugar (usually jaggery) or curd (yoghurt) and salt are added. is prepared by drying sprouts in shade, and then grinding them into a smooth powder. This powder is added to water and cooked. Milk and brown sugar are added to this cooked preparation for taste. can be given to infants after six months. Another kanji preparation uses (sago) in . Sago is dry roasted and powdered with/ without sugar. Powdered sago is boiled in water until cooked. This is eaten by all ages from adults to infants as young as three months. In the Konkan region of India, congee is known as , is a home remedy for treating a fever as it is easy to digest. The farming and manual labour community of the same region, on the other hand, consume on a daily basis in the late morning as a source of energy. Variants of the dish include (ambil) which is made with ragi and rice, or is a sweeter version which is made with rice, fenugreek and jaggery, which is usually served to a nursing mother. The rice here is usually eaten boiled, with dry fish, vegetables or pickles. In the state of Kerala, used to be considered as a main course, particularly for dinner, by the majority. It is still popular, although usually only eaten regularly by those lower down the socio-economic ladder. This is normally taken with roasted coconut chutney, tossed mung bean known locally as , roasted (lentil crackers), (a side dish consisting mainly of root tubers/underground stems, especially during Thiruvathira); sometimes coconut scrapings are also added to the kanji to increase the flavour. The royal households as well as rich people used to have a special kind of called as (lit. 'milk congee') where milk was substituted for water base. During the Malayalam month of Karkkidakam, a medicinal is made using Ayurvedic herbs, milk and jaggery. Karkkidakam is known as the month of diseases since the monsoon starts during Karkkidakam. is eaten to promote the immune system. Poor households of Kerala used to re-cook leftover rice and all available leftover curries into congee water and take as a mix-mash dish known as (old congee). means old congee (leftover from the previous day). It is not necessarily eaten by poor people, neither it is necessarily re-heated with leftover curries. According to the Indian writer Madhur Jaffrey, is, or derives from, a Tamil word for "boiling"—which refers to the porridge and also to any water in which rice has been cooked. Muslims of south India especially Tamil Muslim, Mappila and Beary prepare special congee during Ramadhan called (lit. 'fasting porridge'). This is prepared by adding spices like turmeric, dry ginger, pepper, onion, and coconut paste to the congee. Sometimes fenugreek seeds are added to it to enhance the flavour. In Goa state and Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts, people usually eat rice in a variant manner made by Kannada-speaking, Tulu-speaking or Konkani people in and around Udupi and Mangalore (Karnataka, South India). There, parboiled rice ( in Kannada, for black rice, for white rice in Tulu or in Konkani) is steamed with a large amount of water. Jain ganji matt are famous in these districts. Usually, simple ganji with pickle and milk are served, in jain matts. Fresh coconut is grated, and the resulting milk skimmed and added to the ganji (called paez or pyaaz in Konkani), which is served hot with fish curry, coconut chutney, or Indian pickles. In Goa, it is normally served with dried or fresh cooked fish, papad or vegetables. In the state of Andhra Pradesh, it is called ganji in Telugu. Ganji is made by boiling rice in large amounts of water and then the filtered liquid is known as Ganji. Ganji mixed with buttermilk is believed to add to the flavor, and is also suggested by doctors for patients with ailing health. Kaanji is a traditional Odia dish. It is a soup-based dish like dal, but tastes a little sour. It is made of rice starch fermented for a few days in an earthen pot. This is considered a healthy dish as many winter vegetables are used as main ingredients. It is seasoned with mustard seeds and turmeric and served hot.. Pakhala is a separate dish with certain similarities to the congee. In the Buddhist Yāgu Sutta of the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 5.207), the Buddha recommends eating rice porridge, "yāgu": "There are these five benefits in rice porridge. What five? It stills hunger, dispels thirst, settles wind, cleans out the bladder, and promotes the digestion of the remnants of undigested food. These are the five benefits of rice porridge.". Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, several types of congee are known as kenda in Sinhalese. Sinhala people use congee as a breakfast, a side dish, an accessory to indigenous medical therapies, and a sweet. Kenda can be prepared with many ingredients, including rice, roasted rice, rice flour, finger millet flour, sago, coconut milk, herbs, tubers, kitul flour, and mung bean. When it is prepared with rice and water only, it is known as hal kenda. If salt is added to bring a much saltier taste, it is known as lunu kenda, a dish commonly used as a supplementary diet in purgation therapy in indigenous medical traditions. If roasted rice is used, the congee becomes bendi hal kenda, utilized to treat diarrheal diseases. If rice flour and coconut milk are the main ingredients, such congee is known as kiriya. If finger millet flour and water is used, it is known as kurakkan anama. If coconut milk is added, the dish is called kurakkan kenda. If sago is used, such congee is known as sawu kenda. A special type of congee prepared from the byproducts of coconut oil production is known as pol kiri kenda. There are many varieties of kola kenda, congee with herbs as an ingredient; sometimes, a vaidya or veda mahttaya (a physician trained in indigenous medical traditions) might prescribe a special type of kola kenda, known under such circumstances as behet kenda. Sinhala villagers use specific tubers for preparing congee, such as Diascorea species tubers. If kitul flour is mixed with boiling water and coconut milk added to it, this special type of congee is known as kitul piti kenda. Kenda prepared with mung beans is known as mung eta kenda. Most of the time, kiriya, kurakkan kenda, sawu kenda, pol kiri kenda and kitul piti kenda are used as sweets. Sugar, candy, dates, raisins, cashew nut, jaggery, and treacle are among the ingredients that may be added to sweeten these congees. Congee is also eaten by Sri Lankan Moors for iftar during Ramadan. It is also occasionally made with oats. Tamils and Moors in Sri Lanka call it (rice ) and may use chicken or beef for it. It is just as often made with milk (paal kanji), and there are many other combinations with appropriate prefixes in Tamil; One very special type being 'Chithirai' kanji, Chithirai being the Tamil month coinciding with April/May, made for a festival in this month. It is a salty simple kanji with green chilis, onions and coconut milk. Europe Portugal In Portugal, a traditional soup made of rice and chicken meat is named canja or Canja de galinha. The Portuguese likely picked up the dish from their colonies in Western/Southern India or Srilanka; where the soup remains a staple (particularly for the ill). The rice is not cooked for as long as in Asian congee, so it is very soft, but not disintegrated. Traditionally, a boiling fowl containing small, immature eggs is used; the eggs are carefully boiled and served in the canja. This soup is sometimes served with a fresh mint leaf on top. Strongly valued as comfort food, it is traditionally given to people recovering from disease, as in Asia, and in some regions of Portugal, there is even a custom of feeding the mother a strict diet of canja in the first weeks after childbirth. It is also eaten traditionally in Brazil and Cape Verde, former Portuguese colonies. See also Bap Cooked rice Curd rice Gruel Kasha Lâpa Mieum Oatmeal Papeda Rice cereal Rice pudding Sampan Congee (Boat Congee) Sungnyung List of ancient dishes List of porridges Notes References External links Chicken Congee. NYT Cooking. Ancient dishes Burmese cuisine Chinese rice dishes Hong Kong cuisine Indian rice dishes Japanese rice dishes Juk Philippine rice dishes Taiwanese rice dishes Tamil cuisine Thai rice dishes Vietnamese rice dishes Buddhist cuisine

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God of War is an action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Interactive Entertainment (SIE). It was released worldwide on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4 with a Microsoft Windows version released on January 14, 2022. The game is the eighth installment in the God of War series, the eighth chronologically, and the sequel to 2010's God of War III. Unlike previous games, which were loosely based on Greek mythology, this installment is loosely inspired by Norse mythology, with the majority of it set in ancient Scandinavia in the realm of Midgard. For the first time in the series, there are two protagonists: Kratos, the former Greek God of War who remains the only playable character, and his young son, Atreus. Following the death of Kratos' second wife, Atreus' mother, they journey to fulfill her request that her ashes be spread at the highest peak of the nine realms. Kratos keeps his troubled past a secret from Atreus, who is unaware of his divine nature. Along their journey, they come into conflict with monsters and gods of the Norse world. Described by creative director Cory Barlog as a reimagining of the franchise, a major gameplay change is that Kratos makes prominent use of a magical battle axe instead of his signature double-chained blades. God of War also uses an over-the-shoulder free camera, with the game in one shot, as opposed to the fixed cinematic camera of the previous entries. The game also includes role-playing video game elements, and Kratos' son Atreus provides assistance in combat. The majority of the original game's development team worked on God of War and designed it to be accessible and grounded. A separate short text-based game, A Call from the Wilds, was released in February 2018 and follows Atreus on his first adventure. God of War received universal acclaim for its story, world design, art direction, music, graphics, combat system, and characters, in particular the dynamic between Kratos and Atreus. Many reviewers felt it had successfully revitalized the series without losing the core identity of its predecessors. It received a number of perfect review scores, tying it with the original God of War (2005) as the highest-rated game in the series, as well as one of the highest-rated PlayStation 4 games on the review aggregator Metacritic. Among other awards and nominations, God of War was awarded Game of the Year by numerous media outlets and award shows. The game performed well commercially, selling over five million copies within a month of its release and over 19.5 million by August 2021, making it the best-selling PlayStation 4 game as well as the best-selling game in the series. A novelization was released in August 2018, followed by a prequel comic series published from November 2018 to February 2019. A sequel titled God of War Ragnarök is scheduled for release in 2022 for the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5. Gameplay God of War is a third-person action-adventure video game. It features an over-the-shoulder free camera, a departure from the previous installments, which featured a fixed cinematic camera (with the exception of 2007's two-dimensional side-scroller Betrayal). Cinematographically, the game is presented in a continuous shot, with no camera cuts or loading screens. Although the previous main installment, Ascension (2013), introduced multiplayer to the series, this installment is single-player-only. Regarding the level structure, director Cory Barlog said "it's open, but it is not an open world." Due to its openness, a fast travel feature is unlocked later in the game. Swimming, an ability in previous games, was cut; players instead use a boat to traverse bodies of water. Unlike previous games, which allowed players to jump freely at anytime, jumping can now only be done at designated areas, such as at a rock face or ledge. Throughout the game, players battle Norse mythological foes, like dark elves, wulvers, and draugrs, as well as Gullveig and the revenants, beings warped by seiðr magic, among many others. Valkyries appear as optional boss battles. Among the many side quests, players can free the imprisoned dragons Fáfnir, Otr, and Reginn—dwarves who were turned into dragons—in addition to battling one called Hræzlyr, a story-based boss battle. The player controls the character Kratos in combo-based combat and puzzle game elements. The gameplay is vastly different from previous games, as it was completely rebuilt. A major change is that Kratos no longer uses his signature double-chained blades, the Blades of Chaos, as his default weapon. Instead, he uses a magical battle axe, called the Leviathan Axe, which is infused with ice elemental magic. The axe can be thrown at enemies and magically summoned back to his hand, similar to Thor's hammer Mjölnir. Larger enemies have precision targets, and throwing the axe at those targets stuns the enemy. The weapon can also be thrown at environmental objects to trigger a damaging explosion. It can freeze objects and some enemies in place for puzzle solving until the axe is summoned back to Kratos' hand. The axe has standard light and heavy attacks. Over time, it can be upgraded with runes to allow for magical runic attacks, with one slot being for a light magical attack and the other for a heavy one. This provides players with a variety of options to cater to their own play style. Another new weapon that Kratos utilizes is the Guardian Shield. When not in use, it folds up and appears like a vambrace on his left forearm. When summoned, the shield can be used offensively or defensively, similar to the Golden Fleece in previous games. Kratos also utilizes hand-to-hand combat, a feature originally introduced in Ascension. The Blades of Chaos, infused with fire elemental magic, are acquired later in the game via a plot device and perform in a similar manner as in previous installments—they are a pair of blades attached to chains that can be swung around in various maneuvers. The weapon can also be upgraded with magical runic attacks. As in the earlier games, there is a "Rage" ability, this one called Spartan Rage. Like the previous versions, the Rage ability has a meter that gradually fills during combat. With this ability, Kratos uses powerful bare-handed attacks, as opposed to weapons, to greatly damage enemies. The game also features role-playing video game (RPG) elements. There are crafting resources for the player to find that allow them to create new or upgrade existing armor with better perks. Players also accumulate a currency called Hacksilver, a key component in crafting and purchasing new items. Experience points (XP) are used for learning new combat skills. Throughout the game world, players find chests containing random items, such as enchantments for improving armor and weapons, as well as the Hacksilver currency. There are also two special items, Iðunn's Apples and Horns of Blood Mead, which increase the maximum length of the health and rage meters, respectively. These meters are replenished by green and red orbs dropped by downed foes and found throughout the game world. Quick time events have changed from previous games. Enemies display two meters above their heads, one for health (the color of which indicates the enemy's difficulty) and the other for stun. Filling the stun meter helps to defeat more difficult enemies. When the stun meter is full, a grab prompt will appear. Depending on the enemy, Kratos may rip it in half or grab them and throw them into other enemies, among other possible outcomes. Although the game is played entirely as Kratos, there are times when the player may choose to passively control his son, Atreus. One button is dedicated to Atreus, and its use depends on the context. For example, if the player needs assistance, they can look at an enemy, press the button, and Atreus will use his Talon Bow to shoot arrows at the enemy. The arrows have little effect on an enemy's health but do increase the stun meter. Over the course of the game, Atreus helps in combat, traversal, exploration, and puzzle-solving. When facing a large number of enemies, he distracts the weaker ones as Kratos fights the stronger ones. If too many enemies gang up on Atreus, he is briefly stunned, but he cannot be knocked out or killed. Atreus also acquires new skills, armor, and runic attacks, as well as special light and shock arrows for his Talon Bow. Atreus' runic attacks summon different spectral animals with different abilities. For example, one summons a pack of wolves that attacks enemies, while another summons the squirrel Ratatoskr who will dig up orbs for the health and rage meters. Synopsis Setting While the first seven games were loosely based on Greek mythology, this episode is loosely inspired by Norse mythology, taking place several centuries after God of War III (2010). Six of the nine realms of Norse mythology can be explored. Predating the Vikings, most of the game takes place in ancient Scandinavia in the realm of Midgard, which is inhabited by humans and other creatures. It is the same realm in which the Greek world exists. As more dangerous creatures began appearing, many humans fled. Other realms visited as part of the story include Alfheim, the mystical home of the light and dark elves; Helheim, the icy land of the dead; and Jötunheim, the mountainous land of the giants. Optional explorable realms include Niflheim, a realm of poisonous fog with a maze-like structure of rewards; and the fire realm Muspelheim, featuring the six Trials of Muspelheim. Completing each trial grants rewards and advances Kratos and Atreus closer to the top of a large volcano. Access to the other three realms—Asgard, home of the Æsir gods; Vanaheim, home of the Vanir gods; and Svartalfheim, home of the dwarves—has been blocked by Odin, the ruler of Asgard and the Æsir gods. At the center of the realms is the mythical tree Yggdrasil, which connects each realm. Although each realm is a different world, they exist simultaneously in the same space. Travel to and from realms can be done by using the Bifröst from a root of Yggdrasil contained within a temple at the center of the Lake of the Nine. The temple was created by Týr, a peaceful God of War who traveled to other lands and learned about their mythologies; it was told that Odin had him killed as he believed Týr was secretly aiding the giants and would try to overthrow him. Characters The game's protagonists are Kratos (voiced by Christopher Judge) and his young son Atreus (Sunny Suljic). Kratos is a warrior originally from Sparta who became the Greek God of War and is a son of Zeus. After ending up in ancient Scandinavia following his war against Olympus, he met his second and now deceased wife, Laufey (addressed as Faye), who died from an unknown cause. She bore their son, Atreus, who does not know about Kratos' past or his divine nature but can hear other beings' thoughts. The main antagonist is the Æsir god Baldur (Jeremy Davies), the half-brother of Thor, whose sons Modi and Magni (Nolan North and Troy Baker, respectively) assist him. Baldur's parents are Odin, the Allfather and King of the Æsir, and the Vanir goddess Freya (Danielle Bisutti), the former Queen of the Valkyries. Freya tried leaving Odin, as she did not truly love him. He in turn stripped her of her Valkyrie wings, banished her to Midgard, and cast a spell on her that prevented her from causing harm to others and from leaving the realm. She then hid her identity under an alias, the Witch of the Woods. To protect her son from a prophecy that foretold his death, Freya cast a spell of immortality on Baldur, which also prevented him from feeling pain or pleasure. The effects of the spell caused Baldur to greatly resent his mother. The only thing capable of harming him was mistletoe, a fact which Freya kept secret. Other characters include Mímir (Alastair Duncan), who claims to be the smartest man alive, and the Huldra Brothers—Brok (Robert Craighead) and Sindri (Adam J. Harrington)—dwarves who appear at various points in the world and assist Kratos and Atreus by forging new gear. Weapons forged by the Huldra brothers, including Thor's hammer Mjölnir, were used by the Æsir gods. They also forged Kratos' Leviathan Axe, which originally belonged to Faye, who also gifted Kratos her Guardian Shield. The spirit of the Greek goddess Athena (Carole Ruggier) makes a cameo appearance, and Zeus (Corey Burton) appears to Kratos as an illusion in Helheim. Plot Many years after defeating the Olympian gods, Kratos now lives with his son Atreus in the realm of Midgard. After cremating the body of his wife, Faye, Kratos is confronted by a stranger with godly powers and strength. The two battle and Kratos seemingly kills the stranger, after which Kratos and Atreus begin their journey to honor Faye's last wish: to scatter her ashes at the highest peak in the nine realms. Along the way, they encounter the kindly Witch of the Woods, who recognises Kratos as a god. Reaching the Lake of the Nine, the pair encounter the friendly World Serpent, Jörmungandr, the last remaining Giant. Continuing on their journey, they find their path blocked by impenetrable black mist, the Witch of the Woods appears and instructs them to use the Bifröst to travel to Alfheim and secure its Light to extinguish the mist. Successful, they reach Midgard's peak and overhear a conversation between the stranger who had previously attacked them—revealed to be Baldur, son of Odin—and the imprisoned Mímir. After they leave, Kratos and Atreus confront Mímir, who reveals that the highest peak is in Jötunheim, but the Giants have blocked travel there to keep out Odin and Thor. Knowing of another passage, Mímir instructs Kratos to behead him and have his head revived by the Witch of the Woods, whom upon resurrection, he reveals to be the god Freya. Kratos' longstanding hatred of gods causes him to immediately distrust her, but both Freya and Mímir warn him that he must tell Atreus about his true nature. In search of components to open Jötunheim's portal, Kratos, Atreus, and Mímir are attacked by Baldur's nephews, Magni and Modi. After Kratos kills Magni, Modi flees but later ambushes the trio. Kratos fends him off, but Atreus collapses, overcome by illness, due to the contradiction of a god believing himself to be mortal. Freya offers to help Atreus and instructs Kratos to retrieve the heart of a specific troll in Helheim; however, his frost-based Leviathan Axe is useless in the icy realm. Kratos returns home to unearth his old weapons, the fiery Blades of Chaos, and is haunted by Athena's spirit. After retrieving the heart, he has a haunting vision of Zeus, and Mímir pieces together Kratos' bloody past. Freya revives Atreus and Kratos tells him that they are gods. Atreus becomes increasingly arrogant and, against Kratos' orders, murders a weakened Modi, who was beaten by his father Thor for leaving his brother Magni to die. At Midgard's peak, Kratos and Atreus are ambushed by Baldur, resulting in Jötunheim's portal being destroyed and the group falling into Helheim. Atreus makes amends with Kratos, and they learn of Freya and Baldur's familial relationship as well as the immortality spell that she cast on him. Returning to Midgard, Mímir realizes there is another way to reach Jötunheim, but he needs his missing eye. After obtaining it from Jörmungandr's belly–who had inadvertently eaten it along with a statue of Thor—they are attacked by Baldur once more, but Freya intervenes. During the fight, Baldur is pierced by Atreus's mistletoe arrow, breaking Freya's spell. Baldur is finally defeated; despite being given an opportunity to retreat, he attempts to strangle Freya and forces Kratos to kill him. A grieving Freya swears vengeance on Kratos. Kratos finally tells Atreus about his own past and how he killed his own father, the god Zeus. Atreus laments this cycle of violence, and Kratos tells him that they should learn from their experiences and not repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. A silent Freya leaves with Baldur's corpse, and Mímir hopefully suggests that she will eventually move on and realize that Kratos did the right thing. In Jötunheim, they find a temple with a mural depicting their adventures, showing that the Giants, renowned for their gift of prophecy, had foretold the entire journey. Furthermore, they discover that Faye was a Giant who had decided to stay behind in Midgard, meaning that Atreus is half Giant, one-quarter god, and one-quarter mortal. Their fight with Baldur is shown, revealing that he was after Faye the whole time, and that Atreus was referred to as Loki by his mother. Kratos and Atreus fulfill their promise and spread her ashes at the peak, overlooking a valley of Giant corpses. Afterward, Kratos reveals to Atreus that his given name was that of a compassionate Spartan comrade. Returning to Midgard, Mímir warns them that the three-year-long Fimbulwinter has begun, meaning Ragnarök is soon to follow. Eventually Kratos, Atreus, and Mímir return home and slumber. Atreus has a vision that Thor will arrive at the end of Fimbulwinter to confront them. Development Development on the next God of War began in 2014. This was confirmed by Santa Monica Studio's creative director Cory Barlog at the first annual PlayStation Experience on December 6 that year, where Barlog said the game was in very early development, and that it would not be a prequel, but possibly a reboot. In April 2016, concept art was leaked that showed images of Kratos in the world of Norse mythology, a concept originally considered by series creator David Jaffe after Kratos eliminated the Greek gods. The game's official announcement came at the 2016 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) with a gameplay demo that confirmed the setting. The demo showed a fully bearded Kratos teaching his son how to hunt. The pair also battled a troll. The end of the demo showed the title God of War and confirmed it was in development for the PlayStation 4 (PS4). The E3 announcement also confirmed that Barlog had returned to the series as game director for the new installment. Since the original 2005 game, Barlog has been a major contributor in the development of the series, previously most notably as the director of God of War II (2007); this new installment was his fifth God of War game. Barlog said the game was titled God of War with no numeral or subtitle because, although it was a continuation of the series, "we ... [reimagined] everything." Head of Santa Monica Studio, Shannon Studstill, and Barlog said that Sony Interactive Entertainment had to be convinced to do another God of War game as many people at Sony wanted the series to "sleep and rest" due to the lackluster response to the previous game, Ascension. In explaining why Barlog was brought back, Studstill said he knew the series very well, "and bringing in someone that understands that history is the respect the franchise deserves." Barlog responded, "You gotta know the rules to break the rules." Series creator David Jaffe was also considered but was unavailable. In explaining the transition from Greek mythology to Norse mythology, Barlog said: "It's kind of this BC–AD change over kind of thing. We're moving and starting from zero and kind of moving forward on that." Before settling on Norse mythology, Egyptian mythology was also considered. Barlog said that half of the team was for it, but because Egypt has "a lot more about civilization – it's less isolated, less barren", he decided on the Norse setting to keep the game focused on Kratos. Barlog explained further: "Having too much around distracts from that central theme of a stranger in a strange land." To explain why Kratos was now in the Norse world, Barlog said that different cultures' belief systems coexisted, but they were "separated by geography", suggesting that Kratos traveled from Greece to Norway (Scandinavia) after the conclusion of God of War III. Clarifying the conclusion of that game, Barlog said Kratos did not destroy what was believed to be the entire world, but only the portion ruled over by the Greek pantheon. Barlog said the new game predates the Vikings as it takes place in the time when their gods walked the Earth. It was also confirmed that this would not be Kratos' last game. Barlog said future games could see the series tackling Egyptian or Mayan mythology, and although this game focuses on Norse mythology, it alludes to the fact there are other mythologies co-existing in the world. Barlog also said he liked the idea of having different directors for each game as had happened with the first seven. He said that although he might not direct another God of War, he would still be at Santa Monica to work on future games. Most of the development team that worked on the original God of War worked on the new installment. They claimed they matched the new gameplay with the same level of accessibility as the previous installments. It was confirmed that the game would not feature any morality system or branching story; all players have the same story experience. The developers also confirmed that some of the more controversial mini-games found in previous entries (such as the sex mini-game) would not return. The enemy count was increased to up to 100 enemies on-screen, although this limit is never approached; God of War III and Ascension had up to 50. Some gameplay characteristics such as jumping, swimming, and instant-death platforming challenges found in the previous installments were cut because of the camera being closer to Kratos. Although the previous installment, Ascension, introduced multiplayer to the series, the team decided to drop it and focus on the single-player experience. In changing the gameplay, Studstill said, "I felt like, in order to reinvent, we really needed to turn a lot of things around." With regard to the camera change, Barlog said they wanted a more intimate and player-controlled experience. The entire game was done in a single shot with no camera cuts; there are no loading screens and no fade-to-black between gameplay and cutscenes. Barlog said about forty percent of the team did not originally agree with this decision due to the increased work and production to implement the feature, especially since this was the first time that a one-shot technique was being used for a three-dimensional AAA game. This meant Barlog had no examples to show if this would work or was a good idea. (The only other game to fully utilize this technique was the indie game Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice, which also began development in 2014 and was released eight months before God of War.) After the game was finished and the team got to play through it, Barlog said they finally understood his vision and said it was a feature they should use from now on. Barlog had originally pitched the idea for a one-shot camera while he was at Crystal Dynamics working on 2013's Tomb Raider, but he was turned down. Sony, however, was much more supportive of Barlog's creative ideas. Furthermore, Barlog and lead level designer Rob Davis were also influenced by the Resident Evil series, particularly Resident Evil 4s "combination of poised camera exploration and scavenging" and Resident Evil 7s "strong vision" from a team making "bold decisions, and actually hav[ing] the audience follow them." Barlog noted how there was initial disagreement over the camera distance. He wanted it close whereas the combat team wanted it further away, like the Assassin's Creed and Batman: Arkham games; he eventually convinced the team to go with a close camera. Explaining Kratos' axe, lead gameplay designer Jason McDonald, who had worked on the series since the original game, said the axe was chosen because they wanted a more grounded direction for the game. Initially, they were unsure how to make it unique. After they came up with the concept of throwing the axe and having it return to Kratos, "things started to fall into place." McDonald said that combat with the axe was a little slower than with the Blades of Chaos, "but it's just as fluid and just as brutal as it's ever been." Barlog took inspiration from Dark Souls (2011), which influenced the game's combat system, particularly its gameplay loop and strategic decision-making, as well as the game's approach to storytelling. In addition, designers Anthony DiMento and Luis Sanchez revealed how God of Wars level design and exploration were influenced by Bloodborne (2015). They wanted to "just have the world breathe a little bit" and expand upon player discovery by including "micro-loops where you're unlocking paths, unlocking shortcuts" that gave purpose. DiMento said that a team dedicated to focusing on the game's exploration was formed. One challenge was creating quests in a world that did not have non-playable characters outside of the core narrative. DiMento said, "I set out to create a quest giver that was light-weight, but also flexible enough to be used in multiple locations, while providing a varied suite of quest activities." This resulted in the "wayward spirits" (ghosts with ties to the world) found throughout the game. Having the spirits tell their stories "made [the world] feel more alive". The developers ended up with a four-tiered system for side quests: the top tier quests were from the characters Brok and Sindri, the next level from wayward spirits, then treasure maps and artifacts, and the bottom tier were milestones, such as destroying all of Odin's ravens. Brok and Sindri's quests were made into dungeons while the others were used for exploration. The developers also had to find the reasons that would motivate Kratos to undertake these quests. For Brok and Sindri, it was to obtain more powerful gear, but for the wayward spirits, it was because of Atreus' naiveté and kind-hearted nature, as well as opportunities for Kratos to teach him a lesson. Unlike the previous games, Santa Monica did not make a demo specifically for public release. Barlog explained that doing so would have delayed the game by a couple of months. He also confirmed the game was built for the standard PlayStation 4 but would "benefit from the power" of the PlayStation 4 Pro; an updated version of the PlayStation 4 that can render games in 4K and was released a few months after God of War was announced. Players with a Pro have the option to favor resolution or favor performance when playing the game. Favoring resolution runs the game in 4K with checkerboard rendering at a target frame rate of 30 frames per second (fps), while the performance option runs the game at 1080p and targets 60fps. In late December 2016, Barlog confirmed the game was playable from start to finish, and later said its story would take 25–35 hours to complete. This is significantly more than the previous four main installments, which each took an average of 10 hours to complete. A new trailer was shown at E3 2017, featuring new gameplay, cinematics, and characters. In it, Kratos was shown using a shield that he could use offensively and defensively. At one point, Kratos finds a Greek vase with himself on it, wielding his infamous double-chained blades. During the trailer, an unnamed woman warned Kratos about the Norse gods, as they knew what he did to the Greek gods, while a pair of wolves were also shown. The trailer ended with Kratos and Atreus encountering the World Serpent. Atreus was able to translate what it said, which was that it wanted to help the pair. It was confirmed that the game would release in early 2018. Until the game's launch, Santa Monica included a section on the God of War website titled "The Lost Pages", detailing some of the lore of God of Wars Nordic world. In January 2018, the game's release date was confirmed for April 20, 2018. A trailer was also released that showed that the character Mímir from the mythology would have a role in the game. God of War went gold on March 22. Characterization During early development, there was talk of having a different protagonist for the game. Some of the team said that Kratos was "annoying" and felt Kratos' story had run its course. Barlog said it took a lot of convincing to keep Kratos. Referencing the Nintendo character Mario and the Mario games, Barlog said that like Mario, "Kratos is intrinsically tied" to the God of War series. In regard to the new changes, Barlog said that: Barlog explained that Kratos had to change his cycle of violence and learn to control his rage. He said Kratos had made many bad decisions, which led to the destruction of Olympus. He wanted to know what would happen if Kratos made a good decision. The birth of Barlog's own son influenced the idea of Kratos' character change. The canceled live-action Star Wars television series was also an influence. The bond between Kratos and his son is at the heart of the game. Barlog said, "This game is about Kratos teaching his son how to be a god, and his son teaching Kratos how to be human again." Referencing the Marvel Comics character Hulk, Barlog said that in regards to Kratos, "We've already told the story of The Hulk. We want to tell the story of [Bruce] Banner now." One of their goals was to make Kratos "a more nuanced and interesting character." In changing the narrative focus, Studstill said, "I think we inherently knew the franchise needed to evolve in that emotional beat and be something meatier for the older generation of gamers." Christopher Judge, best known as Teal'c from Stargate SG-1, replaced Terrence C. Carson as the voice of Kratos; Carson had voiced Kratos since the original God of War. Commenting on the change, Carson said, "Sony went in a new direction." Carson later explained that he understood the reason for the actor change and that Judge's casting made sense for what Sony was wanting to do. He also said that losing acting jobs is part of the business, but he did feel a lack of respect as he was not contacted by anyone at Sony to be informed of the change. In explaining the actor change, Barlog said that the way the previous games were made, they were able to have someone else do the motion capture instead of the voice actor. Although Carson had done the motion capture for Kratos in Ascension, Barlog said the actor change was made because of the type of camera work they wanted to do. For the new camera work, they needed someone who was closer to Kratos' size to do the motion capture along with a child. Carson was unsuitable for this because he was much shorter than Kratos, who is over 6-feet tall: "Offsetting [Carson's height] for the size of a child, it turned out it was going to be almost impossible to try and actually shoot them and go in and redo the animations." Judge was chosen because he was 6-foot-3 and had the body of a professional football player. He was also chosen because of the chemistry with his then-10-year-old co-star, Sunny Suljic, whose opinion was also sought in making the decision; out of all the auditions, he liked Judge the most. The two bonded well, and Judge described his time with Suljic as time he had missed with his own children. In stepping into the role of Kratos, Judge took it as an opportunity to add something new to the character. He researched the character and Carson's performance but decided not to imitate it. Since Santa Monica was going in a new direction, he decided to start fresh. Judge was thrown off when he first read the script, saying it "was a real script," and not just "a way to get into battles," which is why he decided to take the role. He said, "it was really this great story of this relationship and this crazy mythology." While Judge did all of Kratos' motion capture for the cinematic scenes, stuntman Eric Jacobus did Kratos' combat motion capture; Jacobus was found by God of Wars animators on YouTube. Instead of going directly to Santa Monica to audition, he recorded an audition tape and sent that in and was hired immediately. Former WWE wrestler Shad Gaspard also performed some of the motion capture for Kratos; Gaspard's body was digitally scanned as the model for Kratos' new look in the game. During E3 2016, GameSpot mistakenly reported that Kratos' son's name was Charlie, which Barlog laughingly denied. In January 2017, after a fan downloaded the God of War overture and saw the track's details that said, "An introduction to Kratos and Atreus", Barlog confirmed on Twitter that Atreus was in fact the son's name. Barlog said Atreus was unaware that Kratos was a demigod and did not know about his past. They did not reveal details of Atreus' mother before the release because she was a critical part of the story. Barlog said that during gameplay, Atreus would be "like magic, an additional combat resource, and [the player is] training him and teaching him." The developers said Atreus would not be a burden during gameplay. The team experimented with several different approaches for Atreus to ensure he was an empowering presence. Barlog said he did not want the game to be an escort mission where the artificial intelligence caused a problem for the player. Their goal was for Atreus to enhance Kratos' capabilities without becoming a liability. This resulted in the developers having Atreus act freely unless the player uses a button to issue specific commands to him. Atreus was also designed to call out enemy locations during combat. Since the camera is closer to Kratos, some enemies might be difficult for the player to see. Jason McDonald said it took a lot of iterations with the enemies and Atreus to make it all work together. Early in development, it was suggested that Atreus be cut, or his role significantly reduced because of the many developmental challenges and their costs. Barlog stated the game could have worked without Atreus, but it would have been completely different, likening it to the 2013 film All Is Lost. Barlog said that with just Kratos, it would have been "one character who talks to himself occasionally, but generally, it will be very silent and everyone will talk in old Norse, so that you won't understand anything anybody's saying." After hearing Barlog's case, Sony gave him the freedom to incorporate Atreus. Lead level designer Rob Davis also noted that Atreus allowed for "significant gameplay and storytelling opportunities that might not otherwise [have been] possible." After God of War was revealed at E3 2016, it drew comparisons to Naughty Dog's The Last of Us (2013), a game that also featured a father-child type story and gameplay. Barlog felt it was "fantastic" to be compared to that game and found it odd that some people considered the similarities a negative thing. Although he did not directly state they were influenced by The Last of Us in developing God of War, he did say, "I think we're all inspired by each other." He did, however, use The Last of Us as an example to show the development team how an in-game companion could work without the game becoming an escort mission. Soundtrack God of War (PlayStation Soundtrack) was released on April 20, 2018, by Sony Classical Records. It was composed by Bear McCreary, who is best known for his work on television shows like Battlestar Galactica and The Walking Dead. McCreary was called into Santa Monica Studio in November 2014 to meet with music producers Peter Scaturro and Keith Leary to discuss "a secret project"; McCreary had previously collaborated with Scaturro and Leary on 2011's SOCOM 4: U.S. Navy SEALs. Ideas of folk music, mythology, Nordic ethnic instruments, vocal writing, and classical thematic development were discussed; McCreary correctly guessed that the discussions were about a new God of War. McCreary met with Barlog early on to discuss his narrative vision for the game. After meeting with him, McCreary felt the franchise was in good hands because God of War II, which Barlog also directed, was his favorite installment. During the initial discussions, McCreary realized he needed to compose completely new music for the game and not reuse any previous music from the series. He said that although he loved those games, he "would not describe them as emotionally dynamic." Based on his memory of the earlier games' music, however, he was inspired by their sounds, such as "deep choirs, pounding drums, and shrieking brass", and reinvented them for the Nordic setting. To ensure the music represented the setting, McCreary spent months researching and listening to Viking folk music, which resulted in him using "exotic instrumentation and languages from various Northern European folk traditions." He also wanted the score to be huge and varied, "full of peaks and valleys, tiny incantations and gigantic set pieces." The main Kratos theme in particular features low orchestral instruments, an Icelandic choir, deep male vocals, powerful female vocals (in particular Faroese singer Eivør Pálsdóttir), folk percussion, and Nordic stringed instruments, like the nyckelharpa and hurdy gurdy. The track "Witch of the Woods" uses a renaissance and baroque instrument called a viola da gamba, which is an ancestor of the modern cello. The Stranger's theme, found in the track "Deliverance", uses a Hardanger fiddle. The first theme composed for the game was "Memories of Mother". McCreary said the theme itself was not originally for Atreus' mother Faye but was for Kratos himself. His initial sketches were different variations of this melancholy tune. After the game had gone into full production, McCreary and the development team realized it was "too sad and lyrical to represent Kratos." McCreary stepped away from this theme and focused on writing a new one, or what he called the Kratos Theme, which he felt was more representative of the character: "masculine, relentless, and badass". He spent several months working with Barlog, Scaturro, Leary, Sony music director Chuck Doud, and the rest of the development team to make this new theme. McCreary described it as "arguably one of my most structurally satisfying and catchy melodies." After further scoring, McCreary realized that Faye would require a theme, and his original one was "exactly [what] I needed." This melody was woven throughout several scenes and is featured as prominently in the game as Kratos' theme. The three-note Kratos theme is most obviously heard in the title track, "God of War". When it was decided that God of War would be revealed at E3 2016, Sony wanted McCreary to perform his original score with a live orchestra at the press conference. McCreary opened the show with the new main theme before the unveiling of God of War and performed the gameplay demo's music live during the presentation. On January 13, 2017, a live recording from E3 2016 of God of Wars overture was released for a limited time free of charge. Barlog released the overture as a thank you to fans for God of Wars E3 2016 trailer reaching fifteen million views on YouTube. Release The game was released worldwide on April 20, 2018, for the PlayStation 4. In addition to the standard base game, there were three special editions: the Stone Mason Edition, the Collector's Edition, and the Digital Deluxe Edition. Only available in the United States and Canada, the Stone Mason Edition came with several physical items, including: the base game in a SteelBook case, a statue of Kratos and Atreus created by Gentle Giant, carvings of the Huldra Brothers, a horse, and a troll, an exclusive lithograph, a cloth map, a stone mason's ring, and a keychain of Mímir's head that talks. There was a variety of downloadable content (DLC), including an exclusive shield skin, as well as an armor set and another shield skin for Kratos, a PlayStation 4 dynamic theme, a digital artbook, and God of War #0 by Dark Horse Comics. The Collector's Edition came with many of the same items, minus the ring, the keychain, the carvings of the horse and troll, and the exclusive shield skin. The Digital Deluxe Edition came with all the digital content, minus the exclusive shield skin. U.S. and Canadian customers also received a Kratos and Atreus pin for pre-ordering the Digital Deluxe Edition. Pre-orders at select retailers received three skins for Kratos' shield. Pre-orders from GameStop or EB Games also received the "Luck of Ages XP Talisman", granting increased XP gain, increased Hacksilver gain, and increased ability to trigger perks. In addition to the special editions of the game, a Limited Edition PlayStation 4 Pro bundle was available the same day as the game's release. The bundle included the standard base game, a PlayStation 4 Pro console decorated with the runes as on Kratos' axe, and a similarly themed DualShock 4 controller with the God of War logo. Among the digital content in the collector's editions was God of War #0 from Dark Horse Comics. The four-part miniseries began publishing monthly with Issue #1 in November 2018. Written by Chris Roberson with art by Tony Parker, it takes place between the events of God of War III and the 2018 game. Game Director Cory Barlog confirmed that God of War would not have microtransactions post-launch, a feature that had become prominent with other games and criticized. Barlog also confirmed there would not be any post-release DLC, like an expansion pack. He said he had pitched an idea for DLC, "but it was too ambitious". His idea was similar in scope to that of The Last of Us: Left Behind and Uncharted: The Lost Legacy, large standalone expansions for The Last of Us (2013) and Uncharted 4: A Thief's End (2016), respectively. He said it would have been too big to be DLC, warranting its own standalone release. Since launch, Santa Monica has supported the game with patch updates to address software bugs. As well, the developers have added new features along with these free updates. A Photo Mode was released as part of update patch 1.20 on May 9, 2018. It allows players to take customized in-game screenshots. Players can adjust the field of view, depth of view, filters, borders, the visibility of characters, and the ability to change the facial expressions of Kratos and Atreus. A New Game Plus mode was released as part of update patch 1.30 on August 20, 2018. To access the mode, players must have completed the game at any difficulty level. The mode itself can be played at any difficulty, but enemies are at a higher level with new maneuvers. All obtained items carry over to New Game Plus, and there are new resources to further upgrade gear, which also have new rarity levels. The option to skip cutscenes was also added. In November 2020, the PlayStation 5 (PS5) launched and is backwards compatible with PlayStation 4 games; these games see a performance boost when playing on the PS5 thanks to the power of the newer console. To further enhance the playing experience of God of War on the PS5, Santa Monica released an enhancement update on February 2, 2021, allowing the game to be played at full 60fps with checkerboard 4K resolution. As part of Sony's larger efforts to port their first-party exclusive games to Microsoft Windows (PC), Santa Monica Studio announced in October 2021 that God of War would be released for Windows on January 14, 2022. The port, handled by Jetpack Interactive with supervision by Santa Monica, includes additional graphic options support for Windows, including Nvidia's Deep Learning Super Sampling (DLSS) technology and ultra-widescreen support. This in turn marks the first main entry in the series to release on a non-PlayStation platform. According to Santa Monica's Matt DeWald, they had considered what options they could use to port their games to Windows, particularly as they used a non-standard game engine, and worked closely with Jetpack to determine the scope and technical issues associated with the port. God of War: A Call from the Wilds God of War: A Call from the Wilds is a text-based game playable through Facebook Messenger. To help further promote God of War, Sony partnered with Facebook, Inc. to develop the play-by-web game, which released on February 1, 2018. Completing the game unlocks downloadable concept art. The short story follows Atreus on his first adventure in the Norse wilds. After archery training and learning runes with his mother, Atreus ventures into the wilderness after telepathically hearing the voice of a dying deer; he finds it covered in blood and stays with it during its final moments. A couple of draugrs appear and Atreus attempts to fight them but is injured. He is saved by his father, Kratos, who was out hunting. The two then battle a revenant before returning home. Raising Kratos Raising Kratos is a YouTube documentary of Santa Monica Studio's five-year process in making the game, showing the "herculean effort" that went into reviving the franchise. The documentary was announced on April 20, 2019, the one year anniversary of the game's launch, and was released the following month on May 10. Tie-in books The Art of God of War The Art of God of War is a book collecting various pieces of artworks created for the game during its development. It was written by Evan Shamoon and published by Dark Horse on April 24, 2018. God of War – The Official Novelization An official novelization of the game, written by Cory Barlog's father, James M. Barlog, was released on August 28, 2018, by Titan Books. An audiobook version is also available, narrated by Alastair Duncan, who voiced Mímir in the game. The novel retells the events of the game, but unlike the series' previous two novels, this one closely follows the source material with a few notable exceptions. The game never revealed how or why Kratos ended up in ancient Norway, or how much time had passed since the ending of God of War III, but the novel gives some indication. Kratos chose to leave ancient Greece to hide his identity and change who he was. At some point after leaving Greece, he battles some wolves and is saved by a cloaked female figure, presumably Faye. Later, during their journey, Kratos, Atreus, and Mímir see a mural with the wolves Sköll and Hati. This causes Kratos to have a flashback to that battle and makes him wonder if they dragged him to this new land and if so, why? There was also some retconning. At the end of God of War III, Kratos had the Blades of Exile, but this novel says he had the Blades of Chaos after killing Zeus. It is also mentioned that he tried several times to get rid of the blades, but by fate they kept returning to him. (For example, he threw them off a cliff, but they washed up on shore near him.) Sometime after ending up in Norway, he decided to hide them under his house and never use them again. This moment was said to have occurred 50 years before the start of the current story. When Kratos does recover the Blades of Chaos, he hears Pandora's speech about hope from God of War III. In the game, Kratos sees one last image on the mural in Jötunheim. It seemingly shows Atreus holding Kratos' dead body, but in the novel, this mural is partially broken and does not show the corpse that Atreus is holding. Brok and Sindri also reveal why they made the Leviathan Axe for Faye. She had come to them as the last Guardian of Jötnar and needed a weapon to protect her people. The Huldra Brothers crafted the Leviathan Axe for her to be Mjölnir's equal. Mímir also mentioned that Faye, or rather Laufey the Just, thwarted many of the Æsir's plans, including freeing slaves, and Thor could never find her. Kratos' Guardian Shield is never mentioned, and Modi does not ambush them, resulting in Atreus falling ill. Atreus falls ill shortly after the first encounter when Kratos kills Magni. God of War: B is For Boy God of War: B is For Boy is an "ABC storybook for adults" in which the story of the game is retold in an abridged format with illustrations. It was written by Andrea Robinson, with the illustrations being provided by Romina Tempest. It released on September 1, 2020, by Insight Editions. God of War: Lore and Legends God of War: Lore and Legends is a tome that recreates Atreus' journal from the game. The book features new expanded lore that was written in collaboration with the writing team for the game. It was written by Rick Barba and published by Dark Horse on September 9, 2020. Reception God of War received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic, tying it with the original God of War for the highest score in the franchise. It has the fourth-highest score of all-time for a PlayStation 4 game, and the highest score for an original, non-remastered PlayStation 4 exclusive. It was the highest rated PlayStation 4 game of 2018 until the release of Red Dead Redemption 2 in October, which pushed God of War to second. It is also tied with the Xbox One version of Celeste for the second-highest score of 2018, regardless of platform. God of War received particular praise for: its art direction, graphics, combat system, music, story, use of Norse mythology, characters, and cinematic feeling. Many reviewers felt it had successfully revitalized the series without losing the core identity of its predecessors. The story was well praised. Nick Plessas of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) said the story's most memorable moments were the interactions between Kratos and Atreus. He also noted, "there is often some comic relief to be found when Kratos' curtness and Atreus' charming naivety collide." He felt the presence of Atreus showed a side to Kratos not seen before, and that Kratos had evolved emotionally: "The rage and pain of his past is in constant conflict with his desire to spare his son from it, which comes across in even the most subtle actions and words, demonstrating the effort he is putting in." Plessas said Atreus' character was similarly complex. He commented it is easy for child characters "to succumb to a number of annoying child archetypes," but Atreus is more like a young man who is doing his best in an adult world. Game Informers Joe Juba similarly praised the story, particularly the relationship between Kratos and Atreus: "The interactions of Kratos and Atreus range from adversarial to compassionate, and these exchanges have ample room to breathe and draw players in." Juba said that Kratos conveys more character than in any previous game. Peter Brown of GameSpot felt that although Kratos and Atreus were enjoyable, it was Mímir who stole the show. He also said that regardless of which character the player meets, the cast of God of War is "strong, convincing, and oddly enchanting." Writing for Game Revolution, Jason Faulkner praised Santa Monica for creating a sequel that new players would be able to understand without having played any of the previous games, while at the same time providing story references to those past games that returning fans would appreciate. Speaking of the relationship between Kratos and Atreus, Faulkner wrote that, "Watching the two grow throughout their journey is incredibly rewarding," equating it to that of Ellie and Joel from The Last of Us or Lee and Clementine from Telltale Games' The Walking Dead. In terms of the game's combat system, Plessas said that unlike previous games, which often relied on the player to use many combos in a sequential fashion, this game is "more about individual moves strung together in response to the assortment of enemies being fought." Although that difference may be small, he said that the independent attacks of the axe "feature benefits and drawbacks players will need to understand and master to be as effective as possible." Furthermore, although the axe is "conceptually simple", it is "mechanically fascinating". It "succeeds as both a versatile means of dismembering foes and as a key element in puzzle solving." He felt the axe and all of its features was "distinctly rewarding to use" and that it had more versatility than all of the weapons in many other games. Juba said the Leviathan Axe is "a well-balanced and entertaining tool of destruction." He liked how it "emphasizes a more calculated style of combat; instead of zoomed-out, combo-driven encounters, Leviathan makes you a tactician." He also enjoyed how the combat system gradually unfolded through the course of the game; although seemingly restrictive at first, he noted players will be rapidly alternating between weapons and skills. While some reviewers greatly enjoyed the ability to call the Leviathan Axe back to Kratos' hand, Chris Carter of Destructoid felt it got old after a while. Atreus' implementation was praised. Plessas said Atreus is "surprisingly useful" and that he "lands in the perfect spot on the spectrum between independence and reliance." Faulkner noted that, "The interplay between Kratos ax, fists, and shield, and Atreus' bow makes for an impressive fighting system." Despite its different approach to combat, compared to the previous games, GamesRadar+s Leon Hurley felt the game was "every bit as brutally unflinching as previous games." Writing for Polygon, Chris Plante praised the camerawork as a technical marvel, noting the seamless nature of the game shifting from cinematic back to the gameplay. Juba said the decision to shift the camera closer to Kratos "[proved] immensely rewarding during big moments by giving [the player] an intimate view." Faulkner, however, claimed "it can be difficult to control the camera and keep a bead on the enemies you're fighting." In his review for IGN, Jonathon Dornbush felt the intimacy of the camera makes all the emotions "more real and impactful." Speaking of the game's visuals, Faulkner said the game looks amazing, "and with 4K and HDR this game goes a step beyond what even games like Horizon Zero Dawn showed us was possible on this platform." Brown noted that "God of War is a technical and artistic showcase. It is without a doubt one of the best-looking console games ever released." Dan Ryckert of Giant Bomb claimed that games like Uncharted: The Lost Legacy and Horizon Zero Dawn "made great cases for a PS4 Pro and a 4K television, but God of Wars visuals are a bigger selling point than anything I've seen on Sony's platform to date." Despite the game's grandeur, Plessas felt that the boss fights "do not hit quite the same frequency as they did in the past few games." However, the few boss fights in the game "do the series proud". As to the vast world of God of War, Faulkner said that, "The great thing about the exploration in God of War is that you can participate in it as little or as much as you want." He said an excellent design decision is that during main plot points, the game keeps the player on task, while in between, the player can explore, allowing God of War "to have the best of both worlds". Plessas noted that although the puzzles require thought, they were not "hair-pullingly" difficult as some were in previous games. Juba also found that the puzzles were not too challenging, saying they were fun. Plessas felt that the RPG elements present in the game make this installment "unique" compared to previous entries. He said the game allows players to "specialize Kratos to meet the specific task at hand, or develop a build that best suits a preferred playstyle." Although this did not make the game easier, he felt it did make it more manageable. Juba noted that although this type of upgrading "may be less exciting" compared to previous games where Kratos just learns new moves, it still "provides a powerful incentive to explore." Ryckert was disappointed by this type of customization. He felt the presentation was "half-baked" and that some materials were confusing as there was little explanation given for their use. He did, however, say it was "cool" to see new armor on Kratos. In terms of flaws, Plessas said that "God of War is so good that its most egregious failing is not letting fans play more of it", as New Game Plus was not an option at the time of the review. Juba said that "God of Wars momentum rarely falters, and when it does, the inconvenience is brief." One example he gave was the map, saying that although players have freedom to explore, it can be difficult to track Kratos' position. He also felt the fast-travel system was "weirdly cumbersome" and that it opens up too late in the game. Although he enjoyed these features, Faulkner noted some players may dislike that God of War has a lack of player agency, and players have to explore the majority of the game on foot or by boat since the fast-travel feature is unlocked late in the game. Brown felt that if anything in God of War was a letdown, it was the final fight against Baldur: "He's great from a narrative standpoint, unraveling in a manner that changes your perspective, but it's the fight itself that leaves you wanting. There are plenty of big boss battles and tests of skill throughout the course of the game, yet this fight doesn't reach the same heights, and feels like it was played a little safe." Hurley said his only criticism was that, "You can occasionally find yourself unsure if you're doing something wrong, or don't have the right equipment yet." Sales During its release week in the United Kingdom, God of War became the fastest-selling entry in the franchise, selling 35% more physical copies than God of War III. The game remained at the top of the all format sales chart for six consecutive weeks through April and May, setting a record for a PlayStation 4 exclusive having the most consecutive weeks at number one. It sold 46,091 copies in its first week on sale in Japan, which placed it at number two on the sales chart. The game sold over 3.1 million copies worldwide within three days of its release, making it the fastest-selling PlayStation 4 exclusive at the time. The game was the fastest-selling game of the month of its release and contributed to the PlayStation 4 being the best-selling console of that month. In total, the game sold over five million copies in its first month, with 2.1 million in digital sales. By May 2019, the game had sold over 10 million copies worldwide, making it the best-selling game in the series. By August 2021, total sales of the game had exceeded over 19.5 million copies. Accolades God of War won Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications, including British Academy Games Awards, The Blade, CNET, Destructoid, D.I.C.E. Awards, Empire, Entertainment Weekly, G1, The Game Awards, Game Developers Choice Awards, Game Informer, Game Revolution, GamesRadar+, IGN, Nerdist, New York Game Awards, Polygon, Push Square, Slant Magazine, Time magazine, Variety, and VideoGamer.com. The game was named among the best games of the 2010s by Areajugones, BuzzFeed, GameSpew, GamesRadar+, Gaming Age, GamingBolt, The Hollywood Reporter, IGN, Metacritic, Slant Magazine, Stuff, and VG247. It was voted as the winner of IGN's Best Video Game of All Time. The game was nominated for Game of the Show, Best PlayStation 4 Game, and Best Action Game at IGNs Best of E3 2016 Awards. It won the award for Game of the Year, Best PlayStation 4 Game, Best Action-Adventure Game, Best Art Direction, and Best Story at IGNs Best of 2018 Awards. It was a runner-up for Best Graphics, and was nominated for Best Music. Sequel A sequel, God of War Ragnarök, is currently in development. It was originally announced to release in 2021 on the PlayStation 5. However, in June 2021, the game was delayed to 2022 and it was also confirmed that it would release on both the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5. Notes References Works cited External links God of War U.S. PlayStation website 2018 video games Action-adventure games AIAS Game of the Year winners Family in fiction Hack and slash games God of War (franchise) PlayStation 4 games PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games Single-player video games Sony Interactive Entertainment games Video game sequels Video games based on Norse mythology Video games developed in the United States Video games set in Norway Video games set in the Viking Age Windows games PlayStation 5 enhanced games

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The military history of Uganda begins with actions before the conquest of the country by the British Empire. After the British conquered the country, there were various actions, including in 1887, and independence was granted in 1962. After independence, Uganda was plagued with a series of conflicts, most rooted in the problems caused by colonialism. Like many African nations, Uganda endured a series of civil wars and coup d'états. Since the 2000s in particular, the Uganda People's Defence Force has been active in peacekeeping operations for the African Union and the United Nations. Pre-colonial Uganda The region now known as Uganda is divided linguistically by Lake Kyoga into a Bantu south and Nilotic north. The pastoralist Nilotes of the north were organized by lineage into small clans. While cattle raiding was practiced extensively, the highly decentralized nature of northern societies precluded the possibility of large-scale warfare. By comparison, the introduction of plantain as a staple crop in the south around 1000 AD permitted dense populations to form in the area north of Lake Victoria. One of the early powerful states to emerge was Bunyoro. However, chronic weakness within the structure of Bunyoro resulted in a continual series of civil wars and royal succession disputes. According to legend, a refugee from a Bunyoro conflict, Kimera, became Kabaka of the contemporaneous kingdom of Buganda, on the shores of Lake Victoria. Bagandan governance was based on a stable succession arrangement, allowing the kingdom to more than double in size by the mid-nineteenth century through a series of wars of expansion, becoming the dominant power in the region. As well as a force of infantry, Baganda also maintained a navy of large outrigger canoes, which allowed Baganda commandos to raid any shore on Lake Victoria. Henry Morton Stanley visited in 1875 and reported viewing a military expedition of 125,000 troops marching east, where they were to join an auxiliary naval force of 230 canoes. Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, Uganda began to lose its isolated status, mainly due to traders seeking new sources of ivory after the decimation of elephant herds along the coast. Arab traders from the coast began making trade agreements with the Kabaka of Uganda to provide guns and other items in exchange for a supply of ivory. In the north, Turkish Sudan under Khedive Isma'il Pasha sought to expand its control of the White Nile. In 1869, the khedive sent a force under British explorer Samuel Baker to establish dominion over the upper Nile. Encountering stiff resistance, Baker was forced to turn back after burning the Bunyoro capital to the ground. Foreign influences led to the eventual disruption of royal rule in Buganda. In 1877, the London-based Church Missionary Society sent Protestant missionaries, followed two years later by Catholic France-based White Fathers. The competition for converts in the royal court also included Zanzibar-based Muslim traders. When the new kabaka Mwanga II attempted to outlaw the divisive foreign ideologies (see Uganda Martyrs), he was deposed by armed converts in 1888. A four-year civil war erupted in which the Muslim forces initially declared victory, but were eventually defeated by an alliance of Christian groups. The conclusion of the civil war was also marked by various epidemics of foreign diseases, which halved the population in some localities and further weakened Baganda. The arrival of European colonial interests, in the persons of British captain Frederick Lugard and German Karl Peters, broke the Christian alliance. Protestant missionaries moved to put Uganda under British control, while French Catholics either supported the German claim or urged national independence. In 1892, fighting broke out between the two factions. Momentum remained with the Catholics until Lugard brought Maxim guns into play, resulting in the French Catholic mission being burnt to the ground and the Catholic bishop fleeing. With the support of Protestant Buganda chiefs secured, the British declared a protectorate in 1894 and began expanding its borders with the help of Nubian mercenaries formerly in the employ of the Egyptian khedive. Colonial period (1894–1962) In spite of the British declaration, actually taking control of the region was a prolonged affair. The British and their Buganda ally engaged in a bloody five-year conflict with Bunyoro, which boasted several regiments of rifle infantry under the firm rule of Kabarega. After defeating and occupying the Bunyoro, the British forces defeated the Acholi and other people of the north. Elsewhere, the Ankole kingdom and chiefdoms of Busoga signed treaties with the British, but the loosely associated kinship groups of the east and northeast resisted until they were finally conquered. The general outline of the modern state of Uganda thus took shape. However, in 1897 the Nubian mercenaries rebelled, resulting in a two-year conflict before they were put down with the help of units of the British Indian Army, transported to Uganda at great cost. The protectorate rewarded Buganda for its support during these wars of expansion by giving it privileged status within the protectorate and awarding it most of the historic heartland of Bunyoro, including the locations of several royal tombs. The Baganda offered their expertise in administration to the colonial rulers, resulting in Ganda administrators running much of the country's affairs in the name of the protectorate. The Banyoro, aggrieved by both the "lost counties" and arrogance of Baganda administrators, rose up in the 1907 Nyangire "Refusing" rebellion, which succeeded in removing the irksome Baganda civil servants from Nyoro territory. Despite these tensions, the protectorate was generally stable and prosperous, especially in comparison with Tanganyika, which suffered greatly during the East African Campaign of World War I. This began to change with the British decision to divest itself of its colonial properties and prepare Uganda for independence, embodied in the arrival of Andrew Cohen in 1952 to assume the post of governor. Various groups began to organize themselves in preparation for planned elections, which was given urgency by the announcement that London was considering joining Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika into an East African federation. Many politically aware Ugandans knew that the similar Central African Federation was dominated by white settlers and feared that an East Africa counterpart would be dominated by the racist settlers of the White Highlands in Kenya, where the Mau Mau Uprising was being bitterly fought. In the complete lack of popular confidence in his rule, Cohen was forced to agree to Buganda demands for a continued privileged status in the new constitution. The major dissenters were the Baganda Catholics, which had been marginalized since 1892 and were organized into the Democratic Party (DP) of Benedicto Kiwanuka, and the Uganda People's Congress (UPC), a coalition of non-Baganda groups, determined not to be dictated to by the Baganda, led by Milton Obote. After much political manoeuvering, Uganda entered independence in October 1962 under an alliance of convenience between the UPC and Kabaka Yekka (KY), a Buganda separatist party, against the DP. The Kabaka was named ceremonial head of state, while Obote became prime minister. Early independent Uganda (1963–1970) In January 1964, several army units rebelled, demanding higher pay and more rapid promotion. Obote was forced to request the assistance of the British military in putting down the revolt, but ultimately caved in to all of the demands. The obvious lack of civilian control of the military resulted in the rapid expansion of the army and its resulting importance in political affairs. Obote also chose a young army officer, Idi Amin Dada, as his personal protege. Later that year, Obote made a deal with several DP ministers in which they would cross the floor to join the UPC if Obote could return the "lost counties". The kabaka opposed the planned referendum and sent 300 Baganda veterans to Bunyoro to intimidate voters. In response, 3,000 Banyoro soldiers massed on the Bunyoro-Buganda border. Civil war was avoided when the kabaka backed down, allowing the referendum in which the populations of the "lost counties" overwhelmingly expressed a desire to return to the Bunyoro kingdom. In early 1966, Obote consolidated central power by stripping the monarchs of the five kingdoms of their titles and forced them into exile. The UPC itself fell into disarray in 1966 after it was revealed that Obote and his associates, including Amin, were smuggling arms to a secessionist group in neighboring Congo in return for ivory and gold. Faced with nearly unanimous disapproval, Obote did not take the expected step of stepping down as prime minister, but instead had Amin and the army carry out what was in effect a coup d'état against his own government. After suspending the constitution, arresting dissident UPC ministers and taking the powers of the presidency for his own, he announced the promulgation of a new constitution abolishing the autonomy of the kingdoms guaranteed by the former federal system. When the Baganda protested, now-President Obote sent the army under Amin to attack the palace of the kabaka. The Battle of Mengo Hill resulted in the palace being overrun, with the kabaka barely escaping into exile. With his opponents arrested, in flight, or co-opted, Obote secured his position with the creation of the General Service Unit, a system of secret police staffed mostly with ethnic kinspeople from the Lango region. Nevertheless, Obote narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in December 1969, apparently carried out by Baganda monarchists. In early 1970, the mysterious murder of Acap Okoya, the sole rival to Amin among the senior military officers, led Obote to grow suspicious of Amin. Later that year, Obote escaped another assassination attempt after the attackers mistakenly targeted the car of the vice-president. However, Obote could take no direct action as he was totally reliant upon the army that Amin led to keep him in power. In response, Obote increased the recruitment of ethnic Acholi and Langi to counter the recruitment by Amin of soldiers from his home West Nile sub-region. In October 1970, Obote put Amin under house arrest on charges of increasing military expenditure over budget, as well as continuing to support Sudan's Anyanya rebel group in the civil war against the government of Gaafar Nimeiry, after Obote had decided to switch his support to Nimeiry. Amin was close friends with several Israeli military advisors that were helping to train the army and there is much speculation that they had influenced him to continue supporting the Anyanya, which was also the recipient of Israeli military aid. Under Idi Amin (1971–1979) Despite protestations by Amin that he remained loyal, Obote decided to rid himself of the perceived threat in January 1971. While leaving on a foreign trip, Obote ordered Langi military officers to arrest Amin and his close supporters. However, word of the plot was leaked to Amin before it could be carried out, prompting Amin to carry out a pre-emptive coup. The successful coup is often cited as an example of "action by the military", where the Ugandan Armed Forces acted against a government whose politics posed more of a threat to the military privileges. One of the priorities of the new president was mass executions of Acholi and Langi troops, which owed their loyalty to Obote. In July 1971, Lango and Acholi soldiers were massacred in the Jinja and Mbarara Barracks, and by early 1972, some 5,000 Acholi and Lango soldiers had disappeared. Amin's rule was welcomed by the Baganda, but tens of thousands of Obote supporters fled south into Tanzania. Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere would prove to be a strong opponent of the Amin government, an attitude mirrored by Kenya, South Africa and the Organisation for African Unity, though Israel, Great Britain and the United States were quick to recognize the legitimacy of the Amin government. While the military had grown under Obote, it multiplied in size under Amin, who characterized the government in military terms. He renamed Government House "the Command Post", placed military tribunals over civil courts, appointed military commanders to head civilian ministries and parastatals, and informed civilian cabinet ministers that they were subject to military law. The commanders of barracks located around the country became the de facto rulers of their regions. Despite the characterization of the country in terms of a military command structure, the administration was far from well-organized. Amin, like many of the officers he appointed to senior positions, was illiterate, and thus gave instructions orally, in person, by telephone or in long rambling speeches. The regime was subject to deadly internal rivalries. One area of competition was a rivalry between British-trained officers and Israeli-trained officers, who both opposed the many untrained officers, resulting in many trained officers being purged. The purges also had the effect of creating promotion opportunities; commander of the air force Smuts Guweddeko began as a telephone operator. Another contest was religious in nature. In order to gain supplies from Libya, in early 1972 Amin expelled the Israeli advisers, who had helped put him in power, and became virulently anti-Zionist. To gain the favor of Saudi Arabia he embraced his Islamic heritage, raising hopes among Ugandan Muslims that their defeat in 1892 would be redressed. Amin deployed soldiers to aid Egypt and provided financial support to the Arab nations during the Yom Kippur War. When Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - External Operations and German Revolutionary Cells (RZ) terrorists hijacked a plane in 1976 and landed it at Entebbe International Airport, Israeli commandos carried out a raid that successfully freed most of the hostages. Criticism by the Church of Uganda of army abuses would lead to the murder of Archbishop Janani Luwum. With his reputation with Western nations in tatters after the hijacking, Amin began to purchase weapons from the Soviet Union. As his regime neared its end, Amin became increasingly eccentric and bellicose. In 1978 he conferred the decoration Conqueror of the British Empire upon himself. The government all but ceased to function as the constant purges of senior ranks by the increasingly paranoid Amin caused officials to refrain from making any decisions for fear of making the 'wrong' one. Anti-Amin rebellion and the Ugandan-Tanzanian War Amin was also preoccupied with the dissident groups that Obote had gathered in exile in Tanzania. In late 1972, a small rebel force crossed the border with the apparent intention of capturing the army outpost at Masaka, but stopped short and instead waited in expectation of a popular uprising to overthrow Amin. The uprising did not materialize and the Obote-aligned force was expelled by the Malire Mechanical Regiment. The event prompted Amin to task the General Service Unit, now renamed the Special Research Bureau, and the newly formed Public Safety Unit with an intensified search for suspected subversives. Thousands of people were disappeared. Amin also retaliated by further purging the army of Obote supporters, predominantly those from the Acholi and Lango ethnic groups. The political environment became increasingly unstable and paranoia-inducing as the regime continued and Amin's circle of supporters grew smaller and smaller due to the purges and disappearances. In 1978, General Mustafa Adrisi, an Amin supporter, was injured in a suspicious automobile accident and units loyal to him, including the once-loyal Malire Mechanized Regiment, mutinied. Amin sent loyalist units to crush the uprising, causing some of the mutineers to flee south into Tanzania. Amin, seeking to deflect blame and rally the populace, then accused Tanzania's Nyerere of being the cause of the fighting and sent troops across the border to formally annex 700 miles of Tanzania known as the Kagera Salient on 1 November 1978. In response, Nyerere declared a state of war and mobilized the Tanzania People's Defence Force for a full-scale conflict. Within several weeks, the Tanzanian army was expanded from 40,000 to over 100,000 with the addition of police, prison guards, militia and others. They were joined by the various anti-Amin forces, who in March 1979 coalesced into the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF). The UNLF was composed of the Obote-led Kikosi Maalum and the Front for National Salvation, led by political newcomer Yoweri Museveni, as well as several smaller anti-Amin groups. The Tanzanian army, with the support of the UNLF, drove the Ugandan forces out of Tanzania and began an invasion of Uganda. The Ugandan army offered little resistance and retreated steadily, spending much of its energies looting the countryside. Libya's Muammar al-Gaddafi sent 3,000 troops to support the Ugandan defense, but these troops found themselves fighting on the front lines, as Ugandan units in the rear commandeered their supply trucks to carry their plunder away. On 11 April 1979, Kampala fell to the invaders and Amin fled into exile, marking the first time in the post-colonial era that an African nation successfully invaded another. Disunity and the Ugandan Bush War (1979–1986) The lack of cohesion between the various Ugandan groups that formed the UNLF quickly became apparent as president Yusuf Lule was replaced by Godfrey Binaisa, a former minister in the UPC. While the UNLF force that helped overthrow Amin numbered only 1000, in 1979, Museveni and David Oyite-Ojok, a Langi like Obote, began a massive recruitment of soldiers into what were in-effect their personal armies. When Binaisa attempted to stop this rapid military expansion, he was deposed by Museveni, Oyite-Ojok and Obote-stalwart Paulo Muwanga. After Muwanga's rise to power, Obote returned to the country to stand in elections. In an intensely contested and highly compromised election held on December 10, 1980, Obote was re-elected president with Muwanga as his vice-president. In response, Museveni declared armed opposition to Obote's UNLF government. In 1980, Museveni merged his Popular Resistance Army (PRA) with Lule's Uganda Freedom Fighters, forming the National Resistance Army (NRA). As well as the NRA, two rebel groups based in Amin's home West Nile sub-region emerged: the Uganda National Rescue Front and the Former Uganda National Army. The beginning of the Ugandan Bush War was marked by an NRA attack in the central Mubende District on 6 February 1981. The NRA insurgency was based largely in the anti-Obote strongholds of central and western Buganda and the former kingdoms of Ankole and Bunyoro. Fighting was particularly intense in the Luwero triangle of Buganda, where the bitter memory of the counterinsurgency efforts of the UNLF's Langi and Acholi soldiers against the populace would prove an enduring legacy. The NRA was highly organized, forming Resistance Councils in areas they controlled to funnel recruits and supplies into the war effort. In comparison, the inability of the UNLF government to defeat the rebels both in the west and West Nile proved devastating to the unity of the government, while the brutality of the counter-insurgency further inflamed anti-Obote sentiment in the occupied areas. Following the death of General Oyite-Ojok in a helicopter crash at the end of 1983, the Acholi-Langi alliance began to fracture. On 27 January 1985, Acholi troops under Brigadier Bazilio Olara-Okello staged a successful coup and put fellow Acholi General Tito Okello into the presidency as Obote once again fled into exile, this time for good. The Okello government had little policy besides self-preservation. After an Okello-Museveni peace agreement broke down, the NRA began a final offensive and entered Kampala in January 1986 as the Acholi troops fled north to their homeland. Yoweri Museveni declared the presidency on January 29, 1986. Estimates for the death toll for the 1981-5 period, which includes the Bush War, conflict in West Nile and internecine UNLF purges and fighting, range as high as 500,000. Under Museveni (1986-ongoing) Internal conflicts Northern Uganda The new NRA government's occupation of the north was challenged by rebel groups formed among the former supporters of Obote. The Acholi coalesced into the Uganda People's Democratic Army (UPDA), largely composed of former army soldiers, in 1986 while a series of perceived outrages prompted the formation the following year of the similarly comprised Uganda People's Army (UPA) by the Iteso, who were closely allied with the Langi. Both the Acholi and Iteso were subject to a devastating series of cattle raids by Karamojong along their western border, which resulted in loss of much of the region's wealth. The UPA rebellion reached a height of intensity in the late 1980s, before a settlement was negotiated in 1992. The UPDA rebellion also soon faltered and resulted in a peace accord in 1988. However, the situation in Acholiland was compounded after spirit medium Alice Auma declared divinely inspired leadership of a Holy Spirit Movement to retake the capital and initiate a heaven on earth. While Auma's force was defeated in the forests near Kampala in August 1987, its relative success inspired Joseph Kony, also a self-proclaimed spirit medium, and a relative of Auma's, to form a new group that would come to be known as the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA). One of Africa's longest-running military conflicts, the hostilities between the Ugandan military, renamed the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF) following the promulgation of the new 1995 uganda constitution, and the insurgent LRA have been ongoing since 1987. In September 2006 a ceasefire was declared after peace talks. The LRA is accused of widespread human rights violations, including mutilation, torture, rape, the abduction of civilians, the use of child soldiers and a number of massacres. Operating in a vast swathe of northern Uganda, southern Sudan and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the LRA has, at various times, caused the displacement of the majority of civilians in its areas of operations with the support of militias allied with the Sudanese government in its own civil war. West Nile The situation in West Nile, located in the northwestern corner of the country, also remained fluid. While many members of the Uganda National Rescue Front, formed by Amin supporters to oppose Obote, were integrated into the new NRA military, some joined the West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), formed by Juma Oris in 1986 to oppose the NRA government. The WNBF was, like the LRA, highly active along the porous Uganda-Sudan border until a counterinsurgency operation focused on civil-military cooperation was initiated by Major General Katumba Wamala in 1996, which, coupled with Ugandan-backed Sudan People's Liberation Army attacks upon the WNBF's rear areas in Sudan, resulted in the WNBF dwindling into obscurity by 1998. However, some rebels instead formed the Uganda National Rescue Front II, which operated with Sudanese support in Aringa County, Arua District, until it signed a formal ceasefire in 2002. Western Uganda In contrast to the endemic insecurity in West Nile and northern Uganda that continued well past the NRA's rise to power, much of the rest of the country remained stable and relatively peaceful. The one exception has been the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), a rebel group formed in 1996 by puritanical Muslim Ugandans of the Tablighi Jamaat sect after a merger with the remnants of the rebel National Army for the Liberation of Uganda. The ADF based themselves in the Ruwenzori Range along Uganda's western border with the DRC and by 1998 had carried out attacks on civilians that resulted in tens of thousands of internally displaced persons, as well as thrown bomb attacks on restaurants and markets in Kampala and other towns. By 1999, military pressure by the UPDF forced the ADF into small uncoordinated bands. In December 2005, the Congolese government and United Nations mission carried out a military operation to finally destroy ADF bases in the DRC's Ituri Province. External conflicts Great Lakes region During his rebellion, Museveni recruited heavily from the Rwandan refugees located in the southwest of the country; of the 27 original members of the NRA, two were Tutsi refugees: Fred Rwigyema and Paul Kagame. Tutsi refugees formed a disproportionately large number of officers in the NRA for the simple reason that they joined early and had accumulated more experience. After his 1986 victory, Museveni rewarded their long service by appointing Rwigyema to the second-highest military post and Kagame to the post of acting head of military intelligence. Many Tutsi veterans were also members of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), which was initially created as an intellectual forum. However, a nativist backlash resulted in the refugees feeling increasingly unwelcome. On 1 October 1990, the RPF invaded Rwanda, stating that they were fighting for a just government and the right to return, thus beginning the Rwandan Civil War. With the initial offensive repulsed, the RPF retrenched for a long guerrilla struggle. Museveni would later tacitly admit that he had not been consulted prior to the invasion but, faced with the choice of offering aid and sanctuary to his old comrades in the RPF or watching them defeated along Uganda's southern burden, chose to offer assistance. Roméo Dallaire, the head of United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (1993–1994), would later complain of the substantial restrictions the Ugandan government put on his efforts to discover military supplies surreptitiously transported to RPF-held areas in northern Rwanda. The start of the Rwandan genocide in April 1994 reignited the civil war between the RPF and Rwandan government. The victory of the RPF in August 1994 prompted a massive outflow of refugees into neighboring countries, in particular Zaire. Zairean president Mobutu Sese Seko had been a strong supporter of the Hutu government of Rwanda, as well as having given Obote military aid in the Ugandan Bush War, and the refugee camps in Zaire quickly became militarized by Hutu insurgents and ex-Rwandan Armed Forces. In 1996, Rwanda sponsored the rebel Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Zaire (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, with the support of Uganda. The first task of the AFDL was to break up the large refugee camps, after which it marched to Kinshasa, overthrew Mobutu and put Kabila into the presidency in 1997. Kabila renamed the country the "Democratic Republic of the Congo" (DRC). (See First Congo War.) Kabila attempted to sever his connections with his Rwandan backers in 1998, resulting in the deadliest conflict since World War II, which drew in eight nations and many more armed groups. Museveni apparently persuaded an initially reluctant High Command to go along with the venture. "We felt that the Rwandese started the war and it was their duty to go ahead and finish the job, but our President took time and convinced us that we had a stake in what is going on in Congo", one senior officer is reported as saying. The official reasons Uganda gave for the intervention were to stop a "genocide" against the Banyamulenge in DRC in concert with Rwandan forces, and that Kabila had failed to provide security along the border and was allowing the ADF to attack Uganda from rear bases in the DRC. In reality, the UPDF were not deployed in the border region but more than 1,000 kilometres (over 600 miles) to the west of Uganda's frontier with Congo in support of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), a Uganda-backed group formed in September 1998. The lack of Ugandan security forces in the border region allowed the ADF to successfully attack Fort Portal, a large western town, and capture a prison. The war ended in 2003 with the removal of foreign troops and the country's first election. Similar to many other African nations involved, the war has created several problems for Uganda. In 2000 the United States Military suspended the UPDF cooperation in the African Crisis Response Initiative until 2003. Several officers in the Ugandan Army have come under attack for their actions during the war. The Ituri Conflict is an ongoing conflict between Lendu and Hema ethnic groups in the Ituri region. Led by General James Kazini of the Ugandan Army it was a joint operations between the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo peacekeeping force and DRC forces against the Nationalist and Integrationist Front. Sudan In the 1990s, the United States developed the Front Line States Initiative, in which Uganda, Ethiopia and Eritrea were identified as linchpins in containing Sudan. These states were provided "defensive, nonlethal military assistance" against Sudan-backed insurgencies and Sudanese sponsorship of international terrorism. Peacekeeping The Ugandan Military has been active in many international peacekeeping missions with both the African Union and the United Nations. It has provided troops to many African Union Peacekeeping missions along with providing civilian police for the United Nations Peacekeeping missions. Uganda was among the many African nations that have deployed troops as part of the African Union Mission in Sudan, established in 2004 to provide for security and peacekeeping in the Darfur region. This has helped raise the number of troops from 150 up to 3,300. The African Union Mission to Somalia was . The current leader of the African Union Mission to Somalia, established on January 19, 2007 to provide security and peacekeeping in the region during the Somali Civil War, is General Levi Karuhanga from Uganda. Uganda has currently deployed 15,000 troops in the region. The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea was established in 2000 to monitor the ceasefire that ended the border war between Ethiopia and Eritrea. The mission has remained in place in order to formally mark the border between the two countries. Uganda has deployed military troops to assist in the peacekeeping. The United Nations Mission in Sudan was established in 2005 to monitor the Comprehensive Peace Agreement that ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. Currently there are 15,000 military troops and 715 civilian police. Uganda has currently deployed police as part of the peacekeeping force. References

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Teófilo Stevenson Lawrence (29 March 1952 – 11 June 2012) was a Cuban amateur boxer, who competed from 1966 to 1986. He won the Val Barker Trophy (1972) and was honored with the Olympic Order (1987). Stevenson is one of only three boxers to win three Olympic gold medals, alongside Hungarian László Papp and fellow Cuban Félix Savón. He might have become a five-time Olympic champion had the Cuban authorities allowed the Cuban boxing team to participate in the 1984 and 1988 Summer Olympics, which they boycotted.> Early years Stevenson was born in Puerto Padre, Cuba. His father, Teófilo Stevenson Patterson, was an immigrant from Saint Vincent. His mother Dolores Lawrence was a native Cuban, but her parents were immigrants from the Anglophone island of Saint Kitts. Teófilo senior arrived in Cuba in 1923, finding work wherever he could, before settling in Camagüey with Dolores, where he gave English lessons to top up his meagre earnings. Due to his large size, Teófilo senior was encouraged into boxing by local trainers, fighting seven times before becoming disillusioned by the corrupt payment structure on offer to young fighters. Teófilo junior was a shiftless but bright child who at nine years old soon found himself sparring at the makeshift open-air gym his father had frequented. Under the tutelage of former national light heavyweight champion John Herrera, Teófilo junior began his career fighting far more experienced boxers, but according to Herrera, "had what it took". Despite his growing involvement in the sport, Stevenson had yet to tell his mother about his activities. Eventually Teófilo Sr. broke the news to his wife, who was furious; but she agreed to acquiesce on the provision that the boy was accompanied by his father. Boxing career Beginnings The young Stevenson continued to improve under Herrera in the mid 1960s, winning a junior title and gaining additional training in Havana. His victories drew the attention of Andrei Chervonenko, a head coach in Cuba's newly implemented state sports system. Professional sports throughout the island had been outlawed since 1962 by government resolution 83-A, and all boxing activity had come under the guidance of the government sponsored National Boxing Commission. Chervonenko, a retired boxer himself, sent by the Soviet Union, who had created Cuba's Escuela de Boxeo (Boxing school) in a derelict old gym in Havana, began to champion Stevenson's progress. Stevenson's senior boxing career began at age seventeen with a defeat in the national championships against the experienced heavyweight Gabriel Garcia. Despite the setback, Stevenson went on to register convincing victories over Nancio Carrillo and Juan Perez, two of Cuba's finest boxers in the weight division, securing a place in the national team for the 1970 Central American and Caribbean Boxing Championships. Defeat in the final after three victories was considered no shame, and Stevenson firmly established himself as Cuba's premier heavyweight. Back in the gym Chervonenko and leading Cuban boxing coach Alcides Sagarra worked on Stevenson's jab, which became his ultimate weapon, and paid dividends when the Cuban easily defeated East Germany's Bernd Anders in front of a surprised Berlin crowd. The victory made the entire amateur boxing world take notice of Stevenson as a serious heavyweight contender. Munich Olympics 1972 Stevenson, now twenty, joined the Cuban boxing team for the Munich Olympics of 1972. His opening bout against experienced Polish fighter Ludwik Denderys began dramatically when Stevenson knocked the other man down within thirty seconds of the opening bell. The fight was stopped moments later due to a large cut next to the Pole's eye. Proceeding to the quarter finals, Stevenson met American boxer Duane Bobick. Bobick, a gold medalist at the 1971 Pan American Games, had beaten Stevenson previously. After a close first round, Stevenson lost the second, but a ferocious display in the third round knocked Bobick to the canvas three times and the contest was stopped. The victory was viewed on television throughout Cuba, and is still considered Stevenson's most memorable performance. Stevenson easily defeated German Peter Hussing in the semifinal by TKO in the second round, and received his gold medal after Romanian Ion Alexe failed to appear in the final due to injury. The Cuban boxing team won three gold medals, their first in Olympic boxing history, as well as one silver and one bronze. The Munich games established Cuba's dominance over the amateur sport that was to last decades. It also established Stevenson as the world's premier amateur heavyweight boxer. Less than two years after his successful performance at the Munich Olympics, Stevenson, then 22-years-old, was rewarded with a house for himself in Havana and another for himself and his family in Delicias. Stevenson later recalled: "I had no idea the house in Delicias was going to be so big. When I was shown the plans, I said, 'What is this? A bunker?’" AIBA President Anwar Chowdhry, when asked did the Cuban authorities acted properly in giving Stevenson two houses and two cars, said: "These things should not be allowed. If gifts are to be given it should be for everybody—not for a few." Over tea in his office in Havana's Sports City Coliseum, INDER President Conrado Martínez Corona defended the local practice of giving cars and apartments to top athletes. "Our country has the obligation of solving the problems of all citizens—the problems of their nourishment, housing, education and health," he said. "It's a pity we can't solve this problem in the way we need to for everybody." Prime years Stevenson did the same at the inaugural 1974 World Championships in Havana, Cuba, and then in the 1976 Summer Olympics, held in Montreal, Stevenson repeated the feat once again. By then, he had become a national hero in Cuba. This was the point where he was the closest to signing a professional contract, as American fight promoters offered him US$5 million to challenge world heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali. If he had accepted, it would have made Stevenson the second boxer to go straight from the Olympics into a professional debut with the world's Heavyweight crown on the line, after Pete Rademacher. Stevenson refused the offer, however, asking "What is one million dollars compared to the love of eight million Cubans?" Stevenson went to the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow and became the second boxer ever, after Papp, to win three Olympic boxing gold medals. Stevenson participated at the 1982 World Amateur Boxing Championships in Munich, but lost to the eventual silver medalist and future professional world champion Francesco Damiani from Italy. This fight ended an eleven-year unbeaten run by Stevenson and was the only occasion that he did not win the gold medal at the World Championships when he entered the competition. His loss by a split decision to Aleksandr Lukstin of the Soviet Union in the finals of the 1983 Córdova Cardín, as the Soviet head coach Kontsantin Koptsev later admitted, was due to a plaster-like tape they handwrapped Lukstin's fists instead of a regular elastic-band hand wrapping. Stevenson might have won a fourth gold medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics, but the Soviet Union boycotted the games, which were hosted by Los Angeles, in retaliation for the American boycott of the 1980 Moscow competition. Cuba followed the Soviet lead, and Stevenson did not compete. For consolation, he beat future Olympic champion Tyrell Biggs in February 1984 (breaking three ribs in a process) and won the super heavyweight gold at the 1984 Friendship Games, defeating Ulli Kaden of East Germany and, in the final, Valeriy Abadzhyan of the Soviet Union. At the 1986 World Amateur Boxing Championships, he won the super heavyweight gold, defeating Alex Garcia from the United States in the final. Stevenson retired from boxing shortly after the 1988 Summer Olympics, which Cuba also boycotted. Rivalry with Vysotsky Teófilo Stevenson was known for two fights with Soviet boxer Igor Vysotsky, who defeated Stevenson twice. Vysotsky later revealed in his interview to East Side Boxing: Vysotsky was the only boxer out of hundreds of Stevenson's opponents to ever stop him, let alone by knockout, and to defeat him twice, both times in his prime, without being avenged. And on top of it, Vysotsky scored his first victory over Stevenson at the Córdova Cardín, Cubans' home tournament, where they do their best to never let any foreigner get into the finals. Stevenson's second loss to Vysotsky happened six weeks before his knockout winning streak at the 1976 Olympics in Montreal, which ended up with a victories over John Tate and Mircea Șimon. After losing to Vysotsky for a second time he said, "Nobody is invincible." Highlights Local match-up (71 kg), Las Tunas, Cuba, October 1966 (debut): Lost to Luis Henríquez (Cuba) by decision National Youth Championships (+81 kg), Camagüey, Cuba, 1968 (no data available) VI Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Guantánamo, Cuba, November 1968: 1/4: Lost to Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) by decision VII Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Nueva Gerona, Cuba, December 1969: 1/2: Defeated Iván Rodríguez (Cuba) Finals: Lost to Gabriel García (Cuba) by decision Local match-up (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, 1970: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) KO Defeated Juan Pérez (Cuba) I Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, September 1970: 1/2: Defeated Visley Zulueta (Colombia) KO 1 Finals: Defeated Earl McClear (Bermuda) by decision III Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, October 1970: 1/4: Defeated Gabriel García (Cuba) RSC 3 1/2: Defeated Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) by decision Finals: Lost to Bernd Anders (East Germany) by decision VI Friendship Youth Tournament (+81 kg), Vidin, Bulgaria, October 1970: 1/4: Defeated Eckhard Findeisen (East Germany) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Dumitru Zelinta (Romania) RSC 2 Finals: Defeated Vladimir Saprykin (Soviet Union) RSC 1 Cuba–Czechoslovakia Duals (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, March 1971: Lost to Peter Sommer (Czechoslovakia) by decision Czechoslovakia–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Prague, Czechoslovakia, March 1971: Lost to Peter Sommer (Czechoslovakia) by decision Yugoslavia–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Titograd, Yugoslavia, April 1971: Defeated Iordan Obradović (Yugoslavia) DQ 3 Austria–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Vienna, Austria, May 1971: Defeated Erwin Suppik (Austria) KO 2 IV Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, June 1971: 1/2: Defeated Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) RET Finals: Defeated José Luis Cabrera (Cuba) by decision Panama–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Panama City, Panama, June 1971: Defeated Rolando Tey (Panama) RET Cuba–Bulgaria Duals (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, July 1971: Defeated Borislav Krastev (Bulgaria) DQ 2 Pan American Games (+81 kg), Cali, Colombia, August 1971: 1/4: Defeated Pablo Sarmiento (Argentina) by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Lost to Duane Bobick (United States) by unanimous decision, 0–5 Local match-up (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, September 1971: Defeated Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) RSC III TSC Tournament (+81 kg), Berlin, East Germany, October 1971: 1/4: Defeated Jerzy Skoczek (Poland) KO 3 1/2: Defeated Bernd Anders (East Germany) RSC 3 Finals: Defeated Josef Motýl (Czechoslovakia) RSC 1 Cuba–USSR Duals (+81 kg), Berlin, East Germany, October 1971: Lost to Yuri Nesterov (Soviet Union) by decision IX Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Nueva Gerona, Cuba, October–November 1971 (no medal awarded): 1/4: Defeated Francisco Molina (Cuba) KO 1/2: Defeated Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) by decision Finals: Defeated Luis Valier (Cuba) RSC II Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), San Juan, Puerto Rico, November 1971: Finals: Defeated Georgie Clemente (Puerto Rico) by walkover VII Friendship Youth Tournament (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, December 1971: 1/2: Defeated Borimir Kristiev (Bulgaria) RSC Finals: Defeated Vladimir Volkov (Soviet Union) by decision Cuba–USSR Duals (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, January 1972: Defeated Vladimir Volkov (Soviet Union) X Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, February–March 1972: 1/2: Defeated Francisco Molina (Cuba) KO Finals: Defeated Luis Valier (Cuba) KO 1 Cuba–Romania Duals (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, April 1972: Defeated Ion Alexe (Romania) by decision Czechoslovakia–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Ústí nad Labem, Czechoslovakia, April 1972: Defeated Josef Motýl (Czechoslovakia) KO 2 GDR–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Berlin, East Germany, 1972: Defeated Bernd Anders (East Germany) KO 2 III Chemistry Cup (+81 kg), Halle, East Germany, May 1972: 1/4: Defeated Dieter Limant (East Germany) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Eberhard Findeisen (East Germany) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Jürgen Fanghänel (East Germany) Local match-up (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, May 1972: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) KO V Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, July 1972: Finals: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) by decision XX Summer Olympics (+81 kg), Munich, West Germany, September 1972: 1/16: Defeated Ludwik Denderys (Poland) KO 1 1/4: Defeated Duane Bobick (United States) RSC 3 1/2: Defeated Peter Hussing (West Germany) RSC 2 Finals: Defeated Ion Alexe (Romania) by walkover III Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), San José, Costa Rica, November 1972: 1/2: Defeated Jack Powell (Jamaica) RET 1 Finals: Defeated Rafael Vega (Costa Rica) RSC 1 XI Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, February 1973: Finals: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) Golden Belt Tournament (+81 kg), Bucharest, Romania, April 1973: 1/4: Defeated Hennie Thoonen (Netherlands) RET 2 1/2: Defeated Ion Sanatescu (Romania) by decision Finals: Defeated Ion Alexe (Romania) RET 2 VI Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, July 1973: 1/4: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) RET 1/2: Defeated Peter Sommer (Czechoslovakia) KO 1 Finals: Lost to Igor Vysotsky (Soviet Union) by split decision, 2–3 IV Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), Mexico City, Mexico, November 1973: 1/4: Defeated Jimmy Russell (Jamaica) by walkover 1/2: Defeated Carlos Rivera (Venezuela) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Ismael Ruiz (Mexico) KO 1 XII Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, January 1974: 1/8: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) by decision 1/4: Defeated Nancio Carrillo (Cuba) by decision 1/2: Defeated Jesús Benítez (Cuba) RET Finals: Defeated José Luis Cabrera (Cuba) RET 1974 Central American and Caribbean Games (+81 kg), Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, March 1974: 1/2: Defeated Rafael Vega (Costa Rica) KO 1 Finals: Defeated Carlos Rivera (Venezuela) RET 1 Golden Belt Tournament (+81 kg), Bucharest, Romania, May 1974: 1/4: Defeated Marian Alexandru (Romania) RET 3 1/2: Defeated Ion Anghel (Romania) KO 2 Finals: Defeated Yevgeni Gorstkov (Soviet Union) by walkover VII Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Camagüey, Cuba, July 1974: 1/4: Defeated Elpidio Valier (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) RSC Finals: Defeated Pyotr Zayev (Soviet Union) RSC World Championships (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, August 1974: 1/8: Defeated Tshibangu Hweia (Zaire) by walkover 1/4: Defeated Peter Hussing (West Germany) KO 1 1/2: Defeated Fatai Avinia (Nigeria) by decision Finals: Defeated Marvin Stinson (United States) by unanimous decision, 5–0 V Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), Caracas, Venezuela, December 1974: 1/2: Defeated Rafael Vega (Costa Rica) by decision Finals: Defeated Carlos Rivera (Venezuela) by decision XIII Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, January 1975: 1/8: Defeated Germán Duvergel (Cuba) by walkover 1/4: Defeated José Luis Cabrera (Cuba) by decision 1/2: Lost to Adolfo Gálvez (Cuba) by walkover INDER Anniversary Festival (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, February 1975: Defeated Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) by unanimous decision, 5–0 XV Honvéd Cup (+81 kg), Budapest, Hungary, March 1975: 1/4: Defeated István Edocs (Hungary) by decision 1/2: Defeated Igor Kykotoorov ? (Soviet Union) by walkover Finals: Defeated Gennady Kokurin (Soviet Union) RSC 1 Golden Belt Tournament (+81 kg), Bucharest, Romania, April 1975: 1/4: Defeated Claudio Liendo (Venezuela) by walkover 1/2: Defeated Ilie Dascălu (Romania) RET 1 Finals: Defeated Mircea Șimon (Romania) by walkover VIII Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Las Villas, Cuba, July 1975: 1/2: Defeated Ricardo Casañas (Cuba) RSC 2 Finals: Defeated Dietmar Meyer (East Germany) RET 2 Pan American Games (+81 kg), Mexico City, Mexico, October 1975: 1/8: Defeated Gilberto Acuña (Costa Rica) RSC 1 1/4: Defeated Clarence Hill (Bermuda) by walkover 1/2: Defeated Jair De Campos (Brazil) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Michael Dokes (United States) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Local match-up (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, December 1975: Defeated David Villa (Cuba) RSC XIV Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Camagüey, Cuba, January 1976: 1/8: Defeated Ramón Lores (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated José Luis Cabrera (Cuba) by walkover 1/2: Defeated Glemond Crawford (Cuba) RET Finals: Defeated Julio Cañizares (Cuba) RSC Jamaica–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Kingston, Jamaica, February 1976: Defeated ? by decision Usov Memorial Tournament (+81 kg), Minsk, Belarus SSR, April 1976: 1/4: Defeated Leonid Zadorozhny (Soviet Union) RSCI 1 1/2: Defeated Nikolay Malykh (Soviet Union) RET 3 Finals: Lost to Igor Vysotsky (Soviet Union) KO 3 IX Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Pinar del Río, Cuba, May 1976: 1/8: Defeated Fidel César (Cuba) KO 2 1/4: Defeated José Ribalta (Cuba) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) by unanimous decision, 5–0 XXI Summer Olympics (+81 kg), Maurice Richard Arena, Montreal, Canada, July 1976: 1/16: Defeated Mamadou Drame (Senegal) KO 2 1/4: Defeated Pekka Ruokola (Finland) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated John Tate (United States) KO 1 Finals: Defeated Mircea Șimon (Romania) RET 3 Local match-up (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, February 1977: Defeated Luis Martínez (Cuba) KO Local match-up (+81 kg), Camagüey, Cuba, April 1977: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) by decision Local match-up (+81 kg), Matanzas, Cuba, April 1977: Defeated Roberto Gómez (Cuba) by decision Local match-up (+81 kg), Bayamo, Cuba, April 1977: Defeated Juan Pérez (Cuba) KO I Battle of Carabobo International Tournament (+81 kg), Caracas, Venezuela, June 1977: Finals: Defeated Woody Clark (United States) KO 3 X Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Matanzas, Cuba, July 1977: 1/8: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated Julio Quintero (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Fidel César (Cuba) by decision Finals: Defeated Roberto Gómez (Cuba) RET 3 VIII Central America and the Caribbean Championships (+81 kg), Panama City, Panama, August 1977: 1/4: Defeated José Ángel Castro (Venezuela) by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Defeated Mauricio Realajeno (El Salvador) KO 1 Finals: Defeated Rafael Vega (Costa Rica) by walkover XVI Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Camagüey, Cuba, January 1978: 1/16: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) RSC 1 1/8: Defeated Oscar Rodríguez (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated Ramón Lores (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Noel Grenot (Cuba) RSC Finals: Defeated Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) RSC 2 Cuba–USA Duals (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, February 1978: Defeated Jimmy Clark (United States) by split decision, 2–1 XXIX Strandzha Cup (+81 kg), Sofia, Bulgaria, March 1978: 1/4: Defeated Hans Müller (East Germany) KO 1 1/2: Defeated Georgi Lefterov (Bulgaria) by walkover Finals: Defeated Georgi Stoimenov (Bulgaria) RSC 3 Golden Belt Tournament (+81 kg), Bucharest, Romania, March 1978: 1/4: Defeated Gheorghe Axente (Romania) RET 1 1/2: Defeated Petre Ungureanu (Romania) by walkover Finals: Defeated Ion Cernat (Romania) RSC 1 XI Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Cienfuegos, Cuba, April 1978: 1/4: Defeated Ricardo Avilés (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Glemond Crawford (Cuba) RET 3 Finals: Defeated Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) KO 2 World Championships (+81 kg), Belgrade, Yugoslavia, May 1978: 1/8: Defeated Adama Mensah (Ghana) KO 1 1/4: Defeated Tony Tubbs (United States) by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Defeated Carlos Rivera (Venezuela) KO 2 Finals: Defeated Dragomir Vujković (Yugoslavia) RET 1 National Team Championships (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, September 1978: Defeated Fidel César (Cuba) by decision USA–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Madison Square Garden, New York City, October 1978: Defeated Jimmy Clark (United States) RSC 1 XVII Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Guantánamo, Cuba, January 1979: 1/8: Defeated Ramón Lores (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated Eliécer Silé (Cuba) RET 1/2: Defeated Rolando Herrera (Cuba) RSC Finals: Held Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) to a draw Cuba–USA Duals (+81 kg), Coliseo de la Ciudad Deportiva, Havana, Cuba, February 1979: Defeated Phillip Brown (United States) by unanimous decision, 3–0 VIII Chemistry Cup (+81 kg), Halle, East Germany, March 1979: 1/4: Defeated Lakhdar Kaddour (Algeria) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Werner Kohnert (East Germany) by split decision, 3–2 Finals: Defeated Jürgen Fanghänel (East Germany) by split decision, 3–2 Golden Belt Tournament (+81 kg), Bucharest, Romania, March 1979: Finals: Defeated Peter Hussing (West Germany) by walkover XII Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Havana, Cuba, May 1979: 1/8: Defeated Lázaro Figueras (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated Marcos Díaz (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Božidar Cvetić (Yugoslavia) by walkover Finals: Defeated Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) by majority decision, 4–1 VIII Pan American Games (+81 kg), Roberto Clemente Coliseum, San Juan, Puerto Rico, July 1979: 1/2: Defeated Rufus Hadley (United States) KO 1 Finals: Defeated Narciso Maldonado (Puerto Rico) RSC 1 National Team Championships (+81 kg), Puerto Padre, Cuba, September 1979: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) KO Defeated Rafael Lugo (Cuba) RSC Defeated Armando Lowí (Cuba) RSC XVIII Playa Girón National Championships (+81 kg), Pinar del Río, Cuba, January 1980: 1/4: Defeated Luis Martínez (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Roberto Gómez (Cuba) KO Finals: Held Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) to a draw USA–Cuba Duals (+81 kg), Charlotte Coliseum, Charlotte, North Carolina, February 1980: Defeated Jimmy Clark (United States) by split decision, 2–1 XI Ústí nad Labem Grand Prix (+81 kg) Ústí nad Labem, Czechoslovakia, April 1980: 1/2: Defeated Czesław Dawiec (Poland) RET 1 Finals: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) RSC 2 XX Honvéd Cup (+81 kg), Budapest, Hungary, April 1980: 1/4: Defeated Nikolay Timkin (Soviet Union) KO 1 1/2: Defeated Ferenc Somodi (Hungary) KO 2 Finals: Defeated István Lévai (Hungary) KO 3 XIII Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+81 kg), Holguín, Cuba, May–June 1980: 1/4: Defeated Rolando Herrera (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Defeated Lázaro Figueras (Cuba) by decision Finals: Lost to Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) by walkover XXII Summer Olympics (+81 kg), Moscow, Soviet Union, July–August 1980: 1/16: Defeated Solomon Ataga (Nigeria) KO 1 1/4: Defeated Grzegorz Skrzecz (Poland) KO 3 1/2: Defeated István Lévai (Hungary) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Finals: Defeated Pyotr Zayev (Soviet Union) by majority decision, 4–1 XIX Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Matanzas, Cuba, January–February 1981: 1/8: Defeated Hermes Córdova (Cuba) by walkover 1/4: Defeated Rolando Herrera (Cuba) RSC 1/2: Held Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) to a draw Finals: Defeated Roberto Taylor (Cuba) by walkover Local match-up (+91 kg), San José, Cuba, June 1981: Defeated Jorge Luis González (Cuba) by decision XX Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Cienfuegos, Cuba, January 1982: 1/4: Defeated Luis Palmar (Cuba) KO 1/2: Defeated Fidel César (Cuba) KO Finals: Held Ángel Milián Rivero (Cuba) to a draw XI Chemistry Cup (+91 kg), Halle, East Germany, March 1982: 1/2: Defeated Dietmar Mayer (East Germany) RSC 1 Finals: Lost to Ulli Kaden (East Germany) DQ 1 XV Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+91 kg), Guantánamo, Cuba, May 1982: 1/8: Defeated Orlando Ruíz (Cuba) RSC 1/4: Defeated Aleksandr Oreshkin (Soviet Union) RET 2 1/2: Defeated Horacio Navia Ruíz (Cuba) RET 2 Finals: Defeated Sergey Kirilitsyn (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 World Championships (+91 kg), Munich, West Germany, May 1982: 1/4: Lost to Francesco Damiani (Italy) by unanimous decision, 0–5 XIV Central American and Caribbean Games (+91 kg), Havana, Cuba, August 1982: 1/2: Defeated Nelson Rosas (Puerto Rico) KO 1 Finals: Defeated James Parson (United States Virgin Islands) RET 1 USA–Cuba Duals (+91 kg), Sparks Convention Center, Reno, Nevada, November 1982: Defeated Tyrell Biggs (United States) KO 2 XXI Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Las Tunas, Cuba, January 1983: 1/4: Lost to Jorge Luis González (Cuba) by decision Cuba–GDR Duals (+91 kg), n. a., 1983: Lost to Ulli Kaden (East Germany) by decision XVI Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+91 kg), Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, August 1983: 1/2: Defeated Epifanio Estrada (Cuba) by decision Finals: Lost to Aleksandr Lukstin (Soviet Union) by split decision, 2–3 North American Championships (+91 kg), Houston, Texas, September 1983: 1/2: Lost to Craig Payne (United States) by split decision, 2–3 XXII Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Manzanillo, Cuba, January 1984: Finals: Defeated Félix Lemus (Cuba) by decision USA–Cuba Duals (+91 kg), Sparks Convention Center, Reno, Nevada, February 1984: Defeated Tyrell Biggs (United States) by split decision, 3–2 XIII Chemistry Cup (+91 kg), Halle, East Germany, March–April 1984: 1/4: Defeated Olaf Walther (East Germany) KO 2 1/2: Defeated Pyotr Skok (Soviet Union) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) by majority decision, 4–1 AIBA International Challenge (+91 kg), Los Angeles, California, April 1984: Defeated Biaggio Chianese (Italy) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Intercup (+91 kg), Karlsruhe, West Germany, May 1984: 1/2: Defeated Karl-Heinz Geus (West Germany) KO 2 Finals: Defeated John Emmen (Netherlands) RSC 1 Cuba–USSR Duals (+91 kg), Havana, Cuba, August 1984: Defeated Valeriy Abadzhyan (Soviet Union) KO 2 Friendship Games (+91 kg), Havana, Cuba, August 1984: 1/2: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) KO 2 Finals: Defeated Valeriy Abadzhyan (Soviet Union) RET 3 III TSC Tournament (+81 kg), Berlin, East Germany, September 1984: Finals: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) KO 2 XXIII Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Nueva Gerona, Cuba, January 1985: 1/4: Lost to Félix Lemus (Cuba) by decision VI Military Spartakiad of the Friendly Armies of the Socialist Countries (+91 kg), Bydgoszcz, Poland, August 1985: 1/4: Defeated Khalil Nasser (Iraq) by walkover 1/2: Lost to Vyacheslav Yakovlev (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 0–5 IV TSC Tournament (+91 kg), Berlin, East Germany, September 1985: 1/2: Defeated Sergey Kormilitsyn (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Finals: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) by unanimous decision, 5–0 XXI Vaclav Prochazka Memorial (+91 kg), Ostrava, Czechoslovakia, October 1985: 1/4: Defeated ? Baguin (Czechoslovakia) 1/2: Defeated Ilya Iliev (Bulgaria) Finals: Defeated Biaggio Chianese (Italy) by walkover XXIV Playa Girón National Championships (+91 kg), Havana, Cuba, January 1986: 1/2: Defeated Juan Carlos Ortega (Cuba) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Félix Lemus (Cuba) RET 3 XXXVII Strandzha Cup (+91 kg), Sofia, Bulgaria, February 1986: 1/4: Defeated Aleksander Burmistrov (Bulgaria) by majority decision, 4–1 1/2: Defeated Petar Stoimenov (Bulgaria) KO 2 Finals: Defeated Lachezar Kamenov (Bulgaria) by unanimous decision, 5–0 XV Chemistry Cup (+91 kg), Halle, East Germany, March 1986: Finals: Lost to Ulli Kaden (East Germany) by unanimous decision, 0–5 XVII Ústí nad Labem Grand Prix (+91 kg) Ústí nad Labem, Czechoslovakia, March 1986: 1/2: Defeated Valeriy Aseyev (Soviet Union) RSC 2 Finals: Defeated István Lévai (Hungary) by unanimous decision, 5–0 XIX Giraldo Córdova Cardín Tournament (+91 kg), Guantánamo, Cuba, April 1986: 1/4: Lost to Osvaldo Castillo (Cuba) by majority decision, 1–4 World Championships (+91 kg), Sparks Convention Center, Reno, Nevada, May 1986: 1/8: Defeated Ulli Kaden (East Germany) by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/4: Defeated Petar Stoimenov (Bulgaria) KO 1 1/2: Defeated Vyacheslav Yakovlev (Soviet Union) by majority decision, 4–1 Finals: Defeated Alex García (United States) RSCH 2 He finished his twenty-years-long career having 332 fights under his belt, with a record of 302 wins, 22 losses (only 1 by knockout,) and 8 draws. Various western estimates totaling his record to 500+ fights, including there hundreds of unaccounted tough sparrings with a degree of aliveness outstanding for amateur boxing, which paid off with such an excellent career (his fearsome reputation alone brought him 22 walkover wins, and a number of byes to skip unnecessary encounters with a limited opposition.) 1984 and 1988 Summer Olympics Stevenson might have captured more gold medals for his country, but the Cuban government for purely political reasons boycotted the 1984 Los Angeles Games and refused to attend the 1988 Seoul Games because North Korea was not allowed to cosponsor the event. At his prime in the 1970s, Stevenson dominance in the amateur heavyweight division coincided with Muhammad Ali's reign as the world's heavyweight champion in professional boxing. Stevenson was often dubbed by the American media as Ali's "Communist twin", and speculations went back and forth as to their much anticipated fight if Stevenson would accept an offer to turn pro (which in essence meant to defect and to leave Cuba permanently). Along with Pete Rademacher, he was the only amateur boxer who was offered a shot at the world's heavyweight title in his potential pro debut. Eventually Ali spent one week in Cuba with Stevenson, but their matchup would never happen. Stevenson, when he finally met Ali, suggested to Ali to arrange a three- or four-round fight. Ali refused to fight Stevenson's way, implying he would face him off in a standard 15-round championship bout, in which he would have an edge by outlasting his opponent (al though in 1971 Ali himself invited the recent Soviet heavyweight champion Kamo Saroyan, who visited the United States, for a two-round bout). When the aging Ali was going to fight Larry Holmes in 1980, and Stevenson was making his way to the third gold medal in Moscow, Stevenson commented to the press that now it was Ali who should have insisted on a three- or four-round fight. Stevenson turned down several lucrative offers to go pro, which came from various internationally well-known U.S. boxing kingpins, most notably from Don King and Bob Arum. King's top rival Arum almost succeeded and came the closest to pulling off an Ali-Stevenson matchup when the Cubans accepted his $1 million offer for five three-round exhibition fights. "We plan to use this money for social problems," an INDER official said at the time. But the U.S. Treasury Department did not allow the series, saying that it violated terms of the U.S. embargo against Cuba. Apart from that attempt, Arum used a Jamaican promoter, Lucien Chen, as a mediator, to propose a $1 million fight against Leon Spinks. "I envisioned a fight that would be attended by the two presidents, Fidel Castro and Jimmy Carter," Chen said. Nevertheless, Stevenson's professional debut never did happen, because he remained loyal to the Cuban revolutionary ideals, never accepting any payday for himself, no matter how big it appeared. After knocking out three opponents at the Munich Olympics in September 1972, including Duane Bobick of the United States, Stevenson was approached by an American promoter, who offered him $1 million to turn pro on the spot. "I will not trade the Cuban people for all the dollars in the world," Stevenson was heard to say. "Stevenson would have been phenomenal as a pro, he could have been in the same class as Muhammad Ali or Joe Frazier. But we'll never know," said Don King. Retirement and later years Stevenson finished his sports career in 1988. He started to work as a boxing trainer and sports functionary. He worked at the National Institute for Sports, Physical Education, and Recreation (INDER,) also he served as vice president of the Cuban Boxing Federation. In 1999, Stevenson was arrested for an altercation incident at Miami International Airport where, before boarding a United Airlines chartered jet of the Cuban national boxing team, he allegedly headbutted a 41-year-old United Airlines ticket counter employee, knocking him off several teeth in the process. According to Stevenson, an "agitator" approached him at the airport shouting insults against the Cuban government and other things, which are sensitive to any Cuban. Stevenson failed to attend the subsequent court proceedings, having travelled to Havana after his release from custody while on bail. The Cuban state newspaper Trabajadores blamed what it described as the "Miami mafia" (i.e. Cuban exiles, whose vast diaspora reside in Florida) for provoking the incident, alleging that the Cuban American National Foundation organised a public gathering to abuse Stevenson when he returned to Miami airport after his arrest. The newspaper believed that the motives for the alleged provocation were somehow to cast a shadow upon a Cuban sports star. Death Stevenson died on 11 June 2012 of a heart attack in Havana at the age of 60. It was first reported by Cuban state media, stating that "the Cuban sporting family was moved today by the passing of one of the greatest of all time". It had been reported earlier by an anonymous sports official that Stevenson had suffered a heart attack. He is survived by his two children. A forthcoming documentary by Brin-Jonathan Butler, Split Decision, contains the last known interview with Stevenson. Awards and honours Stevenson was awarded the Val Barker Trophy for Outstanding Boxer at the 1972 Olympic Games. In 1972, Stevenson became a Merited Master of Sport of the USSR, one of a few foreign athletes to be awarded the title in its history. References External links Amateur career of Teófilo Stevenson (in Spanish) compiled by Pedro Cabrera Isidrón of the Cuban Olympics Committee. Last updated: 25 June 2008 1952 births People from Puerto Padre Cuban people of Saint Kitts and Nevis descent Cuban people of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines descent Cuban Roman Catholics Cuban communists Cuban engineers Super-heavyweight boxers Heavyweight boxers Olympic boxers of Cuba Olympic gold medalists for Cuba Boxers at the 1972 Summer Olympics Boxers at the 1976 Summer Olympics Boxers at the 1980 Summer Olympics Olympic medalists in boxing Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1976 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1980 Summer Olympics Boxers at the 1971 Pan American Games Boxers at the 1975 Pan American Games Boxers at the 1979 Pan American Games Pan American Games gold medalists for Cuba Pan American Games bronze medalists for Cuba Competitors at the 1974 Central American and Caribbean Games Competitors at the 1982 Central American and Caribbean Games Central American and Caribbean Games gold medalists for Cuba 2012 deaths Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR Recipients of the Olympic Order Cuban male boxers AIBA World Boxing Championships medalists Pan American Games medalists in boxing Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in boxing Medalists at the 1971 Pan American Games Medalists at the 1975 Pan American Games Medalists at the 1979 Pan American Games

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China painting, or porcelain painting, is the decoration of glazed porcelain objects such as plates, bowls, vases or statues. The body of the object may be hard-paste porcelain, developed in China in the 7th or 8th century, or soft-paste porcelain (often bone china), developed in 18th-century Europe. The broader term ceramic painting includes painted decoration on lead-glazed earthenware such as creamware or tin-glazed pottery such as maiolica or faience. Typically the body is first fired in a kiln to convert it into a hard porous biscuit or bisque. Underglaze decoration may then be applied, followed by glaze, which is fired so it bonds to the body. The glazed porcelain may then be painted with overglaze decoration and fired again to bond the paint with the glaze. Most pieces use only one of underglaze or overglaze painting, the latter often being referred to as "enamelled". Decorations may be applied by brush or by stenciling, transfer printing, lithography and screen printing. Porcelain painting was developed in China and later taken up in Korea and then Japan. Decorated Chinese porcelain from the 9th century has been found in the Middle East. Porcelain for trade with this region often has Islamic motifs. Trade with Europe began in the 16th century. By the early 18th century European manufacturers had discovered how to make porcelain. The Meissen porcelain factory in Saxony was followed by other factories in Germany, France, Britain and other European countries. Technology and styles evolved. The decoration of some hand-painted plates and vases from the 19th century resembles oil paintings. In the later part of the 19th century china painting became a respectable hobby for middle-class women in North America and Europe. More recently interest has revived in china painting as a fine art form. Technical aspects Paste The Chinese define porcelain as a type of pottery that is hard, compact and fine-grained, that cannot be scratched by a knife, and that resonates with a clear, musical note when hit. It need not be white or translucent. This porcelain is made of hard paste that mainly consists of kaolin, or china clay. The clay is mixed with petuntse, or china stone. The glaze is prepared from petuntse mixed with liquid lime, with less lime in the higher-quality glazes. The lime gives the glaze a hint of green or blue, a brilliant surface and a sense of depth. Hard-paste porcelain is fired to temperatures of . Soft-paste porcelain was invented in Europe. Soft-paste porcelain made in England from about 1745 used a white-firing clay with the addition of a glassy frit. The frit is a flux that causes the piece to vitrify when it is fired in a kiln. Soft-paste porcelain is fired to . The kiln must be raised to the precise temperature where the piece will vitrify, but no higher or the piece will sag and deform. Soft-paste porcelain is translucent and can be thinly potted. After firing it has similar appearance and properties to hard-paste porcelain. The use of calcined animal bones in porcelain was suggested in Germany in 1689, but bone china was only produced in Britain, with the first patent taken out in 1744. Bone china was perfected by Josiah Spode (1733–1797) of Stoke-upon-Trent in England. The basic formula is 50% calcined cattle bone, 25% Cornish stone and 25% china clay. The stone and clay are both derived from granite. The stone is a feldspathic flux that melts and bonds together the other ingredients. The bone gives the ware strength and helps it keep its shape during firing. The resulting material is strong, white and translucent, and resonates when struck. It is fired at a medium temperature, up to , which gives it a much better body than soft-paste objects with a glassy frit. The firing temperature is lower than for true porcelain, so more metal oxides can retain their composition and bond to the surface. This gives a wider range of colors for decoration. Earthenware pottery including tin-glazed pottery, Victorian majolica, Delftware and faience, is made of clays or earths that give a soft paste. Earthenware is opaque, with a relatively coarse texture, while porcelain is semi-transparent, with a fine texture of minute crystals suspended in a transparent glassy ground. Industrial manufacturers of earthenware pottery biscuit-fire the body to the maturing range of the clay, typically , then apply glaze and glaze-fire the piece at a lower temperature of about . With very vitreous (glass-like) bodies the manufacturer may spray on the glaze. Bone china is treated in this way, glaze-fired at a lower temperature after biscuit firing to about . With stoneware and porcelain the body is usually biscuit fired to , and then glost or glaze fired to . Because the glost temperature is higher than the biscuit temperature, the glaze reacts with the body. The body also releases gases that bubble up through the glaze, affecting the appearance. The same techniques are used to paint the various types of porcelain and earthenware, both underglaze and overglaze, but different pigments are used due to the different body characteristics and firing temperatures. Generally earthenware painting uses bolder, simpler designs, while china painting may be finer and more delicate. Underglaze painting Traditional porcelain in China included painting under the glaze as well as painting over the glaze. With underglaze painting, as its name implies, the paint is applied to an unglazed object, which is then covered with glaze and fired. A different type of paint is used from that used for overglaze painting. The glaze has to be subject to very high temperatures to bond to the paste, and only a very limited number of colors can stand this process. Blue was commonly used under the glaze and other colors over the glaze, both in China and in Europe, as with English Royal Worcester ware. Most pieces use only one of underglaze or overglaze painting. Underglaze painting requires considerably more skill than overglaze, since defects in the painting will often become visible only after the firing. During firing even refractory paints change color in the great heat. A light violet may turn into a dark blue, and a pale pink into a brown-crimson. The artist must anticipate these changes. With mazarine blue underglazing the decoration is typically fairly simple, using outline extensively and broad shading. The Japanese were known for their skill in depicting flowers, plants and birds in underglaze paintings that used the fewest possible brushstrokes. Overglaze painting Overglaze china paints are made of ground mineral compounds mixed with flux. Paints may contain expensive elements including gold. The flux is a finely-ground glass, similar to porcelain glaze. The powdered paint is mixed with a medium, typically some type of oil, before being brushed onto the glazed object. The technique is similar to watercolor painting. One advantage of overglaze china painting compared to oil or watercolor is the paint may be removed with a slightly wetted brush while the color is still moist, bringing back the original ground. Pieces with overglaze painting are often referred to as "enamelled". Open mediums do not dry in the air, while closed mediums do. An artist may prefer a medium that stays fluid for some time, may want one that dries hard, or may want a medium that remains somewhat sticky. If the medium dries hard the artist can build up layers of color, which will fuse together in a single firing. This can create unusual intensity or depth of color. If the medium remains sticky the artist can add to the design by dusting more color onto the surface, or can dust on an overglaze powder to create a high gloss surface. The artist may begin by sketching their design with a china marker pencil. When the painted object is fired in a kiln, the china marker lines and the medium evaporate. The color particles melt and flatten on the glaze surface, and the flux bonds them to the glaze. At sufficient heat the underlying glaze softens, or "opens". The color is strongly bonded to the glaze and the surface of the finished object is glossy. Mechanical approaches Stenciling was in use in the 17th century. A pattern is cut out of a paper form, which is placed on the ceramic. Paint is then dabbed through the stencil. Transfer printing from engraved or etched copperplates or woodblocks dates to around 1750. The plate is painted with an oil-and-enamel pigment. The surface is cleaned, leaving the paint in the cut grooves. The paint is then transferred to "potter's tissue", a thin but tough tissue paper, using a press. The tissue is then positioned face-down over the ceramic and rubbed to transfer the paint to the surface. This technique was introduced for both underglaze and overglaze transfer in Worcester in the mid-1750s. Lithography was discovered in 1797, at first used in printing paper images. An image is drawn with a greasy crayon on a smooth stone or zinc surface, which is then wetted. The water remains on the stone but is repelled by the grease. Ink is spread on and is repelled by the water but remains on the grease. Paper is then pressed onto the slab. It picks up the ink from the grease, thus reproducing the drawing. The process can be repeated to make many copies. A multicolored print could be made using different blocks for different colors. For ceramics, the print was made onto duplex paper, with a thin layer of tissue paper facing a thicker layer of paper. A weak varnish was painted on the ceramic surface, which could be slightly curved, then the duplex paper pressed onto the surface. The tissue paper was soaked off before firing. Later techniques were developed to photographically copy images onto lithograph plates. The technique, with its ability to transfer fine detail, is considered most suitable for onglaze decoration, although it has been used for underglaze images. The roots of natural sponges were used in Scotland to make crude stamps to decorate earthenware pottery in the 19th century and early 20th century. Rubber stamps were introduced in the 20th century to decorate porcelain and bone china with gold lustred borders. Screen printing was first introduced in Japan in the early 18th century, said to be the invention of Yutensai Miyassak. The early Japanese version was a refinement to stenciling that used human hairs to hold together parts of the stencil, such as the outside and center of a circle, so that visible bridges could be eliminated. Eventually the technique evolved to use fine screens, with some areas blocked by a film and some lines or areas left open to allow paint to pass through. Techniques were developed to transfer images to screens photographically. The process was in use for ceramics by the mid-20th century, and is now the main way of decorating ceramics. It can be used to print curved shapes such as mugs with underglaze, onglaze, glaze, wax resist and heated thermoplastic colors. Decals provide another mechanical method of transferring an image to a ceramic object. Asian porcelain China Possibly, as some authors claim, porcelain was already being made during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) in an attempt to make vessels similar to the glass vessels that were being imported from Syria and Egypt at the time. Certainly porcelain was being made in China in the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Over the years that followed the quality of the porcelain, the design and decoration became extremely refined. The pieces were thin and finely made, with subtle glazes, and later with elaborate painted decorations. The Chinese began exporting porcelain to Asia and the Near East in the 9th century. By the time of the Song dynasty (960–1279) the porcelain makers had achieved a high level of skill. Some experts consider their work to be unsurpassed in its purity of design. The Ding kilns in northern China began production early in the 8th century, where they produced sophisticated and beautiful porcelains and developed innovative kiln stacking and firing techniques. Ding ware had white bodies, and typically had an ivory-white glaze. However, some Ding ware had monochrome black, green and reddish brown glazes. Some were decorated with the sgraffito method, where surface layers were scaped away to expose a ground with a different color. Jingdezhen was among the first porcelain manufacturing centers in the south of China, with ready access to kaolin and petunse. In its day it was the world's most important center of porcelain production. Jingdezhen ware includes the famous decorated Qingbai pieces with shadow-blue glazes. Under the Yuan dynasty the use of underglaze cobalt blue decoration became popular. During the Ming dynasty (1369-1644) production of blue and white and red and white ceramics peaked. The Jingdezhen artisans developed and perfected use of overglaze enamels in the second half of the 15th century. They excelled in their floral, abstract or calligraphic designs. Korea Chinese ceramics began to be exported to Korea in the 3rd century. During the Goryeo period (918–1392) there was high demand for Chinese porcelain, and Korean potters used the imports as models. Distinctively Korean designs had emerged by the end of the 12th century, and the white porcelain of the reign of King Sejong of Joseon is quite unique. In 1424 there were 139 kilns in Korea producing porcelain. In 1592 Japan invaded Korea and took four hundred potters as prisoners to Japan. The Korean porcelain industry was destroyed while the Japanese industry boomed. The 1636 Manchu invasion caused further damage. The industry recovered and produced new forms with white or white and blue glaze. In the late 19th century the loss of state support for the industry and the introduction of printed transfer decoration caused the traditional skills to be lost. Japan The Japanese began to make porcelain early in the 17th century, learning from Chinese and Korean craftsmen how to fire the pieces and make underglaze blue cobalt decoration and overglaze enamel painting. In the mid-17th century the Japanese found a growing market from European traders who were unable to obtain Chinese porcelain due to political upheavals. Brightly-coloured Japanese export porcelain made around the town of Arita were called Imari porcelain ware by the Europeans, after the shipping port. Porcelain only painted in underglaze blue is traditionally called Arita ware. The craftsman Sakaida Kakiemon developed a distinctive style of overglaze enamel decoration, typically using iron red, yellow and soft blue. Kakiemon-style decorations included patterns of birds and foliage, and influenced designs used in European factories. The very refined Nabeshima ware and Hirado ware were not exported until the 19th century, but used for presentation wares among Japan's feudal elite. Other Far and Near East countries Some writers suspect that porcelain may have been independently invented in Persia alongside China, where it has been made for many centuries, but the Persian word chini implicitly acknowledges its origins in China. Others say the use of cobalt blue as a pigment for painting pottery was developed in the Middle East, and adopted in China for painting porcelain. However, this has been disputed, since the earliest Middle-Eastern pottery with cobalt blue decoration, from Samarra in Iraq in the 9th century, has Chinese shapes. At that time the potters in the region did not have the technology to make high-fire underglaze porcelain. It appears that the white glazed pottery with blue decoration was in imitation of imported porcelain from China. Chinese porcelain was prized by wealthy people in the Middle East from the time of the Tang dynasty. A large collection from the Ottoman sultans Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent is held by the Topkapı Palace museum in Istanbul. Another large collection of 805 pieces of Chinese porcelain, donated to the Ardabil Shrine by Shah Abbas I of Persia in 1607–08, is now held in Tehran's National Museum of Iran. Blue and white Chinese porcelains from the 14th to 16th centuries have also been found in peasant houses in Syria. Often the porcelain was designed for the market, with decorative designs that included prayers and quotations from the Koran in Arabic or Persian script. Large amounts of Ming porcelain had also been found in Iraq and Egypt, and also in Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, India and East Africa. European exports In the 16th century the Portuguese developed a limited trade in commonplace blue-and-white ware manufactured in China. In 1604 the Dutch captured a Portuguese carrack with about 100,000 porcelain items. These were auctioned at Amsterdam in August 1604 to buyers from across Europe. Over the period from 1604 to 1657 the Dutch may have brought 3,000,000 pieces of porcelain to Europe. Political upheavals then cut off most of the trade of porcelain from China until 1695. The Japanese began to produce ware for export in 1660, but the supply was uncertain. Trade with China reopened at the end of the 17th century, but the Dutch had lost their monopoly. A French ship reached Canton in 1698, and an English ship in 1699. In the years that followed large quantities of porcelain manufactured in China for trade purposes were imported to Europe, much of it in English ships. Jingdezhen production expanded to meet the demand for export porcelain. The Jesuit François Xavier d'Entrecolles wrote of Jingdezhen in 1712, "During a night entrance, one thinks that the whole city is on fire, or that it is one large furnace with many vent holes." The European traders began to supply models to show the manufacturers the form and decoration they required for tableware items unfamiliar to the Chinese. The French Jesuits provided paintings, engravers, enamels and even the painters themselves to the Imperial court, and these designs found their way into porcelain decoration. Colorful enamel paints, used in German tin-glazed pottery, gave rise to new techniques such as famille rose coloring in Chinese porcelain. Designs of European origin found their way onto many porcelain items made in China for export to Europe. At least 60 million pieces of Chinese porcelain were imported to Europe in the 18th century. European manufacture A first attempt to manufacture porcelain in Europe was undertaken in Florence, Italy in the late 16th century, sponsored by Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The "Medici porcelain" did not contain china clay, and was only made in small quantities. In the late 17th century Louis Poterat tried to manufacture porcelain at Rouen, France. Little of this has survived. Tea drinking became fashionable in Europe at the start of the 18th century, and created increasing demand for Oriental-style porcelain. Germany The Meissen porcelain factory near Dresden in Saxony was the first to successfully manufacture hard-paste porcelain in Europe. Painted porcelain wares that imitated oriental designs were being produced after 1715. Johann Joachim Kändler (1706–75) was the most famous sculptor at Meissen, creating vigorous models of figures and groups. The pieces had bright glazes and were painted in enamels with strong colors. Meissen's processes were carefully guarded from competitors. The secrets gradually leaked out, and factories were established in Prussia and at Vienna by the 1720s. After Saxony was defeated in the Seven Years' War (1756–63) the methods of making porcelain became widely known. By the late 18th century there were twenty-three porcelain factories in Germany. The Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Munich was renowned for its delicate modeling and fine decoration. France Factories also opened in France and England, and porcelain wares began to be produced in higher volumes at lower prices. In France, soft-paste porcelain was produced at Saint-Cloud from the 1690s. The Saint-Cloud painters were given the license to innovate, and produced lively and original designs, including blue-and-white pieces in the Chinese style and grotesque ornaments. A factory for white tin-glazed soft porcelain was founded at Chantilly around 1730. Many of its pieces was based on Kakiemon designs, using the Kakiemon colors of iron red, pale yellow, clear blue and turquoise green. Soft-paste porcelain was also made at Mennecy-Villeroy and Vincennes-Sèvres, and hard-paste porcelain was made at Strasbourg. Vincennes-Sèvres became the most famous porcelain factory in Europe in the later 18th century. It was known for its finely modeled and brightly colored artificial flowers, used to decorate objects such as clocks and candelabra. The factory at Sèvres was nationalized in 1793 after the French Revolution. After 1800 it stopped producing soft-paste and standardized on an unusually hard type of hard-paste using china clay from Saint-Yrieix, near Limoges. The factory produced many different painted designs for decoration. Later in the 19th century the art director Théodore Deck (1823–91) introduced manufacture of siliceous soft-paste pieces. The factory could make large objects that did not crack or split, and that could be decorated in rich colors due to the low firing temperature. Britain The first soft paste porcelain manufactured in Britain came from factories in London, soon followed by factories in Staffordshire, Derby and Liverpool. The painter and mezzotintist Thomas Frye (1710–62) produced fine bone china at his Bow porcelain factory in East London. Bone china was also made at Lowestoft, at first mainly decorated in underglaze blue but later with Chinese-style over-glaze that also included pink and red. Josiah Spode (1733–97), who owned a factory in Stoke-on-Trent from 1776, was a pioneer in use of steam-powered machinery for making pottery. He perfected the process for transfer printing from copper plates. His son, Josiah Spode the younger, began making fine bone china around the end of the 18th century, adding feldspar to the china body. The Spode porcelain was often embossed and decorated in Oriental patterns. The "willow pattern" is thought to have been introduced about 1780 by Thomas Turner of the Caughley Pottery Works in Shropshire. It takes elements from various Chinese designs, including a willow tree, a pair of doves, a pavilion and three figures on a bridge over a lake. Spode and Thomas Minton both manufactured printed blue-and-white pottery with this pattern. The Worcester Porcelain Company was established in 1751, mainly producing high-quality blue underglaze painted china. At first the decorations were hand painted. Around 1755 the factory introduced overglaze transfer printing, and in 1757–58 introduced underglaze blue transfer printing. Robert Hancock (1730–1817) executed the copper plates and developed the process of transfer printing. Japanese-inspired designs were introduced in the late 1750s. Overglaze hand-painted polychrome decoration was also produced by "the best painters from Chelsea etc.", or by independent decorating shops such as that of James Giles (1718–80). In the 1770s designs were often inspired by the Rococo style of early Sèvres pieces, including exotic birds or flowers on solid or patterned backgrounds. The company introduced a harder paste and harder, brighter glaze after 1796. Between 1804–13 the partner Martin Barr Jr. was responsible for production of superbly painted ornamental vases with landscapes or designs of natural objects such as shells or flowers. Josiah Wedgwood (1730–95) came from a family of potters. In 1754 he formed a partnership to make earthenware pottery, and became interested in coloring. He invented a rich green glaze for use in leaf and fruit patterns. He established his own pottery in Burslem in 1759, which prospered. His jasper ware is normally classed as a fine stoneware, but is similar to hard porcelain. In 1805 his company began to make a fine hard-paste porcelain in small quantities. Some of this was richly painted in floral designs and gilt. In 1836 Mr. John Martin testified before a select committee of the British House of Commons on Arts and Manufactures. He considered that china painting was in decline in his country and no original designs were being produced. French work was much higher in quality, perhaps due to government support. He did acknowledge that Wedgwood ware, made from the commonest materials, could be beautiful works of art. However, he preferred plain ware to poorly decorated ware. During the later Victorian era in Britain the Arts and Crafts movement popularized one-of-a-kind, hand-crafted objects. Commercial potteries such as Royal Doulton and Mintons employed young women with artistic talent to create hand-painted or hand-colored art pottery. Until as late as 1939, women in the ceramic industry in Britain were mostly confined to decorating, since they were thought to have special aptitude for repetitive detailed work. The trades' unions did what they could to handicap women even in these occupations, for example refusing to allow them to use hand rests. Often the women were used for subordinate tasks such as filling in outlines or adding decorative sprigs. Other European countries Porcelain was made in Italy in the 18th century in Venice, in Florence and in the Capodimonte porcelain factory founded in 1743 in Naples by King Charles IV of Naples and Sicily. The latter factory was transferred to Madrid in 1759 when Charles became king of Spain. Modeled figures were often not decorated, or were painted in subdued pastel colors. Porcelain was manufactured in Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands and Russia. The Imperial Porcelain Factory at Saint Petersburg made soft- and hard-paste porcelain, and flourished under Catherine the Great. It featured neoclassical designs with dark ground colors and antique-style cameo painting, including reproductions of engravings of Russian peasants. In 1803 the factory was reorganized by Alexander I, who introduced new products such as large vases with elaborate enamel paintings that were often very similar to oil paintings. Victorian era amateurs China painting became a fashionable hobby for wealthy young women in England in the 1870s. This followed the establishment by Mintons of a pottery painting studio in Kensington that provided employment for female graduates of the nearby National Art Training School. Howell & James opened a gallery in Regent Street where they put on annual china painting exhibitions judged by members of the Royal Academy of Arts. China painting also became popular in America. It was acceptable since it resembled other "parlor crafts" such as watercolor and glass painting. At first, men dominated the field of china painting as an artform. Thus Edward Lycett, who had learned his art in the Stoke-on-Trent potteries of England, moved to America where, "the only place where painting of the finer kind was being done as a regular business was at Mt. Lycett's wareroom; and here many ladies resorted to study the methods employed and the materials required." H.C. Standage wrote in Letts's Household Magazine in 1884, For the duration of the china painting craze, between about 1880 and 1920, many books on pottery making, focusing on painting, were published for the amateur in England and America, for example, A Handbook to the Practice of Pottery Painting by John Charles Lewis Sparkes, Headmaster of the National Art Training School and director of the Lambeth School of Art. Sparkes mentioned the tin-enamel of the Moors and of Gubbio and lustre ware (not the province of the amateur) and the work of William De Morgan. His book, published by a supplier of artists' materials, carried many adverts for colours and pottery blanks, brushes and teachers of pottery painting. Wheeler's Society of Decorative Art in New York taught pupils to paint simple floral motifs on ceramic tableware. The more talented and experienced china painters could move on to painting portrait plaques. Some women were able to develop professional careers as independent china painters. Rosina Emmet (1854–1948), sister of Lydia Field Emmet, became well known for her ceramic portrait plaques, with characteristic Aesthetic-style treatment. The portraits were either made from the live sitter or from a photograph. One portrait of a young girl that has survived was painted on a white glazed earthenware blank from Josiah Wedgwood & Sons. It is finely detailed, from the background of patterned wallpaper to the details of lacework and individual strands of hair, giving a realistic effect in the English tradition. Porcelain factories in France, Germany, England and the United States produced plates, bowls, cups and other objects for decoration by china painters. In 1877 McLaughlin recommended the hard French porcelain blanks. The "blanks" were plain white, with a clear glaze, and could be fired several times. Their price varied depending on size and complexity of the object's molding, ranging from a few cents to several dollars. The china painter could buy commercially produced powdered colors of mineral oxides mixed with a low-temperature flux. Some manufacturers sold paints pre-mixed with oil. In her 1877 A Practical Manual for the use of Amateurs in the Decoration of Hard Porcelain, the American Mary Louise McLaughlin dismissed the preconception that several firings were needed when the work included a variety of colors. She admitted that this could be desirable in porcelain factories, but it would not be practical for amateurs. McLaughlin always prepared her work for a single firing, using a technique similar to watercolors to finish the painting. At that time an amateur could obtain a small muffle furnace that could be used for small pieces. However, she recommended having the firing done by a professional, which would probably be safer, faster and cheaper. Often the amateur artist could take their work for firing to the same shop where they bought their colors and blanks. In 1887 the ceramic artist Luetta Elmina Braumuller of Monson, Massachusetts launched The China Decorator, A Monthly Journal Devoted Exclusively to this Art. The magazine found a ready market, with many subscribers in the US, Europe and other countries. It became recognized as the authority on all aspects of china painting, and continued to be published until 1901. An 1891 editorial in The China Decorator lamented the number of unqualified teachers who had failed to spend the six months or a year needed for a thorough artist to acquire reasonable knowledge of china painting techniques. The writer estimated that among the tens of thousands of professional and amateur china painters in the US there were at most 500 competent decorators. China decoration by amateurs was popular in America between about 1860 and 1920. As the practice declined, the artists were encouraged to make their own designs and to learn to throw pots. Those who succeeded were among America's first studio potters. Evolving styles and attitudes Overglaze decorations of earthenware, Faience or porcelain were traditionally made with carefully outlined designs that were then colored in. Later designs represented flowers, landscapes or portraits with little overpainting or blending of the colors. In the 20th century china painting techniques became more like oil painting, with blended colors and designs in which attention to light gives three-dimensional effects. More recently a style more like watercolor painting has become more common. For many years china painting was categorized as a craft, but in the 1970s feminist artists such as Judy Chicago restored it to the status of fine art. In 1979 Chicago wrote, Chicago spent a year and a half studying china painting. She became intrigued by the effort that amateur women had put into the undervalued art form. She wrote, "The china-painting world, and the household objects the women painted, seemed to be a perfect metaphor for women's domestic and trivialized circumstances. It was an excruciating experience to watch enormously gifted women squander their creative talents on teacups." Chicago was criticized by other feminists for her condescending views on "women's crafts." One wrote that "Chicago the feminist wants to give the china painters their historic due. Chicago the artist is offended by the aesthetic of what they have done." Noted china painters Thomas Baxter (1782–1821), English porcelain painter, watercolor painter and illustrator William Billingsley (1758–1828), English ceramic artist, gilder and potter. His technique of painting gave rise to the 'Billingsley Rose'. Franz Bischoff (1864–1929), American artist known primarily for his beautiful China painting, floral paintings and California landscapes. Judy Chicago (born 1939), American feminist artist and writer Philipp Christfeld (–1874), German porcelain painter. Susan Stuart Frackelton (1848–1932), American painter, specializing in painting ceramics. Louis Gerverot (1747–1829), French porcelain painter and businessman Lynda Ghazzali (born in Sarawak, Malaysia), entrepreneur and porcelain painter James Giles (1718–1780), a decorator of Worcester, Derby, Bow and Chelsea porcelain and also glass Gitta Gyenes (1888–1960), Hungarian painter known for early innovations in Hungarian porcelain painting Alice Mary Hagen (1872–1972), Canadian ceramic artist from Halifax, Nova Scotia John Haslem (1808–84), English china and enamel painter, and writer Samuel Keys (1750–1881), English china painter at Royal Crown Derby and Minton Mary Louise McLaughlin (1847–1939), American ceramic painter and studio potter Jean-Louis Morin (1732–87), French porcelain painter who worked at Sèvres Clara Chipman Newton (1848–1936), American artist best known as a china painter Henrietta Barclay Paist (1870–1930), American artist, designer, teacher, and author Thomas Pardoe (1770–1823), British enameler noted for flower painting Josef Karl Rädler (1844–1917), a porcelain painter from Austria Adelaïde Alsop Robineau (1865–1929), American painter, potter and ceramist John Stinton (1854–1956), British 'Royal Worcester' painter best known for his 'Highland Cattle' scenes Maria Longworth Nichols Storer (1849–1932), founder of Rookwood Pottery of Cincinnati, Ohio Karol Stricker (1959), American painter of fine porcelain Louis Jean Thévenet (1705– ), French porcelain painter active from 1741 to 1777 Johann Eleazar Zeissig (1737–1806), German genre, portrait and porcelain painter, and engraver Debbi Good, British/Australian painter, portraiture, animals, porcelain artist See also Ceramic art Chinese porcelain in European painting References Sources Painting techniques Visual arts media Porcelain

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"What Is Life" is a song by English rock musician George Harrison from his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass. In many countries, it was issued as the second single from the album, in February 1971, becoming a top-ten hit in the United States, Canada and elsewhere, and topping singles charts in Australia and Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, "What Is Life" appeared as the B-side to "My Sweet Lord", which was the best-selling single there of 1971. Harrison's backing musicians on the song include Eric Clapton and the entire Delaney & Bonnie and Friends band, with whom he had toured during the final months of the Beatles. Harrison co-produced the recording with Phil Spector, whose Wall of Sound production also employed a prominent string arrangement by John Barham and multiple acoustic rhythm guitars, played by Harrison's fellow Apple Records signings Badfinger. An uptempo soul tune, "What Is Life" is one of several Harrison love songs that appear to be directed at both a woman and a deity. Harrison wrote the song in 1969 and originally intended it as a track for his friend and Apple protégé Billy Preston to record. Built around a descending guitar riff, it is one of Harrison's most popular compositions and was a regular inclusion in his live performances. Rolling Stone magazine has variously described it as a "classic" and an "exultant song of surrender". "What Is Life" has appeared in the soundtrack for feature films such as Goodfellas (1990), Patch Adams (1998), Big Daddy (1999), Away We Go (2009), This Is 40 (2012) and Instant Family (2018). Harrison's original recording was included on the compilations The Best of George Harrison and Let It Roll, and live versions appear on his album Live in Japan (1992) and in Martin Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World. In 1972, Olivia Newton-John had a UK hit with her version of the song. Ronnie Aldrich, the Ventures and Shawn Mullins are among the other artists who have covered the track. Background Even before his temporary departure from the Beatles in January 1969 (documented in the song "Wah-Wah"), their Apple Records label was an "emancipating force" for Harrison from the creative restrictions imposed on him within the band, according to his musical biographer, Simon Leng. In his article on All Things Must Pass for Mojo magazine, John Harris has written of Harrison's journey as a solo artist beginning in November 1968 – when he spent time in Woodstock with Bob Dylan and the Band – and incorporating a series of other collaborations through the following eighteen months, including various Apple projects and a support role on Delaney & Bonnie and Friends' brief European tour. One of these projects, carried out intermittently from April to July 1969, was his production of That's the Way God Planned It, an album by Billy Preston, whom Harrison had met during the Beatles' Hamburg years and had recently recruited to guest on the band's troubled Get Back sessions. It was while driving up to a Preston session in London from his home in Esher, Surrey, that Harrison came up with the song "What Is Life". In his autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison describes it as having been written "very quickly" and recalls that he thought it would be a perfect, "catchy pop song" for Preston to record. He adds that he changed his mind once he arrived at Olympic Studios and found Preston working on more typical material – or "playing his funky stuff". Rather than attempt it with the Beatles during the band's concurrent Abbey Road sessions, Harrison stockpiled "What Is Life" with his many other unused songs from the period, including "All Things Must Pass", "Let It Down", "I'd Have You Anytime" and "Run of the Mill". He revisited it a year later, after completing work on Preston's second Apple album, Encouraging Words. Composition Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes "What Is Life" as "Motown-spiced" and a comparatively rare example of its composer's willingness to embrace the role of "entertainer" in his songwriting. The song is defined by Harrison's descending guitar riff, which also serves as the motif for the chorus. Author Alan Clayson describes "What Is Life" as a seemingly "lovey-dovey pop song" that "craftily renewed the simplistic tonic-to-dominant riff cliché". The lyrics have a universal quality, being both simple and uplifting. Their meaning has caused some debate among biographers and music critics, as to whether "What Is Life" should be viewed as a straightforward love song – perhaps a "lovingly crafted paen" to Harrison's wife Pattie Boyd, in Clayson's description – or a devotional song like many of Harrison's compositions. Ian Inglis writes that the song title suggests a "philosophical debate about the meaning of life", yet its rendering as "what is my life" in the choruses "reshapes [the meaning] completely". Theologian Dale Allison finds no religious content in "What Is Life" but comments that the "failure of words to express feelings" implied in the opening line ("What I feel, I can't say") is a recurring theme in Harrison's spiritual songs. Joshua Greene, another religious academic, identifies the song as part of its parent album's "intimately detailed account of a spiritual journey": where "Awaiting on You All" shows Harrison "convinced of his union with God", "What Is Life" reveals him to be "uncertain that he deserved such divine favor". According to musicologist Thomas MacFarlane, the ambiguity in the lyrics suggests a connection between spiritual and physical love. The second verse repeats what Inglis refers to as the "somewhat confusing promise" from Harrison (in lines 3 and 4) should his love be "rejected": Recording By May 1970, having recently collaborated with "genuine R&B heavy-weights" such as Doris Troy and Preston, as well as participating in the "blue-eyed soul" Delaney & Bonnie European tour, along with Eric Clapton, the previous December, Harrison was well placed to record "What Is Life", Leng observes. With Phil Spector as co-producer and all the Friends team on hand, the song was among the first tracks taped for Harrison's debut post-Beatles solo album; recording took place at Abbey Road Studios in London, during late May or early June. The same core of musicians – Bobby Whitlock, Carl Radle, Jim Gordon, Bobby Keys and Jim Price – would similarly elevate other All Things Must Pass tracks such as "Awaiting on You All", "Art of Dying" and "Hear Me Lord". According to Keys, he and Price overdubbed their horns parts at a later session at Abbey Road. The track opens with Harrison playing the fuzztone guitar riff, which is then joined by Radle's bass and "churning" rhythm guitar from Clapton, before Gordon's drums bring the full band in. During the verses, Gordon moves to a square, Motown-style beat – or "rock-steady Northern soul backbeat" in Leng's words – before returning to the "galloping rhythm" of the more open, "knockout" choruses. The song is driven equally by Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins' powerful tambourine work. On "What Is Life", Spector provided what music critic David Fricke terms "echo-drenched theater", in the form of reverb-heavy brass, soaring strings (arranged by John Barham) and "a choir of multitracked Harrisons". Barham stayed at Harrison's new home, Friar Park in Henley-on-Thames, and created the scores for "What Is Life" and other songs from melodies that Harrison sang or played to him on piano or guitar. Barham says that, for inspiration, Harrison also played him Spector productions such as Checkmates, Ltd.'s "Proud Mary". In his autobiography, Every Night's a Saturday Night, Keys recalls that Harrison and Price worked out the horn arrangement together at the overdubbing session. In MacFarlane's description, the strings provide a complementary countermelody to the guitar riff, while the horns' combination of "uptown soul and mariachi" heightens and expands the track's musical colour. After recording the album's backing tracks with Spector, Harrison carried out most of the overdubbing without him, working at Trident Studios with former Beatles engineer Ken Scott. The song's vocals and strings, along with a brief slide-guitar commentary from Harrison over the final verse, were overdubbed at Trident. Dated 19 August, Spector's written comments on Harrison's early mix of the song had suggested a "proper background voice" was still needed. Harrison performed all the chorus vocals himself and credited them to "the George O'Hara-Smith Singers". Spector was impressed with Harrison's dedication in the studio, saying, "He was a great harmoniser ... he could do all the [vocal] parts himself" and rating Harrison "one of the most commercial musicians and songwriters and quintessential players I've ever known in my entire career". Release and reception "What Is Life" was released in late November 1970 as the first track on side two of All Things Must Pass, in its original, triple LP format. Along with "My Sweet Lord" and "Isn't It a Pity", the song had already been identified as a potential hit single by Allan Steckler, manager of Apple's US operation. Backed by "Apple Scruffs", "What Is Life" was issued as a single in America on 15 February 1971 (as Apple 1828), just as the "My Sweet Lord" / "Isn't It a Pity" double A-side was slipping out of the top ten. Billboard magazine's reviewer described "What Is Life" and "Apple Scruffs" as "intriguing rhythm follows-ups" to the first single, which were "sure to repeat that success" and "should prove big juke box items". While describing the initial impact of All Things Must Pass, author Robert Rodriguez includes the song as an illustration of how the depth of Harrison's talents had been "hidden in plain sight" behind John Lennon and Paul McCartney during the Beatles' career. The album introduced Harrison as an overtly spiritual songwriter who sought to connect with his audience on a "higher level" compared with the populist approach of McCartney or the confrontationalism adopted by Lennon. Rodriguez concludes: "That the Quiet Beatle was capable of such range – from the joyful 'What Is Life' to the meditative 'Isn't It a Pity' to the steamrolling 'Art of Dying' to the playful 'I Dig Love' – was truly revelatory." The front of the single's US picture sleeve consisted of a photo of Harrison playing guitar inside the central tower of Friar Park. The tower's sole, octagonal-shaped room was an area that Harrison had adopted as his personal temple and meditation space. This picture was taken by photographer Barry Feinstein, whose Camouflage Productions partner, Tom Wilkes, originally used it as part of an elaborate poster intended as an insert in the album package. The poster featured a painting of the Hindu deity Krishna watching a group of naked maidens beside a bathing pond. Harrison apparently felt uncomfortable with the symbolism in Wilkes's design – the Friar Park tower image filled the top half of the poster, floating among clouds above the Krishna scene – so Wilkes abandoned the concept and instead used a darkened photo of Harrison inside the house as the album poster. In Denmark, the picture sleeve consisted of four shots of Harrison, again with guitar, taken on stage during the Delaney & Bonnie tour. As with the parent album, the single was a commercial and critical success. "What Is Life" peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 7 on Cash Boxs Top 100 chart, making Harrison the first ex-Beatle to have two top-ten hits in the United States. The single climbed to number 1 in Switzerland and on Australia's Go-Set National Top 60, and reached the top three elsewhere in Europe and in Canada. In Britain, where Harrison had resisted issuing a single from All Things Must Pass until midway through January, "What Is Life" appeared as the B-side of "My Sweet Lord". The record became the top-selling single of 1971 in that country. Retrospective assessments and legacy "What Is Life" is one of Harrison's most commercial and popular songs – a "spiritual guitar quest" that "became [a] classic", according to Rolling Stone magazine. In their Solo Beatles Compendium, authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter refer to it as an "intensely catchy track" and view its pairing with "My Sweet Lord" in the UK as perhaps the strongest of all of Harrison's singles. Writing in 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden grouped "What Is Life" with "My Sweet Lord", "Isn't It a Pity" and "Awaiting on You All" as "all excellent songs". Reviewing the 2001 reissue of All Things Must Pass, for Rolling Stone, James Hunter wrote of how the album's music "exults in breezy rhythms", among which "the colorful revolutions of 'What Is Life' ... [move] like a Ferris wheel". The following year, in Rolling Stone Press's Harrison tribute book, David Fricke included "What Is Life" among his selection of "essential Harrison performances" (just three of which date from the ex-Beatle's solo years) and described the track as an "exultant song of surrender", abetted by Harrison's "pumping fuzz guitar" and the song's "singalong magnetism". AllMusic's Richie Unterberger similarly praises "What Is Life" for its "anthemic" qualities, "particularly snazzy horn lines", and a guitar riff that is "one more entry in the catalog of George Harrison's book of arresting, low, descending guitar lines". Writing in the book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, author Tom Moon refers to "the upbeat single 'What Is Life'" as an example of how Harrison "grabs what he needs from his old band – that insinuating hook sense – and uses it to frame an utterly comfortable metaphysical discourse". Simon Leng credits Harrison's "innate ability to write very fine pop-rock songs" and deems the result "as innovative an exercise in rock-soul as the Temptations' 'Cloud Nine'". Ian Inglis is less enthusiastic, acknowledging that Barham's orchestration and the other musicians give the track "undoubted excitement and energy", but lamenting that the song offers "little overall coherence between words and music". In Thomas MacFarlane's view, "What Is Life" is a "remarkable pop song" that "takes the tone and attitude of Phil Spector's Wall of Sound and channels it through the prism of the late-period Beatles". Writing for Q magazine in 2002, John Harris said the "widescreen sound" of All Things Must Pass tracks such as "What Is Life" was a forerunner to recordings by ELO and Oasis. PopMatters Jason Korenkiewicz describes the song as a "jangle pop masterpiece and blueprint for the Britpop movement", adding that "Harrison's musical legacy has contributed greatly to the exuberance of Britpop in the '90s." The track is said to be a favourite of Foo Fighters singer Dave Grohl, who titled his 1995 song "Oh, George" in tribute to Harrison. Guitarist Steve Lukather also named it as a favourite, adding of All Things Must Pass: "there is a LOT of deep soul music in those grooves." Michael Galluci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed "What Is Life" second (behind "My Sweet Lord") in his list titled "Top 10 George Harrison Songs". Galluci wrote of the track having "a giant pop hook as its guide" as well as "the catchiest chorus Harrison ever penned". In 2009, Matt Melis of Consequence of Sound listed it sixth among his "Top Ten Songs by Ex-Beatles", writing: "it's arguable that Harrison's All Things Must Pass is the best solo album put out by a Beatle. 'What is Life' … with its riff-driven bounce, soaring harmonies on the choruses, and perfectly placed sax and trumpet, [is] probably Harrison's catchiest pop song." In the 2005 publication NME Originals: Beatles – The Solo Years 1970–1980, Adrian Thrills rated it first among Harrison's "ten solo gems", adding: "One of Harrison's greatest guitar riffs – brilliant pop." "What Is Life" topped a similar list in Paste magazine, where Madison Desler writes: "Another ambiguous love song that could be directed at a woman or a higher power, 'What Is Life' explodes jubilantly, a rare moment of pure celebration for Harrison." She also describes the track as "an onion of pop gold that reveals different parts of itself the more you listen to it" and "a staple of pop culture" due to the song's popularity in film soundtracks. In a 2010 poll to find the "10 Best George Harrison Songs", AOL Radio listeners voted "What Is Life" third, behind "My Sweet Lord" and "Blow Away". In a Rolling Stone readers' poll, titled "10 Greatest Solo Beatle Songs", the song placed fourth, with the editor commenting: "The track is deceptively simple, and more layers become apparent the more often you play it." "What Is Life" has featured in Bruce Pollock's book The 7,500 Most Important Songs of 1944–2000, Treble website's "The Top 200 Songs of the 1970s" (ranked at number 101) and Dave Thompson's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World (at number 247). Subsequent releases and appearances in films "What Is Life" was included on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison, as the closing track, and 2009's Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison. The song has also appeared in several popular feature films: Martin Scorsese's Goodfellas (1990), during the "May 11, 1980" sequence; Tom Shadyac's Patch Adams (1998); Sam Mendes' Away We Go (2009); Judd Apatow's This Is 40 (2012), for which it was also used in advance promotion; and Instant Family (2018), directed by Sean Anders. According to Andy Greene of Rolling Stone: "Today, many people know it merely as a song from all those soundtracks ... It's almost as ubiquitous as 'Let My Love Open the Door' or 'Solsbury Hill'." A portion of "What Is Life" plays in Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, between "Here Comes the Sun" and the Radha Krishna Temple's "Hare Krishna Mantra". It accompanies a sequence of 1969 photos of Harrison with, variously, Preston, Jackie Lomax, the Plastic Ono Band, Clapton and Ravi Shankar, and follows archive footage showing him discussing the restrictions he felt within the Beatles and how the band "had to implode". In his film review for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman recalled of the song: I will never forget the tingle I felt while standing, when I was around 11, at a jukebox in a diner in early-'70s Ann Arbor, dropping a coin into the machine to play a song that was still new to me: "What Is Life". That descending guitar line crackled out of the speaker like a sassy, jagged lightning bolt. The drums were as thunderous as Led Zeppelin's, only it was romantic thunder, and Harrison's yearning vocals rode atop Phil Spector's now-electrified wall of sound like a jubilant cry of triumph: He had broken free! Free of the Beatles, of the '60s, of the material world ... It was one of the most ecstatic things I'd ever heard, and ever would hear. It was the spirit of love speaking through George Harrison, as it would speak through him throughout that album. An alternative studio version of "What Is Life" was one of the five bonus tracks included on the 2001 remaster of All Things Must Pass. This version is a rough mix of the original backing track with different orchestration – in this case, piccolo trumpet and oboe. In the accompanying booklet, Harrison writes that this orchestral arrangement was discarded because he "didn't like the feel". Speaking to Billboard editor-in-chief Timothy White in December 2000, Harrison explained the reason for the lack of a guide vocal on this version: "I'm playing the fuzz guitar part that goes all through the song. So all I could do on the [initial] take was to give the band the cue line – the first line of each verse – and then go back to playing that riff. So that rough mix without the vocal – I'd forgot all about it …" Music video Coinciding with the release of the Apple Years 1968–75 box set in September 2014, Harrison's widow and son, Olivia and Dhani Harrison, held an online competition in which filmmakers were invited to create a video clip for "What Is Life". The winner would receive a $5000 cash prize and have their entry become the official video for the track, appearing on the George Harrison YouTube channel and other media platforms. In November, Olivia and Dhani selected Brandon Moore of Oakland, California, as the winner. Moore's video comprises dance interpretations by Emma Rubinowitz and Esteban Hernandez of the San Francisco Ballet, filmed in the streets and woods of the San Francisco Presidio. Live performance A live version of the song, recorded with Eric Clapton and his band in December 1991, is available on Harrison's 1992 album Live in Japan album. The performance was recorded at Tokyo Dome on 17 December, during the final show of the tour. Part of a concert performance of "What Is Life" from Harrison's 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar appears in Scorsese's George Harrison: Living in the Material World. This was the first US tour by a former Beatle but the concerts were highly controversial and proved damaging to Harrison's artistic standing. Rock publications such as Rolling Stone ensured that the tour gained a reputation as a disastrous venture, although bootleg recordings from the shows partly refute this. Simon Leng writes of a Fort Worth performance of "What Is Life" that was "greeted with a reception that matched anything the New York audience at the [August 1971] Bangla Desh concerts expressed". Cover versions Olivia Newton-John English-born Australian pop singer Olivia Newton-John included "What Is Life", along with a version of Harrison's All Things Must Pass track "Behind That Locked Door", on her 1972 album Olivia. The song was arranged and produced by Bruce Welch of the Shadows and John Farrar, who was Newton-John's regular producer and collaborator during the 1970s. Released as a single in some countries, this version reached the UK top 20 in March 1972, peaking at number 16. The song's chart run coincided with Newton-John touring the UK with French balladeer Sacha Distel before beginning a season of solo concerts at London's Prince of Wales Theatre. "What Is Life" subsequently appeared on her compilation albums Back to Basics: The Essential Collection 1971–1992 (1992) and The Definitive Collection (2002). Other artists "What Is Life" was one of the songs that middle-of-the-road artists rushed to record as a result of All Things Must Pass popularity. In 1971, British easy listening pianist Ronnie Aldrich covered it (as well as "My Sweet Lord") on his album Love Story, giving the track what AllMusic reviewer Al Campbell views as a regrettable "Muzak arrangement". That same year, the Ventures included an instrumental version on their New Testament album, recorded when the band had progressed from their surf rock roots to embrace fuzz-tone and other heavier guitar sounds. Music critic Bruce Eder cites the track as an example of the album's "loud, jagged guitar" music and of Ventures guitarist Gerry McGee "crossing swords musically" with contemporaries such as Harrison, Clapton and Jimmy Page through the band's choice of covers. Shawn Mullins recorded "What Is Life" for the soundtrack of the 1999 film Big Daddy. Released as a single, it peaked at number 62 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2004, Christian rock singer Neal Morse included a recording on the special-edition version of his album One, with Phil Keaggy as a guest vocalist. The track later appeared on Morse's 2006 album with Mike Portnoy and Randy George, Cover to Cover, which also includes covers of "Day After Day", which Harrison produced for Badfinger in 1971, and the Clapton–Harrison composition "Badge". "What Is Life" was performed by "Weird Al" Yankovic at the George Fest tribute concert in Los Angeles on 28 September 2014. The recording was included on the George Fest live album and concert DVD package in 2016. Personnel The following musicians are believed to have played on "What Is Life": George Harrison – vocals, lead guitar, acoustic guitar, slide guitar, backing vocals Eric Clapton – rhythm guitar Bobby Whitlock – organ Carl Radle – bass Jim Gordon – drums Jim Price – trumpet, horn arrangement Bobby Keys – saxophone Pete Ham – acoustic guitar Tom Evans – acoustic guitar Joey Molland – acoustic guitar Mike Gibbins – tambourine John Barham – string arrangement Chart performance George Harrison version Weekly charts Year-end charts Olivia Newton-John version Notes References Sources Dale C. Allison Jr., The Love There That's Sleeping: The Art and Spirituality of George Harrison, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ). Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ). Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ). Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ). The Editors of Rolling Stone, Harrison, Rolling Stone Press/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2002; ). Peter Doggett, "George Harrison: The Apple Years 1968–1975", Record Collector, April 2001, pp. 34–40. Michael Frontani, "The Solo Years", in Kenneth Womack (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK, 2009; ), pp. 153–82. George Harrison: Living in the Material World DVD, Village Roadshow, 2011 (directed by Martin Scorsese; produced by Olivia Harrison, Nigel Sinclair & Martin Scorsese). Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ). George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ). Olivia Harrison, George Harrison: Living in the Material World, Abrams (New York, NY, 2011; ). Elliot J. Huntley, Mystical One: George Harrison – After the Break-up of the Beatles, Guernica Editions (Toronto, ON, 2006; ). Chris Ingham, The Rough Guide to the Beatles, Rough Guides/Penguin (London, 2006; 2nd edn; ). Ian Inglis, The Words and Music of George Harrison, Praeger (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010; ). Bobby Keys with Bill Ditenhafer, Every Night's a Saturday Night: The Rock 'n' Roll Life of Legendary Sax Man Bobby Keys, Counterpoint (Berkeley, CA, 2012; ). Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ). Thomas MacFarlane, The Music of George Harrison, Routledge (Abingdon, UK, 2019; ). Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ). Tom Moon, 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, Workman Publishing (New York, NY, 2008; ). Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ). Patricia Romanowski & Holly George-Warren (eds), The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, Fireside/Rolling Stone Press (New York, NY, 1995; ). Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ). Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ). Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ). Bobby Whitlock with Marc Roberty, Bobby Whitlock: A Rock 'n' Roll Autobiography, McFarland (Jefferson, NC, 2010; ). Bob Woffinden, The Beatles Apart, Proteus (London, 1981; ). Kenneth Womack, The Beatles Encyclopedia: Everything Fab Four, ABC-CLIO (Santa Barbara, CA, 2014; ). External links Lyrics of this song 1970 songs 1971 singles George Harrison songs Apple Records singles Songs written by George Harrison Song recordings produced by George Harrison Song recordings produced by Phil Spector Music published by Harrisongs Song recordings with Wall of Sound arrangements Number-one singles in Switzerland British soul songs Olivia Newton-John songs Pye Records singles RCA Records singles

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George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950), known at his insistence simply as Bernard Shaw, was an Irish playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist. His influence on Western theatre, culture and politics extended from the 1880s to his death and beyond. He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman (1902), Pygmalion (1912) and Saint Joan (1923). With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, and in 1925 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Born in Dublin, Shaw moved to London in 1876, where he struggled to establish himself as a writer and novelist, and embarked on a rigorous process of self-education. By the mid-1880s he had become a respected theatre and music critic. Following a political awakening, he joined the gradualist Fabian Society and became its most prominent pamphleteer. Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success, Arms and the Man in 1894. Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, he sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas. By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctor's Dilemma and Caesar and Cleopatra. Shaw's expressed views were often contentious; he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform, and opposed vaccination and organised religion. He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable, and although not a republican, castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period. These stances had no lasting effect on his standing or productivity as a dramatist; the inter-war years saw a series of often ambitious plays, which achieved varying degrees of popular success. In 1938 he provided the screenplay for a filmed version of Pygmalion for which he received an Academy Award. His appetite for politics and controversy remained undiminished; by the late 1920s he had largely renounced Fabian Society gradualism and often wrote and spoke favourably of dictatorships of the right and left—he expressed admiration for both Mussolini and Stalin. In the final decade of his life he made fewer public statements, but continued to write prolifically until shortly before his death, aged ninety-four, having refused all state honours, including the Order of Merit in 1946. Since Shaw's death scholarly and critical opinion about his works has varied, but he has regularly been rated among British dramatists as second only to Shakespeare; analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of English-language playwrights. The word Shavian has entered the language as encapsulating Shaw's ideas and his means of expressing them. Life Early years Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello, a lower-middle-class part of Dublin. He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw (1814–1885) and Lucinda Elizabeth (Bessie) Shaw (née Gurly; 1830–1913). His elder siblings were Lucinda (Lucy) Frances (1853–1920) and Elinor Agnes (1855–1876). The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland; George Carr Shaw, an ineffectual alcoholic, was among the family's less successful members. His relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service, from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s; thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant. In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly; in the view of Shaw's biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great-aunt. If, as Holroyd and others surmise, George's motives were mercenary, then he was disappointed, as Bessie brought him little of her family's money. She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband, with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of "shabby-genteel poverty". By the time of Shaw's birth, his mother had become close to George John Lee, a flamboyant figure well known in Dublin's musical circles. Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father; there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this. The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother, but he later recalled that her indifference and lack of affection hurt him deeply. He found solace in the music that abounded in the house. Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing; Bessie had a fine mezzo-soprano voice and was much influenced by Lee's unorthodox method of vocal production. The Shaws' house was often filled with music, with frequent gatherings of singers and players. In 1862, Lee and the Shaws agreed to share a house, No. 1 Hatch Street, in an affluent part of Dublin, and a country cottage on Dalkey Hill, overlooking Killiney Bay. Shaw, a sensitive boy, found the less salubrious parts of Dublin shocking and distressing, and was happier at the cottage. Lee's students often gave him books, which the young Shaw read avidly; thus, as well as gaining a thorough musical knowledge of choral and operatic works, he became familiar with a wide spectrum of literature. Between 1865 and 1871, Shaw attended four schools, all of which he hated. His experiences as a schoolboy left him disillusioned with formal education: "Schools and schoolmasters", he later wrote, were "prisons and turnkeys in which children are kept to prevent them disturbing and chaperoning their parents." In October 1871 he left school to become a junior clerk in a Dublin firm of land agents, where he worked hard, and quickly rose to become head cashier. During this period, Shaw was known as "George Shaw"; after 1876, he dropped the "George" and styled himself "Bernard Shaw". In June 1873, Lee left Dublin for London and never returned. A fortnight later, Bessie followed him; the two girls joined her. Shaw's explanation of why his mother followed Lee was that without the latter's financial contribution the joint household had to be broken up. Left in Dublin with his father, Shaw compensated for the absence of music in the house by teaching himself to play the piano. London Early in 1876 Shaw learned from his mother that Agnes was dying of tuberculosis. He resigned from the land agents, and in March travelled to England to join his mother and Lucy at Agnes's funeral. He never again lived in Ireland, and did not visit it for twenty-nine years. Initially, Shaw refused to seek clerical employment in London. His mother allowed him to live free of charge in her house in South Kensington, but he nevertheless needed an income. He had abandoned a teenage ambition to become a painter, and had not yet thought of writing for a living, but Lee found a little work for him, ghost-writing a musical column printed under Lee's name in a satirical weekly, The Hornet. Lee's relations with Bessie deteriorated after their move to London. Shaw maintained contact with Lee, who found him work as a rehearsal pianist and occasional singer. Eventually Shaw was driven to applying for office jobs. In the interim he secured a reader's pass for the British Museum Reading Room (the forerunner of the British Library) and spent most weekdays there, reading and writing. His first attempt at drama, begun in 1878, was a blank-verse satirical piece on a religious theme. It was abandoned unfinished, as was his first try at a novel. His first completed novel, Immaturity (1879), was too grim to appeal to publishers and did not appear until the 1930s. He was employed briefly by the newly formed Edison Telephone Company in 1879–80, and as in Dublin achieved rapid promotion. Nonetheless, when the Edison firm merged with the rival Bell Telephone Company, Shaw chose not to seek a place in the new organisation. Thereafter he pursued a full-time career as an author. For the next four years Shaw made a negligible income from writing, and was subsidised by his mother. In 1881, for the sake of economy, and increasingly as a matter of principle, he became a vegetarian. He grew a beard to hide a facial scar left by smallpox. In rapid succession he wrote two more novels: The Irrational Knot (1880) and Love Among the Artists (1881), but neither found a publisher; each was serialised a few years later in the socialist magazine Our Corner. In 1880 Shaw began attending meetings of the Zetetical Society, whose objective was to "search for truth in all matters affecting the interests of the human race". Here he met Sidney Webb, a junior civil servant who, like Shaw, was busy educating himself. Despite difference of style and temperament, the two quickly recognised qualities in each other and developed a lifelong friendship. Shaw later reflected: "You knew everything that I didn't know and I knew everything you didn't know ... We had everything to learn from one another and brains enough to do it". Shaw's next attempt at drama was a one-act playlet in French, Un Petit Drame, written in 1884 but not published in his lifetime. In the same year the critic William Archer suggested a collaboration, with a plot by Archer and dialogue by Shaw. The project foundered, but Shaw returned to the draft as the basis of Widowers' Houses in 1892, and the connection with Archer proved of immense value to Shaw's career. Political awakening: Marxism, socialism, Fabian Society On 5 September 1882 Shaw attended a meeting at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon, addressed by the political economist Henry George. Shaw then read George's book Progress and Poverty, which awakened his interest in economics. He began attending meetings of the Social Democratic Federation (SDF), where he discovered the writings of Karl Marx, and thereafter spent much of 1883 reading Das Kapital. He was not impressed by the SDF's founder, H. M. Hyndman, whom he found autocratic, ill-tempered and lacking leadership qualities. Shaw doubted the ability of the SDF to harness the working classes into an effective radical movement and did not join it—he preferred, he said, to work with his intellectual equals. After reading a tract, Why Are The Many Poor?, issued by the recently formed Fabian Society, Shaw went to the society's next advertised meeting, on 16 May 1884. He became a member in September, and before the year's end had provided the society with its first manifesto, published as Fabian Tract No. 2. He joined the society's executive committee in January 1885, and later that year recruited Webb and also Annie Besant, a fine orator. From 1885 to 1889 Shaw attended the fortnightly meetings of the British Economic Association; it was, Holroyd observes, "the closest Shaw had ever come to university education." This experience changed his political ideas; he moved away from Marxism and became an apostle of gradualism. When in 1886–87 the Fabians debated whether to embrace anarchism, as advocated by Charlotte Wilson, Besant and others, Shaw joined the majority in rejecting this approach. After a rally in Trafalgar Square addressed by Besant was violently broken up by the authorities on 13 November 1887 ("Bloody Sunday"), Shaw became convinced of the folly of attempting to challenge police power. Thereafter he largely accepted the principle of "permeation" as advocated by Webb: the notion whereby socialism could best be achieved by infiltration of people and ideas into existing political parties. Throughout the 1880s the Fabian Society remained small, its message of moderation frequently unheard among more strident voices. Its profile was raised in 1889 with the publication of Fabian Essays in Socialism, edited by Shaw who also provided two of the essays. The second of these, "Transition", details the case for gradualism and permeation, asserting that "the necessity for cautious and gradual change must be obvious to everyone". In 1890 Shaw produced Tract No. 13, What Socialism Is, a revision of an earlier tract in which Charlotte Wilson had defined socialism in anarchistic terms. In Shaw's new version, readers were assured that "socialism can be brought about in a perfectly constitutional manner by democratic institutions". Novelist and critic The mid-1880s marked a turning point in Shaw's life, both personally and professionally: he lost his virginity, had two novels published, and began a career as a critic. He had been celibate until his twenty-ninth birthday, when his shyness was overcome by Jane (Jenny) Patterson, a widow some years his senior. Their affair continued, not always smoothly, for eight years. Shaw's sex life has caused much speculation and debate among his biographers, but there is a consensus that the relationship with Patterson was one of his few non-platonic romantic liaisons. The published novels, neither commercially successful, were his two final efforts in this genre: Cashel Byron's Profession written in 1882–83, and An Unsocial Socialist, begun and finished in 1883. The latter was published as a serial in ToDay magazine in 1884, although it did not appear in book form until 1887. Cashel Byron appeared in magazine and book form in 1886. In 1884 and 1885, through the influence of Archer, Shaw was engaged to write book and music criticism for London papers. When Archer resigned as art critic of The World in 1886 he secured the succession for Shaw. The two figures in the contemporary art world whose views Shaw most admired were William Morris and John Ruskin, and he sought to follow their precepts in his criticisms. Their emphasis on morality appealed to Shaw, who rejected the idea of art for art's sake, and insisted that all great art must be didactic. Of Shaw's various reviewing activities in the 1880s and 1890s it was as a music critic that he was best known. After serving as deputy in 1888, he became musical critic of The Star in February 1889, writing under the pen-name Corno di Bassetto. In May 1890 he moved back to The World, where he wrote a weekly column as "G.B.S." for more than four years. In the 2016 version of the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Robert Anderson writes, "Shaw's collected writings on music stand alone in their mastery of English and compulsive readability." Shaw ceased to be a salaried music critic in August 1894, but published occasional articles on the subject throughout his career, his last in 1950. From 1895 to 1898, Shaw was the theatre critic for The Saturday Review, edited by his friend Frank Harris. As at The World, he used the by-line "G.B.S." He campaigned against the artificial conventions and hypocrisies of the Victorian theatre and called for plays of real ideas and true characters. By this time he had embarked in earnest on a career as a playwright: "I had rashly taken up the case; and rather than let it collapse I manufactured the evidence". Playwright and politician: 1890s After using the plot of the aborted 1884 collaboration with Archer to complete Widowers' Houses (it was staged twice in London, in December 1892), Shaw continued writing plays. At first he made slow progress; The Philanderer, written in 1893 but not published until 1898, had to wait until 1905 for a stage production. Similarly, Mrs Warren's Profession (1893) was written five years before publication and nine years before reaching the stage. Shaw's first play to bring him financial success was Arms and the Man (1894), a mock-Ruritanian comedy satirising conventions of love, military honour and class. The press found the play overlong, and accused Shaw of mediocrity, sneering at heroism and patriotism, heartless cleverness, and copying W.S.Gilbert's style. The public took a different view, and the management of the theatre staged extra matinée performances to meet the demand. The play ran from April to July, toured the provinces and was staged in New York. It earned him £341 in royalties in its first year, a sufficient sum to enable him to give up his salaried post as a music critic. Among the cast of the London production was Florence Farr, with whom Shaw had a romantic relationship between 1890 and 1894, much resented by Jenny Patterson. The success of Arms and the Man was not immediately replicated. Candida, which presented a young woman making a conventional romantic choice for unconventional reasons, received a single performance in South Shields in 1895; in 1897 a playlet about Napoleon called The Man of Destiny had a single staging at Croydon. In the 1890s Shaw's plays were better known in print than on the West End stage; his biggest success of the decade was in New York in 1897, when Richard Mansfield's production of the historical melodrama The Devil's Disciple earned the author more than £2,000 in royalties. In January 1893, as a Fabian delegate, Shaw attended the Bradford conference which led to the foundation of the Independent Labour Party. He was sceptical about the new party, and scorned the likelihood that it could switch the allegiance of the working class from sport to politics. He persuaded the conference to adopt resolutions abolishing indirect taxation, and taxing unearned income "to extinction". Back in London, Shaw produced what Margaret Cole, in her Fabian history, terms a "grand philippic" against the minority Liberal administration that had taken power in 1892. To Your Tents, O Israel excoriated the government for ignoring social issues and concentrating solely on Irish Home Rule, a matter Shaw declared of no relevance to socialism. In 1894 the Fabian Society received a substantial bequest from a sympathiser, Henry Hunt Hutchinson—Holroyd mentions £10,000. Webb, who chaired the board of trustees appointed to supervise the legacy, proposed to use most of it to found a school of economics and politics. Shaw demurred; he thought such a venture was contrary to the specified purpose of the legacy. He was eventually persuaded to support the proposal, and the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) opened in the summer of 1895. By the later 1890s Shaw's political activities lessened as he concentrated on making his name as a dramatist. In 1897 he was persuaded to fill an uncontested vacancy for a "vestryman" (parish councillor) in London's St Pancras district. At least initially, Shaw took to his municipal responsibilities seriously; when London government was reformed in 1899 and the St Pancras vestry became the Metropolitan Borough of St Pancras, he was elected to the newly formed borough council. In 1898, as a result of overwork, Shaw's health broke down. He was nursed by Charlotte Payne-Townshend, a rich Anglo-Irish woman whom he had met through the Webbs. The previous year she had proposed that she and Shaw should marry. He had declined, but when she insisted on nursing him in a house in the country, Shaw, concerned that this might cause scandal, agreed to their marriage. The ceremony took place on 1 June 1898, in the register office in Covent Garden. The bride and bridegroom were both aged forty-one. In the view of the biographer and critic St John Ervine, "their life together was entirely felicitous". There were no children of the marriage, which it is generally believed was never consummated; whether this was wholly at Charlotte's wish, as Shaw liked to suggest, is less widely credited. In the early weeks of the marriage Shaw was much occupied writing his Marxist analysis of Wagner's Ring cycle, published as The Perfect Wagnerite late in 1898. In 1906 the Shaws found a country home in Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire; they renamed the house "Shaw's Corner", and lived there for the rest of their lives. They retained a London flat in the Adelphi and later at Whitehall Court. Stage success: 1900–1914 During the first decade of the twentieth century, Shaw secured a firm reputation as a playwright. In 1904 J. E. Vedrenne and Harley Granville-Barker established a company at the Royal Court Theatre in Sloane Square, Chelsea to present modern drama. Over the next five years they staged fourteen of Shaw's plays. The first, John Bull's Other Island, a comedy about an Englishman in Ireland, attracted leading politicians and was seen by Edward VII, who laughed so much that he broke his chair. The play was withheld from Dublin's Abbey Theatre, for fear of the affront it might provoke, although it was shown at the city's Royal Theatre in November 1907. Shaw later wrote that William Butler Yeats, who had requested the play, "got rather more than he bargained for... It was uncongenial to the whole spirit of the neo-Gaelic movement, which is bent on creating a new Ireland after its own ideal, whereas my play is a very uncompromising presentment of the real old Ireland." Nonetheless, Shaw and Yeats were close friends; Yeats and Lady Gregory tried unsuccessfully to persuade Shaw to take up the vacant co-directorship of the Abbey Theatre after J. M. Synge's death in 1909. Shaw admired other figures in the Irish Literary Revival, including George Russell and James Joyce, and was a close friend of Seán O'Casey, who was inspired to become a playwright after reading John Bull's Other Island. Man and Superman, completed in 1902, was a success both at the Royal Court in 1905 and in Robert Loraine's New York production in the same year. Among the other Shaw works presented by Vedrenne and Granville-Barker were Major Barbara (1905), depicting the contrasting morality of arms manufacturers and the Salvation Army; The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), a mostly serious piece about professional ethics; and Caesar and Cleopatra, Shaw's counterblast to Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, seen in New York in 1906 and in London the following year. Now prosperous and established, Shaw experimented with unorthodox theatrical forms described by his biographer Stanley Weintraub as "discussion drama" and "serious farce". These plays included Getting Married (premiered 1908), The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet (1909), Misalliance (1910), and Fanny's First Play (1911). Blanco Posnet was banned on religious grounds by the Lord Chamberlain (the official theatre censor in England), and was produced instead in Dublin; it filled the Abbey Theatre to capacity. Fanny's First Play, a comedy about suffragettes, had the longest initial run of any Shaw play—622 performances. Androcles and the Lion (1912), a less heretical study of true and false religious attitudes than Blanco Posnet, ran for eight weeks in September and October 1913. It was followed by one of Shaw's most successful plays, Pygmalion, written in 1912 and staged in Vienna the following year, and in Berlin shortly afterwards. Shaw commented, "It is the custom of the English press when a play of mine is produced, to inform the world that it is not a play—that it is dull, blasphemous, unpopular, and financially unsuccessful. ... Hence arose an urgent demand on the part of the managers of Vienna and Berlin that I should have my plays performed by them first." The British production opened in April 1914, starring Sir Herbert Tree and Mrs Patrick Campbell as, respectively, a professor of phonetics and a cockney flower-girl. There had earlier been a romantic liaison between Shaw and Campbell that caused Charlotte Shaw considerable concern, but by the time of the London premiere it had ended. The play attracted capacity audiences until July, when Tree insisted on going on holiday, and the production closed. His co-star then toured with the piece in the US. Fabian years: 1900–1913 In 1899, when the Boer War began, Shaw wished the Fabians to take a neutral stance on what he deemed, like Home Rule, to be a "non-Socialist" issue. Others, including the future Labour prime minister Ramsay MacDonald, wanted unequivocal opposition, and resigned from the society when it followed Shaw. In the Fabians' war manifesto, Fabianism and the Empire (1900), Shaw declared that "until the Federation of the World becomes an accomplished fact we must accept the most responsible Imperial federations available as a substitute for it". As the new century began, Shaw became increasingly disillusioned by the limited impact of the Fabians on national politics. Thus, although a nominated Fabian delegate, he did not attend the London conference at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street in February 1900, that created the Labour Representation Committee—precursor of the modern Labour Party. By 1903, when his term as borough councillor expired, he had lost his earlier enthusiasm, writing: "After six years of Borough Councilling I am convinced that the borough councils should be abolished". Nevertheless, in 1904 he stood in the London County Council elections. After an eccentric campaign, which Holroyd characterises as "[making] absolutely certain of not getting in", he was duly defeated. It was Shaw's final foray into electoral politics. Nationally, the 1906 general election produced a huge Liberal majority and an intake of 29 Labour members. Shaw viewed this outcome with scepticism; he had a low opinion of the new prime minister, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, and saw the Labour members as inconsequential: "I apologise to the Universe for my connection with such a body". In the years after the 1906 election, Shaw felt that the Fabians needed fresh leadership, and saw this in the form of his fellow-writer H. G. Wells, who had joined the society in February 1903. Wells's ideas for reform—particularly his proposals for closer cooperation with the Independent Labour Party—placed him at odds with the society's "Old Gang", led by Shaw. According to Cole, Wells "had minimal capacity for putting [his ideas] across in public meetings against Shaw's trained and practised virtuosity". In Shaw's view, "the Old Gang did not extinguish Mr Wells, he annihilated himself". Wells resigned from the society in September 1908; Shaw remained a member, but left the executive in April 1911. He later wondered whether the Old Gang should have given way to Wells some years earlier: "God only knows whether the Society had not better have done it". Although less active—he blamed his advancing years—Shaw remained a Fabian. In 1912 Shaw invested £1,000 for a one-fifth share in the Webbs' new publishing venture, a socialist weekly magazine called The New Statesman, which appeared in April 1913. He became a founding director, publicist, and in due course a contributor, mostly anonymously. He was soon at odds with the magazine's editor, Clifford Sharp, who by 1916 was rejecting his contributions—"the only paper in the world that refuses to print anything by me", according to Shaw. First World War After the First World War began in August 1914, Shaw produced his tract Common Sense About the War, which argued that the warring nations were equally culpable. Such a view was anathema in an atmosphere of fervent patriotism, and offended many of Shaw's friends; Ervine records that "[h]is appearance at any public function caused the instant departure of many of those present." Despite his errant reputation, Shaw's propagandist skills were recognised by the British authorities, and early in 1917 he was invited by Field Marshal Haig to visit the Western Front battlefields. Shaw's 10,000-word report, which emphasised the human aspects of the soldier's life, was well received, and he became less of a lone voice. In April 1917 he joined the national consensus in welcoming America's entry into the war: "a first class moral asset to the common cause against junkerism". Three short plays by Shaw were premiered during the war. The Inca of Perusalem, written in 1915, encountered problems with the censor for burlesquing not only the enemy but the British military command; it was performed in 1916 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre. O'Flaherty V.C., satirising the government's attitude to Irish recruits, was banned in the UK and was presented at a Royal Flying Corps base in Belgium in 1917. Augustus Does His Bit, a genial farce, was granted a licence; it opened at the Royal Court in January 1917. Ireland Shaw had long supported the principle of Irish Home Rule within the British Empire (which he thought should become the British Commonwealth). In April 1916 he wrote scathingly in The New York Times about militant Irish nationalism: "In point of learning nothing and forgetting nothing these fellow-patriots of mine leave the Bourbons nowhere." Total independence, he asserted, was impractical; alliance with a bigger power (preferably England) was essential. The Dublin Easter Rising later that month took him by surprise. After its suppression by British forces, he expressed horror at the summary execution of the rebel leaders, but continued to believe in some form of Anglo-Irish union. In How to Settle the Irish Question (1917), he envisaged a federal arrangement, with national and imperial parliaments. Holroyd records that by this time the separatist party Sinn Féin was in the ascendency, and Shaw's and other moderate schemes were forgotten. In the postwar period, Shaw despaired of the British government's coercive policies towards Ireland, and joined his fellow-writers Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton in publicly condemning these actions. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921 led to the partition of Ireland between north and south, a provision that dismayed Shaw. In 1922 civil war broke out in the south between its pro-treaty and anti-treaty factions, the former of whom had established the Irish Free State. Shaw visited Dublin in August, and met Michael Collins, then head of the Free State's Provisional Government. Shaw was much impressed by Collins, and was saddened when, three days later, the Irish leader was ambushed and killed by anti-treaty forces. In a letter to Collins's sister, Shaw wrote: "I met Michael for the first and last time on Saturday last, and am very glad I did. I rejoice in his memory, and will not be so disloyal to it as to snivel over his valiant death". Shaw remained a British subject all his life, but took dual British-Irish nationality in 1934. 1920s Shaw's first major work to appear after the war was Heartbreak House, written in 1916–17 and performed in 1920. It was produced on Broadway in November, and was coolly received; according to The Times: "Mr Shaw on this occasion has more than usual to say and takes twice as long as usual to say it". After the London premiere in October 1921 The Times concurred with the American critics: "As usual with Mr Shaw, the play is about an hour too long", although containing "much entertainment and some profitable reflection". Ervine in The Observer thought the play brilliant but ponderously acted, except for Edith Evans as Lady Utterword. Shaw's largest-scale theatrical work was Back to Methuselah, written in 1918–20 and staged in 1922. Weintraub describes it as "Shaw's attempt to fend off 'the bottomless pit of an utterly discouraging pessimism'". This cycle of five interrelated plays depicts evolution, and the effects of longevity, from the Garden of Eden to the year 31,920 AD. Critics found the five plays strikingly uneven in quality and invention. The original run was brief, and the work has been revived infrequently. Shaw felt he had exhausted his remaining creative powers in the huge span of this "Metabiological Pentateuch". He was now sixty-seven, and expected to write no more plays. This mood was short-lived. In 1920 Joan of Arc was proclaimed a saint by Pope Benedict XV; Shaw had long found Joan an interesting historical character, and his view of her veered between "half-witted genius" and someone of "exceptional sanity". He had considered writing a play about her in 1913, and the canonisation prompted him to return to the subject. He wrote Saint Joan in the middle months of 1923, and the play was premiered on Broadway in December. It was enthusiastically received there, and at its London premiere the following March. In Weintraub's phrase, "even the Nobel prize committee could no longer ignore Shaw after Saint Joan". The citation for the literature prize for 1925 praised his work as "... marked by both idealism and humanity, its stimulating satire often being infused with a singular poetic beauty". He accepted the award, but rejected the monetary prize that went with it, on the grounds that "My readers and my audiences provide me with more than sufficient money for my needs". After Saint Joan, it was five years before Shaw wrote a play. From 1924, he spent four years writing what he described as his "magnum opus", a political treatise entitled The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism. The book was published in 1928 and sold well. At the end of the decade Shaw produced his final Fabian tract, a commentary on the League of Nations. He described the League as "a school for the new international statesmanship as against the old Foreign Office diplomacy", but thought that it had not yet become the "Federation of the World". Shaw returned to the theatre with what he called "a political extravaganza", The Apple Cart, written in late 1928. It was, in Ervine's view, unexpectedly popular, taking a conservative, monarchist, anti-democratic line that appealed to contemporary audiences. The premiere was in Warsaw in June 1928, and the first British production was two months later, at Sir Barry Jackson's inaugural Malvern Festival. The other eminent creative artist most closely associated with the festival was Sir Edward Elgar, with whom Shaw enjoyed a deep friendship and mutual regard. He described The Apple Cart to Elgar as "a scandalous Aristophanic burlesque of democratic politics, with a brief but shocking sex interlude". During the 1920s Shaw began to lose faith in the idea that society could be changed through Fabian gradualism, and became increasingly fascinated with dictatorial methods. In 1922 he had welcomed Mussolini's accession to power in Italy, observing that amid the "indiscipline and muddle and Parliamentary deadlock", Mussolini was "the right kind of tyrant". Shaw was prepared to tolerate certain dictatorial excesses; Weintraub in his ODNB biographical sketch comments that Shaw's "flirtation with authoritarian inter-war regimes" took a long time to fade, and Beatrice Webb thought he was "obsessed" about Mussolini. 1930s Shaw's enthusiasm for the Soviet Union dated to the early 1920s when he had hailed Lenin as "the one really interesting statesman in Europe". Having turned down several chances to visit, in 1931 he joined a party led by Nancy Astor. The carefully managed trip culminated in a lengthy meeting with Stalin, whom Shaw later described as "a Georgian gentleman" with no malice in him. At a dinner given in his honour, Shaw told the gathering: "I have seen all the 'terrors' and I was terribly pleased by them". In March 1933 Shaw was a co-signatory to a letter in The Manchester Guardian protesting at the continuing misrepresentation of Soviet achievements: "No lie is too fantastic, no slander is too stale ... for employment by the more reckless elements of the British press." Shaw's admiration for Mussolini and Stalin demonstrated his growing belief that dictatorship was the only viable political arrangement. When the Nazi Party came to power in Germany in January 1933, Shaw described Hitler as "a very remarkable man, a very able man", and professed himself proud to be the only writer in England who was "scrupulously polite and just to Hitler". His principal admiration was for Stalin, whose regime he championed uncritically throughout the decade. Shaw saw the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact as a triumph for Stalin who, he said, now had Hitler under his thumb. Shaw's first play of the decade was Too True to be Good, written in 1931 and premiered in Boston in February 1932. The reception was unenthusiastic. Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times commenting that Shaw had "yielded to the impulse to write without having a subject", judged the play a "rambling and indifferently tedious conversation". The correspondent of The New York Herald Tribune said that most of the play was "discourse, unbelievably long lectures" and that although the audience enjoyed the play it was bewildered by it. During the decade Shaw travelled widely and frequently. Most of his journeys were with Charlotte; she enjoyed voyages on ocean liners, and he found peace to write during the long spells at sea. Shaw met an enthusiastic welcome in South Africa in 1932, despite his strong remarks about the racial divisions of the country. In December 1932 the couple embarked on a round-the-world cruise. In March 1933 they arrived at San Francisco, to begin Shaw's first visit to the US. He had earlier refused to go to "that awful country, that uncivilized place", "unfit to govern itself... illiberal, superstitious, crude, violent, anarchic and arbitrary". He visited Hollywood, with which he was unimpressed, and New York, where he lectured to a capacity audience in the Metropolitan Opera House. Harried by the intrusive attentions of the press, Shaw was glad when his ship sailed from New York harbour. New Zealand, which he and Charlotte visited the following year, struck him as "the best country I've been in"; he urged its people to be more confident and loosen their dependence on trade with Britain. He used the weeks at sea to complete two plays—The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles and The Six of Calais—and begin work on a third, The Millionairess. Despite his contempt for Hollywood and its aesthetic values, Shaw was enthusiastic about cinema, and in the middle of the decade wrote screenplays for prospective film versions of Pygmalion and Saint Joan. The latter was never made, but Shaw entrusted the rights to the former to the unknown Gabriel Pascal, who produced it at Pinewood Studios in 1938. Shaw was determined that Hollywood should have nothing to do with the film, but was powerless to prevent it from winning one Academy Award ("Oscar"); he described his award for "best-written screenplay" as an insult, coming from such a source. He became the first person to have been awarded both a Nobel Prize and an Oscar. In a 1993 study of the Oscars, Anthony Holden observes that Pygmalion was soon spoken of as having "lifted movie-making from illiteracy to literacy". Shaw's final plays of the 1930s were Cymbeline Refinished (1936), Geneva (1936) and In Good King Charles's Golden Days (1939). The first, a fantasy reworking of Shakespeare, made little impression, but the second, a satire on European dictators, attracted more notice, much of it unfavourable. In particular, Shaw's parody of Hitler as "Herr Battler" was considered mild, almost sympathetic. The third play, an historical conversation piece first seen at Malvern, ran briefly in London in May 1940. James Agate commented that the play contained nothing to which even the most conservative audiences could take exception, and though it was long and lacking in dramatic action only "witless and idle" theatregoers would object. After their first runs none of the three plays were seen again in the West End during Shaw's lifetime. Towards the end of the decade, both Shaws began to suffer ill health. Charlotte was increasingly incapacitated by Paget's disease of bone, and he developed pernicious anaemia. His treatment, involving injections of concentrated animal liver, was successful, but this breach of his vegetarian creed distressed him and brought down condemnation from militant vegetarians. Second World War and final years Although Shaw's works since The Apple Cart had been received without great enthusiasm, his earlier plays were revived in the West End throughout the Second World War, starring such actors as Edith Evans, John Gielgud, Deborah Kerr and Robert Donat. In 1944 nine Shaw plays were staged in London, including Arms and the Man with Ralph Richardson, Laurence Olivier, Sybil Thorndike and Margaret Leighton in the leading roles. Two touring companies took his plays all round Britain. The revival in his popularity did not tempt Shaw to write a new play, and he concentrated on prolific journalism. A second Shaw film produced by Pascal, Major Barbara (1941), was less successful both artistically and commercially than Pygmalion, partly because of Pascal's insistence on directing, to which he was unsuited. Following the outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 and the rapid conquest of Poland, Shaw was accused of defeatism when, in a New Statesman article, he declared the war over and demanded a peace conference. Nevertheless, when he became convinced that a negotiated peace was impossible, he publicly urged the neutral United States to join the fight. The London blitz of 1940–41 led the Shaws, both in their mid-eighties, to live full-time at Ayot St Lawrence. Even there they were not immune from enemy air raids, and stayed on occasion with Nancy Astor at her country house, Cliveden. In 1943, the worst of the London bombing over, the Shaws moved back to Whitehall Court, where medical help for Charlotte was more easily arranged. Her condition deteriorated, and she died in September. Shaw's final political treatise, Everybody's Political What's What, was published in 1944. Holroyd describes this as "a rambling narrative ... that repeats ideas he had given better elsewhere and then repeats itself". The book sold well—85,000 copies by the end of the year. After Hitler's suicide in May 1945, Shaw approved of the formal condolences offered by the Irish Taoiseach, Éamon de Valera, at the German embassy in Dublin. Shaw disapproved of the postwar trials of the defeated German leaders, as an act of self-righteousness: "We are all potential criminals". Pascal was given a third opportunity to film Shaw's work with Caesar and Cleopatra (1945). It cost three times its original budget and was rated "the biggest financial failure in the history of British cinema". The film was poorly received by British critics, although American reviews were friendlier. Shaw thought its lavishness nullified the drama, and he considered the film "a poor imitation of Cecil B. de Mille". In 1946, the year of Shaw's ninetieth birthday, he accepted the freedom of Dublin and became the first honorary freeman of the borough of St Pancras, London. In the same year the British government asked Shaw informally whether he would accept the Order of Merit. He declined, believing that an author's merit could only be determined by the posthumous verdict of history. 1946 saw the publication, as The Crime of Imprisonment, of the preface Shaw had written 20 years previously to a study of prison conditions. It was widely praised; a reviewer in the American Journal of Public Health considered it essential reading for any student of the American criminal justice system. Shaw continued to write into his nineties. His last plays were Buoyant Billions (1947), his final full-length work; Farfetched Fables (1948) a set of six short plays revisiting several of his earlier themes such as evolution; a comic play for puppets, Shakes versus Shav (1949), a ten-minute piece in which Shakespeare and Shaw trade insults; and Why She Would Not (1950), which Shaw described as "a little comedy", written in one week shortly before his ninety-fourth birthday. During his later years, Shaw enjoyed tending the gardens at Shaw's Corner. He died at the age of ninety-four of renal failure precipitated by injuries incurred when falling while pruning a tree. He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 6 November 1950. His ashes, mixed with those of Charlotte, were scattered along footpaths and around the statue of Saint Joan in their garden. Works Plays Shaw published a collected edition of his plays in 1934, comprising forty-two works. He wrote a further twelve in the remaining sixteen years of his life, mostly one-act pieces. Including eight earlier plays that he chose to omit from his published works, the total is sixty-two. Early works Shaw's first three full-length plays dealt with social issues. He later grouped them as "Plays Unpleasant". Widowers' Houses (1892) concerns the landlords of slum properties, and introduces the first of Shaw's New Women—a recurring feature of later plays. The Philanderer (1893) develops the theme of the New Woman, draws on Ibsen, and has elements of Shaw's personal relationships, the character of Julia being based on Jenny Patterson. In a 2003 study Judith Evans describes Mrs Warren's Profession (1893) as "undoubtedly the most challenging" of the three Plays Unpleasant, taking Mrs Warren's profession—prostitute and, later, brothel-owner—as a metaphor for a prostituted society. Shaw followed the first trilogy with a second, published as "Plays Pleasant". Arms and the Man (1894) conceals beneath a mock-Ruritanian comic romance a Fabian parable contrasting impractical idealism with pragmatic socialism. The central theme of Candida (1894) is a woman's choice between two men; the play contrasts the outlook and aspirations of a Christian Socialist and a poetic idealist. The third of the Pleasant group, You Never Can Tell (1896), portrays social mobility, and the gap between generations, particularly in how they approach social relations in general and mating in particular. The "Three Plays for Puritans"—comprising The Devil's Disciple (1896), Caesar and Cleopatra (1898) and Captain Brassbound's Conversion (1899)—all centre on questions of empire and imperialism, a major topic of political discourse in the 1890s. The three are set, respectively, in 1770s America, Ancient Egypt, and 1890s Morocco. The Gadfly, an adaptation of the popular novel by Ethel Voynich, was unfinished and unperformed. The Man of Destiny (1895) is a short curtain raiser about Napoleon. 1900–1909 Shaw's major plays of the first decade of the twentieth century address individual social, political or ethical issues. Man and Superman (1902) stands apart from the others in both its subject and its treatment, giving Shaw's interpretation of creative evolution in a combination of drama and associated printed text. The Admirable Bashville (1901), a blank verse dramatisation of Shaw's novel Cashel Byron's Profession, focuses on the imperial relationship between Britain and Africa. John Bull's Other Island (1904), comically depicting the prevailing relationship between Britain and Ireland, was popular at the time but fell out of the general repertoire in later years. Major Barbara (1905) presents ethical questions in an unconventional way, confounding expectations that in the depiction of an armaments manufacturer on the one hand and the Salvation Army on the other the moral high ground must invariably be held by the latter. The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), a play about medical ethics and moral choices in allocating scarce treatment, was described by Shaw as a tragedy. With a reputation for presenting characters who did not resemble real flesh and blood, he was challenged by Archer to present an on-stage death, and here did so, with a deathbed scene for the anti-hero. Getting Married (1908) and Misalliance (1909)—the latter seen by Judith Evans as a companion piece to the former—are both in what Shaw called his "disquisitionary" vein, with the emphasis on discussion of ideas rather than on dramatic events or vivid characterisation. Shaw wrote seven short plays during the decade; they are all comedies, ranging from the deliberately absurd Passion, Poison, and Petrifaction (1905) to the satirical Press Cuttings (1909). 1910–1919 In the decade from 1910 to the aftermath of the First World War Shaw wrote four full-length plays, the third and fourth of which are among his most frequently staged works. Fanny's First Play (1911) continues his earlier examinations of middle-class British society from a Fabian viewpoint, with additional touches of melodrama and an epilogue in which theatre critics discuss the play. Androcles and the Lion (1912), which Shaw began writing as a play for children, became a study of the nature of religion and how to put Christian precepts into practice. Pygmalion (1912) is a Shavian study of language and speech and their importance in society and in personal relationships. To correct the impression left by the original performers that the play portrayed a romantic relationship between the two main characters Shaw rewrote the ending to make it clear that the heroine will marry another, minor character. Shaw's only full-length play from the war years is Heartbreak House (1917), which in his words depicts "cultured, leisured Europe before the war" drifting towards disaster. Shaw named Shakespeare (King Lear) and Chekhov (The Cherry Orchard) as important influences on the piece, and critics have found elements drawing on Congreve (The Way of the World) and Ibsen (The Master Builder). The short plays range from genial historical drama in The Dark Lady of the Sonnets and Great Catherine (1910 and 1913) to a study of polygamy in Overruled; three satirical works about the war (The Inca of Perusalem, O'Flaherty V.C. and Augustus Does His Bit, 1915–16); a piece that Shaw called "utter nonsense" (The Music Cure, 1914) and a brief sketch about a "Bolshevik empress" (Annajanska, 1917). 1920–1950 Saint Joan (1923) drew widespread praise both for Shaw and for Sybil Thorndike, for whom he wrote the title role and who created the part in Britain. In the view of the commentator Nicholas Grene, Shaw's Joan, a "no-nonsense mystic, Protestant and nationalist before her time" is among the 20th century's classic leading female roles. The Apple Cart (1929) was Shaw's last popular success. He gave both that play and its successor, Too True to Be Good (1931), the subtitle "A political extravaganza", although the two works differ greatly in their themes; the first presents the politics of a nation (with a brief royal love-scene as an interlude) and the second, in Judith Evans's words, "is concerned with the social mores of the individual, and is nebulous." Shaw's plays of the 1930s were written in the shadow of worsening national and international political events. Once again, with On the Rocks (1933) and The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles (1934), a political comedy with a clear plot was followed by an introspective drama. The first play portrays a British prime minister considering, but finally rejecting, the establishment of a dictatorship; the second is concerned with polygamy and eugenics and ends with the Day of Judgement. The Millionairess (1934) is a farcical depiction of the commercial and social affairs of a successful businesswoman. Geneva (1936) lampoons the feebleness of the League of Nations compared with the dictators of Europe. In Good King Charles's Golden Days (1939), described by Weintraub as a warm, discursive high comedy, also depicts authoritarianism, but less satirically than Geneva. As in earlier decades, the shorter plays were generally comedies, some historical and others addressing various political and social preoccupations of the author. Ervine writes of Shaw's later work that although it was still "astonishingly vigorous and vivacious" it showed unmistakable signs of his age. "The best of his work in this period, however, was full of wisdom and the beauty of mind often displayed by old men who keep their wits about them." Music and drama reviews Music Shaw's collected musical criticism, published in three volumes, runs to more than 2,700 pages. It covers the British musical scene from 1876 to 1950, but the core of the collection dates from his six years as music critic of The Star and The World in the late 1880s and early 1890s. In his view music criticism should be interesting to everyone rather than just the musical élite, and he wrote for the non-specialist, avoiding technical jargon—"Mesopotamian words like 'the dominant of D major'". He was fiercely partisan in his columns, promoting the music of Wagner and decrying that of Brahms and those British composers such as Stanford and Parry whom he saw as Brahmsian. He campaigned against the prevailing fashion for performances of Handel oratorios with huge amateur choirs and inflated orchestration, calling for "a chorus of twenty capable artists". He railed against opera productions unrealistically staged or sung in languages the audience did not speak. Drama In Shaw's view, the London theatres of the 1890s presented too many revivals of old plays and not enough new work. He campaigned against "melodrama, sentimentality, stereotypes and worn-out conventions". As a music critic he had frequently been able to concentrate on analysing new works, but in the theatre he was often obliged to fall back on discussing how various performers tackled well-known plays. In a study of Shaw's work as a theatre critic, E. J. West writes that Shaw "ceaselessly compared and contrasted artists in interpretation and in technique". Shaw contributed more than 150 articles as theatre critic for The Saturday Review, in which he assessed more than 212 productions. He championed Ibsen's plays when many theatregoers regarded them as outrageous, and his 1891 book Quintessence of Ibsenism remained a classic throughout the twentieth century. Of contemporary dramatists writing for the West End stage he rated Oscar Wilde above the rest: "... our only thorough playwright. He plays with everything: with wit, with philosophy, with drama, with actors and audience, with the whole theatre". Shaw's collected criticisms were published as Our Theatres in the Nineties in 1932. Shaw maintained a provocative and frequently self-contradictory attitude to Shakespeare (whose name he insisted on spelling "Shakespear"). Many found him difficult to take seriously on the subject; Duff Cooper observed that by attacking Shakespeare, "it is Shaw who appears a ridiculous pigmy shaking his fist at a mountain." Shaw was, nevertheless, a knowledgeable Shakespearian, and in an article in which he wrote, "With the single exception of Homer, there is no eminent writer, not even Sir Walter Scott, whom I can despise so entirely as I despise Shakespear when I measure my mind against his," he also said, "But I am bound to add that I pity the man who cannot enjoy Shakespear. He has outlasted thousands of abler thinkers, and will outlast a thousand more". Shaw had two regular targets for his more extreme comments about Shakespeare: undiscriminating "Bardolaters", and actors and directors who presented insensitively cut texts in over-elaborate productions. He was continually drawn back to Shakespeare, and wrote three plays with Shakespearean themes: The Dark Lady of the Sonnets, Cymbeline Refinished and Shakes versus Shav. In a 2001 analysis of Shaw's Shakespearian criticisms, Robert Pierce concludes that Shaw, who was no academic, saw Shakespeare's plays—like all theatre—from an author's practical point of view: "Shaw helps us to get away from the Romantics' picture of Shakespeare as a titanic genius, one whose art cannot be analyzed or connected with the mundane considerations of theatrical conditions and profit and loss, or with a specific staging and cast of actors." Political and social writings Shaw's political and social commentaries were published variously in Fabian tracts, in essays, in two full-length books, in innumerable newspaper and journal articles and in prefaces to his plays. The majority of Shaw's Fabian tracts were published anonymously, representing the voice of the society rather than of Shaw, although the society's secretary Edward Pease later confirmed Shaw's authorship. According to Holroyd, the business of the early Fabians, mainly under the influence of Shaw, was to "alter history by rewriting it". Shaw's talent as a pamphleteer was put to immediate use in the production of the society's manifesto—after which, says Holroyd, he was never again so succinct. After the turn of the twentieth century, Shaw increasingly propagated his ideas through the medium of his plays. An early critic, writing in 1904, observed that Shaw's dramas provided "a pleasant means" of proselytising his socialism, adding that "Mr Shaw's views are to be sought especially in the prefaces to his plays". After loosening his ties with the Fabian movement in 1911, Shaw's writings were more personal and often provocative; his response to the furore following the issue of Common Sense About the War in 1914, was to prepare a sequel, More Common Sense About the War. In this, he denounced the pacifist line espoused by Ramsay MacDonald and other socialist leaders, and proclaimed his readiness to shoot all pacifists rather than cede them power and influence. On the advice of Beatrice Webb, this pamphlet remained unpublished. The Intelligent Woman's Guide, Shaw's main political treatise of the 1920s, attracted both admiration and criticism. MacDonald considered it the world's most important book since the Bible; Harold Laski thought its arguments outdated and lacking in concern for individual freedoms. Shaw's increasing flirtation with dictatorial methods is evident in many of his subsequent pronouncements. A New York Times report dated 10 December 1933 quoted a recent Fabian Society lecture in which Shaw had praised Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin: "[T]hey are trying to get something done, [and] are adopting methods by which it is possible to get something done". As late as the Second World War, in Everybody's Political What's What, Shaw blamed the Allies' "abuse" of their 1918 victory for the rise of Hitler, and hoped that, after defeat, the Führer would escape retribution "to enjoy a comfortable retirement in Ireland or some other neutral country". These sentiments, according to the Irish philosopher-poet Thomas Duddy, "rendered much of the Shavian outlook passé and contemptible". "Creative evolution", Shaw's version of the new science of eugenics, became an increasing theme in his political writing after 1900. He introduced his theories in The Revolutionist's Handbook (1903), an appendix to Man and Superman, and developed them further during the 1920s in Back to Methuselah. A 1946 Life magazine article observed that Shaw had "always tended to look at people more as a biologist than as an artist". By 1933, in the preface to On the Rocks, he was writing that "if we desire a certain type of civilization and culture we must exterminate the sort of people who do not fit into it"; critical opinion is divided on whether this was intended as irony. In an article in the American magazine Liberty in September 1938, Shaw included the statement: "There are many people in the world who ought to be liquidated". Many commentators assumed that such comments were intended as a joke, although in the worst possible taste. Otherwise, Life magazine concluded, "this silliness can be classed with his more innocent bad guesses". Fiction Shaw's fiction-writing was largely confined to the five unsuccessful novels written in the period 1879–1885. Immaturity (1879) is a semi-autobiographical portrayal of mid-Victorian England, Shaw's "own David Copperfield" according to Weintraub. The Irrational Knot (1880) is a critique of conventional marriage, in which Weintraub finds the characterisations lifeless, "hardly more than animated theories". Shaw was pleased with his third novel, Love Among the Artists (1881), feeling that it marked a turning point in his development as a thinker, although he had no more success with it than with its predecessors. Cashel Byron's Profession (1882) is, says Weintraub, an indictment of society which anticipates Shaw's first full-length play, Mrs Warren's Profession. Shaw later explained that he had intended An Unsocial Socialist as the first section of a monumental depiction of the downfall of capitalism. Gareth Griffith, in a study of Shaw's political thought, sees the novel as an interesting record of conditions, both in society at large and in the nascent socialist movement of the 1880s. Shaw's only subsequent fiction of any substance was his 1932 novella The Adventures of the Black Girl in Her Search for God, written during a visit to South Africa in 1932. The eponymous girl, intelligent, inquisitive, and converted to Christianity by insubstantial missionary teaching, sets out to find God, on a journey that after many adventures and encounters, leads her to a secular conclusion. The story, on publication, offended some Christians and was banned in Ireland by the Board of Censors. Letters and diaries Shaw was a prolific correspondent throughout his life. His letters, edited by Dan H. Laurence, were published between 1965 and 1988. Shaw once estimated his letters would occupy twenty volumes; Laurence commented that, unedited, they would fill many more. Shaw wrote more than a quarter of a million letters, of which about ten per cent have survived; 2,653 letters are printed in Laurence's four volumes. Among Shaw's many regular correspondents were his childhood friend Edward McNulty; his theatrical colleagues (and amitiés amoureuses) Mrs Patrick Campbell and Ellen Terry; writers including Lord Alfred Douglas, H. G. Wells and G. K. Chesterton; the boxer Gene Tunney; the nun Laurentia McLachlan; and the art expert Sydney Cockerell. In 2007 a 316-page volume consisting entirely of Shaw's letters to The Times was published. Shaw's diaries for 1885–1897, edited by Weintraub, were published in two volumes, with a total of 1,241 pages, in 1986. Reviewing them, the Shaw scholar Fred Crawford wrote: "Although the primary interest for Shavians is the material that supplements what we already know about Shaw's life and work, the diaries are also valuable as a historical and sociological document of English life at the end of the Victorian age." After 1897, pressure of other writing led Shaw to give up keeping a diary. Miscellaneous and autobiographical Through his journalism, pamphlets and occasional longer works, Shaw wrote on many subjects. His range of interest and enquiry included vivisection, vegetarianism, religion, language, cinema and photography, on all of which he wrote and spoke copiously. Collections of his writings on these and other subjects were published, mainly after his death, together with volumes of "wit and wisdom" and general journalism. Despite the many books written about him (Holroyd counts 80 by 1939) Shaw's autobiographical output, apart from his diaries, was relatively slight. He gave interviews to newspapers—"GBS Confesses", to The Daily Mail in 1904 is an example—and provided sketches to would-be biographers whose work was rejected by Shaw and never published. In 1939 Shaw drew on these materials to produce Shaw Gives Himself Away, a miscellany which, a year before his death, he revised and republished as Sixteen Self Sketches (there were seventeen). He made it clear to his publishers that this slim book was in no sense a full autobiography. Beliefs and opinions Throughout his lifetime Shaw professed many beliefs, often contradictory. This inconsistency was partly an intentional provocation—the Spanish scholar-statesman Salvador de Madariaga describes Shaw as "a pole of negative electricity set in a people of positive electricity". In one area at least Shaw was constant: in his lifelong refusal to follow normal English forms of spelling and punctuation. He favoured archaic spellings such as "shew" for "show"; he dropped the "u" in words like "honour" and "favour"; and wherever possible he rejected the apostrophe in contractions such as "won't" or "that's". In his will, Shaw ordered that, after some specified legacies, his remaining assets were to form a trust to pay for fundamental reform of the English alphabet into a phonetic version of forty letters. Though Shaw's intentions were clear, his drafting was flawed, and the courts initially ruled the intended trust void. A later out-of-court agreement provided a sum of £8,300 for spelling reform; the bulk of his fortune went to the residuary legatees—the British Museum, the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and the National Gallery of Ireland. Most of the £8,300 went on a special phonetic edition of Androcles and the Lion in the Shavian alphabet, published in 1962 to a largely indifferent reception. Shaw's views on religion and Christianity were less consistent. Having in his youth proclaimed himself an atheist, in middle age he explained this as a reaction against the Old Testament image of a vengeful Jehovah. By the early twentieth century, he termed himself a "mystic", although Gary Sloan, in an essay on Shaw's beliefs, disputes his credentials as such. In 1913 Shaw declared that he was not religious "in the sectarian sense", aligning himself with Jesus as "a person of no religion". In the preface (1915) to Androcles and the Lion, Shaw asks "Why not give Christianity a chance?" contending that Britain's social order resulted from the continuing choice of Barabbas over Christ. In a broadcast just before the Second World War, Shaw invoked the Sermon on the Mount, "a very moving exhortation, and it gives you one first-rate tip, which is to do good to those who despitefully use you and persecute you". In his will, Shaw stated that his "religious convictions and scientific views cannot at present be more specifically defined than as those of a believer in creative revolution". He requested that no one should imply that he accepted the beliefs of any specific religious organisation, and that no memorial to him should "take the form of a cross or any other instrument of torture or symbol of blood sacrifice". Shaw espoused racial equality, and inter-marriage between people of different races. Despite his expressed wish to be fair to Hitler, he called anti-Semitism "the hatred of the lazy, ignorant fat-headed Gentile for the pertinacious Jew who, schooled by adversity to use his brains to the utmost, outdoes him in business". In The Jewish Chronicle he wrote in 1932, "In every country you can find rabid people who have a phobia against Jews, Jesuits, Armenians, Negroes, Freemasons, Irishmen, or simply foreigners as such. Political parties are not above exploiting these fears and jealousies." In 1903 Shaw joined in a controversy about vaccination against smallpox. He called vaccination "a peculiarly filthy piece of witchcraft"; in his view immunisation campaigns were a cheap and inadequate substitute for a decent programme of housing for the poor, which would, he declared, be the means of eradicating smallpox and other infectious diseases. Less contentiously, Shaw was keenly interested in transport; Laurence observed in 1992 a need for a published study of Shaw's interest in "bicycling, motorbikes, automobiles, and planes, climaxing in his joining the Interplanetary Society in his nineties". Shaw published articles on travel, took photographs of his journeys, and submitted notes to the Royal Automobile Club. Shaw strove throughout his adult life to be referred to as "Bernard Shaw" rather than "George Bernard Shaw", but confused matters by continuing to use his full initials—G.B.S.—as a by-line, and often signed himself "G.Bernard Shaw". He left instructions in his will that his executor (the Public Trustee) was to license publication of his works only under the name Bernard Shaw. Shaw scholars including Ervine, Judith Evans, Holroyd, Laurence and Weintraub, and many publishers have respected Shaw's preference, although the Cambridge University Press was among the exceptions with its 1988 Cambridge Companion to George Bernard Shaw. Legacy and influence Theatrical Shaw did not found a school of dramatists as such, but Crawford asserts that today "we recognise [him] as second only to Shakespeare in the British theatrical tradition ... the proponent of the theater of ideas" who struck a death-blow to 19th-century melodrama. According to Laurence, Shaw pioneered "intelligent" theatre, in which the audience was required to think, thereby paving the way for the new breeds of twentieth-century playwrights from Galsworthy to Pinter. Crawford lists numerous playwrights whose work owes something to that of Shaw. Among those active in Shaw's lifetime he includes Noël Coward, who based his early comedy The Young Idea on You Never Can Tell and continued to draw on the older man's works in later plays. T. S. Eliot, by no means an admirer of Shaw, admitted that the epilogue of Murder in the Cathedral, in which Becket's slayers explain their actions to the audience, might have been influenced by Saint Joan. The critic Eric Bentley comments that Eliot's later play The Confidential Clerk "had all the earmarks of Shavianism ... without the merits of the real Bernard Shaw". Among more recent British dramatists, Crawford marks Tom Stoppard as "the most Shavian of contemporary playwrights"; Shaw's "serious farce" is continued in the works of Stoppard's contemporaries Alan Ayckbourn, Henry Livings and Peter Nichols. Shaw's influence crossed the Atlantic at an early stage. Bernard Dukore notes that he was successful as a dramatist in America ten years before achieving comparable success in Britain. Among many American writers professing a direct debt to Shaw, Eugene O'Neill became an admirer at the age of seventeen, after reading The Quintessence of Ibsenism. Other Shaw-influenced American playwrights mentioned by Dukore are Elmer Rice, for whom Shaw "opened doors, turned on lights, and expanded horizons"; William Saroyan, who empathised with Shaw as "the embattled individualist against the philistines"; and S. N. Behrman, who was inspired to write for the theatre after attending a performance of Caesar and Cleopatra: "I thought it would be agreeable to write plays like that". Assessing Shaw's reputation in a 1976 critical study, T. F. Evans described Shaw as unchallenged in his lifetime and since as the leading English-language dramatist of the (twentieth) century, and as a master of prose style. The following year, in a contrary assessment, the playwright John Osborne castigated The Guardians theatre critic Michael Billington for referring to Shaw as "the greatest British dramatist since Shakespeare". Osborne responded that Shaw "is the most fraudulent, inept writer of Victorian melodramas ever to gull a timid critic or fool a dull public". Despite this hostility, Crawford sees the influence of Shaw in some of Osborne's plays, and concludes that though the latter's work is neither imitative nor derivative, these affinities are sufficient to classify Osborne as an inheritor of Shaw. In a 1983 study, R. J. Kaufmann suggests that Shaw was a key forerunner—"godfather, if not actually finicky paterfamilias"—of the Theatre of the Absurd. Two further aspects of Shaw's theatrical legacy are noted by Crawford: his opposition to stage censorship, which was finally ended in 1968, and his efforts which extended over many years to establish a National Theatre. Shaw's short 1910 play The Dark Lady of the Sonnets, in which Shakespeare pleads with Queen Elizabeth I for the endowment of a state theatre, was part of this campaign. Writing in The New Statesman in 2012 Daniel Janes commented that Shaw's reputation had declined by the time of his 150th anniversary in 2006 but had recovered considerably. In Janes's view, the many current revivals of Shaw's major works showed the playwright's "almost unlimited relevance to our times". In the same year, Mark Lawson wrote in The Guardian that Shaw's moral concerns engaged present-day audiences, and made him—like his model, Ibsen—one of the most popular playwrights in contemporary British theatre. The Shaw Festival in Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada is the second largest repertory theatre company in North America. It produces plays by or written during the lifetime of Shaw as well as some contemporary works. The Gingold Theatrical Group, founded in 2006, presents works by Shaw and others in New York City that feature the humanitarian ideals that his work promoted. It became the first theatre group to present all of Shaw's stage work through its monthly concert series Project Shaw. General In the 1940s the author Harold Nicolson advised the National Trust not to accept the bequest of Shaw's Corner, predicting that Shaw would be totally forgotten within fifty years. In the event, Shaw's broad cultural legacy, embodied in the widely used term "Shavian", has endured and is nurtured by Shaw Societies in various parts of the world. The original society was founded in London in 1941 and survives; it organises meetings and events, and publishes a regular bulletin The Shavian. The Shaw Society of America began in June 1950; it foundered in the 1970s but its journal, adopted by Penn State University Press, continued to be published as Shaw: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies until 2004. A second American organisation, founded in 1951 as "The Bernard Shaw Society", remains active . More recent societies have been established in Japan and India. Besides his collected music criticism, Shaw has left a varied musical legacy, not all of it of his choosing. Despite his dislike of having his work adapted for the musical theatre ("my plays set themselves to a verbal music of their own") two of his plays were turned into musical comedies: Arms and the Man was the basis of The Chocolate Soldier in 1908, with music by Oscar Straus, and Pygmalion was adapted in 1956 as My Fair Lady with book and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner and music by Frederick Loewe. Although he had a high regard for Elgar, Shaw turned down the composer's request for an opera libretto, but played a major part in persuading the BBC to commission Elgar's Third Symphony, and was the dedicatee of The Severn Suite (1930). The substance of Shaw's political legacy is uncertain. In 1921 Shaw's erstwhile collaborator William Archer, in a letter to the playwright, wrote: "I doubt if there is any case of a man so widely read, heard, seen, and known as yourself, who has produced so little effect on his generation." Margaret Cole, who considered Shaw the greatest writer of his age, professed never to have understood him. She thought he worked "immensely hard" at politics, but essentially, she surmises, it was for fun—"the fun of a brilliant artist". After Shaw's death, Pearson wrote: "No one since the time of Tom Paine has had so definite an influence on the social and political life of his time and country as Bernard Shaw." In its obituary tribute to Shaw, The Times Literary Supplement concluded: Notes References Citations Sources Books Shaw's writings Journals Newspapers Online External links (About 50 ebooks of Shaw's works and some additional Shaw-related material) (More links to Shaw-related material) (19 downloads for audiobooks) Shaw at IBDb.com (Information on Broadway productions, 1894 to present) (Lists all film and TV versions of Shaw's works since 1921) Shaw photographs held at LSE Library International Shaw Society The Shaw Society, UK, established in 1941 The Bernard Shaw Society, New York Shaw collection at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin 1856 births 1950 deaths 19th-century British dramatists and playwrights 19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights 19th-century male writers 20th-century British dramatists and playwrights 20th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights 20th-century British male writers Accidental deaths from falls Accidental deaths in England Anti-vivisectionists Articles containing video clips Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners British eugenicists British male dramatists and playwrights British music critics British Nobel laureates British screenwriters British socialists Burials at Ayot St Lawrence Classical music critics Deaths from kidney failure English-language spelling reform advocates Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature PEN International Irish anti-vaccination activists Irish Dominion League Irish male dramatists and playwrights Irish music critics Irish Nobel laureates Irish people of English descent Irish screenwriters Irish socialists Members of St Pancras Metropolitan Borough Council Members of the Fabian Society Writers from Dublin (city) Nobel laureates in Literature People associated with the British Museum People associated with the London School of Economics People associated with the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art People educated at Wesley College, Dublin People from Ayot St Lawrence People from Portobello, Dublin Victorian novelists 20th-century British screenwriters

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Tallahassee ( ) is the capital city of the U.S. state of Florida. It is the county seat and only incorporated municipality in Leon County. Tallahassee became the capital of Florida, then the Florida Territory, in 1824. In 2010, the population was 181,376, making it the 8th-largest city in the U.S state of Florida, and the 126th-largest city in the United States. The population of the Tallahassee metropolitan area was 385,145 . Tallahassee is the largest city in the Florida Big Bend and Florida Panhandle region, and the main center for trade and agriculture in the Florida Big Bend and Southwest Georgia regions. Tallahassee is home to Florida State University, ranked the nation's eighteenth best public university by U.S. News & World Report. It is also home to Florida A&M University, the fifth-largest historically black university by total enrollment. Tallahassee Community College is a large state college that serves mainly as a feeder school to Florida State and Florida A&M. Tallahassee qualifies as a significant college town, with a student population exceeding 70,000. As the capital, Tallahassee is the site of the Florida State Capitol, Supreme Court of Florida, Florida Governor's Mansion, and nearly 30 state agency headquarters. The city is also known for its large number of law firms, lobbying organizations, trade associations and professional associations, including the Florida Bar and the Florida Chamber of Commerce. It is a recognized regional center for scientific research, and home to the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. In 2015, Tallahassee was awarded the All-American City Award by the National Civic League for the second time. History Indigenous peoples occupied this area for thousands of years before European encounter. Around 1200 CE, the large and complex Mississippian culture had built earthwork mounds near Lake Jackson which survive today; they are preserved in the Lake Jackson Archaeological State Park. The Spanish Empire established their first colonial settlement at St. Augustine. During the 17th century they established several missions in Apalachee territory to procure food and labor to support their settlement, as well as to convert the natives to Roman Catholicism. The largest, Mission San Luis de Apalachee in Tallahassee, has been partially reconstructed by the state of Florida. The expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez encountered the Apalachee people, although it did not reach the site of Tallahassee. Hernando de Soto and his mid-16th century expedition occupied the Apalachee town of Anhaica (at what is now Tallahassee) in the winter of 1538–1539. Based on archaeological excavations, this Anhaica site is now known to have been about east of the present Florida State Capitol. The De Soto encampment is believed to be the first place Christmas was celebrated in the continental United States although there is no historical documentation to back this claim. The name Tallahassee is a Muskogean language word often translated as "old fields" or "old town". It was likely an expression of the Creek people who migrated from Georgia and Alabama to this region in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, under pressure from European-American encroachment on their territory. They found large areas of cleared land previously occupied by the Apalachee tribe. (The Creek and later refugees who joined them developed as the Seminole Indians of Florida.) During the First Seminole War, General Andrew Jackson fought two separate skirmishes in and around Tallahassee, which was then Spanish territory. The first battle took place on November 12, 1817. After Chief Neamathla, of the village of Fowltown just west of present-day Tallahassee, refused Jackson's orders to relocate, Jackson entered the village, burnt it to the ground, and drove off its occupants. The Indians retaliated, killing 50 soldiers and civilians. Jackson reentered Florida in March 1818. According to Jackson's adjutant, Colonel Robert Butler, they "advanced on the Indian village called Tallahasse (sic) [where] two of the enemy were made prisoner." State capital Florida became an American territory in September 1821, in accordance with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. The first session of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida met on July 22, 1822, at Pensacola, the former capital of West Florida. Members from St. Augustine, the former capital of East Florida, traveled 59 days by water to attend. The second session was in St. Augustine, and western delegates needed 28 days to travel perilously around the peninsula to reach St. Augustine. During this session, delegates decided to hold future meetings at a halfway point. Two appointed commissioners selected Tallahassee, at that point an Apalachee settlement (Anhaica) virtually abandoned after Andrew Jackson burned it in 1818, as a halfway point. In 1824 the third legislative session met there in a crude log building serving as the capitol. From 1821 through 1845, during Florida's territorial period, the rough-hewn frontier capital gradually developed as a town. The Marquis de Lafayette, French hero of the American Revolution, returned to the United States in 1824 for a tour. The U.S. Congress voted to give him $200,000 (the same amount he had given the colonies in 1778), US citizenship, and the Lafayette Land Grant, of land that today includes large portions of Tallahassee. In 1845 a Greek revival masonry structure was erected as the Capitol building in time for statehood. Now known as the "old Capitol", it stands in front of the high-rise Capitol building built in the 1970s. Tallahassee was in the heart of Florida's Cotton Belt—Leon County led the state in cotton production—and was the center of the slave trade in Florida. During the American Civil War, Tallahassee was the only Confederate state capital east of the Mississippi River not captured by Union forces, and the only one not burned. A small engagement, the Battle of Natural Bridge, was fought south of the city on March 6, 1865, just a month before the war ended. During the 19th century, the institutions that would develop into what is now Florida State University were established in Tallahassee; it became a university town. These included the Tallahassee Female Academy (founded 1843) and the Florida Institute (founded 1854). In 1851, the Florida legislature decreed two seminaries to be built on either side of the Suwannee River, East Florida Seminary and West Florida Seminary. In 1855 West Florida Seminary was transferred to the Florida Institute building (which had been established as an inducement for the state to place the seminary in Tallahassee). In 1858, the seminary absorbed the Tallahassee Female Academy and became coeducational. Its main building was near the northwest corner of South Copeland and West Jefferson streets, approximately where FSU's Westcott Building is today. In 1887, the Normal College for Colored Students, the ancestor of today's FAMU, opened its doors. The legislature decided Tallahassee was the best location in Florida for a college serving African-American students; the state had segregated schools. Four years later its name was changed to State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students, to teach teachers for elementary school children and students in industrial skills. After the Civil War much of Florida's industry moved to the south and east, a trend that continues today. The end of slavery and the rise of free labor reduced the profitability of the cotton and tobacco trade, at a time when world markets were also changing. The state's major industries shifted to citrus, lumber, naval stores, cattle ranching, and tourism. The latter was increasingly important by the late 19th century. In the post-Civil War period, many former plantations in the Tallahassee area were purchased by wealthy northerners for use as winter hunting preserves. This included the hunting preserve of Henry L. Beadel, who bequeathed his land for the study of the effects of fire on wildlife habitat. Today the preserve is known as the Tall Timbers Research Station and Land Conservancy, nationally recognized for its research into fire ecology and the use of prescribed burning. 1900–present Until World War II, Tallahassee remained a small Southern town The main economic drivers were the colleges and state government, where politicians met to discuss spending money on grand public improvement projects to accommodate growth in places such as Miami and Tampa Bay, hundreds of miles away from the capital. Tallahassee was also active in protest during the civil rights era. The Tallahassee bus boycott was a citywide boycott in Tallahassee, Florida that sought to end racial segregation in the employment and seating arrangements of city buses. On May 26, 1956, Wilhelmina Jakes and Carrie Patterson, two Florida A&M University students, were arrested by the Tallahassee Police Department for "placing themselves in a position to incite a riot". Robert Saunders]], representing the NAACP, and Rev. C. K. Steele began talks with city authorities while the local African-American community started boycotting the city's buses. The Inter-Civic Council ended the boycott on December 22, 1956. On January 7, 1957, the City Commission repealed the bus-franchise segregation clause because of the United States Supreme Court ruling Browder v. Gayle (1956). In the 1960s there was a movement to transfer the capital to Orlando, closer to the state's growing population centers. That movement was defeated; the 1970s saw a long-term commitment by the state to the capital city, with the construction of the new capitol complex and preservation of the old Florida State Capitol building. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported the city's population as 74.0% white and 25.4% black. In 1971, the city elected James R. Ford to the 5-member City Commission, and he became the city's first African-American mayor in 1972 (commissioners rotated into the position serving a one-year term). Bobby Bowden became the head coach of Florida State Seminoles football in 1976, and turned Tallahassee into a city dominated by college football, Bowden became very successful very quickly at Florida State. By his second year, Bowden had to deny many rumors that he would leave for another job; the team went 9–2, compared to the four wins total in the three seasons before Bowden. During 34 years as head coach he had only one losing season–his first, in 1976. In 1977 the 22-story high-rise Capitol building, designed by architect Edward Durell Stone, was completed. It is now (2021) the third-tallest state capitol building in the United States. In 1978 the Old Capitol, directly in front of the new capitol, was scheduled for demolition, but state officials decided to keep the Old Capitol as a museum. In 1986, Jack McLean served as mayor, the second African-American to hold the position. Tallahassee was the center of world attention for six weeks during the 2000 United States Presidential election recount, which involved numerous rulings by the Florida Secretary of State and the Florida Supreme Court. In 2016, the city suffered a direct hit by Hurricane Hermine, causing about 80% of the city proper to lose power, including Florida State University, and knocking down many trees. In 2018, the city suffered another natural disaster when Hurricane Michael hit the panhandle. Geography Tallahassee has an area of , of which is land and (2.59%) is water. Tallahassee's terrain is hilly by Florida standards, being at the southern end of the Red Hills Region, just above the Cody Scarp. The elevation varies from near sea level to just over , with the state capitol on one of the highest hills in the city. The city includes two large lake basins, Lake Jackson and Lake Lafayette, and borders the northern end of the Apalachicola National Forest. The flora and fauna are similar to those found in the mid-south and low country regions of South Carolina and Georgia. The palm trees are the more cold-hardy varieties like the state tree, the Sabal palmetto. Pines, magnolias, hickories, and a variety of oaks are the dominant trees. The Southern Live Oak is perhaps the most emblematic of the city. Nearby cities and suburbs Crawfordville Havana Lamont Lloyd Midway Monticello Quincy Cityscape Neighborhoods Tallahassee has many neighborhoods inside the city limits. Some of the most known and defined include All Saints, Apalachee Ridge, Betton Hills, Buck Lake, Callen, Frenchtown (the oldest historically black neighborhood in the state), Killearn Estates, Killearn Lakes Plantation, Lafayette Park, Levy Park, Los Robles, Midtown, Holly Hills, Jake Gaither/University Park, Indian Head Acres, Myers Park, Smokey Hollow, SouthWood, Seminole Manor and Woodland Drives. Tallahassee is also home to some gated communities, including Golden Eagle, Ox Bottom, Lafayette Oaks and The Preserve at San Luis; the Tallahassee Ranch Club is to the southeast of the city. Tallest buildings Urban planning and expansion The first plan for the Capitol Center was the 1947 Taylor Plan, which consolidated several government buildings in one downtown area. In 1974, the Capitol Center Planning Commission for the City of Tallahassee, Florida responded to growth of its urban center with a conceptual plan for the expansion of its Capitol Center. Hisham Ashkouri, working for The Architects' Collaborative, led the urban planning and design effort. Estimating growth and related development for approximately the next 25 years, the program projected the need for 2.3 million square feet (214,000 m2) of new government facilities in the city core, with 3,500 dwelling units, of new public open space, retail and private office space, and other ancillary spaces. Community participation was an integral part of the design review, welcoming Tallahassee residents to provide input as well as citizens' groups and government agencies, resulting in the creation of six separate design alternatives. Sprawl and compact growth The Tallahassee-Leon County Planning Department implements policies aimed at promoting compact growth and development, including the establishment and maintenance of an Urban Service Area. The intent of the Urban Service Area is to "have Tallahassee and Leon County grow in a responsible manner, with infrastructure provided economically and efficiently, and surrounding forest and agricultural lands protected from unwarranted and premature conversion to urban land use." The result of compact growth policies has been a significant overall reduction in the Sprawl Index for Tallahassee between 2000 and 2010. CityLab reported on this finding, stating "Tallahassee laps the field, at least as far as the Sprawl Index is concerned." Climate Tallahassee has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa), with long summers and short, mild winters, as well as drier springs and autumns. Summer maxima here are hotter than in the Florida peninsula and it is one of the few cities in the state to occasionally record temperatures above , averaging 2.4 days annually. The record high of was set on June 15, 2011. Summer is characterized by brief intense showers and thunderstorms that form along the afternoon sea breeze from the Gulf of Mexico. The daily mean temperature in July, the hottest month, is . Conversely, the city is markedly cooler in the winter, with a January daily average temperature of . The city averages 32 nights with a minimum at or below freezing, and on average, the window for freezing temperatures is from November 20 thru March 21, allowing a growing season of 243 days. As Tallahassee is part of USDA Hardiness Zone 8b, each winter's coldest temperature is typically slightly below ; readings below are very rare, having last occurred on January 11, 2010. During the Great Blizzard of 1899 the city reached on February 13, which remains Florida's only recorded reading below . At the time, Tallahassee's record low was colder than the record low in either Ketchikan, Alaska, or Tromsø, Norway. The record cold daily maximum is , set on the same day as the all-time record low, while conversely, the record warm daily minimum is on July 15, 1980. Snow and ice are rare in Tallahassee. Historically, the city usually records at least flurries every three to four years, but snowfall of or more occurs only once every 17 years on average. The closest location that receives regular yearly snowfalls is Macon, Georgia, north of Tallahassee. Nonetheless, Tallahassee has recorded a few accumulating snowfalls over the last 100 years; the heaviest snowfall was on February 13, 1958. Tallahassee's other recorded measurable snowfalls were on February 12–13, 1899, and December 22–23, 1989; on March 28, 1955, and February 10, 1973; on February 2, 1951; and on January 3, 2018. Although several hurricanes have brushed Tallahassee with their outer rain and wind bands, in recent years only Hurricane Kate, in 1985, and Hurricane Hermine, in 2016, have struck Tallahassee directly. Hurricane Michael passed 50 miles to the west after making landfall near Mexico Beach, Florida in October 2018 as a Category 5 storm, resulting in 95% of Leon County being without power. The Big Bend area of North Florida sees several tornadoes each year during the season, but they are generally weak, cause little structural damage, and rarely hit the city. On April 19, 2015, a tornado touched down in Tallahassee. The tornado was rated EF1, and created a path as wide as for almost near Maclay Gardens. Damage included numerous downed tree limbs and a car crushed by a falling tree. During extremely heavy rains, some low-lying parts of Tallahassee may flood, notably the Franklin Boulevard area adjacent to the downtown and the Killearn Lakes subdivision, outside the Tallahassee city limits, on the north side. The most recent tornado to hit Tallahassee occurred on January 27, 2021. It was rated as EF0 tornado. The tornado caused damage to the city and the Tallahassee International Airport. Demographics As of the 2010 census, the population of Tallahassee was 181,376. There were 75,949 households, 16.7% of which had children under 18 living in them. 27.7% were married couples living together(based on 2010 data), 14.4% had a female householder with no husband, and 53.7% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals living alone and 6.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.33. Children under the age of 5 were 4.9% of the population, persons under 18 were 16.7% and persons 65 years or older were 10.3%. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.7 males. 56.2% of the population was White, 35.0% Black, 4.6% Asian, 0.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.3% some other race, and 2.9% two or more races. 6.3% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, and 51.1% were non-Hispanic White. For 2009–2013, the estimated median household income was $39,524, and the per capita income was $23,778. The percentage of persons below the poverty level was estimated at 30.2%. Educationally, the population of Leon County is the most highly educated population in Florida with 54.4% of the residents over the age of 25 with a Bachelor's, Master's, professional or doctorate degree. The Florida average is 37.4% and the national average is 33.4%. Languages , 92.0% of residents spoke English as their first language, while 4.1% spoke Spanish, 0.6% spoke French, and 0.6% spoke German as their mother tongue. In total, 8.0% of the total population spoke languages other than English. Law, government and politics Politics Tallahassee has traditionally been a Democratic city, but the party has been supported by different ethnic groups over time, with a major shift in the late 20th century. Leon County has voted Democratic in 24 of the past 29 presidential elections since 1904. But until the late 1960s, most African Americans were disenfranchised from the political system, dating from a new constitution and other laws passed by Democrats in Florida (and in all other Southern states) at the turn of the century. At that time, most African Americans were affiliated with the Republican Party, and their disenfranchisement resulted in that party being non-competitive in the region for decades. Subsequently, these demographic groups traded party alignments. Since passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and enforcement of constitutional rights for African Americans, voters in Tallahassee have elected black mayors and black state representatives. It has become a city in the Southern U.S. that is known for progressive activism. This is likely due to the large student population that attends Florida State University, Florida A&M University, and Tallahassee Community College. In addition, in the realignment of party politics since the late 20th century, most of the African-American population in the city now support Democratic Party candidates. As of December 2, 2018, there were 112,572 Democrats, 58,083 Republicans, and 44,007 voters who were independent or had other affiliations among the 214,662 voters in Leon County. Leon County's voter turnout percentage has consistently ranked among the highest of Florida's 67 counties, with a record-setting 86% turnout in the November 2008 general election. The county voted for Barack Obama in the presidential election. Structure of city government Tallahassee has a form of government with an elected mayor of Tallahassee, elected commissioners, and an at-will employed city manager, city departments, and staff. The current city commissioners are: Seat 1 – Jacqueline "Jack" Porter Seat 2 – Curtis Richardson Seat 3 – Jeremy Matlow Seat 4 (Mayor) – John Dailey Seat 5 – Dianne Williams-Cox 1826 Dr. Charles Haire 1827 David Ochiltree 1828–1829 John Y. Gary 1830 Leslie A. Thompson 1831 Charles Austin 1832–1833 Leslie A. Thompson 1834 Robert J. Hackley 1835 William Wilson 1836 John Rea 1837 William P. Gorman 1838 William Hilliard 1839 R. F. Ker 1840 Leslie A. Thompson 1841–1844 Francis W. Eppes 1845 James A. Berthelot 1846 Simon Towle 1847 James Kirksey 1848 F. H. Flagg 1849 Thomas J. Perkins 1850–1851 D. P. Hogue 1852 David S. Walker 1853 Richard Hayward 1854–1855 Thomas Hayward 1856–1857 Francis W. Eppes 1858–1860 D. P. Hogue 1861–1865 P. T. Pearce 1866 Francis W. Eppes 1867–1868 D. P. Hogue 1869–1870 T. P. Tatum 1871 C. E. Dyke 1872–1874 C. H. Edwards 1875 David S. Walker, Jr. 1876 Samuel Walker 1877 Jesse Bernard 1878–1879 David S. Walker, Jr. 1880 Henry Bernreuter 1881 Edward Lewis 1882 John W. Nash 1883 Edward Lewis 1884–1885 Charles C. Pearce 1886 George W. Walker 1887 A. J. Fish 1888–1889 R. B. Forman 1890–1894 R. B. Carpenter 1895–1896 Jesse T. Bernard 1897 R. A. Shine 1898–1902 R. B. Gorman 1903–1904 William L. Moor 1905 John W. Henderson 1906 F. C. Gilmore 1907 W. M. McIntosh, Jr. 1908 F. C. Gilmore 1909 Francis B. Winthrop 1910–1917 D. M. Lowry 1918 J. R. McDaniel 1919–1921 Guyte P. McCord 1922–1923 A. P. McCaskill 1924–1925 B. A. Meginniss 1926 W. Theo Proctor 1927 B.A. Meginniss 1928–1929 W. Theo Proctor 1930 G. E. Lewis 1931 Frank D. Moor 1932–1933 W. L. Marshall 1934 J. L. Fain 1935 Leonard A. Wesson 1936 H. J. Yaeger 1937 L. A. Wesson 1938 J. R. Jinks 1939 S. A. Wahnish 1940 F. C. Moor 1941 Charles S. Ausley 1942 Jack W. Simmons 1943 A. R. Richardson 1944 Charles S. Ausley 1945 Ralph E. Proctor 1946 Fred S. Winterle 1947 George I. Martin 1948 Fred N. Lowry 1949–1950 Robert C. Parker 1951 W. H. Cates 1952 B. A. Ragsdale 1953 William T. Mayo 1954 H. G. Esterwood 1954 H. C. Summitt 1955–1956 J. T. Williams 1956 Fred S. Winterle 1956–1957 John Y. Humphress 1957 J. W. Cordell 1958 Davis H. Atkinson 1959 Hugh E. Williams, Jr. 1960 George S. Taft 1961 J. W. Cordell 1962 Davis H. Atkinson 1963 S. E. Teague, Jr. 1964 Hugh E. Williams, Jr. 1965 George S. Taft 1966 W. H. Cates 1967 John A. Rudd, Sr. 1968 Gene Berkowitz 1969 Spurgeon Camp 1970 Lee A. Everhart 1971 Gene Berkowitz 1972 James R. Ford 1973 Joan Heggen 1974–1975 John R. Jones 1976 James R. Ford 1977–1978 Neal D. Sapp 1979 Sheldon A. Hilaman 1980–1981 Hurley W. Rudd 1982 James R. Ford 1983 Carol Bellamy 1984 Kent Spriggs 1985 Hurley W. Rudd 1986 Jack McClean 1987–1988 Betty Harley 1988–1990 Dorothy Inman 1990 Steve Meisberg 1991–1992 Debbie Lightsey 1993–1994 Dorothy Inman-Crews 1994–1995 Penny Herman 1995–1996 Scott Maddox 1996–1997 Ron Weaver 1997–2003 Scott Maddox 2003–2014 John Marks 2014–2018 Andrew Gillum 2018–present John Dailey Federal representation and offices Tallahassee is split between Florida's 2nd congressional district and Florida's 5th congressional district. The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Tallahassee. The Tallahassee Main Post Office is at 2800 South Adams Street. Other post offices in the city limits include Centerville Station, Leon Station, Park Avenue Station, and Westside Station. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration maintains a National Weather Service in Tallahassee. Their coverage-warning area includes the eastern Florida Panhandle and adjacent Gulf of Mexico waters, the north-central Florida peninsula, and parts of southeastern Alabama and southwestern Georgia. The United States Army Reserve 81st Regional Support Command (USAR) opened an Army Reserve Center at 4307 Jackson Bluff Road. The Naval and Marine Corps Reserve Center (NMCRC) is at 2910 Roberts Avenue host the United States Navy Reserve Navy Operational Support Center Tallahassee (NOSC Tallahassee) and the United States Marine Corps Reserve 2nd Platoon, Company E, Anti-Terrorism Battalion and 3rd Platoon, Company E, Anti-Terrorism Battalion. Consolidation Voters of Leon County have gone to the polls four times to vote on consolidation of Tallahassee and Leon County governments into one jurisdiction combining police and other city services with already shared (consolidated) Tallahassee Fire Department and Leon County Emergency Medical Services. Tallahassee's city limits would increase from to . Roughly 36 percent of Leon County's 265,714 residents live outside the Tallahassee city limits. Each time, the measure was rejected: The proponents of consolidation have stated the new jurisdiction would attract business by its size. Merging governments would cut government waste, duplication of services, etc. However, Professor Richard Feiock of the Department of Public Administration of Korea University and the Askew School of Public Administration and Policy of Florida State University states that no discernible relationship exists between consolidation and the local economy. Flag The former flag of Tallahassee was vaguely similar to the flag of Florida, a white saltire on a blue field, with the city's coat of arms, featuring the cupola of the old capitol building, at the center. The flag is an homage to the Scottish and Ulster-Scots Presbyterian heritage of the original founders of the city, most of whom were settlers from North Carolina whose ancestors had either come to America directly from Scotland, or were Presbyterians of Scottish descent from County Down and County Antrim in what has since become Northern Ireland. The current flag incorporates a stylized 5-point star and the city name on a white background. Education Primary and secondary Tallahassee anchors the Leon County School District. As of the 2009 school year Leon County Schools had an estimated 32,796 students, 2209 teachers and 2100 administrative and support personnel. The superintendent of schools is Rocky Hanna. Leon County public school enrollment continues to grow steadily (up approximately 1% per year since the 1990–91 school year). The dropout rate for grades 9–12 improved to 2.2% in the 2007–2008 school year, the third time in the past four years the dropout rate has been below 3%. To gauge performance the State of Florida rates all public schools according to student achievement on the state-sponsored Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). Seventy-nine percent of Leon County Public Schools received an A or B grade in the 2008–2009 school year. The overall district grade assigned to the Leon County Schools is "A". Students in the Leon County School District continued to score favorably in comparison to Florida and national averages in the SAT and ACT student assessment tests. The Leon County School District has consistently scored at or above the average for districts statewide in total ACT and SAT mean composite scores. Leon County high schools Public schools belonging to universities Florida State University School ("Florida High") (K–12) Florida A&M University Developmental Research School (K–12) Charter schools Governor's Charter Academy (GCA) (K–8) – Established in August 2012. School of Arts and Sciences (SAS) (K–8) – Established in 1999 Tallahassee School of Math and Science (TSMS) (K–8) – It was previously known as Stars Middle School and only served middle school. In 2014 it received a new charter, adopted its current name, and expanded to elementary grades. Private schools Higher education Florida State University Florida State University (commonly referred to as Florida State or FSU) is an American public space-grant and sea-grant research university. Florida State is on a 1,391.54-acre (5.631 km2) campus in the state capital of Tallahassee, Florida, United States. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida. Founded in 1851, it is on the oldest continuous site of higher education in the state of Florida. The university is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The university comprises 16 separate colleges and more than 110 centers, facilities, labs and institutes that offer more than 360 programs of study, including professional school programs. The university has an annual budget of over $1.7 billion. Florida State is home to Florida's only National Laboratory – the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and is the birthplace of the commercially viable anti-cancer drug Taxol. Florida State University also operates The John & Mable Ringling Museum of Art, the State Art Museum of Florida and one of the nation's largest museum/university complexes. The university is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Florida State University is home to nationally ranked programs in many academic areas, including law, business, engineering, medicine, social policy, film, music, theater, dance, visual art, political science, psychology, social work, and the sciences. Florida State University leads Florida in four of eight areas of external funding for the STEM disciplines (Science, Technology, Engineering and Math). For 2019, U.S. News & World Report ranked Florida State as the 26th best public university in the United States and 70th among top national universities. Florida Governor Rick Scott and the state legislature designated Florida State University as one of two "preeminent" state universities in the spring of 2013 among the twelve universities of the State University System of Florida. FSU's intercollegiate sports teams, commonly known by their Florida State Seminoles nickname, compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). The Florida State Seminoles athletics program are favorites of passionate students, fans and alumni across the United States, especially when led by the Marching Chiefs of the Florida State University College of Music. In their 113-year history, Florida State's varsity sports teams have won 20 national athletic championships and Seminole athletes have won 78 individual NCAA national championships. Florida A&M University Founded on October 3, 1887, Florida A&M University (commonly referred to as FAMU) is a public, historically black university and land-grant university that is part of the State University System of Florida and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. FAMU's main campus comprises 156 buildings spread over on top of the highest geographic hill of Tallahassee. The university also has several satellite campuses, including a site in Orlando where its College of Law is located and sites in Miami, Jacksonville and Tampa for its pharmacy program. Florida A&M University offers 54 bachelor's degrees and 29 master's degrees. The university has 12 schools and colleges and one institute. FAMU has 11 doctoral programs which include 10 PhD programs: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, biomedical engineering, physics, pharmaceutical sciences, educational leadership, and environmental sciences. Top undergraduate programs are architecture, journalism, computer information sciences, and psychology. FAMU's top graduate programs include pharmaceutical sciences along with public health, physical therapy, engineering, physics, master's of applied social sciences (especially history and public administration), business and sociology. Tallahassee Community College Tallahassee Community College (TCC) is a member of the Florida College System. Tallahassee Community College is accredited by the Florida Department of Education and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Its primary campus is on a 270-acre (1.092 km2) campus in Tallahassee. The institution was founded in 1966 by the Florida Legislature. TCC offers Bachelor's of Science, Associate of Arts, Associate of Science, and Associate of Applied Sciences degrees. In 2013, Tallahassee Community College was listed 1st in the nation in graduating students with A.A. degrees. TCC is also the No. 1 transfer school in the nation to Florida State University and Florida A&M University. As of Fall 2015, TCC reported 38,017 students. In partnership with Florida State University, and Florida A&M University Tallahassee Community College offers the TCC2FSU, and TCC2FAMU program. This program provides guaranteed admission into Florida State University and Florida A&M University for TCC Associate in Arts degree graduates. List of other colleges Barry University School of Adult and Continuing Education – Tallahassee Campus Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Flagler College – Tallahassee Campus Keiser University – Tallahassee Campus Lewis M. Lively Area Vocational-Technical School Saint Leo University – Tallahassee Campus Economy Companies based in Tallahassee include: Citizens Property Insurance Corporation, the Municipal Code Corporation, the State Board of Administration of Florida (SBA), the Mainline Information Systems, and United Solutions Company. Top employers According to Tallahassee's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: Arts and culture Entertainment and performing arts Tallahassee is home to many entertainment venues, theaters, museums, parks and performing arts centers. A major source of entertainment and art is the Railroad Square Art Park. The Railroad Square Art Park is an arts, culture and entertainment district of Tallahassee, Florida, off Railroad Avenue, filled with a variety of metal art sculptures and stores selling artwork and collectibles. Railroad Square is mainly known for its small locally owned shops and working artist studios, and its alternative art scene. It is also known as home to the second location of Tallahassee's long-serving local business staple Black Dog Cafe. On the first Friday of every month, Railroad Square is home to a free gallery hop known as First Friday from 6pm-9pm, where a diverse group of upwards of 5000-7000+ Tallahasseeans of all ages come to meet their friends and experience art. Museums Tallahassee is known for its many museums. It is home to the Museum of Fine Arts at Florida State University, Tallahassee Museum, Goodward Museum & Gardens, Museum of Florida History, Mission San Luis de Apalachee, and the Tallahassee Automobile Museum. Festivals and events Downtown Getdown (Florida State Seminoles Pep Rally) First Friday festivals at Railroad Square Greek Food Festival Springtime Tallahassee Tallahassee Wine and Food Festival Winter Festival City accolades 1988: Money Magazines Southeast's three top medium size cities in which to live. 1992: Awarded Tree City USA by National Arbor Day Foundation 1999: Awarded All-America City Award by the National Civic League 2003: Awarded Tree Line USA by the National Arbor Day Foundation. 2006: Awarded "Best In America" Parks and Recreation by the National Recreation and Park Association. 2007: Recognized by Kiplinger's Personal Finance Magazine as one of the "Top Ten College Towns for Grownups" (ranking second, behind Chapel Hill, North Carolina) 2007: Ranked second in the "medium sized city" class on Epodunk's list of college towns. 2015: Awarded All-America City Award by the National Civic League Sports Florida State Seminoles Tallahassee is home to one of the most competitive collegiate athletics programs in the nation, the Florida State Seminoles of Florida State University. The Seminoles compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. The university funds 20 varsity teams, consisting of 9 male and 11 female. They have collectively won 19 team national championships, and over 100 team conference championships, as well as numerous individual national and conference titles. The program has placed in the top-10 final standings of the Director's Cup four times since 2008–2009, including No. 4 for the 2009–2010 season and No. 4 for the 2011–2012 season. In 2016–2017, the program generated the thirteenth-most revenue in collegiate athletics with $144,514,413 of total revenue. College football game weekends bring in a significant amount of tourism to Leon County. FSU home games had a total attendance of 575,478 people with an average of 82,211 attendees per game in 2014. During football season, out-of-town attendees brought $48.8 million in direct spending during the six home games. In 2016, Florida State football home games resulted in $95.5 million of economic impact on Leon County. Other Tallahassee is home to Tallahassee SC, a soccer club that was founded in 2018 and plays in the National Premier Soccer League. Some former sports clubs in Tallahassee include the Tallahassee Tiger Sharks, Tallahassee Scorpions, Tallahassee Thunder, Tallahassee Titans, and the Tallahassee Tigers. Media Print The Tallahassee Democrat, Tallahassee's largest newspaper, published daily The FSView & Florida Flambeau, covers Florida State University The Talon, covers Tallahassee Community College The Famuan, covers Florida A&M University Television WCTV (CBS) channel 6.1 (MeTV) channel 6.2 (Circle) channel 6.3 (ION) channel 6.4 (Justice) channel 6.5 (MyTV) channel 6.6 WFSU (PBS) channel 11.1 (Florida Channel) channel 11.2 (Create) channel 11.3 (Kids 360) channel 11.4 WTLF (CW) channel 24.1 (Comet) channel 24.2 (TBD) 24.3 (Dabl) channel 24.4 WTLH (H&I) channel 49.1 (CW) channel 49.2 (Comet) 49.3 WTWC (NBC) channel 40.1 (Fox) channel 40.2 (Charge) channel 40.3 WTXL (ABC) channel 27.1 (Bounce) channel 27.2 (Grit) channel 27.3 (Escape) channel 27.4 (CourtTV) channel 27.5 (Newsy) 27.6 WNXG-LD (WCTV simulcast channels 6.1 - 6.6 ATSC 3.0) WVUP (CTN) channel 45.1 (LifeStyle) channel 45.2 WFXU-LD (MyNetwork TV) channel 15.1 (Decades) channel 15.2 (Start TV) channel 15.3 Radio WANM, Soul/R&B music WAYT-FM, contemporary Christian music WBZE-FM, adult contemporary music WDXD-LP, classic country music WFLA-FM, news/talk WFSQ-FM, classical music WFSU-FM, news/talk WGLF-FM, classic rock music WGMY-FM, Top 40 music WHTF-FM, Top 40 music WTLY, adult contemporary music WTNT-FM, country music WVFS-FM, college/alternative music WVFT, news/talk WWLD, hip-hop music WWOF-FM, country music WXSR-FM, rock music Public safety Established in 1826, the Tallahassee Police Department once claimed to be the oldest police department in the Southern United States, and the second-oldest in the U.S., preceded only by the Philadelphia Police Department (established in 1758). The Boston Police Department was established in 1838 and larger East Coast cities followed with New York City and Baltimore in 1845. However, this is proven incorrect. Pensacola, Florida, for example, had a municipal police force as early as 1821. There are over 800 sworn law enforcement officers in Tallahassee. Law enforcement services are provided by the Tallahassee Police Department, the Leon County Sheriff's Office, the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, Florida Capitol Police, Florida State University Police Department, Florida A&M University Police Department, the Tallahassee Community College Police Department, the Florida Highway Patrol, and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. The Tallahassee Growth Management Building Inspection Division is responsible for issuing permits and performing inspections of public and private buildings in the city limits. These duties include the enforcement of the Florida Building Codes and the Florida Fire Protection Codes. These standards are present to protect life and property. The Tallahassee Building Department is one of 13 Accredited Building Departments in the United States. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, United States Marshals Service, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Secret Service and Drug Enforcement Administration have offices in Tallahassee. The United States District Court for the Northern District of Florida is based in Tallahassee. Fire and rescue services are provided by the Tallahassee Fire Department and Leon County Emergency Medical Services. Hospitals in the area include Tallahassee Memorial Healthcare, Capital Regional Medical Center and HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital of Tallahassee. Places of interest Alfred B. Maclay Gardens State Park Carnegie Library at FAMU Challenger Learning Center Co-Cathedral of St. Thomas More College Town at Florida State University Doak Campbell Stadium Elinor Klapp-Phipps Park First Presbyterian Church Florida Governor's Mansion Florida State Capitol Florida Supreme Court Foster Tanner Fine Arts Gallery at Florida A&M University Goodwood Museum and Gardens Innovation Park John G. Riley Center/Museum of African American History & Culture (Riley Museum) Knott House Museum Lake Ella Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park Lafayette Heritage Trail Park LeRoy Collins Leon County Public Library LeMoyne Center for the Visual Arts Mission San Luis de Apalachee Museum of Fine Arts at Florida State University Museum of Florida History National High Magnetic Field Laboratory North Florida Fairgrounds Railroad Square Southeastern Regional Black Archives Research Center and Museum St. John's Episcopal Church Tallahassee Automobile Museum Tallahassee Museum James D. Westcott Building and Ruby Diamond Auditorium at Florida State University Transportation Aviation Tallahassee International Airport (KTLH) Defunct airports Dale Mabry Field (closed 1961) Tallahassee Commercial Airport (closed 2011) Mass transit StarMetro provides bus service throughout the city. Intercity bus Greyhound and Megabus based in downtown Tallahassee. Railroads Freight service is provided by the Florida Gulf & Atlantic Railroad, which acquired most of the CSX main line from Pensacola to Jacksonville on June 1, 2019. FG&A also purchased the CSX branch from Tallahassee to Attapulgus, Georgia, connecting with the CSX Montgomery-Savannah main line at Bainbridge, Georgia. FG&A's headquarters office is in Tallahassee. Defunct railroads and passenger trains Tallahassee Railroad, completed in 1837, now the state-owned Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail from Tallahassee southward to St. Marks, about 20 miles. Carrabelle, Tallahassee and Georgia Railroad, founded in 1891, merged into the Georgia Florida and Alabama Railway in 1906. The Tallahassee-Carrabelle segment was abandoned in 1948. In 2009, a 2.4-mile segment of the abandoned railroad was opened as the Tallahassee-Georgia Florida and Alabama (GF&A) Trail in the Apalachicola National Forest. The streamlined Gulf Wind coach and Pullman passenger train, operated jointly by the L&N and Seaboard railroads, served Tallahassee from 1949 to 1971, when the newly formed Amtrak cancelled the train. Amtrak's Sunset Limited served Tallahassee from April 1993 until service east of New Orleans was suspended in August 2005, following Hurricane Katrina, which caused extensive damage to CSX lines from Louisiana to Florida. The service has never been reinstated, and as of mid-2019 had a "next to zero chance" of being revived by Amtrak. In 2021, Amtrak announced plans restore service as early as 2022 along part of the route from New Orleans to Alabama, but not into Florida. The Tallahassee and Pensacola metropolitan areas are the largest in the state without passenger rail service. Major highways Interstate 10 runs east and west across the north side of the city. Tallahassee is served by five exits including: Exit 192 (U.S. 90), Exit 196 (Capital Circle NW), Exit 199 (U.S. 27/Monroe St.), Exit 203 (U.S. 319/Thomasville Road and Capital Circle NE), and Exit 209 (U.S. 90/Mahan Dr.) U.S. Route 27 enters the city from the northwest before turning south and entering downtown. This portion of U.S. 27 is known locally as Monroe Street. In front of the historic state capitol building, U.S. 27 turns east and follows Apalachee Parkway out of the city. U.S. Route 90 runs east and west through Tallahassee. It is known locally as Tennessee Street west of Magnolia Drive and Mahan Drive east of Magnolia. U.S. Route 319 runs north and south along the east side of the city using Thomasville Road, Capital Circle NE, Capital Circle SE, and Crawfordville Road. State Road 20 State Road 61 State Road 363 Orchard Pond Parkway, the first privately-built toll road in Florida. Tallahassee groups and organizations Cold Water Army, music group Creed, rock band Cream Abdul Babar, music group The Crüxshadows, music group David Canter, medical doctor, folk musician Dead Prez, Alternative hip hop duo Go Radio, music group FAMU Marching 100, marching band FSU Marching Chiefs, marching band Look Mexico, rock band Mayday Parade, music group Mira, music group No Address, music group Socialburn, rock band Tallahassee Symphony Orchestra, symphony orchestra Woman's Club of Tallahassee Namesakes CSS Tallahassee, 1864 Confederate cruiser , 1908 United States Navy monitor, originally named USS Florida , 1941 United States Navy light cruiser, converted to the aircraft carrier USS Princeton , 1944 United States Navy light cruiser Tallahassee, main character in the movie Zombieland Tallahassee, album recorded by The Mountain Goats Tallahassee Community School, Eastern Passage, Nova Scotia, named after CSS Tallahassee Tallahassee Tight, early-20th century blues singer T-Pain, musician, originally "Tallahassee Pain" "Tallahassee Lassie", Freddy Cannon song Sister cities Tallahassee has 6 sister cities as follows: Konongo-Odumase, Ashanti, Ghana Krasnodar, Krasnodar Krai, Russia St. Maarten, Netherlands Antilles Sligo, County Sligo, Ireland Rugao, Jiangsu, China Ramat HaSharon, Tel Aviv District, Israel Gallery Notable people This is a list of notable people from Tallahassee, in alphabetical order by last name: Cannonball Adderley, musician Wally Amos (born 1936), television personality and founder of Famous Amos Cookies Bobby Bowden, Florida State University football coach LeRoy Collins, Florida governor Paul Dirac, theoretical physicist and Nobel Laureate Julian Green, soccer player Robert A. Holton, chemist and inventor of Taxol Kent Jones, musician Sir Harold Kroto, Nobel Prize-winning scientist Payne Midyette (1898–1983), insurance broker, Tallahassee politician and rancher Jim Morrison, musician W. Stanley "Sandy" Proctor, sculptor T-Pain, rapper turned singer KJ Smith, model, actress Yvonne Edwards Tucker (born 1941), potter Ann VanderMeer, Hugo Award-winning Editor Jeff VanderMeer, New York Times Bestselling Author Florence Duval West (1840–1881), poet State associations based in Tallahassee The Florida Bar Florida Chamber of Commerce Florida Dental Association Florida Institute of CPAs Florida Lottery Independent Colleges and Universities of Florida See also Consolidation of Leon County with Tallahassee Flag of Tallahassee, Florida Frenchtown (Tallahassee) History of Tallahassee, Florida Park Avenue Historic District Tallahassee Historic District Zones I And II List of people from Tallahassee, Florida References Further reading Hare, Julianne. Tallahassee: a capital city history. Arcadia Publishing. 2002 Tebeau, Charlton, W. A History of Florida. University of Miami Press. Coral Gables. 1971 Williams, John Lee. Journal of an Expedition to the Interior of West Florida October–November 1823. Manuscript on file at the State Library of Florida, Florida Collection. Tallahassee. External links The Local Conservation District – Information on Natural Resources, and Panoramic Tours The Tallahassee Democrat Newspaper Mission San Luis Tallahassee Trust for Historic Preservation – Places to Discover Ochlockonee River – St. Marks River Watersheds – Florida DEP Cities in Florida Cities in Leon County, Florida Populated places established in 1821 Tallahassee metropolitan area County seats in Florida 1824 establishments in Florida Territory

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The following events occurred in August 1927: Monday, August 1, 1927 The Nanchang Uprising began as a pivotal event that created the China's People's Liberation Army, as 20,000 of the Communist members of the Twentieth Army of the Kuomintang revolted and took control of the city of Nanchang, capital of the Jiangxi Province. The rebels dispersed four days later when the Nationalists counter-attacked, but the new Chinese Red Army planned other attacks. Among the participants were future Prime Minister Zhou Enlai, the later to be disgraced Lin Biao, and future Marshals Zhu De, General He Long, Ye Ting, Liu Bocheng, Nie Rongzhen and Luo Ruiqing and Lin Biao. August 1 is still celebrated annually as "Army Day". The Carter Family, led by A.P. Carter and described as "the first band sensation in country music history", recorded the first of many bestselling records. Their debut single, made at a studio in Bristol, Tennessee, was "Bury Me Beneath the Willow". The Japanese minelaying ship Tokiwa was heavily damaged while trying to deactivate armed mines in the Saiki Bay. One of the floating mines exploded, setting off a chain reaction in seventeen other mines. Thirty-five of the crew were killed and another sixty-eight seriously injured. The Leningrad Oblast, one of the largest in Soviet Union, was formed by the consolidation of the lands around Leningrad, Murmansk, Novgorod, Cherepovets, and Pskov. Over the next fifteen years, the oblast would be broken up again. Tuesday, August 2, 1927 While on an extended vacation in Rapid City, South Dakota, U.S. President Calvin Coolidge closed his weekly 9:30 am press conference with a directive to return at noon for a special announcement. When the newspapermen returned to Coolidge's office, located at Central High School, the President told them, "Will you please file past me? I have a little statement for you." Each reporter was handed a folded slip of paper with one typewritten statement: "I do not choose to run for President in nineteen twenty-eight." A reporter asked, "Does the president care to comment further?" The laconic Coolidge replied, "No", and left the room. The surprise had been timed so that it could not make the news until after the close of trade on the stock markets. Speculation about the Republican candidate for president in 1928 included Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, and former Illinois Governor Frank O. Lowden. Wednesday, August 3, 1927 Sixteen miners were killed in an explosion at the West Kentucky Coal Company Mine Number 7 at Clay, Kentucky. The disaster occurred one day before the tenth anniversary of an explosion, on August 4, 1917, at the very same mine, which had killed 67 coal miners. Massachusetts Governor Alvan T. Fuller denied a request for clemency for Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti after reviewing arguments concerning the fairness of their murder trial. Fuller wrote, "As a result of my investigation I find no sufficient justification for executive intervention. I believe with the jury, that those men, Sacco and Vanzetti, were guilty and they had a fair trial." The two men had been given a temporary reprieve on their execution, due to expire on August 10. Whether Fuller actually investigated the case is doubted by some historians. The SS Carl D. Bradley sailed for the first time. The freighter would sink in Lake Michigan in 1958, drowning 33 of its 35 crew. Thursday, August 4, 1927 Radio station WFAA in Dallas did the first "rebroadcast" of a news report, repeating NBC Radio's June 11 report of Charles Lindbergh's parade in Washington. Four phonograph records had been made from the broadcast by the RCA Victor company. Three days after the Carter Family had cut their debut single in the same studio, Jimmie Rodgers recorded his first country song. At Bristol, Tennessee, he sang the "yodeling lullaby", "Sleep, Baby, Sleep" and "The Soldier's Sweetheart" Born: Jess Thomas, American tenor, in Hot Springs, South Dakota (d. 1993) Eddie Kamae, American singer who led music's Hawaiian Renaissance; in Honolulu (d. 2017) Died: Eugène Atget, 70, French surrealist photographer Friday, August 5, 1927 The U.S. Federal Reserve Board cut the prime lending rate at the same time that British Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill placed Britain back on to the gold standard. The action, taken in order to protect the British government from the possibility of the British pound being devalued against the U.S. dollar. This has been described as the first time in history "that one of the world's great economic powers altered its macroeconomic policy with the aim of supporting a minor currency". A previously unknown species of beetle, the Gehringia olympica, was discovered by Philip Darlington, who collected eight specimens at the Sol Duc River in the state of Washington. Darlington named the beetle in honor of J.G. Gehring, who had sponsored the expedition. Following the denial of clemency to Sacco and Vanzetti, bombs exploded at two subway stations on New York City's 28th Street, seriously injuring two people and hurting many others. The threat of violent protests put police on alert worldwide. Saturday, August 6, 1927 Harold Stephen Black invented the negative feedback amplifier. Four days earlier, he had come up with the idea while riding the Lackawanna Ferry across the Hudson River to his New York job. The forerunner of the breathalyzer was first demonstrated by Professor Rolla H. Harger of Indiana University, who showed how breath contained in a balloon could be dispersed into sulfuric acid and then accurately measured to calculate blood alcohol content. Harger would patent the "Drunkometer" in 1938 for use by police.<ref>"Rolla N. Harger Dies; Invented Drunkometer", New York Times, August 9, 1983</ref> Born: Richard Murphy, Irish poet, in County Mayo (d. 2018) Sunday, August 7, 1927 At an emergency meeting of the Chinese Communist Party, convened in Hankou by the Vissarion Lominadze Soviet representative of Comintern, Secretary General Chen Duxiu (Ch'en Tu-hsiu) was deposed as the CCP's leader, and replaced by Qu Qiubai (Ch'u Ch'iu-pai). At the meeting, future Party Chairman Mao Zedong made the oft-quoted statement that "political power is obtained out of the barrel of a gun". The Peace Bridge opened between Fort Erie, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York, as British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, Edward, Prince of Wales, U.S. Vice President Charles G. Dawes, U.S. Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg, and New York Governor Al Smith, met at the center of the span. Mrs. Dawes, and Mrs. W.D. Ross, wife of the Deputy Premier of Ontario, cut the ribbon with golden shears. Trofim Lysenko, whose discredited ideas about genetics would dominate Soviet thought during the era of Joseph Stalin, first came to national attention in the Soviet Union as the subject of a feature story in Pravda. Born: Carl "Alfalfa" Switzer, American actor and singer in the Little Rascals comedies (killed, 1959) Edwin Edwards, three-time Governor of Louisiana between 1972 and 1996, who was later convicted of racketeering; in Marksville, Louisiana (d. 2021) George Busbee, Governor of Georgia 1975–83, in Vienna, Georgia (d. 2004) Died: Pope Cyril V of Alexandria, 96, Patriarch of the Coptic Christian Church since 1874 U.S. Army Major General Leonard Wood, Governor-General of the Philippines, 66 Arthur T. Walker, 49, multimillionaire who had inherited most of the estate of Edward F. Searles. Monday, August 8, 1927 The Manila Stock Exchange, first stock market in the Philippines, was established by five American businessmen. In 1994, it and the rival Makati Stock Exchange would merge to create the Philippine Stock Exchange. Pilot Clarence Chamberlin demonstrated a method for speeding up the delivery of overseas mail, by flying his airplane from the deck of the cruise ship Leviathan, to New York for the first ship to shore delivery. Standard Oil of New Jersey President Walter C. Teagle announced a deal with German chemical cartel IG Farben to produce synthetic motor fuel at a lower price than that refined strictly from oil. Manufacturing using the Bergius process proved to be more expensive than expected. By 1931, synthetic oil cost six times as much as natural petroleum, after both companies had lost millions on the investment. Born: Johnny Temple, American baseball player (d. 1994) Tuesday, August 9, 1927 A crowd of 100,000 protesters rallied at Union Square in New York on the eve of the scheduled execution of Sacco and Vanzetti. After the meeting, 2,000 of the protesters marched down Fifth Avenue, where police dispersed them. On the same day, at least 70,000 workers nationwide walked off their jobs. Born: Marvin Minsky, American computer scientist, philosopher and 1970 Turing Award winner; in New York City (d. 2016). Wednesday, August 10, 1927 The upcoming artistic project on Mount Rushmore was dedicated by President Calvin Coolidge, who promised national funding for the carving and praised, as described later, George Washington for founding America, Jefferson for expanding it, Lincoln for preserving it and Roosevelt for reaching out to the world. Coolidge then handed sculptor Gutzon Borglum a set of drills, and Borglum climbed to the top of the mountain and began drilling where Washington's head would one day be. The French Chamber of Deputies repealed a law that had previously taken away French citizenship from women who married foreigners. There had been no analogous law taking away citizenship of French men with foreign wives. Forty minutes before they were scheduled to go to the electric chair, Sacco and Vanzetti, along with Celestino Madeiros, were given a twelve-day reprieve by Governor Fuller. The Governor had been notified by the Massachusetts Supreme Court that it would announce at noon Thursday whether it would reconsider the case. The condemned men were informed at 11:27 pm. Navy Lieutenants George Covell and R.W. Waggener crashed shortly after takeoff from San Diego, where they had planned to be part of the field for the Dole Air Race. They were only the first of many casualties associated with the ill-fated competition. Born: Vainu Bappu, Indian astronomer, and co-discoverer of the Wilson–Bappu effect, which permits the judgment of the absolute magnitude of certain types of stars; in Madras (d. 1982) Jimmy Martin, American musician known as "The King of Bluegrass"; in Sneedville, Tennessee (d.2005) Died: King Sisowath of Cambodia, 86, monarch of the French protectorate since 1904. He was succeeded by his son, King Sisowath Monivong Thursday, August 11, 1927 Members of the Irish Independence Party, Fianna Fáil, led by Éamon de Valera, decided to take their seats in the Parliament of the Irish Free State, the Dáil Éireann, even though it would require them to sign an oath of allegiance to the King. Witnesses would later report that de Valera solved the ethical dilemma by covering the written oath with his hand while applying his signature. Friday, August 12, 1927 The Bardo Thodol was first published in the United States as The Tibetan Book of the Dead. British pilot Arthur V. Rogers was killed while practicing at Los Angeles for the Dole Air Race to Honolulu, in the third plane crash in as many days for participants. After the deaths of Covell and Waggener on Wednesday, the triplane "Pride of Los Angeles" plunged into the San Francisco Bay on Thursday and its crew of three narrowly escaped drowning. The crews of the nine remaining planes postponed the start of the race from Saturday to Tuesday. The film Wings was first presented. Starring Clara Bow and introducing Gary Cooper, the movie was accompanied by recorded sound effects of the various airplanes seen, but not spoken dialogue. It was the first, and only silent film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. Born: Porter Wagoner, American country music singer, in West Plains, Missouri (d. 2007) Saturday, August 13, 1927 After the disaster at Nanchang, General Chiang Kai-shek resigned rather than be fired as commander of the Kuomintang Army, and temporarily retired to his native village of Xikou. The first live sports broadcast on Japanese radio took place with the play-by-play on the national middle-school baseball tournament in Tokyo. Because of radio censorship rules requiring advance approval by the Ministry of Communication of scripts, permission was granted only on condition that a Ministry official sit next to the announcer to prevent any inappropriate statements. Radio broadcasting had begun on March 22, 1925. Born: (according to some sources) Fidel Castro, Cuban dictator from 1959 onward, in Birán (d. 2016). Although the official birthdate for Castro is August 13, 1926, several of his siblings in exile stated that their father lied about the year in order for him to enroll earlier in school. Died: James Oliver Curwood, 49, America novelist and conservationist. Curwood had been bitten by an insect while on a fishing trip in Florida, and died of blood poisoning on his return to his home in Owosso, Michigan Sunday, August 14, 1927 The first tournament for the Mitropacup opened with eight teams drawn from the top finishers and the cup winners of the national soccer football leagues of Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Sparta Praha would defeat Rapid Wien in the two game final to win the first cup. Herbert Lord, the Director of the U.S. Bureau of the Budget (now the OMB), announced that there was a surplus of more than two billion dollars in the federal budget. He gave the precise figure of $2,392,909,074.38 for the amount saved. Astronomer C.T. Elvey announced from the Yerkes Observatory in Chicago that the Sun could explode any minute, and added, "If the sun should explode, we would know of it in eight minutes and we would have 138 hours more to live. At that time the burning gases would reach the earth and we would be annihilated." Monday, August 15, 1927 In East Milton, Massachusetts, the home of Lewis McHardy, who had been one of the jurors who had convicted Sacco and Vanzetti of murder, was destroyed by a bomb that went off at 3:30 in the morning. McHardy, his wife and three children survived with only cuts and bruises. After the two men were put to death, the homes of their executioner and of trial judge Webster Thayer were bombed on May 17, 1928, and September 27, 1932, respectively. Rollo Gallagher of Salt Lake City, Utah, was fatally burned when he fell into a hot spring near Firehole Lake in Lower Geyser Basin at Yellowstone National Park. Although advised to go to a nearby hospital, Gallagher chose to drive back to Salt Lake City and died after he arrived there. Born: Patrick Galvin, Irish poet, in Cork City (d. 2011) Died: Elbert H. Gary, 81, President of the United States Steel Company. He died at 2:40 am, but his death was not announced until after the close of trading on Wall Street. Tuesday, August 16, 1927 With three competitors already out because of crashes, the ill-fated Dole Air Race began with eight airplanes taking off from Oakland, California, at noon to fly 2,400 miles to Honolulu, Hawaii. The stakes were $25,000 for first place, and $10,000 for second place. Two of the planes— El Encanto and the Pabeo Flyer— crashed on takeoff, weighed down by the gasoline. The Dallas Spirit and the Oklahoma both took to the air, but were forced to return with engine problems. Only four planes— Golden Eagle, Miss Doran, Aloha and Woolarac — would successfully arrive in Hawaii. In an 8–1 win by his New York Yankees over the Chicago White Sox, slugger Babe Ruth hit a home run that cleared the roof of the right field grandstands at Comiskey Park by a considerable margin. A contemporary account from the Chicago Tribune said that "Such a blow started from Wrigley Field would jeopardize the lives of golfers on the Lincoln Park course, it was estimated." Born: William Henry Thompson, first African-American recipient of the Medal of Honor in the 20th Century; in New York City (killed in action 1950) Died: J. Ogden Armour, 63, heir to the Armour Meat Packing fortune and former president of the company; he lost $130,000,000 in 1921 at his height, he was the world's second richest man, and still had a fortune of twenty million dollars at the time of his death. Wednesday, August 17, 1927 At 12:33 p.m., local time, Arthur Goebel and Lt. W.V. Davis won the Dole Air Race and its $25,000 prize after being the first to arrive in Honolulu, 26 hours and 16 minutes after they had taken off in the Woolaroc. Coming in second was the Aloha, at 2:22 pm, with Martin Jensen and Paul Schluter capturing the $10,000 second place. Officials waited for the two remaining entrants, the Miss Doran, with Auggy Pedlar, V. R. Knope and Mildred Doran aboard, and the Golden Eagle (with Jack Frost and Gordon Scott), and none of them arrived. The five missing fliers, none of whom were seen again, would bring the number of deaths associated with the race to eight. No trace was found, despite a search of the Pacific route by rescue airplanes. Out of his $10,000 winnings, pilot Jensen gave his navigator, Schulter, only $25. Born: Bernard Cornfeld, controversial American investor and financier who operated Investors Overseas Service in the 1970s; in Istanbul (d. 1995) Died: Ivar Fredholm, 61, Swedish mathematician who posed the problem and solution of the Fredholm integral equation Thursday, August 18, 1927 The lowest barometric pressure ever measured at sea level was taken by the crew of the Dutch ship S.S. Sapoerea during a tropical cyclone in the Philippine Sea, at 26.185 inches or 88.673 kilopascals. On October 12, 1979, an estimate of 25.69 in (87.00 kPa) was made by dropsonde observation from an aircraft during Typhoon Tip. Born: Rosalynn Carter, American First Lady, 1977 to 1981; as Eleanor Rosalynn Smith, in Plains, Georgia. In 1946 she would marry U.S. Navy Ensign and future U.S. President Jimmy Carter Friday, August 19, 1927 On their way to Hawaii to search for five missing fliers who had vanished during the Dole Air Race, Bill Erwin and Al Eichwaldt disappeared after sending a distress call. Their plane, the Dallas Spirit, had been forced out of the race three days earlier. When the search for the three airplanes was called off, the final death toll of the race was ten. On his 20th birthday, Bir Bikram Kishore Debbarman was given full powers as the Maharaja of Tripura, one of the princely states of British India. In Cleveland, the Terminal Tower was topped off at 708 feet and 52 stories. At the time, it was the second tallest building in the world, second only to the 57 story, 792 foot Woolworth Building in New York. Born: L.Q. Jones, American character actor, producer and director; as Justice McQueen, Jr., in Beaumont, Texas Hsing Yun, Chinese Buddhist monk and founder of the Fo Guang Shan order; in Jiangsu Saturday, August 20, 1927 Mao Zedong, a lower level member of the Chinese Communist Party, was approached in Hunan by an agent of the Soviet Union's Comintern, and advised that Moscow wanted the CCP to organize workers, peasants, and soldiers into Communist groups. "Mao's instinct for power," wrote one observer later, "led him to grasp immediately the potential of the message." Argentina returned to the gold standard, thirteen years after suspending the export of gold during World War One. Born: Peter Oakley, also known as "geriatric1927", former English mechanic who gained fame at age 79 as a YouTube celebrity; in Leicester (d. 2014) Jimmy Raney, American guitarist, in Louisville, Kentucky (d. 1995) Yootha Joyce, English television actress, in Wandsworth (d. 1980) Died: Fannie Bloomfield-Zeisler, 64, Austrian-American pianist Sunday, August 21, 1927 On the final day of the first large scale Nazi Party national congress at Nuremberg, a crowd of 80,000 followers turned out for the main event at 9:00 pm, to hear party leader Adolf Hitler address his loyal followers. The Nuremberg Rallies would become an annual event with each party congress of the NSDAP. Born: Thomas S. Monson, President of the LDS Church since 2008; in Salt Lake City (d. 2018) Died: William Burnside, 75, British mathematician who pioneered group theory Monday, August 22, 1927 The divorce trial of Charlie Chaplin and Lita Grey Chaplin ended with a settlement with a record verdict, $625,000 to her and a $200,000 trust fund for their sons. Died: Louis Agassiz Fuertes, 53, American ornithologist, after his car was struck by a train at a railroad crossing at Unadilla, New York Tuesday, August 23, 1927 At Charlestown State Prison near Boston, Nicola Sacco, 36 and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, 39 were put to death in the electric chair despite worldwide public outcry. Preceding them in death was Celestino Madeiros, who was executed for an unrelated murder at 12:09 am, but who had sworn that he had committed the 1920 murder of Frederick A. Parmenter and Alexander Berardelli, for which Sacco and Vanzetti had been convicted. Sacco entered the death chamber at 12:11. After reportedly shouting, in Italian, "Long live anarchy!", he then said, in English, "Farewell, mother," and was pronounced dead at 12:19. Vanzetti went to the chair at 12:20 and reportedly said, "I wish to forgive some people for what they are now doing to me." He was pronounced dead at 12:26. All three men were put to death by state executioner Robert G. Elliott. Born: Dick Bruna, Dutch illustrator (d. 2017) Died: Saad Zaghlul, 68, Egyptian nationalist and former Prime Minister of Egypt (in 1924) Wednesday, August 24, 1927 During night maneuvers of Japan's Combined Fleet, the battle cruiser Jintsu struck the starboard side of the Warabi and cut it into two, sinking it immediately with 92 of her crew on board. To avoid the collision, the Naka turned sharply and struck the Ashi, killing 27 of its crew. The Geneva Naval Conference came to an end after nine weeks, with no agreement on reduction of warship construction, and an increase in tension between the United States and the United Kingdom. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe received a patent for a process that allowed the mass production of steel chairs that were both lightweight and strong. Born: Harry Markowitz, American economist and 1990 Nobel Prize laureate Died: Manuel Díaz Rodríguez, 56, Venezuelan author of the modernismo movement in Spanish-language literature and former Foreign Minister of Venezuela Thursday, August 25, 1927 Paul R. Redfern left Brunswick, Georgia, at noon, flying his Stinson Detroiter Port of Brunswick to attempt a solo non-stop flight to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He disappeared the next day and was never seen again; his plane is believed to have crashed in a jungle in Venezuela. Born: Althea Gibson, American tennis player and the first African-American to win the Wimbledon championship; in Silver, South Carolina (d. 2003) Albert Uderzo, French cartoonist who illustrated the Asterix comic books (d. 2020) Friday, August 26, 1927 British scientist Frederick Griffith submitted the first paper ever describing the transforming principle in genetics. "The Significance of Pneumococcal Types" was published in the January issue of the Journal of Hygiene. The search for the cause of the transformation of pneumococcal bacteria would yield the identification of DNA. The first radio station in Calcutta (Kolkata), and only the second, after Bombay (Mumbai), in India, began broadcasting. There was not a third station until eight years later. An unexpected and fast-moving hurricane in Nova Scotia killed 184 people, most of them fishermen who had been drowned at sea, but also sank the American racing schooner Columbia off of the coast of Sable Island, along with its entire crew of 22 people. Chinese warlord Sun Chuanfang led an attack on the city of Nanjing, cutting the electric wires and railroad traffic between that city and Shanghai. Sun was later defeated at the Battle of Lung-tan, after radio broadcasting was used to reopen communications. Saturday, August 27, 1927 A group of Canadian women who would become known as the "Famous Five" (Emily Murphy, Irene Parlby, Nellie McClung, Louise Crummy McKinney and Henrietta Muir Edwards) petitioned the Supreme Court of Canada for the right of women to serve in the Senate of Canada. Although they were denied by the nation's high court, they won a victory in the British Privy Council in 1929, opening the door for Canadian women not only to serve in the Senate, but to have the same rights in politics as men. Born: Fouad al-Tikerly, prominent Iraqi novelist and writer (d. 2008) Mario Jascalevich, controversial American physician, in Buenos Aires (d. 1984) Sunday, August 28, 1927 The remains of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were cremated in order to prevent their graves from becoming a shrine. Boston authorities permitted mourners to march in a memorial service. Died: Jimmy Clements, 80, Australian Aboriginal elder presented to royalty on the opening of the first Federal Parliament Monday, August 29, 1927 Near Folsom, New Mexico, Carl Schwachheim found a man-made spearhead imbedded in the skeleton of an ancient bison, proving that human beings had arrived in North America at the end of the last Ice Age, earlier than believed. Carbon dating later determined that the bison had been killed more than 10,000 years earlier. The first World Population Conference opened in Geneva, after having been arranged by Albert Thomas, director of the International Labour Office, and Raymond Pearl, the five-day meeting on population growth did not reach a consensus. Born: Marion Williams, African-American gospel singer, in Miami (d. 1994) Tuesday, August 30, 1927 The Princes' Gates, with a stone archway, pillars and a statue of The Winged Victory, were dedicated in Toronto to mark the 60th anniversary of the 1867 independence of Canada. The gateway to Exhibition Place was named for the two visiting British princes, the future kings Edward VIII and George VI. Born: Bill Daily, American comedian and TV actor known as Roger Healey on I Dream of Jeannie and as Howard Borden on The Bob Newhart Show'', in Des Moines, Iowa (d. 2018) Wednesday, August 31, 1927 Princess Anne of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, flying along with pilot Leslie Hamilton and navigator Frederick F. Minchin departed from England to attempt a westward transatlantic crossing and disappeared over the ocean. Died: William F. Carver, 76, American entertainer who specialized in sharpshooting, and created the diving horse act for his traveling Wild West show. References 1927 1927-08 1927-08

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The Brocken, also sometimes referred to as the Blocksberg, is the highest peak of the Harz mountain range and also the highest peak of Northern Germany; it is located near Schierke in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt between the rivers Weser and Elbe. Although its elevation of is below alpine dimensions, its microclimate resembles that of mountains of about . The peak above the tree line tends to have a snow cover from September to May, and mists and fogs shroud it up to 300 days of the year. The mean annual temperature is only . It is the easternmost mountain in northern Germany; travelling east in a straight line, the next prominent elevation would be in the Ural Mountains in Russia. The Brocken has always played a role in legends and has been connected with witches and devils; Johann Wolfgang von Goethe took up the legends in his play Faust. The Brocken spectre is a common phenomenon on this misty mountain, where a climber's shadow cast upon fog creates eerie optical effects. Today the Brocken is part of the Harz National Park and hosts a historic botanical garden of about 1,600 alpine mountain plants. A narrow gauge steam railway, the Brocken Railway, takes visitors to the railway station at the top on . FM-radio and television broadcasting make major use of the Brocken. The old television tower, the Sender Brocken, is now used as hotel and restaurant. It also has an observation deck, open to tourists. Geography Location The Brocken rises over the Harz National Park in the district of Harz, whose main town of Wernigerode lies about east-northeast of the mountain. The state boundary with Lower Saxony runs past the Brocken some to the west. At the southeastern foot of the Brocken lies the spa resort of Schierke. Somewhat to the north below the summit of the Brocken is a reservoir, the Brockenteich, constructed in 1744. On or near the mountain are the source areas of the rivers Bode, Ecker, Ilse and Oder. The rounded summit of the Brocken is treeless, but vegetated with dwarf shrubs. Summit and subpeaks The highest point on the Brocken reaches an elevation of (). Its subpeaks include the Heinrichshöhe (), Königsberg () and Kleiner Brocken ("Little Brocken") (). Before 1989 the height of the Brocken was recorded in almost all the relevant maps and books as (). A survey of the summit at the beginning of the 1990s based on the current reference system, however, gave the height as just . In order to provide a reference point for the old data, in the mid-1990s granite boulders were set on the highest point of the Brocken, which not only matched the old given height, but exceeded it by about a metre. A bench mark of "1142 m" was recorded on the summit stone. This height on the upper plate refers to the line on the lower plate. Geology From a geological point of view the Brocken and its surrounding terrain, the Brocken massif, consists mainly of granite (called Brocken granite), an igneous rock. The granitic plutons of the Harz – the Brocken, Ramberg and Oker plutons – emerged towards the end of the Harz mountain-building phase of the Upper Carboniferous, about 300 million years ago. First, alkaline magma intruded into the overlying sediments, crystallized out and formed gabbro and diorite massifs, such as the Harzburg gabbro. A little later, silica-rich granitic magma rose, some intruding into voids and gaps in the older rocks, but most being created by the melting of existing sediments. On the boundary between granite and host rock, the so-called contact zone, a great variety of transitions may be seen. For example, the summit of the Achtermannshöhe consists of contact-metamorphosed hornfels of the contact zone that, here, lies over the Brocken granite. The subsequent erosion of the Harz mountains that followed the uplifting of the Harz during the Upper Cretaceous saw the disappearance of the protective hornfels summit, thus exposing the granite that had crystallized underground during the Upper Carboniferous. The alleged hardness of Brocken granite is not the reason for the height of the mountain, but the geological fact that it was well protected by its weather-resistant hornfels crest for a long time before erosion set in. Only in recent geological times, since the tertiary period, did the typical, rounded, spheroidal weathering of granite outcrops and granite boulders of the Brocken take place. Such blockfields are very rare in Central Europe outside the Alps and are subject to conservation measures. They originated mainly under periglacial conditions, i.e. during the course of the ice ages, and their retreat. Today's blockfields of Brocken granite, as well as other rocks in the Harz National Park, particularly in the Oker valley, are therefore at least 10,000 years old. Physical weathering, such as frost shattering, has played a key role in their formation, resulting in giant piles of loosely stacked rocks. In 2006, the granite blockfields of the Brocken, together with 76 other interesting geotopes, were designated as a "National Geotope". Climate The Brocken is a place of extreme weather conditions. Due to its exposed location in the north of Germany its peak lies above the natural tree line. The climate on the Brocken is like that of an alpine location or even that of Iceland's zone. This is due to its short summers and very long winters, with many months of continuous snow cover, strong storms and low temperatures even in summer. The summit, however, does not have an alpine climate, as the average summer temperature is above . Due to its significant height difference compared with the surrounding terrain the Brocken has the highest precipitation of any point in northern central Europe, with an average annual precipitation (1961–1990) of . Its average annual temperature is . The Brocken weather station has recorded the following extreme values: Its highest temperature was on 20 August 2012. Its lowest temperature was on 1 February 1956. In 1973 it had 205 days of snow cover. Its greatest depth of snow was on 14 and 15 April 1970. Its highest measured wind speed was on 24 November 1984. Its greatest annual precipitation was in 1981. Its least annual precipitation was in 1953. The longest annual sunshine was 2004.5 hours in 1921. The shortest annual sunshine was 972.2 hours in 1912. The Brocken also holds the record for the greatest number of days of mist and fog in a single calendar year in Germany, 330 days in 1958, and has an average of 120 days of snowfall per year. Flora The harsh climate of the Brocken makes it a habitat for rare species. The mountain's summit is a subalpine zone with flora and fauna almost comparable to those of north Scandinavia and the Alps. The Brocken is the only mountain in Germany's Central Uplands whose summit lies above the treeline, so that only very small spruce grow there and much of it is covered by a dwarf shrub heathland. In the Brocken Garden, established in 1890, flora are nurtured by national park employees; visitors are allowed to view it as part of regular guided tours. The garden does not just display plants from the Brocken, but also high mountain flora from other regions and countries. Amongst the typical species of the Brocken that are rarely if ever found elsewhere in North Germany and which occur above about () are the variant of the alpine pasqueflower known as the Brocken flower or Brocken anemone (Pulsatilla alpina subsp. alba), hawkweeds like the Brocken hawkweed (Hieracium negrescens) and the alpine hawkweed (Hieracium alpinum), vernal grasses (Anthoxanthum), the lady's mantle (Alchemilla), the tormentil (Potentilla tormentilla), the alpine clubmoss (Diphasiastrum alpinum), the lichens, Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) and reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina). The crowberry is also referred to here as the Brocken myrtle (Brockenmyrte). On the raised bogs around the summit of the Brocken there are e.g. cottongrasses, sundews and the dwarf birch (Betula nana). Fauna Several animal species have adapted to the conditions of life on the Brocken. For example, the water pipit (Anthus aquaticus) and the ring ouzel both breed in the area around the summit. The viviparous lizard occurs on the Brocken in a unique, dark-colored variant, Lacerta vivipara aberr. negra. The common frog (Rana temporaria) can also be found here. Insects are very numerous. There are many beetles including ground beetles such as Amara erratica, and hundreds of species of butterfly. The cabbage white here produces only one generation per year compared with two in the lowlands. Some mammal and bird species that occur here are relics of the ice age, including the northern bat (Eptesicus nils soni), the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) and the ring ouzel. History Ascent, construction and use The first ascent of the Brocken was documented in 1572 by the physician and botanist, Johannes Thal from Stolberg, who in his book Sylva Hercynia described the flora of the mountain area. In 1736 Count Christian Ernst of Stolberg-Wernigerode had the Wolkenhäuschen ("Clouds Cabin") erected at the summit, a small refuge that is still preserved. He also had a mountain lodge built at the southern slope, named Heinrichshöhe after his son Henry (Heinrich) Ernest. The first inn on the Brocken summit was built around 1800. Between 1821 and 1825 Carl Friedrich Gauss used the line-of-sight to the Großer Inselsberg in the Thuringian Forest and the Hoher Hagen mountain near Göttingen for triangulation in the course of the geodesic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover. A measurement carried out by the military staff of Prussia in 1850 found the Brocken's height to be at its present level of . After the first Brocken lodge had been destroyed by a fire, a new hotel opened in 1862. The Brocken Garden, a botanical garden, was laid out in 1890 by Professor Albert Peter of Göttingen University on an area of granted by Count Otto of Stolberg-Wernigerode. It was Germany's first Alpine garden. The narrow gauge Brocken Railway was opened on 27 March 1899. Brocken station is one of the highest railway stations in Germany lying at a height of (). Its gauge is . In 1935 the Deutsche Reichspost made the first television broadcast from the Brocken using a mobile transmitter and, in the following year, the first television tower in the world was built on the mountain; carrying the first live television broadcast of the Summer Olympics in Berlin. The tower continued functioning until September 1939, when the authorities suspended broadcasting on the outbreak of World War II. In 1937 the Brocken, together with the Wurmberg, Achtermann and Acker-Bruchberg were designated as the Upper Harz (Oberharz) nature reserve. During an air attack by the United States Army Air Forces on 17 April 1945 the Brocken Hotel and the weather station were destroyed by bombing. The television tower, however, survived. From 1945 until April 1947, the Brocken was occupied by US troops. As part of the exchange of territory (specified at the Yalta Conference) the mountain was transferred to the Soviet occupation zone. Before the Americans left the Brocken in 1947, however, they disabled the rebuilt weather station and the television tower. The ruins of the Brocken Hotel were blown up in 1949. From 1948 to 1959 part of the Brocken was reopened to tourists. Although a pass was required, these were freely issued. From August 1961 the Brocken, which lay in East Germany's border zone, immediately adjacent to West Germany, was declared a military exclusion zone and was therefore no longer open to public access. Extensive military installations were built on and around the summit. The security of the area was the responsibility of the border guards of the 7th Schierke Border Company, which was stationed in platoon strength on the summit. For accommodation, they used the Brocken railway station. The Soviet Red Army also used a large portion of territory. In 1987, the goods traffic on the Brocken Railway ceased due to poor track conditions. The Brocken was extensively used for surveillance and espionage purposes. On the summit were two large and powerful listening stations, which could capture radio traffic in almost all of Western Europe. One belonged to Soviet military intelligence, the GRU and was also the westernmost outpost of the Soviets in Germany; the other was Department III of the Ministry for State Security in the GDR. The listening posts were codenamed "Yenisei" and "Urian". Between 1973 and 1976 a new modern television tower was built for the second channel of the GDR-TV. Today it is used by the public Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF) television network. The Stasi (East German secret police) used the old tower until 1985, when they moved to a new building – now a museum. To seal the area, the entire Brocken plateau was then surrounded by a concrete wall, built from 2,318 sections, each one in weight and high. The whole area was not publicly accessible until 3 December 1989. The wall has since been dismantled, as have the Russian barracks and the domes of their listening posts. Today the old tower beside the lodge again is home to a weather station of the Deutscher Wetterdienst. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall beginning on 3 December 1989 the Brocken was again open to the public during a demonstration walk. With German reunification there was a gradual reduction in border security facilities and military installations from 1990. The last Russian soldier left the Brocken on 30 March 1994. The Brocken summit was renaturalised at a cost of millions of euros. It is now a popular tourist destination for visitors to the Harz. As a protected area since 1939 and due to the decades of restricted access the unique climate of the Brocken provided outstanding conditions. The massif is partly still covered with primary forest extremely rare in Germany. It provides perfect conditions for endangered and nearly extinct species like the Eurasian lynx, wildcats and capercaillies. The Brocken was therefore declared part of a national park in 1990. Name and significance The widespread use of the name "Brocken" did not occur until towards the end of the Middle Ages. Hitherto the region had just been described as the Harz. This was primarily because, until then, the focus had been mining. The first record of a placename that resembles the present name of the mountain goes back, however, to the year 1176 when it is referred to as broke in the Saxon World Chronicle (Sächsische Weltchronik). Another early written reference to the mountain, this time as the Brackenberg, appears in 1490 in a letter from Count Henry of Stolberg. Other early documented names of the Brocken were, in 1401, the Brockenberg, in 1424 the Brocberg, in 1495 mons ruptus (Latin), in 1511 the Brogken and Brockin, in 1531 the Brogken, in 1540 the Brokenberg and, in 1589, the Brackenberg.<ref>Walther Grosse: Geschichte der Stadt und Grafschaft Wernigerode in ihren Forst-, Flur- und Straßennamen, Wernigerode [1929], p. 49</ref> In Old Saxon-Germanic times, a large portrait of Wodin is supposed to have been found on the Brocken. In addition, animal and human sacrifices were offered by the Saxons to their supreme god, Odin, on the blockfields of the summit until they renounced them as part of their baptismal vows when Christianity spread to the region under Charles the Great. As far as the origin of the name is concerned, there are several interpretations: In the town records (Stadtbuch) of Osterwieck an entry for the Brocken was found in the year 1495 under the Latin name of mons ruptus, which means "broken hill". Its Low German name, broken, as the mountain had become named in 1176 in the Saxon World Chronicle and also in English, means "broken". On the one hand, this explanation of its meaning can be attributed to the fact that the two mountains, "Kleiner Brocken" and "Großer Brocken", were formed by the breakup of a single massif. On the other hand, its meaning may refer to the serious erosion of the mountain. In other words, it refers to the fact that the Brocken was eroded or "broken down" to its present size. But the most likely derivation of the name comes from the shape of the mountain as a whole. A brocken in German is a large, shapeless mass. The size of the Brocken may thus have given it its name. Since the term "block" has a similar meaning, this could also be the derivation of its alternative name, the Blocksberg. The true origin of the name Blocksberg, however, should not be seen as "block" in the sense of "mass", but rather the German word block (as in block of wood) in witchcraft. Another theory holds that the name "Brocken" is derived from bruch, a word used in northern Germany for bog or moor, which commonly used to be spelt as bruoch or brok. It is however doubtful that this fact was primarily responsible for its name. Another possibility is that its name is derived from the fields of boulders strewn over the summit and the slopes of the mountain. This derivation for the name "Brocken" is, however, unlikely because such blockfields are also found on other mountains in the Harz. Moreover, the regions concerned were hardly known at the time when the term was used. Another presumption is based on the reference in a letter written in 1490 by Count Henry of Stolberg-Wernigerode, where he uses the term Brackenberg. However the suggestion that this referred to old, unusable timber, which was called bracken, is disputed. Tourism Today a narrow gauge railway, the Brocken Railway, once more shuttles between Wernigerode, Drei Annen Hohne, Schierke and the Brocken. The trains are regularly hauled by steam locomotives. At the summit is the Brockenhaus with a museum on the history of the mountain and the Brocken Garden (a botanical garden), which is managed by the Harz National Park. In addition there are restaurants and the Brocken Hotel, which is run by the Brocken publican (Brockenwirt), Hans Steinhoff. Important publicans in the past included Johann Friedrich Gerlach from 1801 to 1834, Carl Eduard Nehse between 1834 and 1850, who brought out a map of the Brocken in 1849 and the Brocken Register (Brockenstammbuch) in 1850, as well as Rudolf Schade from 1908 to 1927, who considerably increased the repute and the size of guest facilities on the Brocken. The area around the Brocken is especially popular with hikers. The Goethe Way (Goetheweg) is a well known trail that leads to the summit of the Brocken. It is named after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who more-or-less followed this route in 1777. Many paths lead to the local towns of Schierke, Braunlage and Sankt Andreasberg. The Harz Witches' Path also runs from the Brocken eastwards to Thale and westwards via Torfhaus and Altenburg to Osterode. The "Bad Harzburg Devil's Path" runs from the Brocken to Bad Harzburg. Mountain bikers also use the trails. From Schierke a metalled road leads to the summit, which is used by horse-drawn wagons, as well as touring and racing cyclists. Because of the situation in the national park, vehicles with internal combustion engines are only allowed with special permission. Worthy of special mention is the bearer of the Badge of Honour of Saxony-Anhalt, Benno Schmidt (born 1932) – also known as Brocken Benno – of Wernigerode, who has climbed the mountain since 1989, almost daily, with more than 7,777 ascents (as of 23 January 2016) and whose feat has been registered in the Guinness Book of World Records. Sport Two well-known running events pass over the Brocken: the Ilsenburg Brocken Run (beginning of September, , of which uphill, has taken place since the 1920s) and the Brocken Marathon which is part of the Harz Mountain Run with its start and finish south of Wernigerode. Both start in the valley, climb the Brocken and return. The most challenging part in each case is the last four kilometres to the Brocken summit, for which in both races, a separate mountains classification is given. This section is a concrete slab track with a steady incline of about 20% and the runners are exposed above the tree line, often to a sharp, icy wind. Of the just under 1,000 people who usually achieve it, only 50 negotiate this section without stopping to walk. Since 2004, the Brocken Challenge, an ultra marathon from Göttingen to the Brocken summit, has been staged in February each year. The proceeds from this event go to charity. The runs are conducted in accordance with the rules of the national park. The "Brocken Climb" from Göttingen to the Brocken has taken place annually since 2003. More than 300 people take part in these two-day hikes in June. In early May each year the Braunschweig-Brocken Ultra Run takes place with 2 ×  legs spread over two days. The participants run from Braunschweig to Schierke, cross the Brocken, overnight in Schierke and run back again the next day. Overall, it is therefore a race. Buildings Transmission site Since the 1930s various radio and television transmitters have been erected on the Brocken, see Brocken Transmitter. Brocken House Brocken House (Brockenhaus), the modern information centre for the Harz National Park, is located in the converted "Stasi Mosque" (Stasi-Moschee), a former surveillance installation for the Ministry for State Security. The historic antenna equipment in the dome may be visited. Behind the building is checkpoint  9 on the Harzer Wandernadel hiking trail network. Weather station The extreme weather conditions of the Brocken are of special meteorological interest. From 1836 the Brockenwirt, who also ran the guest house and restaurant, kept meteorological records. The first weather station on the Brocken was built in 1895. Technically poor and too small, it was partially demolished in 1912 and replaced with a large stone construction, the Hellman Observatory, that was not completed until the First World War. In 1917 the academic and nature lover George Grobe took over running the observation post, his daughter supporting him until his death in 1935. Today's weather station started life in 1939. Measurements were interrupted at the end of the Second World War as a result of military bombardment, but began again in 1947. On 16 March 2010 the Brocken Weather Station became a climate reference station to provide uninterrupted, long-term climatic observations. Literary mentions Goethe described the Brocken in his Faust, first published in 1808, as the center of revelry for witches on Walpurgisnacht (30 April; the eve of St Walpurga's Day).Now, to the Brocken, the witches ride;The stubble is gold and the corn is green;There is the carnival crew to be seen,And Squire Urianus will come to preside.So over the valleys, our company floats,With witches a-farting on stinking old goats. Goethe may have gained inspiration from two rock formations on the mountain's summit, the Teufelskanzel (Devil's Pulpit) and the Hexenaltar (Witches' Altar). The Brocken is similarly mentioned in many other literary and musical works based on Faust Another famous visitor on the Brocken, author Heinrich Heine, wrote his book Die Harzreise ("The Harz Journey") published in 1826. He says:The mountain somehow appears so Germanically stoical, so understanding, so tolerant, just because it affords a view so high and wide and clear. And should such mountain open its giant eyes, it may well see more than we, who like dwarfs just trample on it, staring from stupid eyes. The summit register entry Many stones, tired bones, views: none, Heinrich Heine ("Viele Steine, müde Beine, Aussicht keine, Heinrich Heine") is a popular, though unsourced phrase related to the weary ascent and the mostly foggy conditions. The teacher Heinrich Pröhle collected the Brockensagen tales and legends as well as the etymology of the geographic names in the Harz. He carefully examined the Teufelskanzel and the Hexenaltar, mentioned above. Henry James has his character Basil Ransom ask: "What kind of meetings do you refer to? You speak as if it were a rendezvous of witches on the Brocken" in the first chapter of his novel The Bostonians (1886). Slothrop and Geli Tripping experience the famous Brocken Spectre in Thomas Pynchon's novel Gravity's Rainbow, as the Mittelbau-Dora labour camp in the Harz mountains north of Nordhausen from 1943 was the home of the V-2 rocket production. In David Foster Wallace's Pynchon-influenced Infinite Jest the characters Remy Marathe and Hugh Steeply also experience the Brocken spectre on a ridge in the desert outside Tucson. In popular culture "Black Sabbath", the first track of the debut album of the early occult rock band Coven, starts with the line "They journeyed far to Brocken Mountain pinnacle". The progressive metal band Fates Warning titled their debut album Night on Bröcken (note the "Heavy metal umlaut"). The title track refers to Witches Sabbath on Walpurgis Night. The song "Born in a Burial Gown" by Cradle of Filth (from the album Bitter Suites to Succubi) contains an allusion to the Brocken's history as a witches' gathering-place. The indie rock band Liars' album They Were Wrong, So We Drowned is a concept album loosely based on tales of the gatherings of witches on the Brocken as well as witch trials. The novel Cloud Castles by Michael Scott Rohan features the Brocken as the home and body of Chernobog Bibi Blocksberg, a German audio drama for children about a witch, refers to an alternate name for the Brocken (Blocksberg). The Brocken is mentioned in the novel Bald Mountain by Sergej Golovachov. The Brocken is mentioned in episode 546 of the TV anime series Detective Conan. There are two German fictional characters in the anime/manga Kinnikuman who are called Brockenman and Brocken Jr. There is a German black metal band named Brocken Moon. Brocken spectres is the topic of Polish poetic folk band "Na Bani" titled "Brocken" from the album "20 lat z górą". German heavy metal band Edguy mentions Brocken and Walpurgisnacht in their song "Angel Rebellion" from the album Kingdom of Madness''. See also List of the highest points of the German states Brocken spectre Lysa Hora (folklore) ("Bald Mountain") References External links - Animeindoku Brocken National Park Mountains and hills of Saxony-Anhalt Witchcraft in Germany Mountains of the Harz Forests and woodlands of Saxony-Anhalt Nature reserves in Saxony-Anhalt Wernigerode One-thousanders of Germany

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Ralph Edward Flanders (September 28, 1880 – February 19, 1970) was an American mechanical engineer, industrialist and politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Vermont. He grew up on subsistence farms in Vermont and Rhode Island and was an apprentice machinist and draftsman before training as a mechanical engineer. He spent five years in New York City as an editor for a machine tool magazine. After moving back to Vermont, he managed and then became president of a successful machine tool company. Flanders used his experience as an industrialist to advise state and national commissions in Vermont, New England and Washington, D.C. on industrial and economic policy. He was president of the Boston Federal Reserve Bank for two years before being elected U.S. Senator from Vermont. Flanders was noted for introducing a 1954 motion in the Senate to censure Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy had made sensational claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. He used his Senate committee as a nationally televised forum for attacks on individuals whom he accused. Flanders felt that McCarthy's attacks distracted the nation from a much greater threat of Communist successes elsewhere in the world and that they had the effect of creating division and confusion within the United States, to the advantage of its enemies. Ultimately, McCarthy's tactics and his inability to substantiate his claims led to his being discredited and censured by the United States Senate. Early life and education Flanders was born in Barnet, Vermont on September 28, 1880, the oldest of the nine children of Albert W. Flanders and Mary (Gilfillan) Flanders. When Flanders was six, his family moved to Lincoln, Rhode Island, where his father farmed while supervising in Pawtucket the construction and sale of a bookrack he designed. Flanders attended school in Providence and Central Falls, and was an 1896 graduate of Central Falls High School. Career In his first years as a machinist and draftsman, he spent his vacations traveling by bicycle over country roads between Rhode Island and Vermont and New Hampshire. Later, he lived for a time in New York City where he edited a machine tool magazine, but after five years decided to move back to Vermont. Flanders's career began with an apprenticeship, progressed into engineering, journalism, management, policy consulting, banking, finance, and finally politics when he was elected U.S. Senator from Vermont. Education and apprenticeship During his education in Rhode Island, Flanders received a solid grounding in mathematics, literature, Latin and Classical Greek. In addition, he acquired a working knowledge of German and French. According to Senator John Sparkman, when Flanders was in the Senate, Sparkman and he used to converse in Latin during committee meetings. Unable to afford college tuition after his high school graduation, in 1896 Flanders's father bought him a two-year apprenticeship at the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, a leading machine tool builder. In addition to learning machining and drafting during his apprenticeship, Flanders also supplemented his training through courses at the International Correspondence Schools. Following his apprenticeship, he worked for various machine tool companies in New England. Despite his lack of a formal university education, he was a self-taught scholar, who read extensively in the literatures of science, engineering and the liberal arts. Technical journalism Flanders began writing early in his career, and his published articles on machine tool technology led to a job as an editor of Machine magazine in New York City. This job, which he held between 1905 and 1910, required him to cover developments in the machine tool industry. He traveled widely to visit the companies that he wrote about, which provided him many valuable contacts with leaders in the industry. As editor, he wrote articles on gear tooth systems, gear cutting machinery, hobs, and the manufacture of cans and automobiles, including Machine's reference series on the subject. In 1909, while working long hours on his definitive book on gear cutting machinery, his energy gave out and he suffered a "nervous breakdown". He took time off to recover, and in 1910 he accepted an offer to work at a machine tool company in Vermont. He continued to write on technical and other matters throughout his life and developed a broad philosophy of the role of industry in society. In 1938, he received a Worcester Reed Warner Medal in recognition of his technical writing. Engineering Flanders's first major experience in machine design came when he helped an entrepreneur in Nashua, New Hampshire develop a box-folding machine. After that, he worked as a draftsman for General Electric until 1905, when he moved to New York City to work for Machine. In 1910, he moved to Springfield, Vermont to work as a mechanical engineer for the Fellows Gear Shaper Company. He was already friendly with James Hartness, the president of the Jones & Lamson Machine Company (J&L), another company in town. In 1911, Flanders married Hartness' daughter, Helen. Shortly afterwards, Hartness hired Flanders as a manager of the department at J&L that built the Fay automatic lathe. Flanders redesigned that lathe to achieve higher productivity and accuracy. He became a director in 1912 and president of the company in 1933 after Hartness retired. As president of J&L, Flanders implemented a continuous production line to manufacture the Hartness Turret Lathe instead of building each machine individually, attempting to bring some of the efficiencies of mass production to machine tool building. By 1923, he had acquired and assigned more than twenty patents to J&L. Flanders and his brother, Ernest, were instrumental in developing screw thread grinding machines. These incorporated advances in thread technology (furthered by the Hartness optical comparator) and Flanders's engineering calculations for gear-cutting machinery. In 1942, the two brothers received the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute as recognition of this accomplishment, which improved the accurate manufacture of die-cut screws in soft metal and solved the problem of thread-grinding on hardened work. The award also recognized their development of a precision grinding machine that enabled rapid production of turbine blades at the start of jet aircraft age, which made it possible for companies including General Electric to manufacture jet engines far more quickly than they could previously. Professional societies Flanders became president of the National Machine-Tool Builders Association in 1923. He served as president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) from 1934 to 1936. He was vice president of the American Engineering Council in 1937. Throughout the 1930s, Flanders served as chairman of the Screw-Thread Committee of the American Standards Association. In 1944 the ASME awarded him the Hoover Medal for his "public service in the field of social, civic and humanitarian effort[s]". The British Institution of Mechanical Engineers made him an honorary member. Public life In 1917, Flanders served in the Machine-Tool Section of the War Industries Board. After World War I, he oversaw the completion of international standards for screw threads through the 1930s, first as a member, then as chairman of the Screw-Thread Committee of the American Standards Association. During the Great Depression Flanders began to write about social policy. His major concern was human development in a technological era. He addressed employing spiritual guidance with a "program of human values" to achieve a good life. Nevertheless, his underlying goal was to achieve "full employment". So, he kept himself grounded in economic principles, as understood and debated during that era. In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of Commerce, Daniel Roper, appointed Flanders to the Business Advisory Council, which was created to provide input to the administration on matters affecting business. The Council then made Flanders chairman of the Committee on Unemployment. This committee recommended addressing the problem both geographically and by industry. Flanders reported, however, that when the committee made its recommendations President Roosevelt was preoccupied with augmenting the Supreme Court and ultimately chose the undistributed profits tax instead—a choice that Flanders felt discouraged capital investment. In 1933, the National Industrial Recovery Act created the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The NRA allowed industries to create "codes of fair competition," intended to reduce destructive competition and to help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours. Flanders was appointed to the industrial advisory board of the NRA. In a speech before a 1934 conference of the code authority members, attended by President Roosevelt, Flanders opposed a proposal by the Roosevelt administration to require that businesses cut worker hours by 10 percent and raise wages by 10 percent in order to spread employment more widely. Ultimately, economic policy moved away from the codes system. In 1937, Vermont Governor George Aiken appointed Flanders to two commissions: first, the Special Milk Investigative Committee to study ways to modernize dairying in Vermont; and second, the Flood Control Commission, which chose Flanders as its chairman. This commission was to negotiate with other New England states a means of sharing costs in a system of flood-control dams as part of recovering from the massive floods of 1927 and attempting to prevent a reoccurrence. In 1940, the New England Council elected Flanders president. The governors of the New England states had established this council to study industry and commerce in their states. Flanders's role increased his awareness of the labor and business assets in New England. He also tried to alert his peers to the prospect of U.S. involvement in the expanding Second World War. In 1942, Flanders became involved in the Committee for Economic Development (CED), an offshoot of the Business Advisory Council, whose purpose was to help re-align the nation to a peacetime economy after the war. Flanders reported helping to shape the CED's recommendations to Congress on roles for the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Banking and investment Starting in the 1930s, Flanders held positions on the board of directors of the Shawmut Bank (1938–41), Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (1941–44) Boston and Maine Railroad, National Life Insurance Company, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Norwich University. In 1944, he was elected to a two-year term as president of the Federal Reserve Bank in Boston. During this period, the bank helped establish the Boston Port Authority to revitalize New England's capacity for sending and receiving goods by cargo ship. In 1946, Georges Doriot, Flanders, Karl Compton and others organized American Research & Development (AR&D). This was the first venture capital company to invest—according to a set of investment rules and goals—in a pool of fledgling companies. Flanders served as a director of AR&D. Politics In 1940, Ralph Flanders ran an unsuccessful campaign for the United States Senate. His Republican primary opponent was George Aiken, the popular two-term Governor of Vermont. Although Flanders admired and liked Aiken, he felt that Aiken's "liberal" ideas would not help the nation's economic recovery. In 1990, one of Vermont's major newspapers, The Rutland Herald described the 1940 Republican primary campaign as dirty and mean. Aiken's side accused Flanders of selling arms to the Nazis, and Flanders's side suggested that "Aiken was unduly influenced by his administrative assistant, a pretty 24-year-old with a fondness for power". In retrospect, Flanders felt that he had allowed his campaign advisers to make too many of the decisions. For example, a campaign brochure showed the candidate wearing a three-piece suit and holding a piglet in his arms. Although he had grown up on a subsistence farm and had an active interest in Vermont agriculture—especially in the type of hog shown in the picture—this had the effect of making him appear to be a phony. The Rutland Herald observed that, "In Vermont in 1940, pigs were common to many households. But so was common sense. There were many people, most in fact, who did not want as their representative someone who would wear his best clothes if he intended to be handling pigs." Aiken won by 7,000 votes, having spent $3,219.50 to Flanders's $18,698.45. This campaign taught Flanders that "I had to be myself." In August 1946, incumbent Senator Warren Austin resigned to accept U.S. President Harry S. Truman's appointment as Ambassador to the United Nations. The contest for the Republican nomination in the ensuing special election was between Flanders and Sterry R. Waterman. Flanders won the August 13 primary, which was then tantamount to election in Vermont. On November 1, Governor Mortimer R. Proctor appointed Flanders to complete the remainder of Austin's term. With Flanders certain to win the November 5 election for the term that started in January 1947, his appointment to complete the two months left in Austin's term gave him seniority over the freshman Senators who were elected on the same day. Vermont hadn't elected a Democrat to any statewide office since the founding of the Republican Party in 1854, and as expected, Flanders easily won his contest, receiving 75 percent to Democratic nominee Charles P. McDevitt's 25. Flanders was overwhelmingly reelected in 1952, taking 72 percent to Democratic nominee Allan R. Johnston's 28. He declined to seek a third term in 1958. Senate record and committee assignments Flanders's voting record in the Senate was more conservative than his senior colleague, George Aiken, and reflected Flanders's business orientation. In his second term, a Republican majority allowed Flanders to obtain seats on the Joint Economic Committee—this committee acted in an investigatory and advisory capacity to both Houses of the Congress—the Finance Committee and the Committee on Armed Services. Political philosophy Flanders, although himself a conservative, espoused a constructive competition between conservatism and liberalism. He felt that liberalism represented the welfare of individual people, as opposed to organizations—governments, businesses, etc.—preserving freedom of thought and action. For him, conservatism was concerned with preserving institutions that serve the interests of people, collectively. Conservatives, according to Flanders, could find themselves offering "reasoned objections to foolish proposals" by emotionally motivated liberals. He observed that, "Even in the established democracies, ... the voters are easily seduced into leaving politics to skillful politicians who are themselves without a sense of general, social responsibility." On moral law in policy formulation Flanders had a strict Congregationalist religious beginning, which evolved with his experience into a belief in "moral law". He felt that "recognition of moral law is as much a necessary requirement of social achievement as physical law is of material advancement." In Flanders's view, moral law required honesty, compassion, responsibility, cooperation, humility, and wisdom—values that all cultures hold in common. For him it was an absolute standard. He spoke of a "Presence" or "daimon" that "renewed his courage" and "indicated direction" in everything he did. Flanders referred to the Marshall Plan as an important application of moral law to public policy. He said that the plan's true purpose was to fend off Communism through the economic restoration of Europe—not to provide relief to Europe (something beyond the powers of the U.S.), nor to enhance gratitude towards the U.S., its prestige or power. On labor and business In testifying on the Employment Act (of 1946) before the Banking and Currency Committee of the Senate in 1945, Flanders defined the "right to a job," as implying a responsibility shared among individuals, organized labor, businesses, and governments, as follows: Each individual should be "productive, self-reliant and energetically in search of employment, when out of a job." Organized Labor should avoid wage demands that upset costs of production in a manner that decreases the total volume of employment. Business should operate efficiently to allow for expansion of production and employment. State and local governments can help preserve human rights and property rights that foster investment, while the Federal Government should "encourage business to expand and investors to undertake new ventures." Flanders felt that, to quell inflation, wage increases should be tied to productivity increases, rather than the cost of living. He recommended splitting gains in productivity three ways: to the worker for higher wages, to the company for higher profits and to the consumer for lower prices. He felt that with this approach everyone would benefit at the company level and in the national economy. Such an approach would require mutual respect and understanding between labor and management. Flanders's relations with organized labor were amicable. He welcomed the United Electrical Workers Union into Jones & Lamson Machine Company. J&L became the first company in Springfield, Vermont to be unionized. On Franklin D. Roosevelt Flanders met with President Roosevelt on several occasions. He felt that Roosevelt and his advisors did not heed Secretary of the Navy, Frank Knox's warning that it was "easily possible that hostilities would be initiated by a surprise attack upon the fleet or the Naval Base at Pearl Harbor." He further faulted the president for failing to recognize the growing threat of Communism in China. In Flanders's opinion, he sold out on Mongolia, Nationalist China and Central Europe to Communist powers at the 1943 Tehran Conference. Flanders recognized the president's political genius and leadership skills, but deplored his advocacy of raising taxes. He characterized the Roosevelt philosophy as one where re-employment "must come from Government—not private—action." Flanders felt that large social programs were an ineffective approach to solve national problems. On social policy In his autobiography, Flanders reported exploring opportunities for government funding of public housing and higher education. He voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Cold War policies National policy relating to the Cold War interested Flanders greatly. He was concerned about the worldwide encroachment of Communism even without force of arms. He felt that President Truman was generally a good president, but was hampered by the Roosevelt legacy of appeasing the Soviets. He also felt that Truman's commitment to bringing the Nationalist and Communist Chinese factions together into an alliance was mistaken. He endorsed the Marshall Plan as a way to avoid Communist influence in Western Europe. However, he was critical of John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State, for mishandling opportunities to create friendly alignment with Egypt and India, countries which instead sided with the Soviet Union. Flanders felt that spending 62% of federal income on defense was irrational, when the Soviet government claimed it wished to avoid nuclear conflict. He advocated that the development of "A[tomic]- and H[ydrogen]-bombs be paralleled with equally intense negotiations towards disarmament." For him, "gaining the co-operation of the Soviet government on an effective armament control," was most important. The censure of Joseph McCarthy Flanders was an early and strong critic of fellow Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy's "misdirection of our efforts at fighting communism" and his role in "the loss of respect for us in the world at large". He felt that rather than looking inward for communists within U.S. borders, the nation should look outward at the "alarming world-wide advance of Communist power" that would leave the United States and Canada as "the last remnants of the free world". On March 9, 1954 he addressed Senator McCarthy on the Senate floor, expressing these concerns. (McCarthy had been advised of the speech, but was absent at the time.) Apart from a brief note of encouragement after this speech, Flanders was grateful that President Eisenhower stayed out of the McCarthy controversy. Members of President Eisenhower's cabinet passed along the message that Flanders should "lay off." The Barre Montpelier Times Argus reported: Other reactions were not so favorable. People who wrote the Rutland Herald "hinted at retribution for McCarthy's foes" and called McCarthy "a demigod above the law of the U.S.A. ... If you disagree, you are RED." William Loeb, owner of the Burlington Daily News, wrote, "It would take somebody as stupid as Senator Flanders to finally swallow the Democratic bait on the subject of Senator McCarthy." In a speech that Flanders did not mention in his autobiography, the Times Argus article reported that on June 1, 1954 Flanders ... addressed the Senate on 'the colossal innocence of the junior Senator from Wisconsin.' Comparing McCarthy to 'Dennis the Menace' of cartoon fame, the Vermonter delivered a scathing address in which he lambasted the Wisconsin man for dividing the nation. 'In every country in which communism has taken over,' he reminded the Senate, 'the beginning has been a successful campaign of division and confusion.' He marveled at the way the Soviet Union was winning military successes in Asia without risking its own resources or men, and said this nation was witnessing 'another example of economy of effort ... in the conquest of this country for communism.' He added, 'One of the characteristic elements of communist and fascist tyranny is at hand as citizens are set to spy upon each other.' 'Were the junior Senator from Wisconsin in the pay of the communists, he could not have done a better job for them.' 'This is a colossal innocence, indeed.' On June 11, 1954, Flanders introduced a resolution charging McCarthy "with unbecoming conduct and calling for his removal from his committee membership." Upon the advice of Senators Cooper and Fulbright and legal assistance from the Committee for a More Effective Congress he modified his resolution to "bring it in line with previous actions of censure." The text of the resolution of censure condemns the senator for "obstructing the constitutional processes of the Senate" when he "failed to cooperate with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections of the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration and acting "contrary to senatorial ethics" when he described the Select Committee to Study Censure Charges and its chairman in slanderous terms. Time reported that a "group of 23 top businessmen, labor leaders and educators ... wired every U.S. Senator (except McCarthy himself) urging a favorable vote 'to curb the flagrant abuse of power by Senator McCarthy.'" The Senate censured McCarthy on December 2, 1954 by a vote of 65 to 22. The Senate Republicans were split 22 to 22. For a further treatment of this episode, refer to Joseph McCarthy—Censure and the Watkins Committee. A 1990 article in the Rutland Herald characterized the reaction in Vermont to Flanders's role in the McCarthy censure as "sour". It concludes that Flanders's convictions did not necessarily reflect the priorities of his constituency, which regarded the issue as "not our problem". Personal life In 1911, Flanders married Helen Edith Hartness, the daughter of inventor and industrialist James Hartness. They made their home in Springfield, Vermont, when Flanders became president of Jones & Lamson. Flanders and his wife had three children: Elizabeth (born 1912), Anna (also known as Nancy—born 1918), and James (born 1923). Legacy Flanders was the author or coauthor of eight books, including his autobiography, Senator from Vermont. He wrote about many issues: the problems of unemployment, inflation, ways for achieving a cooperative relationship between management and labor, and his belief that "moral law is natural law" and should be an integral part of everyone's education. His papers are located at the Special Collections Research Center at Syracuse University Library and at the Special Collections of the University of Vermont's Bailey-Howe Library. During his lifetime, Flanders received more than sixteen honorary degrees from institutions that included Dartmouth College (M.S., LL.D.), Harvard University (LL.D.), Middlebury College (D. Sc.) and the University of Vermont (D. Eng.). His wife, Helen Hartness Flanders, was a folk song collector and author of several books on New England ballads. Flanders died in 1970 and he is buried in the Summer Hill Cemetery in Springfield, Vermont, alongside his wife, Helen, and members of the Hartness family. Vermont politics Flanders's Senate legacy has continued to inspire Vermont politicians. In his May 24, 2001 speech announcing his departure from the Republican Party, Vermont Senator James Jeffords cited Flanders three times and spoke of him as one of five Vermont politicians who, "spoke their minds, often to the dismay of their party leaders, and did their best to guide the party in the direction of those fundamental principles they believed in." In speeches to Georgetown University Law Center and Johnson State College, Senator Patrick Leahy cited Flanders as one of three Vermont politicians who showed, "the importance of standing firm in your beliefs," "that conflict need not be hostile or adversarial" and who "rose up against abuses, against infringements upon Americans' rights when doing that was not popular." In 2016 Vermont Congressman, Peter Welch, cited Flanders as someone to emulate when resisting those policies of the Donald Trump Administration with which he disagrees, saying of Flanders, "He stood up and said no, this has got to end." See also Margaret Chase Smith, senator from Maine who spoke against McCarthy in 1950. Notes References Flanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links United States Congress Biography Times-Argus Article on the Flanders's Censure of McCarthy. Vermont Public Radio commentary commemorating the 50th anniversary of Flanders's senate speech on McCarthy. A collection of works by Ralph Flanders Further reading 1880 births 1970 deaths 20th-century American politicians Burials in Vermont Federal Reserve Bank of Boston presidents General Electric people Machine tool builders People from Barnet, Vermont People from Caledonia County, Vermont People from Springfield, Vermont Republican Party United States senators United States senators from Vermont Writers from Vermont Vermont Republicans

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Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their injury or disease, and promoting their health. Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies biomedical sciences, biomedical research, genetics, and medical technology to diagnose, treat, and prevent injury and disease, typically through pharmaceuticals or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints and traction, medical devices, biologics, and ionizing radiation, amongst others. Medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times, during most of which it was an art (an area of skill and knowledge) frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a medicine man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher and physician would apply bloodletting according to the theories of humorism. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art and science (both basic and applied, under the umbrella of medical science). While stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as traditional medicine or folk medicine, which remains commonly used in the absence of scientific medicine, and are thus called alternative medicine. Alternative treatments outside of scientific medicine having safety and efficacy concerns are termed quackery. Etymology Medicine (, ) is the science and practice of the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word "medicine" is derived from Latin medicus, meaning "a physician". Clinical practice Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to regional differences in culture and technology. Modern scientific medicine is highly developed in the Western world, while in developing countries such as parts of Africa or Asia, the population may rely more heavily on traditional medicine with limited evidence and efficacy and no required formal training for practitioners. In the developed world, evidence-based medicine is not universally used in clinical practice; for example, a 2007 survey of literature reviews found that about 49% of the interventions lacked sufficient evidence to support either benefit or harm. In modern clinical practice, physicians and physician assistants personally assess patients in order to diagnose, prognose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g. stethoscope, tongue depressor) are typically used. After examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests (e.g. blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure, and specialists follow a similar process. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue. The components of the medical interview and encounter are: Chief complaint (CC): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called 'chief concern' or 'presenting complaint'. History of present illness (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Distinguishable from history of previous illness, often called past medical history (PMH). Medical history comprises HPI and PMH. Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does. Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines or remedies. Allergies are also recorded. Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases or vaccinations, history of known allergies. Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol). Family history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family tree is sometimes used. Review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a set of additional questions to ask, which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc.), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc.). The physical examination is the examination of the patient for medical signs of disease, which are objective and observable, in contrast to symptoms that are volunteered by the patient and not necessarily objectively observable. The healthcare provider uses sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (e.g., in infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). Four actions are the basis of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments. The clinical examination involves the study of: Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, and hemoglobin oxygen saturation General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing) Skin Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT) Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels) Respiratory (large airways and lungs) Abdomen and rectum Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant) Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities) Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves) Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, mood, evidence of abnormal perception or thought). It is to likely focus on areas of interest highlighted in the medical history and may not include everything listed above. The treatment plan may include ordering additional medical laboratory tests and medical imaging studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised. Depending upon the health insurance plan and the managed care system, various forms of "utilization review", such as prior authorization of tests, may place barriers on accessing expensive services. The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations. Institutions Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations, such as churches. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided. From ancient times, Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Catholic Church today remains the largest non-government provider of medical services in the world. Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States) and many developing countries provide medical services through a system of universal health care that aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system, or compulsory private or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities, most commonly by a combination of all three. Most tribal societies provide no guarantee of healthcare for the population as a whole. In such societies, healthcare is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self-insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly. Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality, and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients/consumers and, therefore, the incentives of medical professionals. While the US healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other. The health professionals who provide care in medicine comprise multiple professions such as medics, nurses, physio therapists, and psychologists. These professions will have their own ethical standards, professional education, and bodies. The medical profession have been conceptualized from a sociological perspective. Delivery Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary care categories. Primary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits, and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes. Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, Emergency departments, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting. Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc. Modern medical care also depends on information – still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means. In low-income countries, modern healthcare is often too expensive for the average person. International healthcare policy researchers have advocated that "user fees" be removed in these areas to ensure access, although even after removal, significant costs and barriers remain. Separation of prescribing and dispensing is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug. In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs. Branches Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, podiatrists, physiotherapists, respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians, and bioengineers, medical physics, surgeons, surgeon's assistant, surgical technologist. The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while considered by some a separate discipline from medicine, is a medical field. A patient admitted to the hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g., the cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g., surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications/developments. Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in. The main branches of medicine are: Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research Medical specialties Interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions. Basic sciences Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components. Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of Mechanics. Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physics and physical chemistry to study biological systems. Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells. Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms. Endocrinology is the study of hormones and their effect throughout the body of animals. Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics. Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance. Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example. Lifestyle medicine is the study of the chronic conditions, and how to prevent, treat and reverse them. Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the genetic material. Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. Some related clinical specialties include neurology, neurosurgery and psychiatry. Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases. Pathology as a science is the study of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof. Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions. Gynecology is the study of female reproductive system. Photobiology is the study of the interactions between non-ionizing radiation and living organisms. Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms. Radiobiology is the study of the interactions between ionizing radiation and living organisms. Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons. Specialties In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. In the UK, most specialities have their own body or college, which has its own entrance examination. These are collectively known as the Royal Colleges, although not all currently use the term "Royal". The development of a speciality is often driven by new technology (such as the development of effective anaesthetics) or ways of working (such as emergency departments); the new specialty leads to the formation of a unifying body of doctors and the prestige of administering their own examination. Within medical circles, specialities usually fit into one of two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery". "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most of its subspecialties require preliminary training in Internal Medicine. In the UK, this was traditionally evidenced by passing the examination for the Membership of the Royal College of Physicians (MRCP) or the equivalent college in Scotland or Ireland. "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in General Surgery, which in the UK leads to membership of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (MRCS). At present, some specialties of medicine do not fit easily into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia. Most of these have branched from one or other of the two camps above; for example anaesthesia developed first as a faculty of the Royal College of Surgeons (for which MRCS/FRCS would have been required) before becoming the Royal College of Anaesthetists and membership of the college is attained by sitting for the examination of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Anesthetists (FRCA). Surgical specialty Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair unwanted ruptured areas (for example, a perforated ear drum). Surgeons must also manage pre-operative, post-operative, and potential surgical candidates on the hospital wards. Surgery has many sub-specialties, including general surgery, ophthalmic surgery, cardiovascular surgery, colorectal surgery, neurosurgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, oncologic surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, podiatric surgery, transplant surgery, trauma surgery, urology, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for historical and logistical reasons), although it is not a surgical discipline. Other medical specialties may employ surgical procedures, such as ophthalmology and dermatology, but are not considered surgical sub-specialties per se. Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time-consuming. Internal medicine specialty Internal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied. In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians. These terms, internist or physician (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities. Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys. In the Commonwealth of Nations and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of primary care. There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine: Angiology/Vascular Medicine Bariatrics Cardiology Critical care medicine Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics Hematology Hepatology Infectious disease Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Pulmonology/Pneumology/Respirology/chest medicine Rheumatology Sports Medicine Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on medical education and physician for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one- to three-year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the US. This difference does not apply in the UK where all doctors are now required by law to work less than 48 hours per week on average. Diagnostic specialties Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services that apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States, these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include transfusion medicine, cellular pathology, clinical chemistry, hematology, clinical microbiology and clinical immunology. Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology. Diagnostic radiology is concerned with imaging of the body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Interventional radiologists can access areas in the body under imaging for an intervention or diagnostic sampling. Nuclear medicine is concerned with studying human organ systems by administering radiolabelled substances (radiopharmaceuticals) to the body, which can then be imaged outside the body by a gamma camera or a PET scanner. Each radiopharmaceutical consists of two parts: a tracer that is specific for the function under study (e.g., neurotransmitter pathway, metabolic pathway, blood flow, or other), and a radionuclide (usually either a gamma-emitter or a positron emitter). There is a degree of overlap between nuclear medicine and radiology, as evidenced by the emergence of combined devices such as the PET/CT scanner. Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include electroencephalography, electromyography, evoked potential, nerve conduction study and polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional. Other major specialties The following are some major medical specialties that do not directly fit into any of the above-mentioned groups: Anesthesiology (also known as anaesthetics): concerned with the perioperative management of the surgical patient. The anesthesiologist's role during surgery is to prevent derangement in the vital organs' (i.e. brain, heart, kidneys) functions and postoperative pain. Outside of the operating room, the anesthesiology physician also serves the same function in the labor and delivery ward, and some are specialized in critical medicine. Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine. Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies. Family medicine, family practice, general practice or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Family physicians often provide services across a broad range of settings including office based practices, emergency department coverage, inpatient care, and nursing home care. Obstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated as OB/GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists. Medical genetics is concerned with the diagnosis and management of hereditary disorders. Neurology is concerned with diseases of the nervous system. In the UK, neurology is a subspecialty of general medicine. Ophthalmology is exclusively concerned with the eye and ocular adnexa, combining conservative and surgical therapy. Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery. Pharmaceutical medicine is the medical scientific discipline concerned with the discovery, development, evaluation, registration, monitoring and medical aspects of marketing of medicines for the benefit of patients and public health. Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital disorders. Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical & surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back. Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Related fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology. Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease. Community health or public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. Interdisciplinary fields Some interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine include: Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel. Addiction medicine deals with the treatment of addiction. Medical ethics deals with ethical and moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the application of engineering principles to medical practice. Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients. Conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology. Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management. Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems. Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory. Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of death, type of weapon used to inflict trauma, reconstruction of the facial features using remains of deceased (skull) thus aiding identification. Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Hospice and Palliative Medicine is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure. Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the United States and Canada. The term Most Responsible Physician (MRP) or attending physician is also used interchangeably to describe this role. Laser medicine involves the use of lasers in the diagnostics or treatment of various conditions. Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice. Health informatics is a relatively recent field that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine. Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes. Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems. Occupational medicine is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained. Pain management (also called pain medicine, or algiatry) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain. Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine. Podiatric medicine is the study of, diagnosis, and medical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, lower limb, hip and lower back. Sexual medicine is concerned with diagnosing, assessing and treating all disorders related to sexuality. Sports medicine deals with the treatment and prevention and rehabilitation of sports/exercise injuries such as muscle spasms, muscle tears, injuries to ligaments (ligament tears or ruptures) and their repair in athletes, amateur and professional. Therapeutics is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health. Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments. Tropical medicine deals with the prevention and treatment of tropical diseases. It is studied separately in temperate climates where those diseases are quite unfamiliar to medical practitioners and their local clinical needs. Urgent care focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency department. Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals. Wilderness medicine entails the practice of medicine in the wild, where conventional medical facilities may not be available. Many other health science fields, e.g. dietetics Education and legal controls Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, or residency. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. In Canada and the United States of America, a Doctor of Medicine degree, often abbreviated M.D., or a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree, often abbreviated as D.O. and unique to the United States, must be completed in and delivered from a recognized university. Since knowledge, techniques, and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate, many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education. Medical practitioners upgrade their knowledge in various ways, including medical journals, seminars, conferences, and online programs. A database of objectives covering medical knowledge, as suggested by national societies across the United States, can be searched at http://data.medobjectives.marian.edu/. In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health. In the European Union, the profession of doctor of medicine is regulated. A profession is said to be regulated when access and exercise is subject to the possession of a specific professional qualification. The regulated professions database contains a list of regulated professions for doctor of medicine in the EU member states, EEA countries and Switzerland. This list is covered by the Directive 2005/36/EC. Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions. Medical ethics Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are: autonomy – the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. (Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.) beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. (Salus aegroti suprema lex.) justice – concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality). non-maleficence – "first, do no harm" (primum non-nocere). respect for persons – the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity. truthfulness and honesty – the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials, Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and others. Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. For example, some argue that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuse blood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era. History Ancient world Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts, and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology examines the ways in which culture and society are organized around or impacted by issues of health, health care and related issues. Early records on medicine have been discovered from ancient Egyptian medicine, Babylonian Medicine, Ayurvedic medicine (in the Indian subcontinent), classical Chinese medicine (predecessor to the modern traditional Chinese medicine), and ancient Greek medicine and Roman medicine. In Egypt, Imhotep (3rd millennium BCE) is the first physician in history known by name. The oldest Egyptian medical text is the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus from around 2000 BCE, which describes gynaecological diseases. The Edwin Smith Papyrus dating back to 1600 BCE is an early work on surgery, while the Ebers Papyrus dating back to 1500 BCE is akin to a textbook on medicine. In China, archaeological evidence of medicine in Chinese dates back to the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty, based on seeds for herbalism and tools presumed to have been used for surgery. The Huangdi Neijing, the progenitor of Chinese medicine, is a medical text written beginning in the 2nd century BCE and compiled in the 3rd century. In India, the surgeon Sushruta described numerous surgical operations, including the earliest forms of plastic surgery. Earliest records of dedicated hospitals come from Mihintale in Sri Lanka where evidence of dedicated medicinal treatment facilities for patients are found. In Greece, the Greek physician Hippocrates, the "father of modern medicine", laid the foundation for a rational approach to medicine. Hippocrates introduced the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still relevant and in use today, and was the first to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence". The Greek physician Galen was also one of the greatest surgeons of the ancient world and performed many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgeries. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BC comes from the Torah, i.e. the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals. The Hebrew contribution to the development of modern medicine started in the Byzantine Era, with the physician Asaph the Jew. Middle Ages The concept of hospital as institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients due to the ideals of Christian charity, rather than just merely a place to die, appeared in the Byzantine Empire. Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to localize the disease. It was under the Byzantines with physicians such of Theophilus Protospatharius that they realized the potential in uroscopy to determine disease in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed. That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe. After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some significant medical research. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include the Persian polymath, Avicenna, who, along with Imhotep and Hippocrates, has also been called the "father of medicine". He wrote The Canon of Medicine which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities, considered one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. Others include Abulcasis, Avenzoar, Ibn al-Nafis, and Averroes. Persian physician Rhazes was one of the first to question the Greek theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in both medieval Western and medieval Islamic medicine. Some volumes of Rhazes's work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in European universities. Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor, the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light. The Persian Bimaristan hospitals were an early example of public hospitals. In Europe, Charlemagne decreed that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery and the historian Geoffrey Blainey likened the activities of the Catholic Church in health care during the Middle Ages to an early version of a welfare state: "It conducted hospitals for the old and orphanages for the young; hospices for the sick of all ages; places for the lepers; and hostels or inns where pilgrims could buy a cheap bed and meal". It supplied food to the population during famine and distributed food to the poor. This welfare system the church funded through collecting taxes on a large scale and possessing large farmlands and estates. The Benedictine order was noted for setting up hospitals and infirmaries in their monasteries, growing medical herbs and becoming the chief medical care givers of their districts, as at the great Abbey of Cluny. The Church also established a network of cathedral schools and universities where medicine was studied. The Schola Medica Salernitana in Salerno, looking to the learning of Greek and Arab physicians, grew to be the finest medical school in Medieval Europe. However, the fourteenth and fifteenth century Black Death devastated both the Middle East and Europe, and it has even been argued that Western Europe was generally more effective in recovering from the pandemic than the Middle East. In the early modern period, important early figures in medicine and anatomy emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey. The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general – see Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Vesalius improved upon or disproved some of the theories from the past. The main tomes used both by medicine students and expert physicians were Materia Medica and Pharmacopoeia. Andreas Vesalius was the author of De humani corporis fabrica, an important book on human anatomy. Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology. Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public because it was written down for the first time in the "Manuscript of Paris" in 1546, and later published in the theological work for which he paid with his life in 1553. Later this was described by Renaldus Columbus and Andrea Cesalpino. Herman Boerhaave is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" due to his exemplary teaching in Leiden and textbook 'Institutiones medicae' (1708). Pierre Fauchard has been called "the father of modern dentistry". Modern Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals. Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practiced in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900. The post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austria, doctors Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner and Otto Loewi made notable contributions. In the United Kingdom, Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick and Florence Nightingale are considered important. Spanish doctor Santiago Ramón y Cajal is considered the father of modern neuroscience. From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet. Others that did significant work include William Williams Keen, William Coley, James D. Watson (United States); Salvador Luria (Italy); Alexandre Yersin (Switzerland); Kitasato Shibasaburō (Japan); Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca (France); Adolfo Lutz (Brazil); Nikolai Korotkov (Russia); Sir William Osler (Canada); and Harvey Cushing (United States). As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Throughout history and in Europe right until the late 18th century, not only animal and plant products were used as medicine, but also human body parts and fluids. Pharmacology developed in part from herbalism and some drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc.). Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur. The first antibiotic was arsphenamine (Salvarsan) discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by German chemists originally from azo dyes. Pharmacology has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics and human evolution is having increasingly significant influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology, evolution, and genetics are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making. Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by modern global information science, which allows as much of the available evidence as possible to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols that are then disseminated to healthcare providers. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect. Quality, efficiency, and access Evidence-based medicine, prevention of medical error (and other "iatrogenesis"), and avoidance of unnecessary health care are a priority in modern medical systems. These topics generate significant political and public policy attention, particularly in the United States where healthcare is regarded as excessively costly but population health metrics lag similar nations. Globally, many developing countries lack access to care and access to medicines. As of 2015, most wealthy developed countries provide health care to all citizens, with a few exceptions such as the United States where lack of health insurance coverage may limit access. See also References new:चिकित्सा

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A Bug's Life is a 1998 American computer-animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios for Walt Disney Pictures. It was the second film produced by Pixar. Directed by John Lasseter and co-directed and written by Andrew Stanton, the film involves a misfit ant, Flik, who is looking for "tough warriors" to save his colony from a protection racket run by Hopper's gang of grasshoppers. Unfortunately, the "warriors" he brings back turn out to be an inept troupe of Circus Bugs. The film was initially inspired by Aesop's fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. Production began shortly after the release of Toy Story in 1995. The screenplay was penned by Stanton and comedy writers Donald McEnery and Bob Shaw from a story by Lasseter, Stanton, and Ranft. The ants in the film were redesigned to be more appealing, and Pixar's animation unit employed technical innovations in computer animation. Randy Newman composed the music for the film. During production, a controversial public feud erupted between Steve Jobs and Lasseter of Pixar and DreamWorks co-founder Jeffrey Katzenberg due to the parallel production of his similar film Antz, which was released the same year. The film was released on November 20, 1998, received positive reviews and grossed $363 million at the box office. It was the first film to be digitally transferred frame-by-frame and released on DVD, and has been released multiple times on home video. Plot A colony of ants, led by the elderly Queen and her daughter Princess Atta, lives in the middle of a seasonally dry creekbed on a small hill known as "Ant Island". Every summer, they are forced to give food to a gang of domineering grasshoppers, led by Hopper. One day, individualist and inventor Flik accidentally knocks the offering into the water with his latest invention, a grain harvester. Hopper demands twice as much food as compensation. When Flik earnestly suggests the ants enlist the help of bigger bugs to fight the grasshoppers, Atta sees it as a way to get rid of Flik and sends him off. At the "bug city", which is a heap of trash under a trailer, Flik mistakes a troupe of Circus Bugs (who were recently dismissed by their greedy ringmaster, P.T. Flea) for the warrior bugs he seeks. The bugs, in turn, mistake Flik for a talent agent, and accept his offer to travel with him back to Ant Island. During a welcome ceremony upon their arrival, the Circus Bugs and Flik both discover their mutual misunderstandings. The Circus Bugs attempt to leave, but are pursued by a nearby bird; while fleeing, they rescue Dot, Atta's younger sister, from the bird, gaining the ants' respect. At Flik's request, they continue the ruse of being "warriors", so the troupe can continue to enjoy the hospitality of the ants. Hearing that Hopper fears birds inspires Flik to create a false bird to scare away the grasshoppers. Meanwhile, when some of his gang question Hopper's motives to return to Ant Island despite the gang being all set for the winter, he reminds them the ants outnumber them 100 to 1, and suspects that they will eventually realize this and rebel against the grasshoppers if left unchecked. This motivates the gang to go along with his plan and they fly off to return to the island for the new offering. The ants finish constructing the fake bird. During the subsequent celebration, P.T. Flea arrives searching for his troupe to rehire them, revealing their secret. Outraged by Flik's deception, the ants exile him and the troupe, hide the bird, and desperately attempt to gather food for a new offering to the grasshoppers. However, when Hopper returns to discover the mediocre offering, he and his gang take over the island, and demand the ants' winter food supply, planning to execute the Queen afterwards. Overhearing the plan, Dot persuades Flik and the Circus Bugs to return to Ant Island. After the Circus Bugs distract the grasshoppers long enough to rescue the Queen, Flik deploys the bird. It initially fools the grasshoppers, but P.T. Flea, who also mistakes it for a real bird, burns it, exposing it as a decoy. Hopper has Flik beaten in retaliation, declaring that the ants are humble and lowly life forms who live to serve the grasshoppers. Flik, however, asserts that the colony is far stronger, and that Hopper actually fears them because he has always known what they are capable of. This inspires the ants and the Circus Bugs to fight back against the grasshoppers, driving all but Hopper away. The ants shove Hopper into P.T. Flea's circus cannon to shoot him off of the island, but rain suddenly begins to fall. In the ensuing chaos, Hopper frees himself from the cannon and abducts Flik. The Circus Bugs and Atta pursue, with the latter catching up to Hopper and rescuing Flik. Flik lures Hopper to the nest of the mother bird who attacked Dot earlier; thinking the bird is another fake, Hopper taunts her, until she grabs him and feeds him to her chicks. With the enemies gone, Flik improves his inventions, along with the quality of life for Ant Island. He and Atta become a couple, and they send a few ants and Hopper's friendly brother Molt to help P.T. and the Circus Bugs on their new tour. Atta and Dot become the new Queen and Princess, respectively. The ants congratulate Flik as a hero, and bid a fond farewell to the circus troupe. Voice cast Production Development During the summer of 1994, Pixar's story department began turning their thoughts to their next film. The storyline for A Bug's Life originated from a lunchtime conversation between John Lasseter, Andrew Stanton, Pete Docter, and Joe Ranft, the studio's head story team; other films such as Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo and WALL-E were also conceived at this lunch. Lasseter and his story team had already been drawn to the idea of insects serving as characters. Like toys, insects were within the reach of computer animation back then, due to their relatively simple surfaces. Stanton and Ranft wondered whether they could find a starting point in Aesop's fable The Ant and the Grasshopper. Walt Disney had produced his own version with a cheerier ending decades earlier in the 1934 short film The Grasshopper and the Ants. In addition, Walt Disney Feature Animation had considered producing a film in the late-1980s entitled Army Ants, that centered around a pacifist ant living in a militaristic colony, but this never fully materialized. As Stanton and Ranft discussed the adaptation, they rattled off scenarios and storylines springing from their premise. Lasseter liked the idea and offered some suggestions. The concept simmered until early 1995, when the story team began work on the second film in earnest. During an early test screening for Toy Story in San Rafael in June 1995, they pitched the film to Disney CEO Michael Eisner. Eisner thought the idea was fine and they submitted a treatment to Disney in early July under the title Bugs. Disney approved the treatment and gave notice on July 7 that it was exercising the option of a second film under the original 1991 agreement between Disney and Pixar. Lasseter assigned the co-director job to Stanton; both worked well together and had similar sensibilities. Lasseter had realized that working on a computer-animated feature as a sole director was dangerous while the production of Toy Story was in process. In addition, Lasseter believed that it would relieve stress and that the role would groom Stanton for having his own position as a lead director. Writing In The Ant and the Grasshopper, a grasshopper squanders the spring and summer months on singing while the ants put food away for the winter; when winter comes, the hungry grasshopper begs the ants for food, but the ants turn him away. Andrew Stanton and Joe Ranft hit on the notion that the grasshopper could just take the food. After Stanton had completed a draft of the script, he came to doubt one of the story's main pillars – that the Circus Bugs that had come to the colony to cheat the ants would instead stay and fight. He thought the Circus Bugs were unlikable characters as liars and that it was unrealistic for them to undergo a complete personality change. Also, no particularly good reason existed for Circus Bugs to stay with the ant colony during the second act. Although the film was already far along, Stanton concluded that the story needed a different approach. Stanton took one of the early circus bug characters, Red the red ant, and changed him into the character Flik. The Circus Bugs, no longer out to cheat the colony, would be embroiled in a comic misunderstanding as to why Flik was recruiting them. Lasseter agreed with this new approach, and comedy writers Donald McEnery and Bob Shaw spent a few months working on further polishing with Stanton. The characters "Tuck and Roll" were inspired by a drawing that Stanton did of two bugs fighting when he was in the second grade. Lasseter had come to envision the film as an epic in the tradition of David Lean's 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia. Casting The voice cast was heavy with television sitcom stars of the time: Flik was voiced by Dave Foley (from NewsRadio), Princess Atta was voiced by Julia Louis-Dreyfus (from Seinfeld), Molt was voiced by Richard Kind (from Spin City), Slim was voiced by David Hyde Pierce (from Frasier) and Dim was voiced by Brad Garrett (from Everybody Loves Raymond). Joe Ranft, member of Pixar's story team, played Heimlich the caterpillar at the suggestion of Lasseter's wife, Nancy, who had heard him playing the character on a scratch vocal track. The casting of Hopper, the film's villain, proved problematic. Lasseter's top choice was Robert De Niro, who repeatedly turned the part down, as did a succession of other actors. Kevin Spacey met John Lasseter at the 1995 Academy Awards and Lasseter asked Spacey if he would be interested in doing the voice of Hopper. Spacey was delighted and signed on immediately. A Bug's Life was the final film appearance of actor Roddy McDowall, who played Mr. Soil, before dying shortly before the film's theatrical release. Art design and animation It was more difficult for animators during the production of A Bug's Life than that of Toy Story, as computers ran sluggishly due to the complexity of the character models. Lasseter and Stanton had two supervising animators to assist with directing and reviewing the animation: Rich Quade and Glenn McQueen.The first sequence to be animated and rendered was the circus sequence that culminated with P.T. Flea's "Flaming Wall of Death". Lasseter placed this scene first in the pipeline because he believed it was "less likely to change". Lasseter thought it would be useful to look at a view of the world from an insect's perspective. Two technicians obliged by creating a miniature video camera on Lego wheels, which they dubbed as the "Bugcam". Fastened to the end of a stick, the Bugcam could roll through grass and other terrain and send back an insect's-eye outlook. Lasseter was intrigued by the way grass, leaves, and flower petals formed a translucent canopy, as if the insects were living under a stained-glass ceiling. The team also later sought inspiration from Microcosmos (1996), a French documentary on love and violence in the insect world. The transition from treatment to storyboards took on an extra layer of complexity due to the profusion of storylines. Where Toy Story focused heavily on Woody and Buzz, with the other toys serving mostly as sidekicks, A Bug's Life required in-depth storytelling for several major groups of characters. Character design also presented a new challenge, in that the designers had to make ants appear likable. Although the animators and the art department studied insects more closely, natural realism would give way to the film's larger needs. The team took out mandibles and designed the ants to stand upright, replacing their normal six legs with two arms and two legs. The grasshoppers, in contrast, received a pair of extra appendages to appear less attractive. The story's scale also required software engineers to accommodate new demands. Among these was the need to handle shots with crowds of ants. The film would include more than 400 such shots in the ant colony, some with as many as 800. It was impractical for animators to control them individually, but neither could the ants remain static for even a moment without appearing lifeless, or move identically. Bill Reeves, one of the film's two supervising technical directors, dealt with the quandary by leading the development of software for autonomous ants. The animators would only animate four or five groups of about eight individual "universal ants". Each one of these "universal ants" would later be randomly distributed throughout the digital set. The program also allowed each ant to be automatically modified in subtle ways (e.g. different color of eye or skin, different heights, different weights, etc.). This ensured that no two ants were the same. It was partly based on Reeves's invention of particle systems a decade and a half earlier, which had let animators use masses of self-guided particles to create effects like swirling dust and snow. The animators also employed subsurface scattering—developed by Pixar co-founder Edwin Catmull during his graduate student days at the University of Utah in the 1970s—to render surfaces in a more lifelike way. This would be the first time that subsurface scattering would be used in a Pixar film, and a small team at Pixar worked out the practical problems that kept it from working in animation. Catmull asked for a short film to test and showcase subsurface scattering and the result, Geri's Game (1997), was attached alongside A Bug's Life in its theatrical release. Feud between Pixar and DreamWorks During the production of A Bug's Life, a public feud erupted between DreamWorks' Jeffrey Katzenberg, and Pixar's Steve Jobs and John Lasseter. Katzenberg, former chairman of Disney's film division, had left the company in a bitter feud with CEO Michael Eisner. In response, he formed DreamWorks SKG with Steven Spielberg and David Geffen and planned to rival Disney in animation. After DreamWorks' acquisition of Pacific Data Images (PDI)—long Pixar's contemporary in computer animation—Lasseter and others at Pixar were dismayed to learn from the trade papers that PDI's first project at DreamWorks would be another ant film, to be called Antz. By this time, Pixar's project was well known within the animation community. Both Antz and A Bug's Life center on a young male ant, a drone with oddball tendencies that struggles to win a princess's hand by saving their society. Whereas A Bug's Life relied chiefly on visual gags, Antz was more verbal and revolved more around satire. The script of Antz was also heavy with adult references, whereas Pixar's film was more accessible to children. It was clear that Lasseter and Jobs believed that the idea was stolen by Katzenberg. Katzenberg had stayed in touch with Lasseter after the acrimonious Disney split, often calling to check up. In October 1995, when Lasseter was overseeing postproduction work on Toy Story at the Universal lot's Technicolor facility in Universal City, where DreamWorks was also located, he called Katzenberg and dropped by with Stanton. When Katzenberg asked what they were doing next, Lasseter described what would become A Bug's Life in detail. Lasseter respected Katzenberg's judgment and felt comfortable using him as a sounding board for creative ideas. Lasseter had high hopes for Toy Story, and he was telling friends throughout the tight-knit computer-animation business to get cracking on their own films. "If this hits, it's going to be like space movies after Star Wars" for computer animation companies, he told various friends. "I should have been wary," Lasseter later recalled. "Jeffrey kept asking questions about when it would be released." When the trades indicated production on Antz, Lasseter, feeling betrayed, called Katzenberg and asked him bluntly if it were true, who in turn asked him where he had heard the rumor. Lasseter asked again, and Katzenberg admitted it was true. Lasseter raised his voice and would not believe Katzenberg's story that a development director had pitched him the idea long ago. Katzenberg claimed Antz came from a 1991 story pitch by Tim Johnson that was related to Katzenberg in October 1994. Another source gives Nina Jacobson, one of Katzenberg's executives, as the person responsible for the Antz pitch. Lasseter, who normally did not use profane language, cursed at Katzenberg and hung up the phone. Lasseter recalled that Katzenberg began explaining that Disney was "out to get him" and that he realized that he was just cannon fodder in Katzenberg's fight with Disney. For his part, Katzenberg believed he was the victim of a conspiracy: Eisner had decided not to pay him his contract-required bonus, convincing Disney's board not to give him anything. Katzenberg was further angered by the fact that Eisner scheduled Bugs to open the same week as The Prince of Egypt, which was then intended to be DreamWorks' first animated release. Lasseter grimly relayed the news to Pixar employees but kept morale high. Privately, Lasseter told other Pixar executives that he and Stanton felt terribly let down by Katzenberg. Katzenberg moved the opening of Antz from spring 1999 to October 1998 to compete with Pixar's release. David Price writes in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch that a rumor, "never confirmed", was that Katzenberg had given PDI "rich financial incentives to induce them to whatever it would take to have Antz ready first, despite Pixar's head start". Jobs was furious and called Katzenberg and began yelling. Katzenberg made an offer: He would delay production of Antz if Jobs and Disney would move A Bug's Life so that it did not compete with The Prince of Egypt. Jobs believed it "a blatant extortion attempt" and would not go for it, explaining that there was nothing he could do to convince Disney to change the date. Katzenberg casually responded that Jobs himself had taught him how to conduct similar business long ago, explaining that Jobs had come to Pixar's rescue by making the deal for Toy Story, as Pixar was near bankruptcy at that time. "I was the one guy there for you back then, and now you're allowing them to use you to screw me," Katzenberg said. He suggested that if Jobs wanted to, he could simply slow down production on A Bug's Life without telling Disney. If he did, Katzenberg said, he would put Antz on hold. Lasseter also claimed Katzenberg had phoned him with the proposition, but Katzenberg denied these charges later. As the release dates for both films approached, Disney executives concluded that Pixar should keep silent on the DreamWorks battle. Regardless, Lasseter publicly dismissed Antz as a "schlock version" of A Bug's Life. Lasseter, who claimed to have never seen Antz, told others that if DreamWorks and PDI had made the film about anything other than insects, he would have closed Pixar for the day so the entire company could go see it. Jobs and Katzenberg would not back down and the rivaling ant films provoked a press frenzy. "The bad guys rarely win," Jobs told the Los Angeles Times. In response, DreamWorks' head of marketing Terry Press suggested, "Steve Jobs should take a pill." Despite the successful box office performance of both Antz and A Bug's Life, tensions would remain high between Jobs and Katzenberg for many years. According to Jobs, Katzenberg came to Jobs after the success of Shrek (2001) and insisted he had never heard the pitch for A Bug's Life, reasoning that his settlement with Disney would have given him a share of the profits if that were so. Although the contention left all parties estranged, Pixar and PDI employees kept up the old friendships that had arisen from spending a long time together in computer animation. Music The film's score was composed and conducted by Randy Newman. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on October 27, 1998. The album's first track is a song called "The Time of Your Life" written and performed by Newman, while all the other 19 tracks are orchestral cues. Although the album was out of print physically in the United States during the 2000s, in June 2018 Universal Music Japan announced that a re-mastered edition would be released on October 3, 2018, along with other soundtrack albums from the Walt Disney Records pre-2018 catalogue. The album is also available for purchase on iTunes. The time duration is 47 minutes and 32 seconds. Out of five stars, AllMusic, Empire Online, and Film Tracks rated the album three stars. Movie Wave rated it four and a half. The score won the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition. Reception Box office A Bug's Life grossed approximately $33,258,052 on its opening weekend, ranking number 1 for that weekend. It managed to retain its spot for two weeks until it was taken by Star Trek: Insurrection. A Bug's Life had made a $46.5 million five-day Thanksgiving holiday weekend, competing with the Universal films Meet Joe Black and Babe: Pig in the City. The film grossed $162.8 million in its United States theatrical run, covering its estimated production costs of $120 million. The film made $200,460,294 in foreign countries, pushing its worldwide gross to $363.3 million, surpassing the competition from DreamWorks Animation's Antz. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 92% based on 88 reviews and an average rating of 7.87/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A Bug's Life is a rousing adventure that blends animated thrills with witty dialogue and memorable characters – and another smashing early success for Pixar." Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film a score of 77 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote, "Lasseter and Pixar broke new technical and aesthetic ground in the animation field with Toy Story, and here they surpass it in both scope and complexity of movement while telling a story that overlaps Antz in numerous ways." James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "A Bug's Life, like Toy Story, develops protagonists we can root for, and places them in the midst of a fast-moving, energetic adventure." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "Will A Bug's Life suffer by coming out so soon after Antz? Not any more than one thriller hurts the chances for the next one. Antz may even help business for A Bug's Life by demonstrating how many dramatic and comedic possibilities can be found in an anthill." Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "What A Bug's Life demonstrates is that when it comes to bugs, the most fun ones to hang out with hang exclusively with the gang at Pixar." Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film four out of four stars, saying "A Bug's Life is one of the great movies – a triumph of storytelling and character development, and a whole new ballgame for computer animation. Pixar Animation Studios has raised the genre to an astonishing new level". Richard Corliss of Time wrote, "The plot matures handsomely; the characters neatly converge and combust; the gags pay off with emotional resonance." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B, saying "A Bug's Life may be the single most amazing film I've ever seen that I couldn't fall in love with." Paul Clinton of CNN wrote, "A Bug's Life is a perfect movie for the holidays. It contains a great upbeat message ... it's wonderful to look at ... it's wildly inventive ... and it's entertaining for both adults and kids." Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three and a half stars out of four, and compared the movie to "Akira Kurosawa's Seven Samurai (with a little of another art-film legend, Federico Fellini, tossed in)." where "As in Samurai, the colony here is plagued every year by the arrival of bandits." On the contrary, Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post wrote, "Clever as it is, the film lacks charm. One problem: too many bugs. Second, bigger world for two purposes: to feed birds and to irk humans." Accolades A Bug's Life won a number of awards and numerous nominations. The film won the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards for Best Animated Film (tied with The Prince of Egypt) and Best Family Film, the Satellite Award for Best Animated Film and the Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition by Randy Newman. It was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score and the BAFTA Award for Best Achievement in Special Visual Effects. In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Animation Films list. Legacy In the years since its release, A Bug's Life has been regarded by critics and fans to be a Pixar film that, in contrast to its successors, has become largely forgotten by audiences. While recognised as solidifying Pixar's success, the film has been seen as the studio's sophomore slump in the wake of the critically successful Toy Story, and inhibited by being released directly before the equally revered Toy Story 2. Pixar's feud with Dreamworks as a result of Antz has also been regarded as a factor in A Bug's Lifes legacy. Critics have generally ranked A Bug's Life to be one of Pixar's weaker releases; while it has been seen as a "charming" and "ambitious" film with pioneering animation for its time, others have described it as "adequate" and appealing more to a younger demographic. However, the film's characters, voice acting, and humor have received lasting praise. Release A few weeks after the film's release, new outtakes were added to the theatrical prints. Because the film is animated, no actual outtakes exist; they are animated specifically for the outtake sequence. Home media A Bug's Life was the first home video release to be entirely created using a digital transfer. Every frame of animation was converted from the film's computer data, as opposed to the standard analog film-to-videotape transfer process. This allowed for the film's DVD release to retain its original 2.35:1 widescreen format. The DVD was released on April 20, 1999, alongside a VHS release which was presented in a standard 1.33:1 "fullscreen" format. The film's fullscreen transfer was performed by entirely "reframing" the film shot by shot; more than half of the film's footage was modified by Pixar animators to fit within the film's aspect ratio. Several characters and objects were moved closer together to avoid being cut out of frame. The film's VHS release was the best-selling VHS in the United Kingdom, with 1.76 million units sold by the end of the year. On August 1, 2000, these editions were rereleased on VHS and DVD under the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection banner. On November 23, 1999, a 2-disc Collector's Edition DVD was released. It was fully remastered in anamorphic widescreen and has substantial bonus features. The edition was re-released on May 27, 2003 to coincide with the release of Finding Nemo. This THX certified DVD release once again gives the option of viewing the film in widescreen or fullscreen. The second disc features numerous bonus features, such as a set-top game and a Finding Nemo featurette. On May 19, 2009, the film was released on Blu-ray. The film was released on 4K Blu-ray on March 3, 2020. Media and merchandise Attached short film The film's theatrical and video releases include Geri's Game, an Academy Award winning Pixar short made in 1997, a year before this film was released. Video game A game, based on the film, was developed by Traveller's Tales and Tiertex Design Studios and released by Sony Computer Entertainment, Disney Interactive, THQ and Activision for various systems. The game's storyline was similar to the film's, with a few changes. However, unlike the film, the game received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website GameRankings gave the Nintendo 64 version 54.40%, the PlayStation version 51.90% and the Game Boy Color version 36.63%. GameSpot gave the PlayStation version a 2.7/10, concluding that it was "obvious that Disney was more interested in producing a $40 advertisement for its movie than in developing a playable game." IGN gave the Nintendo 64 version a 6.8/10, praising the presentation and sound by stating "It was upbeat, cheery look and feel very much like the movie of the same name with cheery, happy tunes and strong sound effects but again criticised the gameplay by saying the controls were sluggish with stuttering framerate and tired gameplay mechanics". while they gave the PlayStation version a 4/10, criticizing the gameplay as slow and awkward but praising the presentation as cinematic. Theme park attractions Disney's Animal Kingdom includes the 3D show It's Tough to Be a Bug!, which also existed at Disney California Adventure from 2001 to 2018. The Disney California Adventure nighttime show World of Color features a segment that includes Heimlich, the caterpillar from the film. Former theme park attractions From 2002 to 2018, A Bug's Land was a section of Disney California Adventure that was inspired by the film. See also List of animated feature-length films List of Pixar films List of computer-animated films List of Disney animated films based on fairy tales List of films featuring insects References Further reading External links Official website at Pixar 1998 films 1998 computer-animated films 1990s American animated films 1990s fantasy films American children's animated adventure films American children's animated comedy films American children's animated fantasy films American films Animated films about insects Best Animated Feature Broadcast Film Critics Association Award winners 1990s English-language films Fictional ants Fictional grasshoppers Films scored by Randy Newman Films directed by John Lasseter Films produced by Darla K. Anderson Pixar animated films Films with screenplays by John Lasseter Films with screenplays by Joe Ranft Films with screenplays by Andrew Stanton Walt Disney Pictures films Animated films set on islands Films based on Aesop's Fables Films about ants

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is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Haro Aso. It was serialized in Shogakukan's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Sunday from December 2007 to December 2008, and later in Club Sunday website from December 2008 to July 2009. Its chapters were collected in seven tankōbon volumes. In North America, the series was licensed for English release by Viz Media, who serialized it online at ShonenSunday.com and later released its volumes in print. Plot 13-year-old Shunpei Closer is viewed as a weak and timid teenager. His grandfather, Alsyd Closer, was a magician, the "Sorcerer King." Alsyd would travel around the world constantly, only stopping in Japan every now and then to tell tales of his journeys to Shunpei. Before leaving to Africa on Shunpei's 7th birthday, Alsyd gave Shunpei a teddy bear named Hyde. Shunpei quickly grows attached to Hyde, stating it was his best friend. Six years have passed, and Shunpei comes home one day, only to receive a package that had a stuffed animal in it. Soon, Shunpei is attacked by the toy, and is almost killed. But before getting killed, Shunpei is cornered into his room, and as the toy was about to strike, Hyde comes to life, and protects Shunpei against the toy. Shunpei is frightened of the fact that Hyde came to life at first, but Hyde quickly calms him down and explains how Shunpei is the number one target of every magician in the world. At this moment, the stuffed animal from earlier is still alive, and ruthlessly attacks Hyde with knives and forks. Hyde is at a disadvantage because his only weapon is in his back, and he can not reach it himself, meaning he needs Shunpei to do it for him. Shunpei struggles to get away from the fight, but he remembers how he was treated at school, and calls himself "pathetic". Summoning up his courage, Shunpei returns to the fight, and brings out the Texas Chainsaw within Hyde. With this new weapon, the stuffed animal is easily destroyed. With the duo finishing up their first battle of many to come, Shunpei learns more about his grandfather than he could have possibly dared, and to overcome the coward that he and everyone else thought he was. Shunpei eventually meets more allies and learns about "The Six", a group of sorcerers who are after him, and "The Watcher in the Window", a mysterious magic user. Shunpei also learns more about his family history with magic and what truly happened to his grandfather. Characters Main characters A 13-year-old timid teenager. Shunpei has spiky black hair and blue eyes. He wears a as-yet-explained necklace that holds what seems to be a half light blue, and half dark blue Magatama. Shunpei is harshly looked down upon by his classmates every day, as he seems to have no special abilities and messes up at everything. In chapter 2, Shunpei uses magic for the first time. And in chapter 3, Shunpei is told by Hyde that Shunpei needs to be able to learn more magic because protecting Shunpei, and fighting an enemy is very hard since both of them are fighting stronger enemies as the story goes on. Shunpei, at first, strongly believes that he can not do anything, but when Hyde came along and corrected him, Shunpei began to think otherwise. Hyde states in chapter 4 that Shunpei has the potential to become a very strong magician. Otherwise, Hyde would've stopped hanging around Shunpei a long time ago. In later chapters, Shunpei has shown bravery when in battles with other magic-users. For instance, in chapter eleven, Shunpei, and Uryuu had to use umbrellas to block the light from some overhead lights to give Hyde the advantage against a battle with a Shadow user, (He stabs other people's shadows using his own shadow) but the last light was too far to be able to hang the umbrella over it. But seeing as Hyde had the chance of losing, and dying, Shunpei gathered up his courage, and jumped to the headlight, and successfully blocked the light, leaving Hyde to finish off his opponent. Another example of how Shunpei has changed since Hyde entered his life was in chapter twenty one, where Shunpei was determined to control an item he had received. Shunpei and Hyde were attacked by what looked to be a giant, and although Hyde attempted to help, Shunpei asked to fight alone and eventually Shunpei won the battle. A teddy bear that was given to Shunpei on his 7th birthday. Hyde had not shown any reaction until an enemy attempts to assassinate Shunpei. Hyde addresses Shunpei as either "Shun", or "Shun boy", just like Alsyd, probably because of Alsyd's magic in Hyde himself. Hyde is calm when outside of battle, and puts on a blank face that shows no emotion, like a normal teddy bear. He seems to be nice to Shunpei and his mother. Hyde states that he thinks that Shun has potential, only he needs to toughen up a bit. Hyde is the one who has been proving Shunpei wrong when Shunpei thought of himself as weak and cowardly. In his back, he holds a chainsaw named the Texas Chainsaw. Oddly, the chainsaw stands about twice as tall as Hyde himself, but can easily fit inside Hyde. When he fights, he normally gets an evil grin on his face, showing he might enjoy the idea of getting rid of the doll and thereby getting rid of the user; when he uses his Texas Chainsaw, his face becomes shadowed over, making his grin appear more cruel. Hyde always has a chocolate cigar in his mouth, except when he is being carried around by Shunpei. Besides the Texas Chainsaw, Hyde shows superhuman strength in chapter six when he throws a full sized locker through a window. In chapter seven, Shindou reveals that Hyde's magical power is different from those of a normal magical doll, and reveals that Hyde has a limited amount of magical power in his body, that he is keeping a secret from Shunpei. In chapter twenty-seven, Hyde himself states that he does not have much time left, and the magical power within him is limited. A bit of Hyde's past is also revealed in this chapter, showing that Hyde was originally a parting gift from the father of Marco when he lived seventy years ago, before the events of Magic Ban Removal. Unfortunately, soon after receiving Hyde, Marco was killed in his apartment in the middle of an air raid of his town, and, with his last few moments, dropped Hyde from the window in hopes that he would survive (let it be noted that at the time Hyde was nothing more than a bear, but Marco treated Hyde like a younger brother). It was six years before the start of the story that Alsyd found Hyde in the display of a merchant and, for whatever reason, knew about what the bear went through, bought Hyde and charged him with protecting Shunpei. Additionally, despite the fact that he was inanimate then, Hyde is still able to remember Marco. A girl in Shunpei's class. She is a huge fan of a TV drama with an incredible manly male lead. She at first dislikes Shunpei due to his cowardice, until they are attacked by a curse user after school when it is their turn to clean the classroom. Tatsumi fell in love with Hyde after the incident, much to Shunpei's shock. But as time passes by, her feelings start to shift towards Shunpei. Shindou is a soccer star in Shunpei's school, and although almost every girl in the school admires him, his only love is a strange one at that: a black-haired doll named Tomiko, and talks to it as if it was a living object. (Tomiko is later shown to be a magical doll like Hyde.) Behind his graceful look, he is actually a magic-user. His style of fighting is different from the first two magic-users. Instead of hiding and standing from the sidelines, sending his/or magic power for the magical doll to do his/her "dirty work", Shindou and Tomiko instead fight together, therefore increasing the strength of Tomiko. (Hyde explains that the farther away the magic-user is from his magical doll, the less magic power he/she could send to their doll.) Growing up, Shindou's only friend was Tomiko as his rich father early on bought the neighborhood he lived in and forced his friends to move because he did not want Shindou to be friends with those he considers "scum". Despite the battle between Shindou and Shunpei, the two later become allies. Tomiko is a small doll, and is apparently in some sort of relationship with Shindou. His reason to attack Shunpei is to use the Alsyd's blood within Shunpei to turn Tomiko into a real woman (because Shindou states that no one would accept a relationship with a doll). She states that she loves Shindou, and vice versa, which apparently "creeps" Shunpei out. She is apparently based on a woman of the same name who never married, and has been handed down to each new generation in Shindou's mother's family. Odd, and easy to stand out, Ana quickly catches the attention of many in her introduction in the series. She comes looking for the power of Closer, but to Shunpei's surprise, she at first believed she would need to eat Shunpei's toenails to gain his power. Shunpei cleared up the misunderstanding, telling her the truth while believing she would not be the kind of person to kill someone else. As a child, Ana was shown to be bullied by other boys constantly because of her height, but quickly became friends with them when she stood up to them with the help of a hippie looking-sort of person named Bosh. He however was killed by yet another unnamed man. Angered by the man's actions, she swears to get stronger to kill him, leading to Ana wanting the power of Closer. Despite being enemies for some time, Ana becomes an ally of Shunpei and company. Shakka-Shakka Mekki is a doll whose name is most likely a play on his maracas that he constantly carries around. Ana activates Shakka-Shakka's power by using her boombox to play different sorts of music. Each CD can activate an ability. A very large man with spiky dreadlocked hair. Called Holy Father by the children, even though he is not a real priest. Growing up, he lived on the streets and stole and fought in order to survive, losing all sense of fear, until one day when he killed a woman's son and was sentenced to death. As his sentence grew closer, Kazan started to become scared of dying and, realizing his victim must have felt the same way, regretted his actions. On the day of his execution, the boy's mother dropped the charges against him and later told him that since he felt remorse, it was better for him to live on instead of die. He fights alongside Desmond, often charging recklessly against the enemy. Desmond is a traditional Tinplate doll that looks like a small suit or armour with skinny legs, and four eyes. He dislikes noisy crowds and sometimes scolds Kazan for acting reckless. Fires projectile springs form Desmond's fingers that bring anything they come into contact with to life and fight for them. This magic is effective because the springs are fired out like a bullet, making them dangerous in their own right. It can even force guns in hand to change direction. Shunpei’s grandfather. He gave Shunpei Hyde on his 7th birthday. He would travel around the world and whenever he dropped by he would tell Shunpei about his travels and sometime show him magic “tricks”. He lives life “like a man” and tries to teach Shunpei that a man decides his own path in life and that as long as he wants to, a man can achieve anything. He is really one of the greatest magician kings to ever live in the world and his little “tricks” are real magic spells that he can handle effortlessly. It seems most of the world's magic users are after his blood so they become the strongest above the rest, but since he has disappeared off the face of the earth all the attacks are now focused on Shunpei. A girl who has two shades of hair; black and white. She wears a hat with a pumpkin face smile on the side, a one-piece dress, a long trench coat, and black boots. Pacqwa owns a small store in the Unknown Bazaar, and although she displays many items, most of the items she sells get refunded. She started her magic-device store because of her father, who was a world famous magical item seller. She apologizes frequently. Enemy Curse users Antonio disguised himself as a delivery man and handed Shunpei the package containing the doll. Chamokey explained why it was trying to kill Shunpei and that he'd be in constant danger for the rest of his life. When, Hyde destroyed Chamokey, it resulted in Antonio driving off a bridge after suffering an array of unlucky circumstances. Chamokey is a monkey with a fedora and two mouths. He is incredibly sadistic and took great pleasure in tormenting Shunpei as he ran through the house but when Hyde came in his confidence was crushed very quickly. In battle he favors anything that can be used to stab or cut, such as a boxcutter. Chilledski is a Russian curse user who wears a walrus skin like a fur coat (even if he complains about Japan's hot weather). Chilledski was struck with appendix problems after his doll was destroyed, he was rushed to a hospital. After that, Hyde and Closer went looking for him (Hyde uses this as a means to stop being ambushed) and convinced him to help (Hyde does something to his face which causes anyone who sees him to laugh uncontrollably which was effective as Chilledski could not laugh because of his surgery) to show how many other magic users were out to get Closer (1000 in total). Chilledski after more "convincing" revealed information on 'The Six,' the strongest magic users out of the rest moving in to attack. Harawataski is a skull jack-in-the-box doll. He says he loves to eat humans' lustful desires. His weapons are a pair of tongs and a small crowbar. His core is a coin with a star on it. A duo who attack Shunpei after school. Bugs takes control on the school's lights in order to give his doll the advantage. After failing to take Shunpei's life, Bugs is thrown in jail for assaulting a janitor and with Seyabdi destroyed he started feeling pain whenever someone steps on his shadow. Seyabdi is a shadow puppet with a strange head that uses a knife in combat to strike the finishing blow. Enrique is a young boy whose mother is ill and was led by the Watchman into believing that with Closer's power he would be able to heal his mother. Enrique is the only magician who is able to control two Curse Dolls at once. After both his dolls are destroyed, he nearly falls off the building he was standing on, but was saved by Shunpei at the last second. In regret and gratitude, he informs Shunpei and Hyde about the Watchman. Kefman is a marionette that looks like a rather sinister clown with four arms. Kefman can manipulate his marionette strings and use them to cut through just about anything. Michelan is a human-sized puppet with a top hat, who first masquerades as the magician. Michelan knows all offensive and defensive martial arts disciplines, including but not limited to boxing, kung fu, karate and sambo. A duo who attack Shunpei whilst he was training to use his newly acquired magical device. Chi-Chi is an overweight man who loves ramen. He wears a Chinese shirt and small dark glasses. He has a curly mustache and tattoos on his head that resemble three waves. Wamien is a small, frog-like creature with a porcelain bowl on his head but transforms into a large, muscular reptilian creature when using his magic. Chi-Chi was later badly scalded by hot ramen after, Wamien's subsequent defeat. A duo seeking to destroy the church where the children are because of Feng Shui. Abumiya dresses in a very flamboyant business suit and has one half of the yin-yang symbol tattooed on each of his eyes. He is extremely sadistic as shown in how happily he lists all the morbid things he could do with his doll's magic. However, underneath all his evil, Abumiya is a true coward and does not know how to deal with those that stand up to him and easily cracking under the pressure. When his doll is destroyed, he gets buried under the garbage in the junkyard. Lancy is a doll that looks like a jiang-shi that floats and has two different halves on his body. The normal half will tell his opponent's good luck and lucky item, while at the same time the other half that looks like a demonic corpse will tell them their bad luck and unlucky item. The president of , a world famous toy company. He is a powerful man who hired 100 magicians to activate his magic. He does not care what it takes to do something as long as it is done. This is shown when he was warned about the dangers the army of toys could have on other people; he said he did not care as long as the magicians killed Closer. Hyper Toy is unique from other curse dolls in that it is not just one doll, but instead Schubert's entire toy store. However, Schubert's butler warned that using the entire store would only give him minimum control over the dolls and that they would attack anyone near them. After all the toys are destroyed by the combined efforts of Shindou, Ana, and Kazan, the hired magicians place all their power into one doll, a deer costume that gave Schubert incredible strength and speed. After Hyde used his new magic powers to beat him twice, Schubert went insane with power and proceeded to eat the mages who were powering his doll to increase his own strength. When Closer used his new magical tool on him to make illusions, it was revealed that he made toys not for wealth but to see the happy faces of children. After being stunned and filled with regret upon remembering his past, Hyde then used his chainsaw to destroy the doll's core, reducing Schubert to an old man with the mind of a newborn child and removing all evil from his heart. Faction of The Watcher in the Window The Watcher is a mysterious magic user who ignited the race to harm Shunpei. He can appears in a floating window which disappears as mysteriously as it appears. He also has a keen grasp on the human psyche, as he manipulated a boy into trying to kill Closer, and most of the wizards in general by lying and telling them that eating his heart would make them invincible. Due to his tactics, Hyde initially believes the Watcher has a personal grudge against the Closer family, only for this to be refuted when The Watcher appears before them after the people he tricked into fighting Closer failed. He reveals that he has no grudge against the family and has actually grown to like Shunpei, but wishes to destroy humanity by getting his hands on Resentment, a gigantic egg that is the oldest magical device, created after a series of coincidences and that has been absorbing the negative emotions of humanity for thousands of years. Alsyd Closer had somehow prevented him from getting it, and so Watchman has been attacking Shunpei to lure him out. He was once a Doctor who lost his family when a shamanistic tribe he'd been treating sacrificed them to appease their gods, driving him mad with grief. In a strange twist of fate, it is revealed that The Watchman himself is 'Detox', the very Magical Device needed to destroy Resentment. A stuffed panda in the mold of Hyde, but with primitive intelligence. He is briefly introduced during the battle between Closer and The Watcher in the Window as a man framed for spying during the early 1880s, having his family killed in front of his eyes. As he was a sorcerer, he gave life to a stuffed panda by giving his beating heart to the toy as its core so as to avenge his family. Even though he (known as Jack the Ripper) successfully avenged his family, he still murders sorcerers and people for the Watcher in the Window. During his first appearance, he has multiple tentacles that serves as hands. Each of them holds a small scissor, with six in total. He cuts wildly and shrieks, "CUT!CUT!I WANT TO CUT THINGS!" everywhere he goes. As he does so, he wrecks the whole school. He attacks Hyde with his "Murder Ride Show" curse. In the following events some scissors begin to merge into a chainsaw-scissor, and one is destroyed by two of Hyde's curse attack, released from both Closer and Hyde. After several time lapses, he and Hyde's power remain equal, but he is destroyed by Hyde's overpowering final attack. Just as he looks dead, his flying severed top third cuts Hyde into uneven thirds, then flops down dead on the smoking pavement of the building, with a last word of "CUT!". One of the Watcher's allies that willingly wants Resentment to be unleashed. He has a massive ego and fancies himself as a genius and an inventor (e.g. making a toothpaste sandwich for people to eat and clean their teeth at the same time). Pterobone is a living fossil that seems to combine aspects of a triceratops, a pterosaur, and a stegosaur. Aside from its magic, it can fly and split itself into its bones to create multiple attack chances. Pterobone is destroyed by Hyde, and because of the curse backlash, all of the joints in Alshev's body are dislocated and he is sent to the emergency room. A woman who serves as one of the Watcher's allies out to destroy the device that can cancel out Resentment. Her past is discussed in a story told to the readers by the Watcher: as a child, she was the sole survivor of a fire that broke out and killed all the members of a notorious cult in the southern United States. She was never taught anything about the world around her, and as such lacked the skills to express herself or communicate with others. Adopted by a kindly couple, she was still unable to express herself until she seemed to take an interest in flowers. At the suggestion of her adoptive mother, she spent day after day taking flowers to her room to raise them, but otherwise never left her room. When her adoptive mother went to check on her one day, she found out the girl's secret: she had only been taking the plants to her room to starve them off and watch them die. Appearing to take ecstasy in watching things die, she later moved on to animals, and then humans. Now as an adult, she has a lustful obsession with death and wants Resentment to activate so she can watch death on a global scale. She and Asmodai are sent to stop Shunpei and company from destroying Resentment, she fights against both Shunpei and Shindou in the hospital but quickly proves to be far too powerful for them to defeat. However, they manage to best her by splashing her wax body with caustic soda and alcohol, turning her into a giant soap statue. Initially presented as the unnamed magician who killed Bosh (Ana's mentor). He was later revealed as one of the Watcher's allies searching to destroy the device that can cancel out Resentment. His past is discussed in a story told to the readers by the Watcher: There were five people trapped in a collapsed tunnel on an American highway, one of them including a pregnant woman. As rescuers worked, one by one the people were killed by a series of lethal misfortunes, until not one survived. However, the fallen rock that killed the pregnant woman left the child unharmed, and it was able to be saved. The deaths were all in fact caused by the unborn Asmodai, who could hear the survivors outside the womb counting off how many survivors were left with each accident and was furious he was never included in the count. He used his magic from within the womb to curse them all to death, and later grew to be the depraved killer he is now. His only motive for aiding the Watcher is his desire to see Resentment destroy the world. He and Ronove are sent to stop Shunpei and company from destroying Resentment, he fights Ana and Kazan in a zoo where he's magic is at its most powerful. Whilst there he overpowers them and talks about how he wishes to devour Resentment because the end of the world would not be as fun if he was not the one causing it. Publication Written and illustrated by Haro Aso, Hyde & Closer debuted in Shogakukan's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Sunday on December 26, 2007. It was serialized in the magazine until December 2008, when it was transferred to Shogakukan's website. The series finished on July 3, 2009. Shogakukan collected its chapters into seven tankōbon volumes, released from March 18, 2008, to August 18, 2009. In North America, the manga was licensed for English release by Viz Media. The series was published online on their ShonenSunday.com website in July 2009. The seven volumes were published between July 13, 2010, and January 10, 2012. The manga was published in France by Akata. Volume list Reception Corrina Lawson of Wired felt that the story was likely to be scary to young children, as toys attack the protagonists, but her sons (11 and 14) enjoyed the character of Hyde, who she described as "the teddy bear version of Nick Fury". Lawson also praised the "genuinely suspenseful" action sequences. Johanna Draper Carlson from Comics Worth reading felt that it was interesting having a boy learn to be a man from a teddy bear, but felt sad that a younger audience who could more appreciate these themes was excluded by the older teen rating of the title. Danica Davidson, writing for Otaku USA, felt the first volume was "tightly written and clever", and found the protagonist very sympathetic. The reviewer for Manga-News describes the beginning as being typical of shonen, depicting a timid protagonist who gains confidence and the ability to protect himself, but felt there were many elements which made Hyde & Closer unique, including an effective graphical style which is dynamic, expressive, and original, and felt that the series would become more in-depth as the story progressed. References External links 2007 manga Adventure anime and manga Comedy anime and manga Fantasy anime and manga Fictional teddy bears Shōnen manga Shogakukan manga Viz Media manga

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The 2013–2014 Thai political crisis was a period of political instability in Thailand. Anti-government protests took place between November 2013 and May 2014, organised by the People's Democratic Reform Committee (PDRC), a political pressure group led by former Democrat Party parliamentary representative (MP) Suthep Thaugsuban. The crisis eventually resulted in the removal of incumbent Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, a coup d'état, and the establishment of a military junta. The primary aim of the protests was the removal of former prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra's – the brother of Yingluck – influence on Thai politics and the creation of an unelected "people's council" to oversee reforms of the political system. Protesters viewed Thaksin as corrupt and damaging to Thailand's democracy, although he enjoyed strong support in many areas of Thailand, particularly the poorer north and northeast, due to his reforming social programs and economic policies. Political parties allied to Thaksin had won a majority in every election since 2001. Other issues, such as the royal succession, a rural-urban or north-south divide, social inequality, over-centralised bureaucracy, royal and military influence in politics, and class conflict were suggested as factors behind the crisis by analysts and commentators. Protests were first triggered by a proposed amnesty bill which would have pardoned politicians of various charges from the period following the 2006 coup d'état. Anti-government protestors argued the bill, and a simultaneous government attempt to alter the 2007 constitution, favoured Thaksin and would potentially allow him to return from self-imposed exile due to a corruption conviction. The pro-government Red Shirt movement also opposed the amnesty due to its inclusion of murder charges related to the 2010 military crackdown on pro-Thaksin protests, in which 91 were killed. Opposition from across the political spectrum caused the bill to be rejected unanimously by the Senate of Thailand. Anti-government protests continued however, with demonstrators occupying government offices, blocking major road intersections and holding mass rallies in Bangkok to call for the resignation of Yingluck and her Pheu Thai government. On 8 December 2013, all 153 opposition Democrat Party MPs resigned and Yingluck dissolved the House of Representatives, calling a snap general election for 2 February. Voting was disrupted in areas of Bangkok and southern Thailand by PDRC protesters blocking entry to polling stations, leading to an annulment of the result by the Constitutional Court. Sporadic violence, including shootings, bomb attempts and grenades thrown at protesters led to 28 deaths and over 800 injuries during the course of the protests. On 21 January, Yingluck's government declared a state of emergency in Bangkok and the surrounding areas, to little effect. Yingluck and nine ministers were removed from office by the Constitutional Court on 7 May 2014 over the controversial transfer of a senior security officer in 2011. Supporters of Yingluck and critics argued that the move was politically motivated and an abuse of judicial power. On 20 May, the Royal Thai Army declared martial law throughout the nation, followed two days later by a coup which removed the government and named General Prayut Chan-o-cha as acting prime minister. In February 2021, three ministers from Prayut's cabinet, Puttipong Punnakanta, Nataphol Teepsuwan and Thaworn Senniam, were found guilty of insurrection during the protests that led to the 2014 coup. Background The government of Yingluck came to power in the 2011 elections, in which her Pheu Thai Party won an outright majority. Yingluck is a sister of former prime minister Thaksin, and the Pheu Thai Party was closely aligned with him. Thaksin, who was ousted in a 2006 coup d'état, was living in self-imposed exile to avoid a 2008 corruption conviction and still commanded popular support across much of the country, especially among rural Thais and the urban poor. The Shinawatra family was especially revered in the rural northeast due to the economic and social gains from Thaksinomics: between 2001 and 2011, Isan's GDP per capita more than doubled to US$1,475, while, over the same period, GDP in the Bangkok area soared from US$7,900 to nearly US$13,000. Several amnesty proposals and amendments to the constitution had been debated by the House of Representatives during Yingluck's premiership. Most of these were popularly perceived as benefiting Thaksin, and were opposed by the Democrat Party. In August 2013, the Pheu Thai-majority House approved a first reading of a draft amnesty bill. Street protests leading up to the parliamentary session were held by an anti-Thaksin group calling itself the "People's Democratic Force to Overthrow Thaksinism" (PEFOT), as well as by the Democrat Party, but these failed to gain momentum. The amnesty bill was handed over to a 35-member scrutinising committee, after which it would be returned to the House for second and third readings. The committee passed a revised draft of the bill on 18 October 2013. The bill, which in its original form was aimed to absolve civilian protesters, excluding protest and government leaders and the military, was drastically expanded into a "blanket amnesty", covering the period from 2004 to 2013. This would have included the corruption charges laid against Thaksin following the 2006 coup, as well as the murder charges against then Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva and Deputy PM Suthep Thaugsuban related to their conduct during the 2010 mass protests in support of Thaksin. Timeline of the events Protests against amnesty bill The bill was passed by the Pheu Thai Party–dominated House of Representatives on 1 November 2013 at around 04:00. The final draft of the bill would have pardoned protesters involved in various incidents of political unrest since 2004, dismissed Thaksin's corruption convictions, and annulled murder charges against Abhisit and Suthep. The bill sparked opposition from both the Democrat Party and the pro-government Red Shirt movement. Criticism was levelled at the government for passing the vote in the unusual pre-dawn session to prevent opposition. Thaksin's opponents protested against absolving Thaksin of his convictions. Thaksin supporters criticised the bill for absolving those responsible for the crackdown on the 2010 protests. On 4 November 2013, several protests took place in Bangkok, as well as in several provincial cities. Several universities and organisations issued statements condemning the bill. However, an independent poll conducted between 11–13 November reported that the majority of surveyed Thai people wanted the protests to end. Faced with strong opposition, Yingluck issued a statement, urging the Senate to contemplate the bill with the interests of the people in mind. (Procedurally, the House could not recall the bill after voting; the decision lay with the Senate.) Pheu Thai Party leaders also promised not to revive the bill, or any other amnesty bills, if it was rejected by the Senate. The Senate subsequently voted on the bill on 11 November 2013, unanimously rejecting it. At the same time, the International Court of Justice confirmed Cambodia's sovereignty over disputed territory near the Preah Vihear Temple, prompting fears of further political tension from analysts, although the border remained calm. Despite the amnesty bill being dropped, protests in Bangkok continued. Suthep and eight other Democrat members of parliament resigned from their positions to lead demonstrations, calling for the general populace to strike and undertake civil disobedience. The protests gradually shifted towards an anti-government agenda, criticising Yingluck and her government for being proxies for Thaksin and being an elective dictatorship. Several groups protested, including Suthep's Civil Movement for Democracy, the Green Politics group, the Network of Students and People for Reform of Thailand (NSPRT), PEFOT, the Dhamma Army, and the State Enterprises Workers' Relations Confederation. Whistle blowing became a symbol of the protests. Constitutional amendment On 20 November 2013, the Constitutional Court invalidated a government-proposed amendment to the 2007 constitution, which would have restored elements of the 1997 "People's" constitution. The major alteration would have been the restoration of a fully elected Senate. The court found that both the proceedings of the amendment and the contents of the new version were unconstitutional. The court ruled that the final draft voted on by the National Assembly was not the same as the one originally considered, and the new draft was brought to the sessions without an introductory motion. The court also decided that the time limit for amending the draft (which left only one day for the filing of amendments) was unlawful, and many MPs were found to have voted on behalf of absent MPs. With regard to the contents, the court said the amendment would have allowed the relatives of the representatives to become senators, weakening the ability of the Senate to scrutinise the House of Representatives. The 1997 constitution did not prohibit relatives of representatives becoming senators and resulted in the National Assembly gaining the infamous nickname "Assembly of Husbands and Wives" (สภาผัวเมีย). The court also held that the conversion of the Senate into a fully elected chamber would destroy the bicameral system. In its decision, the court stated: The constitutional amendment pursuant to the petitions is a return to the former defects which are perilous and likely to bring an end to the faith and harmony of the majority of the Thai people. It is an attempt to draw the Nation back into the canal, as it would bring the Senate back to the state of being an assembly of relatives, assembly of family members and assembly of husbands and wives. In consequence, the Senate would lose its status and vigour as the source of wisdom for the House of Representatives, but would merely be an echo of the people from the same group. The principles of the bicameral system would be debased, leading to the monopoly of state powers and the exclusion of the participation of the members of various sectors and professions. The amendment is thus an effort of its initiators to regain the national government power by the means not recognised by the Constitution [...] Chulalongkorn University Dean of Law Nantawat Boramanand viewed the statement as an expression of disapproval towards the Pheu Thai-dominated House. The court held that it was competent to deal with the case to provide checks and balances to the principles of separation of powers. Some legal scholars argued that the court could not interfere with the constitutional amendment, as the National Assembly was not exercising the legislative power, but the constituent power which is not subject to the system of checks and balances between the three branches. The Pheu Thai Party rejected the decision, claiming that the court had no jurisdiction over the case, earning the Constitutional Court the nickname "San Khrai Fang" (ศาลใครฟัง; "court heeded by no one"). Although her party ignored the court decision and asserted the legality of the draft amendment, Yingluck withdrew the draft from King Bhumibol Adulyadej on 8 December 2013 before the King signed it into law. The Pheu Thai Party's denial of the court decision resulted in anti-government protest numbers swelling over the following weekend of 23–24 November 2013, with at least 100,000 protesters gathering at the Democracy Monument on Ratchadamnoen Avenue. Protest leaders claimed up to a million people joined the rally. The UDD-led Red Shirts, who had reconciled with the government after the amnesty bill was dropped and had been rallying its supporters at Rajamangala Stadium prior to the court decision, also resumed their counter-protest, with about 40,000 supporters arriving on 24 November. The National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) ruled on 7 January 2014 that it cleared 73 politicians, including Yingluck, in relation to the unsuccessful bid to create a fully elected senate. However, 308 others from the upper and lower houses were found to be in violation of Thai law. The announcement was only based on a preliminary investigation, but if the 308 members were officially found guilty by the commission, they could be banned from politics for five years by the upper house of the National Assembly, which would make the final decision on their cases. Seizure of government buildings On 25 November 2013, anti-government protesters from the People's Democratic Reform Committee led by Suthep began marched to several government offices and forced their way inside the Ministry of Finance, the Budget Bureau, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Public Relations Department, forcing their closure without police intervention, due to government fears that this could result in a repeat 2006 military coup. Yingluck invoked the Internal Security Act (ISA) in all districts of Bangkok and Nonthaburi Province, and the Bang Phli and Lat Lum Kaeo Districts of Samut Prakan and Pathum Thani Provinces respectively. (This was in addition to the central districts of Bangkok, where the ISA had been in effect since the previous month.) However, no direct confrontations between the protesters and security authorities occurred. The protesters continued on 27 November by rallying outside another ten ministry offices, cutting off electricity and forcing the evacuation of the Department of Special Investigation's headquarters, and staging a sit-in at the Chaeng Watthana Government Complex. Protesters also rallied at twenty-four provincial halls, mainly in the south, a traditional Democrat Party base of support. Protesters broke into the offices of state-owned telecommunications companies CAT and TOT on 30 November, disrupting internet services for several hours. The protests had been peaceful before short violent clashes on 30 November and 1 December 2013. On the night of 1 December, violence erupted between anti-government Ramkhamhaeng University students and Red Shirt government supporters near Rajamangala Stadium. University students attacked a taxi containing a red shirt supporter. Gunshots were fired at the students, resulting in four deaths and more than fifty people wounded. The gunman was identified by an eyewitness as a Red Shirt protester, while PDRC core member Sathit Wongnongtoey claimed that "police officers had taken off their uniforms and donned red shirts to attack Ramkhamhaeng students in front of the university". UDD leaders subsequently ended their rally the following morning. Suthep, representing the newly created People's Democratic Reform Committee (PDRC; literal translation of the Thai name: "People's Committee for Complete Democracy with the King as Head of State"), had vowed to overthrow the Yingluck government on 1 December in a "people's coup" attempt. That day protesters tried to force their way into Government House and the Metropolitan Police headquarters, but were halted by police using barricades, tear gas, and water cannons. About 2,700 unarmed soldiers were called in to support the police. That afternoon, Yingluck cancelled planned media interviews and moved to an undisclosed location when the building she was in was surrounded by protesters. Protesters also entered several television stations, including the Thai Public Broadcasting Service, forcing them to broadcast a public address by Suthep, an act condemned by three media organisations. In a televised address, Suthep said that protesters had occupied twelve government buildings, but this claim was denied by the national security chief Paradorn Pattanathabutr. Suthep later unilaterally announced that he had met with Prime Minister Yingluck to deliver an ultimatum "to return power to people" within two days. He reaffirmed his stance that Yingluck's resignation or the dissolution of the House of Representatives was not acceptable, and repeated his calls to replace elected officials with an unelected "People's Council" that would choose leaders. Yingluck had rejected the demands on the basis that suspending the democratic process would be unconstitutional. On 3 December 2013, the police removed barricades and allowed protesters to enter the site, reducing tensions to allow both sides to celebrate King Bhumibol Adulyadej's birthday. Electronic attacks The Digital Attack Map website recorded relatively large scale distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks against internet services in Thailand corresponding almost directly to the period of demonstrations, 27 November through 20 December 2013. Government dissolution After the King's Birthday, Suthep called for protesters to take to the streets and march to Government House on 9 December in a "final battle". The protest was attended by 160,000 people. On 8 December, all 153 minority Democrat MPs jointly resigned in a move seen as trying to pressure further the government. In response to the intensive protests, Yingluck dissolved the House of Representatives on 9 December 2013 and proposed a general election for 2 February 2014, a date that was later approved by the election commission. The PDRC insisted that the prime minister stand down within 24 hours, regardless of her actions. Yingluck insisted that she would continue her duties until the scheduled election in February 2014, urging the protesters to accept her proposal: "Now that the government has dissolved parliament, I ask that you stop protesting and that all sides work towards elections. I have backed down to the point where I don't know how to back down any further." Yingluck survived a no-confidence vote in the House of Representatives on 28 November 2013. Meanwhile, supporters of the NSPRT claimed the seizure of army headquarters, demanding that the military join the protests. In response, on 29 November Army Commander Prayut Chan-o-cha urged protest groups not to involve the military and called on rival sides to resolve the crisis peacefully. The government abstained from the use of excessive force, relying on batons, water cannons, and tear gas instead. Post-government dissolution On 17 December 2013, PDRC secretary Suthep called for rallies with slogans demanding: Reform before election Immediate resignation of Yingluck and the cabinet Establishment of a non-elected People's Council to start a reform process for 12 to 18 months. On 21 December 2013, the Democrat Party announced that it would boycott the February elections. In response to the EC's registration process for party-list candidates for the scheduled election in February 2014, anti-government protesters marched to the Thai-Japanese sports stadium, the venue of the registration process, on 22 December 2013. Suthep and the PDRC led the protest, with the former declaring, "If the government and the EC still insist on the election, they are challenging the will of the people". The PDRC estimated that 3.5 million people participated in the march on 22 December, while security forces claimed that approximately 270,000 protesters joined the rally. According to international sources, tens of thousands of protesters attended. Yingluck and the Pheu Thai Party reiterated their election plan and anticipated presenting a list of 125 party-list candidates to the EC. On 26 December 2013, protesters at the Thai-Japanese sports stadium clashed with police. Two persons, one of them a police officer, were killed. Protesters armed themselves with sling shots and wore gas masks to fight with police, and around 200 people were injured overall. Due to the escalation in violence, the election commission released a statement in which it urged the government to consider postponing the elections. Deputy Prime Minister Pongthep Thepkanchana responded to the statement on behalf of the government, "February 2, 2014, was set as the election date in the royal decree dissolving Parliament, and there is nothing within the constitution or the law that gives the government the authority to change this date." He explained further that the government remained open to discussions with protesters. On 27 December 2013, Thailand's army chief General Prayut Chan-o-cha released a statement to the media in which he did not rule out the possibility of a military coup, stating: "Whether it is going to happen, time will tell. We don't want to overstep the bounds of our authority. We don't want to use force. We try to use peaceful means, talks and meetings to solve the problem." During the same period, an arrest warrant was issued for Suthep for insurrection, but police did not act on the order for fear of further disruption. Occupation of Bangkok As of 28 December 2013, 58 political parties were registered for the 2 February general election, after the EC concluded a five-day registration process on 27 December 2013. On the evening of 27 December, Suthep announced in a speech at the Democracy Monument in Bangkok that the anti-government protesters planned to shut down the Bangkok on 13 January 2014: Bring your clothes, food and necessities for our victory may take months. Bangkok residents should clear their work before the New Year. We will shut down and occupy Bangkok a few days after the New Year. We won't leave even a single inch to let people in the Thaksin regime to abuse us. Bangkok people who feel uncomfortable will have time to manoeuvre, leaving those with the hearts to fight to join hands in wiping out the Thaksin regime. As part of the speech, Suthep informed the public that the PDRC emptied its bank account before it was frozen at the order of the Department of Special Investigation (DSI), thereby allowing for the compensation of anyone who incurred damage as a result of the protests. Suthep stated that the relatives of the police officer murdered in the clash on 26 December would be given one million baht and that this sum would apply to any other deaths. Owners of damaged vehicles and motorcycles would also receive financial aid. On 2 January 2014, Suthep made a speech at the Rajadamnoen boxing stadium. In this speech he explained the plan for the protest action on 13 January, in which he said that he does not "...want Thailand to become a failed state." According to Suthep, in addition to the closure of major intersections—Pathumwan, Suan Lumpini Park, Asoke, Lardprao and Ratchaprasong—all government offices would be disconnected from electricity and water, and government vehicles would be unable to use emergency lanes (left open for ambulances, people needing medical attention and public buses) on those roads that were occupied. At a press conference held on the same day, pro-government leader Jatuporn Promphan launched a new campaign to defend Bangkok against the protesters, whom he called "the elite's network". Jatuporn explained that pro-government forces will "fight under peaceful principles" and that further announcements would be made. On 4 January 2014, the head of the Center for the Administration of Peace and Order (CAPO), Surapong Tovichakchaikul, announced on live television that anyone who joined the protest movement would be in violation of the Thai Criminal Code. Surapong described Operation Occupy Bangkok as a serious threat to the stability of the nation and revealed that the government will enact a "capital protection" plan, involving the simultaneous use of combined forces, to cope with the shutdown. The involvement of the military was not mentioned in the telecast, but Surapong assured viewers that the government's plan complied with international standards. In a speech at the Democracy Monument on the evening of 4 January, Suthep announced that all of Yingluck's assets would be seized following the defeat of the "Thaksin regime". On 5 January 2014, Suthep led thousands of protesters through western Bangkok in a pre-shutdown march. According to PDRC spokesman Akanat Promphan, two further pre-shutdown marches were scheduled for 7 and 9 January. On the same day, caretaker Prime Minister Yingluck stated on her Facebook page that an election is the best way for the political conflict to be resolved, "If you don't want the government to return to power, you have to fight us in the election." A clash between supporters from both political factions also occurred on 5 January in Thailand's northern city of Chiang Mai. On 6 January 2014, Yingluck's secretary general, Suranand Vejjajiva, informed the media that the government might implement an emergency decree in the event of violence during protest actions. To date, the military had maintained its neutrality and the secretary general explained that the government continued to respect this stance. In a second press conference, Caretaker Information and Communications Technology Minister, Anudith Nakornthap, spoke specifically of the possibility of violence, "The government is concerned for the safety of the people. If the demonstration is peaceful and lawful, it can go ahead. But several earlier rallies saw a number of groups violate the law—including the rights of others—by stirring up violence. The government would therefore like to implore those intent on using violence to think again." Also on 6 January, Yingluck confirmed that an emergency decree was a last resort. She remained at her family home to monitor the political situation while police officers guarded her residence. Yingluck also explained that the Internal Security Act (ISA) will be used by the caretaker government to handle the mass protest. On the same day, Credit Suisse analysts, in a document titled "Thailand Market Strategy", stated: "Our worst-case scenario envisions a multi-year continuation of the events of the past eight years—frequent changes of government, raucous street protests and ever-present tensions—but no serious escalation of violence." In relation to the Thai financial situation, analysts Dan Fineman and Siriporn Sothikul further explained: "For the broader market, a rebound is unlikely until investors are comfortable that the situation will not deteriorate further. We do not believe that we are yet at that point". Also on the same day, a Red Shirt conference was held in Nakhon Ratchasima Province to discuss the political crisis, including campaigns in response to a possible military coup. Over 5,000 coordinators and activists under the leadership of the United Front of Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) heard speeches by UDD chairwoman Thida Thawornseth, who spoke of preparations in the event that the military took power from the Yingluck government. Conference participants also discussed the response of the UDD to Operation Occupy Bangkok. On 9 January 2014, Yingluck expressed concern about the possibility of third-party involvement on 13 January, explaining that the CAPO will be monitoring the situation from the National Police Bureau office. Yingluck further explained, "violence is sometimes the work of a third party which is a concern...The answer to a resolution for the country does not rest with me. It's a matter of how we can cooperate so that Thailand moves forward and protesters are satisfied. I'm ready to co-operate." Students from three universities demonstrated against the anti-government movement. Students of Kasetsart University, Silpakorn University, and Srinakharinwirot University lit "candles for peace" at their Bangkok campuses as part of their political action. At Kasetsart University, 1,000 citizens and students were cited: We, Thai citizens who trust in peace and democracy, would like to use our votes according to the constitution and request the all groups to discuss and compromise to prevent violence. We support all political expressions as soon as they are under the law and do not violate other's rights and freedom. Election by citizens! At 02:30 on 13 January 2014, the Democrat Party headquarters was struck by bullets fired from a Toyota sedan. No injuries resulted. While the party had not yet joined the shutdown protest, it announced that it would join in boycotting the 2 February election. On the evening of 14 January 2014, another attack was made against the Democrat Party. The attackers attempted to bomb the home of Democrat Party leader Abhisit Vejjajiva. The attack failed and an Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) team discovered a US-manufactured M26 hand grenade pin. EOD team members inferred the hurling of a hand grenade onto the roof of the room where Abhisit's father normally stayed. The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration assisted police investigators in their review through the provision of surveillance tapes. Three men and a woman with four grenades, a gun, and ammunition were arrested at a Sukhumvit Road checkpoint on the same evening. The political situation became more complicated, with the National Anti-Corruption Commission investigating allegations that Yingluck was criminally negligent in her handling of a surplus rice deal with China. The commission had already implicated Yingluck's former commerce minister and more than a dozen other officials. Were the commission to deliver a guilty verdict, Yingluck would be impeached and forced to stand down. On 17 January 2014, PDRC security guards reported that two or three explosions were heard at Chaeng Wattana Road, Lumphini Park, Lard Prao intersection, and Suan Pakkad Palace. It was also reported that shots were fired from a black Honda Accord sedan with no injuries. The explosion and gunshots forced activities on the stage of the PDRC to halt temporarily. A hand grenade was also thrown at the Bangkok governor's home but no injury was sustained. On the same day, another grenade attack near the Lotus Charoenphol shopping mall injured thirty-eight protesters and killed one during a procession led by Suthep. PDRC security officers report that the grenade was launched from a partially demolished three-storey building. At 20:00 that evening, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration's Erawan Emergency Medical Services Centre reported that thirty-eight casualties had been received. The following morning the report was updated to reflect that one person died, the ninth person killed since the 2013 crisis. The Metropolitan Police Bureau said that video clips examined by police showed two men acting in a suspicious manner. On 19 January 2014, a security guard based at the rally site of the Network of Students and People for Reform of Thailand (NSPRT) on Ratchadamnoen Nok Avenue was hospitalised by a gunshot from an unknown shooter. Journalist Andrew MacGregor Marshall expressed his belief that, "They [PDRC] know that they cannot win the February elections, so they will do all they can to prevent the polls from taking place", concluding that, "the prognosis for Thailand is depressingly bleak." That afternoon, another bombing attack occurred in which 28 people were injured at the Victory Monument anti-government protest rally site. According to Thaworn Senneam, a former Democrat MP at the rally who believed that he was the target of the bomb, an unidentified man threw an explosive device near a press centre tent behind the rally stage and fled at 13:30. Dr Suphan Srithamma, Director-General of the Health Department, revealed on the day after the incident that four people had been killed and 238 injured in the anti-government protests thus far. On 19 January 2014, the armed forces remained in neutral. The army's Supreme Commander, General Thanasak Patimaprakorn, urged a peaceful outcome with the interests of the Thai nation of the utmost importance and that any further discussions should be undertaken with an independent mediator present. The general explained, "Both the government and the protesters may lose but the nation will gain. If they don't talk, we won't see the way,..." Niran Pitakwatchara, commissioner of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), stated on 19 January that the Yingluck administration needed to exercise caution in its interactions with PDRC leaders, as arrests may inflame the situation. Niran explained that, as the government would be held responsible for the loss of lives and injuries during the protest actions, government representatives and agents needed to be circumspect in all of their dealings with the protesters to reduce tension. The commissioner stated: What must be urgently done is to reduce the stance of wanting to arrest PDRC leaders because if such a strong stance continues, the problem would reach a dead end. What's more, do not think of the protesters as the enemy of the government and speed up clarifications and dialogue in a bid to reduce violence. On 20 January 2014, National Security Council chief Paradorn Pattantabutr informed the Reuters news agency: "We're prepared to use the emergency decree...Everyone involved including the police, the military and the government is considering this option very seriously but has not yet come to an agreement", further explaining, "if their [anti-government protesters] tactics change and they close banks or government offices permanently then the chance for unrest increases and we will have to invoke this law." On Monday, 3 February 2014, PDRC protesters allowed the re-opening of Lat Phrao and Democracy Monument areas to traffic after protesters dismantled their rally stages at the two locations and moved to strengthen their occupation in and around Lumphini Park. State of emergency On 21 January 2014, a 60-day state of emergency was declared, providing the government with the authority to invoke curfews, censor the media, disperse gatherings, use military force to "secure order", detain suspects without charge, ban political gatherings of more than five persons and declare parts of the country inaccessible. According to Foreign Minister Surapong Tovichakchaikul, protesters had triggered the decision by blocking government offices and banks, and obstructing government officials from being able to conduct their business and lead their lives in a secure fashion. On 22 January 2014, Kwanchai Praipana, a leading figure of a pro-government faction, was shot in Udon Thani Province. Police concluded that the attack was politically motivated and used closed-circuit television (CCTV) footage as part of the investigation and reported the involvement of a "bronze pickup truck". Prior to the incident in Udon Thani, three grenade attacks killed one person and resulted in several injuries, but led to no arrests. Following news of the shooting, Suthep remained adamant regarding Operation Occupy Bangkok, stating "We will keep fighting until we win". He threatened to shut down Thailand's air traffic control. On the same day, the New York Times published an article containing interviews with a number of former and current EC members. EC member Somchai Srisutthiyakorn expressed a belief that the elections needed to be held at a suitable date to ensure that the "election benefits society". Somachai said, "I am afraid that if the election goes ahead, there will be violence and it may lead to a coup". The government had started impeachment proceedings against Somchai during the week of 13 January. The commissioner was accused of "dishonestly exercising or omitting to exercise any of his duties". According to the news article the charges were primarily symbolic, as the duration of the trial would be protracted, lasting many months, with the verdict to be announced well after the elections. On 24 January 2014, the Thai Constitutional Court declared that the postponement of 2 February election date was the prerogative of its members. At the time of the decision, the original amnesty bill proposal that triggered the first round of protests in late-2013 was no longer up for consideration. A nationwide Bangkok University poll of 1,018 voters revealed that four out of five Thais would cast a ballot on 2 February and more than two million voters had registered for the advance polls, according to an EC statement released on 24 January. On 26 January 2014, caretaker Labour Minister Chalerm Yoobamrung, (also the CMPO director), publicly announced the impending arrest of Suthep on the charge of leading an insurrection. Chalerm warned that if any loss of life occurred during the arrest, the police should not be blamed. A joint meeting involving the Department of Special Investigation (DSI) and the CMPO held on the same day announced that arrest warrants for 58 protest leaders had been processed. Under the conditions of the emergency decree, those who were arrested could be detained for 30 days before further legal action. DSI Director-General Tarit Pengdith informed the media that negotiations would commence between the CMPO and PDRC leaders to regain government control over occupied state agency offices. On the same day, Suthin Taratin, a Thai protest leader, was speaking on top of a truck as part of a rally at a polling station where advanced voting was to take place. He was struck by gunfire and later died of his injuries. Three others were injured and PDRC spokesman Akanat Promphan, stepson of Suthep, delivered a public announcement in which he stated: "Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, as the head of the government and the person who declared the state of emergency, must take responsibility for today's incidents, or else the public will revolt and call for justice." On 27 January 2014, the caretaker Labour Minister (who was also the Director of the CMPO), Chalerm Yoobamrung, announced that protesters hindering access to government buildings would be arrested if they did not leave their positions within 72 hours. Chalerm stated that he will take full responsibility for the process and clarified that only those protesters at government buildings would be affected. The same day, Yingluck met with the EC to discuss the possibility of postponing the election due to the latter's fear of election day violence. Following a three-hour meeting at the Army Club, caretaker Deputy Prime Minister Pongthep Thepkanchana informed the media that the polling date remained unchanged. Election commissioner Somchai Srisuthiyakorn stated that the EC would organise the 2 February vote to the best of its ability, including the enactment of measures to prevent violence and the staging of a second round of elections to accommodate voters hindered during the inaugural voting stage. Labor Minister Chalerm Yubamrung, recently appointed as the head of the government's crisis response agency, explained that 10,000 police officers would be mobilised to ensure the safety of voters during the election. During the meeting at the Army Club, violence broke out when a PDRC protester was shot in the abdomen. After the shooting, protesters attacked the suspected gunman who turned out to be a police officer. Police claimed that the undercover policeman only fired in self-defence after being attacked by PDRC protesters. On 30 January 2014, further protests were held as part of the anti-election campaign. Protest leader Suthep led protesters through a section of the capital's commercial area, encouraging others to join election day actions to prevent voting. The police announced that a further 190,000 officers would be deployed throughout the nation, with an emphasis on Bangkok and Thailand's ten southern provinces. On the morning of 31 January, Chalerm was managing affairs at the civil court in Bangkok in response to the PDRC's bid for a court ruling to revoke the emergency decree. A petition was submitted to the court by PDRC core leader Thaworn Senneam and a decision was expected in the afternoon. Chalerm stated that the caretaker government's handling of the election situation would remain the same despite the PDRC submission. However, a new CMPO director would need to be appointed if the civil court sided with the PDRC petition. Chalerm stated, "I plead the premier to allow me to continue the job as I’m ready to work." Chalerm threatened to arrest Suthep following the election. In Thaksin's hometown of San Kamphaeng, a reporter for the South China Morning Post spoke with pro-government supporters who stated that they were "willing to sacrifice" their lives in support of the ruling Puea Thai Party. Supporters said that they were prepared for Yingluck to relocate the capital to Chiang Mai, with Supon Fumuljaroen, vice-chairman of the United Front for Democracy against Dictatorship (UDD) in Chiang Mai Province, stating, "The majority of red-shirts really like the idea of a separate state. If they stage a coup, we can live without Bangkok." Pichit Tamoon, Chiang Mai general secretary for the UDD, said: "We have police forces on our side and together with the northeast we have the backing of 37 [out of 77] provinces. Yingluck will win." Tamoon also responded to claims that the UDD was stockpiling weapons: "We have no arms but we have the police force on our side." Suthep explained on the evening of 31 January that a confrontation and violence was not his intention. Suthep declared that polling places would be able to function normally. However, sources also stated that Suthep believed that the election date will be nullified because of various legal problems that would emerge afterwards. February 2014 election Despite an announcement by the PDRC that they would not hinder the election process, advance voting did not take place in 87 constituencies, mostly in Bangkok and the south of Thailand. Disruptions occurred in 10 of Thailand's 76 provinces. Protesters attempted to disrupt advance voting for the scheduled elections, with most gathering in Bangkok. According to EC Secretary-General Puchong Nutrawong, advance voting in the north and northeast had been accomplished with the exception of Surin Province. Of a total of 2.16 million people registered for advance voting nationwide, 916,210 of them in Bangkok, around 440,000 people were prevented from voting. Sunai Phasuk, a Human Rights Watch senior researcher said, It's a sad day for democracy when the right to vote[...]is assaulted by a political movement that claims to be striving for reform and people's empowerment. Everything that happened today shows they are striving for the opposite. In total, 48.7 million Thai citizens were eligible to vote for 500 seats in the lower house of parliament that represented 375 constituencies. In the polling booths, voters chose both one candidate and a single political party, while in the 22 constituencies that consisted of only a single candidate, more than 20 percent of the eligible votes must be received to achieve success. The smooth completion of 2 February election did not resolve Thailand's problematic political situation, as issues of remained: first, due to protester blockades, 28 constituencies across eight provinces—Chumphon, Surat Thani, Songkhla, Phuket, Phatthalung, Trang, Krabi, and Nakhon Si Thammarat—failed to register candidates. Second, the constitution required at least 475 filled seats, or 95 percent of the total number of seats, and disruptions caused by protesters meant that this target could not be reached. The EC, which believed that the final result would fall three seats short, explained that it would be necessary to hold by-elections over several months in problematic constituencies until all 500 members of the parliament's lower house were selected. In the 2011 elections, a 75 percent voter turnout rate was registered. The lawful distribution of ballots has been hindered by anti-government protesters. Although Lieutenant General Amnart confirmed that police would ensure the safety of those responsible for delivering the ballots, as of 1 January ballot papers stuck at post offices in Chumphon, Nakhon Si Thammarat's Thung Song District, and Songkhla's Hat Yai District were unable to reach southern polling stations. On 29 January, the Thai army announced is support of the CMPO operation to protect the election. Deputy army spokesman Winthai Suvari provided details of the deployment of military personnel in areas of particular concern and a joint operation with the CMPO to ensure the safety of state officials and others. The army's other key responsibilities involved providing medical aid in areas close to protest sites, as well as traffic co-ordination duties. Assistant national police chief Amnart Unartngarm stated that its 200,000 police officers, plus 1,450 rapid-deployment units, would guard 93,535 polling stations in 76 provinces plus Bangkok. On 31 January 2014, the EC realised that 44,000 more election officials would be needed on polling day, including 4,000 people to oversee voting booths in the Thai capital. An EC commissioner explained to the media that a total of 93,305 polling stations were being set up nationwide, but staff shortages were worst in the southern provinces, where 90 percent of polling stations were insufficiently staffed. In addition to the staffing problems, ballots for 14 southern provinces remained undelivered at central post offices in the provinces of Chumphon, Nakhon Si Thammarat, and Songkhla. The EC stated that the election should proceed legitimately in more than 66 provinces, with a second opportunity offered on 2 March for those constituencies that were unable to vote. An army spokesman stated that soldiers would protect all polling stations, but explained that force would not be employed to end conflict between voters and anti-government protesters. Also on 31 January, the EC consulted with a legal team to discuss the issue of the 28 constituencies in the southern provinces where candidate registration did not occur in late-December due to protests. The consultation was in anticipation of the possibility that opponents of the election might file lawsuits to invalidate the election based on the constitutional condition that voting must occur nationwide on a single day. EC chairman Supachai Somcharoen stated that the EC and its legal advisers would carefully examine the constitution to handle the matter, but also explained, "There are several factors that could invalidate the poll. But the EC has no authority to decide. It is the Constitution Court that has the authority to rule on the matter if petitions are lodged." On the eve of the election date, violence erupted again in Bangkok after PDRC demonstrators blocked the delivery of ballot boxes from the Lak Si District office in northern Bangkok. A group of armed PDRC supporters started a gunfight and numerous gunshots were exchanged, leaving at least six people injured. As a consequence of the violence, the EC suspended Sunday voting in the Lak Si District. Voting was also cancelled in the provinces of Krabi, Chumphon, Trang, Phangnga, Phatthalung, Phuket, Ranong, Songkhla, and Surat Thani due to a shortage of ballots. Although Suthep repeatedly claimed that his cause is peaceful and "without weapons", photos and videos of the clash clearly showed protesters wearing the green armband of the PDRC guard with assault rifles. Suthep's statement, affirming that the demonstrations would not obstruct voting, was belied, as anti-government protesters blocked delivery of ballot boxes in addition to preventing people from voting. According to the EC, the final turnout for 2 February elections—counted from 68 provinces and excluding the nine provinces where voting was cancelled—was 47.72 percent, or 20,530,359 voters (voting was closed prior to the 15:00 cut-off time in some areas of these provinces). The highest participation rate was in Chiang Mai, where 827,808 voters, or 75.05 percent, participated from a total 1,103,069 eligible voters. Of the total ballots cast in Chiang Mai, 530,427, or 64.08 percent, were valid; 129,983, or 15.7 percent, were invalid; and 167,398, or 20.22 per cent, were no-vote ballots. For Bangkok metropolis, a total of 1,133,296 voters, or 25.94 percent, from a total of 4,369,120 eligible voters, cast their votes: 775,821, or 68.46 percent, were valid; 90,923, or 8.02 percent, were invalid; and 266,552, or 23.52 per cent, were no-vote ballots. The EC announced that as many as 20.1 million out of 43.024 million eligible voters voted in 68 provinces where voting was not disrupted by protests, with 71.38 percent of those ballots valid, 12.05 percent invalid and 16.57 percent "no-vote". The EC vowed to discuss the 28 constituencies where candidates were prevented from registering prior to the polls and stated that it would consult with legal experts before arriving at a decision. Arrest warrants for protest leaders Warrants for arrest were approved by the Thai Criminal Court on 5 February 2014 for protest leaders, who insisted that the decision would not affect their campaign even though the Court found sufficient evidence that the leaders had violated the emergency decree imposed in Bangkok, Nonthaburi, and parts of Pathum Thani and Samut Prakan Provinces. According to the warrants, the police could arrest the 19 persons and detain them at Region 1 Border Patrol Police Headquarters at Khlong 5 in Pathum Thani's Thanyaburi District for no more than seven days. The warrants were valid for one year. The court was to be notified of any arrest within 48 hours. DSI director-general Tarit Pengdith said that the CMPO had sent a team to negotiate with PDRC leaders for the opening of the Interior Ministry. The CMPO would then arrest the PDRC leaders if co-operation was not achieved by 15:00 on 5 February. As of 6 February, the PDRC leaders remained free. On 6 February, Suthep attempted to postpone his indictment on charges of premeditated and attempted murder for ordering, alongside former prime minister Abhisit Vejjajiva, the Centre for the Resolution of the Emergency Situation (CRES) to take action against UDD members in 2010, resulting in more than 90 deaths. The PDRC protest leader had been ordered to report to the prosecution office by 13 February 2014. CMPO head Chalerm informed the media on 6 February that he planned to disguise himself with a moustache, sun glasses, and a hat to arrest Suthep. Chalerm explained that Suthep's hideout was at the Dusit Thani Hotel. On 7 February, Chalerm warned protesters who were at the Interior Ministry that if they did not leave within four days, 1,000 police officers and defence volunteers would redress the situation. The leading protester at the ministry, Khomsan Thongsri, responded with a commitment to allow workers to carry out their business while the demonstrators remained present at the site. Furthermore, as part of a case that was filed by PDRC co-leader Thaworn Senneam regarding the validity of the emergency decree, the Civil Court provided a 10 February 2014 deadline for the submission of statements by Yingluck, Chalerm, and police chief Adul Saengsingkaew. A ruling was expected on 12 February 2014. Additionally, National Security Council (NSC) Secretary Lieutenant General Paradon Patanatabutr informed the media that 12 teams were formed to enforce the arrest warrants for the 19 PDRC core leaders. He expressed confidence regarding the successful finalisation of the arrests. The Thai Criminal Court rejected the DSI's submission to obtain warrants for the arrest of 13 PDRC leaders—Somkiat Pongpaiboon, Somsak Kosaisuk, Jitrapat Kridakorn, Sakonthi Pattiyakul, Sombat Thamrongthanyawong, Seri Wongmontha, Thanom Onketphol, Luang Pu Buddha Issara or Suvit Thongprasert, Sawit Kaewwan, Komsan Thongsiri, Suchart Srisang, Dr Rawi Matchamadol and Nopporn Muangthaen—on 24 February 2014. A PDRC lawyer explained that the court dismissed the DSI's request because the facts surrounding the PDRC protests had changed. Compensatory voting On 7 February 2014, a six-hour EC meeting was convened and EC member Somchai explained afterwards that if elections were to be held in the 28 constituencies in which candidates were not able to register for polls, a written royal decree from the government would be necessary. The meeting unanimously decided to seek such a decree. The EC believed that it could hold new elections in the five provinces of Rayong, Yala, Pattani, Narathiwat and Petchaburi without difficulty. However, Somchai stated: "We are not quite sure if new elections could be successfully held in Prachuap Khiri Khan and Satun which have 222 and 300 polling stations, respectively", but added that the EC would reassess the situation again on 11 February 2014. EC Secretary-General Puchong Nutrawong said the EC had scheduled candidacy registration for 4–8 March, 23 March for the advance election, and 30 March for the Senate election. New election dates were announced by the EC on 12 February 2014 to create voting opportunities for those citizens who were unable to vote during the February elections. Advance voting was to be held on 20 April, while 27 April was the date for constituencies where elections could not take place on 2 February. Somchai, appointed the Election Commissioner, stated that the 27 April date applied to 28 constituencies in the south, and several in Bangkok. The PDRC disapproved of the new election dates. According to the Wall Street Journal on 13 February 2014, the number of protesters dwindled since December 2013, from 150,000 to around 5,000 people. In his briefing with the media, Chalerm proposed that, following the next round of elections, the government should carry out changes within 18 months to allow for a new election process. Chalerm's statements followed a post by Yingluck on her Facebook page that indicated an openness to the involvement of a third-party broker to help resolve the political conflict. Democrat Party's unsuccessful request for election invalidation On 4 February 2014, the Democrat Party forwarded a request to the Constitutional Court for the invalidation of the election, as well as the dissolution of the Puea Thai Party and the disfranchisement of its executives. As part of their request, the Democrats identified the election as an attempt by the government to acquire administrative power by unconstitutional means, in accordance with section 68 of the constitution, the same section the Democrats had successfully invoked to request the invalidation of the constitutional amendment in November 2013. Section 68 prohibits an attempt to undermine the "democratic regime of government with the King as Head of State", or to acquire administrative power by constitutional means, and empowers the Constitutional Court to stop such an attempt, to dissolve any political party guilty of it and to disfranchise the executives of the dissolved party for five years. The Puea Thai Party filed a counter-request in response to the Democrat Party on 5 February, seeking the dissolution and disfranchisement of the latter's executives on the grounds of section 68. The Puea Thai Party spokesperson said that the Democrat Party's request to invalidate the election is an attempt to topple the government outside the rule of democracy. On 12 February 2014, the Constitutional Court dismissed the requests of the two political parties, citing both sets of claims as ill-grounded. In an interview with the Bloomberg media company on 7 February 2014, Abhisit stated that he did not vote, explaining: "We are not saying no to elections, we are saying free and fair elections, and we have to build the circumstances to make sure that happens." The former prime minister further explained that he does not support all of the positions that the PDRC takes, but he does "understand the anger and frustration of people over corruption that is taking place, and the anger at intimidation of political opponents which has been going on for I don't know how many years now." In response to the reporter's question, "But why must the government step down when it was legitimately elected with the votes of 16 million people?", Abhisit replied: They had that mandate, they ran the country for two years and then they betrayed the mandate, betrayed the trust of the people by trying to push through the amnesty bill, which they said they campaigned on during the election, but did not. And that led to mass protests. They dissolved the House and announced a caretaker government. The caretakers cannot pursue policy, so if the people are demanding somebody they can trust to oversee the election after some initial reforms take place, why can't the government make some sacrifices to ensure the country moves forward? Retaking of public space Operation Valentine was enacted on 14 February 2014, a traditional Buddhist holiday in Thailand, as police attempted to reclaim public space from the Students and People Network for Thailand's Reform protest group. Police first assembled at the Royal Plaza before moving onto the Misakawan Intersection to begin the operation. Tents were removed from Rachadamnoen Road on the Makkhawan Bridge, but the protesters had already relocated by the time the police arrived, so no violence occurred. Riot police also cleared a protest site that had been established at a major intersection near Government House and faced no resistance from protesters. Chalerm Yubamrung, chief of the government's special security operations, explained to the media that the operation is an indication of the caretaker government's response to the protest movement. Chalerm explained: "We urge the protesters to go home. If they don't listen, we will have to take further action. We can't let this happen. Our country can't function like this." Police refrained from taking action after a group of demonstrators returned to an intact protest site near Government House. About 1,000 protesters then gathered outside Bangkok police headquarters following the operation. On the evening of 14 February, Suthep said in a speech that he refused to engage in a discussion with Yingluck, regardless of the presence of a neutral third party, citing previous experience that undermined his confidence in the caretaker prime minister's ability to think for herself. "I am not that crazy to talk with a puppet with someone [Thaksin] pulling the strings from behind." On the morning of 18 February, nine police companies succeeded in retaking the Energy Ministry site and arrested more than 140 protesters after the protest group refused to leave the area. As the police continued to reclaim five protest sites, the situation deteriorated into violence at the Phan Fah Bridge protest site on Ratchadamnoen Klang Avenue. Protesters resisted police orders by sitting down on the road and praying. Police advanced with little violence and later commenced knocking down a stage and tents. The situation worsened when a growing numbers of protesters obstructed the officers. Police deployed tear gas and rubber bullets to disperse them. As the police moved forward, they were attacked by bombs and gunshots. Police responded with live ammunition, then retreated. A BBC video clip clearly showed a grenade was thrown at police lines from the group of protesters. As of 19 February 2014, five deaths were registered—one police officer and four civilians—and at least 64 people were injured from the Phan Fah Bridge conflict. A BBC report, published on 18 February, stated that the government announced its intent to reclaim all occupied sites by the end of 23 February 2014. The Southeast Asian Regional Office for the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) denounced the protest violence in an official press statement that was released on 21 February 2014: OHCHR calls on anti and pro-government sides to disassociate themselves from armed groups, and refrain from any form of violence. OHCHR calls on leaders of both sides and security forces to ensure the safety of those genuinely engaging in peaceful demonstrations, and to make sure that all sides strictly comply with the law. OHCHR further calls upon the authorities to carry out a prompt, full and impartial investigation to establish the facts and to ensure accountability for this and other similar violence incidents that have occurred over the past months. Further violence, deaths, and injuries occurred on 22 and 23 February 2014 at two separate PDRC protest sites in Bangkok and the town of Trat, about 300 km (186 mi) southeast of the Thai capital. In Bangkok, a rally on 23 February occurred outside a large shopping mall on Ratchadamri Road and it was reported that the explosion of a 40mm grenade caused the death of three people, two children and a woman. A male tuk-tuk driver was arrested following the incident. Gunfire and grenades were responsible for one death and 34 injuries in Trat on the evening of 22 February. Following the incidents of 22 and 23 February 2014, PDRC protesters in Bangkok attempted to hinder the activity of the Shinawatra family's businesses on 24 February, at the Customs Department in Khlong Toey, the Voice TV station, and various ministries. Closure of rally sites On the evening of 28 February, Suthep announced the closure of the rally sites at Prathum Wan, Ratchaprasong, Silom, and Asoke on 2 March 2014, and apologised to those people inconvenienced by the Bangkok occupation. The PDRC relocated to Lumphini Park, marking the end of the "Bangkok Shutdown", where the PDRC rally stage was established. Chaeng Watthana is the only other remaining rally stage, overseen by a senior monk who said: "I will not dismantle or move it [the stage] anywhere" following Suthep's announcement. According to Suthep, from 3 March onwards, boycotts and disruption of the Shinawatra family's business interests will be the primary focus of the anti-government protest movement. A new leader of the pro-government Red Shirt movement was appointed on 15 March 2014 to replace Tida Tawornseth, at a rally of 10,000 supporters in Ayutthaya, north of Bangkok. Former MP Jatuporn Prompan, who remained involved with legal proceedings that date back to the 2010 political crisis, assumed the leadership position and spoke with the AFP news agency on the following day. The new leader declared that a "big fight" is required in the future, but any Red Shirt action will be "peaceful". Jatuporn referenced the failed anti-government actions in 2006, 2007, and 2008, and stated that the Suthep-led movement "cannot achieve success". On 20 March 2014, the president of the Thai Farmers body informed the media that farmers from numerous provinces will convene at the Ministry of Commerce to implore the government to stand down. President Ravi Roongreung explained that the government's inefficient handling of farming issues was the primary reason for the protest action. Ombudsman's request for election invalidation The ombudsman also sought to have the general election of 2 February 2014 invalidated following advice from Thammasat University journalism law lecturer Kittipong Kamolthammawong. The ombudsman's authority concerns constitutionality of law, rather than election-related matters. In light of the limitation of his authority, the ombudsman then filed a request on 6 March 2014 for the Constitutional Court to decide if the royal decree, whereby the House of Representatives was dissolved, was unconstitutional. On 21 March 2014, the Constitutional Court, by six votes to three, ruled that the royal decree was contrary to the constitution—insofar as it affected the election—when the general election, scheduled for 2 February 2014, could not be completed on that day throughout Thailand. The constitution stipulates that only a royal decree can dissolve the House of Representatives and it must also order a general election to be held on the same day nationwide, within 45 days of the dissolution. According to the court, at the point that the royal decree was deemed unconstitutional, the election also became unconstitutional as a consequence. The Constitutional Court decision received heavy criticism from academic sectors and the Pheu Thai Party. Thammasat University public law lecturer Piyabutr Saengkanokkul commented that nothing in the royal decree was contrary to the constitution, as it did not fail to comply with the requirements of the constitution mentioned by the court. Chulalongkorn University constitutional law lecturer Kanin Boonsuwan questioned the logic of the decision, because the activity that the constitution required of the decree could not be completed due to hindrance from the anti-government protesters. Chulalongkorn University political science lecturer Pornson Liengboonlertchai added that a law is deemed unconstitutional when its contents are contrary to the constitution, not when it is prevented from being implemented according to the constitution. Legal scholar Verapat Pariyawong noted that the court invalidated the election because it was not completed within one day, but the court refrained from considering why it could not be completed. Political analyst Kan Yuenyong said, "independent agencies are being quite obvious that they want to remove her [Yingluck] and her entire cabinet to create a power vacuum, claim that elections can't be held and then nominate a prime minister of their choice". Chiang Mai University law lecturer Somchai Preecha-silapakul said he was grieved by the decision and described it as a "constitutional coup". Former judge and former EC member Sodsri Sattayatham criticised the court for freezing the country and encouraged people to vote in the new election to "bring back democracy". The Pheu Thai Party lamented the decision, stating that the country had lost an opportunity to move on and that the court had established an "infamous standard" by which an entire election can be overturned because of disruptions at some polling stations. Opposition MP Chuwit Kamolvisit issued a similar statement: "[The court has set] a standard that if you want to overturn an election, you just find someones to block a few polling stations....Just do this and you can make the whole election void." On 21 March, a group of students using the slogan "Respect My Future" gathered at the Democracy Monument and covered it with black cloth to mourn for democracy. Another group launched a campaign called "Respect My Vote" in front of Lord Rattanathibet's Mansion, the Constitutional Court's former seat, with a view to demanding the resignation of the Constitutional Court judges on the grounds that they "devalued the people's votes". Ceremonies were held in Benchasiri Park, Bangkok, featuring floating black balloons and black candles, to bid farewell to democracy and deplore the court. Pheu Thai Party members said they would dress in black for six days in mourning for the six judges who resolved to invalidate the election, while medical officers in Chiang Mai Province also donned black clothing. The Democrat Party's Ongart Clampaiboon that Pheu Thai should respect the court ruling, and that the next election should not be too early or it might be invalid again. One of the PDRC's co-speakers, Ekkanut, stated immediately after the ruling that PDRC respected the ruling and that Yingluck's government was "stubborn" about finishing the election process while it was not yet ready. He added that this might be a good chance for everyone to co-operate on reform before election. Suthep declined to make any comment on the ruling. Anti-government protesters applauded the decision and vowed to disrupt new elections until an unelected people's council is achieved. Continued protests and violence Cases of intimidation, violence and criminal activities, committed by PDRC guards and supporters, continued. Police arrested in Surat Thani, Suthep's hometown, a man who confessed to being paid by the PDRC to shoot at pro-government Red Shirt protesters the day before the election at Lak Si, leading to seven people injured and one man paralysed. The "popcorn gunman", who fired a M16 rifle, also admitted that a PDRC guard leader provided him with the weapon. Warrants were issued by the court for the arrest of Issara Somchai, a former Democrat MP from Ubon Ratchathani and PDRC leader, and five PDRC security guards. Issara was accused of ordering his guards to detain, beat, and kill a civilian after they found him with Red Shirt supporters cards. The man was allegedly detained for five days, beaten, tied up and thrown into the Bang Pakong River by anti-government protest guards. A PDRC supporter known as "little Saddam", who was photographed trying to strangle a man who had tried to vote, was also sought. Pro-government demonstrators from the People's Radio for Democracy Group (PRDG), a faction of the UDD, rallied at the National Anti-Corruption Commission office on 24 March 2014. Four members of the PRDG proceeded to assault a Buddhist monk named Phra Prat, who received minor injuries. According to Phra Prat, he saw protesters assaulting another man, so he complained to the protesters. One of the PRDG attackers claimed that Phra Prat was not a real monk and was going to attack her with his cane. She also blamed the monk for scolding them in the first place. On 29 March 2014, a group of anti-government protesters from the People's Democratic Reform Committee (PDRC) were led by Suthep on a march around Bangkok streets, from Lumpini Park to the Royal Plaza and parliament. The march eventually returned to Lumpini Park to affirm its stance that reforms must be carried out before a general election is undertaken. While 53 political parties called for a fresh election to be held within 45–60 days, the Democrat Party echoed Suthep's position: the ruling Pheu Thai Party would use the power it won in a fresh election to pass illegitimate laws. The party did not elaborate on its planned involvement in the next election. At the PDRC rally at Lumpini Park on 5 April 2014, Suthep outlined his strategies in the campaign to remove Yingluck from her role as caretaker. He called on all PDRC local networks to gather lists of their members throughout Thailand and "wait for the day of battle", further explaining that he would lead "a prolonged fight" that will last "for at least 15 days". The outcome of two events were presented as critical to the course of Suthep's future actions: the NACC's ruling on Yingluck and the verdict by the Constitutional Court on whether Yinluck violated the 2007 Constitution. In the event of a guilty finding by the NACC, Suthep asked his supporters to await further instructions. However, if the Constitutional Court ruled against Yinluck, Suthep called for an immediate mass mobilisation so that he could assume the role of "sovereign body" to enact a new charter, akin to the military dictators of the 1960s. Suthep stated as a reassurance: "[I] will be able to order anyone to be executed by firing squad, but I will only freeze assets". If he assumed a ruling position, Suthep stated that he planned to appoint a prime minister and cabinet members at his discretion, followed by a request for approval from Thailand's king, so that he might appoint a National Legislative Assembly and "People's Council"—two unelected legislative bodies—to engage in national "reforms". Suthep expressed a commitment to return power to the Thai people following the implementation of the reforms, but spoke of further street-based protests if his appointed government failed to implement the reforms dictated by the PDRC. On 25 April 2014 a soldier was removing a barrier placed near the anti-government protest site on Chaeng Watthana when protest guards opened fire at him. The attack ended after the guards viewed his military identification card. Request for removal of Yingluck from office Over two years prior, on 30 September 2011, the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM) transferred Thawin Pliansri from the office of Secretary General of the National Security Council (NSC) to the office of Prime Minister Advisor. Police General Wichian Photphosri, then Commissioner General of the Royal Thai Police (RTP), was appointed as the NSC Secretary General instead, and Police General Priewpan Damapong, elder brother of Thaksin's former wife Potjaman Shinawatra, was appointed as the new RTP Commissioner General. Thawin requested an administrative court to revoke the transfer. The Supreme Administrative Court delivered a final judgment on 7 March 2014 that the transfer was legal, but was unreasonable because it did not appear that Thawin had carried out his duties ineffectively or failed to abide by the policy of the government. The court ordered the OPM to transfer Thawin back to his former office within 45 days. The OPM announced the transfer on 28 April 2014, retroactive to 30 September 2011. Appointed Senator Paiboon Nititawan then requested the Constitutional Court to remove Yingluck from office, citing that the transfer of Thawin was the exercise of power to interfere with governmental affairs in favour of Yingluck's family or the Pheu Thai Party. The constitution prohibits a representative, senator or minister from, for his or her own sake or for the sake of his or her political party, interfering with regular government affairs, including the transfer, appointment, promotion, demotion, or removal of governmental officers. On 3 April 2014, the Constitutional Court agreed to address the case and ordered Yingluck to reply within 15 days. Yingluck replied: The transfer was not interference, but the usual exercise of authority which she is legally empowered to exercise. The transfer was not done for the purpose of allowing Priewpan to become the new RTP Commissioner General. The candidates to the office were not selected by her. Even though Priewpan is the elder brother of Potjaman, Potjaman and Thaksin had already divorced. She cannot be removed from office any longer because she had already vacated it when the House of Representatives was dissolved. The constitution prescribes that the council of ministers vacates office upon dissolution of the House of Representatives, but it shall continue to function until a new council is formed. The final hearing was held on 6 May 2014. The court rendered its decision on 7 May 2014, stating that Yingluck could still be removed from office as her office exists until a new council of ministers is formed. The court decided that the transfer of Thawin involved her personal interest, saying: [Since] Police General Priewpan is the maternal [great] uncle of the grandchildren of the Respondent, he could be deemed a relative of the Respondent. It is therefore reasonable to believe that the acts of the Respondent were not for the sake of the Nation and its people, but were done with a concealed or hidden intention to favour the Respondent herself or her partisans. The court then unanimously removed her from office. It also removed nine other ministers voting in favour of the transfer. These ministers were Anudith Nakornthap (Minister of Information and Communication Technology), Chalerm Yubamrung (Minister of Labour), Kittiratt Na-Ranong (Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance), Plodprasop Suraswadi (Deputy Prime Minister), Police General Pracha Promnok (Minister of Justice), Santi Prompat (Minister attached to the OPM), Siriwat Kajornprasart (Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Cooperatives), Surapong Tovichakchaikul (Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs) and General Yuttasak Sasiprapa (Deputy Minister of Defence). The remaining ministers selected Niwatthamrong Boonsongpaisan (Deputy Prime Minister and Minister Commerce) to act as caretaker prime minister in place of Yingluck. Tight security was placed around court precincts during the televised pronouncement of the decision and the judges left the court immediately after the pronouncement. The court appeared to overturn its own precedent. On 5 February 2014, it dismissed a similar petition against Abhisit Vejjajiva, citing that he had already vacated office upon dissolution of the House of Representatives. The New York Times also noted that the court reached the decision with "unusual speed" as it was delivered just one day after Yingluck gave evidence to the court, while The Wall Street Journal reported that the grounds for which Yingluck was removed were "relatively obscure". After hearing the decision, Yingluck held a press conference during which she denied all the accusations. The pro-government Red Shirt faction leaders described the decision as a "judicial coup" and said they will hold a mass rally to protest her removal on 10 May 2014, prompting the Constitutional Court to order its own holiday from 8–13 May 2014. Post Yingluck's removal PDRC leader Suthep launched his "final battle" with media intimidation. On 9 May at 09:09, protesters marched to the buildings of Channels 3, 5, 7, 9 and NBT, where they stayed overnight to make sure the stations did not deviate from PDRC-approved coverage. According to Suthep, these media agencies are "mouthpieces" of the government and must be convinced to refrain from broadcasting any more pro-government "propaganda". They must not report the news on behalf of the tyrants any longer, because it distorts the truth, adding that he intended to ask for co-operation from these stations to broadcast his speech once "victory" is achieved. The Thai Journalists Association, the Thai Broadcast Journalists Association, and human rights groups condemned the PDRC move. The intimidation campaign occurred previously during the Bangkok Shutdown campaign. Meanwhile, those led by Luang Phu Buddha Issara went to CMPO headquarters, where violence erupted between protesters and police. Protesters dismantled barricades and demanded that CMPO send out a representative to talk to them within five minutes. When the five minutes had passed, the protesters broke in, causing police to fire tear gas and water cannons at them. The protesters withdrew. The violence resulted in four protesters injured, included the leader himself. The following day, after negotiations with Col Sombat Thanyawan, deputy commander of the Cavalry Centre who supervised security at Government House, Suthep and the PDRC were granted permission to enter the Santi Maitree building. The Santi Maitree is the building at Government House where the cabinet ministers' offices are located. The building was to be used as an office and meeting place for the PDRC. The UDD staged a rally at Aksa Road on 10 May to show support for the recently removed Yingluck and other cabinet members. "I plead with the president of the Supreme Court, which is one of the three pillars of democracy, to reconsider thoroughly the demands by Mr Suthep and the subsequent proposal made by the not-yet-validly nominated Senate speaker to hold a meeting and appoint a new prime minister," said Jatuporn Prompan, leader of the UDD. The Red Shirt leader warned that any attempt by the Supreme Court and the Senate to discuss "unlawful" demands for an interim government could steer Thailand toward a civil war. The PDRC relocated their main rally site from Lumphini Park to Ratchadamnoen Nok Avenue, not far from Government House on 11 May. A clean up operation took place in Lumphini Park two days later. Coup d'état On 20 May 2014, the Royal Thai Army intervened by declaring martial law nationwide and establishing a military command to resolve the situation. The caretaker government stated that the army never sought its opinion on the martial law declaration. The army insisted that the move was not a coup d'état and the government remained in office. On the evening of 22 May 2014, the army formally staged a coup against the caretaker government and formed a junta called National Peace and Order Maintaining Council (NPOMC) to govern the country. On 21 August 2014 army chief General Prayut Chan-o-cha was appointed prime minister by a legislature he had handpicked. Rice-pledge scheme crisis Concurrent to the 2013–2014 political crisis in Thailand, the rice-pledge scheme has been a significant issue for the caretaker government. Following the dissolution of parliament on 9 December 2013, Yingluck and her Cabinet neglected to approve a renewed budget for the rice pledge. As of 31 January 2014, the caretaker government had not only defaulted on the payments that are owed to the nation's rice farmers as part of the scheme, but caretaker Finance Minister Kittiratt Na Ranong does not have access to the Bt130 billion that is required to resolve the situation. In its reduced "caretaker" capacity, the Finance Ministry is constitutionally barred from borrowing money that would create obligations for the next government. The sum of Bt130 billion has been owed to the nation's rice farmers since October 2013 and, as of 31 January 2014, more than 200 farmers have sought the help of the Lawyers' Council with representation in a class action against the government. While the rice farmers of Thailand are the lowest class in the Thai social hierarchy, they are also traditionally a key component of the Pheu Thai Party's political base. As of 31 January 2014, rice farmers, predominantly from the North and Central regions, have blocked highways to protest against the government and have also stated that they may travel to Bangkok to join the anti-government protest. Many farmers are bankrupt as a result of the outstanding payments and at least three farmers under the scheme have committed suicide. The Thai Ministry of Commerce announced on 4 February 2014 that China cancelled a contract to purchase more than a million tonnes of rice due to a continuing investigation of the Anti-Corruption Commission into a rice purchase policy administered by Yingluck. The protesting farmers announced that they would intensify their protest on 6 February 2014 by blocking all of Thailand's major roads, even though many farmers from the north of the country could not afford to participate. The protesting rice farmers—1.4 million farmers in total have been affected—are seeking compensation from the Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Co-operatives (BAAC), as they believe that the bank can recoup the payment from the government at a later time; however, the BAAC has stated that it relies upon the government for funds. Additionally, a number of farmers from the Central provinces might travel to Bangkok and demand payment in front of the Commerce Ministry on 6 February. Suthep announced to supporters in Silom on 6 February that one potential solution to the rice farmers predicament is to sell the government's 8 million-tonne stock of pledged rice; however, PDRC-organized protesters would need to forcibly enter secured warehouses to retrieve the rice. One of the PDRC core leaders stated that Suthep would embark on a public walk on 7 February to collect donations for the rice farmers. According to Rangsan Srivorasart, Permanent Secretary for Finance, on 7 February, a confidential plan involving Thailand's banks will ensure that the rice farmers will be paid through a Bt130 billion loan. Rangsan stated that several options existed to obtain the necessary funds. In a statement to the media on 11 February, Yingluck stated that the government possessed the financial means to pay all outstanding debts to the nation's rice farmers and was adamant that the payments will be honoured at the stipulated prices. However, a Bangkok Post report, published on 12 February 2014, states that the National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) is expected to bring formal charges against Yingluck following the collation of evidence to substantiate a case regarding the rice scheme. NACC deputy secretary-general Witthaya Akhompitak said on 11 February that the NACC expects to press charges against the caretaker Prime Minister. Witthaya explained that if the NACC panel accumulates enough evidence, Yingluck, who is also chairwoman of the National Rice Policy Committee, would be in violation of Section 157 of the Criminal Code for dereliction of duty and, if charged, will be permitted to present her case to the panel—the panel will then decide if the indictment of Yingluck is justified. The case dates back to mid-January 2014 and, if the case is taken to court, Yingluck would be required to step down from all official roles. Meanwhile, caretaker Commerce Minister Niwatthamrong Bunsongphaisan stated that a cabinet meeting held on 11 February approved a central budget of Bt712 million to pay a total of 3,921 undocumented farmers under the rice scheme and the budget will be forwarded to the EC for endorsement between 11 and 14 February 2014. On the evening of 12 February, Thai Rice Association president Prasit Boonchoey warned that around 50,000 rice farmers to oust the caretaker government due to the outstanding payments. Prasit spoke on one of the PDRC protest stages, confirming that he had spoken with other farmer leaders from the western, lower northern, and upper central regions in regard to escalating the protest action. On the morning of 13 February, another group of farmers were escorted by lawyers from the Lawyers Association of Thailand to file legal charges against the caretaker government for fraudulent conduct. On the evening of 14 February, farmer leader Dhaicharn Mata warned Yingluck that the consequences will be "unpredictable and uncontrollable" if the farmers demands are not met. Rice farmers used a truck to overcome razor wire barricades at one of Yingluck's temporary offices in the Chaeng Wattana area. The caretaker prime minister refused to meet with the farmers, but government officials identified the dissolution of parliament in December 2013 as the cause of the payment delay. Caretaker Finance Minister Kittiratt Na-Ranong informed the media that Bt2 billion had already been paid and a further Bt3.39 billion is owed to the farmers. He said the government will pay the remainder of the debt through the state-owned agricultural bank: "Considering the (bank's) capacity in handling daily payments, it is expected that all payments will be made within six to eight weeks." On 18 February 2014, Yingluck delivered a speech to respond to the desperation of the rice farmers and detailed how the issue will be resolved. Yingluck also explained that the anti-government protest movement has acted as an obstacle to the successful continuation of the scheme, which she claimed had been functional during its first two years of existence prior to the 2013–2014 political crisis. Yinluck affirmed that, regardless of the obstacles, she would "persist in fighting for the farmers"; however, the caretaker prime minister called upon the co-operation of Thailand's banks, whereby loans would be granted to the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives (BAAC) for the payment of rice farmers: With a solid guarantee under the law, there are no reasons for the banks and their unions to fear that their money would be used in the wrong way. The government is responsible for every baht. Moreover, the country's financial institutions are very strong with high liquidity. They can comfortably provide loans to help farmers without taking too much risk. Yingluck further stated that the BAAC will extend the debt repayment time by six months due to the hardships endured by the farmers, in addition to increasing the loan limit for the upcoming crop season. The speech was telecast nationwide by the Television Pool of Thailand. However, also on 18 February, the National Anti-Corruption Commission released a statement charging Yingluck with improperly handling the government's rice subsidy scheme. The Commission states that the scheme involved the government's purchase of farmers' crops for prices up to 50 per cent higher than global prices over a two-year period. The caretaker prime minister received a summons to face the Commission's charges on 27 February 2014, and her impeachment and removal from official duties is one potential outcome. EC member Somchai Srisutthiyakorn announced on 4 March 2014 that the caretaker government received the approval of the EC to pay the rice farmers who joined the rice-pledging scheme with Bt20 billion from the nation's central fund. The money will be dispensed as a loan to the government, which will use the revenue from rice sales to repay the amount by 31 May 2014. Led by monk Phra Buddha Issara, a group of farmers dumped rice at the Government Lottery Office (GLO) on 22 March 2014, leading to the closure of the office for the day. The monk demanded that the GLO use lottery sale funds to purchase 100 tonnes of rice from farmers and stated that the Office needs to pay the farmers at least THB12,000 for each tonne of rice. Impact of political crisis On 23 December 2013, the Thai baht dropped to a three-year low due to the political unrest in the preceding months. According to Bloomberg News, the Thai currency lost 4.6 percent over November and December, while the main stock index also dropped (9.1 percent). A chief Japanese trader on emerging Asian markets told Bloomberg News: "There is no reason to buy the baht or Thai assets while the protests continue." In terms of tourism, Thailand's Association of Domestic Travel reported a decrease of US$125 million worth of tourist revenue around Christmas and New Year compared to the same period in 2012. The Thai-Chinese Tourism Alliance Association has projected that, for Q1 2014, Chinese arrivals are expected to drop 60 per cent from 900,000 compared with the same period in 2013 (in 2013, Chinese nationals were responsible for the highest level of tourism in Thailand). On 6 January, Singapore Airlines stated that it will cancel 19 flights due to the political situation in Bangkok, while travel agencies have experienced a decline in patronage. The Bank of Thailand reported on the second day of the anti-government Operation, 14 January 2014, that 135 different bank branches had been affected. It said 36 branches announced full day closure, including three Bangkok Bank branches, 17 Krungthai branches and five Siam Commercial branches, while 99 others closed ahead of regular business hours, including 72 Thai Military branches and 10 CIMB branches. According to data compiled by Thailand's Financial Ministry, Bloomberg L.P. and the Stock Exchange of Thailand, foreign investors have withdrawn US$3 billion (nearly THB100 billion) from Thai stocks since protests began on 31 October 2013. Analysts are commenting on the benefits being reaped by Thailand's neighbouring countries and the Thai Stock Exchange has traced approximately THB6.3 billion that has moved to Indonesian shares. On 23 January 2014, Tourism and Sports Minister Somsak Phurisisak stated that the total number of visitors to Thailand will drop to one million in January 2014, half of the usual tourist population for the month. A representative from Barclay's, a UK multinational banking and financial services company, reiterated the repetitive history of the protest movement and further explained: "It's not the first time this has happened. What's damaging is perceptions, investment and tourism. It's all reversible at the moment, but as time goes by some of it will become permanent." On 27 January 2014, the Erawan Center, an emergency medical service unit of the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), announced that 10 deaths had occurred during the anti-government protests, while 571 injuries had been documented. An increase in tension has been identified in the lead-up to 2 February elections. According to a 12 February media report, Bangkok businesses were hopeful for a resolution to the political unrest, as the financial impact had become more problematic. CentralWorld, one of Southeast Asia's largest shopping plazas, reported that customer traffic was down 20 per cent from 2013, Japanese department store operator Isetan's Bangkok location had been closing an hour earlier, the Ratchaprasong district's accommodation venues experienced a 60 per cent decline in patronage, and only 5,000 tourists were frequenting popular foreign backpacker destination Khaosan Road on a daily basis, representing a 50 per cent drop. On the same date, the central Bank of Thailand downgraded its GDP growth projection for 2014 from 4 per cent to 3 per cent. An economic data report published on 17 February stated that GDP increased 0.6 per cent in the last three months of 2013, the country's lowest level of growth since the first quarter of 2012. The data also showed that the nation's currency has weakened by 4 per cent since the commencement of the protests. Bank of Thailand spokeswoman Roong Mallikamas stated that the monetary policy as of 17 February is sufficient to accommodate the nation's needs. On 13 April 2014, Thitinan Pongsudhirak, a Thai academic based at Chulalongkorn University's Institute of Security and International Studies in Bangkok, assessed the 2014 political crisis for the East Asia Forum, a joint initiative of the East Asian Bureau of Economic Research (EABER) and the South Asian Bureau of Economic Research (SABER). Thitinan writes that "Yingluck’s days are numbered" and foresees two potential outcomes for Thailand: "If it is a government that includes both sides of the divide, Thailand may be able to navigate a way out. But if it is a partisan anti-Thaksin interim government, more tumult and turmoil can be expected." The academic expresses his support for a democratic process, as he concludes with the statement, "Thais must realise that the starting point for any democracy is the will of the majority and that autocratic rule in Thailand ultimately cannot last." The private Thai think tank Kasikorn Research Center (KResearch) reported in mid-April 2014 that Thailand was at risk of entering into a recessionary period due to the ongoing political turmoil in the nation. The Center presented data that indicated an absence of growth in Thai exports during the first quarter of 2014, similar to the final quarter of 2013, while a minus growth of 1.8 percent continued beyond this period. The think tank predicted about 1.8 percent growth for Thailand's economy over 2014; however, Bangkok Bank executive vice-president Kobsak Pootrakool estimated an annual growth of around 2 to 3 percent, as well as an expansion of 5 to 7 percent in exports as a result of a recovering global economy. The political crisis initially raised fears of a violent response from supporters of Thaksin, who felt disenfranchised after the governments they had elected in the prior five general elections were removed before completing their terms. Legal sanctions In 2016, Vivat Yodprasit, better known as the popcorn gunman, was sentenced to 37 years in prison for a murder that was linked to the crisis. See also 2005–06 Thai political crisis 2006 Thai coup d'état Public opinion of the 2006 Thai coup d'état 2008 Thai political crisis April 2009 Thai political unrest 2010 Thai political protests 2010 Thai military crackdown Cambodian–Thai border stand-off 2014 Thai coup d'état 2014 interim constitution of Thailand 2019 Thai general election List of protests in the 21st century February 2011 Thailand protests November 2012 Thailand anti-government protests Rubbish Collection Organization Notes References Further reading External links Material on Wikisource Media (interview with political scientist Aim Sinpeng, explaining trigger and background of the protest) 2010s in Thai politics Political Protests Thai Protests 2014 in Thailand Thai Thai Political Protests Political Protests Protests in Thailand Thai

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The Yangtze, Yangzi ( or ), or officially Chang Jiang is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea. It is the seventh-largest river by discharge volume in the world. Its drainage basin comprises one-fifth of the land area of China, and is home to nearly one-third of the country's population. The Yangtze has played a major role in the history, culture and economy of China. For thousands of years, the river has been used for water, irrigation, sanitation, transportation, industry, boundary-marking and war. The prosperous Yangtze Delta generates as much as 20% of China's GDP. The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze is the largest hydro-electric power station in the world. In mid-2014, the Chinese government announced it was building a multi-tier transport network, comprising railways, roads and airports, to create a new economic belt alongside the river. The Yangtze flows through a wide array of ecosystems and is habitat to several endemic and threatened species including the Chinese alligator, the narrow-ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze sturgeon, but also was the home of the extinct Yangtze river dolphin (or baiji) and Chinese paddlefish. In recent years, the river has suffered from industrial pollution, plastic pollution, agricultural runoff, siltation, and loss of wetland and lakes, which exacerbates seasonal flooding. Some sections of the river are now protected as nature reserves. A stretch of the upstream Yangtze flowing through deep gorges in western Yunnan is part of the Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Protected Areas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Etymology Chinese () is the modern Chinese name for the Yangtze. However, because the source of the Yangtze was not ascertained until modern times, the Chinese have given different names to the upstream sections of the river up to its confluence with the Min River at Yibin, Sichuan. Jinsha River ("Gold Sands River") refers to the 2,308 km (1,434 mi) of the Yangtze from Yibin upstream to the confluence with the Batang River near Yushu in Qinghai, while the Tongtian River ("River that leads to Heaven") describes the 813 km (505 mi) section from Yushu up to the confluence of the Tuotuo River and the Dangqu River. Chang Jiang literally means the "Long River." In Old Chinese, the Yangtze was simply called Jiang/Kiang , a character of phono-semantic compound origin, combining the water radical with the homophone (now pronounced , but *kˤoŋ in Old Chinese). Krong was probably a word in the Austroasiatic language of local peoples such as the Yue. Similar to *krong in Proto-Vietnamese and krung in Mon, all meaning "river", it is related to modern Vietnamese sông (river) and Khmer krung (city on riverside), whence Thai krung (กรุง capital city), not kôngkea (water) which is from the Sanskrit root gáṅgā. By the Han dynasty, had come to mean any river in Chinese, and this river was distinguished as the "Great River" (). The epithet (simplified version ), means "long", was first formally applied to the river during the Six Dynasties period. Various sections of the Yangtze have local names. From Yibin to Yichang, the river through Sichuan and Chongqing Municipality is also known as the () or "Sichuan River." In Hubei, the river is also called the () or the "Jing River" after Jingzhou, one of the Nine Provinces of ancient China. In Anhui, the river takes on the local name after the shorthand name for Anhui, (皖). And () or the "Yangzi River", from which the English name Yangtze is derived, is the local name for the Lower Yangtze in the region of Yangzhou. The name likely comes from an ancient ferry crossing called or (). Europeans who arrived in the Yangtze River Delta region applied this local name to the whole river. The dividing site between upstream and midstream is considered to be at Yichang and that between midstream and downstream at Hukou (Jiujiang). English The river was called Quian () and Quianshui () by Marco Polo and appeared on the earliest English maps as Kian or Kiam, which derives from Cantonese, all recording dialects which preserved forms of the Middle Chinese pronunciation of as Kæwng. By the mid-19th century, these romanizations had standardized as Kiang; Dajiang, e.g., was rendered as "Ta-Kiang." "Keeang-Koo," "Kyang Kew," "Kian-ku," and related names derived from mistaking the Chinese term for the mouth of the Yangtze (, p Jiāngkǒu) as the name of the river itself. The name Blue River began to be applied in the 18th century, apparently owing to a former name of the Dam Chu or Min and to analogy with the Yellow River, but it was frequently explained in early English references as a 'translation' of Jiang, Jiangkou, or Yangzijiang. Very common in 18th- and 19th-century sources, the name fell out of favor due to growing awareness of its lack of any connection to the river's Chinese names and to the irony of its application to such a muddy waterway. Matteo Ricci's 1615 Latin account included descriptions of the "Ianſu" and "Ianſuchian." The posthumous account's translation of the name as Fils de la Mar ("Son of the Ocean") shows that Ricci, who by the end of his life was fluent in literary Chinese, was introduced to it as the homophonic rather than the 'proper' . Further, although railroads and the Shanghai concessions subsequently turned it into a backwater, Yangzhou was the lower river's principal port for much of the Qing dynasty, directing Liangjiang's important salt monopoly and connecting the Yangtze with the Grand Canal to Beijing. (That connection also made it one of the Yellow River's principal ports between the floods of 1344 and the 1850s, during which time the Yellow River ran well south of Shandong and discharged into the ocean a mere few hundred kilometers from the mouth of the Yangtze.) By 1800, English cartographers such as Aaron Arrowsmith had adopted the French style of the name as Yang-tse or Yang-tse Kiang. The British diplomat Thomas Wade emended this to Yang-tzu Chiang as part of his formerly popular romanization of Chinese, based on the Beijing dialect instead of Nanjing's and first published in 1867. The spellings Yangtze and Yangtze Kiang was a compromise between the two methods adopted at the 1906 Imperial Postal Conference in Shanghai, which established postal romanization. Hanyu Pinyin was adopted by the PRC's First Congress in 1958, but it was not widely employed in English outside mainland China prior to the normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979; since that time, the spelling Yangzi has also been used. Tibetan The source and upper reaches of the Yangtze are located in ethnic Tibetan areas of Qinghai. In Tibetan, the Tuotuo headwaters are the Machu (, literally "Red River" or perhaps "Wound-[like Red] River?")). The Tongtian is the Drichu (, ‘Bri Chu}}, literally "River of the Female Yak"; transliterated into ). Geography The river originates from several tributaries in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau, two of which are commonly referred to as the "source." Traditionally, the Chinese government has recognized the source as the Tuotuo tributary at the base of a glacier lying on the west of Geladandong Mountain in the Tanggula Mountains. This source is found at and while not the furthest source of the Yangtze, it is the highest source at above sea level. The true source of the Yangtze, hydrologically the longest river distance from the sea, is at Jari Hill at the head of the Dam Qu tributary, approximately southeast of Geladandong. This source was only discovered in the late 20th century and lies in wetlands at and above sea level just southeast of Chadan Township in Zadoi County, Yushu Prefecture, Qinghai. As the historical spiritual source of the Yangtze, the Geladandong source is still commonly referred to as the source of the Yangtze since the discovery of the Jari Hill source. These tributaries join and the river then runs eastward through Qinghai (Tsinghai), turning southward down a deep valley at the border of Sichuan (Szechwan) and Tibet to reach Yunnan. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above to less than . The headwaters of the Yangtze are situated at an elevation of about . In its descent to sea level, the river falls to an altitude of at Yibin, Sichuan, the head of navigation for riverboats, and to at Chongqing (Chungking). Between Chongqing and Yichang (I-ch'ang), at an altitude of and a distance of about , it passes through the spectacular Yangtze Gorges, which are noted for their natural beauty but are dangerous to shipping. It enters the basin of Sichuan at Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin, it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. It then cuts through Mount Wushan bordering Chongqing and Hubei to create the famous Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. After entering Hubei province, the Yangtze receives water from a number of lakes. The largest of these lakes is Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At Wuhan, it receives its biggest tributary, the Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as Shaanxi. At the northern tip of Jiangxi province, Lake Poyang, the biggest freshwater lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through Anhui and Jiangsu, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at Shanghai. Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to Hukou County, where Lake Poyang meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai. The origin of the Yangtze River has been dated by some geologists to about 45 million years ago in the Eocene, but this dating has been disputed. Image gallery Characteristics The Yangtze flows into the East China Sea and was navigable by ocean-going vessels up from its mouth even before the Three Gorges Dam was built. The Yangtze is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts and high-tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China, connecting the interior with the coast. The river is one of the world's busiest waterways. Traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation reached 795 million tons in 2005. River cruises several days long, especially through the beautiful and scenic Three Gorges area, are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China. Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of it. The huge river system receives water from both southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the 1998 Yangtze River Floods, but more disastrous were the 1954 Yangtze River Floods, which killed around 30,000 people. History Geologic history Although the mouth of the Yellow River has fluctuated widely north and south of the Shandong peninsula within the historical record, the Yangtze has remained largely static. Based on studies of sedimentation rates, however, it is unlikely that the present discharge site predates the late Miocene ( Ma). Prior to this, its headwaters drained south into the Gulf of Tonkin along or near the course of the present Red River. Early history The Yangtze River is important to the cultural origins of southern China and Japan. Human activity has been verified in the Three Gorges area as far back as 27,000 years ago, and by the 5th millennium BC, the lower Yangtze was a major population center occupied by the Hemudu and Majiabang cultures, both among the earliest cultivators of rice. By the 3rd millennium BC, the successor Liangzhu culture showed evidence of influence from the Longshan peoples of the North China Plain. What is now thought of as Chinese culture developed along the more fertile Yellow River basin; the "Yue" people of the lower Yangtze possessed very different traditions blackening their teeth, cutting their hair short, tattooing their bodies, and living in small settlements among bamboo groves and were considered barbarous by the northerners. The Central Yangtze valley was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures. Later it became the earliest part of the Yangtze valley to be integrated into the North Chinese cultural sphere. (Northern Chinese were active there since the Bronze Age). In the lower Yangtze, two Yue tribes, the Gouwu in southern Jiangsu and the Yuyue in northern Zhejiang, display increasing Zhou (i.e., North Chinese) influence starting in the 9th century BC. Traditional accounts credit these changes to northern refugees (Taibo and Zhongyong in Wu and Wuyi in Yue) who assumed power over the local tribes, though these are generally assumed to be myths invented to legitimate them to other Zhou rulers. As the kingdoms of Wu and Yue, they were famed as fishers, shipwrights, and sword-smiths. Adopting Chinese characters, political institutions, and military technology, they were among the most powerful states during the later Zhou. In the middle Yangtze, the state of Jing seems to have begun in the upper Han River valley a minor Zhou polity, but it adapted to native culture as it expanded south and east into the Yangtze valley. In the process, it changed its name to Chu. Whether native or nativizing, the Yangtze states held their own against the northern Chinese homeland: some lists credit them with three of the Spring and Autumn period's Five Hegemons and one of the Warring States' Four Lords. They fell in against themselves, however. Chu's growing power led its rival Jin to support Wu as a counter. Wu successfully sacked Chu's capital Ying in 506 BC, but Chu subsequently supported Yue in its attacks against Wu's southern flank. In 473 BC, King Goujian of Yue fully annexed Wu and moved his court to its eponymous capital at modern Suzhou. In 333 BC, Chu finally united the lower Yangtze by annexing Yue, whose royal family was said to have fled south and established the Minyue kingdom in Fujian. Qin was able to unite China by first subduing Ba and Shu on the upper Yangtze in modern Sichuan, giving them a strong base to attack Chu's settlements along the river. The state of Qin conquered the central Yangtze region, previous heartland of Chu, in 278 BC, and incorporated the region into its expanding empire. Qin then used its connections along the Yangtze River the Xiang River to expand China into Hunan, Jiangxi and Guangdong, setting up military commanderies along the main lines of communication. At the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, these southern commanderies became the independent Nanyue Empire under Zhao Tuo while Chu and Han vied with each other for control of the north. Since the Han dynasty, the region of the Yangtze River grew ever more important to China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive, eventually exceeding even the Yellow River region. The Qin and Han empires were actively engaged in the agricultural colonization of the Yangtze lowlands, maintaining a system of dikes to protect farmland from seasonal floods. By the Song dynasty, the area along the Yangtze had become among the wealthiest and most developed parts of the country, especially in the lower reaches of the river. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called Jiangnan (that includes the southern part of Jiangsu, the northern part of Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of Anhui) provided – of the nation's revenues. The Yangtze has long been the backbone of China's inland water transportation system, which remained particularly important for almost two thousand years, until the construction of the national railway network during the 20th century. The Grand Canal connects the lower Yangtze with the major cities of the Jiangnan region south of the river (Wuxi, Suzhou, Hangzhou) and with northern China (all the way from Yangzhou to Beijing). The less well known ancient Lingqu Canal, connecting the upper Xiang River with the headwaters of the Guijiang, allowed a direct water connection from the Yangtze Basin to the Pearl River Delta. Historically, the Yangtze became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. This occurred notably during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and the Southern Song. Many battles took place along the river, the most famous being the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the Three Kingdoms period. The Yangtze was the site of naval battles between the Song dynasty and Jurchen Jin during the Jin–Song wars. In the Battle of Caishi of 1161, the ships of the Jin emperor Wanyan Liang clashed with the Song fleet on the Yangtze. Song soldiers fired bombs of lime and sulfur using trebuchets at the Jurchen warships. The battle was a Song victory that halted the invasion by the Jin. The Battle of Tangdao was another Yangtze naval battle in the same year. Politically, Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and during the Southern and Northern Dynasties and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the Ming occupied most parts of China from their capital at Nanjing, though it later moved the capital to Beijing. The ROC capital was located in Nanjing in the periods 1911–12, 1927–37, and 1945–49. Age of steam The first merchant steamer in China, the Jardine, was built to order for the firm of Jardine, Matheson & Co. in 1835. She was a small vessel intended for use as a mail and passenger carrier between Lintin Island, Macao, and Whampoa. However, the Chinese, draconian in their application of the rules relating to foreign vessels, were unhappy about a "fire-ship" steaming up the Canton River. The acting Governor-General of Kwangtung issued an edict warning that she would be fired on if she attempted the trip. On the Jardine's first trial run from Lintin Island the forts on both sides of the Bogue opened fire and she was forced to turn back. The Chinese authorities issued a further warning insisting that the ship leave Chinese waters. The Jardine in any case needed repairs and was sent to Singapore. Subsequently, Lord Palmerston, the Foreign Secretary decided mainly on the "suggestions" of William Jardine to declare war on China. In mid-1840, a large fleet of warships appeared on the China coast, and with the first cannonball fired at a British ship, the Royal Saxon, the British started the first of the Opium Wars. Royal Navy warships destroyed numerous shore batteries and Chinese warships, laying waste to several coastal forts along the way. Eventually, they pushed their way up north close enough to threaten the Imperial Palace in Peking itself. The Chinese imperial government quickly gave in to the demands of the British. British military superiority was clearly evident during the conflict. British warships, constructed using such innovations as steam power combined with sail and the use of iron in shipbuilding, wreaked havoc on Chinese junks; such ships (like the Nemesis) were not only virtually indestructible but also highly mobile and able to support a gun platform with very heavy guns. In addition, the British troops were armed with modern muskets and cannons, unlike the Qing forces. After the British captured Canton, they sailed up the Yangtze and seized the tax barges, a significant blow to the Imperial government as it slashed the revenue of the imperial court in Beijing to just a small fraction of what it had been. In 1842 the Qing authorities sued for peace, which concluded with the Treaty of Nanking signed on a warship in the river, negotiated in August of that year and ratified in 1843. In the treaty, China was forced to pay an indemnity to Britain, open five treaty ports to all foreign nations, and cede Hong Kong to Queen Victoria. In the supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, the Qing Empire also recognized Britain as an equal to China and gave British subjects extraterritorial privileges in treaty ports. The China Navigation Company was an early shipping company founded in 1876 in London, initially to trade up the Yangtze River from their Shanghai base with passengers and cargo. Chinese coastal trade started shortly after, and in 1883 a regular service to Australia was initiated. U.S. and French conflicts The US, at the same time, wanting to protect its interests and expand trade, ventured the six hundred miles up the river to Hankow sometime in the 1860s, while the , a sidewheeler, made her way up the river to Yichang in 1874. The first , a sidewheel gunboat, began charting the Yangtze River in 1871. The first , an armed tug, was on Asiatic Station into 1891, cruising the Chinese and Japanese coasts, visiting the open treaty ports and making occasional voyages up the Yangtze River. From June to September 1891, anti-foreign riots up the Yangtze forced the warship to make an extended voyage as far as Hankou, 600 miles upriver. Stopping at each open treaty port, the gunboat cooperated with naval vessels of other nations and repairing damage. She then operated along the north and central China coast and on the lower Yangtze until June 1892. The cessation of bloodshed with the Taiping Rebellion, Europeans put more steamers on the river. The French engaged the Chinese in war over the rule of Vietnam. The Sino-French Wars of the 1880s emerged with the Battle of Shipu having French cruisers in the lower Yangtze. The China Navigation Company was an early shipping company founded in 1876 in London, initially to trade up the Yangtze River from their Shanghai base with passengers and cargo. Chinese coastal trade started shortly after and in 1883 a regular service to Australia was initiated. Most of the company's ships were seized by Japan in 1941 and services did not resume until 1946. Robert Dollar was a later shipping magnate, who became enormously influential moving Californian and Canadian lumber to the Chinese and Japanese market. Yichang, or Ichang, from the sea, is the head of navigation for river steamers; oceangoing vessels may navigate the river to Hankow, a distance of almost from the sea. For about inland from its mouth, the river is virtually at sea level. The Chinese Government, too, had steamers. It had its own naval fleet, the Nanyang Fleet, which fell prey to the French fleet. The Chinese would rebuild its fleet, only to be ravaged by another war with Japan (1895), Revolution (1911) and ongoing inefficiency and corruption. Chinese companies ran their own steamers, but were second tier to European operations at the time. Navigation on the upper river Steamers came late to the upper river, the section stretching from Yichang to Chongqing. Freshets from Himalayan snowmelt created treacherous seasonal currents. But summer was better navigationally and the three gorges, described as an "150-mile passage which is like the narrow throat of an hourglass," posed hazardous threats of crosscurrents, whirlpools and eddies, creating significant challenges to steamship efforts. Furthermore, Chongqing is 700 – 800 feet above sea level, requiring powerful engines to make the upriver climb. Junk travel accomplished the upriver feat by employing 70–80 trackers, men hitched to hawsers who physically pulled ships upriver through some of the most risky and deadly sections of the three gorges. Achibald John Little took an interest in Upper Yangtze navigation when in 1876, the Chefoo Convention opened Chongqing to consular residence but stipulated that foreign trade might only commence once steamships had succeeded in ascending the river to that point. Little formed the Upper Yangtze Steam Navigation Co., Ltd. and built Kuling but his attempts to take the vessel further upriver than Yichang were thwarted by the Chinese authorities who were concerned about the potential loss of transit duties, competition to their native junk trade and physical damage to their crafts caused by steamship wakes. Kuling was sold to China Merchants Steam Navigation Company for lower river service. In 1890, the Chinese government agreed to open Chongqing to foreign trade as long as it was restricted to native crafts. In 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki provided a provision which opened Chongqing fully to foreign trade. Little took up residence in Chongqing and built Leechuan, to tackle the gorges in 1898. In March Leechuan completed the upriver journey to Chongqing but not without the assistance of trackers. Leechuan was not designed for cargo or passengers and if Little wanted to take his vision one step further, he required an expert pilot. In 1898, Little persuaded Captain Samuel Cornell Plant to come out to China to lend his expertise. Captain Plant had just completed navigation of Persia's Upper Karun River and took up Little's offer to assess the Upper Yangtze on Leechuan at the end of 1898. With Plant's design input, Little had SS Pioneer built with Plant in command. In June 1900, Plant was the first to successfully pilot a merchant steamer on the Upper Yangtze from Yichang to Chongqing. Pioneer was sold to Royal Navy after its first run due to threat from the Boxer Rebellion and renamed HMS Kinsha. Germany's steamship effort that same year on SS Suixing ended in catastrophe. On Suixing's maiden voyage, the vessel hit a rock and sunk, killing its captain and ending realistic hopes of regular commercial steam service on the Upper Yangtze. In 1908, local Sichuan merchants and their government partnered with Captain Plant to form Sichuan Steam Navigation Company becoming the first successful service between Yichang and Chongqing. Captain Plant designed and commanded its two ships, SS Shutung and SS Shuhun. Other Chinese vessels came onto the run and by 1915, foreign ships expressed their interest too. Plant was appointed by Chinese Maritime Customs Service as First Senior River Inspector in 1915. In this role, Plant installed navigational marks and established signaling systems. He also wrote Handbook for the Guidance of Shipmasters on the Ichang-Chungking Section of the Yangtze River, a detailed and illustrated account of the Upper Yangtze's currents, rocks, and other hazards with navigational instruction. Plant trained hundreds of Chinese and foreign pilots and issued licenses and worked with the Chinese government to make the river safer in 1917 by removing some of the most difficult obstacles and threats with explosives. In August 1917, British Asiatic Petroleum became the first foreign merchant steamship on the Upper Yangtze. Commercial firms, Robert Dollar Company, Jardine Matheson, Butterfield and Swire and Standard Oil added their own steamers on the river between 1917 and 1919. Between 1918 and 1919, Sichuan warlord violence and escalating civil war put Sichuan Steam Navigational Company out of business. Shutung was commandeered by warlords and Shuhun was brought down river to Shanghai for safekeeping. In 1921, when Captain Plant died tragically at sea while returning home to England, a Plant Memorial Fund was established to perpetuate Plant's name and contributions to Upper Yangtze navigation. The largest shipping companies in service, Butterfield & Swire, Jardine Matheson, Standard Oil, Mackenzie & Co., Asiatic Petroleum, Robert Dollar, China Merchants S.N. Co. and British-American Tobacco Co., contributed alongside international friends and Chinese pilots. In 1924, a 50-foot granite pyramidal obelisk was erected in Xintan, on the site of Captain Plant's home, in a Chinese community of pilots and junk owners. One face of the monument is inscribed in Chinese and another in English. Though recently relocated to higher ground ahead of the Three Gorges Dam, the monument still stands overlooking the Upper Yangtze River near Yichang, a rare collective tribute to a westerner in China. Until 1881, the India and China coastal and river services were operated by several companies. In that year, however, these were merged into the Indo-China Steam Navigation Company Ltd, a public company under the management of Jardine's. The Jardine company pushed inland up the Yangtsze River on which a specially designed fleet was built to meet all requirements of the river trade. Jardine's established an enviable reputation for the efficient handling of shipping. As a result, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company invited the firm to attend to the Agency of their Shire Line, which operated in the Far East. Standard Oil ran the tankers Mei Ping, Mei An and Mei Hsia, which were collectively destroyed on December 12, 1937, when Japanese warplanes bombed and sank the U.S.S. Panay. One of the Standard Oil captains who survived this attack had served on the Upper River for 14 years. Navy ships With the Treaty Ports, the European powers and Japan were allowed to sail navy ships into China's waters. The British, Americans, and French did this. A full international fleet featured on Chinese waters: Austro-Hungarian, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and German navy ships came to Shanghai and the treaty ports. The Japanese engaged in open warfare with the Chinese over conquest of the Chinese Qing Empire in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895, and with Russia over Qing Empire territory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Incidentally, both the French and Japanese navies were heavily involved in running opium and narcotics to Shanghai, where it was refined into morphine. It was then transhipped by liner back to Marseille and France (i.e. French Connection) for processing in Germany and eventual sale in the U.S. or Europe. In 1909 the gunboat changed station to Shanghai, where she regularly patrolled the lower Yangtze River up to Nanking and Wuhu. Following an anti-foreign riots in Changsha in April 1910, which destroyed a number of missions and merchant warehouses, Samar sailed up the Yangtze River to Hankow and then Changsa to show the flag and help restore order. The gunboat was also administratively assigned to the Asiatic Fleet that year, which had been reestablished by the Navy to better protect, in the words of the Bureau of Navigation, "American interests in the Orient." After returning to Shanghai in August, she sailed up river again the following summer, passing Wuhu in June but then running aground off Kichau on July 1, 1911. After staying stuck in the mud for two weeks, Samar broke free and sailed back down river to coal ship. Returning upriver, the gunboat reached Hankow in August and Ichang in September where she wintered over owing to both the dry season and the outbreak of rebellion at Wuchang in October 1911. Tensions eased and the gunboat turned downriver in July 1912, arriving at Shanghai in October. Samar patrolled the lower Yangtze after fighting broke out in the summer 1913, a precursor to a decade of conflict between provincial warlords in China. In 1919, she was placed on the disposal list at Shanghai following a collision with a Yangtze River steamer that damaged her bow. The Spanish boats were replaced in the 1920s by and were the largest, and next in size, and and the smallest. China in the first fifty years of the 20th century, was in low-grade chaos. Warlords, revolutions, natural disasters, civil war and invasions contributed. Yangtze boats were involved in the Nanking incident of 1927 when the Communists and Nationalists broke into open war. The Chiang Kai-shek's massacre of the Communists in Shanghai in 1927 furthered the unrest, U.S. Marines with tanks were landed. River steamers were popular targets for both Nationalists and Communists, and peasants who would take periodic pot-shots at vessels. During the course of service the second protected American interests in China down the entire length of the Yangtze, at times convoying U.S. and foreign vessels on the river, evacuating American citizens during periods of disturbance and in general giving credible presence to U.S. consulates and residences in various Chinese cities. In the period of great unrest in central China in the 1920s, Palos was especially busy patrolling the upper Yangtze against bands of warlord soldiers and outlaws. The warship engaged in continuous patrol operations between Ichang and Chungking throughout 1923, supplying armed guards to merchant ships, and protecting Americans at Chungking while that city was under siege by a warlord army. The Royal Navy had a series of Insect-class gunboats which patrolled between Chungking and Shanghai. Cruisers and destroyers and Fly-class gunboats also patrolled. The most infamous incident was when Panay and in 1937, were divebombed by Japanese airplanes during the notorious Nanking massacre. Westerners were forced to leave areas neighboring the Yangtze River with the Japanese takeover in 1941. The former steamers were either sabotaged or pressed into Japanese or Chinese service. Probably the most curious incident involved in 1949 during the Chinese Civil War between Kuomintang and People's Liberation Army forces; and led to the award of the Dickin Medal to the ship's cat Simon. Contemporary events In August 2019, Welsh adventurer Ash Dykes became the first person to complete the 4,000-mile (6,437 km) trek along the course of the river, walking for 352 days from its source to its mouth. Hydrology Periodic floods Tens of millions of people live in the floodplain of the Yangtze valley, an area that naturally floods every summer and is habitable only because it is protected by river dikes. The floods large enough to overflow the dikes have caused great distress to those who live and farm there. Floods of note include those of 1931, 1954, and 1998. The 1931 Central China floods or the Central China floods of 1931 were a series of floods that occurred in the Republic of China. The floods are generally considered among the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded, and almost certainly the deadliest of the 20th century (when pandemics and famines are discounted). Estimates of the total death toll range from 145,000 to between 3.7 million and 4 million. The Yangtze again flooded in 1935, causing great loss of life. From June to September 1954, the Yangtze River Floods were a series of catastrophic floodings that occurred mostly in Hubei Province. Due to unusually high volume of precipitation as well as an extraordinarily long rainy season in the middle stretch of the Yangtze River late in the spring of 1954, the river started to rise above its usual level in around late June. Despite efforts to open three important flood gates to alleviate the rising water by diverting it, the flood level continued to rise until it hit the historic high of 44.67 m in Jingzhou, Hubei and 29.73 m in Wuhan. The number of dead from this flood was estimated at around 33,000, including those who died of plague in the aftermath of the disaster. The 1998 Yangtze River floods were a series of major floods that lasted from middle of June to the beginning of September 1998 along the Yangtze. In the summer of 1998, China experienced massive flooding of parts of the Yangtze River, resulting in 3,704 dead, 15 million homeless and $26 billion in economic loss. Other sources report a total loss of 4150 people, and 180 million people were affected. A staggering were evacuated, 13.3 million houses were damaged or destroyed. The floods caused $26 billion in damages. The 2016 China floods caused US$22 billion in damages. In 2020, The Yangtze river saw the heaviest rainfall since 1961, with a 79% increase in June and July compared to the average for the period over the previous 41 years. A new theory suggested that abrupt reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols, caused by shutdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic, was a key cause of the intense downpours. Over the past decades rainfall had decreased due to increase of aerosols in the atmosphere, and lower greenhouse gas emissions in 2020 caused the opposite effect - a major increase in rain. Such a dramatic reduction of aerosols caused a dramatic change in the various components of the climate system, but such sudden change of the climate system would be very different from changes in response to continuous but gradual policy-driven emissions reductions. Degradation of the river Beginning in the 1950s, dams and dikes were built for flood control, land reclamation, irrigation, and control of diseases vectors such as blood flukes that caused Schistosomiasis. More than a hundred lakes were thusly cut off from the main river. There were gates between the lakes that could be opened during floods. However, farmers and settlements encroached on the land next to the lakes although it was forbidden to settle there. When floods came, it proved impossible to open the gates since it would have caused substantial destruction. Thus the lakes partially or completely dried up. For example, Baidang Lake shrunk from in the 1950s to in 2005. Zhangdu Lake dwindled to one quarter of its original size. Natural fisheries output in the two lakes declined sharply. Only a few large lakes, such as Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake, remained connected to the Yangtze. Cutting off the other lakes that had served as natural buffers for floods increased the damage done by floods further downstream. Furthermore, the natural flow of migratory fish was obstructed and biodiversity across the whole basin decreased dramatically. Intensive farming of fish in ponds spread using one type of carp who thrived in eutrophic water conditions and who feeds on algae, causing widespread pollution. The pollution was exacerbated by the discharge of waste from pig farms as well as of untreated industrial and municipal sewage. In September 2012, the Yangtze river near Chongqing turned red from pollution. The erection of the Three Gorges Dam has created an impassable "iron barrier" that has led to a great reduction in the biodiversity of the river. Yangtze sturgeon use seasonal changes in the flow of the river to signal when is it time to migrate. However, these seasonal changes will be greatly reduced by dams and diversions. Other animals facing immediate threat of extinction are the baiji dolphin, narrow-ridged finless porpoise and the Yangtze alligator. These animals numbers went into freefall from the combined effects of accidental catches during fishing, river traffic, habitat loss and pollution. In 2006 the baiji dolphin became extinct; the world lost an entire genus. In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the river. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects along the river, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. Contribution to ocean pollution The Yangtze River produces more ocean plastic pollution than any other, according to The Ocean Cleanup, a Dutch environmental research foundation that focuses on ocean pollution. Together with 9 other rivers, the Yangtze transports 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans. Reconnecting lakes In 2002 a pilot program was initiated to reconnect lakes to the Yangtze with the objective to increase biodiversity and to alleviate flooding. The first lakes to be reconnected in 2004 were Zhangdu Lake, Honghu Lake, and Tian'e-Zhou in Hubei on the middle Yangtze. In 2005 Baidang Lake in Anhui was also reconnected. Reconnecting the lakes improved water quality and fish were able to migrate from the river into the lake, replenishing their numbers and genetic stock. The trial also showed that reconnecting the lake reduced flooding. The new approach also benefitted the farmers economically. Pond farmers switched to natural fish feed, which helped them breed better-quality fish that can be sold for more, increasing their income by 30%. Based on the successful pilot project, other provincial governments emulated the experience and also reestablished connections to lakes that had previously been cut off from the river. In 2005 a Yangtze Forum has been established bringing together 13 riparian provincial governments to manage the river from source to sea. In 2006 China's Ministry of Agriculture made it a national policy to reconnect the Yangtze River with its lakes. As of 2010, provincial governments in five provinces and Shanghai set up a network of 40 effective protected areas, covering . As a result, populations of 47 threatened species increased, including the critically endangered Yangtze alligator. In the Shanghai area, reestablished wetlands now protect drinking water sources for the city. It is envisaged to extend the network throughout the entire Yangtze to eventually cover 102 areas and . The mayor of Wuhan announced that six huge, stagnating urban lakes including the East Lake (Wuhan) would be reconnected at the cost of US$2.3 billion creating China's largest urban wetland landscape. Major cities along the river Yushu Panzhihua Yibin Luzhou Hejiang Chongqing Fuling Fengdu Wanzhou Yichang Yidu Jingzhou Shashi Shishou Yueyang Xianning Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Chaohu Chizhou Jiujiang Anqing Tongling Wuhu Chuzhou Ma'anshan Taizhou Yangzhou Zhenjiang Nanjing Changzhou Nantong Shanghai Crossings Until 1957, there were no bridges across the Yangtze River from Yibin to Shanghai. For millennia, travelers crossed the river by ferry. On occasions, the crossing may have been dangerous, as evidenced by the Zhong'anlun disaster (October 15, 1945). The river stood as a major geographic barrier dividing northern and southern China. In the first half of the 20th century, rail passengers from Beijing to Guangzhou and Shanghai had to disembark, respectively, at Hanyang and Pukou, and cross the river by steam ferry before resuming journeys by train from Wuchang or Nanjing West. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Soviet engineers assisted in the design and construction of the Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge, a dual-use road-rail bridge, built from 1955 to 1957. It was the first bridge across the Yangtze River. The second bridge across the river that was built was a single-track railway bridge built upstream in Chongqing in 1959. The Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge, also a road-rail bridge, was the first bridge to cross the lower reaches of the Yangtze, in Nanjing. It was built after the Sino-Soviet Split and did not receive foreign assistance. Road-rail bridges were then built in Zhicheng (1971) and Chongqing (1980). Bridge-building slowed in the 1980s before resuming in the 1990s and accelerating in the first decade of the 21st century. The Jiujiang Yangtze River Bridge was built in 1992 as part of the Beijing-Jiujiang Railway. A second bridge in Wuhan was completed in 1995. By 2005, there were a total of 56 bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze River between Yibin and Shanghai. These include some of the longest suspension and cable-stayed bridges in the world on the Yangtze Delta: Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (1,385 m, opened in 1999), Runyang Bridge (1,490 m, opened 2005), Sutong Bridge (1,088 m, opened 2008). The rapid pace of bridge construction has continued. The city of Wuhan now has six bridges and one tunnel across the Yangtze. A number of power line crossings have also been built across the river. Dams As of 2007, there are two dams built on the Yangtze river: Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam. The Three Gorges Dam is the largest power station in the world by installed capacity, at 22.5 GW. Several dams are operating or are being constructed on the upper portion of the river, the Jinsha River. Among them, the Xiluodu Dam is the third largest power station in the world, and the Baihetan Dam, planned to be commissioned in 2021, will be the second largest after the Three Gorges Dam. Tributaries The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries. The major tributaries (listed from upstream to downstream) with the locations of where they join the Yangtze are: Yalong River (Panzhihua, Sichuan) Min River (Yibin, Sichuan) Tuo River (Luzhou, Sichuan) Chishui River (Hejiang, Sichuan) Jialing River (Chongqing) Wu River (Fuling, Chongqing) Qing River (Yidu, Hubei) Yuan River (via Dongting Lake) Lishui River (via Dongting Lake) Zi River (via Dongting Lake) Xiang River (Yueyang, Hunan) Han River (Wuhan, Hubei) Gan River (near Jiujiang, Jiangxi) Shuiyang River (Dangtu, Anhui) Qingyi River (Wuhu, Anhui) Chao Lake water system (Chaohu, Anhui) Lake Tai water system (Shanghai) The Huai River flowed into the Yellow Sea until the 20th century, but now primarily discharges into the Yangtze. Protected areas Sanjiangyuan ("Three Rivers' Sources") National Nature Reserve in Qinghai Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Wildlife The Yangtze River has a high species richness, including many endemics. A high percentage of these are seriously threatened by human activities. Fish , 416 fish species are known from the Yangtze basin, including 362 that strictly are freshwater species. The remaining are also known from salt or brackish waters, such as the river's estuary or the East China Sea. This makes it one of the most species-rich rivers in Asia and by far the most species-rich in China (in comparison, the Pearl River has almost 300 fish species and the Yellow River 160). 178 fish species are endemic to the Yangtze River Basin. Many are only found in some section of the river basin and especially the upper reach (above Yichang, but below the headwaters in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau) is rich with 279 species, including 147 Yangtze endemics and 97 strict endemics (found only in this part of the basin). In contrast, the headwaters, where the average altitude is above , are only home to 14 highly specialized species, but 8 of these are endemic to the river. The largest orders in the Yangtze are Cypriniformes (280 species, including 150 endemics), Siluriformes (40 species, including 20 endemics), Perciformes (50 species, including 4 endemics), Tetraodontiformes (12 species, including 1 endemic) and Osmeriformes (8 species, including 1 endemic). No other order has more than four species in the river and one endemic. Many Yangtze fish species have declined drastically and 65 were recognized as threatened in the 2009 Chinese red list. Among these are three that are considered entirely extinct (Chinese paddlefish, Anabarilius liui liui and Atrilinea macrolepis), two that are extinct in the wild (Anabarilius polylepis, Schizothorax parvus), four that are critically endangered Euchiloglanis kishinouyei, Megalobrama elongata, Schizothorax longibarbus and Leiocassis longibarbus). Additionally, both the Yangtze sturgeon and Chinese sturgeon are considered critically endangered by the IUCN. The survival of these two sturgeon may rely on the continued release of captive bred specimens. Although still listed as critically endangered rather than extinct by both the Chinese red list and IUCN, recent reviews have found that the Chinese paddlefish is extinct. Surveys conducted between 2006 and 2008 by ichthyologists failed to catch any, but two probable specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. The last definite record was an individual that was accidentally captured near Yibin in 2003 and released after having been radio tagged. The Chinese sturgeon is the largest fish in the river and among the largest freshwater fish in the world, reaching a length of ; the extinct Chinese paddlefish reputedly reached as much as , but its maximum size is labeled with considerable uncertainty. The largest threats to the Yangtze native fish are overfishing and habitat loss (such as building of dams and land reclamation), but pollution, destructive fishing practices (such as fishing with dynamite or poison) and introduced species also cause problems. About of the total freshwater fisheries in China are in the Yangtze Basin, but a drastic decline in size of several important species has been recorded, as highlighted by data from lakes in the river basin. In 2015, some experts recommend a 10-year fishing moratorium to allow the remaining populations to recover, and in January 2020 China imposed a 10-year fishing moratorium on 332 sites along the Yangtze. Dams present another serious problem, as several species in the river perform breeding migrations and most of these are non-jumpers, meaning that normal fish ladders designed for salmon are ineffective. For example, the Gezhouba Dam blocked the migration of the paddlerfish and two sturgeon, while also effectively splitting the Chinese high fin banded shark population into two and causing the extirpation of the Yangtze population of the Japanese eel. In an attempt of minimizing the effect of the dams, the Three Gorges Dam has released water to mimic the (pre-dam) natural flooding and trigger the breeding of carp species downstream. In addition to dams already built in the Yangtze basin, several large dams are planned and these may present further problems for the native fauna. While many fish species native to the Yangtze are seriously threatened, others have become important in fish farming and introduced widely outside their native range. A total of 26 native fish species of the Yangtze basin are farmed. Among the most important are four Asian carp: grass carp, black carp, silver carp and bighead carp. Other species that support important fisheries include northern snakehead, Chinese perch, Takifugu pufferfish (mainly in the lowermost sections) and predatory carp. Other animals Due to commercial use of the river, tourism, and pollution, the Yangtze is home to several seriously threatened species of large animals (in addition to fish): the narrow-ridged finless porpoise, baiji (Yangtze river dolphin), Chinese alligator, Yangtze giant softshell turtle and Chinese giant salamander. This is the only other place besides the United States that is native to an alligator and paddlefish species. In 2010, the Yangtze population of finless porpoise was 1000 individuals. In December 2006, the Yangtze river dolphin was declared functionally extinct after an extensive search of the river revealed no signs of the dolphin's inhabitance. In 2007, a large, white animal was sighted and photographed in the lower Yangtze and was tentatively presumed to be a baiji. However, as there have been no confirmed sightings since 2004, the baiji is presumed to be functionally extinct at this time. "Baijis were the last surviving species of a large lineage dating back seventy million years and one of only six species of freshwater dolphins." It has been argued that the extinction of the Yangtze river dolphin was a result of the completion of the Three Gorges Dam, a project that has affected many species of animals and plant life found only in the gorges area. Numerous species of land mammals are found in the Yangtze valley, but most of these are not directly associated with the river. Three exceptions are the semi-aquatic Eurasian otter, water deer and Père David's deer. In addition to the very large and exceptionally rare Yangtze giant softshell turtle, several smaller turtle species are found in the Yangtze basin, its delta and valleys. These include the Chinese box turtle, yellow-headed box turtle, Pan's box turtle, Yunnan box turtle, yellow pond turtle, Chinese pond turtle, Chinese stripe-necked turtle and Chinese softshell turtle, which all are considered threatened. More than 160 amphibian species are known from the Yangtze basin, including the world's largest, the critically endangered Chinese giant salamander. It has declined drastically due to hunting (it is considered a delicacy), habitat loss and pollution. The polluted Dian Lake, which is part of the upper Yangtze watershed (via Pudu River), is home to several highly threatened fish, but was also home to the Yunnan lake newt. This newt has not been seen since 1979 and is considered extinct. In contrast, the Chinese fire belly newt from the lower Yangtze basin is one of the few Chinese salamander species to remain common and it is considered least concern by the IUCN. The Yangtze basin contains a large number of freshwater crab species, including several endemics. A particularly rich genus in the river basin is the potamid Sinopotamon. The Chinese mitten crab is catadromous (migrates between fresh and saltwater) and it has been recorded up to up the Yangtze, which is the largest river in its native range. It is a commercially important species in its native range where it is farmed, but the Chinese mitten crab has also been spread to Europe and North America where considered invasive. The freshwater jellyfish Craspedacusta sowerbii, now an invasive species in large parts of the world, originates from the Yangtze. See also Category: Tributaries of the Yangtze River List of rivers in China Northern and Southern China, traditionally divided by the Huai River but sometimes considered to separate at the Yangtze Rediscovering the Yangtze River Ship lifts in China South-North Water Transfer Project Steamboats on the Yangtze River Yangtze River Crossing Yangtze Service Medal References Further reading Carles, William Richard, "The Yangtse Chiang", The Geographical Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3 (Sep. 1898), pp. 225–240; Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers) Danielson, Eric N. 2004. Nanjing and the Lower Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. II. Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. . Danielson, Eric N. 2005. The Three Gorges and The Upper Yangzi, From Past to Present, The New Yangzi River Trilogy, Vol. III. Singapore: Times Editions/Marshall Cavendish. . Grover, David H. 1992 American Merchant Ships on the Yangtze, 1920–1941. Wesport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers. Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. Yangtze: nature, history, and the river. A Portable Stanford Book. Winchester, Simon. 1996. The River at the Center of the World: A Journey Up the Yangtze and Back in Chinese Time, Holt, Henry & Company, 1996, hardcover, ; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ; trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, Plant, Cornell. Glimpses of the Yangze Gorges; illustrations by Ivon A. Donnelly. Kelly & Walsh, Limited, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Singapore, 1926. External links Video of walking along the Yangtze River in Yichang City, Hubei Province Rivers of China Geography of Central China Geography of East China Geography of Western China Rivers of Anhui Rivers of Chongqing Rivers of Hubei Rivers of Jiangsu Rivers of Qinghai Rivers of Shanghai Rivers of Sichuan Rivers of Tibet Rivers of Yunnan Drainage basins of the Pacific Ocean Articles containing video clips

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Activision Blizzard, Inc. is an American video game holding company based in Santa Monica, California. It was founded in July 2008 through the merger of Activision, Inc. (the publicly traded parent company of Activision Publishing) and Vivendi Games. It is traded on the NASDAQ stock exchange under the ticker symbol ATVI, and since 2015 has been a member of the S&P 500 Index. Activision Blizzard currently includes five business units: Activision Publishing, Blizzard Entertainment, King, Major League Gaming, and Activision Blizzard Studios. The company owns and operates additional subsidiary studios, as part of Activision Publishing, including Treyarch, Infinity Ward, High Moon Studios, and Toys for Bob. Among major intellectual properties produced by Activision Blizzard are Call of Duty, Crash Bandicoot, Guitar Hero, Tony Hawk's, Spyro, Skylanders, World of Warcraft, StarCraft, Diablo, Hearthstone, Heroes of the Storm, Overwatch, and Candy Crush Saga. Under Blizzard Entertainment, it invested in esports initiatives around several of its games, most notably Overwatch and Call of Duty. Activision Blizzard's titles have broken a number of release records. , it was the largest game company in the Americas and Europe in terms of revenue and market capitalization. The company has also been involved in multiple notable controversies, including allegations of infringed patents and unpaid royalties. In late July 2021, it was sued by the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing on allegations of sexual harassment and employee discrimination. The suit triggered an investigation by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, multiple workplace walkouts, the resignation or dismissal of several employees, the loss of multiple company event sponsors, and hundreds of workplace harassment allegations. Microsoft announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion on January 18, 2022. If approved, Activision Blizzard would become a division of Microsoft Gaming, making Microsoft the third largest gaming company (behind Tencent and Sony). History Background and formation (2007–2008) The original Activision company was founded in 1979, as a third-party developer for games on the Atari Video Computer System. In 1988 the company expanded into non-gaming software and renamed itself Mediagenic. This venture was not successful, incurring heavy losses. In 1991 a group of investors led by Bobby Kotick bought the company. Kotick instituted a large restructuring to reduce debt, including renaming the company back to Activision and moving it to Santa Monica, California. By 1997 the company was profitable again. Kotick spent the next decade expanding Activision's products through acquisitions of around 25 studios. This resulted in Activision publishing several successful series of games, including Tony Hawk's, Call of Duty, and Guitar Hero. However, by around 2006, the popularity of massively multiplayer online (MMO) games started to grow. Such games provide a constant revenue stream to their publishers, rather than only a single purchase, making them a more valuable proposition. None of Activision's subsidiaries had an MMO or the capability to make one quickly. Activision was also facing tougher competition from companies like Electronic Arts, as well as slowdowns in sales of their key game series. Around 2006, Kotick reached out to Jean-Bernard Lévy, the CEO of the French media conglomerate Vivendi. Vivendi at that time had a small games division, Vivendi Games, a holding company principally for Sierra Entertainment and Blizzard Entertainment. Kotick wanted to get access to Blizzard's World of Warcraft, a successful MMO, and suggested a means to acquire this to Lévy. Lévy instead offered that he would be willing to merge Vivendi Games with Activision, but only if Vivendi kept majority control of the merged company. According to those close to Kotick, Kotick was concerned about this offer as it would force him to cede control of Activision. However, after talking to Blizzard's CEO Mike Morhaime, Kotick recognized that Vivendi would be able to give them inroads into the growing video game market in China. Kotick proposed the merger to Activision's board, which agreed to it in December 2007. The new company was to be named Activision Blizzard and would retain its central headquarters in California. Bobby Kotick of Activision was announced as the new president and CEO, while René Penisson of Vivendi was appointed chairman. The European Commission permitted the merger to take place in April 2008, approving that there weren't any EU antitrust issues in the merger deal. On July 8, 2008, Activision announced that stockholders had agreed to merge, and the deal closed the next day for an estimated transaction amount of US$18.9 billion. Vivendi was the majority shareholder, with a 52% stake in the company. The rest of the shares were held by institutional and private investors, and were to be left open for trading on the NASDAQ stock market for a time under , and subsequently as (Activision's stock ticker). At this point, Lévy replaced René Penisson as chairman of Activision Blizzard. While Blizzard retained its autonomy and corporate leadership in the merger, other Vivendi Games divisions such as Sierra ceased operation. With the merger, Kotick was quoted stating if a Sierra product did not meet Activision's requirements, they "won't likely be retained." Some of these games ultimately were published by other studios, including Ghostbusters: The Video Game, Brütal Legend, The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena, and 50 Cent: Blood on the Sand. However, a number of Sierra's games such as Crash Bandicoot, Spyro the Dragon, and Prototype were retained and are now published by Activision. New titles and sales records (2009–2012) In early 2010, the independent studio Bungie entered into a 10-year publishing agreement with Activision Blizzard. By the end of 2010, Activision Blizzard was the largest video games publisher in the world. The 2011 release of Activision Blizzard's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 grossed $400 million in the US and UK alone in its first 24 hours, making it the biggest entertainment launch of all time. It was also the third consecutive year the Call of Duty series broke the biggest launch record; 2010's Call of Duty: Black Ops grossed $360 million on day one; and 2009's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 brought in $310 million. Call of Duty: Black Ops III grossed $550 million in worldwide sales during its opening weekend in 2015, making it the biggest entertainment launch of the year. In 2011, Activision Blizzard debuted its Skylanders franchise, which led to the press crediting the company with inventing and popularizing a new toys-to-life category. The first release Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure was nominated for two Toy Industry Association awards in 2011: "Game of the Year" and "Innovative Toy of the Year". Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure and its sequels were released for major consoles and PC, and many were released on mobile devices as well. Split from Vivendi and growth (2013–2014) On July 25, 2013, Activision Blizzard announced the purchase of 429 million shares from owner Vivendi for $5.83 billion, dropping the shareholder from a 63% stake to 11.8% by the end of the deal in September. At the conclusion of the deal, Vivendi was no longer Activision Blizzard's parent company, and Activision Blizzard became an independent company as a majority of the shares became owned by the public. Bobby Kotick and Brian Kelly retained a 24.4% stake in the company overall. In addition, Kotick remained the president and CEO, with Brian Kelly taking over as chairman. On October 12, 2013, shortly after approval from the Delaware Supreme Court, the company completed the buyback, along the lines of the original plan. Vivendi sold half its remaining stake on May 22, 2014, reducing its ownership to 5.8%. and completely exited two years later. Activision Blizzard released a new title, Destiny, on September 9, 2014. The game made over $500 million in retail sales on the first day of release, setting a record for the biggest first day launch of a new gaming franchise. On November 5, 2013, the company released Call of Duty: Ghosts, which was written by screenwriter Stephen Gaghan. On its first release day the game sold $1 billion into retail. In 2014, Activision Blizzard was the fifth largest gaming company by revenue worldwide, with total assets of US$14.746 billion and total equity estimated at US$7.513 billion. S&P 500 and new divisions (2015–2021) Activision Blizzard joined the S&P 500 stock index on August 28, 2015, becoming one of only two companies on the list related to gaming, alongside Electronic Arts. The company released the next iteration of the Skylanders franchise in September 2015, which added vehicles to the "toys to life" category. On September 15, 2015, Activision and Bungie released Destiny: The Taken King, the follow up to the Destiny saga. Two days later, Sony announced that the game broke the record for the most downloaded day-one game in PlayStation history, in terms of both total players and peak online concurrency. Activision Blizzard acquired social gaming company King, creator of casual game Candy Crush Saga, for $5.9 billion in November 2015. In November 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the formation of Activision Blizzard Studios, a film production arm that would produce films and television series based on Activision Blizzard's franchises. The outfit is co-headed by producer Stacey Sher and former The Walt Disney Company executive Nick van Dyk. In June 2017, Activision Blizzard joined the Fortune 500 becoming the third gaming company in history to make the list after Atari and Electronic Arts. In its 2018 fiscal year earnings call to shareholders in February 2019, Kotick stated that while the company had seen a record year in revenue, they would be laying off around 775 people or around 8% of their workforce in non-management divisions, "de-prioritizing initiatives that are not meeting expectations and reducing certain non-development and administrative-related costs across the business", according to Kotick. Kotick stated that they plan to put more resources towards their development teams and focus on esports, Battle.net services, and the publisher's core games which include Candy Crush, Call of Duty, Overwatch, Warcraft, Diablo, and Hearthstone. Prior to this, Activision Blizzard and Bungie agreed to terminate their distribution deal with Destiny 2 as it was not bringing in expected revenue for Activision, with Bungie otherwise retaining all rights to Destiny. This transaction allowed Activision Blizzard to report as part of its 2018 fiscal year filings. The company announced that Daniel Alegre would replace Coddy Johnson as president of Activision Blizzard effective April 7, 2020, with Johnson transitioning to special advisory role. During the second quarter of 2020, the company's net revenues from digital channels reached $1.44bn due to the growing demand for online games driven by COVID-19 lockdowns. By January 2021, the company's net value was estimated to be based on its stock trading price due to the ongoing demand for video games from the COVID-19 pandemic. The Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia acquired 14.9 million shares of Activision Blizzard, valued at , in February 2021. In April 2021, Fernando Machado, former Brazilian executive at Burger King, joined the company as chief marketing officer (CMO). The company also announced in April 2021 that Kotick will remain CEO through April 2023, through Kotick agreed to take a 50% cut of his pay, equal to . Kotick will remain eligible to receive annual bonuses, and while he agreed to reduce his target bonus by 50% as well, he potentially can earn up to 200% of his base pay based on the company's performance. Workplace misconduct lawsuit and acquisition by Microsoft (2021–present) As a result of a two-year investigation, on July 20, 2021, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) filed a suit alleging sexual harassment, employment discrimination and retaliation on the part of Activision Blizzard. The details of the allegations involve accusations of inappropriate behavior towards women and fostering a "frat boy" culture. The company's management initially tried to pass off the allegations as false, which led to employees sharply criticizing the management's lack of seriousness in the matter. Even after CEO's Bobby Kotick's open letter to employees that said their initial response was improper and that they would be internally reviewing matters, employees still staged a walk-off to protest the lack of action the company had taken in regards to the lawsuit. DFEH's lawsuit brought a second lawsuit against the company by its shareholders asserting it falsified knowledge of these problems in their financial statements, and led the Security and Exchange Commission to begin evaluating the company. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission had also filed suit against Activision-Blizzard from their own investigation of the workplace conditions but the company had settled the same day it was filed, which included setting aside an relief fund for affected employees. Kotick requested the board to reduce his pay to the bare minimum required by California law in August 2021 and withhold his bonuses until the lawsuit was resolved, after a bonus package he received in July 2021 following investors criticism on the size of the package. A Wall Street Journal report in November 2021 alleged that Kotick knew about misconduct and sexual harassment within the company without reporting them to the board of directors, leading to an increased pressure on Kotick to leave the company. The lawsuit became a debated matter in the industry as it touches on the Me Too movement and lack of unionization for video game developers to protect them from such mistreatment. On January 18, 2022, Microsoft announced that it would be acquiring Activision Blizzard for $68.7 billion in an all-cash deal, or approximately $95 per share. Activision Blizzard's stock price jumped nearly 40% that day in pre-market trading. The deal would make Microsoft the third-largest gaming company in the world and the largest headquartered in the Americas, behind Chinese company Tencent and the Japanese conglomerate Sony. Goldman Sachs will serve as the financial advisor to Microsoft, and Allen & Company will be Activision's financial advisors. Simpson Thacher will serve as legal advisor for Microsoft while Skadden will serve as legal advisor for Activision. The deal has been approved by both companies' board of directors and is expected to close in 2023 following international government regulatory review of the action. Upon completion of the deal, Activision Blizzard would be a sibling entity to Xbox Game Studios under a new Microsoft Gaming division with Phil Spencer as its lead. The deal would also allow Microsoft to offer Activision Blizzard games on its Xbox Game Pass service. Spencer also spoke to reviving some of the games in Activision Blizzard's past that he himself enjoyed, mentioning series such as King's Quest, Guitar Hero and Hexen: Beyond Heretic. Kotick stated that he, Spencer, and Microsoft's CEO Satya Nadella have had discussions in 2021 on their concern of the power of Tencent, NetEase, Apple, Inc. and Google, and that Activision Blizzard lacked the computation expertise in machine learning and data analytics that would be necessary to compete with these companies. According to Kotick, this led to the idea of Microsoft, which does have those capabilities, acquiring Activision Blizzard at an attractive price point. In a statement released on Activision Blizzard's investor website, the company said its industry is the "most dynamic and exciting category of entertainment across all platforms" and that gaming will be the forefront of the development of the emerging metaverse. Some journalists saw this acquisition, and Microsoft's March 2021 acquisition of Bethesda Softworks, as a bid to compete against Meta Platforms, formerly known as Facebook. The timing of the acquisition was reported by The Wall Street Journal and Bloomberg News to be in response to the ongoing DFEH lawsuit. Reports from both newspapers stated that Activision Blizzard had been considering a buyout from other companies, including Facebook parent company Meta Platforms, due to the weaker than expected financial performance of their latest game releases and production delays. Based on SEC filings related to the merger, Microsoft approached Activision Blizzard again in the days immediately following the November 2021 Wall Street Journal report regarding a buyout. While Kotick had been hesitant about selling the company, the board had gone ahead with the deal as they continued to fear the ongoing impact of the lawsuit while Kotick had remains on the board The buyout would provide a graceful exit for Kotick in the future, ranging in $252.2-292.9 million over most scenarios. According to official announcements, under the deal Kotick will remain the CEO of Activision Blizzard, and is expected to keep the position while the deal goes through regulatory processes, as Activision Blizzard remains independent from Microsoft until the deal closes. According to The Wall Street Journal, Kotick "will depart once the deal closes" under Microsoft's management, while Kotick said in an interview that he has an interest in remaining in the company. Microsoft has yet to speak directly about the Activision Blizzard lawsuit following news of the acquisition, however the company announced a week prior that it would be reviewing its own sexual harassment and gender discrimination policies. Several Activision Blizzard employees have expressed cautious optimism with respect to the deal, with the ABK Workers Alliance, a group of employees pushing for unionization in the wake of the DFEH lawsuit, saying the acquisition did "not change the goals" of the Alliance. A report by Business Insider suggested several Microsoft employees have raised their concern on the deal with respect to the sexual harassment scandals and Activision Blizzard workplace culture, hoping for "concrete steps to make sure we aren't introducing a dangerous and unwelcome culture." On January 19, 2022, World Bank president David Malpass criticized the acquisition as a questionable allocation of capital at a time when poor countries are struggling to restructure their debts and fight off the COVID-19 pandemic and poverty. After Sony had stated that they expect Microsoft to honor all of Activision Blizzard's publishing agreements for multiplatform games, Spencer and Microsoft president Brad Smith reassured that Microsoft will continue these existing agreements and expressed their desire to keep Call of Duty and other popular Activision Blizzard games on PlayStation beyond the terms of these agreements, as well as explore the opportunity to bring these games to the Nintendo consoles. In the United States, the acquisition will be reviewed by the Federal Trade Commission rather than traditionally by the U.S. Department of Justice, as the agency had raised more concerns over mergers and acquisitions in the Big Tech sector in the last decade. Corporate structure Activision Blizzard is divided into three key business segments: Activision Publishing, which handles the development, production, and distribution of video games from its subsidiary studios. Blizzard Entertainment, which handles the development, production, and distribution of Blizzard's games. It also houses the company's esports activities including MLG and the Overwatch League. King, which handles the development and distribution of its mobile games. There are also two non-reporting segments within Activision Blizzard. Activision Blizzard Studios oversees the production of film and television entertainment based on the company's properties. Activision Blizzard Distribution provides logistical support for Activision Blizzard's distribution within Europe. Esports initiatives Activision Blizzard owns the Call of Duty and StarCraft franchises, both of which have been popular as esports. On October 21, 2015, Activision Blizzard announced the upcoming establishment of a new e-sports division. Named Activision Blizzard Media Networks, the division is led by sports executive Steve Bornstein and Major League Gaming (MLG) co-founder Mike Sepso, with assets from the acquisition of the now defunct IGN Pro League. Bornstein was appointed the new division's chairman. On December 31, 2015, it was reported that "substantially all" of Major League Gaming's assets would be acquired by Activision Blizzard. The New York Times reported that the acquisition was intended to bolster Activision Blizzard's push into e-sports, as well as its plan to develop an e-sports cable channel. Reports indicated that MLG would be shuttered and that the majority of the purchase price would go towards paying off the company's debt. Activision Blizzard acquired MLG on January 4, 2016 for $46 million. In November 2016, Blizzard Entertainment, a subsidiary of Activision Blizzard, announced the launch of Overwatch League, a professional video gaming league. The league's first season began during the second half of 2017 with 12 teams. The league's structure is based on traditional sports structures, including recruiting traditional sports executives as team owners, such as Robert Kraft, owner of the New England Patriots, and Jeff Wilpon, COO of the New York Mets. The inaugural Overwatch Grand Finals was played at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn in July 2018 and attracted 10.8 million viewers worldwide. The league hopes to have 18 teams competing during the second season in 2019, with the ultimate goal of 28 teams across the world. In 2018, Activision Blizzard signed a multi-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to stream Overwatch League games on both ESPN and Disney XD cable channels. The company also secured an exclusive multi-year deal with Google to stream all subsequent Activision Blizzard esports events, including Call of Duty and Overwatch events, through YouTube, and to use Google's cloud services for its game hosting infrastructure; this came after a prior two-year deal with Twitch for the Overwatch League had concluded. The deal with YouTube was estimated to be valued at , double what it had with Twitch. Call of Duty Endowment Since 2009, when CEO Kotick launched Call of Duty Endowment (CODE), over 50,000 veterans have been placed in high-quality jobs. In 2013 CODE started the "Seal of Distinction" program, which recognizes non-profit organizations that are successful in placing veterans in good jobs. Winners receive a $30,000 grant to use in their veteran job placement activities. The goal of CODE is to help 100,000 US and UK veterans find high-quality jobs by 2024. The endowment helps soldiers transition to civilian careers after their military service by funding nonprofit organizations and raising awareness of the value veterans bring to the workplace. Products List of Activision games List of Blizzard Entertainment games Other legal disputes Worlds, Inc. Worlds, Inc. was issued several United States patents around 2009 related to "System and method for enabling users to interact in a virtual space", which generally described a method of server/client communications for multiplayer video games, where players would communicate through avatars. In early 2009, Worlds, Inc. stated its intent to challenge publishers and developers of MMOs, naming Activision as one of its intended targets. Worlds, Inc. had already challenged NCSoft for its MMOs in 2008. The companies ultimately settled out of court by 2010. Worlds, Inc. launched its formal lawsuit against Activision Blizzard, including both Blizzard Entertainment and Activision Publishing, in March 2012, stating that Call of Duty and World of Warcraft infringed on their patents. Activision Publishing filed a separate patent infringement lawsuit in October 2013, asserting that Worlds, Inc. was using two Activision-owned patents in its Worlds Player software, but this suit was dismissed with prejudice by June 2014. In Worlds, Inc. case against Activision, the judge issued a summary judgement in Activision's favor, as they had demonstrated that Worlds, Inc. had demonstrated the technologies of their patents in their client programs AlphaWorld and World Chat, released before the 1995 priority date, though this was related to filing irregularities that were subsequently corrected by the Patent Office. Activision did not challenge the updated patents through an inter partes review (IPR), and subsequently after a statutory one-year waiting period, Worlds, Inc. filed a subsequently lawsuit against Activision, asserting Call of Duty: Ghosts violated their resolved patents. Later, Worlds, Inc. stated the intent to add Bungie to the lawsuit contending that Destiny also fell afoul of their patents. Bungie subsequently filed three IPRs with the Patent Office for each of the three Worlds, Inc. patents at the core of the lawsuit. While Bungie initially won its IPR ruling at the USPTO, on appeal in September 2018, Worlds, Inc. won a ruling questioning whether Bungie had legal standing to file its IPRs. The new Worlds, Inc. case against Activision Blizzard was heard on October 3, 2014. With Bungie's IPRs pending at the Patent Office, the judge put the trial on hold pending the outcome of the IPRs. Worlds, Inc. challenged the IPRs at the Patent Office, as they did not include Activision as an interested party, a requirement that would have been necessary given the publisher/developer relationship between Activision and Bungie. The Patent Office did not accept this argument, and subsequently agreed with the Bungie IPRs that portions of Worlds, Inc. patents were invalid. Worlds, Inc. appealed to the Federal Circuit Appeals Court, challenging the validity of the IPRs due to the lack of Activision's involvement. The Federal Circuit court ruled in favor of Worlds, Inc. in September 2018, invalidating the Patent Office's decision. Worlds, Inc.'s case presently remains at the Patent Office stage, which is re-reviewing the IPRs in consideration of the Federal Circuit's ruling. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2021, when a US district court ruled that "Worlds' patents were abstract ideas that were not sufficiently transformative to be legally patentable." Infinity Ward In early 2010, Activision fired Vince Zampella and Jason West, two of the founders of its studio Infinity Ward, on the basis of "breaches of contract and insubordination"; the move caused several other Infinity Ward staff to resign. Zampella and West created a new studio, Respawn Entertainment, with help from Electronic Arts' partner program, hiring the majority of those that departed Infinity Ward in their wake. Zampella and West filed a lawsuit in April 2010 against Activision, claiming unpaid royalties on the studio's Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. Activision filed a countersuit against the two, accusing the pair of being "self-serving schemers". Activision later sought to add Electronic Arts to their suit, discovering that Zampella and West had been in discussions with them while still working for Activision, and further added claims against Zampella and West that the two had not returned all material related to Call of Duty while they were working at Respawn. A separate lawsuit was filed against Activision in April 2010 by several current and former members of Infinity Ward on the same basis of lack of unpaid royalties. All parties came to an undisclosed settlement to end all suits by May 2012. Electronic Arts and Activision had settled separately on Activision's charges of poaching employees, while the suits between Activision, Zampella, West, and the Infinity Ward employee group were settled by the end of May 2012. All settlements were made for undisclosed amounts. See also Lists of video game companies List of video game publishers Notes References External links 2008 establishments in California American companies established in 2008 Companies based in Santa Monica, California Former Vivendi subsidiaries Holding companies established in 2008 Holding companies of the United States Video game companies established in 2008 Video game companies of the United States Video game development companies Video game publishers Announced mergers and acquisitions

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Edwin Charles Tubb (15 October 1919 – 10 September 2010) was a British writer of science fiction, fantasy and western novels. The author of over 140 novels and 230 short stories and novellas, Tubb is best known for The Dumarest Saga (US collective title: Dumarest of Terra), an epic science-fiction saga set in the far future. Michael Moorcock wrote, "His reputation for fast-moving and colourful SF writing is unmatched by anyone in Britain." Much of Tubb's work was written under pseudonyms including Gregory Kern, Carl Maddox, Alan Guthrie, Eric Storm and George Holt. He used 58 pen names over five decades of writing, although some of these were publishers' house names also used by other writers: Volsted Gridban (along with John Russell Fearn), Gill Hunt (with John Brunner and Dennis Hughes), King Lang (with George Hay and John W Jennison), Roy Sheldon (with H. J. Campbell) and Brian Shaw. Tubb's Charles Grey alias was solely his own and acquired a big following in the early 1950s. Life Tubb was born in London and resided there until his death in 2010. He married Iris Kathleen Smith in 1944 and is survived by their two daughters, Jennifer and Linda, three grandsons, John Barham, Alan Barham and Steven, and two granddaughters, Lisa Elcomb and Julie Hickmott. Career An avid reader of pulp science-fiction and fantasy in his youth, in 1938 Tubb made contact with other British fans and made his first attempts at writing in the genre. "My first attempts were written for my own pleasure," he later told New Worlds, "and they are now perfect examples of what not to do". Tubb found that he had a particular talent as a writer of stories in that genre when his short story "No Short Cuts" was published in New Worlds magazine in 1951. Previously a salesman of printing machinery, he opted for a full-time career as a writer and soon became renowned for the speed and diversity of his output. Tubb contributed to many of the science fiction magazines of the 1950s including Futuristic Science Stories, Science Fantasy, Nebula. and Galaxy Science Fiction. He contributed heavily to Authentic Science Fiction, editing the magazine for nearly two years from February 1956 until it folded in October 1957. During this time he found it so difficult to find good writers to contribute to the magazine that he often wrote most of the stories himself under a variety of pseudonyms: one issue of Authentic was written entirely by Tubb, including the letters column. His main work in the science fiction genre, the Dumarest series, appeared from 1967 to 1985, with two final volumes in 1997 and 2008. His second major series, the Cap Kennedy series, was written from 1973 to 1983. Later in life Tubb updated many of his 1950s science fiction novels for 21st century readers. Tubb was one of the co-founders of the British Science Fiction Association. Honors Tubb was Guest of Honour at Heicon, the 1970 World Science Fiction Convention, in Heidelberg, Germany. He was a five-time winner of the Nebula Science Fiction Magazine Literary Award (1953–1958) and the recipient of the 1955 Cytricon Literary Award for Best British SF Writer. His short story "Lucifer!" won the Europa Prize in 1972. In 2010, his novel The Possessed (2005, revised version of Touch of Evil [1959]) won the Premio Italia Award for Best International Novel. Works The Dumarest saga Tubb's best known series is The Dumarest Saga (US collective title: Dumarest of Terra), a far future epic science-fiction saga charting the adventures of traveler Earl Dumarest as he attempts to find his way back to his home planet, Earth, from a region of space so far distant that the existence of the planet is believed to be nothing more than a myth. Originally written in what Michael Moorcock has described as a "conscious and acknowledged imitation" of Leigh Brackett's Eric John Stark stories, the series subsequently developed a style of storytelling unique to Tubb. Published over a span of more than 40 years, the Dumarest Saga comprised 33 novels. The 33rd, which brings closure to Dumarest's search for Earth, was published in 2008 by Homeworld Press of Chicago. A pair of Dumarest short stories, entitled "Child of Earth" and "Figona" and published in the science fiction anthologies Fantasy Adventures 1 (2002) and Fantasy Adventures 2 (2003), were extracts from this longer work. Cap Kennedy series Tubb's other main novel series, Cap Kennedy, is space opera in the style of Perry Rhodan. Known as F.A.T.E. in the UK (where only the first six books have ever been published), the novels follow the adventures of Captain 'Cap' Kennedy, a Free Acting Terran Envoy (F.A.T.E.) with licence to act as judge, jury, and executioner, and the power to intervene in any situation which threatens the peace of the Terran Sphere, an interplanetary federation centred on Earth. Independently wealthy and operating from his personal spaceship, the Mordain, Kennedy is assisted on his missions by engineer Penza Saratov, veteran scientist Professor Jarl Luden, and alien navigator Veem Chemile, a humanoid chameleon who claims to be descended from the Zheltyana, an ancient race which dominated the galaxy in the distant past before vanishing without trace. The discovery of mysterious artifacts left behind by the Zheltyana on different worlds often provided the spring-board for the stories in the series. Lester del Rey found that although the first volume managed to "avoid the primitiveness and the formula" that spoiled many similar series, the virtues of such series were also missing, leaving him unenthusiastic. He later noted improvement in a subsequent installment. Tubb wrote 17 Cap Kennedy novels, all under the pseudonym Gregory Kern. These books were the basis for the Commander Scott series from German publishers Bastei. This series included all of the Cap Kennedy books by Tubb as well as a number of further novels, written under pseudonym by different German authors. Published in the format of romanheft (a digest-sized version of pulp magazines), the series lasted for 42 issues from 1975 to 1976. (See the entry under the German Wikipedia, Commander Scott.) Space 1999 series Tubb was the author of six novels based on Gerry Anderson's 1975 science fiction television series Space: 1999. Breakaway (1975), Collision Course (1975) and Earthbound (2003) are novelizations of 11 scripts written for the series' first season format (including two that were subsequently filmed as second-season episodes), while Alien Seed (1976), Rogue Planet (1976) and Earthfall (1977, revised 2002) are original novels set within the first season continuity. The latter rejected the format changes of the TV series' second season to provide a satisfactory conclusion to the Space 1999 story. Tubb's short story "Random Sample" from New Writings in SF 29 (1976) was revised to become "Dead End", a short story in the Space: 1999 anthology Shepherd Moon (2010). The original story's Prometheus starship crew are replaced by the Moonbase Alpha characters in the Space: 1999 version. "Random Sample" was itself a revised version of a much earlier Tubb short, "Entrance Exam", originally published in New Worlds magazine (1951). Other science fiction Tubb's best known standalone novel is The Space-Born (1956), which started life as a serial for New Worlds Science Fiction magazine entitled "Star Ship". An acknowledged masterpiece of the "generational starship" story, the book tells of a society who are the sixteenth generation of the original crew of a vast starship on a 300-year journey to Pollux from Earth. The plot centres on a protagonist whose job is to eliminate anyone who has become a burden to the society, through ill health, mental instability, or anyone over 40. Other notable standalone novels include Alien Dust (1955), which charts the first 35 years of an Earth colony on Mars, and Moon Base (1964), a science fiction detective thriller set on a British Moonbase where a biochemical computer is under development. The short story collections Ten From Tomorrow (1966), A Scatter of Stardust (1972) and The Best Science Fiction of E.C. Tubb (2003) contain the best of Tubb's short form writing, including "The Last Day of Summer" (1955), "Little Girl Lost" (1955), "Vigil" (1956), "The Bells of Acheron" (1957), "Fresh Guy" (1958), "The Ming Vase" (1963), "J is for Jeanne" (1965), and "Evane" (1973). Other genres Outside the field of science fiction, Tubb wrote 11 western novels, a detective novel and a Foreign Legion novel for Badger Books. Once again, many of these were published under a variety of pseudonyms, including the house name "Chuck Adams", which were also used by other authors. In the 1970s he wrote a trilogy of historical novels set in Ancient Rome under the pseudonym Edward Thomson. Dramatisations Tubb's 1955 novel The Space-Born was dramatised for French television in 1962 as a 90-minute play for Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française. The production was directed by Alain Boudet from a script by Michael Subrela and broadcast on 11 December 1962. The short story "Little Girl Lost", originally published in New Worlds magazine (1955), was dramatised as a segment of Night Gallery in 1972. Adapted by Stanford Whitmore and directed by Timothy Galfras, with a cast featuring William Windom and Ed Nelson, the segment originally aired on 1 March 1972, paired with The Caterpillar in the penultimate episode of the series' second season. Bibliography The Dumarest Saga (US: Dumarest of Terra) The Winds of Gath (1967) (also published with slightly modified text as Gath [1968, 2010]) Derai (1968) (also published as The Death Zone [2010]) Toyman (1969) Kalin (1969) The Jester at Scar (1970) Lallia (1971) Technos (1972) Veruchia (1973) Mayenne (1973) Jondelle (1973) Zenya (1974) Eloise (1975) Eye of the Zodiac (1975) Jack of Swords (1976) Spectrum of a Forgotten Sun (1976) Haven of Darkness (1977) Prison of Night (1977) Incident on Ath (1978) The Quillian Sector (1978) Web of Sand (1979) Iduna's Universe (1979) The Terra Data (1980) World of Promise (1980) Nectar of Heaven (1981) The Terridae (1981) The Coming Event (1982) Earth is Heaven (1982) Melome (1983) (published in UK with Angado [1984] as Melome and Angado [1988]) Angado (1984) (published in UK with Melome [1983] as Melome and Angado [1988]) Symbol of Terra (1984) (published in UK with The Temple of Truth [1985] as Symbol of Terra and The Temple of Truth [1989]) The Temple of Truth (1985) (published in UK with Symbol of Terra [1985] as Symbol of Terra and The Temple of Truth [1989]) The Return (1997) (written 1985 but previously only published in French language as Le Retour [1992]) Child of Earth (2008) The Winds of Gath / Derai (1973) (omnibus edition of The Winds of Gath [1967] and Derai [1968]) Mayenne and Jondelle (1981) (omnibus edition of Mayenne [1973] and Jondelle [1973]) Dumarest of Terra Omnibus (2005) (omnibus edition of The Winds of Gath [1967], Derai [1968], Toyman [1969] and Kalin [1969]) Cap Kennedy (UK: F.A.T.E.) All as by Gregory Kern Galaxy of the Lost (1973) Slave Ship from Sergan (1973) Monster of Metelaze (1973) Enemy Within the Skull (1974) Jewel of Jarhen (1974) Seetee Alert! (1974) The Gholan Gate (1974) The Eater of Worlds (1974) Earth Enslaved (1974 Planet of Dread (1974) Spawn of Laban (1974) The Genetic Buccaneer (1974) A World Aflame (1974) The Ghosts of Epidoris (1975) Mimics of Dephene (1975) Beyond the Galactic Lens (1975) The Galactiad (1983) (written 1976 but previously only published in German language as Das kosmische Duell [1976]) Space: 1999 Breakaway (1975) Collision Course (1975) Alien Seed (1976) Rogue Planet (1976) Earthfall (1977) (also published in 25th anniversary revised edition [2002]) Earthbound (2003) The Chronicles of Malkar Death God's Doom (1999) The Sleeping City (1999) Other science fiction novels Saturn Patrol (1951), as by King Lang also published as Saturn Patrol (1996) by E.C. Tubb Planetfall (1951), as by Gill Hunt Argentis (1952), as by Brian Shaw also published as Argentis (1979) by E.C. Tubb Alien Impact (1952) Alien Universe (1952), as by Volsted Gridban also published as The Green Helix (2009) by E.C. Tubb Reverse Universe (1952), as by Volsted Gridban Atom War on Mars (1952) Planetoid Disposals Ltd. (1953), as by Volsted Gridban De Bracy's Drug (1953), as by Volsted Gridban also published as De Bracy's Drug (2004) by E.C. Tubb also published as The Freedom Army (2009) by E.C. Tubb Fugitive of Time (1953), as by Volsted Gridban The Wall (1953), as by Charles Grey also published as The Wall (1999, 2009) by E.C. Tubb The Mutants Rebel (1953) also published as World in Torment (2008) Dynasty of Doom (1953), as by Charles Grey The Tormented City (1953), as by Charles Grey also published as Secret of the Towers (2008) by E.C. Tubb Space Hunger (1953), as by Charles Grey also published as Earth Set Free (1999) by E.C. Tubb also published as The Price of Freedom (2008) by E.C. Tubb I Fight for Mars (1953), as by Charles Grey also published as I Fight for Mars (1998) by E.C. Tubb Venusian Adventure (1953) Alien Life (1954) The Living World (1954), as by Carl Maddox The Extra Man (1954) also published as Fifty Days to Doom (2010) Menace from the Past (1954), as by Carl Maddox The Metal Eater (1954), as by Roy Sheldon Journey to Mars (1954) World at Bay (1954) also published as Tide of Death (2008) City of No Return (1954) Hell Planet (1954) The Resurrected Man (1954) The Stellar Legion (1954) The Hand of Havoc (1954), as by Charles Grey Enterprise 2115 (1954), as by Charles Grey also published as The Mechanical Monarch (1958) by E.C. Tubb Alien Dust (1955) The Space-Born (1956) Touch of Evil (1957), as by Arthur Maclean also published in revised version as The Possessed (2005) by E.C. Tubb Moon Base (1964) Death is a Dream (1967) The Life-Buyer (1967) also published as The Life Buyer (2006) C.O.D. - Mars (1968) also published as Fear of Strangers (2007) Escape into Space (1969) S.T.A.R. Flight (1969) Century of the Manikin (1972) The Primitive (1977) Death Wears a White Face (1979) also published as Dead Weight (2007) Stellar Assignment (1979) The Luck Machine (1980) Pawn of the Omphalos (1980) also published in revised version as Death God's Doom (1999) Stardeath (1983) Pandora's Box (1996) (previously unpublished work written 1954) Temple of Death (1996) (previously unpublished work written 1954) Alien Life (1998) (revised and expanded version of Alien Life [1954]) also published as Journey into Terror (2009) Alien Worlds (1999) (collection of Alien Dust [1955] and Alien Universe [1952]) Footsteps of Angels (2004) (previously unpublished work written c.1988) Starslave (2010) (previously unpublished work written 1984) To Dream Again (2011) Fires of Satan (2012) Short story collections Supernatural Stories 9 (1957), as by various pseudonyms Ten from Tomorrow (1966) A Scatter of Stardust (1972) Kalgan the Golden (1996) Murder in Space (1997) The Best Science Fiction of E.C. Tubb (2003) Mirror of the Night and Other Weird Tales (2003) The Wager: Science Fiction Mystery Tales (2011) The Ming Vase and Other Science Fiction Stories (2011) Enemy of the State: Fantastic Mystery Stories (2011) Tomorrow: Science Fiction Mystery Tales (2011) The Wonderful Day: Science Fiction Stories (2012) Only One Winner: Science Fiction Mystery Tales (2013) Novellas Freight (1953, Nebula 3) Subtle Victory (1953, Authentic Science Fiction 39) The Inevitable Conflict (1954, Vargo Statten Science Fiction 1–3) Forbidden Fruit (1954, Vargo Statten/British Science Fiction 4–6) Star Haven (1954, Authentic Science Fiction 52) Number Thirteen (1956, Authentic Science Fiction 69), as by Douglas West The Big Secret (1956, Authentic Science Fiction 70), as by Ken Wainwright The Give-Away Worlds (1956, Authentic Science Fiction 72), as by Julian Cary Enemy of the State (1956, Authentic Science Fiction 74), as by Ken Wainwright There's Only One Winner (1957, Authentic Science Fiction 81), as by Nigel Lloyd The Touch of Reality (1958, Nebula 28) Galactic Destiny (1959, SF Adventures 10) Spawn of Jupiter (1970, Vision of Tomorrow 11) Non-SF novels Assignment New York (1955), as by Mike Lantry also published as Assignment New York (1996) by E.C. Tubb The Fighting Fury (1955), as by Paul Schofield also published as The Fighting Fury (1962), as by Chuck Adams also published as The Gold Seekers (2000) by E.C. Tubb Comanche Capture (1955), as by E. F. Jackson also published as The Captive (2000), as by E.F. Jackson also published as The Captive (2010) by E.C. Tubb Sands of Destiny (1955), as by Jud Cary also published as Sands of Destiny (2009) by E.C. Tubb also published as Sands of Destiny: A Novel of the French Foreign Legion (2011) by E.C. Tubb Men of the Long Rifle (1955), as by J.F. Clarkson also published as The Pathfinders (2000), as by Charles Grey Scourge of the South (1956), as by M.L. Powers also published as The Marauders (1960), as by M.L. Powers also published as Scourge of the South (2000), as by George Holt Vengeance Trail (1956), as by James Farrow also published as The Liberators (2000), as by Brett Landry Trail Blazers (1956), as by Chuck Adams also published as The Last Outlaw (1961), as by Chuck Adams also published as Trail Blazers (2000), as by Eric Storm also published as Trail Blazers (2007) by E.C. Tubb Quest for Quantrell (1956), as by John Stevens also published as Night Raiders (1960), as by John Stevens also published as Curse of Quantrill (2000), as by Carl Maddox Drums of the Prairie (1956), as by P. Lawrence also published as The Red Lance (1959), as by L.P. Eastern also published as The Dying Tree (2000), as by Edward Thomson Men of the West (1956), as by Chet Lawson also published as Massacre Trail (1960), as by Chuck Adams also published as Hills of Blood (2000), as by Frank Weight Wagon Trail (1957), as by Charles S. Graham also published as Cauldron of Violence (2000), as by Gordon Kent also published as Cauldron of Violence (2010) by E.C. Tubb Colt Vengeance (1957), as by James R. Fenner also published as Colt Law (1962), as by Chuck Adams also published as The First Shot (2000) by E.C. Tubb The Gladiators All as by Edward Thomson Atilus the Slave (1975) Atilus the Gladiator (1975) Gladiator (1978) Comic Books Hellfire Landing (Commando issue 5, 1961) Target Death (Combat Library issue 102, 1961) Lucky Strike (War Picture Library issue 124, 1961) Calculated Risk (Air Ace Picture Library issue 78, 1961) Too Tough to Handle (War Picture Library issue 134, 1962) The Dead Keep Faith (War Picture Library issue 140, 1962) The Spark of Anger (Battle Picture Library issue 52, 1962) Full Impact (Air Ace Picture Library issue 92, 1962) I Vow Vengeance (War at Sea Picture Library issue 7, 1962) One Must Die (Battle Picture Library issue 72, 1962) Gunflash (War Picture Library issue 157, 1962) Hit Back (Battle Picture Library issue 69, 1962) Suicide Squad (War Picture Library issue 172, 1962) No Higher Stakes (Battle Picture Library issue 89, 1963) Penalty of Fear (Thriller Picture Library issue 444, 1963) Anthologies Gateway to the Stars (ed. John Carnell, 1955) - 'Unfortunate Purchase' SF: The Year's Greatest Science Fiction and Fantasy (ed. Judith Merril, 1956) - 'The Last Day of Summer' SF '59: The Year's Greatest Science Fiction and Fantasy (ed. Judith Merril, 1959) - 'Fresh Guy' The Vampire (ed. Ornella Volta and Valerio Riva, 1963) - 'Fresh Guy' The Year's Best SF: 9 (ed. Judith Merril, 1964) - 'The Ming Vase' Dimension 4 (ed. Groff Conklin, 1964) - 'Sense of Proportion' Best of New Worlds (ed. Michael Moorcock, 1965) - 'New Experience' Weird Shadows from Beyond (ed. John Carnell, 1965) - 'Fresh Guy' New Writings in SF 6 (ed. John Carnell, 1965) - 'The Seekers' The Year's Best SF: 11th (ed. Judith Merril, 1966) - 'J is for Jeanne' SF Reprise 1 (ed. Michael Moorcock, 1966) - 'New Experience' Window on the Future (ed. Douglas Hill, 1966) - 'Sense of Proportion' 9th Annual S-F (ed. Judith Merril, 1967) - 'The Ming Vase' The Devil His Due (ed. Douglas Hill, 1967) - 'Return Visit' More Tales of Unease (ed. John Burke, 1969) - 'Little Girl Lost' The Best of Sci-fi 12 (ed. Judith Merril, 1970) - 'J is for Jeanne' The Year's Best Horror Stories (ed. Richard Davis, 1971) - 'Lucifer!' New Writings in Horror and the Supernatural (ed. David Sutton, 1971) - 'The Winner' New Writings in SF 22 (ed. Kenneth Bulmer, 1973) - 'Evane' Space 1 (ed. Richard Davis, 1973) - 'Mistaken Identity' The 1974 Annual World's Best SF (ed. Donald Wollheim, 1974) - 'Evane' New Writings in SF 23 (ed. Kenneth Bulmer,1974) - 'Made to be Broken', 'Accolade' History of the Science Fiction Magazine 1946-1955 (ed. Mike Ashley, 1974) - 'The Wager' World's Best SF Short Stories 1 (ed. Donald Wollheim, 1975) - 'Evane' New Writings in SF 28 (ed. Kenneth Bulmer, 1976) - 'Face to Infinity' New Writings in SF 29 (ed. Kenneth Bulmer, 1976) - 'Random Sample' Best of British SF Vol. 2 (ed. Mike Ashley, 1977) - 'Trojan Horse' Strange Planets (ed. A. Williams-Ellis and M. Pearson, 1977) - 'Made to be Broken' New Writings in SF 30 (ed. Kenneth Bulmer, 1978) - 'Read Me This Riddle' Perilous Planets (ed. Brian Aldiss, 1978) - 'The Seekers' The Androids Are Coming (ed. Robert Silverberg, 1979) - 'The Captain's Dog' Wollheim's World of Best SF (ed. Donald Wollheim, 1979) - 'Evane' Heroic Fantasy (ed. Gerald Page and Hank Reinhardt, 1979) - 'Blood in the Mist' Pulsar 2 (ed. George Hay, 1979) - 'The Knife' Jewels of Wonder (ed. Mike Ashley, 1981) - 'Blood in the Mist' The Drabble Project (ed. Rob Meades and David B Wake, 1988) - 'As it Really Was', 'The Very Small Knife' Space Stories (ed. Mike Ashley, 1996) - 'The Bells of Acheron' Classical Stories: Heroic Tales from Ancient Greece and Rome (ed. Mike Ashley, 1996) - 'The Sword of Freedom' The New Random House Book of Science Fiction Stories (ed. Mike Ashley, 1997) - 'The Bells of Acheron' Fantasy Annual 1 (ed. Philip Harbottle and Sean Wallace, 1997) - 'Time and Again' Heroic Adventure Stories: From the Golden Age of Greece and Rome (ed. Mike Ashley, 1998) - 'The Sword of Freedom' Giant Book of Heroic Adventure Stories (ed. Mike Ashley, 1998) - 'The Sword of Freedom' The Iron God/Tomorrow Gryphon Double (ed. Philip Harbottle, 1998) - 'Tomorrow' Fantasy Annual 2 (ed. Philip Harbottle and Sean Wallace, 1998) - 'Gift Wrapped' Fantasy Annual 3 (ed. Philip Harbottle and Sean Wallace, 1999) - 'Fallen Angel' Gryphon Science Fiction and Fantasy Reader 1 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 1999) - 'Talk Not at All' Fantasy Annual 4 (ed. Philip Harbottle and Sean Wallace, 2000) - 'Afternoon' Fantasy Quarterly 1 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2001) - 'The Inevitable Conflict' Fantasy Adventures 1 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2002) - 'Child of Earth' Fantasy Adventures 2 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2002) - 'Figona', 'Emergency Exit' Fantasy Annual 5 (ed. Philip Harbottle and Sean Wallace, 2003) - 'Lazarus' Fantasy Adventures 3 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2003) - 'Illusion' Fantasy Adventures 4 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2003) - 'The Greater Ideal' Fantasy Adventures 5 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2003) - 'The Answer' Fantasy Adventures 6 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2003) - 'Food for Friendship' Fantasy Adventures 7 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2003) - 'Sell Me a Dream' Mammoth Book of New Terror (ed. Stephen Jones, 2004) - 'Mirror of the Night' Fantasy Adventures 8 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2004) - 'Jackpot' Fantasy Adventures 9 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2004) - 'Spawn of Jupiter' Fantasy Adventures 10 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2004) - 'The Dilettantes' Fantasy Adventures 11 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2004) - 'Agent' Fantasy Adventures 12 (ed. Philip Harbottle, 2006) - 'You Go' Space:1999 - Shepherd Moon (ed. Mateo Latosa, 2010) - 'Dead End' Notes External links E. C. Tubb at The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, 3rd edition The E. C. Tubb Homepage at Internet Archive (archived 12 March 2008) E.C. Tubb Fansite (ectubb.org.uk) at Internet Archive (archived 25 October 2011) Tubb works at FantasticFiction.co.uk (and others under as many as 17 pseudonyms) 1919 births 2010 deaths English science fiction writers British comics writers 20th-century British novelists English male novelists

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The Northern Isles (; ; ; ) are a pair of archipelagos off the north coast of mainland Scotland, comprising Orkney and Shetland. They are part of Scotland, as are the Hebrides. The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas. There are a total of 36 inhabited islands. The landscapes of the fertile agricultural islands of Orkney contrast with the more rugged Shetland islands to the north, where the economy is more dependent on fishing and on the oil wealth of the surrounding seas. Both island groups have a developing renewable energy industry. Both have a Pictish and Norse history. Both were part of the Kingdom of Norway until they were absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland in the 15th century. They remained part of it until the 1707 formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the 1801 formation of the United Kingdom. And they both played a significant naval role during the world wars of the 20th century. Tourism is important to both archipelagos, and there are regular ferry and air connections between them and with mainland Scotland. Their distinctive prehistoric ruins play a key role in their attraction for tourists. The Scandinavian influence remains strong, especially in local folklore, and the place-names of the islands are dominated by their Norse heritage, although some may retain pre-Celtic elements. Both island groups have strong, although distinct, local cultures. Geography The phrase "Northern Isles" generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos. The Island of Stroma, which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney, is part of Caithness, so for local government purposes it falls under the jurisdiction of the Highland council area, rather than that of Orkney. It is nevertheless clearly one of the "northern isles" of Scotland. Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland, but would normally be considered part of Shetland, and thus of the Northern Isles. Similarly, Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, although distant from the main group, are part of Orkney, and therefore technically amongst the Northern Isles. However, the other small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland, and are thus not usually considered to be part of the Northern Isles. Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland has 16. Orkney is situated north of the coast of mainland Scotland, separated from it by the waters of the Pentland Firth. The largest island of Orkney, known as the "Mainland" has an area of , making it the sixth largest Scottish island. Its total population in 2001 was 19,245, and its largest town is Kirkwall. Shetland is around north of mainland Scotland. It covers an area of and its coastline is long. Lerwick, the capital and largest settlement, has a population of around 7,500. About half of the archipelago's total population of 22,000 people live within of the town. Geology The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, mostly of Middle Devonian age. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series. This can be seen on the Orkney Mainland, where a narrow strip of the older rock is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and also on the small island of Graemsay. Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. A correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but because of differences in their chemical makeup, this remains uncertain. Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney. Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay is also abundant, and moraines cover substantial areas. The geology of Shetland is quite different from that of Orkney. It is extremely complex, with numerous faults and fold axes. The Shetland islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny, and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks whose histories are similar to those of their counterparts on the Scottish mainland. There are also small Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. Shetland's most distinctive geological feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite, peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor. There are oil-bearing sediments in the surrounding seas, on which much of Shetland's economy depends. Geological evidence shows that, sometime around 6100 BC, a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit the Northern Isles (as well as much of the east coast of Scotland), and may have created a wave of up to high in the voes of Shetland, where modern populations are largest. Climate The Northern Isles have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the surrounding seas and the Gulf Stream. In Shetland, average peak temperatures are in February and in August. Temperatures over are rare. The frost-free period may be as short as 3 months. The average annual rainfall is in Orkney and in Shetland. Winds are a key feature of the climate. In summer, there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong winds: Orkney has an average of 52 hours of gales annually. The Burradale wind farm in Shetland, which operates with five Vestas V47 660 kW turbines, achieved a world record of 57.9% capacity over the course of 2005 due to the persistent strong winds. Snowfall is usually confined to the period of November to February and seldom lies on the ground for more than a day. Less rain falls between April and August than at other times of the year, but no month has an average rainfall of less than . In Shetland there are 1082 hours of bright sunshine per year, on average, and overcast days are common. To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their "nightless" summers. On the longest day in Shetland there are over 19 hours of daylight, and it never gets completely dark. The long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the "simmer dim". Winter nights are correspondingly long, with less than six hours of daylight at midwinter. At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity. Prehistory There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the Neolithic period. Four of these remains comprise the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site (designated as such in 1999). They are: Skara Brae; Maes Howe; the Stones of Stenness; and the Ring of Brodgar. The Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe. This structure was inhabited for 900 years, beginning around 3700 BC, but it had evidently been built on the site of an even older settlement. The Shetland Islands are also extremely rich in physical remains from prehistoric eras: They contain a total of over 5,000 archaeological sites. On the island of Fetlar, there is a dividing wall, dating from the Neolithic period, that at one time extended for across the island. It is known as Funzie Girt. But it is the Iron Age that has provided the most outstanding archaeology in Shetland. Numerous brochs were erected during that period. The finest preserved example of these distinctive round towers is the Broch of Mousa. In 2011, a site known as "the Crucible of Iron Age Shetland", which includes the Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof, joined the UK's "Tentative List" of World Heritage Sites. History, culture and politics Pictish times The culture that built the brochs is unknown, but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles had become part of the Pictish kingdom. The most common archaeological relics from that period are symbol stones. One of the best examples of these stones is on the Brough of Birsay: It depicts three warriors with spears and sword scabbards, as well as characteristic Pictish symbols. In 1958, a trove of silver metalwork, known as the St Ninian's Isle Treasure, was discovered. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces it contains are believed to date from around 800 AD. According to O'Dell (1959), "The treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period .... [T]he brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal-head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal". Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century, and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century. An Ogham–inscribed artefact known as the Buckquoy spindle-whorl was found at a Pictish site on Birsay. There has been controversy about its origin and meaning, but it is now generally considered to be of Irish Christian origin. Norse era The 8th century was also the time when the Vikings started invading the Scottish seaboard. They brought to the Northern Isles a new culture and a new language; rendering the fate of the existing indigenous peoples uncertain. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of the pirate expeditions they carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. According to some sources, in 875, the Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") annexed the Northern Isles and gifted Orkney and Shetland to Rognvald Eysteinsson as an earldom in recompense for the death of his son in battle in Scotland. (Some scholars believe this story is apocryphal and is based instead on events connected with the later voyages of Magnus III of Norway, known as Magnus Barelegs.) In 995, King Olaf I of Norway (Olav Tryggvasson) fully Christianised the islands by fiat, when he stopped in South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The king summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed, and the islands became Christian at a stroke. In the early 11th century, they received their own bishop (the Bishop of Orkney). Annexation by Scotland In the 14th century, Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province, but Scottish influence was growing. Jon Haraldsson, who was murdered in Thurso in 1231, was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls, and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair. In 1468 Shetland was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland became permanent. In 1470 William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to Scotland. 17th, 18th and 19th centuries From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders had sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen. This trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland. Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish. However, some local merchant-lairds took up where the German merchants had left off, and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent. For the independent farmer/fishermen of Shetland this had negative consequences, as they now had to fish for these merchant-lairds. British rule came at a price for many ordinary people as well as traders. The Shetlanders' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy: some 3,000 served during the Napoleonic Wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife. During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home. By the late 19th century 90% of all Shetland was owned by just 32 men, and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8,000 Shetlanders emigrated. With the passing of the Crofters' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords. The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners' serfs to become owner-occupiers of their own small farms. The Orcadian experience was somewhat different. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitatis Orcadie and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords. In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat-handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north. During this period, burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands' economy. For example, on Shapinsay over of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash, bringing in £20,000 to the local economy. Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century coincided with the enclosure of the commons and in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well-managed farms using a five-shift rotation system and producing high-quality beef cattle. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fishing fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development. Many Orcadian seamen became involved in whaling in Arctic waters during the 19th century, although the boats were generally based elsewhere in Britain. World Wars Orkney was the site of a naval base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in World War I. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future; however, the German sailors opened the sea-cocks and scuttled all the ships. During World War I the 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn in Shetland and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4,500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system. In total, Shetland lost more than 500 men, a higher proportion than any other part of Britain, and there were waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s. One month into World War II, the Royal Navy battleship was sunk by a German U-boat at Scapa Flow. As a result barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel. The Scapa Flow base was neglected after the war, eventually closing in 1957. During World War II a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the "Shetland Bus" was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway. About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations, carrying intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. It made over 200 trips across the sea with Leif Larsen, the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war, making 52 of them. The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, although in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in the islands focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society. Modern times Politics Due to their history, the islands have a Norse, rather than a Gaelic flavour, and have historic links with the Faroes, Iceland, and Norway. The similarities of both geography and history are matched by some elements of the current political process. Both Orkney and Shetland are represented in the House of Commons as constituting the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP), the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael. Both are also within the Highlands and Islands electoral region for the Scottish Parliament. In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, 65.4% of the constituency’s electors voted for Scotland to stay part of the United Kingdom. However, there are also two separate constituencies that elect one Member of the Scottish Parliament each for Orkney and Shetland by the first past the post system. Orkney and Shetland also have separate local Councils which are dominated by independents, that is they are not members of a political party. The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland, contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5% of those cast, but the experiment has not been repeated. Transport Ferry services link Orkney and Shetland to the rest of Scotland, the main routes being Scrabster harbour, Thurso to Stromness and Aberdeen to Lerwick, both operated by NorthLink Ferries. Inter-island ferry services are operated by Orkney Ferries and SIC Ferries, which are operated by the respective local authorities and Northlink also run a Lerwick to Kirkwall service. The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships. Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations. The main airport in Orkney is at Kirkwall, operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair provides services to the Scottish mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Similar services fly from Sumburgh to the Scottish mainland. Inter-Island flights are available from Kirkwall to several Orkney islands and from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands including those from Tingwall Airport. There are frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to Scatsta near Sullom Voe, which are used to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland. The scheduled air service between Westray and Papa Westray is reputedly the shortest in the world at two minutes' duration. Economics The very different geologies of the two archipelagos have resulted in dissimilar local economies. In Shetland, the main revenue producers are agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, renewable energy, the petroleum industry (offshore crude oil and natural gas production), the creative industries and tourism. Oil and gas was first landed at Sullom Voe in 1978, and it has subsequently become one of the largest oil terminals in Europe. Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending in Shetland on social welfare, art, sport, environmental measures and financial development. Three-quarters of the islands' workforce is employed in the service sector and Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27.9% of output in 2003. Fishing remains central to the islands' economy today, with the total catch being in 2009, valued at over £73.2 million. By contrast, fishing has declined in Orkney since the 19th century and the impact of the oil industry has been much less significant. However, the soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms, agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce. More than 90% of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle, with cereal production utilising about 4% (), although woodland occupies only . Orkney and Shetland have significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. The European Marine Energy Centre is a Scottish Government-backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday. This has been described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose-built performance testing facility." Billia Croo also houses an experimental underwater data center run by Microsoft. Culture The Northern Isles have a rich folklore. For example, there are many Orcadian tales concerning trows, a form of troll that draws on the islands' Scandinavian connections. Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that forms part of the Stones of Stenness. The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir, the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown and the novelist Eric Linklater. Shetland has a strong tradition of local music. The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style, which is a vibrant part of local culture today. Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson. Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life, but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978. Language The Norn language formerly spoken in the islands, a descendant of Old Norse, a language of the Norse people, brought in by the Vikings, became extinct in the 18th or 19th century. The local dialects of the Scots language, collectively known as Insular Scots, are highly distinctive and retain strong Norn influences. Island names The etymology of the island names is dominated by Norse influence. There follows a listing of the derivation of all the inhabited islands in the Northern Isles. Shetland The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is Hetlandensis recorded in 1190 becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations. This then became Hjaltland in the 16th century. As Shetland's Norn was gradually replaced by Scots Hjaltland became . When use of the letter yogh was discontinued, it was often replaced by the similar-looking letter z, hence Zetland, the mispronounced form used to describe the pre-1975 county council. However the earlier name is Innse Chat – the island of the cats (or the cat tribe) as referred to in early Irish literature and it is just possible that this forms part of the Norse name. The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland – hence the name of Caithness via the Norse Katanes ("headland of the cat"), and the Gaelic name for Sutherland, Cataibh, meaning "among the Cats". The location of "Thule", first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC is not known for certain. When Tacitus mentioned it in AD 98 it is clear he was referring to Shetland. Orkney Pytheas described Great Britain as being triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas. This may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the Orkney islands Orcades, as did Tacitus in AD 98 "Orc" is usually interpreted as a Pictish tribal name meaning "young pig" or "young boar". The old Irish Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc ("island of the pigs"). The ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle-whorl is also cited as evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney. The Pictish association with Orkney is lent weight by the Norse name for the Pentland Firth – Pettaland-fjörðr i.e "Pictland Firth. The Norse retained the earlier root but changed the meaning, providing the only definite example of an adaption of a pre-Norse place name in the Northern Isles. The islands became Orkneyar meaning "seal islands". An alternative name for Orkney is recorded in 1300—Hrossey, meaning "horse isle" and this may also contain a Pictish element of ros meaning "moor" or "plain". Unlike most of the larger Orkney islands, the derivation of the name "Shapinsay" is not obvious. The final 'ay' is from the Old Norse for island, but the first two syllables are more difficult to interpret. Haswell-Smith (2004) suggests the root may be hjalpandis-øy (helpful island) due to the presence of a good harbour, although anchorages are plentiful in the archipelago. The first written record dates from 1375 in a reference to Scalpandisay, which may suggest a derivation from "judge's island". Another suggestion is "Hyalpandi's island", although no one of that name is known to have been associated with Shapinsay. Uninhabited islands Stroma, from the Norse Straumøy means "current island" or "island in the tidal stream", a reference to the strong currents in the Pentland Firth. The Norse often gave animal names to islands and these have been transferred into English in, for example, the Calf of Flotta and Horse of Copinsay. Brother Isle is an anglicisation of the Norse breiðareøy meaning "broad beach island". The Norse holmr, meaning "a small islet" has become "Holm" in English and there are numerous examples of this use including Corn Holm, Thieves Holm and Little Holm. "Muckle" meaning large or big is one of few Scots words in the island names of the Nordreyar and appears in Muckle Roe and Muckle Flugga in Shetland and Muckle Green Holm and Muckle Skerry in Orkney. Many small islets and skerries have Scots or Insular Scots names such as Da Skerries o da Rokness and Da Buddle Stane in Shetland, and Kirk Rocks in Orkney. See also Kingdom of the Isles References Notes Footnotes General references Armit, Ian (2006) Scotland's Hidden History. Stroud. Tempus. Ballin Smith, B. and Banks, I. (eds) (2002) In the Shadow of the Brochs, the Iron Age in Scotland. Stroud. Tempus. Clarkson, Tim (2008) The Picts: A History. Stroud. The History Press. Gammeltoft, Peder (2010) "Shetland and Orkney Island-Names – A Dynamic Group". Northern Lights, Northern Words. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar. General Register Office for Scotland (28 November 2003) Occasional Paper No 10: Statistics for Inhabited Islands. Retrieved 22 January 2011. Gillen, Con (2003) Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Harpenden. Terra Publishing. Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland. London. HarperCollins. Omand, Donald (ed.) (2003) The Orkney Book. Edinburgh. Birlinn. Nicolson, James R. (1972) Shetland. Newton Abbott. David & Charles. Sandnes, Berit (2003) From Starafjall to Starling Hill: An investigation of the formation and development of Old Norse place-names in Orkney. (pdf) Doctoral Dissertation, NTU Trondheim. Sandnes, Berit (2010) "Linguistic patterns in the place-names of Norway and the Northern Isles" Northern Lights, Northern Words. Selected Papers from the FRLSU Conference, Kirkwall 2009, edited by Robert McColl Millar. Schei, Liv Kjørsvik (2006) The Shetland Isles. Grantown-on-Spey. Colin Baxter Photography. Shetland Islands Council (2010) "Shetland in Statistics 2010" (pdf) Economic Development Unit. Lerwick. Retrieved 6 March 2011 Thomson, William P. L. (2008) The New History of Orkney Edinburgh. Birlinn. Turner, Val (1998) Ancient Shetland. London. B. T. Batsford/Historic Scotland. Wickham-Jones, Caroline (2007) Orkney: A Historical Guide. Edinburgh. Birlinn. Watson, W. J. (1994) The Celtic Place-Names of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn. . First published 1926. Archipelagoes of the Atlantic Ocean Scottish toponymy Archipelagoes of Scotland

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The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality (Osmanlı Beyliği) in , and ended circa 1453. This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the Ottoman Dynasty in the northwestern Anatolian region of Bithynia, and its transformation from a small principality on the Byzantine frontier into an empire spanning the Balkans, Anatolia, Middle East and North Africa. For this reason, this period in the empire's history has been described as the "Proto-Imperial Era". Throughout most of this period, the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region, and relied upon the support of local warlords Ghazis and vassals (Beys) to maintain control over their realm. By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state, a process which was brought to fruition by Sultan Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481). The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 is seen as the symbolic moment when the emerging Ottoman state shifted from a mere principality into an empire therefore marking a major turning point in its history. The cause of Ottoman success cannot be attributed to any single factor, and they varied throughout the period as the Ottomans continually adapted to changing circumstances. The earlier part of this period, the fourteenth century, is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources. Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I, and very little survives from the rest of the century. The Ottomans, furthermore, did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century, more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe. It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles, so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible, describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a "black hole." Anatolia before the Ottomans At the beginning of the thirteenth century Anatolia was divided between two relatively powerful states: the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Anatolian Seljuks in the central plateau. Equilibrium between them was disrupted by the Mongol invasion and conquest of the Seljuks following the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, and the reconquest of Constantinople by the Byzantine Palaiologos dynasty in 1261, which shifted Byzantine attention away from the Anatolian frontier. Mongol pressure pushed nomadic Turkish tribes to migrate westward, into the now poorly-defended Byzantine territory. For the next two centuries, Anatolian Beyliks were under the suzerainty of the Mongols, especially the Ilkhanate. All coins minted during this period in Anatolia show Ilkhanate rulers. From the 1260s onward Anatolia increasingly began to slip from Byzantine control, as Turkish Anatolian beyliks were established both in formerly Byzantine lands and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate. Political authority in western Anatolia was thus extremely fragmented by the end of the thirteenth century, split between locally established rulers, tribal groups, holy figures, and warlords, with Byzantine and Seljuk authority ever present but rapidly weakening. The fragmentation of authority has led several historians to describe the political entities of thirteenth and fourteenth-century Anatolia as Taifas, or "petty kings", a comparison with the history of late-medieval Muslim Spain. The power of these groups was largely dependent upon their ability to attract military manpower. Western Anatolia was then a hotbed of raiding activity, with warriors switching allegiance at will to whichever chief seemed most able to provide them with opportunities for plunder and glory. Origin of the Ottoman state The Ottoman dynasty is named after the first ruler of the Ottoman polity, Osman I. According to later Ottoman tradition, he was descended from a Turkic tribe which migrated out of Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol Conquests. As evidenced by coins minted during his reign, Osman's father was named Ertuğrul, but beyond this the details "are too mythological to be taken for granted." The origin of the Ottoman dynasty isn't known for sure but it is known that it was established by Turks from Central Asia, who migrated to Anatolia and were under Mongol suzerainty. Likewise, nothing is known about how Osman first established his principality (beylik) as the sources, none of them contemporary, provide many different and conflicting origin stories. What is certain is that at some point in the late thirteenth century Osman emerged as the leader of a small principality centered on the town of Söğüt in the north-western Anatolian region of Bithynia. The emergence of Osman as a leader is marked by him issuing coins in his name, unlike his predecessors in the last two centuries who issued coins in the name of the Illkhanates. Osman's principality was initially supported by the tribal manpower of nomadic Turkish groups, whom he led in raids against the Byzantine territories of the region. This Ottoman tribe was based not on blood-ties, but on political expedience. Thus it was inclusive of all who wished to join, including people of Byzantine origin. The Ottoman enterprise came to be led by several great warrior families, including the family of Köse Mihal, which had a Greek Christian origin and the family of Hranislav, which was Bulgarian. Islam and Persian culture were part of Ottoman self-identity from the start, as evidenced by a land grant issued by Osman's son Orhan in 1324, describing him as "Champion of the Faith". Gaza and gazis in early Ottoman history In 1938 the Austrian historian Paul Wittek published an influential work entitled The Rise of the Ottoman Empire, in which he put forth the argument that the early Ottoman state was constructed upon an ideology of Islamic holy war against non-Muslims. Such a war was known as gaza, and a warrior fighting in it was called a gazi. Wittek's formulation, subsequently known as the "Gaza Thesis," was influential for much of the twentieth century, and led historians to portray the early Ottomans as zealous religious warriors dedicated to the spread of Islam. Beginning in the 1980s, historians increasingly criticized Wittek's thesis. Scholars now recognize that the terms gaza and gazi did not have strictly religious connotations for the early Ottomans, and were often used in a secular sense to simply refer to raids. Additionally, the early Ottomans were neither strict orthodox Muslims nor were they unwilling to cooperate with non-Muslims, and several of the companions of the first Ottoman rulers were either non-Muslims or recent converts. The idea of holy war existed during the fourteenth century, but it was only one of many factors influencing Ottoman behavior. It was only later, in the fifteenth century, that Ottoman writers retroactively began to portray the early Ottomans as zealous Islamic warriors, in order to provide a noble origin for their dynasty which, by then, had constructed an intercontinental Islamic empire. Demography Anatolia and the Balkans were greatly impacted by the arrival of the Black Death after 1347. Urban centers and settled regions were devastated, while nomadic groups suffered less of an impact. The first Ottoman incursions into the Balkans began shortly thereafter. Depopulation resulting from the plague was thus almost certainly a major factor in the success of early Ottoman expansion into the Balkans, and contributed to the weakening of the Byzantine Empire and the depopulation of Constantinople. Government During this early period, before the Ottomans were able to establish a centralized system of government in the middle of the fifteenth century, the rulers' powers were "far more circumscribed, and depended heavily upon coalitions of support and alliances reached" among various power-holders within the empire, including Turkic tribal leaders and Balkan allies and vassals. When the Ottoman polity first emerged at the end of the thirteenth century under the leadership of Osman I, it had a tribal organization without a complex administrative apparatus. As Ottoman territory expanded, its rulers were faced with the challenge of administering an ever-larger population. Early on, the Ottomans adopted the Seljuks of Rum as models for administration and the Illkhanates as models for military warfare, and by 1324 were able to produce Persian-language bureaucratic documents in the Seljuk style. The early Ottoman state's expansion was fueled by the military activity of frontier warriors (), of whom the Ottoman ruler was initially merely primus inter pares. Much of the state's centralization was carried out in opposition to these frontier warriors, who resented Ottoman efforts to control them. Ultimately, the Ottomans managed to harness gazi military power while increasingly subordinating them. The early Ottomans were noteworthy for the low tax rates which they imposed on their subjects. This reflected both an ideological concern for the well-being of their subjects, and also a pragmatic need to earn the loyalty of newly conquered populations. In the fifteenth century, the Ottoman state became more centralized and the tax burden increased, prompting criticism from writers. An important factor in Ottoman success was their ability to preserve the empire across generations. Other Turkic groups frequently divided their realms between the sons of a deceased ruler. The Ottomans consistently kept the empire united under a single heir. State centralization The process of centralization is closely connected with an influx of Muslim scholars from Central Anatolia, where a more urban and bureaucratic Turkish civilization had developed under the Seljuks of Rum. Particularly influential was the Çandarlı family, which supplied several Grand Viziers to the early Ottomans and influenced their institutional development. Some time after 1376, Kara Halil, the head of the Çandarlı family, encouraged Murad I to institute a tax of one-fifth on slaves taken in war, known as the pençik. This gave the Ottoman rulers a source of manpower from which they could construct a new personal army, known as the Janissaries (yeniçeri). Such measures frustrated the gazi, who sustained Ottoman military conquests, and created lasting tensions within the state. It was also during the reign of Murad I that the office of military judge (Kazasker) was created, indicating an increasing level of social stratification between the emerging military-administrative class (askeri) and the rest of society. Murad I also instituted the practice of appointing specific frontier warriors as "Lords of the Frontier" (uc begleri). Such power of appointment indicates that the Ottoman rulers were no longer merely primus inter pares. As a way of openly declaring this new status, Murad became the first Ottoman ruler to adopt the title of sultan. Beginning in the 1430s, but most likely earlier, the Ottomans conducted regular cadastral surveys of the territory under their rule, producing record-books known as tahrir defters. These surveys enabled the Ottoman state to organize the distribution of agricultural taxation rights to the military class of timariots, cavalrymen who collected revenue from the land in exchange for serving in the Ottoman army. Timariots came from diverse backgrounds. Some achieved their position as a reward for military service, while others were descended from the Byzantine aristocracy and simply continued to collect revenue from their old lands, now serving in the Ottoman army as well. Of the latter, many were converts to Islam, while others remained Christian. Of great symbolic importance for Ottoman centralization was the practice of Ottoman rulers to stand upon hearing martial music, indicating their willingness to participate in gaza. Shortly after the Conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II discontinued this practice, indicating that the Ottoman ruler was no longer a simple frontier warrior, but the sovereign of an empire. The empire's capital shifted from Edirne, the city symbolically connected with the frontier warrior ethos of gaza, to Constantinople, a city with deeply imperial connotations due to its long history as the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This was seen, both symbolically and practically, as the moment of the empire's definitive shift from a frontier principality into an empire. Military Osman's army at the beginning of the fourteenth century consisted largely of mounted warriors. These he used in raids, ambushes, and hit-and-run attacks, allowing him to control the countryside of Bithynia. However, he initially lacked the means to conduct sieges. Bursa, the first major town conquered by the Ottomans, surrendered under threat of starvation following a long blockade rather than from an assault. It was under Orhan (r. 1323/4-1362) and Murad I (r. 1362-1389) that the Ottomans mastered the techniques of siege warfare. The warriors in Osman's service came from diverse backgrounds. Known variously as gazis and (raiders), they were attracted to his success and joined out of a desire to win plunder and glory. Most of Osman's early followers were Muslim Turks of tribal origin, while others were of Byzantine origin, either Christians or recent converts to Islam. The Ottomans began employing gunpowder weapons in the 1380s at the latest. By the 1420s they were regularly using cannons in siege warfare. Cannons were also used for fortress defense, and shore batteries allowed the Ottomans to bypass a Crusader blockade of the Dardanelles in 1444. By that time, handheld firearms had also come into use, and were adopted by some of the janissaries. Cultural and intellectual life By the early fifteenth century, the Ottoman court was actively fostering literary output, much of it borrowing from the longstanding literary tradition of other Islamic courts further east. The first extant account of Ottoman history ever written was produced by the poet Ahmedi, originally meant to be presented to Sultan Bayezid I but, following the latter's death in 1402, written for his son Süleyman Çelebi instead. This work, entitled the İskendernāme, ("The Book of Alexander") was part of a genre known as "mirror for princes" (naṣīḥatnāme), meant to provide advice and guidance to the ruler with regard to statecraft. Thus rather than providing a factual account of the dynasty's history, Ahmedi's goal was to indirectly criticize the sultan by depicting his ancestors as model rulers, in contrast to the perceived deviance of Bayezid. Specifically, Ahmedi took issue with Bayezid's military campaigns against fellow Muslims in Anatolia, and thus depicted his ancestors as totally devoted to holy war against the Christian states of the Balkans. Political history Osman I (c. 1299–1323/4) Osman's origins are extremely obscure, and almost nothing is known about his career before the beginning of the fourteenth century. The date of 1299 is frequently given as the beginning of his reign, however this date does not correspond with any historical event, and is purely symbolic. By 1300 he had become the leader of a group of Turkish pastoral tribes, through which he ruled over a small territory around the town of Söğüt in the north-western Anatolian region of Bithynia. He led frequent raids against the neighboring Byzantine Empire. Success attracted warriors to his following, particularly after his victory over a Byzantine army in the Battle of Bapheus in 1301 or 1302. Osman's military activity was largely limited to raiding because, by the time of his death, in 1323-4, the Ottomans had not yet developed effective techniques for siege warfare. Although he is famous for his raids against the Byzantines, Osman also had many military confrontations with Tatar groups and with the neighboring principality of Germiyan. Osman was adept at forging political and commercial relationships with nearby groups, Muslim as well as Christian. Early on, he attracted several notable figures to his side, including Köse Mihal, a Byzantine village headman whose descendants (known as the Mihaloğulları) enjoyed primacy among the frontier warriors in Ottoman service. Köse Mihal was noteworthy for having been a Christian Greek; while he eventually converted to Islam, his prominent historical role indicates Osman's willingness to cooperate with non-Muslims and to incorporate them in his political enterprise. Osman I strengthened his legitimacy by marrying the daughter of Sheikh Edebali, a prominent local religious leader who was said to have been at the head of a community of dervishes on the frontier. Later Ottoman writers embellished this event by depicting Osman as having experienced a dream while staying with Edebali, in which it was foretold that his descendants would rule over a vast empire. Orhan (1323/4–1362) Upon Osman's death his son Orhan succeeded him as leader of the Ottomans. Orhan oversaw the conquest of Bithynia's major towns, as Bursa (Prusa) was conquered in 1326 and the rest of the region's towns fell shortly thereafter. Already by 1324, the Ottomans were making use of Seljuk bureaucratic practices, and had developed the capacity to mint coins and utilize siege tactics. It was under Orhan that the Ottomans began to attract Islamic scholars from the east to act as administrators and judges, and the first medrese (University) was established in Iznik in 1331. In addition to fighting the Byzantines, Orhan also conquered the Turkish principality of Karesi in 1345-6, thus placing all potential crossing points to Europe in Ottoman hands. The experienced Karesi warriors were incorporated into the Ottoman military, and were a valuable asset in subsequent campaigns into the Balkans. Orhan married Theodora, the daughter of Byzantine prince John VI Cantacuzenus. In 1346 Orhan openly supported John VI in the overthrowing of the emperor John V Palaeologus. When John VI became co-emperor (1347–1354) he allowed Orhan to raid the peninsula of Gallipoli in 1352, after which the Ottomans gained their first permanent stronghold in Europe at Çimpe Castle in 1354. Orhan decided to pursue war against Europe, Anatolian Turks were settled in and around Gallipoli to secure it as a springboard for military operations in Thrace against the Byzantines and Bulgarians. Most of eastern Thrace was overrun by Ottoman forces within a decade and was permanently brought under Orhan's control by means of heavy colonization. The initial Thracian conquests placed the Ottomans strategically astride all of the major overland communication routes linking Constantinople to the Balkan frontiers, facilitating their expanded military operations. ln addition, control of the highways in Thrace isolated Byzantium from direct overland contact with any of its potential allies in the Balkans and in Western Europe. Byzantine Emperor John V was forced to sign an unfavorable treaty with Orhan in 1356 that recognized his Thracian losses. For the next 50 years, the Ottomans went on to conquer vast territories in the Balkans, reaching as far north as modern-day Serbia. In taking control over the passageways to Europe, the Ottomans gained a significant advantage over their rival Turkish principalities in Anatolia, as they now could gain immense prestige and wealth from conquests carried out on the Balkan frontier. Murad I (1362–1389) Soon after Orhan's death in 1362, Murad I became Sultan. Edirne, 1362 Murad's first major offensive was the conquest of the Byzantine city of Adrianople in 1362. He renamed it to Edirne and made it his new capital in 1363. By transferring his capital from Bursa in Anatolia to that newly won city in Thrace, Murad signaled his intentions to continue Ottoman expansion in Southeast Europe. Before the conquest of Edirne, most Christian Europeans regarded the Ottoman presence in Thrace as merely the latest unpleasant episode in a long string of chaotic events in the Balkans. After Murad I designated Edirne as his capital, they realized that the Ottomans intended to remain in Europe. The Balkan states of Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia were frightened by Ottoman conquests in Thrace, and were ill-prepared to deal with the threat. Byzantine territory was reduced and fragmented. It consisted mostly of the capital, Constantinople and its Thracian environs, the city of Thessaloniki and its immediate surroundings, and the Despotate of the Morea in the Peloponnese. Contact between Constantinople and the two other regions was only feasible via a tenuous sea route through the Dardanelles, kept open by the Italian maritime powers of Venice and Genoa. The weakened Byzantine Empire no longer possessed the resources to defeat Murad on its own. Concerted action on the part of the Byzantines, often divided by civil war, was impossible. The survival of Constantinople itself depended on its legendary defensive walls, the lack of an Ottoman navy, and the willingness of Murad to honor provisions in the 1356 treaty, which permitted the city to be provisioned. Bulgaria under Tsar Ivan Aleksandar was expanding and prosperous. However, at the end of his rule, the Bulgarian Tsar made the fatal mistake to divide the Second Bulgarian Empire into three appanages held by his sons. Bulgaria's cohesion was shattered further in the 1350s by a rivalry between the holder of Vidin, Ivan Sratsimir, Ivan Aleksandar's sole surviving son by his first wife, and Ivan Shishman, the product of Aleksandar's second marriage and the tsar's designated successor. In addition to internal problems, Bulgaria was further crippled by a Hungarian attack. In 1365 Hungarian King Louis I invaded and seized Vidin province, whose ruler Ivan Sratsimir was taken captive. Despite the concurrent loss of most Bulgarian Thracian holdings to Murad, Ivan Aleksandar became fixated on the Hungarians in Vidin. He formed a coalition against them with the Bulgarian ruler of Dobrudja Dobrotitsa and Voievod Vladislav I Vlaicu of Wallachia. Although the Hungarians were repulsed and Ivan Sratsimir restored to his throne, Bulgaria emerged more intensely divided. Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed himself tsar of an "Empire" of Vidin in 1370, and Dobrotitsa received de facto recognition as independent despot in Dobrudzha. Bulgaria's efforts were squandered to little domestic purpose and against the wrong enemy. Given Serbia's preeminence in the Balkans under Tsar Stefan Dušan, its rapid dissolution following his death in 1355 was dramatic. The powerful regional Serb nobles demonstrated little respect for his successor, Stefan Uroš V. Young, weak Uroš was incapable of ruling as his father had. The separatist-minded bojars were quick to take advantage of the situation, and Serbia fragmented. First to throw off Serbian control were the Greek provinces of Thessaly and Epiros as well as Dušan's former Albanian holdings. A series of small independent principalities arose in western and southern Macedonia, while the Hungarians encroached deeper into Serb lands in the north. Uros held only the core Serbian lands, whose nobles, although more powerful than their prince, generally remained loyal. These core lands consisted of: The western lands, including Montenegro (Zeta); the southern lands, held by Jovan Uglješa in Serres, encompassing all of eastern Macedonia; and the central Serbian lands, stretching from the Danube south into central Macedonia, co-ruled by Uroš and the powerful noble Vukasin Mrnjavcevic, who held Prilep in Macedonia. Far from preserving Serb unity, Uroš's loosely amalgamated domains were wracked by constant civil war among the regional nobles, leaving Serbia vulnerable to the rising Ottoman threat. Murad I did rise to the power of the Ottoman Empire in 1362. Gallipoli, 1366 By 1370 Murad controlled most of Thrace, bringing him into direct contact with Bulgaria and the southeastern Serbian lands ruled by Uglješa. Uglješa, the most powerful Serb regional ruler, unsuccessfully attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance of Balkan states in 1371. Byzantium, vulnerable to the Turks because of its food supply situation, refused to cooperate. Bulgaria, following Ivan Aleksandar's death early that year, lay officially divided into the "Empire" of Vidin, ruled by Stratsimir (1370–96), and Aleksandar's direct successor Tsar Ivan Shishman (1371–95), who ruled central Bulgaria from Turnovo. Young, his hold on the throne unsteady, threatened by Stratsimir, and probably pressured by the Turks, Shishman could not afford to participate in Uglješa's scheme. Of the regional Serb bojars, only Vukašin, protector of Uroš and Uglješa's brother, joined in the effort. The others either failed to recognize the Ottoman danger or refused to participate lest competitors attacked while they were in the field. Maritsa, 1371 The Battle of Maritsa took place at the Maritsa River near the village of Chernomen on September 26, 1371 with sultan Murad's lieutenant Lala Shahin Pasha and the Serbs numbering some 70,000 men under the command of the Serbian king of Prilep Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his brother despot Uglješa. Despot Uglješa wanted to make a surprise attack in their capital city, Edirne, while Murad I was in Asia Minor. The Ottoman army was much smaller, but due to superior tactics (night raid on the allied camp), Şâhin Paşa was able to defeat the Christian army and kill King Vukašin and despot Uglješa. Macedonia and parts of Greece fell under Ottoman power after this battle. Both Uglješa and Vukašin perished in the carnage. So overwhelming was the Ottoman victory that the Turks referred to the battle as the Rout (or Destruction) of the Serbs. What little unity Serbia possessed collapsed after the catastrophe at Ormenion (Chernomen). Uroš died before the year was out, ending the Nemanjić dynasty, and large areas of central Serbia broke away as independent principalities, reducing it to half of its former size. No future ruler ever again officially held the office of car, and no single bojar enjoyed enough power or respect to gain recognition as a unifying leader. Vukasin's son, Marko, survived the slaughter and proclaimed himself Serbian "king" (kralj) but was unable to enforce his claim beyond his lands around Prilep, in central Macedonia. Serbia slipped into accelerated fragmentation and internecine warfare among the proliferating regional princes. In the aftermath of the Ormenion battle, Ottoman raids into Serbia and Bulgaria intensified. The enormity of the victory and the incessant raids into his lands convinced Turnovo Bulgarian Tsar Shishman of the necessity for coming to terms with the Ottomans. By 1376 at the latest, Shishman accepted vassal status under Murad and sent his sister as the sultan's "wife" to the harem at Edirne. The arrangement did not prevent Ottoman raiders from continuing to plunder inside Shishman's borders. As for Byzantium, Emperor John V definitively accepted Ottoman vassalage soon after the battle, opening the door to Murad's direct interference in Byzantine domestic politics. The Bulgarians and Serbs enjoyed a brief respite during the 1370s and into the 1380s when matters in Anatolia and increased meddling in Byzantium's political affairs kept Murad preoccupied. In Serbia, the lull permitted the northern Serb ‘’bojar’’ Prince Lazar Hrebeljanovic (1371-89), with the support of powerful Bulgarian and Montenegrin nobles and the backing of the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Pec, to consolidate control over much of the core Serbian lands. Most of the Serb regional rulers in Macedonia, including Marko, accepted vassalage under Murad to preserve their positions, and many of them led Serb forces in the sultan's army operating in Anatolia against his Turkish rivals. Dubravnica, 1381 By the mid-1380s Murad's attention once again focused on the Balkans. With his Bulgarian vassal Shishman preoccupied by a war with Wallachian Voievod Dan I of Wallachia (ca. 1383-86), in 1385 Murad took Sofia, the last remaining Bulgarian possession south of the Balkan Mountains, opening the way toward strategically located Niš, the northern terminus of the important Vardar-Morava highway. Saurian Field, 1385 Savra field battle was fought on 18 September 1385 between Ottoman and Serbian forces. The Ottomans were victorious and most of the local Serbian and Albanian lords became vassals. Plocnik, 1386 Murad captured Niš in 1386, perhaps forcing Lazar of Serbia to accept Ottoman vassalage soon afterward. While he pushed deeper into the north—central Balkans, Murad also had forces moving west along the ‘’Via Ingatia’’ into Macedonia, forcing vassal status on regional rulers who until that time had escaped that fate. One contingent reached the Albanian Adriatic coast in 1385. Another took and occupied Thessaloniki in 1387. The danger to the continued independence of the Balkan Christian states grew alarmingly apparent. When Anatolian affairs forced Murad to leave the Balkans in 1387, his Serbian and Bulgarian vassals attempted to sever their ties to him. Lazar formed a coalition with Tvrtko I of Bosnia and Stratsimir of Vidin. After he refused an Ottoman demand that he live up to his vassal obligations, troops were dispatched against him. Lazar and Tvrtko met the Turks and defeated them at Plocnik, west of Niš. The victory by his fellow Christian princes encouraged Shishman to shed Ottoman vassalage and reassert Bulgarian independence. Bileća, 1388 Murad returned from Anatolia in 1388 and launched a lightning campaign against the Bulgarian rulers Shishman and Sratsimir, who swiftly were forced into vassal submission. He then demanded that Lazar proclaim his vassalage and pay tribute. Confident because of the victory at Plocnik, the Serbian prince refused and turned to Tvrtko of Bosnia and Vuk Brankovic, his son-in-law and independent ruler of northern Macedonia and Kosovo, for aid against the certain Ottoman retaliatory offensive. Kosovo, 1389 On St. Vitus' Day, June 15, 1389, the Ottoman army, personally commanded by Sultan Murad, fought the Serbian army led by Serbian Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, which also included contingents led by Vuk Branković, and a contingent sent from Bosnia by King Tvrtko I, commanded by Vlatko Vuković. Estimates of army sizes vary, with the Ottomans having greater numbers (27,000–40,000) than the Orthodox army (12,000–30,000). The battle resulted in a draw. Both armies were mostly wiped out. Both Lazar and Murad lost their lives. Although the Ottomans managed to annihilate the Serbian army, they also suffered high casualties which delayed their progress. The Serbs were left with too few men to effectively defend their lands, while the Turks had many more troops in the east. Consequently, one after the other, the Serbian principalities that were not already Ottoman vassals became so in the following years. The Battle of Kosovo is particularly important to modern Serbian history, tradition, and national identity. Lazar's young and weak successor Stefan Lazarević (1389–1427) concluded a vassal agreement with Bayezid in 1390 to counter Hungarian moves into northern Serbia, while Vuk Branković, the last independent Serb prince, held out until 1392. Bayezid I (1389–1402) Bayezid I (often given the epithet Yıldırım, "the Thunderbolt") succeeded to the sultanship upon the assassination of his father Murad. In a rage over the attack, he ordered all Serbian captives killed; Beyazid became known as Yıldırım, the lightning bolt, for the speed with which his empire expanded. Bayezid, "the Thunderbolt", lost little time in expanding Ottoman Balkan conquests. He followed up on his victory by raiding throughout Serbia and southern Albania, forcing most of the local princes into vassalage. Both to secure the southern stretch of the Vardar-Morava highway and to establish a firm base for permanent expansion westward to the Adriatic coast, Bayezid settled large numbers of ‘’yürüks’’ along the Vardar River valley in Macedonia. The appearance of Turk raiders at Hungary's southern borders awakened the Hungarian King Sigismund of Luxemburg (1387–1437) to the danger that the Ottomans posed to his kingdom, and he sought out Balkan allies for a new anti-Ottoman coalition. By early 1393 Turnovo Bulgaria's Ivan Shishman, hoping to throw off his onerous vassalage, was in secret negotiations with Sigismund, along with Wallachian Voievod Mircea the Old (1386–1418) and, possibly, Vidin's Ivan Sratsimir. Bayezid got wind of the talks and launched a devastating campaign against Shishman. Turnovo was captured after a lengthy siege, and Shishman fled to Nikopol. When that town fell to Bayezid, Shishman was captured and beheaded. All his lands were annexed by the sultan, and Sratsimir, whose Vidin holdings had escaped Bayezid's wrath, was forced to reaffirm his vassalage. Having dealt harshly and effectively with his disloyal Bulgarian vassals, Bayezid then turned his attention south to Thessaly and the Morea, whose Greek lords had accepted Ottoman vassalage in the 1380s. Their incessant bickering among themselves, especially those of the Greek Morean magnates, required Bayezid's intervention. He summoned a meeting of all his Balkan vassals at Serres in 1394 to settle these and other outstanding matters. Among the sultan's attending vassals were the Thessalian and Morean nobles, Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (1391–1425), and Serbian Prince Lazarevic. At the meeting, Bayezid acquired possession of all disputed territories, and all of the attendees were required to reaffirm their vassal status. When the Moreans later reneged on their Serres agreement with Bayezid, the angered Ottoman ruler blockaded the Morean despot's imperial brother Manuel II in Constantinople and then marched southward and annexed Thessaly. The Duchy of Athens accepted Ottoman overlordship when Turkish forces appeared on its border. Although a massive Ottoman punitive raid into the Peloponnese in 1395 netted much booty, events in the Balkans’ northeast saved Morea from further direct attack at the time. While Bayezid was occupied in Greece, Mircea of Wallachia conducted a series of raids across the Danube into Ottoman territory. In retaliation, Bayezid's forces, which included Serb vassal troops led by Lazarevic and Kralj Marko, struck into Wallachia in 1395 but were defeated at Rovine, where Marko was killed. The victory saved Wallachia from Turkish occupation, but Mircea accepted vassalage under Bayezid to avert further Ottoman intervention. The sultan took consolation for his less than victorious efforts in annexing Dobrudzha and in supporting a pretender, Vlad I (1395–97), to the Wallachian throne. Two years of civil war ensued before Mircea regained complete control of the principality. Nicopolis In 1396 Hungarian King Sigismund finally pulled together a crusade against the Ottomans. The crusader army was composed primarily of Hungarian and French knights, but included some Wallachian troops. Though nominally led by Sigismund, it lacked command cohesion. The crusaders crossed the Danube, marched through Vidin, and arrived at Nikopol, where they met the Turks. The headstrong French knights refused to follow Sigismund's battle plans, resulting in their crushing defeat. Because Sratsimir had permitted the crusaders to pass through Vidin, Bayezid invaded his lands, took him prisoner, and annexed his territories. With Vidin's fall, Bulgaria ceased to exist, becoming the first major Balkan Christian state to disappear completely by direct Ottoman conquest. Following Nikopol, Bayezid contented himself with raiding Hungary, Wallachia, and Bosnia. He conquered most of Albania and forced the remaining northern Albanian lords into vassalage. A new, halfhearted siege of Constantinople was undertaken but lifted in 1397 after Emperor Manuel II, Bayezid's vassal, agreed that the sultan should confirm all future Byzantine emperors. Soon thereafter Bayezid was called back to Anatolia to deal with continuing problems with the Ottomans’ Turkish rivals and never returned to the Balkans. Ankara, 1402 Bayezid took with him an army composed primarily of Balkan vassal troops, including Serbs led by Lazarevic. He soon faced an invasion of Anatolia by the Central Asian ruler Timur Lenk. Around 1400, Timur entered the Middle East. Timur Lenk pillaged a few villages in eastern Anatolia and commenced the conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In August, 1400, Timur and his horde burned the town of Sivas to the ground and advanced into the mainland. Their armies met outside of Ankara, at the Battle of Ankara, in 1402. The Ottomans were routed and Bayezid was taken prisoner, later dying in captivity. A civil war, lasting from 1402 to 1413, broke out among Bayezid's surviving sons. Known in Ottoman history as the Interregnum, that struggle temporarily halted active Ottoman expansion in the Balkans. Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413) After the defeat at Ankara followed a time of total chaos in the Empire. Mongols roamed free in Anatolia and the political power of the sultan was broken. After Beyazid was captured, his remaining sons, Suleiman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, Mehmed Çelebi, and Musa Çelebi fought each other in what became known as the Ottoman Interregnum. The Ottoman Interregnum brought a brief period of semi-independence to the vassal Christian Balkan states. Suleyman, one of the late sultan's sons, held the Ottoman capital at Edirne and proclaimed himself ruler, but his brothers refused to recognize him. He then concluded alliances with Byzantium, to which Thessaloniki was returned, and with Venice in 1403 to bolster his position. Suleyman's imperious character, however, turned his Balkan vassals against him. In 1410 he was defeated and killed by his brother Musa, who won the Ottoman Balkans with the support of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II, Serbian Despot Stefan Lazarevic, Wallachian Voievod Mircea, and the two last Bulgarian rulers’ sons. Musa then was confronted for sole control of the Ottoman throne by his younger brother Mehmed, who had freed himself of Mongol vassalage and held Ottoman Anatolia. Concerned over the growing independence of his Balkan Christian vassals, Musa turned on them. Unfortunately, he alienated the Islamic bureaucratic and commercial classes in his Balkan lands by continually favoring the lower social elements to gain wide popular support. Alarmed, the Balkan Christian vassal rulers turned to Mehmed, as did the chief Ottoman military, religious, and commercial leaders. In 1412 Mehmed invaded the Balkans, took Sofia and Nis, and joined forces with Lazarevicys Serbs. In the following year, Mehmed decisively defeated Musa outside of Sofia. Musa was killed, and Mehmed I (1413–21) emerged as the sole ruler of a reunited Ottoman state. Mehmed I (1413–1421) When Mehmed Çelebi stood as victor in 1413 he crowned himself in Edirne (Adrianople) as Mehmed I. His was the duty to restore the Ottoman Empire to its former glory. The Empire had suffered hard from the interregnum; the Mongols were still at large in the east, even though Timur had died in 1405; many of the Christian kingdoms of the Balkans had broken free of Ottoman control; and the land, especially Anatolia, had suffered hard from the war. Mehmed moved the capital from Bursa to Adrianople. He faced a delicate political situation in the Balkans. His Bulgarian, Serbian, Wallachian, and Byzantine vassals were virtually independent. The Albanian tribes were uniting into a single state, and Bosnia remained completely independent, as did Moldavia. Hungary retained territorial ambitions in the Balkans, and Venice held numerous Balkan coastal possessions. Prior to Bayezid's death, Ottoman control of the Balkans appeared a certainty. At the end of the interregnum, that certainty seemed open to question. Mehmed generally resorted to diplomacy rather than militancy in dealing with the situation. While he did conduct raiding expeditions into neighboring European lands, which returned much of Albania to Ottoman control and forced Bosnian King-Ban Tvrtko II Kotromanić (1404–09, 1421–45), along with many Bosnian regional nobles, to accept formal Ottoman vassalage, Mehmed conducted only one actual war with the Europeans — a short and indecisive conflict with Venice. The new sultan had grave domestic problems. Musa's former policies sparked discontent among the Ottoman Balkans’ lower classes. In 1416 a popular revolt of Muslims and Christians broke out in Dobruja, led by Musa's former confidant, the scholar-mystic Şeyh Bedreddin, and supported by Wallachian voivode Mircea I. Bedreddin preached such concepts as merging Islam, Christianity, and Judaism into a single faith and the social betterment of free peasants and nomads at the expense of the Ottoman bureaucratic and professional classes. Mehmed crushed the revolt and Bedreddin died. Mircea then occupied Dobruja, but Mehmed wrested the region back in 1419, capturing the Danubian fort of Giurgiu and forcing Wallachia back into vassalage. Mehmed spent the rest of his reign reorganizing Ottoman state structures disrupted by the interregnum. When Mehmed died in 1421, one of his sons, Murad, became sultan. Murad II (1421–1451) Murad II spent his early years on the throne disposing of rivals and rebellions, most notably the revolts of the Serbs. He also had problems at home. He subdued the rebels of his uncle Mustafa Çelebi and brother Küçük Mustafa. Constantinople, 1422 In 1422, Murad II laid siege to Constantinople for several months and lifted it only after forcing the Byzantine emperor, Manuel II Palaiologos to pay additional tribute. In 1422 the first regular war against Venice began with the Siege of Thessalonica (1422–30). Byzantine involvement in the war ended with the transfer of the city to the Venetian Republic in 1423, which ended Murad's siege of Constantinople. Thessalonica continued to be under siege until 1430, with the Turkish sack of the city. Thessalonika, 1430 On the request of its inhabitants, Venetian troops took control of the city of Salonika (Thessaloniki). The Ottoman army that laid siege to the city knew nothing of the transfer of power, and a number of Venetian soldiers were killed by Ottoman troops, believing them to be Greeks. Murad II had been on peaceful terms with Venice, so the Venetians deemed the act unacceptable and declared full war. Murad acted swiftly, besieging Constantinople and sending his armies to Salonika. The Venetians had gained reinforcements by sea but, when the Ottomans stormed the city, the outcome was forgone and the Venetians fled to their ships. But when the Turks entered and began plundering the city, the Venetian fleet started bombarding the city from the sea-side. The Ottomans fled and the fleet was able to hold off the Ottomans until new Venetian reinforcements arrived to recapture the city. The outcome of the Battle of Salonika was a setback for Murad. Serbia and Hungary allied themselves with Venice. Pope Martin V encouraged other Christian states to join the war against the Ottomans, though only Austria ever sent troops to the Balkans. The war in the Balkans began as the Ottoman army moved to recapture Wallachia, which the Ottomans had lost to Mircea I of Wallachia during the Interregnum and that now was a Hungarian vassal state. As the Ottoman army entered Wallachia, the Serbs started attacking Bulgaria and, at the same time, urged by the Pope, the Anatolian emirate of Karamanid attacked the Empire from the back. Murad had to split his army. The main force went to defend Sofia and the reserves had to be called to Anatolia. The remaining troops in Wallachia were crushed by the Hungarian army that was now moving south into Bulgaria where the Serbian and Ottoman armies battled each other. The Serbs were defeated and the Ottomans turned to face the Hungarians who fled back into Wallachia when they realized they were unable to attack the Ottomans from the back. Murad fortified his borders against Serbia and Hungary but did not try to retake Wallachia. Instead, he sent his armies to Anatolia where they defeated Karaman in 1428. In 1430 a large Ottoman fleet attacked Salonika by surprise. The Venetians signed a peace treaty in 1432. The treaty gave the Ottomans the city of Salonika and the surrounding land. The war by Serbia and Hungary against the Ottoman Empire had come to a standstill in 1441, when the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Albania, and the Jandarid and Karamanid emirates (in violation of the peace treaty) intervened against the Ottomans. Niš and Sofia fell to the Christians in 1443. In 1444, the Empire suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Jalowaz. On July 12, 1444, Murad signed a treaty which gave Wallachia and the Bulgarian province of Varna to Hungary and gave western Bulgaria (including Sofia) to Serbia. It forced Murad to abdicate in favor of his twelve-year-old son Mehmed. Later the same year the Christians violated the peace treaty and attacked anew. Varna, 1444 On November 11, 1444, Murad defeated the Polish–Hungarian army of Wladislaus III of Poland led by Janos Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna. Murad was reinstated with the help of the Janissaries in 1446. Another peace treaty was signed in 1448 giving the Empire Wallachia and Bulgaria and a part of Albania. After the Balkan front was secured, Murad turned east and defeated Timur Lenk's son, Shah Rukh, and the emirates of Candar and Karaman in Anatolia. Kosovo, 1448 At 1448, John Hunyadi saw the right moment to lead a campaign against the Ottoman Empire. After the Defeat of Varna (1444), he raised another army to attack the Ottomans. His strategy based on possible revolt of Balkan people and the surprise attack, also the assumption to destroy the main force of the Ottomans in a single battle. Hunyadi was totally immodest and led his forces without leaving any escort behind. Murad died in the winter 1450–1451 in Edirne. Some have it that he was wounded in a battle against Skanderbeg's Albanian guerillas. Mehmed II (1451–1481) Mehmed II (called Fatih, the Conqueror) again came to the Ottoman throne following Murad's death in 1451. But by conquering and annexing the emirate of Karamanid (May–June, 1451) and by renewing the peace treaties with Venice (September 10) and Hungary (November 20) Mehmed II proved his skills both on the military and the political front and was soon accepted by the noble class of the Ottoman court. Older and a good deal wiser, he made capturing Constantinople his first priority, believing that it would solidify his power over the high military and administrative officials who had caused him such problems during his earlier reign. Good reasons underlay his decision. So long as Constantinople remained in Christian hands, his enemies could use it as either a potential base for splitting the empire at its center or as an excuse for the Christian West's continued military efforts. Constantinople's location also made it the natural "middleman" center for both land and sea trade between the eastern Mediterranean and central Asia, possession of which would ensure immense wealth. Just as important, Constantinople was a fabled imperial city, and its capture and possession would bestow untold prestige on its conqueror, who would be seen by Muslims as a hero and by Muslims and Christians alike as a great and powerful emperor. Mehmed spent two years preparing for his attempt on the Byzantine capital. He built a navy to cut the city off from outside help by sea; he purchased an arsenal of large cannons from the Hungarian gunsmith Urban; he sealed the Bosphorus north of the city by erecting a powerful fortress on its European shore to prevent succor arriving from the Black Sea; and he meticulously concentrated in Thrace every available military unit in his lands. A trade agreement with Venice prevented the Venetians from intervening on behalf of the Byzantines, and the rest of Western Europe unwittingly cooperated with Mehmed's plans by being totally absorbed in internecine wars and political rivalries. Constantinople, 1453 When in 1451 the bankrupt Byzantines asked Mehmed to double the tribute for holding an Ottoman pretender for the throne, he used the request as a pretext for annulling all treaties with the Byzantine Empire. Nevertheless, when he proposed in 1452 to siege Constantinople most of the divan, and especially the Grand Vizier, Çandarlı Halil Pasha, was against it and criticized the Sultan for being too rash and overconfident in his abilities. On April 15, 1452, Mehmed ordered preparations to be made for the siege of Constantinople. In April 1453, Mehmed laid siege to Constantinople. Although the city's defenders, led by Giovanni Giustiniani under Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos's (1448–53) authority, put up a heroic defense, without the benefit of outside aid their efforts were doomed. The formerly impregnable land walls were breached after two months of constant pounding by Mehmed's heavy artillery. In the predawn hours of 29 May 1453, Mehmed ordered an all-out assault on the battered ramparts. After a brief but vicious melee at the walls in which Giustiniani was severely injured coupled with Ottoman troops breaching the walls through a sally port door left open, the Ottoman troops were able to breach the walls and rout the defenders. According to Christian sources, Emperor Constantine died bravely rushing into the oncoming Ottoman troops not to be seen again. However, according to Ottoman sources such as Tursun Beg he threw off his mantle and attempted to flee before being cut down by an injured Ottoman soldier. The Ottoman Army broke through and swept over the city. Constantinople, for a millennium considered by many Europeans the divinely ordained capital of the Christian Roman Empire, fell to Mehmed and was transformed into what many Muslims considered the divinely ordained capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. The fabled city's imperial legacy lived on. After the conquest, the sultan had his grand vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha killed. His following four granviziers were of devshirme origin. During the growth of the Empire Turks seldom were appointed to the high positions. Following the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed built the Topkapı Palace in 1462 and moved the Ottoman capital there from Adrianople. Mehmed had himself titled "Kaiser-i-Rum", or "Roman Caesar", and modelled the state after the old Byzantine Empire, thinking of himself as the successor to the Roman throne. Later, when he invaded Otranto, his goal was to capture Rome and reunite the Roman Empire for the first time since 751. Justinian's cathedral of Hagia Sophia was converted into an imperial mosque, as eventually were numerous other churches and monasteries. The rights of non-Muslim inhabitants were protected to ensure continuity and stability for commercial activities. Never fully recovered from the sack of 1204, and suffering from Byzantium's two centuries of near poverty, Constantinople by the time of Mehmed's conquest was but a hollow shell of its former self. Its population had dwindled, and much property was either abandoned or in a state of disrepair. The sultan immediately began to repopulate the city. Civic and private properties were offered to the public to entice much-needed skilled artisans, craftsmen, and traders of all religions and ethnicities back to the city. Newly conquered Constantinople rapidly grew into a multiethnic, multicultured, and bustling economic, political, and cultural center for the Ottoman state, whose distant frontiers guaranteed it peace, security, and prosperity. Gallery Notes References Bibliography Further reading Surveys State formation Byzantine–Ottoman wars Ottoman Empire, Rise of

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Faces in the Moon is written by Betty Louise Bell. It was published in 1994. Bell describes this work as "essentially autobiographical fiction, except I [Bell] have nine siblings and my mother was still alive when the book was written. Otherwise, it's pretty much from my life." The work describes Lucie Evers' homecoming and examines how she reestablishes connections with her past, her heritage, and her family. Plot summary The novel begins in present time. Lucie returns to her mother's house when Gracie has fallen ill. While her mother is in the hospital, Lucie stays at Gracies house, and her memories take her back to different parts of her childhood. We are offered a glimpse into a very bleak reality. Lucie is required, at the age of four, to make breakfast for Gracie and her current boyfriend, J.D. One morning while Gracie is sleeping off the drinking from the previous night, J.D. begins to verbally abuse Lucie. He mimics her; he tells her shes trash and so is her mother. All of this is being said while the four-year-old makes him breakfast. After J.D. sexually molests her, Gracie decides to take Lucie to the farm to stay with Lizzie. Unaware of the abuse, she only sees that J.D. is upset with Lucies lack of respect for two years, and most of the novel takes place during this time. It is here that Lucie hears more stories of her heritage. Arriving a child wise beyond her years to the pain of the world, Lucie's time at the farm allows her to learn how to be a child, to play, to pretend. It is Lizzie, a "full-blooded" woman, who mediates the young girl's relationship to the traditional past. Lizzie not only represents an alternative to Gracie's dissolute lifestyle, but she also helps preserve the history and meaning of the lives of the women in the family by telling and retelling stories imbued with what she thinks it means to be an Indian woman. Years later, when Gracie is hospitalized, Lucie returns to Oklahoma, and with her return come the memories of childhood. Character synopsis Helen Evers- Helen is a full blood Cherokee Indian woman. She was her father's only girl and his favorite. Helen spent much of her childhood with Lizzie, Emmie, and their mother. She is Gracie and Rozella's mother and Lucie's grandmother. She got pregnant by a Scotch preacher who left her after Rozella was born. Helen and her daughters lived in an abandoned car. She worked during The Great Depression in order to make a living for her family. Helen and Lucie are linked through their love of the story of Quanah Parker. The title of the book refers to Helen's face; Lucie, as a child and as an adult, comments that she sees Helen's face in the moon. Gracie Evers- Gracie is Lucie's mother, Rozella's sister, Helen's daughter, and Lizzie's niece. Gracie represents internalized white, mainstream culture. She has been through numerous husbands and has altered her appearance to look as far from native as possible. She sends Lucie to live with Lizzie at the request of J.D. It is Gracie's death that summons Lucie back to Oklahoma. As an older woman, Gracie stores numerous cans of food in an attempt to ensure she is never hungry like she was as a child. Lucie Evers- Lucie Gracie's daughter and is the protagonist of the story. She is a mixed-blood (Cherokee and Scotch) that is trying to cope with an identity crisis. Lucie is taken to her Aunt Lizzie's house around the age of four and lives with her for the majority of her childhood. She escapes to California and lives there as an adult. However, she returns to Oklahoma when she learns her mother is ill. Lucie is often described as looking like her grandmother Helen. Her memories and experiences are the substance of the book. In an autobiographical fiction context, Betty Louise Bell and Lucie are synonymous. Rozella- Rozella is Gracie's younger sister, Helen's daughter, and Lucie's "Auney." She has been through four marriages yet never divorced. When she grows bored with her husband, she always goes to Gracie for comfort. Lucie describes her as "silent and placid, she told no tales and didn't hit" (11). She is a heavy smoker who always seemed to marry heavy drinkers. When she dies, she leaves Lucie a lighter and a letter (written by Gracie) telling her how proud she was of her. Lizzie Evers- Lizzie is a full blood Cherokee Indian woman. She is a sister-in-law to Helen Evers. Lizzie is Gracie's aunt and Lucie's great aunt. She takes care of Lucie after the incident with J.D and introduces her to the native heritage that her mother (Gracie) has suppressed. Lizzie suffers, and eventually dies, from tuberculosis. She represents the traditional culture of Native Americans and serves as a foil character to Gracie. Uncle Jerry- Uncle Jerry is Lizzie's husband that suffers from war-induced post traumatic stress syndrome. He constantly talks to his radio. At the end of the novel, he uses the money Lizzie saved for her burial to buy a television set. Jeeter- "Old man Jeeter" is the man Helen married to ensure a home and food for her children. He is not represented in a very positive way. Gracie says she and her sister talked to their mother "about old man Jeeter and the hard life they had without her" (18). Nevertheless, the Gracie and Rozella stayed with him after Helen's death. Mabel- Mabel is Gracie's landlady and the woman who tells Lucie of her mother's illness. She is often represented as the prying neighbor. J.D.- J.D. is a supply sergeant stationed at Fort Hill. He is a heavy drinker and steals cigarettes, alcohol, and food from the government. J.D. dislikes Lucie and teases her constantly. He is also very abusive, hitting both Lucie and her mother. In a horrible incident when Lucie is only four years old, J.D. rapes her in the kitchen while Gracie sleeps. He threatens to leave Gracie if she does not get Lucie out of the house. Donny Khatib- Donny is a Lebanese hairdresser and Gracie's third husband. He came to the United States in his late forties. He and Gracie originally set up barber's chairs in the corner of a laundromat to make a living. Donny physically abuses Gracie throughout their marriage. He served seven years in prison after assaulting a teenage boy for making a racist comment against him. Johnnie Bevis- Johnnie is Gracie's current boyfriend. Johnnie is known for dating Indian women. He has children with an Indian woman named Delores but is now interested in Gracie. Uncle Henry- Uncle Henry is Bertha's husband. He spent time in an Indian Boarding School run by Southern Baptists. He and Bertha have ten children who all went to college. Uncle Henry has one leg due to an injury sustained in World War I. Gracie calls him an "uppity Indian" (43). Aunt Bertha- Aunt Bertha is Henry's Choctaw wife. She is short and plump with a round face. In an important part of the novel, Aunt Bertha makes the comment, alluding to Lucie, that mixed bloods are beautiful people. Melvin- Melvin is Lucie's ex-husband. He and his family did not respond kindly to Gracie when she came to Melvin and Lucie's wedding. Emmie- Emmie is Lizzie's sister. Lizzie makes brief reference to her when she describes Helen to Lucie. Major themes Oral storytelling Oral storytelling is prevalent throughout Faces in the Moon. Oral storytelling is very important in Cherokee culture because it is a communal activity. Gracie and Rozella sit around the kitchen table and tell stories. Lizzie tells stories to Lucie. Although Gracie constantly reminds readers that Lucie does not have a story, Lucie is in fact telling her own story through the novel. Lucie often complains that she is tired of living in the past through stories. However, she acknowledges their importance in her life and says, "no matter how great my desire to run away from home, to live in a place and history free from secrets, I always take up my position at the table" (5). The novel itself also sounds like the spoken word. Readers get the sense that they are listening in on a conversation, maybe even participating at times, rather than having limited participation as outsiders. The book is dense with women's voices. Perhaps this is Bell's way of giving agency back to women after their voices had been left out due to colonization. Identity crisis The best example of identity crisis can be seen through Lucie, the character representing the youngest generation. A cause of her identity crisis is through naming. As a child, she lived with an aunt who “never bothered with divorce, she simply lived in one married name until the opportunity for another came along" (11). Not only was it her aunt that did this, but her mother switched names as well. Her mother and aunt constantly moving from man to man and name to name is consistent with how the Cherokee's culture was changing as a result of their removal. This leads Lucie to confusion, and she asks to be baptized as Antoinette. Since she is so young, one may think making up a name is childish play, but baptism is not usually an act taken lightly. It is also important to notice that neither Lucie nor the reader knows her last name, adding to her confused identity. Confusion regarding Cherokee heritage Bell makes her characters question their Cherokee heritage. Lucie can be seen as a victim of this confusion because she cannot relate to her non-native or her native side. Gracie and Auney send mixed signals by choosing “high heels over moccasins, blue eyes over black eyes” (58). They alter their looks to seem less Cherokee but claim to be Cherokee. The women are also mixed bloods (Scotch and Cherokee). Because of the mixed signals from her relatives, Lucie struggles with the notion of whether she is Cherokee or not because she knows she too is of mixed blood and she has conflicting identities. To complicate things even further, she hears Reverend Tom Cottonmouth say, “if youse got Cherokee blood a-running through your veins, no matter how distant, no matter how pre-e-e posterous, no matter how recent, the Cherokee loves y’all”(57). He makes a mockery of the Cherokee saying “For a ten dollar bill, no checks please, we’ll send ya a authentic certificate of Cherokee blood. And wait Indian brothers and sisters, ifn ya do that ‘fore midnight tonight, we’ll send ya a genuine rock from the Cherokee nation”(57). Reverend Cottonmouth's claim is so ridiculous that it makes being Cherokee seem accessible for everyone. It's like the ultimate slap on the face for true Cherokee who suffered through the Indian Removal. This leaves Lucie confused because there is nothing she can relate to. Traditional vs. new Throughout the novel, Bell juxtaposes what it means to live closer to the traditional way of native life as compared to the new way. She uses Lizzie and Gracie as representations of the traditional and new way of life, respectively. She farms the same land that she has always lived on and refuses to accept the stolen goods from Gracie's current love interest. Lizzie shows power and strength as she deals with the terrible disease of tuberculosis. She also tells many stories to Lucie and encourages her to dream. Also, Lizzie and Uncle Jerry share the workload on the farm; this shows the importance of a balance of power between men and women and is another stark contrast to the patriarchal society of mainstream culture. Whereas Lizzie has retained her native qualities, Gracie has internalized mainstream white culture. Her hair is dyed an unnatural platinum blonde. She tried to dye Rozella's hair, and nearly burned it all off. She even shaved Lucie's eyebrows and lined her eyes with dark makeup. Instead of working for her food like Lizzie does, Gracie stores the stolen goods from J.D. and sometimes profits from them. Bell is not only critiquing the internalization of mainstream, white culture, but she is saying that this goes hand-in-hand with the unnatural. Lizzie is connected to nature whereas Gracie seems in a way, concerned only with the synthetic. Generational gap Gracie and Auney's attempt to maintain Cherokee culture through storytelling roles has in a sense failed, or caused a gap, in generations because at this point, the Cherokee are so far removed from their original customs that the next generation (or Lucie) cannot identify with the stories. Lucie says on page 58 that she “knew no Indian princesses, no buckskin, no feathers, no tomahawks.” She goes on to say that she tried to see the women in her life as Indians but that she can’t. Her lack of understanding the stories further complicates her identity as she has no first hand experience with tradition but at the same time is too far gone to get it back. Bell introduces a sense of worry in the text by making the reader question “well what is going to happen to the next generation?” Stability Bell relates stability to both physical and psychological firmness and strength. She constructs characters that differ in their reactions to their Cherokee heritage in order to show that the strongest, most stable characters are those who do not run away from who they are. As a child and as an adult, Lucie struggles with the concept of her mixed blood heritage. She is connected to images of movement as she tries to figure out who she is. There is the image of physical movement as Lucie rides in her mother's car on the way to Lizzie's house. Lucie's physical movement is linked to psychological insecurity because she is unsure of what to expect. While at Lizzie's, Lucie comes down with an illness and has nights of restless sleep. In her dreams, she is running from wild dogs. She sees a native woman in the dream but cannot reach her. In the previous pages, Lucie and Lizzie were discussing why Lucie could not smile and wave to white men in the general store. When Lucie asked why she had to walk with her head down, Lizzie replied, “You’re just different” (107). Lucie's dream and the physical movement of running and reaching within it can be connected to a lack of psychological strength concerning who she is. Lucie tries to run and reach out to her native side, but her actions fall short because she does not understand what it means to be mixed blood, Cherokee, and/or “different.” The movement continues into Lucie's adulthood; she moves to California to escape the psychological hardships of her life in Oklahoma. At the end of the novel, Lucie is at her mother's funeral and sees three does. Her moment of physical and psychological stability emerges when “a stillness surrounded her, no leaf fluttered, and no bird sang, the earth paused waiting as I waited, giving up this moment to her peace” (186). Critique of historical documents The United States Government told Cherokee Indians that they would get a certain amount of land in Indian Territory. However, many Cherokee did not understand the complicated diction that the officials used. Bell spends five and a half pages critiquing the historical documents related to these incidents. Colonel Needles asks Robert Evers, Helen's father, a list of questions regarding his family. Evers answers them to the best of his ability even when some are obviously meant to belittle the Cherokee. For example, the Colonel treats him like a suspect when he asks if he has ever discussed seceding from the Union. The Colonel's last question is intricately worded and ends with the agreement that Evers’ land can be revoked at any time. Evers, not understand, replies with “Sir?”. This scene represents how the government manipulated the Cherokee through complicated language and ultimately made it possible to legally strip them of their promised land. Bell also critiques Helen Evers’ death certificate. Both her date and place of birth is unknown. Her father's name is listed as “none.” Bell expresses, through Lucie's viewpoint, the sickening feeling she gets when she reads this. Critiquing these documents also allows Bell to comment on how the Cherokee people are/were viewed as disposable and in some cases, nonexistent. Historical, cultural, and artistic allusions Quanah Parker Lizzie tells Lucie a story about the mixed blood warrior, Quanah Parker. Later, Lucie dreams about him and wonders if she should tell her great aunt. When Gracie comes to visit, Lucie mentions that she has seen Quanah Parker. Lizzie warns the child of calling up spirits whereas Gracie laughs and calls it another one of Lizzie's stories. In history, Quanah Parker was an "able metis chief of the Comanche people at the end of the nineteenth century during a difficult transition period that took the Plains Indians from their classical age into a new era. A leader of the Quahada band that ranged over Llano Estacado and through its deep canyons on the southern Great Plains, he was one of the last warriors to lead his people permanently to the reservation in Indian Territory." Cherokee Rolls, Dawes Commission At the end of the book, Lucie returns to Oklahoma City and goes to the Oklahoma Historical Society room. She asks to see the Cherokee Rolls so she can look up her grandmother's father. The Dawes Rolls, also known as the "Final Rolls", are the lists of individuals who were accepted as eligible for tribal membership in the "Five Civilized Tribes": Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles. (It does not include those whose applications were stricken, rejected or judged as doubtful.) Those found eligible for the Final Rolls were entitled to an allotment of land, usually as a homestead. Deer Woman When Lucie is at her mother's funeral, she sees three does. This alludes to the Cherokee story of the Deer Woman. "The Deer Woman spirit teaches us that marriage and family life within the community are important and these relationships cannot be entered into lightly. Her tales are morality narratives: she teaches us that the misuse of sexual power is a transgression that will end in madness and death. The only way to save oneself from the magic of Deer Woman is to look to her feet, see her hooves, and recognize her for what she is. To know the story and act appropriately is to save oneself from a lifetime lived in pain and sorrow; to ignore the story is to continue in the death dance with Deer Woman." World War I Lucie mentions that Uncle Jerry and Uncle Henry fought in World War I. This piece of information is important because it helps to explain why Uncle Jerry talks to himself and to the radio. Gracie tells Lucie that the stress from the war caused Uncle Jerry to "lose his piece of mind" (90). Layers of Stories The cover of Bell's Faces in the Moon is an image of Connie Seaborn's 30" X 22" watercolor, Layers of Stories. It shows a woman holding up a child with a moon in the background. It is from the collection of Michael Hunt. Tonto Uncle Jerry make a brief reference to Tonto when he talks to Lucie about Indian names. Tonto was a Native American character on the television show The Lone Ranger. Literary techniques Italicized text Bell uses italicized text liberally in Faces in the Moon. The italicized portions of the book are dedicated to times of intense emotion rather than the facts that make up the backbone of the story. It is important to notice when Bell utilizes italics. She uses it in the horrendous rape scene between Lucie and J.D as well as in Lucie's dreams when she is running from the wild dogs. Changing from regular font to italicized font signals the reader to pay attention to the differences between the two. Bell uses italics to not only convey powerful feeling but also as an escape for Lucie. For example, when Lucie wants to hear her mother's words, she “hears” them through the italicized text. However, she can also use the italicized words as a way to escape unpleasant feelings by dismissing them as dreams. Language and diction Bell's choice of language and diction helps to form a story reminiscent of an oral narrative. Gracie and Rozella's conversation at the kitchen table is one of the best examples of this literary technique. Bell gives her characters certain attributes that allow readers to easily connect to the story. Rozella and Gracie talk over a cup of coffee and a cigarette. They use slang and other expressions that make them relatable to readers. This technique is so rampant throughout the novel that I have identified it as a theme. For more information on oral storytelling in Faces in the Moon, please see the listing under Major Themes. Criticism Literary critics have commented on both the novel's structure as well as thematic content of Faces in the Moon. Below are sections taken from published criticism. In what seems to be an effort to capture the psychological processes of memory coupled with the dynamism of storytelling, the novel presents a series of non-chronological episodes conveyed through first- and third-person narrative perspectives. The text is frequently interrupted by italicized snippets of conversations, memories, dreams, and fanciful thoughts, all of which are presumably important aspects of Lucie's identity as it is being reconstructed; unfortunately, the relevance of these textual fragments is not always clear, and the structure of the novel alone is not enough to sustain the reader's interest in the fictional world. Characters who tell stories are expected, even welcome in a novel structured around the ritual of storytelling. However, so much exposition comes directly from the mouths of the characters, their conversations often appear implausible. Some characters seem to function merely as vehicles for imparting information, rather than interesting individuals with meaningful lives. In addition, an overreliance on trite and commonplace utterances seems an injustice to the uneducated, rural characters of the novel. Overall the narrative is hindered with explanation when drama is wanted. It is curious to note that the stories recast in the novel, stories that are central to the reconstruction of Lucie's identity, often conjure up the reified mythic image of the Native American. For example, reticence and pride, qualities that have been ascribed to the American Indian as invented by outside cultures, are given credence in such phrases as, "that, my mother said, was the Indian in her" (p. 13). As a result, Lucie's remembering, or reconstruction of her Indian identity is tainted with a sense of falsehood, of the stereotypical. But more to the point, Lucie's self-discovery and reconciliation with the traditional past, her Cherokee heritage, is ultimately undermined by the ease with which it occurs. Never is it convincingly established that she has suffered estrangement from the world as a result of her childhood experiences; never is it established that her identity is in need of reconstruction, or rearticulation. It thus remains for Bell to create a cast of characters who are worthy of the thematic concerns evinced in Faces in the Moon. In time Lucie learned to communicate with nature and glimpsed the healing presence of the red earth of Oklahoma. Red, the color that symbolizes power and victory to the Cherokee, appears several times in association with Lizzie's home and in conjunction with Lucie's sickness. In a matter of a few pages red is revealed in bursts of color as a gift of a red jawbreaker, a red shawl, and in the repeated phrase "To tsu hwa ha tlv we da" (Redbird, where have you been?). In a dream image her grandmother healed Lucie, but as an adult Lucie states that she remained cut off from Oklahoma, the Cherokee people, and God. At first reading, the ending seems unnecessary and detracts from the book. However, after reflection, it clearly serves the important purpose of illustrating the continuing cycle of fear and abuse, as Lucie threatens "a pink middle-aged man" at the Oklahoma Historical Society. Lucie has suffered so much throughout her life but is now in a position of power to dish out the grief, as the cycle continues. Told largely in flashbacks by Lucie, who has returned home following her hated mother's stroke, the novel is elegantly written in spare prose replete with meaningful details and realistic dialogue. Bell, herself a Cherokee, deeply understands the culture she writes about and conveys that understanding unobtrusively, yet with great emotional power. References External links Multiple Reviews of Faces in the Moon provided by Barnes & Noble 1994 American novels Books about Native Americans American autobiographical novels Literature by Native American women

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The New Year Honours 1963 were appointments in many of the Commonwealth realms of Queen Elizabeth II to various orders and honours to reward and highlight good works by citizens of those countries. They were announced in supplements to The London Gazette of 28 December 1962 to celebrate the year passed and mark the beginning of 1963. At this time honours for Australians were awarded both in the United Kingdom honours, on the advice of the premiers of Australian states, and also in a separate Australia honours list. The recipients of honours are displayed here as they were styled before their new honour, and arranged by honour, with classes (Knight, Knight Grand Cross, etc.) and then divisions (Military, Civil, etc.) as appropriate. United Kingdom and Commonwealth Earl The Right Honourable Albert Victor, Viscount Alexander of Hillsborough, . Member of Parliament for the Hillsborough Division of Sheffield, 1922–1931 and 1935–1950. Parliamentary Secretary, Board of Trade, 1924; First Lord of the Admiralty, 1929–1931, 1940–1945 and 1945–1946; Minister of Defence, 1946–1950; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1950–1951. Leader of the Labour Peers in the House of Lords since 1955. For political and public services. Baron The Right Honourable Sir Norman Craven Brook, . Lately Secretary of the Cabinet and Joint Permanent Secretary to HM Treasury and Head of the Home Civil Service. Sir Malcolm Trustram Eve, . For public services. Lately First Crown Estate Commissioner. Life Peer Baron Sir Eric Cyril Boyd Edwards, . For political services. Privy Councillor Sir David Callender Campbell, . Member of Parliament for Belfast South since 1952. Chairman, Ulster Unionist Group in the House of Commons since 1955. Lieutenant-Governor of Malta, 1943–1952. Baronet Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, , President, Royal College of Surgeons. William Johnson Taylor, , Member of Parliament for Bradford North since 1950. Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Supply, 1957–1959; Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Air, 1959–1962. For political and public services. Kenneth Pugh Thompson, , Member of Parliament for the Walton Division of Liverpool since 1950. Assistant Postmaster-General, 1957–1959; Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Education, 1959–1962. For political and public services. Richard Hilton Marler Thompson, , Member of Parliament for Croydon West, 1950–1955, and for Croydon South since 1955. An Assistant Government Whip, 1952–1954; a Lord Commissioner of HM Treasury, 1954–1956; Vice-Chamberlain of HM Household, 1956–1957; Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Health, 1957–1959; Parliamentary Under-secretary of State, Commonwealth Relations Office, 1959–1960; Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Works, 1960–1962. For political and public services. Knight Bachelor William Henry Arnold, , The Bailiff, Guernsey. Richard Frank Bonallack, . For political services in Middlesex and Essex. Kenneth Granville Bradley, , Director of the Commonwealth Institute. William John Carron. President, Amalgamated Engineering Union. James Wilfred Cook. For services to Organic Chemistry. Vice-Chancellor, University of Exeter. Alderman Jonathan Lionel Percy Denny, . Lately Sheriff, City of London. Ian Fraser, , Senior Consultant Surgeon, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast. Herbert James Gunn. Portrait Painter. Cyril Ernest Harrison. Vice Chairman and Managing Director, English Sewing Cotton Company. Ltd. Walter Stewart Howard, , Alderman, Warwickshire County Council. Edmund Peder Hudson. Lately Managing Director, Scottish Agricultural Industries, Ltd. Alderman Frederick Lawrence, . For political and public services in London. Frederick Geoffrey Lawrence, . Lately Chairman, General Council of the Bar. William Lindsay, . For political and public services in Sussex. Peter George Macdonald, . For political and public services in Edinburgh. Harold Hill Mullens, Chairman, C. A. Parsons & Co. Ltd. and A. Reyrolle & Co. Ltd. Roger Aubrey Baskerville Mynors, Corpus Christi Professor of Latin Language and Literature, University of Oxford. Gerald David Nunes Nabarro, , Member of Parliament for Kidderminster since 1950. For political and public services. James Denning Pearson, Chief Executive and Deputy Chairman, Rolls-Royce Ltd. Montague Arnet Robinson, Chairman, Mersey Docks and Harbour Board. Harold George Sanders, Chief Scientific Adviser, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Thomas Holmes Sellors, , Surgeon, Middlesex Hospital and the National Heart Hospital. Henry Francis Spencer, Managing Director, Richard Thomas and Baldwins Ltd. Leslie Montagu Thomas, , Member of Parliament for Canterbury since 1953. For political and public services. Rear Admiral George Pirie Thomson, , Royal Navy (Retired). For services as Secretary, Services, Press and Broadcasting Committee. Reginald Everard Lindsay Wellington, , Director of Sound Broadcasting, British Broadcasting Corporation. Richard van der Riet Woolley, , Astronomer Royal. State of Victoria Charles Holly McKay, , President of the Branch in the State of Victoria of the Returned Sailors', Soldiers' and Airmen's Imperial League of Australia. State of Queensland George Edward Green, Company Director, of Brisbane, State of Queensland. For charitable and philanthropic services. State of South Australia James Robert Holden, Resident Director of General Motors–Holden's Proprietary Limited in the State of South Australia. Southern Rhodesia Cyril James Hatty, formerly Minister of Mines and Industrial Development, and African Education. Nyasaland Edgar Ignatius Godfrey Unsworth, , Chief Justice, Nyasaland. Overseas Territories Harry Durham Butterfield, . For public services in Bermuda. Wilfrid Bowen Havelock, Minister for Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Kenya. Cyril George Xavier Henriques, Chief Justice, Windward and Leeward Islands. Joseph Alexander Luckhoo, Chief Justice, British Guiana. André Lawrence Nairac, , Minister of Industry, Commerce and External Communications, Mauritius. Order of the Bath Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) Military Division General Sir Richard Wakefield Goodbody, , (26967), Colonel Commandant, Royal Horse Artillery; Colonel Commandant, Royal Regiment of Artillery; Colonel Commandant, Honourable Artillery Company (Territorial Army). Air Chief Marshal Sir Edmund Hudleston, , Royal Air Force. Civil Division Sir Laurence Norman Helsby, , Joint Permanent Secretary to HM Treasury and head of the Home Civil Service. Until recently Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Labour. Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) Military Division Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Desmond Parry Dreyer, . Vice-Admiral Peter William Gretton, . Army Major-General Richard Elton Goodwin, , (40616), late Infantry; Colonel, 1st East Anglian Regiment (Royal Norfolk and Suffolk). Lieutenant-General Harold Edwin Knott, , (41299), late Royal Army Medical Corps. Royal Air Force Acting Air Marshal Sidney Richard Carlyle Nelson, . Civil Division Thomas George Barnett Cocks, , Clerk of the House of Commons. Sir Keith Anderson Hope Murray, Chairman, University Grants Committee. Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) Military Division Royal Navy Rear-Admiral Isaac William Trant Beloe, . Rear-Admiral John Fitzroy Duyland Bush, . Rear-Admiral Bryan Cecil Durant, . Rear-Admiral Raymond Shayle Hawkins. Rear-Admiral John Howson, . Rear-Admiral The Right Honourable David William Maurice, Viscount Kelburn, . Rear-Admiral Hugh Stirling Mackenzie, . Rear-Admiral John Percival Scatchard, . Surgeon Rear-Admiral Derek Duncombe Steele-Perkins, . Rear-Admiral Sir John Scarlett Warren Walsham, . Army Major-General Theodore Henry Birkbeck, , (44960), late Infantry. Brigadier Ereld Boteler Wingfield Cardiff, , (39101), late Foot Guards. Major-General John Malcolm McNeill, , (41179), late Royal Regiment of Artillery. Major-General Ambrose Neponucene Trelawney Meneces, , (44406), late Royal Army Medical Corps. The Venerable Archdeacon Ivan Delacherois Neill, , (89720), Chaplain-General to the Forces. Major-General Denis Arthur Kay Redman, , (63651), Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Major-General Reginald Booth Stockdale, , (52739), Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Major-General John William Channing Williams, , (41246), late Infantry. Royal Air Force Air Vice-Marshal John Worrall, . Acting Air Vice-Marshal John Lindsay Barker, . Air Commodore Benjamin Ball, . Air Commodore Wilfred Carter, . Air Commodore Hugh Patrick Connolly, . Air Commodore Ian George Esplin, . Air Commodore Lewis MacDonald Hodges, . Air Commodore Richard Julian Paget Prichard, . Civil Division Colonel Sir Hugh John Francis Sibthorp Cholmeley, , Chairman, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association for the County of Lincoln. Dennis Cliff Haselgrove, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Transport. Brigadier Kenneth Soar Holmes, , Director of Postal Services, General Post Office. Alan Blyth Hume, Assistant Under-Secretary of State, Scottish Office. George Leitch, , Assistant Under-Secretary of State, War Office. William Andrew Leitch, First Parliamentary Draftsman, Government of Northern Ireland. David Thomas Lewis, Government Chemist, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. John Haydon McCarthy, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Kenneth McGregor, , Under-Secretary, Board of Trade. Norman Victor Meeres, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Aviation. Ian Montgomery, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Defence. Samuel Dixon Musson, , Principal Assistant Solicitor, Ministry of Health. John Samuel Orme, , Assistant Under-Secretary of State, Air Ministry. William Charles Tame, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Harry Truman Veall, Controller of Death Duties, Board of Inland Revenue. Frederick Charles Wilkins, Director of Stores, Admiralty. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode, , Governor and Commander-in-Chief, North Borneo. Sir Frank Kenyon Roberts, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary (designate) in Bonn. Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) George Herbert Andrew, , Second Secretary, Board of Trade. Sir Charles Richard Morris, Chairman, Inter-University Council for Higher Education Overseas. Norman Edgar Costar, , British Commissioner in Trinidad and Tobago. Paul Francis Grey, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Berne. Herbert Stanley Marchant, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Havana. Derek Martin Hurry Riches, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Leopoldville. John Christopher Blake Richmond, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Kuwait. Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) George Blaker Blaker, Under-Secretary, HM Treasury. Philip Chantler, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Power. Joseph Lewis Reading, Assistant Secretary, Board of Trade. Major General John Francis Dawes Steedman, , Director of Works, Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Andrew Greville Parry Way, Commander, Metropolitan Police, for services in Montreal. Claude Harry Fenner, , Director of Police Affairs, Federation of Malaya. Alexander Galloway, , lately Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, Makerere University College, Kampala, Uganda. George Peter Hampshire, an Assistant Undersecretary of State in the Commonwealth Relations Office. Bertram Speakman Hanson, , of Beaumont, State of South Australia. For services to radiotherapy. Edmund Angus Jones, Company Director, State of Victoria. For public services. James Cameron Slaughter, Town Clerk, City of Brisbane, State of Queensland. William Peter D'Andrade, Secretary to the Treasury, British Guiana. Geoffrey James Ellerton, , Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Defence, Kenya. John Neville Glover, , Legal Adviser to the Western Pacific High Commission and Attorney-General to the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. Jack Rose, , Administrator, Cayman Islands. John Kenneth Thompson, Assistant Secretary, Colonial Office, seconded to the Department of Technical Co-operation. Anthony Michael Francis Webb, , Minister for Legal Affairs and Attorney-General, Kenya. Frank Richard Wilson, , Provincial High Commissioner, Kenya. Geoffrey George Arthur, Counsellor, Her Majesty's Embassy, Cairo. Vernon Thomas Bayley, , Foreign Office. Patrick Loftus Bushe-Fox, Foreign Office. Francis George Kenna Gallagher, Foreign Office. Peter Telford Hayman, , Director-General, British Information Services, New York. Geoffrey Holt Seymour Jackson, Her Majesty's Consul-General, Seattle. Charles Martin Le Quesne, Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Bamako. Horatio Keith Matthews, , Counsellor, British Military Government, Berlin. Horace Phillips, Counsellor (Oriental), Her Majesty's Embassy, Tehran. Frederick Archibald Warner, Foreign Office. Southern Rhodesia Walter Alexander, , Speaker of the Legislative Assembly. Northern Rhodesia Albert William Gaminara, Administrative Secretary. Royal Victorian Order Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) The Right Honourable John, Earl of Eldon, . Brigadier Sir Norman Wilmshurst Gwatkin, . Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) Holroyd Ferris Chambers, . Colonel John Sidney North Fitzgerald, . Oliver Nicholas Millar, . Adrian Christopher Ian Samuel, . Group Captain Thomas Neville Stack, , Royal Air Force. Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) Fourth Class Alison David, . Gordon Robert Stanley Hawkins. Lieutenant-Colonel Harold Andrew Balvaird Lawson. Commander Peter Maslen, Royal Navy. Commander William Terrence McKee, Royal Navy. Rodney Fleetwood Tatchell. Charles George Robert Warner, . Muriel Elsie Irene Waterman. Andrew Money Woodman. Fifth Class John Albert Boulton. Flight Lieutenant Derek St. John Homer, Royal Air Force. Julia Esme Vaughan Hudson. Lieutenant-Commander Michael Anthony Jones, Royal Navy. Norma Crawford Telfer. Michael David Tims. Charles Edward West. Order of the British Empire Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) Military Division Admiral Sir Wilfrid John Wentworth Woods, . Air Chief Marshal Sir Walter Merton, , Royal Air Force. Civil Division Sir Geoffrey Arnold Wallinger, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Rio de Janeiro. Sir Colville Montgomery Deverell, , lately Governor and Commander-in-Chief, Mauritius. Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) Military Division Brigadier Florence Barbara Cozens, , (206096), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Civil Division Margaret Joyce Bishop, , Headmistress, Godolphin and Latymer School, Hammersmith. Elisabeth Joy, Lady Murdoch, . For social welfare services, especially in connection with the erection of a new Children's Hospital in Melbourne, State of Victoria. Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) Military Division Vice-Admiral Norman Egbert Denning, . Vice-Admiral John Graham Hamilton, . Lieutenant-General Denis Stuart Scott O'Connor, , (38415), late Royal Regiment of Artillery. Acting Air Marshal Edouard Michael Fitzfrederick Grundy, , Royal Air Force. Air Vice-Marshal Colin Scragg, , Royal Air Force. Civil Division Brigadier Edward Roy Caffyn, , Vice-Chairman, Council of Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Associations. John Clarke George, , Member of Parliament for the Pollok Division of Glasgow since 1955. Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Power, 1959–1962. For political and public services. Henry Norman Brain, , Her Majesty's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Montevideo. Richard Geoffrey Austin Meade, , lately Her Majesty's Consul-General, Milan. Maurice Arnold Nathan, , Lord Mayor of the City of Melbourne, State of Victoria, since August 1961. Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Military Division Royal Navy Captain Edward Anthony Savile Bailey, . Instructor Captain John Athol Burnett. Captain Eric Arthur Walter Gibbs, (Retired) (lately Commander of the Royal East African Navy). Commodore Raymond Hart, . Captain Francis Armshaw Lowe, . Captain William Ridley Morton Murdoch, , Royal Naval Reserve. Colonel (Acting Brigadier) John Richards, , Royal Marines. Captain Archibald John Ramsay White, . Army Brigadier John Donald Adams, , (47502), late Royal Regiment of Artillery (now R.A.R.O). Brigadier (temporary) John Evelyn Anderson (67073), late Royal Corps of Signals. Brigadier Rodney Lyon Travers Burges, , (62516), late Royal Regiment of Artillery. Brigadier Neville Henry Layard Chesshyre (44916), late Corps of Royal Engineers (now R.A.R.O). Brigadier Kenneth Francis Daniell, , (47534), late Corps of Royal Engineers. Colonel (temporary) Francis Harry Frankcom, , (68894)] Royal Army Educational Corps. Colonel Robert Denys Matthews, , (153256), Staff, Territorial Army. Colonel William Graham Stead Mills (69270), late The Parachute Regiment. Brigadier Edward Forrester Parker, , (44150), late Corps of Royal Engineers (now R.A.R.O). Colonel Leslie Douglas Slater, , (65442), Royal Army Pay Corps. Brigadier Denis Edward Osbert Thackwell (41206), late Corps of Royal Engineers. Brigadier John Edward Francis Willoughby, , (58173), late Infantry Colonel, The Middlesex Regiment (Duke of Cambridge's Own). Brigadier Dimitry Dimitrievitch Zvegintzov, , (55890), late Infantry. Brigadier (temporary) Charles Fred Osborn Breese (66138), late Infantry; Commander, British Joint Services Training Team, Ghana. Royal Air Force Air Commodore Leonard Claude Dennis. Group Captain Charles Stephen Betts. Group Captain Harry Burton, . Group Captain Nigel Martin Maynard, . Group Captain Denis Crowley-Milling, . The Right Reverend Monsignor John Joseph Roche. Group Captain Clive Stanley George Stanbury, . Group Captain Charles Vivian Winn, . Acting Group Captain Thomas Lloyd Davies, . Acting Group Captain Paul Clifford Webb, . Civil Division Arthur Abel, lately County Treasurer, Durham County Council. Ivan George Aspinall, . For political services in Blackpool. Geraldine Maitland Aves, , Chief Welfare Officer, Ministry of Health. David Smith Barbour, , Deputy Chief Veterinary Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Hester Maud Vere Barrington, . For political and public services in Wessex. William Beattie, Librarian, National Library of Scotland. Bernard Boxall, Chairman, Scottish Aviation Ltd. Frederick Mason Brewer, , Chairman, Southern Region Advisory Council for Further Education. Colonel Maurice Beaver Buchanan, . For political and public services in Ayr. Arthur Chadwick, Comptroller of Accounts, Ministry of Public Building and Works. Archibald Gordon Chalmers, , Chairman, Highland Agricultural Executive Committee. Ernest Entwisle Cheesman, Deputy Chief Scientific Officer, Agricultural Research Council. George William Cole, Assistant Secretary, National Assistance Board. John Clifford Colligan, , Secretary-General, Royal National Institute for the Blind. Arthur Henry Cooper, Technical Director, EMI Electronics Ltd. William Dudley Cooper, Secretary and Deputy Receiver, Office of the Receiver for the Metropolitan Police District. Sidney Clifton Smith-Cox, . For political and public services in Weston-super-Mare. Edward Daly, Convener, Lanark County Council. William Croft Dickinson, , Fraser Professor of Ancient (Scottish) History and Palaeography, University of Edinburgh. Alderman William George Ernest Dyer. For political and public services in Nottingham. Guy Eden, Parliamentary Journalist. Robert Septimus Friar Edwards, General Manager, London Airports, Ministry of Aviation. Maurice Gordon Farquharson, , Secretary, British Broadcasting Corporation Professor Wilhelm Siegmund Feldberg, , Head of Division of Physiology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Medical Research. Alwyn Gwilym Sheppard Fidler, City Architect of Birmingham. Muriel Rose Forbes, , Alderman, Middlesex County Council. Russell John Forbes Regional Controller, North Western Region, Board of Trade. Raymond Eustace Ford, , Senior Principal Medical Officer, Ministry of Health. Robert Foster, , Actuary and General Manager, London Trustee Savings Bank. Albert James Galpin, , Secretary, Lord Chamberlain's Office. Maurice Bertram Gates, , Head of the Treaty and Nationality Department, Foreign Office. James Gibson. Assistant Secretary, HM Treasury. Reginald Charles Giggins, Director (Manager, Government Department), General Electric Co. Ltd. Charles Douglas Gill. For political and public services in Wakefield. Maurice Robert Haddock, , General Manager and Secretary, National Dock Labour Board. Charles Edgar Mathewes Hardie, , Deputy Chairman, Board of Management, Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes. Captain Kenneth Lanyon Harkness, , Royal Navy (Retired), Regional Director of Civil Defence, London. William Rundle Hecker, Headmaster, St. Dunstan's College, Catford. Francis George Hole, Chairman, Board of Management, and General Manager, British Transport Hotels and Catering Services. Colonel George Trevor Kelway, . For political and public services in Pembrokeshire. Donald Mayer King, Chairman and Managing Director, George W. King Ltd., Manufacturers of crane hoists. Wilfred Thomas Cousins King. Editor, The Banker. Sydney James Kneale, , First Deemster and Clerk of the Rolls, Isle of Man. William Ernest Clement Lampert, Deputy Director of Electrical Engineering, Admiralty. John Russell Lang Chairman, G. & J. Weir Ltd., Glasgow. Charles Harold Leach Chairman, West Midlands Gas Board. Cyril Frederick Lewis. Chief Commoner, City of London. Harry Lewis, . Chairman, Radnorshire Agricultural Executive Committee. Richard Lewis. Concert and Opera Singer. George Henry Lowthian, , General Secretary, Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers. William James Millar Mackenzie, Professor of Government, Victoria University of Manchester. Robert McWhirter, , Professor of Medical Radiology, University of Edinburgh. William Davis Munrow, Deputy Chief Inspector of Audit, Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Colonel William Nash, . For political and public services in Kent. Frederic Thomas Nicholson, . For political and public services in Norfolk. Hugh Bryan Nisbet, Principal, Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. Sidney Robert Nolan, Painter. Leslie George Norman, , Chief Medical Officer, London Transport Executive. William David Opher, Chairman and Managing Director, Vickers-Armstrongs (Engineers) Ltd. Aylmer John Noel Paterson, Registrar, Judicial Committee, Privy Council Office. James Patton, , Consultant, Smiths Dock Company. Ltd., North Shields. William Ewart Pitts, Chief Constable, Derbyshire Constabulary. Mary Rose Power, HM Inspector of Schools (Divisional Inspector), Ministry of Education. Thomas Vivian Prosser, Managing Director, William Thornton & Sons Ltd., Building and Civil Engineering Contractors, Liverpool. Professor Leslie Norman Pyrah, , Senior Surgeon, Urological Department, Leeds General Infirmary. John William Randall, Chairman, John Dickinson & Co. Ltd., Paper Converters and Stationery Manufacturers. Arthur Hilton Ridley. For political and public services in Northumberland. Arthur Howard Roberts. Lately Senior Representative, United Kingdom Royal Ordnance Factory Mission to Pakistan. Sidney Roberts, Managing Director, Hoover Ltd., Perivale, Middlesex. Alfred Talbot Rogers, . For services to the National Health Service in the South Eastern Counties. Colonel Nigel Victor Stopford Sackville, , Liaison Officer to the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. William McCormick Sharpe, , Registrar, Supreme Court of Judicature in Northern Ireland. Alfred Harold Sheffield, Assistant Secretary, Department of Technical Co-operation. William Vincent Sheppard, Director-General of Production, National Coal Board. Leonard Highton Short, , Director of Overseas Operations, English Electric Co. Ltd. Frank Charles Skinner, , Clerk to Special Commissioners and Inspector of Foreign Dividends, Board of Inland Revenue. Percival John Smith, , Alderman, Glamorgan County Council. John Bamber Speakman, Professor of Textile Industries, University of Leeds. Dorothy Theresa, Lady Spens. For social services in Cambridgeshire, including services to the British Red Cross Society. Russell Parnham Spink, Chairman, Council of the Institute of Certificated Grocers. John Henry Trower, , Chairman, Newcastle upon Tyne Savings Committee. Alfred Rene John Paul Ubbelohde, Professor of Thermodynamics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, University of London. John Walker, Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum. Susan Armour Walker. For political services. Lawrence Farbon Wass, . For political and public services in Enfield. Andrew Watt, Director of Forestry for Scotland. Captain Geoffrey Alan Wild, lately Commodore Master, SS Canberra, Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Margaret Ann Willis. For political services in Stratford-on-Avon. Gordon Chamberlain Wilson, Assistant Secretary (Regional Controller, North Western Region), Ministry of Labour. Colonel Henry James Wilson, , Deputy President, National Farmers' Union of England and Wales. Hubert Martin Wilson, Secretary for Education, Shropshire County Council. Frank Yates, Head of Statistics Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. Francis Dyson Yeatman, Clerk of Assize, Western Circuit, Supreme Court of Judicature. Alexander Hanson Ballantyne, , Counsellor (Commercial), Her Majesty's Embassy, Ankara. John Still Bennett, , Counsellor (Regional Information Officer), Her Majesty's Embassy, Bangkok. Dunstan Michael Carr Curtis, lately Deputy Secretary-General, Council of Europe. Lyndsay Menzies Hopkins, , British Consul, New York. Ronald Cooper Keymer, , British subject resident in Khartoum. Eric Parry, , lately Chief Medical Officer, Kuwait Government Service. Michael Friend Serpell, lately Counsellor, Office of the United Kingdom Commissioner-General for South-East Asia, Singapore. Clifford Bertram Bruce Heathcote-Smith, Counsellor (Commercial) and Consul-General, Her Majesty's Embassy, Copenhagen. George Malcolm Wilson, , General Manager in Bolivia of the Antofagasta-Bolivia Railway. William Bryden, Director of the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart, State of Tasmania. William Joseph Campbell, Auditor-General, State of New South Wales. Joseph Arthur Ellis, a civil engineer, State of Western Australia. For public services. John Callachor Fletcher, President of the Rural Bank, State of New South Wales. Richard Michael Laurie Lemon, Chief Operating Superintendent, East African Railways and Harbours. The Reverend William Frederick Mackenzie, , Aurukun Presbyterian Mission, Gulf of Carpentaria, State of Queensland. Stanley Felipe Owen, Acting Director of Public Works, Federation of Malaya. Ivan Lloyd Phillips, , formerly officiating as Secretary, Ministry of Interior, Federation of Malaya. Percival Lincoln Puckridge, Mayor of Port Lincoln, State of South Australia. Sim Rubensohn, Company Director of Sydney, State of New South Wales. For charitable and other community services. Hugh Leslie Simpson, Chairman, Rural Finance and Settlement Commission, State of Victoria. Arthur Rawdon Spinney, , Chairman of the British Residents' Association in Cyprus. Ernest Henry Lee-Steere, President of the Pastoralists and Graziers Association, State of Western Australia. Geoffrey Noel Noel-Tod, , President of the United Kingdom Citizens' Association in India. Edward Joseph Hartley Berwick, Director of Agriculture, North Borneo. Geoffrey Allardyce Bethell. For public services in the Bahamas. Norman Keith Cameron, . For public services in the Falkland Islands. Angus Alexander Lawrie. For public services in Kenya. Aubrey Gordon Leacock, , Surgeon Specialist, Barbados General Hospital. William Hog McNeill. For public services in Singapore. The Most Reverend Emmanuel Mabathoana, Archbishop of Maseru, Basutoland. Percy Herbert Meadows, , lately Deputy Permanent Secretary, Prime Minister's Office, Singapore. Cuthbert James Norman, Commissioner of Prisons, Hong Kong. Abdool Raman Mahomed Osman. For public services in Mauritius. Murugasu Sockalingam, . For public services in Sarawak. John Gordon Thomson. For public services in Aden. Southern Rhodesia Jack William Pithey, Secretary for Justice and Internal Affairs. Nyasaland Henry John Hawkins Borley, Director of Game, Fish and Tsetse Control Department, Nyasaland. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Military Division Royal Navy Commander Arthur Joseph George Bailey, (Retired). Commander Alan Duncan Baird. Surgeon Commander William Andrew Burnett, . Lieutenant-Commander Arthur Richard Cole. The Reverend Hugh Selwyn Fry, Chaplain. Shipwright Commander Kenneth Albert James Goddard. Lieutenant-Commander Laurence Douglas Hamlyn. Commander James Edward Campbell Kennon. Senior Chief Engineer George James Mathews, Royal Fleet Auxiliary Service. Major John Ivor Headon Owen, Royal Marines. Commander Philip Edward Travis, (Retired). Army Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Ewing Ballantine, , (85673), The Duke of Edinburgh's Royal Regiment (Berkshire and Wiltshire). Lieutenant-Colonel James Arthur Blount, , (288107), Royal Army Service Corps, Territorial Army. Lieutenant-Colonel Albert John Brewster, , (409178), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army. Lieutenant-Colonel Douglas Haig Earl Coker (193505), 13th/18th Royal Hussars (Queen Mary's Own), Royal Armoured Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel (acting) Thomas Alexander Hamilton Coltman (35011), Army Cadet Force (now retired). Lieutenant-Colonel Reginald Davenport (174956), Corps of Royal Military Police. The Reverend Robert Alexander Harpur, Chaplain to the Forces, 2nd Class (291624), Royal Army Chaplains' Department. Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) Ruby Hill, , (297978), Women's Royal Army Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel (acting) Henry James Johnson, , (300853), Special Air Service Regiment, Territorial Army. Lieutenant-Colonel Edmond Robert Jolley, , (363758), 13th/18th Royal Hussars (Queen Mary's Own) Royal Armoured Corps (Employed List 1). Lieutenant-Colonel William Ernest Bruce-Jones, , (74179), The Staffordshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's) (Employed List 1). Lieutenant-Colonel Alistair James Strang Martin, , (74694), Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons). Lieutenant-Colonel George McMurtrie (348418), The Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment) (Employed List 1). Major John Alec Newbery, , (52746), Royal Regiment of Artillery (now retired). Lieutenant-Colonel Agnes Hume Nichol (206354), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel William Henry Pearman (161680), Army Catering Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) (local Colonel) Alistair Ian Greville Ramsay (69132), The Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment) (now R.A.R.O.). Lieutenant-Colonel Leslie Frederick Richards, , (380592), Corps of Royal Military Police. Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) William Edward Robinson (158239), Royal Tank Regiment, Royal Armoured Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel (Chief Recruiting Officer) Brian Wellesley Roe, , (413776), Indian Army (Retired). Lieutenant-Colonel (now Colonel (temporary)) Alan Simmons, , (103823), Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Brevet and Temporary Lieutenant-Colonel Ronald Macaulay Somerville, , (126254), Royal Regiment of Artillery. Lieutenant-Colonel John Douglas Beauchamp Thornton, , (268261), Royal Corps of Signals. Brevet and Temporary Lieutenant-Colonel David Arthur Hodges Toler, , (165027), Coldstream Guards. Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) Michael Robin Rogers Turner, , (74623), The Prince of Wales's Own Regiment of Yorkshire (now R.A.R.O). Lieutenant-Colonel John Llewellyn Waddy (95593), The Parachute Regiment. Lieutenant-Colonel (now Colonel) the Honourable John Robert Warrender, , (118568), The North Somerset Yeomanry/44th Royal Tank Regiment, Royal Armoured Corps, Territorial Army. Lieutenant-Colonel Evelyn Roy Farnell-Watson, , (66635), Royal Tank Regiment, Royal Armoured Corps. Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Reginald Reece Weston, , (165514), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army (now T.A.R.O). Lieutenant-Colonel Peter Conrad White (63840), The Cheshire Regiment. Lieutenant-Colonel (acting) John Bernard Williams, , (79756), Combined Cadet Force. Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Frederick Noble Anderson, , (95071), Corps of Royal Engineers; on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya. Lieutenant-Colonel Brian Devlin, , (252477), Royal Army Medical Corps; on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya. Lieutenant-Colonel John Evelyn Gabain, , lately Assistant Commandant (Volunteers), Singapore. Royal Air Force Wing Commander Ben Brown (46691), (Retired). Wing Commander Eric Burchmore, , (49361). Wing Commander Graeme Keith Bushell (55050). Wing Commander Norman John Cape (54851). Wing Commander Maurice Ernest Claxton, (88130). Wing Commander James Grant Duncan, , (136517). Wing Commander Ronald Alfred George Ellen, , (39973), (Retired). Wing Commander Alan Edgar Foster (51448). Wing Commander Derek Jack Furner, , (127259). Wing Commander Reginald Irvan Gray (45910). Wing Commander Leonard George Hopkinson, , (49141). Wing Commander Eric Edward Wynn Lloyd-Jones (500057). Wing Commander Harry Clark McFarlane (55549). Wing Commander Gordon Packe (37070). Wing Commander Cyril Charles Povey, , (173433). Acting Wing Commander Edwin John Bush (65078), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training Branch). Squadron Leader Joseph Lionel Farr (154733). Squadron Leader Geofrey Roy Piper (151209)) Royal Air Force. Squadron Leader (now Group Captain) the Honourable Peter Beckford Rutgers Vanneck, , (205378), Royal Auxiliary Air Force. Civil Division Colonel Fred Leslie Abel, , Member, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association for the County of Cheshire. Ashley George Abraham, , General Practitioner, Cumberland. Ernst Heinrich Leonhard Albert, Principal, Foreign Office. John Frederick Alcock, Chairman and Managing Director, Hunslet (Holdings) Ltd. William Henry Alderman, Assistant Director of Ordnance Factories, War Office. Robert Arkley Anderson, Member, Newcastle Regional Hospital Board. Alfred Leonard Armstrong, Chief Executive Officer, Ministry of Aviation. Bernard Astley Astley, Principal, Department of Technical Co-operation. Henry James Atkins, Chairman, National Council of Wholesale Egg Districtors. Margaret Ball, Chairman, Devon Advisory Committee, National Assistance Board. Christian Barman. For services as Executive Member, Design Panel, British Transport Commission. William John Lucas Bennett. Lately Principal Clerk to the Corporation of Lloyd's. Margaret Clara Bird, Principal Clerk, Board of Inland Revenue. Thomas Edmund Conrad Bond, Superintending Valuer, Board of Inland Revenue. Gertrude Lyford Boyd, . For political and public services in Ayr. Thomas Wilson Boyd, . For services as President, Hull Fishing Vessel Owners' Association, Ltd. Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Leofric Boyle, Secretary, The Fauna Preservation Society. Ethel Maud Brace, Chairman, East Ham Savings Committee. Laurence Brander. Lately Director, Publications Department, British Council. Clement Sidney Charles Bridge, , Senior Chief Executive Officer, Ministry of Transport. Sibyl Clement Brown, Inspector, Grade I, Children's Department, Home Office. John Brownlee, Secretary and Treasurer, Board of Management for Dumfries and Galloway Hospitals. John William Bruford, , Veterinary Surgeon, Sevenoaks. Willis Butters, , Member, Joint Central Committee and a Vice-President, St. Andrew's Ambulance Association. John Russell Campbell, Chairman, Reading and Slough District Advisory Committee, Southern Regional Board for Industry. Alderman Samuel Gowrie Dalrymple Campbell, , Chairman, Oswestry Disablement Advisory Committee. Harold George Campey, Head of Publicity, British Broadcasting Corporation. Albert John Chislett, Clerk to the Croydon Borough Justices. John William Arthur Chorley, Assistant Commissioner, Civil Service Commission. Harold John Clark, , Assistant Controller of Supplies, Ministry of Public Building and Works. William Frank Catterall Clark, Directing Accountant, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. David Edwin Coffer, General Secretary, British Legion. The Honourable Elsa Joan Collingwood, . For political services in Newton. Demetrius Coming, Chairman and Managing Director, Dexion Ltd. Margaret Morrison Copland, , Headmistress, Grove Park Grammar School for Girls, Wrexham. Leonard James Corbett, lately General Manager, Industrial Estates Management Corporation for Wales. The Honourable Fiennes Neil Wykeham Cornwallis, Chairman, County Quality Bacon Federation. Leonard Richard Creasy, Chief Structural Engineer, Ministry of Public Building and Works. Oswald James Crompton, Director and General Manager, British Insulated Calender's Construction Co. Ltd. Alfred Norman Croxford, Chief Executive Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Walter Dann, , lately Director, Herefordshire Community Council. Suhar David, General Sales Director, Gestetner Ltd. Harold Eynon Davies, Chairman, Cardiff Schools Savings Sub-Committee. Samuel Davies, , Vice-Chairman, Royal College of Advanced Technology, Salford, Lancashire. Joseph Davis. For services to Billiards and Snooker. William Arthur Dearman, Chief Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Major Albert Edward Denman, , Principal, General Post Office. Norman Enoch Dixon, Chairman, Auto-Cycle Union. James Alexandra Thomas Douglas. For political services. Henry James Corley Dryden, , Grade A.III Officer, Government Communications Headquarters. John Webster Dudderidge. For services to Canoeing. Fred Duke, , Alderman, Rotherham County Borough, West Riding of Yorkshire. Frank John Eager, Principal, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Patrick Noel Greer Edge, , Member, National Advisory Council on the Employment of the Disabled. Ernest Edwards, Senior Chief Executive Officer, Export Credits Guarantee Department. Lieutenant-Colonel Martyn Ivor Williams-Ellis, , Chairman, Merioneth Local Employment Committee. Frederick John Evans, Regional Planning Officer, Scottish Development Department. Alderman Harold Fairbotham, Chairman, Kingston upon Hull Watch and Licensing Committee. Thomas Charles Foley, Secretary, Pedestrians' Association for Road Safety. Euphemia Beith Forrest, , Chairman, Streets and Social Organisations Advisory Committee of the Scottish Savings Committee. Jean Richmond Forrest, Senior Dental Officer, Ministry of Health. Lieutenant-Colonel Richard Francis Foster, , Alderman, Haverfordwest Borough Council. Edwin Worton Fowler, , Chairman of No.'s 1367, 2216, 2217, 2308 Squadrons, Combined Committee, Air Training Corps. John William Georgeson, Chief Constable, Caithness Constabulary. Frederick William Goodchild, Regional Controller, London North Region, National Assistance Board. Gontran Iceton Goulden, , Director, The Building Centre. William Kenneth Grimley, Senior Principal Scientific Officer, Admiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment, Portland, Dorset. George Hamilton, Senior Legal Assistant, Ministry of Health and Local Government, Northern Ireland. Albert Harding, Principal Inspector, Board of Customs and Excise. Jack Kempson Harlow, Managing Director, Mid-Tyne Group Training Council, Ltd. John Dudley Harmer, . For political and public services in Kent. Robert Henry Travell Harper, Chief Structural Engineer, The de Havilland Aircraft Co. Ltd. Alfred Lester Harris, Principal Examiner, Board of Trade. Alderman Arnold William Harrison, Deputy Chairman, Sheffield Regional Hospital Board. Clarita Elizabeth Hartley, Training Adviser, Commonwealth Headquarters, Girl Guides Association. Lionel Harvey, , Central Services Planning Officer, British Broadcasting Corporation. Alexander Hay, General Secretary, Association of Agriculture. Harry Hobson, Principal in the firm of Harry Hobson & Co. London, Pedigree Livestock Auctioneers and Exporters. Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Atkinson Holme, , Chairman, Ayrshire War Pensions Committee. Hubert George Hopkins, Senior Principal Scientific Officer, Radio Research Station, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Charles Reginald Hoskyn, , lately General Practitioner, Rugby. Edgar George Leonard Howitt, , Traffic Manager, Cable & Wireless Ltd. Alderman Harold William Hughes. For political and public services in Liverpool. Barnet Harris Hurwitz, . For services to the Jewish community in Belfast. Edward Moss Hutchinson, Secretary, National Institute of Adult Education. William Spencer Johnson. For political and public services in Buckinghamshire. Charles Robert Jones, Assistant Director, Research Association of British Flour Millers. Emyr Evans-Jones. Lately Manager, Operations Department, Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd. Gwilym Brynmor Jones, . For Magisterial Services in Glamorgan. Henry Francis Jones, . Lately Manager, Marine Bunker Fuel, British Mexican Petroleum Company. Trevor Wilson Jones. Formerly Senior Chief Executive Officer, now Principal Executive Officer, Air Ministry. Diana Jordan, Warden, Woolley Hall, West Riding, College for in-service teacher training. Lieutenant-Commander Peter Kemp Kemp, Royal Navy (Retired), Head of Historical Section and Librarian, Admiralty. Alderman Henry Lock Kendell, Chairman, Civil Defence Committee, Croydon. Captain Frederick Walter Kent, Master, SS Hardwicke Grange, Houlder Brothers & Co. Ltd., London. Stanley Kinder, Managing Director, Yorkshire Division, Lancashire and Yorkshire Tulketh Group Ltd. Robert Harold Kneen, Principal Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. Herbert Edwin Knott, Chief Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. John Leslie Templeton Knox, , General Practitioner, Nottingham. Frank Couch Lander, lately President of the Colonial Civil Servants Association. Nathaniel Montague Lane, , lately Surveyor of the Diocese of Southwell, Nottinghamshire. Donald Andrew Lang, Chief Experimental Officer, Ministry of Aviation. Dennis George Charles Lawrence, Assistant Secretary, General Post Office. John Alan Hewson Lees, Naval Architect, The British & Commonwealth Shipping Co. Ltd. David Hazlett Logan, Director and General Manager, Larne Harbour, Ltd. John Robertson Low, Headmaster, Hawick High School, Roxburghshire. Dorothy Sarah Lyndsay, , Chairman, Streets Savings Committee, Londonderry. David McClelland, Principal, Ballymena Technical College, County Antrim. George MacDonald, Principal Clerk of Session, Court of Session, Edinburgh. George Adams McIlrath. For political and public services in County Londonderry. James Sargent Porteous MacKenzie, Grade 2 Officer, Ministry of Labour. Mary Ann Mackie, , Deputy Controller, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire Region, Ministry of Labour. Hugh Ferns McLeod. For services to Rugby Union Football in Scotland. Standish Masterman, Senior Principal Scientific Officer, Ministry of Power. Eric Maxwell. Lately Chief Financial Officer, South of Scotland Electricity Board. John Owen Mayer, Engineer I, Ministry of Aviation. William Simm Melville, Manager, Military Radar Engineering Department, Associated Electrical Industries Ltd., Leicester. Herbert Siegfried Frederick Menges, Musical Director and Conductor, Brighton Philharmonic Society. Roland Arthur Mickelwright, Principal, Hospital Administrative Staff College. John George Milton, Director and Chief Engineer, Permutit Co. Ltd., Chiswick. Arthur Robert Mitchell, , lately Director and Naval Architect, Yarrow & Co. Ltd., Glasgow. Edgar Frank Mitchell, Director, F. W. Mitchell Ltd., Bakers and Confectioners, Worthing. David Yorwerth Morgan, , Education Officer, Pakistan, British Council. Professor James Morrison, Senior Principal Scientific Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Northern Ireland. William James Moyce, Senior Superintendent, Explosives Division Weapons Group, Aldermaston, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. Percy Nickson, Chairman, High Wycombe National Insurance Local Tribunal. Percy Charles Reames Noble, Senior Legal Assistant, Board of Customs and Excise. Violet Alys Norton, Director, Denbighshire Branch, British Red Cross Society. Gwyn Elvire Owen, , Administrator, County of London, Women's Voluntary Service. Evan Darrell Parkhouse, Secretary, Rural Industries Bureau. Henry Glynne Parry, Chairman, Wigan Savings Committee. Gerald Frederick Payne, , Commander, Metropolitan Police. Arnold Elliot Pearce. For services in the improvement of working conditions in the iron founding industry. David Frederick Bayly Pike, Senior Principal Scientific Officer, Army Operational Research Establishment, War Office. David Thomas Jack Prentice. For political services in Leicester. Lewis Thomas Prothero, Superintending Civil Engineer, Headquarters, No. 7 Works Area, Royal Air Force, Newmarket. Francis Anthony Quinn, Senior Chief Executive Officer, Foreign Office. Arthur Morgan Rees, Chief Constable, Denbighshire Constabulary. William Reid, . For political services in County Antrim. John Riddell, , Medical Officer of Health for the Counties of Midlothian and Peebles. Stuart Millward Rix, Deputy Chairman, Southern Electricity Board. Captain John Percy Ruddock, Commander, HM Telegraph Ship Alert. Louis Joseph Rydill, Chief Constructor, Ship Department, Admiralty. Kenneth Saddington, Head of Laboratories, Windscale Works, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. Edward Thomas Salter, Principal Architect, Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Reginald McCartney Samples, , Director, British Information Services in Canada (Chief Information Officer (B)), Commonwealth Relations Office. Captain Owen Harris Shepheard, Master, Esso Austria, Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd., London. William Kennedy Shepherd, Estates and Development Valuer, Plymouth City Council. William Reginald Shepherd, Principal Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. Arthur Sherrard, Chief Executive Officer, Board of Trade. Robert James Pomeroy Simonds, General Manager and Secretary, Land Settlement Association Ltd. Robert Edgar Hope-Simpson, , General Practitioner, Cirencester. Marjorie Sinclair. For political and public services in Belfast. Olive Sinclair. For political services in Northumberland and Durham. Arthur Edward Smith. For services in the establishment of Nature Reserves in Lincolnshire and elsewhere. Alderman Elizabeth Ellen Smith, . For political and public services in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Harry Smith, Headmaster, Stanton Hill County Secondary Modern School, Mansfield. The Reverend Canon Hugh Thomas Smith, lately Chaplain General of Prisons, Prison Commission. Lieutenant-Colonel Samuel Sidney Smith, , Member, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association for the County of Bedford. Trevor Grafton Smith, Special correspondent of the Melbourne Herald Cable Service in London. William Smith, , Managing Director, Moray Firth Fish-selling Company. Henry Stanbridge Egerton Snelson, Chief Rural Officer, National Council of Social Service. Frederick Cory Spear, Alderman, Taunton Borough Council. Thomas Spence, , lately Building Superintendent, New Zealand Shipping Co. Ltd., London. John Carter Malone Sutcliffe, Principal Officer, Northern Ireland District, Ministry of Transport. Charles John Swanson, , Chairman of the General Council (Scotland), British Medical Association. Edward Thorn Sykes, Director, Boxworth Experimental Husbandry Farm. William Isaac Taylor, Chairman, Long Eaton and District Local Employment Committee, Derbyshire. Alderman Cyril Thackray. For political and public services in the West Riding of Yorkshire. George Frederick James Thomas, , Medical Superintendent, St. David's Hospital, Cardiff, lately Medical Officer in charge of Penrhys Smallpox Hospital. John Benjamin Thomas, . For political and public services in South Wales. Adam Bruce Thomson, President, Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colours. Edmund Boyd Thomson, Controller, Statistical Office, Board of Customs and Excise. William Thomson, Head of Duthie Experimental Farm, Rowett Research Institute, Scotland. Richard Francis Thurman. For services to the Boy Scouts Association. Bertram Percival Treagus, Chief Clerk, Taxing Office, Supreme Court of Judicature. Mary Katharine, Lady Trevelyan. For services to the National Federation of Women's Institutes and the Council for the Preservation of Rural England. Angus Turnbull, , Chairman, Sunderland Rural District Savings Committee. Jocelyn Brian Vickery, Chief Officer, Nottinghamshire Fire Brigade. Seymour Charles Vince, Chief Engineer, British Electric Traction Federation Ltd. Percival Dixon Ward, Deputy Director of Statistics, Ministry of Labour. John Edwin Thomas Welland, Secretary, London Motor Cab Proprietors' Association. James Peter Whittet, . For political and public services in Caithness and Sutherland. John Eric Whittome, Chairman, Federation of Agricultural Co-operatives in Great Britain and Ireland. Herbert William Whybrow. For political services in Colchester. Edward John Charles Williams, Principal Fire Service Officer, Air Ministry. Lieutenant-Colonel Gilbert Slater Willis, , Chairman, Sheffield and District War Pensions Committee. William David Willison. For services to housing in Wandsworth. Marjorie Morison Wilson, , Medical Officer, Ministry of Education. Walter Winterbottom. For services as Manager of the English Association Football Team. Alfred Harold Wolseley, County Inspector, Royal Ulster Constabulary. Gordon Bigland Wood. For political services in Cambridgeshire. Stanley Albert Wood, Assistant Director, War Office. Arthur Bett, British subject resident in Colombia. Christopher Thomas Ewart Ewart-Biggs, Her Majesty's Consul, Algiers. Mervyn Brown, First Secretary and Consul, Her Majesty's Embassy, Vientiane. Robert Bruce, British Council Representative, Thailand. John Shearme Curtis, British subject resident in the Philippines. John Dennis Duncanson, First Secretary, British Advisory Mission to Vietnam. John James Stewart Perowne Francey, British subject resident in Panama. Ian Gordon Greenlees, Director, British Institute, Florence. Francis Charlton Hallawell, British subject resident in Brazil. Helen Mary Herrick, lately Lecturer, College of Education, Baghdad. Robert John Hilton, British Council Representative, Morocco. Donald Mackenzie, British subject resident in Mexico. John William Main, First Secretary, Her Majesty's Embassy, Djakarta. Arthur Richard Miles, Inspector-General, Public Safety Branch, British Military Government, Berlin. Frank Mitchell, Director, British Information Services, Washington. Stanley John Robins, Secretary-General, British Chamber of Commerce in Belgium. Michael Charlton Whittall, lately First Secretary, Her Majesty's Embassy, Amman. Keith McQuarrie Bennett, of Whyalla, State of South Australia. For public services. John Patrick Bray, . For services to the British community in Karachi, Pakistan. Robert Cameron. For public services in the State of New South Wales. Major Ralph Sievright Connor, Australian Military Forces (Retired List), Private Secretary to the Governor of the State of New South Wales. Norman George Ellingham, lately Controller of Postal Services, East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration. Ivan Ross Elliott. For services to the dairying industry in the State of South Australia. Fritz Homburg, of Tanunda, State of South Australia. For services to the community. Joseph Hugh Lewis-Hughes. For services to the Civil Defence Organisation, State of New South Wales. John Blackwood Islip, Secretary, Royal Victorian Institute of Architects, and Registrar, Architects Registration Board, State of Victoria. Robert Stanley Kenrick, State Engineer, Pahang, Federation of Malaya. John McCracken, General Manager, Indian Iron and Steelworks, Burnpur, India. Albert Frederick Mellanby, Master Mariner, Marine Superintendent (Lakes), East African Railways and Harbours. Arthur John Stanley Meyers, of Brisbane, State of Queensland. For services to Ambulance and First Aid Organisations. Percival James John Moodie, Alderman of the Bathurst City Council, State of New South Wales. Cedric Mapley Moore, , President of the Municipal Association, State of Tasmania. The Reverend Arthur Preston, of the West End Methodist Mission, Brisbane, State of Queensland. Sydney Parker Roach, in recognition of his service with the Royal Ordnance Factories Mission to Pakistan. Lindsay John Rose, Official Secretary to the Governor of the State of New South Wales. Brian Thomas Leonard Sanderson, Deputy General Manager, Malayan Railway. William Edgar Stannard, formerly Chairman of the Milk Board in the State of Western Australia. Alfred Strickland Thomas, , President, National Rose Society, State of Victoria. Guy Thomson, President, Greenbushes Shire Council, State of Western Australia. Mary Thomson, President, Creche and Kindergarten Association, State of Queensland. The Venerable Frederick William Tugwell, , Archdeacon Emeritus of Parramatta, State of New South Wales. William David Vaughan, , Councillor, Kew City Council, State of Victoria. Thomas Burrup Voice, Chief Police Officer, Johore, Federation of Malaya. Kenneth Martin Wilcox. For services to the British community in India. Ronald Aitken, Director of Prisons, British Guiana. Jairam Bisessar, . For public services in British Guiana. Ernest Berchmore Carter. For public services in Barbados. Cheng Kuok Mee, Education Officer, North Borneo. Cecil Gordon Cox, Commissioner of Works, British Solomon Islands Protectorate. Edwin George Davy, Director, Meteorological Department, Mauritius. Michael James Fairlie, First Assistant Secretary, Swaziland. Joseph George Forsteh, Collector of Customs, Gambia. James Warrington Foster, Member of the Civil Service Commission, Bahamas. Hywel George, Administrative Officer, North Borneo. Gordon Reginald Groves, Director of Agriculture and Fisheries, Bermuda. Edmund Albert Hooper, , Wharf Superintendent, the Singapore Harbour Board. Arthur Jessop, Transport Consultant, Mauritius. Li Fook-shu. For public services in Hong Kong. Chief Daniel Leshoboro Majara. For public services in Basutoland. Ian Wilson MacKichan, , Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Health, and Director of Medical Services, Zanzibar. Noel James Linnington Margetson, , Consultant Surgeon Specialist, Antigua. Gerald Herbert Maule. For services to the theatre in Kenya. Aurelius Peter Montegriffo. For public services in Gibraltar. Elizabeth Pulane Moremi, , Regent of the Batawana Tribe, Bechuanaland Protectorate. Muhoya s/o Kagumba, , Senior Chief, Nyeri District, Kenya. Arthur Ralph Vernon Newsam, Headmaster, Lodge School, Barbados. Herbert Noble. For public services in Hong Kong. Frederick Nigel Moliere Pusinelli, , Deputy Financial Secretary, Aden. William Donald Randall. For public services in Kenya. Jeremiah Reidy, , Senior Medical Officer, Kenya. Andre Francois Marcelin Anatole Sauzier, Attorney-General, Seychelles. Charles Hudson Southwell, Officer-in-Charge, Community Development Project, Long Lama, Sarawak. Janette Mary Azila Stott, Senior Education Officer, Kenya. Robin Horton John Thorne, Assistant Chief Secretary, Aden. George Baskerville Viveash, lately Commissioner of Police, Aden. Walter Ronald Weber, lately Commissioner of Police, British Guiana. Frederick Daniel Wesby, . For public services in British Honduras. Quentin Victor Lee Weston, Assistant Colonial Secretary, Fiji. Charles Alexander Winston. For services to Agriculture in Dominica. Thomas Cheng Hoe Yeo. For public services in Sarawak. Southern Rhodesia Captain Edward Frederick Boultbee, Honorary Curator of the National Museum, Umtali. Robert Huyshe Greaves, formerly a member of the Natural Resources Board. Guy Maxwell McGregor, Director of Forestry. John Henry McIntosh, Town Clerk of Que Que. Northern Rhodesia William Albert Rawdon Gorman, , Under Secretary, Ministry of African Education, Northern Rhodesia. Brian George Tucker, Assistant Secretary, Northern Rhodesia. Nyasaland Alan Robert Lodge, Deputy Commissioner of Police, Nyasaland. Arthur Richard Westrop, . For public services in Nyasaland. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Military Division Royal Navy Lieutenant-Commander Charles Philip Bowers. Lieutenant-Commander (S.D.) Robert Eaton, (Retired). Captain Lionel Percy Fox Edwards, Royal Marines. Instructor Lieutenant-Commander John Gammon, (Retired). Lieutenant (S.D.) John Thomas Headon. Lieutenant-Commander James Ivor James. Lieutenant (S.D.) Gerald Ralph Lawrance, Malayan Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. Lieutenant-Commander John Mallard, Royal Naval Reserve. Lieutenant-Commander Donald Moore, , Malayan Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. Temporary Lieutenant-Commander (S.C.C.) Henry Mulligan, Royal Naval Reserve. Instructor Lieutenant-Commander Sidney Arthur Parkin. Lieutenant-Commander Arthur Neville Simms, (Retired). Lieutenant-Commander Arthur Harold Smith. Engineer Lieutenant Albert Harold Taylor. Supply Lieutenant Archibald Frank Tribe, (Retired). Captain (Acting Major) (S.D.) John Whitty, Royal Marines. Army Captain (Quartermaster) George Allsop (440321), 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards, Royal Armoured Corps. 14461136 Warrant Officer Class I James Kenelm Atkins, Royal Pioneer Corps. Captain (acting) Thomas Atkinson (433010), Army Cadet Force. 1929561 Warrant Officer Class II Kenneth John Banger, Corps of Royal Engineers. 2754930 Warrant Officer Class II Hector George Bell, the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment). Captain (acting) William Albert Bishop, , (65669), Combined Cadet Force. 894240 Warrant Officer Class I George William Blavins, Royal Regiment of Artillery. Major (local Lieutenant-Colonel) Reginald John Bond (174215), Royal Army Educational Corps. Major Ian Cameron, , (212781), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army (now T.A.R.O). Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) (local Colonel) Alistair Ian Greville Ramsay (69132), The Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment) (now R.A.R.O). Major Harry Charlesworth, , (231299), Corps of Royal Engineers, Army Emergency Reserve (now R.A.R.O). Major (Quartermaster) Brooke Moody Consitt (282567), Army Physical Training Corps. Captain Donald Lamond Coutts, , (399514), Intelligence Corps, Territorial Army. Captain (District Officer) Carmel D'Anastasi (454201), Royal Malta Artillery. Major Ellis Dean, , (288761), The Parachute Regiment, Territorial Army. Captain (Q.G.O.) Dilbahadur Rai (398033), 10th Princess Mary's Own Gurkha Rifles. S/14048958 Warrant Officer Class I John Dunlop, Royal Army Service Corps. S/54275 Warrant Officer Class I Thomas Norman Cordell Emery, Royal Army Service Corps. Major (Quartermaster) Leonard John Emm (181979), Royal Regiment of Artillery (now R.A.R.O). Major Joseph Patrick Fonseca (104837), The Royal Welch Fusiliers (Employed List 3) (now retired). Major Jean Gilmour Frame (356416), Women's Royal Army Corps. 22544942 Warrant Officer Class I James Francis, North Irish Horse, Royal Armoured Corps, Territorial Army. Major (acting) Thomas Symington Halliday (298772), Combined Cadet Force. Major (temporary) Lewis James Harper (214309), Royal Army Educational Corps. 4105232 Warrant Officer Class II Walter Verdun Healey, The Herefordshire Light Infantry, Territorial Army. 6913125 Warrant Officer Class II Wilfred Hennon, The Parachute Regiment. 1947393 Warrant Officer Class I Peter Sydney Hitchcock, Military Provost Staff Corps. Major Marmaduke Robert Gwynne-Howell (95175), Royal Regiment of Artillery. 22283089 Warrant Officer Class II Archibald William Jenkyn, Royal Regiment of Artillery. Major (temporary) Claude William Jukes (201091), Royal Army Service Corps (now retired). Major (Quartermaster) Harold George King (342448), 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own), Royal Armoured Corps. Major Andrew Klinghardt, , (350383), Intelligence Corps. Major (now Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary)) Thomas Norman Warner Lacey, , (235027), Royal Regiment of Artillery. Major Isaac William Little (323997), Royal Army Medical Corps. Major George Louden, , (402057), Royal Corps of Signals, Territorial Army. Major Walter Moorhouse (364677), Corps of Royal Engineers. Major Arthur Edwin Murley, , (410936), Royal Regiment of Artillery, Territorial Army. 305405 Warrant Officer Class I Jack Neill, Royal Horse Guards (The Blues). Captain (Quartermaster) Victor Albert Newell (423137), Corps of Royal Engineers. Captain (Quartermaster) Harold Henry Norman (455511), 1st East Anglian Regiment (Royal Norfolk and Suffolk). The Reverend James O'Sullivan, Chaplain to the Forces, 3rd Class (218718), Royal Army Chaplains' Department. Major Gordon Colin Randolph Lithgow Fender (289086), The Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment). Major John Petty, , (112911), The King's Own Royal Border Regiment. S/1509395 Warrant Officer Class I Geoffrey Arthur Reader, Royal Army Service Corps. Major (local Lieutenant-Colonel) Leslie Clinton Robinson, , (74184), Royal Regiment of Artillery (now R.A.R.O). Major Herbert Robert Sawyer (170305), Corps of Royal Military Police, Territorial Army. Major Carl Harry Share (246538), Royal Army Pay Corps. Major James Howard Smart, , (137535), Royal Regiment of Artillery. Major Nigel Ian Bartlett Speller (372381), Royal Army Service Corps. Major Norman Davies Squire, , (97978), Royal Regiment of Artillery. Captain (now Major) (Quartermaster) Gwynne John Thomas (428622), 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards, Royal Armoured Corps. Captain (Quartermaster) Ernest Crewdson Thornborough (450858), Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. Major (Quartermaster) Arthur William Tremlett (420165), Corps of Royal Engineers. The Reverend Kenneth Arthur Vine, Chaplain to the Forces, 3rd Class (now 2nd Class) (199020), Royal Army Chaplains' Department, Territorial Army. Captain (now Major) (Quartermaster) Francis Wakefield (425678), 3rd Green Jackets, The Rifle Brigade. S/234789 Warrant Office Class II Terence Wardle, Royal Army Service Corps. Captain (Electrical and Mechanical Officer) Frank White (447636), Corps of Royal Engineers. The Reverend William Alfred Winton, , Chaplain to the Forces, 3rd Class (74337), Royal Army Chaplains' Department, Territorial Army (now T.A.R.O). Major Brian Mitchell (378923), Royal Army Service Corps; serving with the British Joint Services Training Team, Ghana. Major Anthony Thomas (378703), Royal Army Service Corps; formerly on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya. Major John Rodney David Wattenbach (341761), Royal Tank Regiment, Royal Armoured Corps; on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya. Major John Richard Jordan, , Quartermaster, The Barbados Regiment. Royal Air Force Squadron Leader Wilfred Lochiel Airman, , (180027). Squadron Leader Geoffrey Amor (57385). Squadron Leader Gordon Barry Atkinson, , (42091). Squadron Leader Edward James Baldock (196649), (Retired). Squadron Leader Arthur Frederick Pax Beard (143825). Squadron Leader John Irfon Davies (4032943). Squadron Leader Albert Dunn (171212). Squadron Leader (Acting Wing Commander) Robert Ramsden Edwards (200055). Squadron Leader Alonzo Fearnside (46603). Squadron Leader David Mullarkey (3045930). Squadron Leader Dudley Lionel Pinn (579060). Squadron Leader William Walton Saunders, , (48572). Squadron Leader Edgar Ronald Simmons (57043). Squadron Leader Robert Walker Steel (130986). Squadron Leader Leslie Norman West (568419). Squadron Leader Colin George White (031384), Royal Australian Air Force. Acting Squadron Leader Vernon Clare Belding (569384). Acting Squadron Leader Lawrence Edward Albert Cook (123387), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training Branch). Flight Lieutenant Edward Lewis Atkinson (578661). Flight Lieutenant Reginald Charles Bayly (185455). Flight Lieutenant Dennis Walter de la Rue Browne (55445). Flight Lieutenant John Graham De'Ath (607395). Flight Lieutenant Geoffrey George Greenstreet (351380). Flight Lieutenant Harold Arthur Langridge (591795). Flight Lieutenant Edward Henry Lanser (117251), Royal Auxiliary Air Force. Flight Lieutenant David Norman Lattimer (614686). Flight Lieutenant Frank Mason (4054413). Flight Lieutenant George Ronald Otter (638369). Acting Flight Lieutenant William Denby Mewis (615149). Acting Flight Lieutenant Albert George Simmons (116843), Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training Branch). Master Technician James Vidler (905418). Warrant Officer Walter James Brassett (566368). Warrant Officer Donald Thomas Frank Crispin (536069). Warrant Officer Joseph William Welfare Ford (551315). Warrant Officer Reginald Ernest Goyder (1226153). Warrant Officer Stanley George Kennett (562562). Warrant Officer Eric George Leece (518236). Warrant Officer Alfred George Barron Sapsworth (365543). Warrant Officer Anthony Edward Shearman (971580). Warrant Officer John Albert Smyth (552055). Warrant Officer Charles Thomas Wood (512998). Civil Division William Thomas Adams, Executive Officer, War Office. John Birnie Allan, Local Youth Adviser, Medway Division, Kent Education Committee. The Reverend John Russell Anderson, , Chaplain, HM Prison, Barlinnie, Glasgow. Richard Lewis Angove, Forces Broadcasting Service Technical Grade III, Station Commander, Tripoli, War Office. Cecil Edgar Arnold, Higher Executive Officer, Admiralty. William Croll Arthur, Chairman, Glasgow South Side Local Employment Committee. Kathleen Florence Bailey, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Benja Thomas Baldock. For services to the Association of Waterworks Officers. John Barnacoat, Headmaster, Marlborough School, Osnabruck, British Army of the Rhine. Frank Walter Barnes, Senior Executive Officer, Worcester Divisional Office, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Thomas Bertram Barnes. For public services in Ince-in-Makerfield and district. Fred Bates, Station Superintendent, Thornhill and Huddersfield Power Stations, Yorkshire Division, Central Electricity Generating Board. Leonard William Beardsmore, Sales Manager, British Overseas Fairs, Ltd. William Henry Beasley, Senior Executive Officer, Air Ministry. Cecil Hansford Beere, lately Chief Clerk, Grade I, Edmonton County Court. Joan Gumming Bell, District Staff Officer (Nursing Cadets), West Riding of Yorkshire, St. John Ambulance Brigade. John Bennett, . For services to the Royal Air Forces Association. Lewis Arthur Bennett, Grade 4 Officer, Ministry of Labour. Euphemia Anderson Beveridge, Woman Adviser, Logie Junior Secondary School, Dundee. Albert George Walter Carl Birs, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Housing and Local Government. William Charles Blake, Clerk to the Haverhill Urban District Council, West Suffolk. Nancy Travers Blampied, Organiser, Guernsey, Channel Islands, Women's Voluntary Service. Ernest Bland. For political services. William Arthur Boam, Inspector of Mines and Quarries, Durham Division, Ministry of Power. Frederick Godfrey Bobin, , Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Percival Whitaker Bond, Honorary Secretary, Bingley Savings Committee. Harold Thornton Booth, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Henry William Boutall, Senior Engineer (Contracts), Independent Television Authority. Leslie John Brading, Engineer II, Atomic Energy Establishment, Winfrith, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. Harold Bradley, Chairman, Darwen Local Employment Committee. Alderman John Bradley, . For public services in Swinton and Pendlebury. Benjamin Braim, District Secretary, Hull District, Amalgamated Society of Woodworkers. George Brankin, Technical Assistant, Grade II, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland. Joseph Patrick Breen, Chief Engineer, Patons & Baldwins Ltd., Darlington. Harry Charles Moore-Bridger, Music Teacher, Oswestry High Schools, Shropshire. Frances Eleanor Brockington, Executive Officer, Ministry of Health. Robert Brodie, Area Manager, Dundee (West), National Assistance Board. Margery Castleman Brown, Clothing Organiser, Eastern Region, Women's Voluntary Service. Frederick Bruce, Manager, Croydon Employment Exchange, Ministry of Labour. Thomas Whitson Buchanan, lately Chairman, Scottish Standing Committee, Pharmaceutical General Council (Scotland). Cecil Frederick Buckingham, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Oliver Charles Budd, Chief Officer, Preston Fire Brigade. Thomas Victor Bull, Commercial Manager, The Electric Construction Co. Ltd., Wolverhampton. Frederick James Burman, Engineer II, Ministry of Aviation. Charles Frederick Burrell, Superintendent of Stores, Board of Customs and Excise. James Campbell. For political services. Alexander Cant. For political services in Cowdenbeath. George Alfred Carnill, Chief Superintendent, Sheffield City Police. Frank Robbie Castle, General Secretary, Working Men's Club and Institute Union, Ltd. Ella Ross Chadwick, Divisional President, Kidderminster Division, Worcestershire Branch, British Red Cross Society. Captain John Falkland Champion, Master, MV Harmattan, J. & C. Harrison Ltd., London. Arnold Sigfred Christensen, Estate Manager and Farmer, Sussex. Aleice Mary Clewer. For public services in Leyton. Charles Ernest Clews, Chief Draughtsman, Admiralty. Eva Beatrice Collins, Part-time Staff Nurse, Cuckfield Hospital, Sussex. Gilbert Gordon Harry Cook, Area Superintendent, Northern Region, Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Major Arthur James Coomber, Chairman, Bromley, Sevenoaks and District War Pensions Committee. Arthur Roberts Cork, Deputy Production Manager, Electric & Musical Industries Ltd., Hayes, Middlesex. Squadron Leader William Cox, Member, No. 1054 (Llanelly) Squadron Committee, Air Training Corps. Violet Emily Crawley. For political services in Bedfordshire. Agnes Maria Cronin, Typist, Ministry of Defence. Frederick William Crowder, , Member, Birmingham District Advisory Committee, Midland Regional Board for Industry. Oliver Alfred Sidney Cutts. For services to Sport. Robert Frederick Daffey, Personnel Manager, Saro (Anglesey) Ltd., Beaumaris, Anglesey. Idris Tegwyn Davies, Purser-Radio Officer, SS Jason, Alfred Holt & Co. Liverpool. Margaret Eluned Davies, lately Headmistress, Gellideg Infants School, Merthyr Tydfil. Katharine Marjorie Tindale Davis, lately Senior Executive Officer, Foreign Office. William Henry Dawkes, Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. Ira Albert Denning, District Commissioner for National Savings, Plymouth. George Alfred Donald Denyer, Voluntary Youth Worker in Surrey. Marjorie Dickinson, Headmistress, Stradbroke County Infants School, Sheffield. Herbert Matthew Dickson, Chief Scientific Intelligence Officer, Civil Defence, Lincolnshire (Parts of Holland). Hilda Margaret Dinsmore, Librarian, Houses of Parliament, Northern Ireland. Observer Commander Thomas William Dobson, Group Commandant, No. 23 Group, Durham, Royal Observer Corps. Ernest George Down, Station Master, Waterloo and Waterloo and City Railway Stations. Arthur Robert Dudgeon, Senior Executive Officer, Air Ministry. John Dudleston. For services to the Boy Scouts Association in Birkenhead. Albert Charles Dudley, Assistant Supervisor of Scrutineers, Government Communications Headquarters, Foreign Office. Arthur George Dunn, , Engineer II, War Office. Robert Wilson Dunn, Divisional Officer (Grade II), South-Eastern Area Fire Brigade, Scotland. Gilbert Dyson, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Irene Monica Harries Easton, Grade 5 Officer, Branch B, Foreign Office. Mary Rosalie Jane Edwards, Chief Exhibition Officer, British Museum (Natural History). Noel Elliott, HM Electrical Inspector of Factories, Ministry of Labour. Doris Harwood Ellis. For political services in Workington. George Evans, Civil Defence Officer, Buckinghamshire. George Meredith Evans, Contracts Manager (Aero), Bristol Siddeley Engines Ltd., Filton, Bristol. Charles James Fairfull, Principal Executive Officer, Metropolitan Police Force. Grace Muriel Burdwood Falkus, Chairman, Benfleet Savings Committee. Kenneth William Faulk, Group Secretary, Finance Officer and Supplies Officer, Netherne Hospital Management Committee, Surrey. Christina Pearson Fleming. For political services in Paisley. Doris Vera Fleming, Welfare Worker, Women's Voluntary Service, Royal Australian Air Force Base, Butterworth, Penang, Malaya. James Westwood Fordham, Research Assistant, Bethnal Green Museum, Ministry of Education. Charles Ernest Forryan, Superintendent Engineer, United Birmingham Hospitals. John Bellamy Furneaux Foster, Senior Executive Officer, Central Office of Information. Mary Frances Foster, Clerical Officer (Secretary), Commonwealth Relations Office. Elsie May Foulds, Vice-Chairman, Women's Section, British Legion. John Marcus Fox. For political services in Yorkshire. Lieutenant-Colonel Ronald Allen France, , lately Chairman, Wigan National Assistance Appeal Tribunal. Douglas Cecil Frost, Engineer, Technician I, Foreign Office. Jane Fry, lately Superintendent Radiographer, Royal Northern Hospital. Archibald Gillespie, Crofting Adviser, North of Scotland College of Agriculture. Jacqueline Victoria Gilmore, Lady Visitor, Public Trustee Office. Ellen Gertrude Godfrey, lately Assistant Case Secretary, Distressed Gentlefolk's Aid Association. Henry Golding. For political services in London. George Frederick Gilbert Goody, Higher Executive Officer, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Alexander Grant, , lately Clerical Officer, Regimental Pay Office, Scottish Command. Hugh Stanley Green, Chairman, Ipswich Unit, Sea Cadet Corps. Sarah Jane Melba Griffiths, Chief Clerk, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Associations for the Counties of Carmarthen, Pembroke and Cardigan. Gordon Guttridge, Chairman, Poultry Sub-Committee, Hertfordshire Agricultural Executive Committee. Ronald Peter Hackett, Higher Executive Officer, General Register Office. Edward Francis Hammond, Senior Executive Officer, Board of Trade. Harold John Charles Hampton, Senior Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Alan George Hancock, lately Assistant Secretary, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. Sybil Irene Harris. For political and public services in Flintshire. Arthur William Harvey, Skipper of the diesel electric trawler, Argo of Pembroke. Samuel John Harvey, Accountant and Assistant Secretary, Belfast City and District Water Commissioners. Albert Kenyon Haslam, Head Postmaster, Dover. Mary Elsa Hawker. For political services in Shropshire. David Andrews Hawthorne, lately Honorary Secretary, Olderfleet Primary School Savings Group, Larne, County Antrim. May Edith Hay. For political services in Ilford. Herbert Heginbotham, Organiser, Youth Employment and Welfare Branch, Birmingham Education Committee. Donald Edward Herbert Hellings, Higher Executive Officer, Commonwealth Relations Office. Molly Balvaird Hewett, Honorary Secretary, Interval Club, Ltd. Ruby Ashford Hickman, Headmistress, Silverhill Special School, Newcastle upon Tyne. Irene Minnie Dorothy Higgins, , Principal Matron of Epping Group of Hospitals. Edna Rose Hill, Higher Clerical Officer, Foreign Office. John Hill, Chairman, Western District Committee, Devon Agricultural Executive Committee. Stella Wedderburn Ogilvie Hillier, Features Organiser (Sound Broadcasting), British Broadcasting Corporation. Harold William Hockley, Chief Instrument Designer, Crompton Parkinson (Chelmsford) Ltd., Essex. Charles Henry Frank Hodsoll, Technical Officer I, Receiver's Office. James Holme, Farmer and Breeder of pedigree dairy Shorthorn cattle, North of England. Evelyn Frances Holmes, Clerical Officer (Secretary), Exchequer and Audit Department. Alderman Charles Crapper Holt. For political and public services in Lancashire. Joseph Scott Horne, Member, Croydon and District Disablement Advisory Committee. Harold Redvers Horrabin, Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. William Howarth, Chairman, Warrington, Widnes and District War Pensions Committee. Clifford Bowen Hughes, Clerk to the Llanelly Rural District Council. Frederick Hunnisett, lately Executive Officer, Air Ministry. Thomas Murray Hunter, Chairman and Managing Director, T. M. Hunter Ltd., (Woollen Manufacturers). Thomas Irwin, lately Chief Draughtsman (Engine Detail Drawing Office), John Brown & Co. (Clydebank) Ltd. Walter James Jagelman, Clerical Officer, Ministry of Transport. Walter Leslie Jagger, attached War Office. Haydn Edward James, Principal Probation Officer, Hertfordshire. Edith Chester Johnson, Home Sister, Royal Buckinghamshire Hospital, Aylesbury. Ruth Elizabeth Marr-Johnson, Executive Officer, Ministry of Aviation. Gwyneth Jones. For political and public services in Denbighshire. Margaret Mary Jones, Higher Clerical Officer, HM Stationery Office. Digby Percy Jordan, Divisional Officer, Hampshire Fire Brigade. Stanley George Jorden. For political services in Peckham. Kenneth George Keeble, lately Higher Executive Officer, Admiralty. John Kellett, Group Mechanical Engineer, "A" Group, Durham Division, National Coal Board. John James Kelly, Assistant Division Officer, Ordnance Survey. Albert William King, Finance Officer, Institution of Gas Engineers. Francis Leighton King, Member, and lately Secretary, Perth Local Committee, St. Andrew's Ambulance Association. Albert Kirk, Technical Secretary, British Federation of Master Printers. Henry de Boyne Knight, Consultant, Gas Discharge Engineering, Associated Electrical Industries Research Laboratory, Rugby, Warwickshire. Alfred Harold Knox, Secretary, West Lancashire Wing Welfare Committee, Air Training Corps. Piotr Maciej Kozlowski, Principal Survey Officer, Department of Technical Co-operation. William Patrick Laing, Senior Ship Surveyor, Marine Survey (East of Scotland) Office. Ernest George Lashmar, Engineer Manager, Barclay Curie & Co. Ltd., Glasgow. Wilfrid George Latcham, Estate Surveyor, Ministry of Public Building and Works. Wilfred Laverick, Chairman, Kennington Divisional Savings Committee. John Leckenby, Clerical Officer, Headquarters, Northern Command, War Office. Percy Ormsby Lennon, Security Officer, Grade II, Ministry of Aviation. Commander Robert George Liveing, Royal Navy (Retired), Command Naval Auxiliary Officer (Home), Office of Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth. James Edgar Grant Lockhart, Superintendent and Deputy Chief Constable, Coatbridge Burgh Police. Richard Percy Lockyer, Clerical Officer, Board of Trade. Walter Sheard Long, Chief Experimental Officer, Atomic Weapons Research Establishment, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. Thomas Alfred Luck, , lately Welfare and Security Officer, Brymbo Steel Works, G.K.N. Steel Co. Ltd., Denbighshire. Emily Adamson Gumming Lyle, Chief Superintendent of Typists, Scottish Home and Health Department. John McAuslan, Chief Draughtsman, Admiralty Drawing Office, Harland & Wolff Ltd., Belfast. Robert Meredith McCrory, Commandant, No. 4 District Police Training Centre, Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Warwickshire. James McDonald, Secretary, Northern Ireland, British and Foreign Bible Society. Stuart McDonald, Press Officer, British Information Services, Sydney, Commonwealth Relations Office. Peter Stevens Macgregor, Assistant Chief Engineer, Flight Refuelling Ltd., Tarrant Rushton Airfield, Blandford, Dorset. Alistair Ian McIntyre. For services to the tourist industry in Inverness-shire. Euphemia McLauchlan, President, Oban and District Old People's Welfare Committee, Argyllshire. Malcolm Archy Macleod, Headmaster, Lochmaddy Primary School, North Uist. Hugh MacMillan, Head Forester, Forestry Commission (Scotland). William McNeill, Deputy Surveyor, Down County Council. Christina Janet Mactavish, Clerical Officer (Secretary), Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Arthur Manley, , Assistant Secretary, Historic Buildings Council for Wales, Ministry of Public Building and Works. Albert Henry Margree, Senior Professional Accountant, Ministry of Power. Constance Maud Marston, Senior Executive Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The Reverend William Martin, Organizing Secretary in Scotland, British Sailors Society. Clarence George May, lately Editor of Poultry World. William George Mearns, Assistant Head Postmaster, Aberdeen. Inns Matthew Merry, Actuary, Wigan Trustee Savings Bank. Kenneth Stuart Miles, Senior Experimental Officer, Ministry of Aviation. Percy Bryant King Miller, Inspector, Aeronautical Inspection Service, Air Ministry. Norman Mitchell, Honorary Secretary and Treasurer, Macclesfield and Prestbury Divisions, Soldiers', Sailors' and Airmen's Families Association. George Albert Thomas Monk, Plant Engineer, Telecommunication Division, Associated Electrical Industries Ltd., Hartlepools Trading Estate. Frederick Morgan, Assistant Ship Manager, Cammell Laird & Co. (Shipbuilders & Engineers) Ltd., Birkenhead. George Albert Morgan, lately Chief Public Health Inspector, Borough of Port Talbot, Glamorgan. William Patrick Morton. For services to hospitals in Belfast. George James Moyse, lately Honorary Secretary and Treasurer, Zeebrugge (1918) Association. Frances Nesbitt Nairne. For political services in Hampshire. Maude Euthalie Newsom. For political services in Lancashire. Robert Augustus Newsom, , lately Surgeon, MV Capetown Castle, British & Commonwealth Shipping Co. Ltd., London. William Edgar Nobbs, Senior Foreman (Engineering), (Technical Grade A), HM Dockyard, Rosyth. Ewart Price Northwood, Press Officer, Ulster Office, London. Joan Norwood, Matron, Oakwell Geriatric Hospital, Leeds. Harry Oakley, Engineer Technician, Grade B, Foreign Office. Sydney Lloyd Oldfield, Chief Preventive Officer, Board of Customs and Excise. Dorothy Winifred Lilian Oliver, Higher Executive Officer, Civil Service Commission. Frederick William Palmer, , Principal Foreman of Storehouses, Victualling Department, Gosport, Admiralty. Percy Norman Parker, , Senior Executive Engineer, General Post Office. Winifred Mabel Pates, Church Army Sister, British Army of the Rhine. James Pattie, Test Areas Works Engineer, Rolls-Royce Ltd., Spadeadam, Cumberland. William Bruce Paul, Chief Engineer, SS Baron Inverclyde, H. Hogarth & Sons Ltd., Glasgow. Henry James Gregory Pearce, Honorary Secretary, Bromley Local Savings Committee. Frederick William Pedler, Assistant Engineer, Telephone Manager's Office, Sheffield. Wilfred Peel, Area Manager, Newcastle (North), National Assistance Board. Nellie Pegg (Mrs Green). Lately Secretary and Treasurer, National Joint Industrial Council for the Cement Manufacturing Industry. Caroline Emily Pegge, Shorthand Typist, Export Credits Guarantee Department. Stanley Redvers Pettit, Chief Clerk, County Surveyor's Department, Cambridgeshire. William Donald Pirie, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Albert Pirnie, Pharmacist and Chief Instructor, Army School of Dispensing. Cecily Matcham Pledger, Deputy Director, Pay and Records Department, British Council. Catherine Maude Potter. For political and public services in Glasgow. Thomas Joseph Povey. For political services in Holland-with-Boston. Adam Stanley Prentice, Television Film Cameraman, British Broadcasting Corporation. Charles Price, Manager, Lewis District, North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board. James Gilbert Price, Senior Executive Officer, General Post Office. Samuel Price, Engineer (Maintenance), South Eastern Division, British Transport Commission. Eileen Pringle, Honorary Secretary, Civilian Committee, St. Marylebone Unit, Sea Cadet Corps. George William Prior, Superintendent, Air Ministry Constabulary, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough. Jessica Mary Pritchatt, Valuation Clerk (Higher Grade), Board of Inland Revenue. Gwilym Noah Pugh, Chairman, West District Committee, Glamorgan Agricultural Executive Committee. Thomas Alfred Purcell. For public and social services in Tees-side. John Murdow Purves, , Bible Class Teacher, HM Prison, Edinburgh. Robert Kitchener Victor Pye, Senior Collector of Fisheries Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Rene James Quinault, Programme Organiser, English by Radio (European Services), British Broadcasting Corporation. Samuel Radford, lately Chief Superintendent and Deputy Chief Constable, Salford City Police. Hugh Ramsay, Senior, Chairman, Kincardineshire Local Savings Committee. Samuel Geoffrey Ratcliff, , Chairman, Braintree Rural District Council. Walter John Reed, , Manager, Washwood Heath Employment Exchange, Ministry of Labour. William Ramsey Reid, District Inspector, Royal Ulster Constabulary. Anthony Clayton Rice, Drainage Engineer, Chelmsford Region, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Alfred George Henry Richards, Regional Collector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. Charles William Richardson, Higher Executive Officer, Home Office. Dorothy Emily Richardson, Secretary, Church Army Housing Ltd. Edward Clarence Redvers Richardson, Senior Executive Officer, War Office. Robert Alexander Richey, lately Chief Inspector of Weights and Measures, Ministry of Commerce, Northern Ireland. Dorothy Janet Richman, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Transport. Major Leonard Richmond, . For political services in Bebington. Frederick Albert Riddett, Chairman, Islington North and West Branch, British Legion. Amos Rivers, Senior Accountant, Board of Trade. John Brown Robb, Chairman, Stirling National Assistance Appeal Tribunal. Alexander Roberts, , Chairman, Consett, Blaydon and District War Pensions Committee. Arthur David Macleod Robinson, Clerk of the Richmond Charities. Jack Catto Rockley, Chemist II, Ministry of Aviation. Reuben Rodgers, , Member of Local Committee, Portsmouth Branch, Royal Naval Benevolent Trust. Melinda Olive Rose, Clerical Officer (Secretary), HM Treasury. Eileene Mary Rosling, Member of the Secretariat, British Coal Utilisation Association. Ernest Francis Routley, lately Chief Wireless Technician, Home Office. Robert Arthur Rowden, Head of Field Strength Section, Engineering Research Department, British Broadcasting Corporation. Donald Rowe, Deputy County Advisory Officer, Grade II, National Agricultural Advisory Service. Stella Ivy Rowe, Deputy Sister, Morgannwg Psychiatric Hospital, Bridgend, Glamorgan (Died 14 December 1962). Observer Commander John Buchanan Russell, Group Commandant, No. 21 Group, Preston, Royal Observer Corps. John Richard Russell, Civil Defence Officer, Walsall. Michael Sacco, Civilian Officer, Air Headquarters, Malta. Ada Irene St. Vincent, Chief Superintendent of Typists, Air Ministry. Geoffrey Edward Salisbury. For services to the education of the blind in the Commonwealth overseas. James Bell Salmond, Inspector of Taxes, Board of Inland Revenue. Fred Sanders, Honorary Secretary, Rochdale Local Savings Committee. John Edmund Schofield, Library Adviser, Public Libraries (Nigeria), British Council. John Scott. For public services in Berkshire. Percy Harry Essery Scougall, Foreman, Electrical Branch, Technical Grade I, Navy Works Department, Devonport, Admiralty. Hester Maude Shaw. For political services in Surrey. Annie Mary Sheehan, Senior Executive Officer, Ministry of Education. Arthur Edmond Silverlock, Engineer II (Assistant Manager), Royal Ordnance Factory, Woolwich. Frederick Robert Simmonds, lately Chairman, Birmingham Industrial Savings Committee. Doris Annie Simpson, Headmistress, Lincoln Gardens County Infants School, Scunthorpe. Susan Margaret Sinclair, Clerical Officer (Secretary), Glasgow University Air Squadron. Charles Arthur Smallman, Honorary Secretary, Birmingham Municipal Officers' Guild. Brinley Charles Smith, Senior Executive Officer, Savings Department, General Post Office. Ernest Smith, Divisional Officer, London Fire Brigade. Leonard Herbert Smith, Executive Member, Booker Group Social Policy Committee. Percy Freeman Smith, 3rd Class Clerk, Bankruptcy and Companies Department, Supreme Court of Judicature. Muriel Smith Somerville, Regional Transport Officer, North Eastern Region, Women's Voluntary Service. John Stanley Edward Spooner, Senior Chief Clerk, Board of Customs and Excise. Thomas Stake, , lately District Reporter, Middlesbrough. Mary Ethel Stanton, Assistant to the Director, Shipping Federation Ltd. Percy Henry Steer, General Production Research Manager, Kearney & Trecker-CVA Ltd. Joseph Stewart, Chairman, Strabane Rural District Council, County Tyrone. Mona Stewart, Schools Meals Organiser, County Down Education Committee. Eleanor Winifred Stiff, Part-time Voluntary Officer, Nursing Section, Joint Committee Ex-Services War Disabled Help Department, British Red Cross Society. Helen Margaret Stirling. For political services in the East Riding of Yorkshire. John Straughan, Safety Officer, Smith's Dock Co. Ltd., North Shields. James William Stuchfield, Clerk to the Traffic Commissioners, Eastern Traffic Area, Ministry of Transport. The Reverend Francis Graham Beauchant Sutherland, Officiating Roman Catholic Chaplain to the Forces, Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley, Hampshire. Harold Edgar Swain. For political and public services in Staffordshire. Annie Taylor. For political services in Derbyshire. Elizabeth Thomas, County Borough Organiser, Cardiff, Women's Voluntary Service. Herbert Francis Baldwin Thomas, Chairman and Honorary Secretary, Lancashire Schools' Cricket Association. Samuel Thorburn, Grade 4 Officer, Ministry of Labour. Eileen Caroline Duncan Tinker, . For voluntary social services in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Frederick Travis, Chief Designer, Naval Armament, Vickers-Armstrongs (Engineers) Ltd., Newcastle upon Tyne. Frederick Ernest Tribe, Fire and Civil Defence Officer, Glamorgan, British Overseas Airways Corporation. Arthur Edward Tucker, Accountant, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association for the County of Cambridge and Isle of Ely. Cecil Vance, District Organiser (Ballymena, County Antrim), Amalgamated Transport and General Workers' Union. Albert Edward Vyse. For services to Agriculture in Cambridgeshire. John Walsh, , Alderman, Whitehaven Borough Council. Doris Ethelwyn Walton. For political services in Leicester. Charles Bernard Ward, District Secretary (Middlesbrough), Transport and General Workers' Union. Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Warren. For political and public services in Gloucestershire. Horace Warwick, Higher Executive Officer, Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance. Thomas James Watson. For political services in County Fermanagh. William Watson, Supervising Engineer (Higher Technical Grade "B"), Ministry of Public Building and Works. Gwendoline Maude Waugh. For social services in Cumberland. Edmund Reay White, Honorary Treasurer, South Shields Savings Committee. George Clement Whittick, Inspector of Air Raid Warnings, Northern Sector, Warning and Monitorising Organisation. John Ellis Williams, Writer in Welsh. Arthur Harvey Willitt, Assistant Engineer, Telephone Manager's Office, Chester. Frank Winfield, Treasurer, Great Ouse River Board. James Lockley Winskill, Senior Superintendent (Higher Executive Officer), Mercantile Marine Office, Liverpool, Ministry of Transport. Frank Winterbottom. For public services in the Sheffield area. Edgar John Wood, Higher Executive Officer, Army Record Office, York. Ernest Wood. For services to youth in Cheshire. Percy Wood, Head Teacher, Cholmondeley County Primary School, Cheshire. James Woodhouse, Experimental Officer, Ministry of Aviation. Robert Noel Woodley, Grade 3 Officer, Ministry of Labour. Alderman Kathleen Laidlow Wright. For political and public services in Middlesex. Percy Lewis Waite Wright, , Managing Director, Barrhead Kid Co. Ltd., Renfrewshire. Thomas Wright. For political and public services in Musselburgh. Lewis Yeates, , South Western Trade Union Representative, National Industrial Advisory Savings Committee. Geoffrey Bernard Youard, Technical Works Officer, Grade B, Agricultural Land Service. Captain James Rowan Young, Chief Clerk, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association for the County of Fife. The Right Honourable Evelyn Margaret, Viscountess Younger of Leckie, County Organiser, Stirlingshire, Women's Voluntary Service. William Alcock, Head of Fairey Service Aviation Mission, Surabaja. Eric Leslie Bailey, Temporary Grade 4 Officer in Branch B of Her Majesty's Foreign Service, Her Majesty's Embassy, Bonn. Donald Brammer, lately Director, Bahrain Government Electricity Department. Lieutenant-Colonel Nigel Philip Browne, Officer attached to British Military Government, Berlin. Mariquita Cecilia Masjuan-Bush, lately Shorthand-typist, Her Majesty's Embassy, Madrid. Ruth Lilian Pauline Clark, British subject lately resident in Israel. Leonard Albert Coles, lately Archivist, Her Majesty's Embassy, Leopoldville. George William Gregory, Translator, Her Majesty's Embassy, Tokyo. Mary Furley Harrison, Teacher at Ahliyya Girls' School, Amman. George Herd, British subject resident in Peru. Angus Mackay Irvine, British subject resident in Cuba. Mary Stewart Irvine, British Vice-Consul, Valparaiso. Michael Christopher King, lately Field Representative in Greece of the World Council of Churches. Sidney John Lovell, lately First Secretary (Administration Officer), United Kingdom Mission, to the United Nations, Geneva. Hamid Reza (Hans Raj) Mahajan, Accountant and Administrative Assistant, British Council, Meshed. Marie Pauline Germaine Montel, British Pro-Consul, Marseilles. Canon Reginald Basil Ney, Chaplain, Her Majesty's Embassy, Madrid. Mary Agnes Parczewski, lately Headmistress, St. Hilda's College for Girls, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires. Alice Elizabeth Rodwell, Shorthand-Typist, Her Majesty's Embassy, Washington. The Reverend Cyril Harry Sharp, Chaplain of the Missions to Seamen and Vicar of the Church of St. Thomas a Becket, Hamburg. Winnefred Snape, British subject resident in Brazil. Emmanuel Tragoutsi, Clerical Officer, Her Majesty's Embassy, Athens. Dorothy Janette Ure, lately Personal Assistant to Her Majesty's Consul-General, Algiers. Edward James Webb, British Vice-Consul, Rome. William Rupert Williams, Her Majesty's Vice-Consul, Bergen. Robert Auld, formerly Superintendent, Royal Federation of Malaya Police. Kathleen Hope Barnes, , District Nursing Superintendent, Silver Chain District and Bush Nursing Association, State of Western Australia. Mabel Livinia Bond, of Leongatha, State of Victoria. For social welfare services. Patrick Alfred Joseph Bosustow, Headmaster of the Junior School, Nicosia, Cyprus. Sheila Brentnall, Chief Clerk, Makerere University College, Kampala, Uganda. Hugh Latimer Broad, formerly Deputy Superintendent, Royal Federation of Malaya Police. Peter Edmond Malcolm Brown, Superintendent, Yatala Labor Prison, State of South Australia. Stanley John Brown, formerly Assistant Superintendent, Royal Federation of Malaya Police. Victoria Buntine, of St. Kilda, State of Victoria. For services to the community. Alicia Byrne, Head Teacher, Pleasant Creek Special School for Children, State of Victoria. Hugh McFarlane Cameron, in recognition of his-services as a Councillor. For Shire and Town Councils, State of Victoria. Horace Arthur Colless. For services to ex-servicemen in Maroubra, State of New South Wales. Florence Mary Hunt-Cooke, of Lyndoch, State of South Australia. For social welfare services. Richard Charles Drew, Mayor of Dalby, State of Queensland. Jennie Florence Forrester. For services to Education in the field of English teaching in India. Norah Elizabeth Glegg, formerly Headmistress, Junior School, Lawrence College, Ghoragali (Murree Hills), West Pakistan. Mary Gunn, Organising Secretary, City of Sydney Eisteddfod, State of New South Wales. Venetia Holley, of Mount Isa, State of Queensland. For charitable and community work in North West Queensland. Hazel Honeyman. For services to charitable organisations in the State of Victoria. Frederick Leonard King, General Manager, Royal Automobile Club, State of Queensland. Alexander Joseph Leckie. For services to Music in the State of Western Australia. Iris Leonora Lush, Chairman of the House Committee of the Victoria League. Henry Thomas McGee. For community service in the City of Launceston, State of Tasmania. Kenneth Donald Mackay, of Brisbane, State of Queensland. For services to Cricket. Philippus Lodewicus Malan, lately Works Assistant (Locomotive), Executive "B", East African Railways and Harbours. Douglas Gould Mather. For services to local government in the State of New South Wales. Percival Joseph Mitchell. For services to social welfare movements in the State of Victoria. Frank Laurence Moon, lately Aviation Assistant, Directorate of Civil Aviation, East Africa. Elsie Morriss, formerly Principal, Adelaide Girls' High School, State of South Australia. Freda Audrey Nixon, Brigadier, Salvation Army, Matron of the Hillcrest Hospital, Merewether, State of New South Wales. Bridget O'Sullivan. For services to children in the field of Education, State of Queensland. Margaret Jane Poole, of Kyneton, State of Victoria. For social welfare services. Edward Joseph Portley, Mayor of Warwick, State of Queensland. Mary Courtenay Puckey, , General Superintendent, Rachel Forster Hospital for Women and Children, Sydney, State of New South Wales. Irene Vera Rattray, in recognition of her contribution to British social service in Bombay, India. Frederick Harold Reed. For services to the Police-Citizens Boys' Club movement in the State of New South Wales. Ernest Samuel Reeve, of Portland, State of Victoria. For services to ex-servicemen. Blanche Rowntree. For services to the Blind in the State of Tasmania. Frederick Eden Selwyn Scott, . For services to Agriculture in the State of Victoria. Major Jack Sharp, Australian Military Forces (Retired List), Chairman of the Committee of the Royal Shipwreck Relief and Humane Society, State of New South Wales. Alfred Charles Shedley, Chairman of the National Parks Board, and of the Zoological Gardens Board, State of Western Australia. Maud Shepherd. For services to ex-servicemen and women in the State of New South Wales. Helen Rosalie Slawson, Jobarpar Dispensary, Bakerganj District, Pakistan. Frank Osmond Venning, of Mooloolaba, State of Queensland. For services to the cause of Life Saving. Hugh Philip Antony Walker, Acting Principal Assistant Secretary (Service), Ministry of Education, Federation of Malaya. James Graham Walker, Chairman of the Longreach Shire Council, State of Queensland. John Deucher Neil Waugh, of Quilpie, (State of Queensland. For services to local government. Dora Wood, of Glen Osmond, State of South Australia. For social welfare services. Vaughan Albert Wright, formerly Controller of Telecommunications (Mechanical), Telecommunications Department, Federation of Malaya. Elizabeth Appleby, Senior Assistant Librarian, Bermuda. Donald Oliver Astwood. For public services in the Turks and Caicos Islands. Dorothy Victoria Bayley. For public services in British Guiana. Rachel Violet Carrol, . For public services in Gambia. Catherine Chan Oi Yan. For public services in North Borneo. Stanley Chester, Education Officer, Kenya. George Augustus Classen, Chief Engineer, Technical Branch, Board of Agriculture, Kenya. Roderick Alastair Hugh Cowan, Deputy Superintendent of Police, Singapore. Charles Gustave De Comarmond. For public services in Seychelles. Steven Dubois, Registrar, High Court for the Western Pacific in the New Hebrides. Daniel Stanley Dutton, Superintendent of Prisons, Singapore. Valerie Pamela Easton, Health Visitor, North Borneo. Lee Alfonzo Ebanks, , Collector of Customs, Cayman Islands. Hubert Nathaniel Chapman-Edwards. For services to Music in British Guiana. Arthur James Carfax-Foster. For public services in Fiji. Alexander Lundie Gordon, Senior Superintendent of Police, Hong Kong. Edward Kenneth Gordon, Principal, Men's Teacher Training Centre, Aden. Norvell Elton Allenby Harrigan, Secretary to Government, British Virgin Islands. Margaret Mary Helen Gibson-Hill, , lately Medical Officer-in-Charge, Blood Transfusion Service, Singapore. Hugh Henry Baines Murray-Hudson, Administrative Officer, Bechuanaland Protectorate. Robert Geoffrey Wilfred Hudson. For public services in Kenya. Ecosse Humbert, Education Officer, Mauritius. George Jamuh, Assistant Curator, Sarawak Museum. Seanoa Ka, Assistant Medical Officer, Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Abdul Habbib Sahu Khan. For public services in Fiji. Uraia Nayacalevu Koroi. For public services in Fiji. Bobbie Madeleine Florence Kotewall. For public services in Hong Kong. William Cecil Low, Deputy Registrar, District Court, Kowloon, Hong Kong. The Reverend Father Bernard McKenna. For social services and services to Education in British Guiana. Walter Leonard Maguire, Warden of Nevis and Additional Magistrate, St. Christopher Nevis Anguilla. Walter Wesley Merritt, Senior Public Health Inspector, Bridgetown City Council, Barbados. Albert Joel Miller, Superintendent of Police, Bahamas. John McKee Miller, British Council's Representative in British Honduras. Charles Oduk, District Officer, Kenya. John Anthony Owen, Mains Engineer, Sarawak Electricity Supply Co. Ltd. Joseph Wilde Palmer, Inspecting Engineer, Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations. Kenneth Archibald Pascoe. For public services in Zanzibar. Arthur Lionel Bertie Perkins, Senior Assistant Secretary and Secretary to the Road Authority, Kenya. Fitzroy Rashleigh Phillip, Accountant-General, Grenada. Edward Joseph Reynolds, Senior Executive Officer, Crown Agents for Oversea Governments and Administrations. Louis Francois Rivet, Senior Usher, Supreme Court, Mauritius. Isabel Maud Avery Rutt, Personal Secretary, Kenya. Margaret Noyes Staple. For services to the Girl Guide movement in Hong Kong. James Joseph Talbot, , Government MedicalOfficer, British Guiana. Tung Man-tak, Assistant Statistical Officer, Hong Kong. Sydney Leopold Sylvanus Walling, lately Postmaster, Antigua. Cecil Joseph Wheeler, Deputy Registrar of Supreme Court, Gibraltar. Geoffrey Owen Whittaker, Principal Auditor, Windward Islands. Anthony Lawrence Arthur Wolffsohn, Senior Assistant Conservator of Forests, British Honduras. Yao Peng Hua, Clerk of Councils, Sarawak. Maurice Theodore Stephen Young, Senior Headteacher, Education Department, St. Helena. Franz Raymond Ysaguirre, Draughtsman and Field Officer, Department of Housing and Planning, British Honduras. Southern Rhodesia Gertrude Helen Mabel Cripwell. For social welfare services, especially in connection with Homecraft Clubs. Edith Alice Green, in charge of St. Gabriel's Home, Bulawayo. Cedric Norman Hayes, a member of the State Lottery Trust. Desmond Charles van Jaarsveldt. For services to Sport in Southern Rhodesia. Selina Mabel Lesabe. For social welfare services in the Bulawayo African Townships. Gordon Roy Smart, a farmer, and the Senior Pilot of the Police Reserve Air Wing. Jean Spurling. For social welfare services, especially to the wives of African policemen. Northern Rhodesia Victoria Maud Mary Acheson. For social services in Northern Rhodesia. Desmond Ronald Crampton Bailey, , Administrative Officer, Northern Rhodesia. George Bradshaw Emslie, Tobacco Adviser, Department of Agriculture, Northern Rhodesia. The Reverend Charles Stephen Foster. For services as a missionary in Northern Rhodesia. The Reverend Arthur Edwin Morse. For services as a missionary in Northern Rhodesia. Nyasaland Donald Hoyle Laycock, Director of Research Station, Tea Association of Nyasaland and Rhodesia. Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) The Right Honourable Keith Jacka Holyoake, Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs, New Zealand. British Empire Medal (BEM) Military Division Royal Navy Chief Petty Officer Reginald James Vernon Alexander, P/JX.149006. Chief Petty Officer Phillip Harold Allen, , P/JX.139349. Chief Engine Room Artificer Alexander Ball, , D/MX.59400. Chief Petty Officer (G.I.) George Edward Brown, P/JX.150394. Chief Aircraft Artificer (O) Donald Richard Cassell, L/FX.82430. Chief Petty Officer Ronald Moses Champion, P/JX.144515. Chief Engine Room Artificer Reginald James Croney, , P/MX.845462. Chief Petty Officer (T.A.S.I.) Eric Horace Curtis, D/JX.157040. Chief Petty Officer Kenneth William George Cutting, P/JX.581603. Chief Mechanician Richard Frederick Earp, P/KX.88668. Chief Electrician Edwin Ralph George Hooper, D/MX.856424. Stores Chief Petty Officer (S) William George Hussey, P/MX.759509. Master at Arms Stephen Wallace Jackson, P/MX.715170. Chief Petty Officer Mohamed Johari, Royal East African Navy. Electrical Artificer 1st Class Anthony Gordon John, P/MX.740234. Chief Petty Officer Writer Alexander Kennedy, P/MX.781730 (lately on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya). Chief Petty Officer Gerald Kusimba, Royal East African Navy. Quartermaster Sergeant (T) JohnLe Brun, Po/X.2907, Royal Marines. Chief Electrical Artificer John Russell Muirhead, D/MX.93517. Chief Ordnance Artificer Edward Augustus Munn, P/MX.51318. Chief Wren Steward (O) Phyllis Mary Oxer, 27474, Women's Royal Naval Service. Chief Engine Room Artificer Albert Pearson, P/MX.503256. Chief Petty Officer Cook (O) Jack Poulton, P/MX.59994. Colour Sergeant George Henry Pritchard, Po/X.5237, Royal Marines. Chief Wren Radio Electrician (Air) Eleanor Mary Reardon, 45367, Women's Royal Naval Service. Chief Aircraft Artificer (A/E) John James Rowe, L/FX.897068. Chief Engine Room Artificer Bert John Saunders, P/MX.505976. Regimental Sergeant Major Walter Jack Thomas, Po/X.4389, Royal Marines. Chief Radio Supervisor (S) John Anthony Thorpe, P/JX.760021. Chief Air Fitter (A/E) Reginald Charles William Tozer, L/FX.82659. Chief Petty Officer Cook (S) Alfred James Trevaskus, D/MX.54725. Regulating Petty Officer Leon Frederick Hanson Vaux, P/MX.802259. Chief Aircraft Artificer (A/E) Harry Thomas Willis, L/FX.77288. Army 966872 Sergeant Leslie Harold Banks, Royal Regiment of Artillery. 22524763 Sergeant William John Bates, 1st East Anglian Regiment (Royal Norfolk and Suffolk). 22528123 Warrant Officer Class I (acting) Robert Bennett, Special Air Service Regiment. 19048520 Warrant Officer Class II (acting) Charles Brown, Royal Army Medical Corps. X/7961849 Staff-Sergeant Henryk Bujko, The Royal Dragoons (1st Dragoons), Royal Armoured Corps. 21184239 Staff-Sergeant Stanley Collingwood, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. 22345723 Corporal Raymond James Cooper, ArmyCatering Corps, Territorial Army. 23404234 Sergeant Roy Croxon, Royal Army Medical Corps. 22244886 Sergeant William Cutty, The Durham Light Infantry, Territorial Army. 22839554 Staff-Sergeant Eric Curtis Dunkley, Royal Army Ordnance Corps. W/365058 Warrant Officer Class II (acting) Dorothy Spencer Gibbs, Women's Royal Army Corps. 23465012 Sergeant Charles Douglas Goddard, , The Royal Irish Fusiliers (Princess Victoria's), Territorial Army. S/14187760 Staff-Sergeant Robert William Gorry, Royal Army Service Corps. 19043956 Corporal Stephen Geoffrey Graham, The Royal Ulster Rifles. S/22525044 Sergeant Albert Leonard Haythornthwaite, Royal Army Service Corps. 7600573 Staff-Sergeant Charles Frederick Somers Hiscox, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. 23232283 Corporal Wilfred George Hocquard, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. 22146145 Sergeant Peter John Jones, Royal Army Pay Corps. 22289145 Staff-Sergeant Eric Charles Kennett, Corps ofRoyal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. W/387935 Sergeant (acting) Vera Lee, Women's Royal Army Corps. 14469366 Staff-Sergeant James Sefton Little, Corps of Royal Engineers. 10559638 Staff-Sergeant (acting) Geoffrey Roy Loveday, Corps of Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers. 22839412 Sergeant Albert McCaffery, Royal Army Medical Corps. 22006515 Staff Sergeant Charles Patrick McKernan, Royal Army Ordnance Corps; on loan to the Government of the Federation of Malaya. 23235086 Sergeant Thomas Roy Mallabone, Royal Corps of Signals. 22221486 Staff-Sergeant (acting) Peter Henry Matthews, Military Provost Staff Corps. Ls/4387110 Warrant Officer Class II (local) John Middleton, The Green Howards (Alexandra, Princess of Wales's Own Yorkshire Regiment). 21183004 Corporal Samuel O'Neill, Army Catering Corps. T/19046914 Sergeant Stanley Rackham, Royal Army Service Corps. 221134981 Sergeant (Clerk) Rambahadur Gurung, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles. T/22S47232 Sergeant Dennis Robey, Royal Army Service Corps. T/22309782 Sergeant Kenneth Robinson, Royal Army Service Corps. W/271763 Sergeant (acting) Stella Hart Shearman, Women's Royal Army Corps. 22552429 Staff-Sergeant Antony Stone, Intelligence Corps. 22962185 Staff-Sergeant Derek Laurence Stanley Taylor, Royal Regiment of Artillery. 2612357 Sergeant Cyril Tudge, Grenadier Guards. 2140455 Staff-Sergeant Christopher James Tyler, Corps of Royal Engineers. 21134973 Colour-Sergeant Uttamsing Gurung, 6th Queen Elizabeth's Own Gurkha Rifles. T/22963155 Corporal Vivian Howard Vaughan, Royal Army Service Corps. 7017922 Warrant Officer Class II (acting) Edward Wood, Army Catering Corps. 22201221 Staff-Sergeant Guy Bevan Yearsley, Corps of Royal Engineers. Royal Air Force 615048 Flight Sergeant (now Warrant Officer) William Ball. 513707 Flight Sergeant (now Warrant Officer) William Harold Boulton. 541018 Flight Sergeant Richard Charles Bruce. 2462113 Flight Sergeant Ernest Charles Dunsford. 1410461 Flight Sergeant Dennis John Endacott. 364345 Flight Sergeant Henry James Fitzhenry. 570396 Flight Sergeant Ernest Maurice Gladman. 567552 Flight Sergeant Donald James Hand. 543899 Flight Sergeant Samuel John Nelson Hayes. 1903642 Flight Sergeant Patrick Jasper Anthony Linehan. 1478392 Flight Sergeant James Maunder, Royal Air Force Regiment. 3502676 Flight Sergeant Michael Anthony Stratford Reed. 524175 Flight Sergeant Henry Reeves. 550706 Chief Technician Edmund Blake. 4011663 Chief Technician Harry Bowers. 523233 Chief Technician Frank Derbyshire. 574115 Chief Technician John Thomas Ettles. 4018908 Chief Technician Patrick Ernest Thurlow. 4024522 Acting Flight Sergeant William Robertson Brankin. 613356 Sergeant Andrew Nicholas Creswell. 1820205 Sergeant John Saunders Currie. 618457 Sergeant Edward Charles Douglass. 1925261 Sergeant Hugh Bradley Dunlop. 4020362 Sergeant Arthur Hale. 4008550 Sergeant Hugh Martin Harper. 582789 Sergeant Maxwell Leigh. 573171 Sergeant Donald Syme Maclachlan. 4025980 Sergeant Donald Leslie Murphy. 4005816 Sergeant Patrick Joseph O'Neill. 4180297 Sergeant Bernard Leslie Pope. 578869 Sergeant Ronald Edwin Pound. 1923192 Sergeant Charles Edmond Stagg. 1336128 Sergeant Kenneth Styles. 1900354 Sergeant James Joseph Walsh, Royal Air Force Regiment. 4042626 Sergeant Joseph Edward Westwood. 587994 Senior Technician Ronald Edward Nicholls. 4131744 Corporal William Thomas Bounds. 796060 Corporal Technician Joseph Balzan, (Malta). 589141 Corporal Technician Thomas Leslie Jones. 4253040 Acting Corporal Richard Douglas Lane. Civil Division United Kingdom Saleh Hadi Ahmed, Foreman, Mechanical Transport Flight, Air Forces, Middle East, Air Ministry. John Allen, Tool Setter, Joseph Lucas (Electrical) Ltd. (Birmingham). John Aloy, Assistant Manager, W.D. Laundry, Gibraltar, War Office. Ronald Andrews, Inspector (New Works), Western Region, British Railways (Glamorgan). Herbert Charles Mitchell Anness, Hall Superintendent, British Museum (Natural History) (London S.W.7). Arthur Thomas Apperley, Turbine Room Foreman, Hams Hall "B" Power Station, West Midlands Division, Central Electricity Generating Board (Birmingham). Wilmot Canning Atchley, Chief Observer, Assistant Duty Controller, No. 12 Group, Royal Observer Corps (Bristol). Sidney Joseph Bailey, lately Divisional Foreman, Highways Department, Gloucestershire County Council (Dursley). Ellen Elizabeth Bassett, Honorary Collector, Street Savings Group, Wolverhampton. Walter Leonard Batt, Watcher, Board of Customs and Excise (Bromley, Kent). Hannah Georgina Beadles, Honorary Collector, Wesley Street and Wesley Place Savings Group, Newtown. Donald Beaton, Fireman, Western Area Fire Brigade, Scotland (Argyll). Francis Joseph Begley, Postman, Head Post Office, Belfast. Cyril Willey Bird, Office Keeper, Grade I, Royal Mint (London E.C.3). Herbert Bloomfield, Senior Inspector of Custodians, Lord Great Chamberlain's Department, House of Lords (Osterley, Middlesex). Harry Briggs, Chief Inspector of Postmen, Midland Region, General Post Office (Malvern). Luther Britton, Charge Nurse, Broadmoor Hospital, Ministry of Health. Charles William Brown, Technician I, London Telecommunications Region, South West Area, General Post Office (Morden, Surrey). Miriam Elizabeth Davenport-Browne, Member, County Staff (Welfare) Kent, Women's Voluntary Service (Tunbridge Wells). Walter Nicholas Buckingham, Sub-Postmaster, Hethersett, Norwich, Norfolk. John Caughey, Collector, Street Savings Group, Ballynahinch, Co. Down. Sarah Caulfield, Collector, Street Savings Group, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. Howard James Chandler, Part-time Instructor, Civil Defence Corps, Cumberland (Workington). Horace Allan Chatfield, Chief Bedroom Steward, SS Andes, Royal Mail Lines Ltd. (Southampton). Ernest Edward Cheadle, Chief Office Keeper, War Office (Crookham, Hampshire). Rainald Keith Chester, Foreman, The Mullard-Osram Valve Co. Ltd. (Hounslow, Middlesex). Samuel Clark, Mechanical Transport Officer (Grade II), Prestwick Airport, Ministry of Aviation. Samuel Jamieson Clark, Manager, Radcliffe Hostel, Remploy Ltd., Radcliffe, Lancashire. Ernest F. Clarke, Company Commandant, Edinburgh Princes Street (B.R.) Company, St. Andrew's Ambulance Corps. Ronald William Coutts, Chief Inspector, Head Post Office, Meadowside, Dundee. Annie W. Cowell, Member, Cambridge Borough Staff, Women's Voluntary Service. James Craik, Foreman estate worker, Edinburgh Centre of Rural Economy (Penicuik). James Henry Crawford, Chief Inspector, W.D. Constabulary, War Office (Hounslow, Middlesex). John William Danson, Chargehand Plater, Vickers-Armstrongs (Engineers), Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness. Ronald Vernon Davis, Leading Draughtsman, Ship Department, Admiralty (Bath). George Henry Dean, , Colliery Deputy, Granville Colliery, West Midlands Division, National Coal Board (Wellington). Frederick Foxhall Dent, Process and General Supervisory Class, Grade III, Royal Naval Propellant Factory, Chepstow (Newport). John Cyril De Souza, Draughtsman, Grade I, HM Dockyard, Singapore. Charles Joseph Devine, Ambulance Driver-Attendant, Northern Ireland Hospitals Authority (Belfast). Frederick Arthur Dowding, Part-time Instructor, Civil Defence Corps, Wiltshire (Trowbridge). Walter David Dunster, Civilian Supplies Officer, RASC, War Office (Taunton, Somerset). Lionel Jack Edmonds, Civilian Warrant Officer, No. 649 (Dursley) Squadron, Air Training Corps (Berkeley, Gloucestershire). Edward Edwards, Farm Manager, University College of North Wales, Bangor (Aber, Caernarvonshire). Carmel Ellul, Pumpman, HM Naval Base, Malta, . Joseph Evans, Research and Development Craftsman, Safety in Mines Research Establishment, Ministry of Power (Buxton). Victor Andrew Evans, Research and Development Craftsman (Special), Royal Radar Establishment, Ministry of Aviation (Defford, Worcestershire). Wilfred Falkous, Officer in Charge, Supply and Transport Store, Aycliffe, Home Office (Darlington). James Miller Ferguson, Draughtsman, Higher Grade, Ordnance Survey, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Southampton). Alfred Firth, Overman, Brandon Pit House Colliery, Durham Division, National Coal Board. George Thomas Foster, Motorman, MV Kirkham Abbey, Associated Humber Lines Ltd., British Transport Commission (Goole). Gwendoline May Fuller, Manageress, Brooklands Official Luncheon Club, Cambridge. John Richard Gale, Building Supervisor, Long Grove Psychiatric Hospital, Epsom. William Gallagher, Foreman Engineer (Dock), Yarrow & Co. Ltd., Scotstoun (Glasgow). George Gallie, , Process Supervisor II, Springfields Works, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (Preston). William Ogg Gibson, Foreman Store-Keeper, Douglas Fraser & Sons Ltd., Arbroath (Angus). Robert Smith Gillan, Excavation Attendant, South of Scotland Electricity Board (Glasgow). Henry Samuel Goodey, Technical Class, Grade III, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, War Office (London N.2). George Henry Goodwin, Storeman-Clerk, Territorial and Auxiliary Forces Association, Counties of Huntingdon and Northampton (Northampton). John Henry Graham, Chargeman of Motor Transport Drivers, HM Dockyard, Chatham (Gillingham). Ralph Harry Gregory, Canteen General Manager, No. 25 Maintenance Unit, RAF Hartlebury (Kidderminster). William John Rees Gumbleton, , Foreman Shaftsman, Six Bells Colliery, South Western Division, National Coal Board (Abertillery). Charles Edward Hall, Postman, Higher Grade, North Western District Office, General Post Office (London N.12). Selina Hammond, Honorary Collector, Charing Parish Savings Group, Ashford, Kent. Robert George Hancock, Foreman Fitter, RAF Halton, Air Ministry (Chesham). Annie Harrison. For services to the sick and aged in Flintshire (Bronington). David William Hayes, Motor Driver, Supplies Department, General Post Office (London N.4). James Hayton, Foreman of Stores, No. 14 Maintenance Unit, Carlisle, Air Ministry. Erwin Alfred Hering, Officer Keeper II, Home Office (London S.W.2). Ivy Elizabeth Hindes, Honorary Collector, Street Savings Group, Dovercourt. Doris Ruth Holliday, Member, Headquarters Staff, Services Welfare Department Overseas, Women's Voluntary Service (London S.E.1). William Edwin Holliday, General Foreman, John Harris & Sons, Contractors, Stratford-on-Avon. John Reginald Wood Hollinshead, Chief Observer, Post 16/Q1, No. 16 Group, Royal Observer Corps (Congleton, Cheshire). Charles Morgan Hood, Sub-Postmaster, Lewis Road, Sidcup, Kent. Charles Reed Hunter, Foreman Joiner, James A. Jobling & Co. Ltd., Sunderland. William John Izzard, Foreman, Standards Room and Gauge Department, C.A.V. Ltd. (Enfield). James Jackson, Distribution Foreman, Todmorden District, North Eastern Gas Board (Hebden Bridge). Bertram Thomas Jones, Underground Mechanic, Wharncliffe Silkstone Colliery, North Eastern Division, National Coal Board (Barnsley). Grace Beatrice Jones, Matron, HM Borstal Institution, Castle Huntly, Angus. Rhys Jones, Custodian, Strata Florida Abbey, Ministry of Public Building and Works (Meurig, Cardiganshire). Rose Hilda Jones, Enrolled Nurse, Brompton Hospital Sanatorium, Frimley. William Charles Jones, Blast Furnace Foreman, Millom Hematite Ore & Iron Co. Ltd. (Millom, Cumberland). Mary Eleanor Jowsey, Manageress, NAAFI, Junior Ranks Club, Bordon. Elizabeth Kemp, Honorary Collector, Long Crendon Street and Village Savings Group, Buckinghamshire. James Henry Kerr, Chief Officer Class I, HM Prison, Leeds. Albert Lathey Kersley, Inspector, New Street, Basingstoke, General Post Office. James Laverty, Senior Foreman, A.C.D. Bridge Co. Ltd. (Edinburgh). George Ernest Lawrie, Hospital Chief Officer, Class I, HM Prison, Wormwood Scrubs. Arthur Robert Lee, Station Officer, Yorkshire West Riding Fire Brigade (Penistone). Roy Spencer Levett, Technician, Grade II, Headquarters, Near East Air Force, Air Ministry. Violet Mabel Lilley, Chief Supervisor, (Telephones), Eastbourne, General Post Office. John Little, Deputy, Auchincruive 4/5 Colliery, Scottish Division, National Coal Board (Ayr). Emily Elizabeth Littlewood, Deputy County Borough Organiser, Barnsley, Women's Voluntary Service. Joseph Philip Loftus, Technical Officer, Telephone Exchange, Grimsby, Lincolnshire. Alfred John Ludford, Research and Development Craftsman (Special), Royal Aircraft Establishment, Ministry of Aviation (Aldershot). John McBay, Staff Foreman, Telford, Grier, Mackay & Co. Ltd., Glasgow. Samuel McCorkell, Chief Inspector, Foyle Fisheries Commission, Co. Londonderry. (Omagh, Co. Tyrone). Richard Gibson McKay, Leader, Blythe Street Boys' Club, Belfast. Douglas Charles Mackness, Leader, St. Francis Boys' Clubs, Welwyn Garden City. Alexander Thomas McKnight, Chief Warden, Greenock Civil Defence Authority. Duncan Maclennan, Motor Mail Contractor, General Post Office, Shieldaig, Strathcarron, Ross-shire. Stanley Clifford McNally, Assistant Station Radio Officer, Government Communications Headquarters, Foreign Office (Cheltenham). Patrick Joseph McNulty, Locomotive Erector, Yorkshire Engine Co. Ltd., Sheffield (Rotherham). Robert Malcolmson, Sub-Postmaster, Magheralin, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. William Charles Mansfield, Chargehand Driver, Royal Armament Research and Development Establishment, War Office (Bexleyheath, Kent). Thomas Frederick Mead, Passenger Guard, Eastern Region, British Railways (London E.10). Jeffrey John Meek, Fitter, English Electric Co. Ltd., Stafford (Rugeley). John Menary, Sub-District Commandant, Ulster Special Constabulary (Killyleagh, Co. Armagh). Frederick Harry Miller, Technical Grade II, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Ministry of Aviation (Aldershot). Frank Louis James Milus, Superintendent, Dorset Special Constabulary (Dorchester). Percy Moorhouse, CoalfaceWorker, Lepton Edge Colliery, North Eastern Division, National Coal Board (Huddersfield). Charles George Noakes, Building Superintendent, Northern Production Region, East Midlands Gas Board (Sheffield). Ernest Albert Oakman, Works Technical Officer III, Radio Research Station, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Winkfield, Berkshire). Barry Anderson Richards O'Hara, Sergeant, Royal Ulster Constabulary (Lisburn, Co. Antrim). Annie Dorothy Outhwaite, Sub-Postmistress, Askrigg Sub Post Office, Leyburn, Yorkshire. Henry Ivor Owen, Switchboard Attendant, Rheidol Power Station, North Western Region, Central Electricity Generating Board (Aberystwyth). Reginald Charles Parrott, Superintendent, Walsall Special Constabulary. Percy Harold Perry, Chargehand, The Sperry Gyroscope Company, Bracknell (Ascot). Dora Ellen Phipps, Head Laundress, City Council Laundry, Birmingham. Nicolina Picken, Canteen Supervisor, Royal Ordnance Factory, Bishopton, War Office (Paisley). Charles Walter Frank Pottenger, Instructor, Sea Cadet Corps, Mersey Division (Liverpool). Elsie Potts, Head Tracer, Butters Bros. & Co. Ltd., Glasgow (Bishopbriggs). James Poxton, Senior Viewer, Tubes Ltd., Birmingham (Walsall). George Joseph Prince, Inspector of Shipwrights, HM Dockyard, Portsmouth (Fareham). David Gordon Ramage, Foreman Maintenance Engineer, British Oil & Cake Mills Ltd., Greenock. Frederick Ramsbottom, Assistant Warehouse Supervisor, HM Stationery Office (Manchester). Reginald Thomas Reeves, Chief Observer, Post 10/Z.1, No. 10 Group, Lynton, Royal Observer Corps (Lynton, Devon). Emlyn Richards, Technical Assistant to Distribution Engineer, Wales Gas Board (Neath). Kenneth Roach, Filler, Cambois Colliery, Northern (N & C) Division, National Coal Board (Blyth, Northumberland). William Milton Roaf, Chargehand Meter Reader/Collector, London Electricity Board (London E.12). Horace David Robinson, Sub-Officer, Essex Fire Brigade (Stansted). Arthur Clifford Rogers, Inspector, Metropolitan Police Force (London S.E.9). John Rudd, Station Warden, Royal Air Force, Cardington, Air Ministry (Bedford). Marjorie Vera Sanders, Commandant, Newport Detachment, Isle of Wight Branch, British Red Cross Society (Carisbrooke). Elsie Savery, Chief Supervisor (Telephones), Telephone Exchange, Cheltenham, General Post Office. Roy Colin Sewell, Civilian Warrant Officer, No. 2093 (Manchester City) Squadron, Air Training Corps (Manchester). Matthew Slater Singleton, Part-time Fatstock Officer, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Gosforth, Cumberland). William Henry Hussey Skinner, Gasfitting Foreman, Sheffield District, East Midlands Gas Board (Sheffield). Margaret Gertrude Smith, Deputy Convoy Organiser, Accrington Team, Food Flying Squad (Nelson). Frederick Stalton, Experimental Worker, Grade II, Waltham Abbey, Ministry of Aviation. Cecil Harold Frederick Stears, Chief Dental Technician, RN Barracks, Portsmouth (Southsea). Percival Herbert Stephens, Attached War Office (Portsmouth). Andrew Stevenson, lately Reader and Foreman Compositor, Mackenzie & Storrie, Edinburgh. John Swift, Area Foreman, Alt Area, Mersey River Board (Liverpool). Barbara Joan Tanner, Youth Club Leader, Pioneer Youth Club, St. Albans. David Raymond Thomas, Process and General Supervisory Class, Grade III, Royal Ordnance Factory, Pembrey, War Office (Penygroes, Carmarthenshire). Arthur Thorpe, Senior Process Supervisor, Aldermaston, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (Newbury). Albert Tiley, Foreman in Charge, Instrument Making Department, George Kent Ltd., Luton. Sydney Valentine Trundle, Foreman Grinder, Cooper Roller Bearings Co. Ltd., King's Lynn, Norfolk. Herbert Henry Anthony Tyrer, Senior Chief Supervisor, Continental Exchange, General Post Office (London E.6). Jack Evelyn Vincent, Regimental Quartermaster-Serjeant, Eton College Combined Cadet Force (Windsor). Arthur R. Wait, Leader, Tyler Street Boys' Club, Stratford-upon-Avon. Hugh Dow Walker, Carpenter, SS Clan MacDonald, British & Commonwealth Shipping Co. Ltd. (Lenzie, Lanarkshire). William Walker, Boatswain, SS Benhiant, Ben Line Steamers (Aberdeen). John Ernest Walls, General Superintendent, Peabody Donation Fund, Peabody Estate, London. Alfred Watts, Gardener-Caretaker, France, Northern Region, Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Joseph Ernest West, Chief Security Officer, Office of the British High Commissioner, Calcutta. Norah Beatrice West, Honorary Street Savings Group Worker, Portishead, Somerset. Hilland Westerman, Honorary Collector, Middlewood Estate Street Savings Group, Oughtibridge, Sheffield. Mary Ellen Wharton, , Commandant, Morpeth Women's Detachment N/20, Northumberland Branch, British Red Cross Society. Ernest Williams, Verger, St. Martin's Garrison Church, Catterick Camp, War Office. Ernest Alfred Willoughby, Senior Scientific Assistant, Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment (Southsea). Frederick Sidney Woolley, Coalface Steel Supports Supervisor, Hucknall Colliery, East Midlands Division, National Coal Board (Hucknall, Nottinghamshire). Wah Ping Young, Chinese Clerk, Hong Kong, Ministry of Public Building and Works. Overseas Territories Ahmed Rehmatulla, Assistant Postmaster, Aden. George Elliott Downes, Highways Superintendent, Department of Highways and Transport, Barbados. Iris Leonie Abraham, Rural Craft Instructress, Social Development Department, British Honduras. Leung Wai-sang, Clerk, Royal Hong Kong Defence Force, Hong Kong. Farah Isaac, , Interpreter Grade I, Kenya. Modan Hingh Santa Singh, Inspector (Roads), Kenya. Madi bin Gadau, Village Headman, Kampong Bayangan, Keningau, North Borneo. Ezra Archibald Dalton Long, Senior Laboratory Technician, Saint Lucia. Jean Joseph Jacques, Head Mechanic, Port and Marine Department, Seychelles. Edward Gooder, Chief Officer, Prison Service, Singapore. Jacobus Johannes Christoffel Robberts, Works Foreman, Department of Land Utilization, Swaziland. Clifford Stanley Jones, lately Inspector of Schools, Turks and Caicos Islands. Umbaya Vuai Shirazi, Chairman, Chwaka Local Council, Zanzibar. State of New South Wales Leslie Allen Wakeling Allen, Senior Messenger, Government House, Sydney. State of Victoria Elizabeth May Alice Cahill, Private Secretary, Department of Education. Albert Thomas Curtis, Member, Maryborough Citizens Band. Federation of Malaya Bert Hines, Police Lieutenant, Royal Federation of Malaya Police. Southern Rhodesia Snake Bisantl, Senior Labour Assistant, Department of Labour. Machado, Station Sergeant, British South Africa Police. Northern Rhodesia Godfrey Alexander Sisseo, Technical Assistant (Veterinary). Nyasaland Byson Elisa Muktwa, Executive Officer, Grade I, Government Press. Royal Victorian Medal (RVM) In Silver Chief Petty Officer Herbert Morley Cain, P/JX.760438. Rowland Rossiter Clayton. Yeoman Bedgoer James Durkin, Her Majesty's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard. Walter Robin Fry. Gilbert Hawkins. Charles Oulton. Eric Pettman. Gladys Pooley. Stores Chief Petty Officer (V) Ronald John Prickett, P/MX.71062. Harry Rayment. Leonard Richards. Bertha Sheridan. Frederick Albert Todd. Wallace Jack Twite. Wilfred Sydney Walker. Royal Red Cross (RRC) Nancy Helen Glew, , Principal Matron, Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service. Lieutenant-Colonel (temporary) Helen Cattanach (348096), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Squadron Officer Florence Eva Perry, , (405333), Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service. Associate of the Royal Red Cross (ARRC) Alfreda Ella Etheridge, Head Naval Nursing Auxiliary. Major Joan Frances Herbert (329859), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Major Annie O'Neill (325875), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Major Joyce Parsons (309380), Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps. Flight Officer Jean Booth Brown (407363), (Princess Mary's Royal Air Force Nursing Service. Air Force Cross (AFC) Royal Navy Lieutenant-Commander Ronald Leonard, . Royal Air Force Wing Commander Guy Joseph Charles Hogan, , (40912). Wing Commander Rex David Roe (168233). Squadron Leader Garry Hilton Burleigh (607259). Squadron Leader Donald Percy Hall (607230). Squadron Leader Denis John Mountford (776521). Squadron Leader Ernest John Strangeway (58041). Flight Lieutenant Anthony John Bendell (3517266). Flight Lieutenant Kenneth William Hayr (607636). Flight Lieutenant John Patrick Hugh O'Neill (2443722). Flight Lieutenant Vernon Roland Thompson (584631). Flight Lieutenant William Stanley Welsh (54301). Flight Lieutenant John Stuart Winterbourne (1629778). Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air United Kingdom Anne Burns, Principal Scientific Officer, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Ministry of Aviation. Captain Geoffrey Douglas Ingleton, Senior Base Training Captain, Vanguard Aircraft, British European Airways Corporation. Charles David Keir, , Fleet Commander, Ministry of Aviation Flying Unit. Wing Commander Richard Frewen Martin, , Royal Air Force (Retired), Test Pilot, A. V. Roe & Co. Ltd. Gordon Sears, Check Engineer Officer (Flight Operations), British Overseas Airways Corporation. Douglas Henry Webber, Experimental Officer, Royal Radar Establishment, Ministry of Aviation. Royal Navy Lieutenant Anthony John Walsh. Royal Air Force Group Captain John Campbell, . Wing Commander Laurence George Aggitt Bastard, , (142581). Wing Commander John Eadon Bazalgette, , (131145). Wing Commander Raymond John Davenport, , (199966). Wing Commander Peter Gerald Hill (65560). Wing Commander Frederick William Sledmere, , (162087). Acting Wing Commander James Cartwright, , (152632). Squadron Leader Stanley Walter Bainbridge (3053711). Squadron Leader John Reginald Dowling, , (150185). Squadron Leader Robert Edward Jefferies, , (1581445). Squadron Leader Donald McClen (4065528). Squadron Leader George Keith Mossman (607021). Squadron Leader John Harry Phillips (58026). Flight Lieutenant Andrew McFarlane Adams (57007). Flight Lieutenant David Conway Grant Brook (607616). Flight Lieutenant James Fleming Bulloch (501121). Flight Lieutenant Colin Michael Christie (584645). Flight Lieutenant John Arthur Cooper (56122). Flight Lieutenant Henry Nicholas John, , (177590). Flight Lieutenant Robert William Kimmings (1269552). Flight Lieutenant Alexander McMillan (2506878). Flight Lieutenant James Stephen Noonan (200746). Flight Lieutenant David Antony Proctor (3508667). Flight Lieutenant Fergus Robertson (1880792). Flight Lieutenant Eric John Elrick Smith (607610). Flight Lieutenant George Beadle Stratford, , (636773). Flight Lieutenant Ladislav Svetlik (117371). Flight Lieutenant Albert Edward Whatley (1601896). Flying Officer John Robert Huntington, , (1685829). Master Pilot Carl Stubbs (1489919). Master Pilot Stanley Edward Tomlin (1388750). Master Signaller Peter Robert Waller (1396106). Queen's Police Medal (QPM) England and Wales Henry Richard Pratt, Chief Constable, Bedfordshire Constabulary. Clement George Burrows, , Chief Constable, Oxford City Police. Reginald Ernest Geoffrey Benbow, Chief Constable, Mid-Wales Constabulary. Frederick Drayton Porter, Assistant Chief Constable, Nottingham City Police. William Hood, Assistant Chief Constable, Manchester City Police. Albert George Shipley Harris, Chief Superintendent, Bristol City Police. Ernest Jack Barkway, Chief Superintendent, Essex Constabulary. Charles Percy Attwood, Chief Superintendent, Metropolitan Police. James Wilbert Hullah, Superintendent and Deputy Chief Constable, Dudley Borough Police. Leonard Robert Allen, Superintendent and Deputy Chief Constable, Reading Borough Police. James Myrddyn Davies, Superintendent, Metropolitan Police. Richard Granger Patten, Superintendent, Metropolitan Police. Scotland Robert Gow Donaldson, Superintendent, Renfrew and Bute Constabulary. John William Brown, Superintendent, Scottish North-Eastern Counties Constabulary. Northern Ireland Francis Todd, Head Constable, Royal Ulster Constabulary. State of Victoria Robert Reginald Thomson, Superintendent Grade I, Victoria Police Force. Hugh Rupert Donelly, Superintendent Grade II, Victoria Police Force. Clifford Leopold La Fontaine, Inspector Grade I, Victoria Police Force. William Marcus Dickson Arnot, Brevet Inspector Grade I, Victoria Police Force. State of South Australia Frank Hector Richardson, Superintendent, South Australia Police Force. Roy Alfred Wilson, Inspector 1st Class, South Australia Police Force. Southern Rhodesia John Nicholas Botha, Assistant Commissioner, British South Africa Police. Overseas Territories Wilfred Arthur Farmer, Deputy Commissioner of Police, Barbados. Lieutenant-Colonel Paul Hengrave Kitson, , Commissioner of Police, Basutoland Mounted Police. John Matthew Sullivan, Deputy Commissioner of Police, Zanzibar. Queen's Fire Services Medal (QFSM) England and Wales James Henry Raby, Divisional Officer, Cheshire Fire Brigade. Robert Begg, lately Assistant Chief Officer (Deputy Chief Officer), Liverpool Fire Brigade. William Roy Howells, , Chief Officer, Herefordshire Fire Brigade. Frederick George Cyril Chandler, Divisional Officer, Buckinghamshire Fire Brigade. Bert Ernest Royce Cutting, Chief Officer, West Ham Fire Brigade. State of Victoria William Thomas Aldridge, Chief Officer, Metropolitan Fire Brigade, Melbourne. Colonial Police Medal (CPM) Maxime Ahyave, Assistant Superintendent, Seychelles Police Force. Alfred Ambrose Baggott, Superintendent, Hong Kong Police Force. David Anthony Blackman, Station Officer, Auxiliary Unit, British Guiana Fire Brigade. Edward Launcelot Coombs, Inspector, St. Lucia Police Force. George Richard Crawley, Superintendent, Kenya Police Force. Bertram St. Alfoan Denbrook, Detective Inspector, Bermuda Police Force. Aubrey Bernard Patrick John Derham, Superintendent, Zanzibar Police Force. Louis William Evans, Senior Superintendent, Kenya Police Force. Leslie Frederick Charles Guyatt, Chief Inspector, Hong Kong Police Force. Charles Frederick Harbert, Superintendent, Hong Kong Police Force. Eric Marshall Hardy, Superintendent, Kenya Police Force. Dennis Holmes, Chief Inspector, Kenya Police Force. Bert Hope, Assistant Superintendent, Hong Kong Auxiliary Police Force. Essa Omady Joof, Assistant Superintendent, Gambia Police Force. Jason Njatha Kimundu, Sub-Inspector, Kenya Police Force. Koo Chong Kong, Assistant Superintendent, Sarawak Police Force. Lam Kam-chuen, Staff Sergeant Class II, Hong Kong Police Force. Clement Leepa, Inspector, Basutoland Mounted Police. David Henshaw Lemon, Superintendent, Fiji Police Force. Joseph Nixon, Chief Inspector, Bermuda Police Force. Mwasya Ndai, Sub-Inspector, Kenya Police Force. John Okello, Inspector, Kenya Police Force. Alexander Charles Pearson, Assistant Superintendent, Kenya Police Force. Andre Pierre, Sub-Inspector, Seychelles Police Force. Charles Leonard Stevens, Superintendent, Hong Kong Police Force. Naaro Takabea, Constable, Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony Constabulary. William Edward Thomas, Chief Inspector, Hong Kong Police Force. Joseph Josiah Vanderpool, Inspector, Antigua, Montserrat and British Virgin Islands Police Force. Nguku Waita, Sergeant, Kenya Police Force. Geoffrey Allison White, Assistant Superintendent, Kenya Police Force. Leslie Arnold Evan Wong, Station Officer, Auxiliary Unit, British Guiana Fire Brigade. Southern Rhodesia Domimico Muchkange Chizema, Sergeant, British South Africa Police. William Eustace Foxcroft, Superintendent, British South Africa Police. Leonard James Jouning, Superintendent, British South Africa Police. Kaboko, Station Sergeant, British South Africa Police. Johane Chikupo Muchengetwa, Station Sergeant, British South Africa Police. Amos Mutuwo, Station Sergeant, British South Africa Police. Edward James Sheriff, Superintendent, British South Africa Police. Harold James Vickery, Detective Chief Inspector, British South Africa Police. Northern Rhodesia Jackson Arnold Chipasula, Detective Sub-Inspector, Northern Rhodesia Police Force. Augustine Timmy Ndhlew, Detective Assistant Inspector, Grade I, Northern Rhodesia Police Force. Australia Knight Bachelor Clive Hamilton Fitts, , of Hawthorn, Victoria. For services to Medicine. Roland Ellis Jacobs, of Unley Park, South Australia. For public services. David Roy McCaughey, , of Narrandera, New South Wales. For services to primary industry. Laurence Rupert McIntyre, , Her Majesty's Australian Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary in Tokyo. Maurice Alan Edgar Mawby, , of Canterbury, Victoria. For services to mining and industry. Archibald Grenfell Price, , of Gilberton, South Australia. For services to literature and education. Order of the Bath Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) Military Division Air Vice-Marshal Charles Douglas Candy, , Royal Australian Air Force. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) Senator the Honourable William Henry Spooner, , Vice-President of the Executive Council, and Leader of the Government in the Senate, Commonwealth of Australia. Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Kenneth Thomas Adamson, President of the Australian Dental Association. William Geoffrey Gerard, of Medindie, South Australia. For services to secondary industry. Order of the British Empire Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Military Division Major-General (temporary) Thomas Sydney Taylor, , (337500), Australian Staff Corps. Brigadier Donald Ross Kerr, , (110535), Royal Australian Artillery. Group Captain Dixie Robison Chapman, Royal Australian Air Force. Civil Division Stanley Edward Chatterton, of Point Piper, New South Wales. For senvices to social welfare. Brigadier Frederick Oliver Chilton, , Chairman of the Repatriation Commission. Arnold Hughes Ennor, Professor of Biochemistry, Australian National University. David Osborne Hay, , Australian High Commissioner in Canada. Ronald Bannatyne Lewis, , Director-General, Commonwealth Department of Works. Lieutenant-Colonel William Scott Lonnie, , of Daglish, Western Australia. For services to ex-servicemen. Archibald Bertram McFarlane, , Secretary, Department of Air. Edmund Morris Miller, Professor Emeritus, University of Tasmania. For services to tertiary education in Australia. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Military Division Royal Australian Navy Captain Alfred Maurice Clift. Australian Military Forces Lieutenant-Colonel Gordon Glasgow (154516), Royal Australian Armoured Corps. Colonel (temporary) Stuart Clarence Graham, , (253), Australian Staff Corps. Colonel Ernest George McNamara, , (337508), Australian Staff Corps. Royal Australian Air Force Squadron Leader Laurence Henry Hicks (035740). Squadron Leader Spiro Peter Tsicalas (012770). Civil Division Frank Maitland Cush, Member of the Australian Board of Control for International Cricket Henry Alphonsus de Dassel, Australian representative on the Commonwealth Telecommunications Board, London. Ian Fairley Graham Downs, Member of the Legislative Council of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Mellicent Jean Ellis, Federal President and Honorary Organiser of the Penguin Club of Australia. Ethel Frances Hanrahan, Senior Matron, Heidelberg Repatriation General Hospital. Ronald Arthur Irish, of Double Bay, New South Wales. For services to commerce and industry. The Reverend George Henry Morling, of Pennant Hills, New South Wales. For services to theological education in Australia. Gladys Edith Pendred, Federal Officer, Australian Pre-School Association. Alexander Frederick Reid, , of Wodonga, Victoria. For services to ex-servicemen and women. Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Angelo Rodriguez, , Comptroller to the Governor-General. David Thomas Rogers, , of New Town, Tasmania. For services rendered in connection with Australian patriotic organisations. Walter Henry Steel, , formerly Medical Superintendent, Repatriation General Hospital, Greenslopes, Queensland. Andrew Thomson, of Hobart, Tasmania. For services to Shipping. Harry Stanley Warren, formerly Collector of Customs, Victoria. William Maldon Woodfull, of East Malvern, Victoria. For services to education. Frank Arthur Yeates, of Nedlands, Western Australia. For public services. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Military Division Royal Australian Navy Chief Inspector William Douglas Mossop, Royal Australian Naval Dockyard Police Force. Australian Military Forces Major Thomas Joseph Crawford (270938), Royal Australian Infantry Corps. 31440 Warrant Officer Class 2 Edward William Gason, Royal Australian Armoured Corps. Lieutenant (Quartermaster) (Honorary Captain) Keith William Kennedy (2735), Royal Australian Infantry Corps. 32094 Warrant Officer Class 1 (temporary) Michael Knight, Royal Australian Infantry Corps. 5444 Warrant Officer Class 1 David Frederick Nock, Royal Australian Army Provost Corps. Major (temporary) Bruce Alan Ridland (426756), Royal Australian Infantry Corps. Captain Alan John Russell (1231), Royal Australian Army Ordnance Corps. Royal Australian Air Force Squadron Leader John Malcolm Duncan (04980), Citizen Air Force. Flying Officer Frank Ernest Bolton (031947). Warrant Officer Pat Edward Curtis (A.2887). Warrant Officer Howard Ian Shaw (A.3788). Civil Division Francis Edwin Armstrong, , of Telopea, New South Wales. For services to ex-servicemen. Leslie William Hamilton de Rune Barclay, Chief Aeronautical Inspector, Sydney Area, Department of Air. Matron April Summers Challen, of the Illoura Baptist Homes for the Aged, Norwood, South Australia. John Cleary, Australian Assistant Trade Commissioner, Bombay. John Rollo Foldi, District Commissioner, New Britain District, Papua. Dora Phoebe Gurr, of Geelong, Victoria. For charitable services. Frederick Augustus Hickman, of Julia Creek, Queensland. For services to primary industry. Harold Edward Hurst. For services to the Scout Movement as Commissioner for Geelong and Nauru. Phyllis Knox Jones, Personal Private Secretary to Her Majesty's Australian Ambassador in Washington. William John Kenny, formerly Head of the Naval Personnel Branch, Department of the Navy. Horst Guenter Kohlsdorf, of Cooma Noith, New South Wales. For services rendered in connection with the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme. Dorothea Margaret Lyons, of Darwin, Northern Territory. For social welfare services. Harold William McDonald, formerly Secretary and Accountant, Williamstown Naval Dockyard. Lila Irene Morgan, of Lidcombe, New South Wales. For services to patriotic and social welfare organisations. Captain Henry Vernon Moss, formerly Pilot and Engineer, Trans Australia Airlines, Alice Springs. For services to the Aerial Medical Service in the Northern Territory. Ingomar Netliv, Senior Compiler, Demography, Bureau of Census and Statistics. Russel Pardoe, , Medical Officer with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition. Harold William Parle, , of Mosman, New South Wales. For public services. Julius Clive Pollack, President of the Australian Amateur Fencing Federation. Philip John Self, of Turramurra, New South Wales. For public services. Frederick William Stevens, Superintendent of Communications, Department of Civil Aviation. Sister Mildred Alexandra Symons, of Eastwood, New South Wales. For social welfare services rendered under the auspices of the Home Mission Society of the Church of England. Dorothy Alice Varcoe, of Armatree, New South Wales. For services to the Australian Red Cross Society and other social welfare organisations. British Empire Medal (BEM) Military Division Royal Australian Navy Chief Engine Room Artificer Leonard George Bebb, R.23304. Chief Engineering Mechanic Joseph Thomas Ellis, R.25274. Acting Petty Officer Douglas Moore, R.51931. Australian Military Forces 121156 Sergeant Athol Raymond Blackwood, Royal Australian Infantry Corps. 26479 Sergeant Raymond Ernest Dummett, Royal Australian Infantry Corps. 52676 Corporal Richard Arthur Duprans, Royal Australian Army Service Corps. 35941 Sergeant (temporary) John Donald Albert Harrison, Royal Australian Survey Corps. 23589 Warrant Officer Class 2 (temporary) Norman George Newcombe, Royal Australian Engineers. 1360 Staff-Sergeant Thomas Savage, Royal Australian Infantry Corps. Royal Australian Air Force A633 Flight Sergeant Harry Joseph Darling. A5401 Flight Sergeant Desmond Keith Fergusson. A260 Flight Sergeant Ronald Elwin Waye. Civil Division Frank Hector Flint, Foreman, Grade A, Naval Storehouse, Garden Island. Kabua Cairo, Interpreter, Supreme Court of Papua and New Guinea, Port Moresby. Jesses Herbert Gregory, Assistant to the Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia. John Henry Hardwicke, lately Electrician, Naval Dockyard, Garden Island. Niven Leslie Jones, Engine Overhauls Superintendent, Ansett-A.N.A. Pty. Limited. Jane Graham McCook, Secretarial Assistant, Federal Parliament, Brisbane. Richard Wellesby Storrier, Senior Technical Officer, Department of the Navy. Elsie Margaret Vogt, Personal Assistant and Stenographer to the Secretary, Department of Defence. Royal Red Cross (RRC) Lieutenant-Colonel (Honorary Colonel) Edna Nell Doig, , (F.3130), Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps. Air Force Cross (AFC) Royal Australian Air Force Wing Commander Frederick John Inger (03124). Wing Commander Cornelius Desmond Murphy, , (033188). Flight Lieutenant Gordon Herbert Stewart, , (031548). Flight Lieutenant Hartley Ronald Winchcombe, , (051504). Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air Royal Australian Air Force Squadron Leader William Thomas Spinks (023624). New Zealand Nigeria Knight Bachelor Western Nigeria Oba Isaac Babalola Akinyele, , The Olubadan of Ibadan. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) Eastern Region Andrew Urquhart, , Deputy Governor. Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Federation of Nigeria Eldon Charles Alderton, London Representative of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Northern Region Richard Egerton Greswell, , Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Trade and Industry. Order of the British Empire Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) Civil Division Federation of Nigeria St. Michael Mobolaji Bank-Anthony, . For public and philanthropic services. Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Civil Division Federation of Nigeria Nolan Knighton Millett, , Commissioner of Police, 1955-1962. Northern Nigeria Maurice Arthur Collings, , formerly Director of Audit. Alhaji Haruna, Emir of Hadejia. Eastern Nigeria Albert Ikeme Osakwe, Permanent Secretary, Eastern Nigeria Public Service. Western Nigeria Darnley Arthur Raymond Alexander, Solicitor-General. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Civil Division Federation of Nigeria The Reverend Edward John Jones, , formerly Chairman of the Methodist Mission. Nelson Adeyemi Kuforiji, Assistant General Manager (Staff), Nigerian Railway Corporation. Northern Nigeria Alhaji Abdullahi, Dan Buram Jada, Permanent Commissioner of the Public Service Commission. Alhaji Aliu, Magajin Gari of Sokoto. Patrick Arthur Grier, Deputy Secretary to the Premier. Reginald Outram Mant, formerly Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Social Welfare and Co-operatives. Mallam Muhammadu Mera, Emir of Argungu. Eastern Nigeria The Reverend Robert Malcolm Macdonald, Administrative Superintendent, Presbyterian Church of Nigeria Leper Colony, Itu, Enyong Division. Kenneth Stanley Seal, , Rural Health Adviser. Western Nigeria Erejuwa II, The Olu of Warri. William Gascoyne, Surveyor General. Joseph Joaquim Ibikunle Marinho, , Public Service Commissioner. Henry Michael Babatunde Somade, Chief Inspector of Education. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Military Division Lieutenant-Colonel (local) (now Major) Keith Reid Walker, , (355182), The Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons); on loan to the Government of the Federation of Nigeria. Civil Division Federation of Nigeria Major Denis Henry Lionel Parker, . For public services. Ephraim Olatunde Ogundipe Phillips, Senior Collector of Customs and Excise. Telisila Olushola Roberts, Staff Nurse (Mental). Martin James Walshe, Acting Chief Executive Officer and General Manager, Electricity Corporation of Nigeria. Northern Nigeria Mallam Abubakar Mashegu, Acting Resident of Benue Province. Alhaji Damale Kaita, Councillor for Natural Resources, Katsina Native Authority. Anthony Hamilton Millard Kirk-Greene, Senior Lecturer, Institute of Administration, Zaria. Alhaji Mohammed Hayattudin, Administrative Officer Class IV. Mallam Ibrahim, Chief of Kanam. Mai Kyari, Galadima of Bornu. Nyelong, Long Kemai, Chief of Shendam. Joyce Dinnick-Parr, Chief Woman Education Officer, Ministry of Education. Derek Anthony Teague Thain, Administrative Officer Class II. Eastern Nigeria Hugh de Beauvoir Brock, General Manager, Agricultural and Plantations Division, Eastern Nigeria Development Corporation. Frances Cameron, Vice-Principal, Union Secondary School for Girls, Ibiaku, Enyong Division. Julius Azubike Chukwukelu, Agricultural Superintendent, Ministry of Agriculture. Douglas O'Connel Faithful-Davies, Temporary Pharmacist, Ministry of Health. Bernard Joseph McDonald, Chief Inspector of Works, Ministry of Works. Chief Daniel Okangba Njoku. For services to local government. Lawrence Obasi Okoro, First Clerk Assistant to the Eastern Nigeria Legislature. Western Nigeria Isaiah Ayodele Akioye, Principal Inspector of Education (Primary). Joseph Ora Izuora, of Sapele. For services to youth organisations and community development. Oba John Adetoyese Laoye I, The Timi of Ede. Chief Samuel Ojo, The Bada of Shaki in Oyo Division. James Oladele Sobande, Administrative Officer Class III. Sunday Olayinka Somefun, Government Printer, Ministry of Home Affairs. British Empire Medal (BEM) Military Division Company Sergeant-Major Riga Samuel Addingi, Royal Nigerian Army. Sergeant Okunola Awoleye, Royal Nigerian Army. Civil Division for Meritorious Service Federation of Nigeria Wilson Ibekwe, Serjeant Major, Nigerian Police Force. Northern Region Charles Edward Bruce, Motor Licensing Authority Sardauna Province. Civil Division for Gallantry Lawan Grema, Village Head, Northern Nigeria. For courage when faced with a gang of armed cattle thieves. Queen's Police Medal (QPM) Melville Roberts, Commissioner of Police, Nigeria. Edwin Everett, Assistant Commissioner of Police, Nigeria. Queen's Fire Services Medal (QFSM) Harold Rose, Acting Federal Inspector, Nigeria Fire Service. Sierra Leone Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) Alfred Foley Francis Polden Newns, , Adviser to the Government. Order of the British Empire Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Civil Division The Reverend Canon Harry Alphonso Ebun Sawyerr, , Professor of Theology, Fourah Bay College, The University College of Sierra Leone. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Military Division Lieutenant-Colonel Michael Francis Cannell, , (405636), Royal Army Medical Corps; on loan to the Government of Sierra Leone. Civil Division Muhammad Mahdi, Permanent Secretary, Administrative Service, Government of Sierra Leone. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Civil Division Paramount Chief Musa Fawundu, Mano Sakrim Chiefdom, Pujehun District. Paramount Chief Alikali Modu III, Maforki Chiefdom, Port Loko District. Dousi Wurie, Director, Sierra Leone Development Company Ltd., Member, Port Loko District Council. British Empire Medal (BEM) Civil Division Mohamed Allien Sankoh, Welfare Officer, Sierra Leone Development Company Ltd. William Christopher Sutton, Head Teacher, Freetown. Jamaica Knight Bachelor Neville Noel Ashenheim, , Her Majesty's Jamaica Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the United States of America. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Noel Alfred Crosswell, , Commissioner of Police. Order of the British Empire Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Military Division Lieutenant-Colonel David Smith, , Jamaica Defence Force. Civil Division Frederick McDonald Jones. For voluntary public services. Aubrey Lindsay McFarlane, , a prominent surgeon, of Kingston. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Civil Division Said Nadir Shoucair. For philanthropic services to youth movements. Enid Wynter. For services to the Girl Guide Movement in Jamaica. British Empire Medal (BEM) Military Division W1/2033 Colour-Sergeant Solomon Joel Rodney, 1st Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment. Civil Division Herbert Smith, Livestock Headman, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands. Queen's Police Medal (QPM) Edward Percy Dorrien Greaves, Assistant Commissioner of Police, Jamaica. Trinidad Knight Bachelor Ellis Emmanuel Innocent Clarke, , Her Majesty's Trinidad Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the United States of America. Kenneth Lindsay Grant, . For services to business, social welfare and West Indian cricket. Hugh Olliviere Beresford Wooding, , Chief Justice of Trinidad and Tobago. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Louis Alan Reece, Secretary to the Cabinet and Permanent Secretary to the Prime Minister. Order of the British Empire Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Civil Division Thomas Charles Cambridge, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Public Utilities. For services in connection with Independence. Vivian Mercer Metivier, , of Port-of-Spain. For services to medicine. Marguerite Wyke, Chairman, Independence Celebrations Committee. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Civil Division Patrick Stanislaus Castagne, Public Relations Officer, Office of the High Commissioner for Trinidad in London. For services in connection with Independence. Mother Helen De Verteuil, St. Joseph's Convent, St. Joseph. For services to music (choral). Lystra Lewis, Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago Netball Association. Alan Ramoutar, Secretary, Amateur Athletic Association of Trinidad and Tobago. For services to cricket. Uganda Knight Bachelor George Barrington Cartland, , formerly Deputy Governor of Uganda. Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Charles Peter Selwyn Allen, , Permanent Secretary to the Prime Minister and Secretary to the Cabinet. Order of the British Empire Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Civil Division Wilfrid David Drysdale Fenton, Chairman, Uganda Electricity Board. Barbara Saben, , Mayor of Kampala. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Civil Division Martin Poynting Byers, Labour Commissioner. The Reverend Francis Gustav Coates, Headmaster, Busoga College, Mwiri. Jeremy Charles Dalton Lawrance, formerly Provincial Commissioner. Yona Odida, , Chairman, Acholi Appointments Board. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Civil Division Dolatrai Jinabhai Desai. For social welfare services. Alfred Birongo Mutashwera, Chief Judge, Ankole Native Court. Yafesi Otim, Chairman, Bukedi District Administration Appointments Board. Keith Pegden Smith, Architect, Public Works Department. Reginald Frederick Wells, formerly Senior Superintendent of Works (Mechanical), Public Works Department. Queen's Police Medal (QPM) Stephen Montague Locke, Senior Assistant Commissioner of Police, Uganda. Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland Order of Saint Michael and Saint George Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) Benjamin Charles Jack Richards, Governor of the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Order of the British Empire Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) Civil Division Athol Donald Evans, , Secretary for Home Affairs. Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) Civil Division Frank Stephen Owen, Federal Minister of Transport. Elia Isaakovitch Salzman. For services to the tobacco industry of the Federation. Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) Civil Division Albany John Henry Lancaster Bickle, Farmer, Bulawayo district. For public services. Herman Aaron Krikler. For services to commerce in the Federation. Francis Jack McEwen, Director of the Rhodes National Gallery, Salisbury. Herbert Ross, Farmer, Broken Hill. For public services. Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) Military Division Major Edgar Davey Childes, Rhodesia and Nyasaland Army Service Corps. Civil Division Charles Dodd. For services to Sport in the Federation. Douglas Stanley Malcolm Graham, , Senior Medical Officer, Ministry of Health, Nyasaland. Harold Roy Hack, Senior Planning Officer, Federal Department of Conservation and Extension. Madge Robinson, Special Grade Stenographer, Federal Ministry of Home Affairs. The Reverend Father Henry Swift, , of Salisbury. For public services. British Empire Medal (BEM) Military Division Warrant Officer Class I James Kidney, Rhodesia and Nyasaland Army. Warrant Officer Class II Diston Master, Rhodesia and Nyasaland Army. Civil Division Arthur Henry Cubitt, Senior Driver, Central Mechanical Equipment Department. References New Year Honours 1963 awards 1963 in the United Kingdom 1963 in Australia 1963 in Nigeria 1963 in Sierra Leone 1963 in Jamaica 1963 in Trinidad and Tobago 1963 in Uganda 1963 in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

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The 1992 TFL Statewide League premiership season was an Australian rules football competition staged across Tasmania over eighteen (18) roster rounds and six (6) finals series matches between 4 April and 19 September 1992. This was the seventh season of statewide football competition and The League was known as the Cascade-Boags Statewide League under a dual commercial naming-rights sponsorship agreement with both Cascade Brewery in Hobart and Boag's Brewery in Launceston. Participating Clubs Burnie Hawks Football Club Clarence District Football Club Devonport Blues Football Club Glenorchy District Football Club Hobart Football Club New Norfolk District Football Club North Hobart Football Club North Launceston Football Club Sandy Bay Football Club South Launceston Football Club 1992 TFL Statewide League Club Coaches Richard Lakeland (Burnie Hawks) Leigh McConnon (Clarence) Peter Knights (Devonport) Kim Excell (Glenorchy) Mark Browning (Hobart) Peter Chisnall (New Norfolk) Mark Yeates (North Hobart) Steven Goulding (North Launceston) Paul Jeffries (Sandy Bay) Bob Keddie (South Launceston) St Luke's Cup (Reserves) Grand Final Glenorchy 11.14 (80) v Nth Hobart 9.11 (65) Statewide League Colts (Under-19's) Grand Final Glenorchy 10.9 (69) v Nth Launceston 8.9 (57) Leading Goalkickers: TFL Statewide League Byron Howard Jnr (Nth Hobart) – 92 Keith Robinson (Hobart) – 86 Shane Fell (Glenorchy) – 61 Brad Pearce (Sth Launceston) – 57 Medal Winners Jason Gibson (Nth Launceston) – William Leitch Medal Darryn Perry (North Hobart) – Darrel Baldock Medal (Best player in TFL Grand Final) John Rainbird (New Norfolk) – George Watt Medal (Reserves) Alan Bond (Hobart) – V.A Geard Medal (Under-19's) Craig Grace (Glenorchy) – D.R Plaister Medal (Under-17's) Michael Winter (Hobart) – Weller Arnold Medal (Best player in Intrastate Match) Intrastate Matches Area of Origin Match (Saturday, 13 June 1992) South 21.16 (142) v North 7.12 (54) – Att: 3,050 at North Hobart Oval 1992 TFL Club Home Attendance Figures Nth Hobart: 14,135 for 9 matches at 1,570 Hobart: 13,847 for 9 matches at 1,538 New Norfolk: 12,783 for 9 matches at 1,420 Devonport: 12,249 for 9 matches at 1,361 Nth Launceston: 12,149 for 9 matches at 1,349 Clarence: 11,584 for 9 matches at 1,287 Glenorchy: 11,027 for 9 matches at 1,225 Sandy Bay: 8,224 for 9 matches at 913 Sth Launceston: 7,769 for 9 matches at 863 Burnie Hawks: 7,021 for 9 matches at 780 Season Summary 1992 would prove to be a disastrous season for the Tasmanian Football League as the effects of the economic recession began to bite the competition hard. A number of member clubs would face serious financial ruin, with Glenorchy announcing an increasing debt of $350,000 which had been the result of gross mis-management and some embezzlement at the club, North Hobart would announce that they were also in dire financial trouble which was related to the blowout in costs of building their NHFC Social Club building in 1991. Sandy Bay announced that they were also on the brink of financial oblivion and needed an immediate injection of more than $70,000 in the middle of the season in order to continue participation for the rest of the season, as a "Save The Bay" foundation was formed and special charity matches were staged by the club in order to raise urgent funds. Clarence president Roger Curtis announced in May that "Clarence Football Club's financial position is worse than all the other clubs", this was related to the costs of the building of their Petchey Street clubrooms in 1983 which had come back to haunt them. In August, Burnie Hawks instigated merger talks with cross-town rival, NTFL club Burnie Tigers as the economic crisis had disastrous effects on the city of Burnie itself with the city's biggest employer, Associated Pulp Paper Manufacturing (APPM) shedding jobs amid violent demonstrations on the city's port, the Hawks now faced a debt of more than $200,000 as crowds nosedived sharply. By July, General Manager of the TFL Barry Breen instigated crisis talks at Youngtown with delegates, sponsors and advisers of all TFL clubs involved in discussions. Crowds were to drop sharply during the season, despite fifteen fewer roster games from the previous season, crowds fell by 33,703 from 1991, the finals series saw crowds fall by 8,330 from the previous season. The TFL were unhappy with ABC-Television's decision to telecast full matches live against the gate, the first match to be broadcast in full live across Tasmania was on 27 June 1992 when Clarence upset North Launceston at York Park for the Robins first loss of the season, in front a dismal attendance of just 1,049. By 1 August, the effects of live broadcasting was beginning to be problematic for the TFL, the Round 15 roster of that day, in windy conditions, was the first time in the history of Statewide football that no fixture attracted a crowd of more than 1,000 patrons during a roster round, the previous time a TFL roster round failed to draw more than 1,000 patrons to any match was on 12 May 1945. Amid all the doom and gloom, the season commenced in hot conditions on 4 April, with temperatures reaching 31 °C in both Hobart and Launceston and 35 °C at Boyer where New Norfolk and Clarence staged a magnificent spectacle which ended in a draw. North Launceston, North Hobart and Hobart would be the season's premiership favourites and as it progressed, that's how it would turn out. North Launceston started the season in magnificent touch by winning their first ten matches, including one match dubbed as "Match of the Season" against Hobart at North Hobart Oval on 7 June in front of almost 3,000 fans, where both sides put on an enthralling contest featuring seventeen goals in the second quarter which saw Hobart race out to a strong lead before the Robins hit back strongly in the second half to win by 44-points. The Robins lost only two matches for the season (to Clarence and North Hobart) and were firm favourites to take their first flag since their 1983 NTFA triumph. North Hobart were equally as strong, the Demons under Mark Yeates won ten out of their final eleven matches going into the finals, their one loss being a shock 62-point loss to a much improved South Launceston at Youngtown on 15 August, but this proved to be a mere blip on the radar as the season went on. Hobart also started the season in top form, Mark Browning's Tigers won eight out their first nine matches (their only loss being a last kick of the match defeat to Clarence on 9 May) and after an awesome first-half display against North Launceston on 7 June, the Tigers stopped to a walk and eventually were overrun by a powerful Robins' team. By mid-season the Tigers were to be decimated by a long injury list and despite managing to scrape out a number of unimpressive victories late in the season, the Tigers appeared to be well behind the two North's in the title race. Both Clarence and Devonport had up and down seasons but despite lacking the talent of the top teams, both were able to hit form at the right time to take a finals spot, the Roos going into the finals in the better form of the two. Outside the finals, South Launceston, despite being very inconsistent were able to produce their best season of football since 1987, ultimately their very poor percentage would cost them any chance at finals action, but there was great optimism for the future of the Bulldogs after several years of discussions on whether the club should remain a TFL member. Peter Chisnall's New Norfolk would prove to be a great disappointment, the Eagles and Chisnall's honeymoon period appeared to be over with Chisnall increasingly frustrated at his team's performances and eventually announcing his resignation at the end of the season. Meanwhile, the bottom three consisted of three clubs that were perilously close to financial ruin, Burnie Hawks, Sandy Bay and Glenorchy, the Magpies sitting on the bottom of the ladder for the first time since 1963. Finals action commenced on 29 August in what was to be a cold and wet finals series. North Hobart and Hobart faced off in the Qualifying Final on Saturday, 29 August with the Demons handing Hobart a football lesson, despite keeping in touch for most of the first half, the Tigers were to go goal-less from late in the second quarter until Geoff Keogh booted Hobart's only goal for the second half right on the final siren, meanwhile the super-confident Demons would boot 11.1 in the final quarter to run out 97-point victors. On Sunday, 30 August, an out of form Devonport were to host Clarence at a rain-sodden Devonport Oval in the Elimination Final, with the Roos proving too good on the day to win by 22-points. The following Saturday, an epic Second Semi Final at York Park saw North Launceston and North Hobart fight out a thrilling contest. The two sides had been in red-hot form all season and in the first half, the Demons raced out to a 22-point lead, in the third quarter the Robins roared back into contention and eventually hit the front late in the third quarter with their fans in full voice behind them, the Robins still lead the match deep into time-on in the final quarter until North Hobart's Warren Walker managed to snap a match winning goal with moments to go and take the match by 3-points, stunning the home crowd into complete silence and booking themselves a spot in the Grand Final for the second year in succession. Hobart were able to put the previous week's dismal display behind them and hit form the following day in the First Semi Final and run away from Clarence to record a solid 37-point win and book themselves a place in the Preliminary Final against clear favourites' North Launceston. The Preliminary Final at North Hobart Oval on 12 September would go down as one of the worst days ever seen in finals football in Hobart since the infamous 1960 Grand Final and the equally infamous 1957 Second Semi Final. North Launceston had picked a side of tall players to come down and tackle a Hobart side which lacked height, only to see torrents of rain fall early in the morning and through the Under-19 and Reserves fixtures which rendered the ground in deplorable condition. Temperatures plummeted to below 4 °C for much of the senior match as sleet, light snow, wind and occasional heavy periods of rain hit North Hobart Oval, the ground itself resembled a lake with virtually the entire surface with the exception of the terraced wing being a quagmire. A crowd of only 1,853 (the lowest TFL Preliminary Final crowd ever recorded to that stage) braved the freezing conditions to see Hobart boot only five goals for the match, four of them resulting from free-kicks to destroy the Robins premiership hopes and send them out in straight-sets. The TFL, outraged at the paltry attendance at the match and with ABC-Television for televising the whole game live, ordered the broadcaster to not televise the Grand Final live on 19 September. The big match saw North Hobart, the hottest favourites in two decades to win the premiership facing Hobart in fine conditions in a repeat of their 1989 Grand Final. After a tight match for much of the first-half, it was Hobart who were attacking strongly in the early part of the third quarter, the crowd of just under 12,000 were anticipating a possible upset, but the Demons soon sprang to life and produced an inspiring burst of football late in the third quarter to jump out to a 15-point lead at three-quarter time. The Demons were able to control the play for much of the final quarter as Hobart had run out of steam and North Hobart went on to take the premiership by 35-points, with the by now retired Captain-Coach Mark Yeates announcing his retirement as coach of North Hobart only seconds after the siren. Yeates had been a sales representative with the Schweppes soft drink company in North Hobart in his two-year term at the Demons, but had accepted a more lucrative employment offer interstate for the following year. Meanwhile, for Hobart, this match was to mark the end of the Tigers as a power in State football, in October 1992 Captain-Coach Mark Browning also resigned as coach of the club and after a chaotic situation in regard to appointing a senior coach the following season, the Tigers found themselves with a young, struggling squad for several years and were to find themselves in deep financial trouble which would see them have to leave the TFL just five seasons later in a battle to even stay alive. 1992 TFL Statewide League Ladder Round 1 (Saturday, 4 April & Sunday, 5 April 1992) Nth Hobart 22.16 (148) v Devonport 13.9 (87) - Att: 1,608 at North Hobart Oval New Norfolk 19.7 (121) v Clarence 18.13 (121) - Att: 2,069 at Boyer Oval Nth Launceston 24.16 (160) v Sth Launceston 15.7 (97) - Att: 2,666 at York Park Burnie Hawks 22.14 (146) v Glenorchy 9.11 (65) - Att: 964 at West Park Oval Hobart 17.14 (116) v Sandy Bay 14.16 (100) - Att: 1,743 at Queenborough Oval (Sunday) Round 2 (Saturday, 11 April 1992) Hobart 19.13 (127) v Burnie Hawks 8.17 (65) - Att: 1,043 at North Hobart Oval Nth Hobart 22.21 (153) v Glenorchy 12.10 (82) - Att: 1,662 at KGV Football Park Nth Launceston 24.11 (155) v Clarence 9.13 (67) - Att: 1,544 at Bellerive Oval Sth Launceston 18.29 (137) v Sandy Bay 12.10 (82) - Att: 949 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Devonport 19.16 (130) v New Norfolk 11.6 (72) - Att: 1,641 at Devonport Oval Round 3 (Saturday, 18 April & Monday 20 April 1992) Clarence 21.18 (144) v Sandy Bay 4.9 (33) - Att: 1,161 at Queenborough Oval Nth Hobart 22.10 (142) v New Norfolk 14.16 (100) - Att: 1,946 at Boyer Oval Burnie Hawks 16.19 (115) v Sth Launceston 13.14 (92) - Att: 764 at West Park Oval Hobart 20.22 (142) v Glenorchy 15.9 (99) - Att: 1,494 at North Hobart Oval (Monday) Nth Launceston 14.22 (106) v Devonport 6.5 (41) - Att: 1,065 at York Park (Monday) Round 4 (Saturday, 25 April 1992) Nth Launceston 24.13 (157) v Nth Hobart 12.16 (88) - Att: 2,394 at North Hobart Oval Glenorchy 19.12 (126) v New Norfolk 18.13 (121) - Att: 1,699 at KGV Football Park Clarence 18.9 (117) v Burnie Hawks 12.11 (83) - Att: 1,196 at Bellerive Oval Hobart 19.17 (131) v Sth Launceston 8.15 (63) - Att: 938 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Devonport 14.16 (100) v Sandy Bay 8.8 (56) - Att: 924 at Devonport Oval Round 5 (Saturday, 2 May & Saturday, 9 May 1992) Sth Launceston 15.13 (103) v Glenorchy 13.15 (93) - Att: 1,342 at KGV Football Park (2 May) Clarence 15.11 (101) v Hobart 13.20 (98) - Att: 1,956 at North Hobart Oval (9 May) Nth Hobart 17.19 (121) v Sandy Bay 6.10 (46) - Att: 1,021 at Queenborough Oval (9 May) Nth Launceston 25.16 (166) v New Norfolk 12.11 (83) - Att: 1,232 at York Park (9 May) Devonport 16.23 (119) v Burnie Hawks 8.12 (60) - Att: 1,144 at West Park Oval (9 May) Round 6 (Saturday, 16 May 1992) Nth Hobart 25.7 (157) v Burnie Hawks 9.13 (67) - Att: 1,216 at North Hobart Oval Sth Launceston 15.7 (97) v Clarence 13.8 (86) - Att: 1,180 at Bellerive Oval New Norfolk 16.18 (114) v Sandy Bay 9.10 (64) - Att: 1,570 at Boyer Oval Nth Launceston 22.20 (152) v Glenorchy 5.11 (41) - Att: 1,193 at York Park Hobart 18.21 (129) v Devonport 10.12 (72) - Att: 1,490 at Devonport Oval Round 7 (Saturday, 23 May 1992) Hobart 20.13 (133) v Nth Hobart 15.9 (99) - Att: 2,536 at North Hobart Oval Nth Launceston 14.14 (98) v Sandy Bay 8.10 (58) - Att: 652 at Queenborough Oval Clarence 15.18 (108) v Glenorchy 9.7 (61) - Att: 1,541 at KGV Football Park Devonport 23.14 (152) v Sth Launceston 8.15 (63) - Att: 1,165 at Youngtown Memorial Ground New Norfolk 18.25 (133) v Burnie Hawks 12.11 (83) - Att: 876 at West Park Oval Round 8 (Saturday, 30 May 1992) Nth Hobart 32.16 (208) v Sth Launceston 13.11 (89) - Att: 1,145 at North Hobart Oval Sandy Bay 20.9 (129) v Glenorchy 15.15 (105) - Att: 1,031 at Queenborough Oval Hobart 22.14 (146) v New Norfolk 10.13 (73) - Att: 1,743 at Boyer Oval Nth Launceston 23.8 (146) v Burnie Hawks 11.10 (76) - Att: 1,087 at York Park Devonport 12.13 (85) v Clarence 12.11 (83) - Att: 1,394 at Devonport Oval Round 9 (Saturday, 6 June. Sunday, 7 June & Monday, 8 June 1992) Devonport 13.21 (99) v Glenorchy 11.11 (77) - Att: 989 at KGV Football Park Burnie Hawks 20.17 (137) v Sandy Bay 12.4 (76) - Att: 762 at West Park Oval Nth Launceston 24.11 (155) v Hobart 16.15 (111) - Att: 2,853 at North Hobart Oval (Sunday) Nth Hobart 15.22 (112) v Clarence 9.12 (66) - Att: 1,881 at Bellerive Oval (Monday) Sth Launceston 17.7 (109) v New Norfolk 10.20 (80) - Att: 872 at Youngtown Memorial Ground (Monday) Round 10 (Saturday, 20 June 1992) Hobart 16.13 (109) v Sandy Bay 15.13 (103) - Att: 1,069 at North Hobart Oval Glenorchy 18.10 (118) v Burnie Hawks 13.14 (92) - Att: 798 at KGV Football Park New Norfolk 15.15 (105) v Clarence 14.16 (100) - Att: 1,216 at Bellerive Oval Nth Launceston 20.11 (131) v Sth Launceston 10.10 (70) - Att: 1,246 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Nth Hobart 16.9 (105) v Devonport 16.7 (103) - Att: 1,291 at Devonport Oval Round 11 (Saturday, 27 June 1992) Nth Hobart 24.16 (160) v Glenorchy 10.11 (71) - Att: 1,399 at North Hobart Oval Sandy Bay 16.17 (113) v Sth Launceston 5.6 (36) - Att: 657 at Queenborough Oval New Norfolk 23.15 (153) v Devonport 7.5 (47) - Att: 1,295 at Boyer Oval Clarence 18.15 (123) v Nth Launceston 16.13 (109) - Att: 1,049 at York Park Hobart 19.22 (136) v Burnie Hawks 20.11 (131) - Att: 746 at West Park Oval Round 12 (Saturday, 4 July & Sunday 5 July 1992) Nth Hobart 20.9 (129) v New Norfolk 6.10 (46) - Att: 1,786 at North Hobart Oval Hobart 16.12 (108) v Glenorchy 10.11 (71) - Att: 1,235 at KGV Football Park Clarence 18.21 (129) v Sandy Bay 7.15 (57) - Att: 1,166 at Bellerive Oval Sth Launceston 13.12 (90) v Burnie Hawks 9.6 (60) - Att: 581 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Nth Launceston 6.7 (43) v Devonport 5.9 (39) - Att: 1,430 at Devonport Oval (Sunday) Round 13 (Saturday, 11 July & Saturday, 18 July 1992) Nth Hobart 22.8 (140) v Nth Launceston 11.7 (73) - Att: 1,575 at York Park (11 July) Sth Launceston 15.24 (114) v Hobart 14.12 (96) - Att: 937 at North Hobart Oval (18 July) Devonport 18.12 (120) v Sandy Bay 13.7 (85) - Att: 540 at Queenborough Oval (18 July) New Norfolk 25.14 (164) v Glenorchy 5.7 (37) - Att: 1,481 at Boyer Oval (18 July) Clarence 17.19 (121) v Burnie Hawks 10.6 (66) - Att: 604 at West Park Oval (18 July) Round 14 (Saturday, 25 July & Sunday, 26 July 1992) Nth Hobart 11.14 (80) v Sandy Bay 1.10 (16) - Att: 814 at North Hobart Oval Clarence 9.11 (65) v Hobart 10.5 (65) - Att: 1,125 at Bellerive Oval Nth Launceston 4.4 (28) v New Norfolk 2.14 (26) - Att: 830 at Boyer Oval Sth Launceston 13.23 (101) v Glenorchy 13.4 (82) - Att: 725 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Devonport 23.14 (152) v Burnie Hawks 10.12 (72) - Att: 1,909 at Devonport Oval (Sunday) Round 15 (Saturday, 1 August 1992) Hobart 13.14 (92) v Devonport 12.7 (79) - Att: 863 at North Hobart Oval Sandy Bay 16.17 (113) v New Norfolk 16.11 (107) - Att: 791 at Queenborough Oval Nth Launceston 11.13 (79) v Glenorchy 6.8 (44) - Att: 850 at KGV Football Park Clarence 25.16 (166) v Sth Launceston 13.12 (90) - Att: 630 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Nth Hobart 18.13 (121) v Burnie Hawks 6.8 (44) - Att: 586 at West Park Oval Round 16 (Saturday, 8 August 1992) Nth Hobart 22.18 (150) v Hobart 17.10 (112) - Att: 1,859 at North Hobart Oval Clarence 23.13 (151) v Glenorchy 5.11 (41) - Att: 1,196 at Bellerive Oval New Norfolk 17.14 (116) v Burnie Hawks 10.9 (69) - Att: 871 at Boyer Oval Nth Launceston 15.14 (104) v Sandy Bay 7.10 (52) - Att: 917 at York Park Devonport 11.18 (84) v Sth Launceston 6.7 (43) - Att: 1,085 at Devonport Oval Round 17 (Saturday, 15 August 1992) Hobart 19.13 (127) v New Norfolk 16.8 (104) - Att: 1,096 at North Hobart Oval Glenorchy 14.16 (100) v Sandy Bay 9.12 (66) - Att: 911 at KGV Football Park Clarence 13.15 (93) v Devonport 9.16 (70) - Att: 1,080 at Bellerive Oval Sth Launceston 24.11 (155) v Nth Hobart 13.15 (93) - Att: 663 at Youngtown Memorial Ground Nth Launceston 21.14 (140) v Burnie Hawks 8.10 (58) - Att: 575 at West Park Oval Round 18 (Saturday, 22 August 1992) Nth Hobart 17.12 (114) v Clarence 9.14 (68) - Att: 1,914 at North Hobart Oval Burnie Hawks 22.12 (144) v Sandy Bay 14.8 (92) - Att: 698 at Queenborough Oval New Norfolk 22.18 (150) v Sth Launceston 16.17 (113) - Att: 978 at Boyer Oval Nth Launceston 15.9 (99) v Hobart 10.15 (75) - Att: 1,365 at York Park Devonport 12.13 (85) v Glenorchy 9.4 (58) - Att: 1,085 at Devonport Oval Qualifying Final (Saturday, 29 August 1992) Nth Hobart: 6.3 (39) | 10.4 (64) | 12.11 (83) | 23.12 (150) Hobart: 3.2 (20) | 6.4 (40) | 6.8 (44) | 7.11 (53) Attendance: 3,088 at North Hobart Oval Elimination Final (Sunday, 30 August 1992) Clarence: 3.1 (19) | 6.3 (39) | 8.8 (56) | 9.10 (64) Devonport: 2.2 (14) | 3.3 (21) | 5.5 (35) | 6.6 (42) Attendance: 1,672 at Devonport Oval Second Semi Final (Saturday, 5 September 1992) Nth Hobart: 5.2 (32) | 9.5 (59) | 11.7 (73) | 15.10 (100) Nth Launceston: 2.5 (17) | 5.7 (37) | 12.12 (84) | 14.13 (97) Attendance: 3,196 at York Park First Semi Final (Sunday, 6 September 1992) Hobart: 4.6 (30) | 9.10 (64) | 13.16 (94) | 18.21 (129) Clarence: 5.2 (32) | 7.4 (46) | 12.5 (77) | 14.8 (92) Attendance: 2,832 at North Hobart Oval Preliminary Final (Saturday, 12 September 1992) Hobart: 0.1 (1) | 3.2 (20) | 4.3 (27) | 5.5 (35) Nth Launceston: 2.1 (13) | 2.2 (14) | 2.3 (15) | 3.5 (23) Attendance: 1,853 at North Hobart Oval Grand Final (Saturday, 19 September 1992) - (ABC-TV highlights: 1992 TFL Grand Final) Nth Hobart: 4.3 (27) | 8.6 (54) | 12.8 (80) | 16.12 (108) Hobart: 3.7 (25) | 6.8 (44) | 9.11 (65) | 10.13 (73) Attendance: 11,967 at North Hobart Oval Source: All scores and statistics courtesy of the Hobart Mercury, Launceston Examiner and North West Advocate publications. Tasmanian Football League seasons

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doc-en-8583

Antonio Diego Voci (VOH-chee 1920–1985) was an internationally collected Italian figurative artist with the largest group of owners of his works residing in Switzerland, England, Germany, Italy, Canada and the US; as well as various works scattered the world over. Although constantly drawing or painting from childhood to the day he succumbed to lung cancer, Diego's most productive period was the last quarter century of his life which began when he met Helga Drössler in January 1960 in Paris. A significant turning point in Diego's career, Diego said, "My life took on new meaning. I became more." Helga who became Diego's wife, lover, best friend and confidant, published seven chapters of her life with Diego on Artifact Collectors. Within those 25 abundant years Diego created 4000 oils, mostly on canvas, and many thousands of drawings. "Each movement had its great masters, but there are very few who could create art unconfined by a single style like Diego." – Christopher Voci Impressionism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Fauvism all experienced the hand of Diego Voci who was fascinated by the beauty and mystery of the face and figure, whether the female body nude or in ballet, or the etched lines of life's hardships in an old man's face, or the grace and power of the horse. Diego's versatility was his strength. Diego not only saw and realized human frailty, the desire and longing of the human to be something more, seeking but not to find; but also he understood man's animal instinct to overpower, offset by the object's instinct to resist. 1920–1938: early life Antonio Diego Voci (VOH-chee), the youngest of 3 brothers was born Antonio Innocenzo Voci on 10 August 1920 in the mountainous region near Catanzaro, Italy, in the small village of Gasperina, to Giuseppantonio Voci and Arcangela Messina Voci, a Catholic family of modest means. From childhood Diego felt compelled to draw as constantly and effortlessly as he drew a breath, endowed by nature to do both. At an early age Diego took charge of his own life direction. Diego proudly boasted his independent, I'll-do-it-myself spirit when at age eight, he carved his own religious statue when his father would not buy the one he wanted in a Rome store window. Diego was called on in school for art, design and decoration projects. By age 12 he was awarded a year scholarship to a design school. Diego proudly recalled that in his youth religious artist Antonino Calcagnadoro (1876–1935) let him help paint a church fresco. Diego studied sculpture and painting for three years at Lyce d'Art, followed by studies of Greek and Latin, as well as tailoring. All three Voci boys were sent to Reggio to study tailoring. In December 1920, four months after Diego's birth, their father took the oldest brother Vincenzo, age 15, to Philadelphia where they both worked as tailors. For 3 ½ years Messina Arcangela raised "Toto", her pet name for Diego, until her husband came back to Gasperina with enough money to open a dry goods store. In 1930, Vincenzo returned to Italy to marry 17-year-old Anna Spadea, (born 1913 Gasperina) whom he took back to Philadelphia continuing as one of the area's finest tailors and designer for Pincus Manufacturing. The middle brother, Giuseppe became a professional musician and played in the Rome Orchestra. Diego sold his first painting at age 18. Typical of most parents, Giuseppantonio, encouraged his son to follow in his traditional profession, "Toto [Diego], the God of Art does not give bread." But the compulsion in Diego for art was too strong, the pleasure too rewarding, "'I was born to paint." And paint he did in the thousands, and drawings beyond count. In addition to his vast array of artworks, Diego would also design and make his own clothes as an adult, and for the ladies of his liking. Diego relied on himself for money. All members of the Voci family agree Diego never received financing from the family, and that he never worked at any occupation other than art. Upon venturing out on his own Diego summoned his practical side to employ his art talent to works of art he knew the public would quickly buy, to raise money or trade for food, bed, paint and canvas, and to finance his study, to expand knowledge, experience and skill. Also to enjoy pleasures in life, and sports. (Diego was a competitive cyclist in high school.) His time to create his own masterworks would come later. 1939–1948: school and WWII Art schools and World War II military service in the Italian Army would consume Diego's life through 1948. At 19 Diego enrolled at the Florence Academy of Arts in San Marco Piazza. At 20 his art studies were interrupted by World War II. 1945 with the war over, Diego then returned to the Florence Academy of Arts for 3 years studying the classic styles of sculpture and painting of Donatello, Leonardo, Michelangelo and many others. World War II POW: art was the key to survival During World War II, Diego was sent to the front lines as an Italian Army soldier to fight against the Germans. Conditions were horrible. When he came home on leave Diego's mother Messina Arcangela had to boil her son's uniform to get rid of the lice infestation. On his return Diego was captured and sent to a German Prisoner of War Camp in North Germany. With luck or ingenuity or both, Diego the survivor befriended the German Camp Commander who was so impressed with Diego's artistic talents, he moved Diego to his quarters to live and make paintings and caricatures. Diego enjoyed those privileges until the end of the war. It is generally believed that Diego also befriended an American Officer who was a prisoner in the same camp which led to the important contribution the American Military Community would play in Diego's career providing a reliable source of income. Diego's works were likely signed "Voci", as it was not until 1965/6 the "Diego" signature was prominently used. In 1948 Diego moved to Paris to further his education at Ecole des Beaux-Arts. In Paris Diego learned "the real academy is the café, study people, meet so many artists." Diego thrived on camaraderie, as did other artists before him, such as Amedeo Modigliani, both "figurative" artists, both Italian born, both migrated to Paris. Among Diego's many facets was a drive never to be poor, never to live a tormented drug ridden life of Amedeo Modigliani who at age 35 "died in Paris exacerbated by poverty only one exhibition to his credit." or the tortured life of Vincent van Gogh who died at age 37, with only one painting purchased in his lifetime. Diego greatly admired the exceptional work of both artists, but, unlike both artists who found few buyers for their work, in their lifetime, Diego did for his. Diego's influences Professor Felice Carena (1879–1966), who was one of Italy's great religious artists displayed in Museum of Modern Religious Art in Rome, was a mentor for Diego. Diego in his youth also worked as an assistant to Antonino Calcagnadoro (1876–1935), who was known for his church frescos. Diego admired Renoir, Cézanne, Degas, Modigliani and Van Gogh. There was a reluctance in Diego to pinpoint his early inspiration. When asked in 1973 Diego said, "Michelangelo is the greatest. There are so many. Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Rembrandt. And Miró, Chagall, Picasso. So many." 1949–1959 the painter explorer Venice The powerful urge was deep in Diego's DNA to explore the world and its people to capture in art all that it offered. During Diego's extensive travels he said "I was always painting, always learning ...to fill a need to express." 1949 Diego established his home base in Venice, where he would paint, travel and return. That need to explore the world took Diego to Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Turkey, England and Scandinavia. Canadian Art Dealer, Joy Gibson Naffouj wrote, "Diego displayed his work often...displaying his work in Torino, Capri and Venice. His first one man show was at the Galleria La Bussula in Torino." In 1951 the city of Venice sponsored a competition, a showcase for Italian artists. Carlo Carrà (1881–1966) noted figure of the Futurist movement and arguably the most important Italian artist at the time, won first prize. Diego won second prize. Also, in 1951 Diego had a one-man show in Switzerland and painted for galleries who represented master artists including Rembrandt, Renoir, and Monet. Diego was commissioned to do frescos, sculptures, relief sculptures and canvases by private collections, Italian restaurants, and galleries throughout Europe. After his one-man show in Lugano in 1953, Diego travelled continuously stopping to show in Milano, Rome and Genoa. First marriage Also in 1953, Diego met 16-year-old Josiane Schäfer, a ski instructor and daughter of a well-to-do Swiss family, who at 18 would become Mrs. Voci. The Schäfer family owned a mountain cabin for skiing. Diego travels with nephew In 1956, Diego moved to Wiesbaden, Germany with his first wife Josiane. Diego's American nephew, Anthony (Tony) Voci, son of Vincenzo, was stationed at Wurzburg U.S. Army Base as a Tank Commander. Tony was impressed that Diego knew the Base Commander and obtained leave time for him. Diego showed Tony the portraits of Officers he was commissioned to do, but said, "That is not art!" Anthony spent much of his free time touring Germany, Switzerland and Northern Italy with Diego. Tony said, "Anytime there was an espresso sign we stopped. Everybody knew Diego. He would sketch the waitress on a napkin and hand it to her. Diego would paint or sketch nearly every waking minute while traveling together." It is notable that Anthony Voci is the only known person identified to date that is in possession of any art work by Diego from childhood to 1957. Tony recalls on their travels together through Europe, he said "I'm hungry". Diego stopped and said "You are hungry? I paint you something to eat.", and minutes later gave Tony a memento of his time when his uncle played a joke on him. Tony, at 80, is living in Philadelphia where this gift from Diego is displayed. Another day, Diego swiftly completed a gouache of a Paris "Café Scene" as a second gift to his nephew, also dated 1957, and signed "D. Voci", which Tony since gave to his son, Chris Voci. View serious works by Diego in Gallery Section. 1960–1985 life with Helga Drössler Voci Paris The 25 years of Diego Voci with Helga Drössler Voci (born in Prague in 1939) were by every standard his best contributing years to the world of art. The following paragraph is excerpted from "HELGA and DIEGO" Chapter Two Diego Voci and caricatures Diego was popular in the World War II POW Camp doing caricatures and portraits Connections Diego made with the American prisoners led to Diego's later cash flow source in the American Officer's Clubs that dotted Europe after WWII. Moreover, Diego considered the practice of caricatures that he swiftly and superbly executed to be an excellent study of people and faces, his favorite subjects. Helga Voci describes her discovery, Southern Europe and London Summer of 1960 in Paris, Helga fell ill where she was hospitalized for 3 months with Diego at her side, at which time Diego officially registered as a resident of Paris. Diego took Helga to South France to relax in "very good hotels" for recovery until the holiday season. Helga went to Bavaria to be with her family. Diego went to London to rent a furnished apartment in Soho where Helga joined him in January. Diego painted. By fall 1961 Diego wanted to escape London weather. They spent until January 1962 in a little fishing village in Spain called Almunecar, an artist's colony. Diego painted, and played cards with fisherman and studied the village people he would portray from memory (example on left). Diego said he never copies. He creates from his vast library of mental images collected from international travels and mingling with everyday people. February 1962, their next stop was Morocco and while there Diego received a commission in Marrakesh at the American Officer's Club. Diego traveled throughout Morocco while Helga took a job at a travel agency in Lugano, Switzerland. On the way to meet Helga in Lugano, Diego made arrangements for Globart in Milano to show his paintings. August 1962, Diego joined Helga in Switzerland renting a boathouse on Lake Constance. Schlossgalerie Zurich A notable event for Diego in the fall of 1962 was the agreement he made with Schlossgalerie in Zurich under the name "Antonio Voci" (no Diego) to sell his paintings to their wealthy patrons, many of whom were horse aficionados. Schlossgalerie provided Diego a studio. He signed his works "A. Voci" Helga Voci said, "The owner [R. Buri] sold quite many paintings." During this time Diego also went to Aviano Air Base to sell paintings and would do caricatures in the Officer's club. JFK In 1963, a painting by Diego signed "Voci" was selected by an Air Force Officer from the 526th Tactical Interceptor Squadron (later renamed 526th Tactical Fighter Sq.) and flown from Aviano Air Force Base to Wiesbaden. On the evening of 25 June 1963, the painting was presented to President John F. Kennedy at the General Von Steuben Hotel. The President left Wiesbaden the next morning for Berlin for his famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech. Return to Italy Diego longed to leave Switzerland to return to the warmer southern country where he felt more at ease and more inspired to paint. As Victoria Williams wrote in the TV Guide, "Where people gather in groups to talk on the street, play games in the yard, sit in parks, lovers, strangers, the poor, the rich, mothers, fathers, children, happy people, sad people. These are the subjects of Diego." Helga Voci wrote, Germany – Naffouj and Dahms galleries The sequence of four women entering Diego's life and the impact on Diego's success cannot be overestimated. First, 1960 was Helga for 25 years. Then, in 1965 Joy Gibson, a Canadian art dealer opened a location in Zweibrucken, Germany between the Canadian and the American Air Force bases. As Diego's agent for seven years, she with assistance of Jawdat Naffouj who became her husband, opened Naffouj Gallery in Landstuhl which Jawdat still runs today. The Naffouj's introduced the iconic Diego signature which dominated Diego works for the next two decades. They turned art buyers into devoted Diego collectors throughout Germany, USA and Canada; they also published eight Diego lithographs. In 1972, Lillian Dussard who worked for Naffouj Gallery, became Diego's agent to the Department of Defense locations until she went to US and opened her own gallery in Stafford, Virginia. In 1974 Christine Kahn took over the agent responsibilities for Diego for the next decade. All 3 women worked closely with Helga. Christine and Helga's friendship continues into present time. Diego ceased working with Schlossgalerie when Helga and Diego moved in 1965 to Wiesbaden, Germany. Diego continued to take trips to Italy where he received a commission from Alfa Romeo in 1966. He also made a connection with the luxurious Galerie Dahms located on the prestigious Wilhelmstrasse of Wiesbaden that would last for many years. Owner Siegfred Dahms wrote, NOTE: A very large Diego painting is known to have been sold in 1978 by Herr Dahms for DM 15,000. In 1965, Diego leased an apartment for five years in Wiesbaden. Diego also made a 5-year agreement with Naffouj Gallery in Landstuhl for so many paintings for so much per month. Joy Naffouj said, "To watch Diego paint is magical. His hand moves so fast it is blurred to the eye." Helga wrote: After five years, in 1970, recognizing Diego's significant talent, Jawdat Naffouj wanted assurance for future Diego artwork so a written guarantee contract went into effect signed, "Antonio Diego", this is the only evidence of the name Diego in a document signature from birth until 1976 when he registered in Taunusstein. In March 1970, to prepare for a one-man exhibit in Ravenna, Italy at Galleria Cairoli in October, Diego and Helga rented a villa enjoying the Italian lifestyle along the Adrian Sea in Riccione, while still mailing paintings to Naffouj Gallery. After the exhibit, Diego and Helga headed to Bavaria, Germany to assist Helga's parents with the interior design of their newly constructed home where art by Diego remains today; sculpted fireplace and sculpted copper front door. They stayed and rented an apartment from late 1970 until mid-1972. In 1971, the University of Wisconsin received two Diego paintings from the Norman Marohn collection for the Polk Library. In 1972, Schwetzingen, Germany became their home. There Diego and Helga had a daughter, Alessandra, cared for by a nanny from India who stayed with them until 1985. Diego ended his guarantee-of-exclusivity contract with Naffouj Gallery in 1972 and continue travelling exhibitions with Lillian Dussard assisting. A sales relationship continued with Naffouj until 1979 and with Galerie Dahms until 1985. Exhibitions in the US Diego and Helga's first trip to the US was in 1973. Diego was asked to come to Colorado for an exhibition by Dr. Ogden Brown, an avid Diego collector that he met in Germany. The Voci's, who had no knowledge of credit cards, bought a used station-wagon with cash on the east coast to travel cross country. A solo show of Diego's work was successfully presented in November 1973, by Dr. Brown's daughter Marsha Largent at the Broadmoor Hotel in Colorado Springs. The travels throughout the US expanded Diego's versatility in compositions. Diego was deeply moved by the Native American Indian in New Mexico which he translated to drawings and canvases. In the news In 1973/4 the introduction of writer, Victoria Williams, and John Krueger, a writer for Stars & Stripes newspaper through Diego collector Coop Cooprider, widened Diego's audience. This included a live AFN TV interview on Women's World (while Diego was creating sketches), a published article in AFNTV guide, an 8-page glossy catalog capturing some of the Diego's masterworks, advertisements in Art News and an article by Walter Trott in Stars and Stripes. Although Coop's volunteer working relationship ended in mid-1974, he and wife Patti continued to add to their Diego collection and kept in contact for several years later. The final decade The last 10 years of Diego's life, his representation grew widespread from Galerie Dahms in Wiesbaden, Naffouj Gallery in Landstuhl, to Talbert's Gallery, Washington, US, and Glen Burnie Gallery, Maryland, US. In addition, in Canada exhibitions for Diego in 1981 were held at Goldcrest Galleries, Toronto; Stephen Max, Alberta; and the Van Zoolingen Gallery in Edmonton. And others such as, Salon Panetta in Manheim, Germany, with Gallerist Fausto Panetta (Rome region native), where over 20 Diegos sold in one exhibition. As Diego's acclaim grew, he ventured into publishing another series of prints handmade on special lithostones in Urbino Italy in 1979, financed by Naffouj Gallery. In the last 10 years the faces by Diego became less rugged, more refined and elongated. What never changed in Diego's art was his trust in human character. In painting after painting the presence of the human face and figure revealed Diego's vision of the world. During a second visit to the United States in 1980 accompanied by their daughter Alessandra, Diego and Helga visited with his brother, Vincenzo in Philadelphia. Travels included New York and then headed west stopping in Tacoma, Washington where Diego had an exhibit at Talbert's Kleine Gallery, and Inga Fine Arts in addition to Good Years Gallery in Seattle. Their travels brought them to San Francisco, Albuquerque, Colorado Springs and New Orleans visiting American friends they had met in Germany and held private exhibits along the way. During their last trip to the US in 1984, travels included a family visit in Philadelphia, a drive back to Albuquerque refreshing Diego's fascination of American Indians, and Colorado Springs to visit with devoted Diego art collectors. Diego did no exhibits during this trip. A holiday was taken in August 1985 to Menorca, Spain. In fall of 1985 Diego experienced health issues. Then on the trip to Paris with Tony (Diego's Nephew) and Lois Voci, Diego mainly stayed in the hotel room resting. Diego's last hours That persistent urge to draw that possessed Diego from a young child carried into Diego's last hours. The second weekend of December there was an open house in Diego's home and studio; he was too weak to attend. Yet he found the strength to draw one more piece for a door prize, his last work of art for the public, a cubist, ink drawing; followed by a small pencil sketch for Helga. Diego, who smoked 40 cigarettes a day, succumbed to lung cancer 10 December 1985. The resting place for Diego Voci is in Neuhof, Germany. On Helga's periodic visits she shares her thoughts with both Diego and her mother beside him. Rediscovering lost art of Antonio Diego Voci The mystery is what happened to all of Diego's early artwork? With his vagabond nature, Diego was notoriously a poor record keeper. Although early examples of Diego Voci artwork are out there somewhere, Diego's first sale at age 18, and all works until 1957 remain totally undiscovered. Search for physical evidence of his art continues. Until 1965, the signatures are all likely a form of "Voci", not "Diego" as mostly on works after 1965. (See comments on the signatures of Antonio Diego Voci in a following section.) Problem of hoarding Diego's death was followed by a twenty-five-year vacuum of information. An Internet search made by a seeker of anything about Diego Voci would come up empty. Diego was mostly unknown in the broader art world beyond his dedicated band of devoted collectors who each bought several pieces and basically "hoarded" his work. Puzzled, an owner of 5 Diego pieces, Mary Trimmins in 2008 posted a simple question on ArtifactCollectors.com, "Are there any Diego painting owners out there?" Little by little Diego owners discovered Trimmins post. About 50 collectors responded owning collectively over 400 Diego art pieces. The significant common denominator was that collectors bought, kept and treasured all their Diegos' for 35 to 45 years, displaying them and enjoying them. Result Diego's art did not appear on the market. But, time is ruthless. Diego collectors are in their senior years and many no longer grace this earth. The result is smatterings of Diego's art have been appearing in various countries on the market in Germany, Switzerland, USA and Canada. Search on Internet sites established In 2009, inspired by the positive response of Diego collectors' to Trimmins question, Diego's grand nephew Christopher Voci in Philadelphia created www.diegovociproject.com with a mission to "Rediscover Lost Art of Antonio Diego Voci". A Diego collector in California also volunteered to assist in the search for lost Diego artwork establishing sites on Facebook (Diego Voci), Twitter (@DiegoVoci). Also on Artifact Collectors, (to supplement the Trimmin's thread) "Diego Voci History" and "Diego Voci Painting of the Week". After a quarter century vacuum of information the collaborative internet search for the thousands of undiscovered works by Diego Voci is gradually yielding collectors in various countries. Fifteen of the more avid collectors identified each had a dozen or more works by Diego. One self-confessed Diego "hoarder" referred to his "addiction" for collecting Diego's artwork as the "Potato Chip Phenomenon", you can't stop at only one. Siegfred Dahms, Wiesbaden art dealer expressed a similar experience. Switzerland: two works discovered The earliest physical evidence found to date of a purchase of Diego art work is two larger beautifully rendered paintings sold by the Schlossgalarie, in Zurich, Switzerland. Owner R. Buri considered these two paintings to be "Antonio Voci" masterworks. His wealthy clients often sought exceptional horse paintings. The 1962/3 "Horses Racing", was described by Mr. Buri as a "Voci masterpiece with hints of a fine Edgar Degas." Just as Diego travelled the world, so too did his art. "Horses Racing" went to auction in Paris where it was purchased by an antique dealer from Basel. It was then purchased by a Czech born grand-dame as a wedding gift to her new son-in-law, who came from a family of race horse breeders in India. When contacted about his Diego in London where he resides, the son-in-law declared, "You call it a Diego, I consider it a Voci". And it is signed "A. Voci". Schlossgalerie advertised the artist under the name "Antonio Voci" (No "Diego"). Also signed "A. Voci" is another significant Diego piece "Alt und Yung" pictured in the Schlossgalerie advertisement of the Neue Zurcher Zeitung 20 January 1965. This painting also travelled, purchased in Zurich and ending in US, 43 years later. A colour image of Diego's "Alt und Yung" painting can also be seen in a 2008 rare internet recorded sale on LiveAuctioneers.com. Kodner Auctions mis-titled the painting "Horses Grazing". In the absence of information about the artist, the painting was sold for a fraction of its original selling price. Later, a Diego collector offered to triple the price (or more), but requests to Kodner to reveal the present whereabouts were rejected. Innocenzo v. Diego "Diego" as he wanted the world to know him, rejected his birth middle name "Innocenzo". Being the youngest of three boys by fifteen years, that sweet little newborn was the picture of innocence (Italian: innocenza). Diego wanted to be seen as anything but innocent. The family pet childhood name "Toto" was enough to bear. "Diego told me he never liked his middle name," said Helga Drössler Voci, wife. "Innocenzo" is conspicuous by its official document absence in Diego's life. Innocenzo was discovered only on his birth certificate. After that it is "Antonio Voci" until 1976 when "Diego" is slipped into a government document. Gallery Works Faces Surrealism Cubism Clowns, Harlequins, and Musicians Landscapes Horses/Boats Signatures References External links Scanned Documents Diego Voci Website Diego Voci History at Artifact Collectors Diego Voci at Artifact Collectors Main Thread DV-ADV Diego Voci Artifact Collectors Painting of the Week 1920 births 1985 deaths Impressionism Fauvism 20th-century Italian painters 20th-century male artists Italian male painters Modern painters Italian expatriates in France

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doc-en-15721

Mass surveillance is the intricate surveillance of an entire or a substantial fraction of a population in order to monitor that group of citizens. The surveillance is often carried out by local and federal governments or governmental organizations, such as organizations like the NSA and the FBI, but it may also be carried out by corporations (either on behalf of governments or at their own initiative). Depending on each nation's laws and judicial systems, the legality of and the permission required to engage in mass surveillance varies. It is the single most indicative distinguishing trait of totalitarian regimes. It is also often distinguished from targeted surveillance. Mass surveillance has often been cited as necessary to fight terrorism, prevent crime and social unrest, protect national security, and control the population. At the same time, mass surveillance has equally often been criticized for violating privacy rights, limiting civil and political rights and freedoms, and being illegal under some legal or constitutional systems. Another criticism is that increasing mass surveillance could lead to the development of a surveillance state or an electronic police state where civil liberties are infringed or political dissent is undermined by COINTELPRO-like programs. Such a state could be referred to as a totalitarian state. In 2013, the practice of mass surveillance by world governments was called into question after Edward Snowden's 2013 global surveillance disclosure on the practices by the National Security Agency (NSA) of the United States. Reporting based on documents Snowden leaked to various media outlets triggered a debate about civil liberties and the right to privacy in the Digital Age. Mass surveillance is considered a global issue. The Aerospace Corporation of the United States describes a near-future event they call the "GEOINT Singularity" in which everything on the surface of the earth will be monitored at all times and analyzed by artificial intelligence systems. By country Privacy International's 2007 survey, covering 47 countries, indicated that there had been an increase in surveillance and a decline in the performance of privacy safeguards, compared to the previous year. Balancing these factors, eight countries were rated as being 'endemic surveillance societies'. Of these eight, China, Malaysia and Russia scored lowest, followed jointly by Singapore and the United Kingdom, then jointly by Taiwan, Thailand and the United States. The best ranking was given to Greece, which was judged to have 'adequate safeguards against abuse'. Many countries throughout the world have already been adding thousands of surveillance cameras to their urban, suburban and even rural areas. For example, in September 2007 the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) stated that we are "in danger of tipping into a genuine surveillance society completely alien to American values" with "the potential for a dark future where our every move, our every transaction, our every communication is recorded, compiled, and stored away, ready to be examined and used against us by the authorities whenever they want". On 12 March 2013, Reporters Without Borders published a Special report on Internet Surveillance. The report included a list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Five countries were placed on the initial list: Bahrain, China, Iran, Syria, and Vietnam. Australia Bahrain Bahrain is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. The level of Internet filtering and surveillance in Bahrain is one of the highest in the world. The royal family is represented in all areas of Internet management and has sophisticated tools at its disposal for spying on its subjects. The online activities of dissidents and news providers are closely monitored and the surveillance is increasing. Media reports published in July 2021 exposed the use of NSO Group’s phone malware software, Pegasus, for spying on rights activists, lawyers, and journalists, globally, by authoritarian governments. Bahrain was among the many countries listed as the Israeli firm’s clients accused of hacking and conducting unauthorized mass surveillance using phone malware despite a poor human rights record. The software is said to infect devices, allowing its operators to get access to the target’s messages, photos, record calls, and activate the microphone and camera. Canada China China is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and basic human rights. All Internet access in China is owned or controlled by the state or the Communist Party. Many foreign journalists in China have said that they take for granted that their telephones are tapped and their email is monitored. The tools put in place to filter and monitor the Internet are collectively known as the Great Firewall of China. Besides the usual routing regulations that allow access to an IP address or a particular domain name to be blocked, the Great Firewall makes large-scale use of Deep Packet Inspection (DPI) technology to monitor and block access based on keyword detection. The Great Firewall has the ability to dynamically block encrypted connections. One of the country's main ISPs, China Unicom, automatically cuts a connection as soon as it is used to transmit encrypted content. The monitoring system developed by China is not confined to the Great Firewall, monitoring is also built into social networks, chat services and VoIP. Private companies are directly responsible to the Chinese authorities for surveillance of their networks to ensure banned messages are not circulated. The QQ application, owned by the firm Tencent, allows the authorities to monitor in detail exchanges between Internet users by seeking certain keywords and expressions. The author of each message can be identified by his or her user number. The QQ application is effectively a giant Trojan horse. And since March 2012, new legislation requires all new users of micro-blogging sites to register using their own name and telephone number. Skype, one of the world's most popular Internet telephone platforms, is closely monitored. Skype services in China are available through a local partner, the TOM media group. The Chinese-language version of Skype, known as TOM-Skype, is slightly different from the downloadable versions in other countries. A report by OpenNet Initiative Asia says everyday conversations are captured on servers. Interception and storage of a conversation may be triggered by a sender's or recipient's name or by keywords that occur in the conversation. On January 31, 2013, the New York Times reported that it had been the target of attacks by the Chinese hackers. The first breach took place on the September 13, 2012 when the newspaper was preparing to publish an article about the fortune amassed by the family of outgoing Prime Minister Wen Jiabao. The newspaper said the purpose of attacks was to identify the sources that supplied the newspaper with information about corruption among the prime minister's entourage. The Wall Street Journal and CNN also said they had been the targets of cyber attacks from China. In February, Twitter disclosed that the accounts of some 250,000 subscribers had been the victims of attacks from China similar to those carried out on the New York Times. Mandiant, the company engaged by the NYT to secure its network, identified the source of the attacks as a group of hackers it called Advanced Persistent Threat 1, a unit of the People's Liberation Army operating from a 12-story building in the suburbs of Shanghai that had hundreds, possibly thousands, of staff and the direct support of the Chinese government. The newest form of mass surveillance in China is the Social Credit System, where citizens and businesses are given or deducted good points based on social behavior such as adherence to laws, honesty, tax evasion or political activism. Individuals can also be subject to travel restrictions such as bans on purchases of flights and high speed train tickets based on whether they have violated social norms, certain laws or engage in political activism against the government, subjecting violators to a form of virtual house arrest by confining them to a specific geographic area such as a particular town or city. The Chinese government also plans to network and interlink up to 20 million surveillance cameras equipped with facial recognition as part of the 'Skynet' project in order to track down wanted fugitives and suspects within minutes. According to UK-based technology research organization, Comparitech, a city in China called Chongqing is the most surveilled city in the entire world, with 2.5m cameras watching over almost 15.35 million people. As per the data accumulated, the Chinese city beats Shanghai, Beijing, and Shenzhen, in terms of mass surveillance in China. Internet surveillance is pervasive within China, under a recently passed cybersecurity law, all sim cards purchases require real name registration, all wifi hotspots throughout the country require SMS verification through a phone number which is incidentally linked to a user's resident ID card and all instant messaging and internet service providers including but not limited to ISP's, internet cafes and gaming service providers are required to verify the real identity of users through either a foreign passport or national ID card prior to the provision of a service. All domestic flight tickets and purchases of high speed train tickets and banking and financial services also require real name ID in order to be provided in order to be purchased. East Germany Before the Digital Revolution, one of the world's biggest mass surveillance operations was carried out by the Stasi, the secret police of the former East Germany. By the time the state collapsed in 1989, the Stasi had built up an estimated civilian network of 300,000 informants (approximately one in fifty of the population), who monitored even minute hints of political dissent among other citizens. Many West Germans visiting friends and family in East Germany were also subject to Stasi spying, as well as many high-ranking West German politicians and persons in the public eye. Most East German citizens were well aware that their government was spying on them, which led to a culture of mistrust: touchy political issues were only discussed in the comfort of their own four walls and only with the closest of friends and family members, while widely maintaining a façade of unquestioning followership in public. European Union The right to privacy is a highly developed area of law in Europe. The Data Protection Directive regulates the processing of personal data within the European Union. For comparison, the US has no data protection law that is comparable to this; instead, the US regulates data protection on a sectoral basis. Since early 2012, the European Union has been working on a General Data Protection Regulation to replace the Data Protection Directive and harmonise data protection and privacy law. On 20 October 2013, a committee at the European Parliament backed the measure, which, if it is enacted, could require American companies to seek clearance from European officials before complying with United States warrants seeking private data. The vote is part of efforts in Europe to shield citizens from online surveillance in the wake of revelations about a far-reaching spying program by the U.S. National Security Agency. European Union justice and rights commissioner Viviane Reding said "The question has arisen whether the large-scale collection and processing of personal information under US surveillance programmes is necessary and proportionate to meet the interests of national security." The EU is also asking the US for changes to US legislation to match the legal redress offered in Europe; American citizens in Europe can go to the courts if they feel their rights are infringed but Europeans without right of residence in America cannot. When the EU / US arrangement to implement International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles were struck down by the European Court of Justice, a new framework for transatlantic data flows, called the "EU-US Privacy Shield", was adopted in July 2016. In April 2014, the European Court of Justice declared invalid the EU Data Retention Directive. The Court said it violates two basic rights - respect for private life and protection of personal data. The legislative body of the European Union passed the Data Retention Directive on 15 December 2005. It requires that telecommunication operators retain metadata for telephone, Internet, and other telecommunication services for periods of not less than six months and not more than two years from the date of the communication as determined by each EU member state and, upon request, to make the data available to various governmental bodies. Access to this information is not limited to investigation of serious crimes, nor is a warrant required for access. Undertaken under the Seventh Framework Programme for research and technological development (FP7 - Science in Society) some multidisciplinary and mission oriented mass surveillance activities (for example INDECT and HIDE) were funded by the European Commission in association with industrial partners. The INDECT Project ("Intelligent information system supporting observation, searching and detection for security of citizens in urban environment") develops an intelligent urban environment observation system to register and exchange operational data for the automatic detection, recognition and intelligent processing of all information of abnormal behaviour or violence. The main expected results of the INDECT project are: Trial of intelligent analysis of video and audio data for threat detection in urban environments, Creation of tools and technology for privacy and data protection during storage and transmission of information using quantum cryptography and new methods of digital watermarking, Performing computer-aided detection of threats and targeted crimes in Internet resources with privacy-protecting solutions, Construction of a search engine for rapid semantic search based on watermarking of content related to child pornography and human organ trafficking, Implementation of a distributed computer system that is capable of effective intelligent processing. HIDE ("Homeland Security, Biometric Identification & Personal Detection Ethics") was a research project funded by the European Commission within the scope of the Seventh RTD Framework Programme (FP7). The consortium, coordinated by Emilio Mordini, explored the ethical and privacy implications of biometrics and personal detection technologies, focusing on the continuum between personal detection, authentication, identification and mass surveillance. France Germany In 2002 German citizens were tipped off about wiretapping when a software error led to a phone number allocated to the German Secret Service being listed on mobile telephone bills. India The Indian parliament passed the Information Technology Act of 2008 with no debate, giving the government fiat power to tap all communications without a court order or a warrant. Section 69 of the act states "Section 69 empowers the Central Government/State Government/ its authorized agency to intercept, monitor or decrypt any information generated, transmitted, received or stored in any computer resource if it is necessary or expedient so to do in the interest of the sovereignty or integrity of India, defence of India, security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States or public order or for preventing incitement to the commission of any cognizable offence or for investigation of any offence." India is setting up a national intelligence grid called NATGRID, which would be fully set up by May 2011 where each individual's data ranging from land records, Internet logs, air and rail PNR, phone records, gun records, driving license, property records, insurance, and income tax records would be available in real time and with no oversight. With a UID from the Unique Identification Authority of India being given to every Indian from February 2011, the government would be able track people in real time. A national population registry of all citizens will be established by the 2011 census, during which fingerprints and iris scans would be taken along with GPS records of each household. As per the initial plan, access to the combined data will be given to 11 agencies, including the Research and Analysis Wing, the Intelligence Bureau, the Enforcement Directorate, the National Investigation Agency, the Central Bureau of Investigation, the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence and the Narcotics Control Bureau. Several states within India have already installed CCTV surveillance systems with face matching capabilities using biometrics in Aadhaar. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are using information linked with Aadhaar across different agencies to create a 360-degree profile of a person, calling it the Integration Information Hub. Other states are now planning to follow this model. Iran Iran is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in naturally active efforts to news providers . The government runs or controls almost all of the country's institutions for regulating, managing or legislating on telecommunications. The Supreme Council for Cyberspace, which was headed by President Ahmadinejad, was established in March 2012 and now determines digital policy. The construction of a parallel "Iranian Internet", with a high connection speed but fully monitored and censored, is almost complete. The tools used by the Iranian authorities to monitor and control the Internet include data interception tools capable of Deep Packet Inspection. Interception products from leading Chinese companies such as ZTE and Huawei are in use. The products provided by Huawei to Mobin Net, the leading national provider of mobile broadband, can be used to analyze email content, track browsing history and block access to sites. The products that ZTA sold to the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI) offer similar services plus the possibility of monitoring the mobile network. European companies are the source of other spying and data analysis tools. Products designed by Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks (later Trovicor) are in use. These companies sold SMS interception and user location products to Mobile Communication Company of Iran and Irancell, Iran's two biggest mobile phone companies, in 2009 and they were used to identify Iranian citizens during the post-election uprising in 2009. The use of Israeli surveillance devices has also been detected in Iran. The network traffic management and surveillance device NetEnforcer was provided by Israel to Denmark and then resold to Iran. Similarly, US equipment has found its way to Iran via the Chinese company ZTE. Malaysia In July 2018, the Malaysian police announced the creation of the Malaysian Intercept Crimes Against Children Unit (icacu) that is equipped with real-time mass internet surveillance software developed in the United States and is tasked with the monitoring of all Malaysian internet users, with a focus on pornography and child pornography. The system creates a "data library" of users which includes details such as IP addresses, websites, locations, duration and frequency of use and files uploaded and downloaded. Mexico After struggling with drug trafficking and criminal groups for decades Mexico has been strengthening their military mass surveillance. Approximately half of the population in Mexico does not support democracy as a form of government, and believe an authoritarian system is better if social matters are solved through it. The relevance of these political beliefs may make it easier for mass surveillance to take spread within the country. "This does not necessarily mean the end of democratic institutions as a whole—such as free elections or the permanence of critical mass media—but it means strengthening the mechanisms for exercising power that exclude dialogue, transparency and social agreement." Developing intelligence agencies has been on Mexico's radar for a while for means of security. Netherlands According to a 2004 report, the government of the Netherlands carries out more clandestine wire-taps and intercepts than any country, per capita, in the world. The Dutch military intelligence service MIVD operates a satellite ground station to intercept foreign satellite links and also a facility to eavesdrop on foreign high-frequency radio traffic. An example of mass surveillance carried out by corporations in the Netherlands is an initiative started by five Dutch banks (ABN AMRO, ING, Rabobank, Triodos Bank and de Volksbank). In July 2020 these five banks have decided to establish Transaction Monitoring Netherlands (TMNL) in the collective fight against money laundering and the financing of terrorism. The goal of TMNL-organization is to gather all transaction information provided by Dutch banks in a centralized database to enable full-scale collective transaction monitoring. Preparations have been started but the actual monitoring by TMNL can start after an amendment of the Dutch Anti-Money Laundering and Anti-Terrorist Financing Act. North Korea Having attained the nickname 'surveillance state', North Korea's government has complete control over all forms of telecommunications and Internet. It is routine to be sent to a prison camp for communicating with the outside world. The government enforces restrictions around the types of appliances North Koreans may own in their home, in case radio or TV sets pick up signals from nearby South Korea, China and Russia. There is no attempt to mask the way this government actively spies on their citizens. In North Korea, an increasing number of citizens do have smartphones. However, these devices are heavily controlled and are being used to censor and observe everything North Koreans do on their phones. Reuters reported in 2015 that Koryolink, North Korea's official mobile phone network, has around 3 million subscribers in a country of 24 million. Obviously, in order to have digital data to draw from, the citizens must have access to phones and other things online. Russia The SORM (and SORM-2) laws enable complete monitoring of any communication, electronic or traditional, by eight state agencies, without warrant. These laws seem to be in conflict with Article 23 of the Constitution of Russia which states: Everyone shall have the right to the inviolability of private life, personal and family secrets, the protection of honour and good name. Everyone shall have the right to privacy of correspondence, of telephone conversations, postal, telegraph and other messages. Limitations of this right shall be allowed only by court decision. In 2015, the European Court for Human Rights ruled that the legislation violated Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights (Zakharov v. Russia). СAMERTON: Is a global vehicle tracking system, control and tracking, identification of probable routes and places of the most frequent appearance of a particular vehicle, integrated with a distributed network of radar complexes of photo-video fixation and road surveillance camera. Developed and implemented by the "Advanced Scientific - Research Projects" enterprise St. Petersburg. Within the framework of the practical use of the system of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, it has made it possible to identify and solve grave and especially grave crimes, the system is also operated by other state services and departments; Singapore Singapore is known as a city of sensors. Singapore's surveillance structure spreads widely from Closed-circuit television (CCTV) in public areas even around the neighbourhood, internet monitoring/traffic monitoring and to the use of surveillance metadata for government initiatives. In Singapore, SIM card registration is mandatory even for prepaid card. Singapore's government have the rights to access communication data. Singapore's largest telecompany, Singtel, has close relations to the government and Singapore's laws are broadly phrased to allow the government to obtain sensitive data such as text-messages, email, call logs, and web surfing history from its people without the need for court permission. The installation of mass surveillance cameras in Singapore is an effort to act as a deterrence not only for terror attacks but also for public security such as loan sharks, illegal parking, and more. As part of Singapore's Smart Nation initiative to build a network of sensors to collect and connect data from city life (including the citizen's movement), the Singapore government rolled out 1000 sensors ranging from computer chips to surveillance cameras, to track almost everything in Singapore from air quality to public safety in 2014. In 2016, in a bid to increase security, the Singapore Police Force installed 62,000 police cameras in 10,000 Housing and Development Board (HDB) blocks covering the lifts and multi-storey car parks. With rising security concerns, the number of CCTV cameras in public areas such as monitoring of the public transport system and commercial/ government buildings in Singapore is set to increase. In 2018, the Singapore government would be rolling out new and more advanced surveillance systems. Starting with Singapore's maritime borders, new panoramic electro-optic sensors will be put in place on the north and south coasts, monitoring a 360-degree view of the area. A tethered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) will also be operational, which can be used during search and rescue operations including hostage situations and public order incidents. Spain According to a 2017 report by Privacy International, Spain may be part of a group of 21 European countries that is withholding information, also known as data retention. In 2014, many defense lawyers tried to overturn multiple cases that used mass storage as their evidence to convict, according to the European Agency for Fundamental Rights. Sweden Prior to 2009, the National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA) was limited to wireless signals intelligence (SIGINT), although it was left largely unregulated. In December 2009, new legislation went into effect, allowing the FRA to monitor cable bound signals passing the Swedish border. Communications service providers are legally required, under confidentiality, to transfer cable communications crossing Swedish borders to specific "interaction points", where data may be accessed after a court order. The FRA has been contested since the change in its legislation, mainly because of the public perception the change would enable mass surveillance. The FRA categorically deny this allegation, as they are not allowed to initialize any surveillance on their own, and has no direct access to communication lines. All SIGINT has to be authorized by a special court and meet a set of narrow requirements, something Minister for Defence Sten Tolgfors have been quoted as saying, "should render the debate on mass surveillance invalid". Due to the architecture of Internet backbones in the Nordic area, a large portion of Norwegian and Finnish traffic will also be affected by the Swedish wiretapping. Syria Syria is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Syria has stepped up its web censorship and cyber-monitoring as the country's civil war has intensified. At least 13 Blue Coat proxy servers are in use, Skype calls are intercepted, and social engineering techniques, phishing, and malware attacks are all in use. United Arab Emirates In October 2016, The Intercept released a report detailing the experience of an Italian security researcher Simone Margaritelli, of allegedly being hired for mass surveillance operations run by United Arab Emirates. According to Margaritelli, he was called for an interview with the Abu Dhabi-based cybersecurity firm called DarkMatter (Emirati company). Margaritelli says he declined the offer and instead wrote a blog post titled “How the United Arab Emirates Intelligence Tried to Hire Me to Spy on Its People”. In response to The Intercept inquiries, DarkMatter responded by stating: “No one from DarkMatter or its subsidiaries have ever interviewed Mr. Margaritelli.” Kevin Healy, director of communications for DarkMatter, wrote in an email responding to The Intercept that the man Margaritelli says interviewed him was previously only an advisory consultant to DarkMatter and is currently no longer an advisor to the company. Dark Matter responded by saying “While we respect an author's right to express a personal opinion, we do not view the content in question as credible, and therefore have no further comment.” In January 2019, Reuters released a detailed account of a 2014 state-surveillance operation – dubbed as Project Raven – led by the United Arab Emirates with the help of former NSA officials like Lori Stroud, an ex-NSA cyberspy. Counter-terrorism strategy was the primary motive of setting up the unit. However, soon the project began being used as a surveillance program to spy on rival leaders, critical dissidents and journalists. In December 2019, Google Play Store and Apple App Store removed an Emirati messaging application called ToTok following allegations that it was a state surveillance application, according to The New York Times report. The application's privacy policy clearly stated that it may share personal data of the users with “regulatory agencies, law enforcement, and other lawful access requests”. The allegations were denied by the co-founders of ToTok, Giacomo Ziani and Long Ruan, respectively. The application was restored on Google Play Store later on. In July 2020, the United Arab Emirates came under renewed questions about mass surveillance amidst the coronavirus outbreak. Experts highlighted that the country has one of the highest per capita concentrations of surveillance cameras in the world. In a statement, the Emirati government acknowledged that cameras are used to counter the threat of terrorism and have helped the country rank as one of the safest countries in the world. United Kingdom State surveillance in the United Kingdom has formed part of the public consciousness since the 19th century. The postal espionage crisis of 1844 sparked the first panic over the privacy of citizens. However, in the 20th century, electronic surveillance capabilities grew out of wartime signal intelligence and pioneering code breaking. In 1946, the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) was formed. The United Kingdom and the United States signed the bilateral UKUSA Agreement in 1948. It was later broadened to include Canada, Australia and New Zealand, as well as cooperation with several "third-party" nations. This became the cornerstone of Western intelligence gathering and the "Special Relationship" between the UK and the USA. After the growth of the Internet and development of the World Wide Web, a series of media reports in 2013 revealed more recent programs and techniques involving GCHQ, such as Tempora. The use of these capabilities is controlled by laws made in the UK Parliament. In particular, access to the content of private messages (that is, interception of a communication) must be authorized by a warrant signed by a Secretary of State. In addition European Union data privacy law applies in UK law. The UK exhibits governance and safeguards as well as use of electronic surveillance. The Investigatory Powers Tribunal, a judicial oversight body for the intelligence agencies, ruled in December 2014 that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not breach the European Convention on Human Rights. However, the Tribunal stated in February 2015 that one particular aspect, the data sharing arrangement that allowed UK Intelligence services to request data from the US surveillance programs Prism and Upstream, had been in contravention of human rights law prior to this until two paragraphs of additional information, providing details about the procedures and safeguards, were disclosed to the public in December 2014. In its December 2014 ruling, the Investigatory Powers Tribunal found that the legislative framework in the United Kingdom does not permit mass surveillance and that while GCHQ collects and analyses data in bulk, it does not practice mass surveillance. A report on Privacy and Security published by the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament also came to this view, although it found past shortcomings in oversight and said the legal framework should be simplified to improve transparency. This view is supported by independent reports from the Interception of Communications Commissioner. However, notable civil liberties groups continue to express strong views to the contrary and plan to appeal the ruling to the European Court of Human Rights, while others have criticised these viewpoints in turn. The Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIP or RIPA) is a significant piece of legislation that granted and regulated the powers of public bodies to carry out surveillance and investigation. In 2002 the UK government announced plans to extend the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act so that at least 28 government departments would be given powers to access metadata about citizens' web, e-mail, telephone and fax records, without a warrant and without a subject's knowledge. The Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 includes several provisions related to controlling and restricting the collection, storage, retention, and use of information in government databases. Supported by all three major political parties, the UK Parliament passed the Data Retention and Investigatory Powers Act in July 2014 to ensure police and security services retain existing powers to access phone and Internet records. This was superseded by the Investigatory Powers Act 2016, a comprehensive statute which made public a number of previously secret powers (equipment interference, bulk retention of metadata, intelligence agency use of bulk personal datasets), and enables the Government to require internet service providers and mobile phone companies to maintain records of (but not the content of) customers' Internet connections for 12 months. In addition, it created new safeguards, including a requirement for judges to approve the warrants authorised by a Secretary of State before they come into force. The Act was informed by two reports by David Anderson QC, the UK's Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation: A Question of Trust (2015) and the report of his Bulk Powers Review (2016), which contains a detailed appraisal (with 60 case studies) of the operational case for the powers often characterised as mass surveillance. It may yet require amendment as a consequence of legal cases brought before the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights. Many advanced nation-states have implemented laws that partially protect citizens from unwarranted intrusion, such as the Human Rights Act 1998, the Data Protection Act 1998, (updated as the Data Protection Act 2018, to include the General Data Protection Regulation), and the Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 in the United Kingdom, and laws that require a formal warrant before private data may be gathered by a government. The vast majority of video surveillance cameras in the UK are not operated by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to 2011 Freedom of Information Act requests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK. The prevalence of video surveillance in the UK is often overstated due to unreliable estimates being requoted; for example one report in 2002 extrapolated from a very small sample to estimate the number of cameras in the UK at 4.2 million (of which 500,000 in London). More reliable estimates put the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011. United States Historically, mass surveillance was used as part of wartime censorship to control communications that could damage the war effort and aid the enemy. For example, during the world wars, every international telegram from or to the United States sent through companies such as Western Union was reviewed by the US military. After the wars were over, surveillance continued in programs such as the Black Chamber following World War I and project Shamrock following World War II. COINTELPRO projects conducted by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) between 1956 and 1971 targeted various "subversive" organizations, including peaceful anti-war and racial equality activists such as Albert Einstein and Martin Luther King Jr. Billions of dollars per year are spent, by agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such as Carnivore, ECHELON, and NarusInsight to intercept and analyze the immense amount of data that traverses the Internet and telephone system every day. Since the September 11 attacks, a vast domestic (and to some extent, global) intelligence apparatus has been built to collect information using the NSA, FBI, local police, state homeland security offices and military criminal investigators. The intelligence apparatus collects, analyzes and stores information about millions of (if not all) American (and sometimes foreign) citizens, many of whom have not been accused of any wrongdoing. Under the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking program, the U.S. Postal Service photographs the exterior of every piece of paper mail that is processed in the United States – about 160 billion pieces in 2012. The U.S. Postmaster General stated that the system is primarily used for mail sorting, but the images are available for possible use by law enforcement agencies. Created in 2001 following the anthrax attacks that killed five people, it is a sweeping expansion of a 100-year-old program called "mail cover" which targets people suspected of crimes. The FBI developed the computer programs "Magic Lantern" and CIPAV, which they can remotely install on a computer system, in order to monitor a person's computer activity. The NSA has been gathering information on financial records, Internet surfing habits, and monitoring e-mails. They have also performed extensive analysis of social networks such as Myspace. The PRISM special source operation system legally immunized private companies that cooperate voluntarily with U.S. intelligence collection. According to The Register, the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 "specifically authorizes intelligence agencies to monitor the phone, email, and other communications of U.S. citizens for up to a week without obtaining a warrant" when one of the parties is outside the U.S. PRISM was first publicly revealed on 6 June 2013, after classified documents about the program were leaked to The Washington Post and The Guardian by American Edward Snowden. The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) requires that all U.S. telecommunications and Internet service providers modify their networks to allow easy wiretapping of telephone, VoIP, and broadband Internet traffic. In early 2006, USA Today reported that several major telephone companies were providing the telephone call records of U.S. citizens to the National Security Agency (NSA), which is storing them in a large database known as the NSA call database. This report came on the heels of allegations that the U.S. government had been conducting electronic surveillance of domestic telephone calls without warrants. In 2013, the existence of the Hemisphere Project, through which AT&T provides telephone call data to federal agencies, became publicly known. Traffic cameras, which were meant to help enforce traffic laws at intersections, may be used by law enforcement agencies for purposes unrelated to traffic violations. Some cameras allow for the identification of individuals inside a vehicle and license plate data to be collected and time stamped for cross reference with other data used by police. The Department of Homeland Security is funding networks of surveillance cameras in cities and towns as part of its efforts to combat terrorism. The New York City Police Department infiltrated and compiled dossiers on protest groups before the 2004 Republican National Convention, leading to over 1,800 arrests. Modern surveillance in the United States was thought of more of a wartime effort before Snowden disclosed in depth information about the National Security Agency in June 2013. The constant development and improvements of the Internet and technology has made it easier for mass surveillance to take hold. Such revelations allow critical commentators to raise questions and scrutinize the implementation, use, and abuse of networking technologies, devices, and software systems that partake in a "global surveillant assemblage" (Bogard 2006; Collier and Ong 2004; Haggerty and Ericson 2000; Murakami Wood 2013). The NSA collected millions of Verizon user's telephone records in between 2013 and 2014. The NSA also collected data through Google and Facebook with a program called 'Prism'. Journalists through Snowden published nearly 7,000 top-secret documents since then, yet the information disclosed seems to be less than 1% of the entire information. Having access to every individual's private records seems to directly contradict the fourth amendment. Vietnam Vietnam is one of the five countries on Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 list of "State Enemies of the Internet", countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Most of the country's 16 service providers are directly or indirectly controlled by the Vietnamese Communist Party. The industry leader, Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group, which controls 74 per cent of the market, is state-owned. So is Viettel, an enterprise of the Vietnamese armed forces. FPT Telecom is a private firm, but is accountable to the Party and depends on the market leaders for bandwidth. Service providers are the major instruments of control and surveillance. Bloggers monitored by the government frequently undergo man-in-the-middle attacks. These are designed to intercept data meant to be sent to secure (https) sites, allowing passwords and other communication to be intercepted. According to a July 2012 Freedom House report, 91 percent of survey respondents connected to the Internet on their mobile devices and the government monitors conversations and tracks the calls of "activists" or "reactionaries." In 2018, the Vietnam National Assembly also passed a cybersecurity law closely resembling one passed in China, requiring localisation of user data and censorship of anti-state content. Commercial mass surveillance As a result of the digital revolution, many aspects of life are now captured and stored in digital form. Concern has been expressed that governments may use this information to conduct mass surveillance on their populations. Commercial mass surveillance often makes use of copyright laws and "user agreements" to obtain (typically uninformed) 'consent' to surveillance from consumers who use their software or other related materials. This allows gathering of information which would be technically illegal if performed by government agencies. This data is then often shared with government agencies - thereby - in practice - defeating the purpose of such privacy protections. One of the most common forms of mass surveillance is carried out by commercial organizations. Many people are willing to join supermarket and grocery loyalty card programs, trading their personal information and surveillance of their shopping habits in exchange for a discount on their groceries, although base prices might be increased to encourage participation in the program. Through programs like Google's AdSense, OpenSocial and their increasing pool of so-called "web gadgets", "social gadgets", and other Google-hosted services many web sites on the Internet are effectively feeding user information about sites visited by the users, and now also their social connections, to Google. Facebook also keep this information, although its acquisition is limited to page views within Facebook. This data is valuable for authorities, advertisers and others interested in profiling users, trends and web site marketing performance. Google, Facebook and others are increasingly becoming more guarded about this data as their reach increases and the data becomes more all inclusive, making it more valuable. New features like geolocation give an even increased admission of monitoring capabilities to large service providers like Google, where they also are enabled to track one's physical movements while users are using mobile devices, especially those which are syncing without any user interaction. Google's Gmail service is increasingly employing features to work as a stand-alone application which also might activate while a web browser is not even active for synchronizing; a feature mentioned on the Google I/O 2009 developer conference while showing the upcoming HTML5 features which Google and others are actively defining and promoting. In 2008 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Google CEO Eric Schmidt, said: "The arrival of a truly mobile Web, offering a new generation of location-based advertising, is set to unleash a 'huge revolution'". At the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona on 16 February 2010, Google presented their vision of a new business model for mobile operators and trying to convince mobile operators to embrace location-based services and advertising. With Google as the advertising provider, it would mean that every mobile operator using their location-based advertising service would be revealing the location of their mobile customers to Google. Organizations like the Electronic Frontier Foundation are constantly informing users on the importance of privacy, and considerations about technologies like geolocation. Computer company Microsoft patented in 2011 a product distribution system with a camera or capture device that monitors the viewers that consume the product, allowing the provider to take "remedial action" if the actual viewers do not match the distribution license. Reporters Without Borders' March 2013 Special report on Internet Surveillance contained a list of "Corporate Enemies of the Internet", companies that sell products that are liable to be used by governments to violate human rights and freedom of information. The five companies on the initial list were: Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems (U.S.), Gamma Group (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany), but the list was not exhaustive and is likely to be expanded in the future. Surveillance state A surveillance state is a country where the government engages in pervasive surveillance of large numbers of its citizens and visitors. Such widespread surveillance is usually justified as being necessary for national security, such as to prevent crime or acts of terrorism, but may also be used to stifle criticism of and opposition to the government. Examples of early surveillance states include the former Soviet Union and the former East Germany, which had a large network of informers and an advanced technology base in computing and spy-camera technology. However, these states did not have today's technologies for mass surveillance, such as the use of databases and pattern recognition software to cross-correlate information obtained by wire tapping, including speech recognition and telecommunications traffic analysis, monitoring of financial transactions, automatic number plate recognition, the tracking of the position of mobile telephones, and facial recognition systems and the like which recognize people by their appearance, gait, DNA profiling, etc. Smart cities The development of smart cities has seen the increased adoption of surveillance technologies by governments, although the primary purpose of surveillance in such cities is to use information and communication technologies to control the urban environment. The implementation of such technology by a number of cities has resulted in increased efficiencies in urban infrastructure as well as improved community participation. Sensors and systems monitor a smart city's infrastructure, operations and activities and aim to help it run more efficiently. For example, the city could use less electricity; its traffic run more smoothly with fewer delays; its citizens use the city with more safety; hazards can be dealt with faster; citizen infractions of rules can be prevented, and the city's infrastructure; power distribution and roads with traffic lights for example, dynamically adjusted to respond to differing circumstances. The development of smart city technology has also led to an increase in potential unwarranted intrusions into privacy and restrictions upon autonomy. The widespread incorporation of information and communication technologies within the daily life of urban residents results in increases in the surveillance capacity of states - to the extent that individuals may be unaware of what information is being accessed, when the access occurs and for what purpose. It is possible that such conditions could give rise to the development of an electronic police state. Shanghai, Amsterdam, San Jose, Dubai, Barcelona, Madrid, Stockholm, and New York are all cities that use various techniques from smart city technology. Electronic police state An electronic police state is a state in which the government aggressively uses electronic technologies to record, collect, store, organize, analyze, search, and distribute information about its citizens. Electronic police states also engage in mass government surveillance of landline and cellular telephone traffic, mail, email, web surfing, Internet searches, radio, and other forms of electronic communication as well as widespread use of video surveillance. The information is usually collected in secret. The crucial elements are not politically based, so long as the government can afford the technology and the populace will permit it to be used, an electronic police state can form. The continual use of electronic mass surveillance can result in constant low-level fear within the population, which can lead to self-censorship and exerts a powerful coercive force upon the populace. Seventeen factors for judging the development of an electronic police state were suggested in The Electronic Police State: 2008 National Rankings: Daily documents: Requirement for the use and tracking of state-issued identity documents and registration. Border and travel control: Inspections at borders, searching computers and cell phones, demanding decryption of data, and tracking travel within as well as to and from a country. Financial tracking: A state's ability to record and search financial transactions: checks, credit cards, wires, etc. Gag orders: Restrictions on and criminal penalties for the disclosure of the existence of state surveillance programs. Anti-crypto laws: Outlawing or restricting cryptography and/or privacy enhancing technologies. Lack of constitutional protections: A lack of constitutional privacy protections or the routine overriding of such protections. Data storage: The ability of the state to store the data gathered. Data search: The ability to organize and search the data gathered. Data retention requirements: Laws that require Internet and other service providers to save detailed records of their customers' Internet usage for a minimum period of time. Telephone data retention requirements: Laws that require telephone companies to record and save records of their customers' telephone usage. Cell phone data retention requirements: Laws that require cellular telephone companies to record and save records of their customers' usage and location. Medical records: Government access to the records of medical service providers. Enforcement: The state's ability to use force to seize anyone they want, whenever they want. Lack of habeas corpus: Lack of a right for a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or into court in a timely fashion or the overriding of such rights. Lack of a police-intel barrier: The lack of a barrier between police organizations and intelligence organizations, or the overriding of such barriers. Covert hacking: State operatives collecting, removing, or adding digital evidence to/from private computers without permission or the knowledge of the computers' owners. Loose or no warrants: Arrests or searches made without warrants or without careful examination and review of police statements and justifications by a truly independent judge or other third-party. The list includes factors that apply to other forms of police states, such as the use of identity documents and police enforcement, but go considerably beyond them and emphasize the use of technology to gather and process the information collected. In popular culture The concept of being monitored by our governments collects a large audience of curious citizens. Mass surveillance has been prominently featured in a wide array of books, films, and other media. Advances in technology over the last century have led to possible social control through the Internet and the conditions of late capitalism. Many directors and writers have been enthralled with the potential stories that could come from mass surveillance. Perhaps the most iconic example of fictional mass surveillance is George Orwell's 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which depicts a dystopian surveillance state. Here are a few other works that focus on mass surveillance: We, a 1920 novel by Russian author Yevgeny Zamyatin , that predates Nineteen Eighty-Four and was read by its author George Orwell. Little Brother is a novel by Cory Doctorow, and is set in San Francisco after a major terrorist attack. The DHS uses technologies such as RFIDs and surveillance cameras to create a totalitarian system of control. The Lives of Others, is a 2006 German drama film, which conveys the impact that relentless surveillance has on the emotional well-being and the outcome of individuals subjected to it. The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins is a trilogy in which 'the Capitol' has totalitarian surveillance & control over all aspects of the other 'districts'. Digital Fortress, novel by Dan Brown, involving an NSA code breaking machine called 'TRANSLTR'. The machine read and decrypted email messages, with which the NSA used to foil terrorist attacks and mass murders. Valve's 2004 video game Half-Life 2 is set in City 17, a fictional police state in Eastern Europe in which citizens are under constant surveillance. The Ubisoft video game series Watch Dogs is set in the near future with AI connected cities that use surveillance systems to monitor their people in increasingly invasive ways. In particular, Watch Dogs: Legion is set in a dystopian London where an oppressive regime has taken power and incorporates heavy use of surveillance software to control the populace following a series of terrorist attacks. See also 2013 global surveillance disclosures Broken windows theory, a controversial theory that maintaining and monitoring urban environments in a well-ordered condition may stop further vandalism and escalation into more serious crime. Cellphone surveillance Closed-circuit television (CCTV) Computer and network surveillance COVID-19 surveillance Data privacy Data retention Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, a 1975 book by the French philosopher Michel Foucault. Global surveillance Government databases Lawful interception List of government surveillance projects National security Network analysis Nothing to hide argument Pen register, originally an electronic device that records numbers (but not the audio) called from a particular telephone line, more recently any device or program that performs this function for electronic mail, other digital communications, and particularly communications over the Internet. Phone surveillance Police state Radio-frequency identification (RFID), the wireless identification and tracking of tags attached to objects. Right to privacy Security culture Signals intelligence (SIGINT) Sousveillance, the recording of an activity by a participant in the activity, cameras (or other sensors) affixed to property, or surveillance done by non-authorities. Stakeholder theory Surveillance capitalism Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc Tracking system Traffic analysis References External links "The State and Surveillance: Fear and Control", Didier Bigo and Mireille Delmas-Marty, La Clé des Langues, 23 September 2011,. Human rights Security National security Law enforcement Law enforcement techniques Crime prevention Counter-terrorism

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Connotations is a classical music composition for symphony orchestra written by American composer Aaron Copland. Commissioned by Leonard Bernstein in 1962 to commemorate the opening of Philharmonic Hall (now David Geffen Hall at Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts) in New York City, United States, this piece marks a departure from Copland's populist period, which began with El Salón México in 1936 and includes the works he is most famous for such as Appalachian Spring, Lincoln Portrait and Rodeo. It represents a return to a more dissonant style of composition in which Copland wrote from the end of his studies with French pedagogue Nadia Boulanger and return from Europe in 1924 until the Great Depression. It was also Copland's first dodecaphonic work for orchestra, a style he had disparaged until he heard the music of French composer Pierre Boulez and adapted the method for himself in his Piano Quartet of 1950. While the composer had produced other orchestral works contemporary to Connotations, it was his first purely symphonic work since his Third Symphony, written in 1947. Connotations was received negatively upon its premiere for its harmonic assertiveness and compositional style. The overall impression at the time was that, as critic Alex Ross later phrased it, "Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood." The composer was accused by some critics of betraying his role as a tonal, populist composer to curry favor with younger composers and give the impression that his music still held contemporary relevance. Copland denied this accusation; he asserted that he had written Connotations as a twelve-tone work to give himself compositional options not available had he written it as a tonal one. Part of the blame for Connotations initial failure has been ascribed by Copland biographer Howard Pollack, among others, to Bernstein's "harsh and overblown" conducting. Bernstein, known in the classical music community as a long-time champion of Copland's music, had programmed the composer's pieces more frequently with the New York Philharmonic than those of any other living composer. However, these performances were mainly of works from the composer's populist period, with which the conductor was in full sympathy. He was less comfortable in pieces that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive. While Bernstein might have performed the work purely out of service to an old friend, he was apparently unable to interpret this work persuasively. Subsequent performances with New York Philharmonic during its 1963 European tour and a 1999 all-Copland concert showed that the situation had not changed. Bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work's lack of success at its premiere. More recent performances, led by conductors Pierre Boulez, Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling, have been acknowledged to show the music in a more positive light. Nevertheless, the overall reputation of the music remains mixed. Some critics, including composer John Adams, have remained critical of the work and considered Copland's use of serial techniques detrimental to his later music. Others, which include critics Michael Andrews and Peter Davis, have seen Connotations as proof of Copland's continued growth and inventiveness as a composer while not downplaying the work's melodic and harmonic harshness and potential difficulty overall for listeners. Background Aaron Copland wrote Connotations to fulfill a commission from Leonard Bernstein for the opening concert of the New York Philharmonic's new home in the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. Since this hall was slated as the first part of Lincoln Center for completion, its inauguration was considered especially momentous. Among the guest list of 2600 for the first concert and the white-tie gala which would follow it were John D. Rockefeller III (chairman of Lincoln Center), Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Governor and Mrs. Nelson Rockefeller, United Nations Secretary General U Thant and prominent figures in the arts that included of Metropolitan Opera General Manager Rudolf Bing, violinist Isaac Stern and actress Merle Oberon. Noted composers would also attend included Samuel Barber, Henry Cowell, Roy Harris, Walter Piston, Richard Rodgers, William Schuman and Roger Sessions. United States President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie had also been invited. Their initial inability to attend caused some consternation, since they had voiced their support for American culture. At the last minute, Jackie Kennedy said she would be there. Copland was one of ten internationally known composers who accepted invitations to contribute music for the opening. His would be the first new piece to be heard. Other compositions included the Eighth Symphony of American composer William Schuman, an Overture Philharmonique by French composer Darius Milhaud and "Andromache's Farewell" for soprano and orchestra by American composer Samuel Barber. It would also be Copland's first purely symphonic piece since his Third Symphony of 1947, although he had penned orchestral works in a number of genres throughout the 1940s and 50s. According to Taruskin, Copland's receipt of such a commission testified to both his status as a creative figure and his close relationship with the American public. This position was unique among "serious" American composers and derived from the populist works he had written in the 1930s and 40s. However, from the 1950s Copland's public works—the ones for which he had developed his populist style—were increasingly written in what he called his "difficult" or "private" style. That style had become increasingly non-tonal. Copland began sketching the work early in 1961. To gain composing time, he cancelled his 1962 trip to Tanglewood and determined to stay at home the entire year. Even so, he accepted an invitation to revisit Japan early in 1962 for a United States State Department conference and combined the trip with conducting engagements in Seattle and Vancouver. By June 25, Copland wrote to Mexican composer Carlos Chavez, "I am working day and night on my symphony for the Philharmonic commission. It is in three movements and I have just finished the last, the first being more than half done." Copland then went to Mexico at Chavez's invitation, partly to conduct but mainly to compose. From there, he wrote American composer Leo Smit on July 4 that he was not yet finished and was having trouble finding a title for the new work. He completed the piece in September 1962, just in time for orchestra rehearsals. When he considered the form the work would take, Copland wrote that he "concluded that the classical masters would undoubtedly provide the festive and dedicatory tone appropriate to such an occasion." He therefore decided to offer "a contemporary note," one that would reflect "the tensions, aspirations and drama inherent in the world today." This tension, he explained in 1975, "is inherent in the nature of the chordal structures, and in the general character of the piece." Composition Instrumentation Connotations is scored for full symphony orchestra with augmented percussion. The complete ensemble includes piccolo, three flutes (third flute doubling second piccolo), two oboes, cor anglais, two clarinets, E-flat clarinet, bass clarinet, three bassoons (third bassoon doubling contrabassoon), six horns, four trumpets, four trombones, tuba, tympani, five percussionists (glockenspiel, vibraphone, xylophone, conga drums, timbales, cymbals, metal sheet, tam-tam, triangle, claves, temple block, woodblock, bass drum, snare drum, tenor drum), piano (doubling celesta) and strings. Form A typical performance of this work lasts 20 minutes. Connotations is twelve-tone, a style of composition which is among the first introduced, and certainly most well known, forms of musical Serialism. Through this technique, Copland wrote that he felt he could express "something of the tensions, aspirations and drama" of that time. Three four-note chords, musicologist Neil Butterworth writes, spell out the 12-note row on two trumpets and two trombones. Each chord is separated by echoes from the remaining trumpets and trombones, which also introduces one of the work's main rhythmic elements. The row is repeated, transposed up an augmented fourth with a different distribution of notes within each chord. The chords "are repeated several times in various transpositions" so they can become firmly established in both the musical fabric and the listener's ear. From these chords, Copland builds an overall structure that he calls "closest to a free treatment of the baroque form of the chaconne," with a succession of variations "based on the opening chords and their implied melodic intervals." A series of variations alternate fast and slow sections, which according to Copland biographer Howard Pollack creates a complex structure overall. This structure forms a musical arch, sectioned ABCBA. Pollack calls the A sections "prophetic, tragic," the B sections "jazzy, frentic [sic]" and the C section "pastoral, reflective." While these are all moods long familiar to listeners of Copland's music, Pollack asserts, "a new darkness hangs over the whole. The outer sections are grave; the jazzy sections rather cheerless; the pastoral contrast more weary than peaceful. The music often seems lost, uncertain, trapped." The piece ends in a series of strict 12-note chords that Copland called "aggregates." Significance of title Both Chavez and American composer David Diamond were confused initially about what musical form Connotations would take. The work's title seemed to give no clear indication, they said, and Chavez told Copland that he found Connotations too abstract. As Copland explained to both men and later wrote, in selecting the title, he took the dictionary meaning of the word "connote" to imply or signify meanings in addition to the primary one as an impetus for musical exploration. Butterworth writes, "Connotations is an essay in contrasts that do not destroy the inherent unity: the chordal writing gives way to outbursts of complex counterpoint." The entire composition, Copland explains, is derived from the "three harsh chords" with which it begins. Each of these chords contained four notes of the twelve-note row upon which the work is based. "When spelled out horizontally," they supplied him "with various versions of a more lyrical discourse." This "skeletal frame of the row," he told Diamond and Chavez, was the "primary meaning" and as such denoted the area which would be explored in the course of the piece. "The subsequent treatment," he explained, "seeks out other implications—connotations that come in a flash or connotations that the composer himself may gradually uncover." From there, the listener was "free to discover his or her own connotative meanings, including perhaps some not suspected by the author. Resemblance to other Copland works Overall, both Pollack and the composer label Connotations as one of three works written in "the grand manner," as Copland wrote about his Third Symphony. The other two works in this category were the Symphonic Ode and the Third Symphony. Copland also calls those works transitional pieces, anomalies which stand between different compositional styles of his oeuvre. All three works proved, as musicologist William W. Austin notes and Pollack states about the symphony, "challenging to grasp." While music historian Judith Tick notes the work's "massive chordal assaults on the ear," she adds that while Copland 's stated intent was to evoke the dissonance of modern life, he also acknowledges "the darkness revealed in such early works from the 1920s as the Symphonic Ode and Piano Variations." As for details, Pollack elaborates in his biography of the composer about the similarity of Connotations to the Ode in its overall length, single-movement form, solemn tone and "hard-edged" orchestration. Butterworth points out that both works are structured as an arch composed of five sections. The first section, slow and chordal, gives way to a scherzo. The third section is slower, followed by another scherzo and a finale which restates passages taken from the opening. The rhythmic patterns in both pieces resemblance each other. This would have been no surprise, Butterworth writes, since Copland revised that score in 1955. Pollock states that another work that might have been fresh on the composer's mind was his Nonet for strings, composed in 1960, which also employs an arch form. The melodic lines' wide leaps and arpeggios are not far removed from those in the Short Symphony, written 30 years earlier, and the prevalence of the interval of the minor ninth hearkens back to his Orchestral Variations, as does his use of alternating fast and slow sections. Reception The premiere, on September 23, 1962, "sent shock waves through the world of music," according to Alexander J. Morin, with a reaction by the initial audience, according to Taruskin, of near-silence and incomprehension. Copland noted that the general impression "was that the premiere was not a congenial circumstance," with the music not considered important as the sound of the new concert hall. His effort to present something not bland or traditional for such an occasion and distinguished audience "was not appreciated at the time." Also, Taruskin states, Copland had become an emblem of success in the eyes of the American public. The fact he had written a twelve-tone composition for such an occasion seemed a repudiation of the audience he had won through years of hard effort. Public The overall impression, as critic Alex Ross writes in his book The Rest is Noise, was that "Copland was no longer in an ingratiating mood; some sudden rage welled up in him, some urge to confront the gala Lincoln Center audience with an old whiff of revolutionary mystique." Copland himself remembers, "The acidulous harmonies of my score ... upset a good many people, especially those who were expecting another Appalachian Spring." Jacqueline Kennedy was left unable to say anything other than "Oh, Mr. Copland" when taken backstage during intermission to meet with the composer. When Copland later asked Verna Fine, wife of American composer Irving Fine, what this meant, Fine answered, "Oh, Aaron, it's obvious. She hated your piece!" In Variety, Robert J. Landry called Connotations "an assault on [the audience's] nervous systems" and added, "Seldom has this reviewer heard such outspoken comment in the lobbies after such dull response. It is strictly accurate to declare that an audience paying $100 a seat and in mood for self-congratulation and schmaltz hated Copland's reminder of the ugly realities of industrialization, inflation and cold war—which his music seems to be talking about." A minority of apparently more discerning listeners felt that Connotations was the right music for its time and place. Composer Arthur Berger states, "I think [Copland] wrote exactly the piece he wanted to write because he wanted to make a statement about the new Philharmonic Hall in New York—it wasn't going to be a temple of easy listening, as it were, but a place for serious music-making." Minna Lederman Daniel, a music writer and editor of Modern Music magazine, told Copland, "I think Connotations was the right place for the people and the occasion—indeed the only one properly related to them. It sounds a good deal like certain aspects of the building—big, spacious, clear, long-lined, and it sounds very like you ... To those familiar with your music, the characteristic, identifying moods are perfectly apparent. The special Copland eloquence is there." Critics A few critics were positive. Louis Biancolli wrote in The New York Telegram that the work was "a turning point in [Copland's] career, a powerful score in 12-tone style that has liberated new stores of creative energy." John Molleson write for the New York Herald Tribune that while the new piece was "a difficult work and like most music difficult to understand at one hearing ... this piece has flesh where others have only skin, and there was a good deal of arresting lyricism." Others, however, dismissed Connotations: Everett Helm thought it "unnecessarily strident," Harriet Johnson "too long for its content" and Richard Franko Johnson "completely without charm." Telecast The concert was telecast live by the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) to an audience of 26 million viewers. As part of its program, NBC asked Copland to talk to the television audience about Connotations. While the cameras alternated between shots of the composer and the manuscript score, Copland said, "It seems to me that there are two things you can do when listening to any new work. The most important thing is to lend yourself—or to put it another way—try to be as sensitive as you can to the overall feeling the new piece gives off. The second way is to listen with some awareness of the general shape of the new piece, realizing that a composer works with his musical materials just as an architect works with his building materials in order to construct an edifice that makes sense." He then discussed the work briefly but in some detail. To Copland's surprise, his lecture was taken as an apologia, not an explanation, by the majority of the television audience. Moreover, vehement letters poured into NBC after the broadcast from across the United States. One read, "If last night is any criterion of what can be expected in Lincoln Center, it should be called 'Center of Jungle Culture.'" Another read, "Dear Mr. Copland, Shame Shame Shame!" European tour and first recording Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour that February. Despite the composer's claim in Copland Since 1943 that "The European premiere was more successful than the New York reception," reviews about Connotations remained mainly negative; comments abounded about "mere din" and "dodecaphonic deserts." When the London audience gave the work a lengthy ovation, Bernstein responded that he would conduct another Copland work as an encore. When cries of "Oh, oh" ensued, he added, "But this will be in a different style." He then conducted "Hoe-Down" from the ballet Rodeo. A release of the New York performance by Columbia Records fared no better. Robert Marsh found the music "dreary" and "dull." Irving Kolodin called it "rather relentlessly grim." Everett Helm, who had been able to hear the work live before he sampled the recording, wrote, "Connotations for Orchestra sounded rather strident on September 23; on the disc it becomes ear-piercing." Bernstein rerecorded Connotations with the New York Philharmonic for Columbia in 1973. This recording was released with Copland's Inscape and Carter's Concerto for Orchestra. Other factors in initial failure The composer admitted that Connotations possessed "a rather severe and somewhat intellectual tone." However, while he did not expect it to be an immediate success, he had still hoped that the music's intensity and drama might lend it some appeal. While Copland maintained that "It bothers me not at all to realize that my range as a composer includes both accessible and problematic works," composer and musicologist Peter Dickinson notes "a tone of defensiveness" in this remark. Nevertheless, Connotations''' abrasiveness to many listeners might not have been the only factor in its initial failure. Bernstein The negative initial reaction to Connotations has also been claimed to have been due to Bernstein's conducting. Bernstein was especially antipathetic toward works that were atonal or rhythmically disjunctive and "could not overcome a deep-seated antipathy, an almost gut reaction" against them. Of the contemporary composers with whom he could relate, he had been "generous and enthusiastic" in his support of Copland. His frequent programming of Copland's works during his tenure with the New York Philharmonic might, Adams suggests, have been partly in reaction against works of the twelve-tone school. Now he was confronted with what American composer John Adams terms a "stridently dissonant, piss-n-vinegar" work "written in an idiom so alien to his own sensibilities," the first performance of which he would not only conduct but would also be televised to a national audience. Pollack claims Bernstein might have found Connotations "boring" and kept it on the program solely out of duty to his old friend. Despite Bernstein's own musical antipathies, Adams claims the conductor generally remained open-minded and curious enough "to try something at least once." Among the world premieres of "difficult" works he led were Olivier Messiaen's Turangalîla-Symphonie in Boston in 1949 and Carter's Concerto for Orchestra in New York in 1970; and despite his apparent lack of identification with Carter's music, he described the composer in 1975 as "a brilliant mind and a supremely intelligent musician." Bernstein conducted Connotations again during the first week of regular Philharmonic concerts in 1963 and included it among the pieces the orchestra played on its European tour in February 1963. He would also commission a subsequent orchestral work from Copland, which became Inscape, and conduct Connotations again in an all-Copland concert with the New York Philharmonic in 1989. Even with this advocacy and the chance to familiarize himself at length, Connotations apparently remained a work that Bernstein did not conduct well. Critic Peter Davis, in his review of the 1989 performance, writes that while Connotations remained "admittedly not a very lovable piece," in Bernstein's hands it "sounded more fulsome than portentous." Acoustical problems with Philharmonic Hall Copland acknowledged that the acoustics at the premiere were "shrill." While Philharmonic Hall was being renovated in 1976 in an attempt to improve its sound, Harold C. Schonberg wrote, "For all we know, Connotations is a masterpiece. But one thing is certain—it did not make many friends for Lincoln Center in 1962." While admitting the work was "written in Copland's austere, objective, abstract style," he suggested that bad acoustics might have also played a part in the work's failure at the premiere. The orchestra that night had been augmented by a large chorus to perform the first movement of Gustav Mahler's Eighth Symphony, which pushed the orchestra forward, "out of its normal playing position ... The sound was bad, bad. The bass response was sorely deficient, the hall was plagued with echoes, the musicians on stage reported that they could not hear each other very well (just great for ensemble) and in general Philharmonic Hall sounded like a cheap hi-fi set with the bass speakers out of the circuit. Composer efforts Copland conducted Connotations in 1966, 1967 and 1968 around the United States. This included an engagement at the Musica Viva series in San Francisco and concerts with the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington D.C. and the Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra. "I spoke to the audiences," Copland writes, "with humorous accounts of the work's adverse effect on droves of letter writers, who had heard the original performance, in person or on TV. Then I asked the brass section to illustrate the opening chords, and the strings how they sounded. Before they knew it, the audience was sympathetic. My purpose was not to sell the work but to demonstrate it." Boulez revival A decade after Bernstein premiered the work, Pierre Boulez, who had succeeded Bernstein as music director of the New York Philharmonic in 1971, conducted Connotations with the orchestra for the ten-year anniversary of Philharmonic Hall (subsequently renamed Avery Fisher Hall; later David Geffen Hall). According to Copland, ten years had allowed enough time to change audience perceptions for the better. In his review for The New York Times Harold C. Schonberg wrote that this time, the audience "did not rise in revolt" as it had in 1962. He added, "The composer's cause was helped by, if memory serves, a better performance than had been given in 1962. Mr. Boulez revels in this kind of music, and he brought drama to it as well as a synthesizing quality." AnalysisConnotations was the first orchestral work in which Copland used serial principles of composition. Serial or twelve-tone music, Copland stated, carried "a built-in tenseness ... a certain drama ... a sense of strain or tension" inherent in its extended use of chromaticism. "These are new tensions," he continued, "different from what I would have dreamt up if I had been thinking tonally." To composer John Adams, Copland's embrace of serial technique was not really such a stretch "because ever since the 1920s, he'd already a piss-'n-vinegar penchant for sour intervals, like he did in the Piano Variations." Contrary to the charge that would be made after Connotations premiere that Copland wrote a twelve-tone work to impress younger composers, he had actually begun using the method at a time when few other American composers were doing so. While Copland's first expressly serial works were his Piano Quartet of 1950 and Piano Fantasy and he noted that some critics (whom he did not name) had traced a similarity in those pieces to his Piano Variations of 1930, he claimed in his 1967 "conversation" with Edward T. Cone that the Variations were "the start of my interest in serial writing ... Although it doesn't use all twelve tones, it does use seven of them in what I hope is a consistently logical way." Prior to that interview, few had related Copland's early work to that of the founder of twelve-tone composition, Arnold Schoenberg. By the time he wrote Connotations, Copland had come to the view that serial composition was "like looking at a picture from a different point of view" and used it "with the hope that it would freshen and enrich my [compositional] technique." Part of that changed viewpoint, Copland said, "was that I began to hear chords that I wouldn't have heard otherwise. Heretofore, I had been thinking tonally, but this was a new way of moving tones about." Serialism also allowed Copland a synthesis of serial and non-serial practices that had long concerned Copland and he had previously felt impossible to attain. One challenge Copland said he faced while he composed Connotations was "to construct an overall line that had continuity, dramatic force and an inherent unity." He stated that he had faced a similar challenge in his Orchestral Variations (his orchestration of the Piano Variations). He added that while dodecaphonic techniques supplied "the building blocks" for Connotations, it was up to him to supply "the edifice" that these blocks would eventually form. Critic Paul Henry Lang, among others, lamented Copland's "yield to the conformism of 12-tone music." As serial and serial-inspired music was considered more academically viable than music utilizing common practice tonality (especially in Europe), some contemporary critics felt that Copland was trying to retain his place at the apex of the American classical music scene by conforming to "academic standards." Taruskin suggests that it might have appeared to these critics that Copland "had sacrificed his hard-won, well-nigh unique public appeal for what seemed ... an 'alienated' modernist stance." As the composer had been one of the first American composers to import the style from Europe—in the mid twenties—these critics may have overlooked the possibility that his "populist period" may have represented the more jarring deviation in his compositional style. It had also been some time since a Copland piece had been appreciated widely by audiences. His opera The Tender Land had not fared well, either in its original or revised forms. Choreographer Jerome Robbins never produced Copland's ballet Dance Panels, despite the fact that he had commissioned it. None of his major orchestral works from the 1960s—Connotations, Music for a Great City, Emblems and Inscape—made much of an impact with audiences. Nor do they fit in either the populist or modernist parts of Copland's compositional output. Copland was aware that dodecaphonism did not hold as high a place as it had previously and writes, "By the sixties, serialism had been around for over fifty years; young composers were not so fascinated with it anymore." Nonetheless, he did not want to be pigeonholed. He told American composer Walter Piston in 1963, "People always want to shove me into the American idea more than I really want. Nobody wants to be an 'American' composer now as they did." He told another friend, "Young composers today wouldn't be caught dead with a folk tune!" He heard a considerable amount of new music through his association with Tanglewood and might not have wanted to be left behind. At the same time, he might not have become totally at home with serialism. He confided to Verna Fine, "I don't feel comfortable with the twelve-tone system, but I don't want to keep repeating myself." Ballet Choreographer John Neumier, noted for his ballets based on literary themes, received permission from Copland to use music from Connotations, the Piano Variations and Piano Fantasy for a ballet, The Fall Hamlet (The Hamlet Affair). Staged by the American Ballet Theatre on January 6, 1976, the title role was danced by Mikhail Barishnikov, Ophelia by Gelsie Kirkland, Gertrude by Marcia Haydée and Claudius by Erik Bruhn. The ballet was received poorly, due to ineffective choreography. Critic Bob Micklin noted, however, that Copland's "prickly, restless music" reflected the ballet's story very well. Legacy Despite its initial reception, Connotations was listed in 1979 by Billboard magazine among Copland works that continued to be programmed by orchestras, with subsequent performances by Pierre Boulez, Edo de Waart and Sixten Ehrling received positively. Reaction to the work itself remains mixed. Ross dismisses Connotations as a "barbaric yawp of a piece." Morin calls it a "thorny, riveting patchwork" and listening to it "like the unrelenting pummeling of a prizefighter at times." Adams calls its style "very simplistic ... strident" and "generally unpleasant sounding" and adds that "the rigor [of twelve-tone composition] seemed more to cramp [Copland's] natural spontaneity than to aid it." Composer Kyle Gann calls Connotations "big, unwieldy ... and [not] that good ... Copland's imagination seemed constrained by the technique. On a more positive note, Davis wrote after a performance of the work under Ehrling by The Juilliard Orchestra that while Connotations remains a "spiky" composition, Copland "adopts Schoenberg's serial procedures to produce a sequence of typically pungent and exhilarating Coplandesque sonorities." Desmond Shawe-Taylor called the work "beautifully put together: full of energy, variety, thought" after he had heard Boulez conduct the piece. Michael Andrews wrote of Copland's "mammoth, anxious and angry vision" and Barlett Naylor of "a majesty hidden in this dark piece" after both had heard de Waart's performance. Recordings Along with Bernstein's two performances, Copland recorded Connotations with the Orchestre National de France (no longer available). More recently, The Juilliard Orchestra recorded the work under the direction of Sixten Ehrling for New World Records. References Citations Bibliography * External links Essay by music critic Kyle Gann Brief Description of Connotations'' Video – Aaron Copland – Connotations (20:11). Compositions by Aaron Copland 1962 compositions Compositions for symphony orchestra Serial compositions Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic

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Procopius of Caesarea ( Prokópios ho Kaisareús; ; – after 565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar from Caesarea Maritima. Accompanying the Byzantine general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian's wars, Procopius became the principal Byzantine historian of the 6th century, writing the History of the Wars, the Buildings, and the Secret History. He is commonly classified as the last major historian of the ancient Western world. Life Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius's life was an entry in the Suda, a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975, which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of Palaestina Prima. He would have received a conventional upper class education in the Greek classics and rhetoric, perhaps at the famous school at Gaza. He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut) or Constantinople (now Istanbul), and became a lawyer (rhetor). He evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor JustinianI, he became the legal adviser () for Belisarius, a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire. Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre in the Hippodrome. In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, took part in the capture of Carthage, and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536, although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage. He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna, in 540. Both the Wars and the Secret History suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths, now led by the able king Totila, Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff. As magister militum, Belisarius was an "illustrious man" (; , illoústrios); being his , Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" (vir spectabilis). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order (). However, the Suda, which is usually well informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of the . Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate, which was restricted to the under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount. It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historians including Howard-Johnson, Cameron, and Geoffrey Greatrex date his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople () called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect. In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his Secret History that he planned to publish it after the death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonia: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that the Secret History was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime. Writings The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor JustinianI. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the Secret History that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife and had to wait until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation. History of the Wars Procopius's Wars or History of the Wars (, Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi, "Words on the Wars"; , "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the Secret History. The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a unit. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brings the history to 553. The first two booksoften known as The Persian War ()deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica, and Iberia (present-day Georgia). It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah KavadhI, the 532 'Nika' revolt, the war by Kavadh's successor KhosrauI in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated the empire from 542. The Persian War also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail. The Wars’ next two booksknown as The Vandal War or Vandalic War ()cover Belisarius's successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century. The final four booksknown as The Gothic War ()cover the Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths. Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd sieges of Rome. He also includes an account of the rise of the Franks (see Arborychoi). The last book describes the eunuch Narses's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well. The Wars proved influential on later Byzantine historiography. In the 570s Agathias wrote Histories, a continuation of Procopius's work in a similar style. Secret History Procopius's now famous Anecdota also known as Secret History (, Apókryphe Historía; ) was discovered centuries later at the Vatican Library in Rome and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence was already known from the Suda, which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The Secret History covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of The History of the Wars and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly, 558. In the eyes of many scholars, the Secret History reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora, the general Belisarius, and his wife Antonina. The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon: Similarly, the Theodora of the Secret History is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the Secret History is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments: Furthermore, Secret History portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius. On the other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the Secret History as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, whichas a kind of court historianmight be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct, the Secret History would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora. The Buildings The Buildings (, Perì Ktismáton; , "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire. The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s. Historians consider Buildings to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions. Buildings was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome. Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's Buildings, historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor. This had actually been carried out under who reigned before Justin. Style Procopius belongs to the school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic. They wrote in Attic Greek. Their models were Herodotus, Polybius and in particular Thucydides. Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to a "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their ekklesía had been a popular assembly. The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius. However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This is supported by Whitby's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics. Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent, making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric. Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself and, if he had, he would probably have followed the rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written. Legacy A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. Count Belisarius was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn's A Struggle for Rome and in L. Sprague de Camp's alternate history novel Lest Darkness Fall. The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the Secret History. The narrator in Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick cites Procopius's description of a captured sea monster as evidence of the narrative's feasibility. List of selected works Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia. Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 4 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64. Greek text. Procopius. Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation. Procopius, The Secret History, translated by G. A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the Anecdota. Recently re-issued by Penguin (2007) with an updated and livelier translation by Peter Sarris, who has also provided a new commentary and notes. Prokopios, The Secret History, translated by Anthony Kaldellis. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2010. This edition includes related texts, an introductory essay, notes, maps, a timeline, a guide to the main sources from the period and a guide to scholarship in English. The translator uses blunt and precise English prose in order to adhere to the style of the original text. Notes References This article is based on an earlier version by James Allan Evans, originally posted at Nupedia. Further reading Adshead, Katherine: Procopius' Poliorcetica: continuities and discontinuities, in: G. Clarke et al. (eds.): Reading the past in late antiquity, Australian National UP, Rushcutters Bay 1990, pp. 93–119 Alonso-Núñez, J. M.: Jordanes and Procopius on Northern Europe, in: Nottingham Medieval Studies 31 (1987), 1–16. Amitay, Ory: Procopius of Caesarea and the Girgashite Diaspora, in: Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 20 (2011), 257–276. Anagnostakis, Ilias: Procopius's dream before the campaign against Libya: a reading of Wars 3.12.1-5, in: C. Angelidi and G. Calofonos (eds.), Dreaming in Byzantium and Beyond, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing 2014, 79–94. Bachrach, Bernard S.: Procopius, Agathias and the Frankish Military, in: Speculum 45 (1970), 435–441. Bachrach, Bernard S.: Procopius and the chronology of Clovis's reign, in: Viator 1 (1970), 21–32. Baldwin, Barry: An Aphorism in Procopius, in: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 125 (1982), 309–311. Baldwin, Barry: Sexual Rhetoric in Procopius, in: Mnemosyne 40 (1987), pp. 150–152 Belke, Klaus: Prokops De aedificiis, Buch V, zu Kleinasien, in: Antiquité Tardive 8 (2000), 115–125. Börm, Henning: Prokop und die Perser. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007. (Review in English by G. Greatrex and Review in English by A. Kaldellis) Börm, Henning: Procopius of Caesarea, in Encyclopaedia Iranica Online, New York 2013. Börm, Henning: Procopius, his predecessors, and the genesis of the Anecdota: Antimonarchic discourse in late antique historiography, in: H. Börm (ed.): Antimonarchic discourse in Antiquity. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 2015, 305–346. Braund, David: Procopius on the Economy of Lazica, in: The Classical Quarterly 41 (1991), 221–225. Brodka, Dariusz: Die Geschichtsphilosophie in der spätantiken Historiographie. Studien zu Prokopios von Kaisareia, Agathias von Myrina und Theophylaktos Simokattes. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2004. Burn, A. R.: Procopius and the island of ghosts, in: English Historical Review 70 (1955), 258–261. Cameron, Averil: Procopius and the Sixth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Cameron, Averil: The scepticism of Procopius, in: Historia 15 (1966), 466–482. Colvin, Ian: Reporting Battles and Understanding Campaigns in Procopius and Agathias: Classicising Historians' Use of Archived Documents as Sources, in: A. Sarantis (ed.): War and warfare in late antiquity. Current perspectives, Leiden: Brill 2013, 571–598. Cresci, Lia Raffaella: Procopio al confine tra due tradizioni storiografiche, in: Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 129 (2001), 61–77. Cristini, Marco: Il seguito ostrogoto di Amalafrida: confutazione di Procopio, Bellum Vandalicum 1.8.12, in: Klio 99 (2017), 278–289. Cristini, Marco: Totila and the Lucanian Peasants: Procop. Goth. 3.22.20, in: Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 61 (2021), 73–84. Croke, Brian and James Crow: Procopius and Dara, in: The Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983), 143–159. Downey, Glanville: The Composition of Procopius, De Aedificiis, in: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 78 (1947), 171–183. Evans, James A. S.: Justinian and the Historian Procopius, in: Greece & Rome 17 (1970), 218–223. Evans, James A. S.: Procopius. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972. Gordon, C. D.: Procopius and Justinian's Financial Policies, in: Phoenix 13 (1959), 23–30. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Procopius and the Persian Wars, D.Phil. thesis, Oxford, 1994. Greatrex, Geoffrey: The dates of Procopius' works, in: BMGS 18 (1994), 101–114. Greatrex, Geoffrey: The Composition of Procopius' Persian Wars and John the Cappadocian, in: Prudentia 27 (1995), 1–13. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Rome and Persia at War, 502–532. London: Francis Cairns, 1998. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Recent work on Procopius and the composition of Wars VIII, in: BMGS 27 (2003), 45–67. Greatrex, Geoffrey: Perceptions of Procopius in Recent Scholarship, in: Histos 8 (2014), 76–121 and 121a–e (addenda). Howard-Johnson, James: The Education and Expertise of Procopius, in: Antiquité Tardive 10 (2002), 19–30 Kaegi, Walter: Procopius the military historian, in: Byzantinische Forschungen. 15, 1990, , 53–85 (online (PDF; 989 KB)). Kaldellis, Anthony: Classicism, Barbarism, and Warfare: Prokopios and the Conservative Reaction to Later Roman Military Policy, American Journal of Ancient History, n.s. 3-4 (2004-2005 [2007]), 189–218. Kaldellis, Anthony: Identifying Dissident Circles in Sixth-Century Byzantium: The Friendship of Prokopios and Ioannes Lydos, Florilegium, Vol. 21 (2004), 1–17. Kaldellis, Anthony: Procopius of Caesarea: Tyranny, History and Philosophy at the End of Antiquity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004. Kaldellis, Anthony: Prokopios’ Persian War: A Thematic and Literary Analysis, in: R. Macrides, ed., History as Literature in Byzantium, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2010, 253–273. Kaldellis, Anthony: Prokopios’ Vandal War: Thematic Trajectories and Hidden Transcripts, in: S. T. Stevens & J. Conant, eds., North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, Washington, D.C: Dumbarton Oaks, 2016, 13–21. Kaldellis, Anthony: The Date and Structure of Prokopios’ Secret History and his Projected Work on Church History, in: Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, Vol. 49 (2009), 585–616. Kruse, Marion: The Speech of the Armenians in Procopius: Justinian's Foreign Policy and the Transition between Books 1 and 2 of the Wars, in: The Classical Quarterly 63 (2013), 866–881. Kovács, Tamás: "Procopius's Sibyl - the fall of Vitigis and the Ostrogoths", Graeco-Latina Brunensia 24.2 (2019), 113–124. Lillington-Martin, Christopher, 2007–2017: 2007, "Archaeological and Ancient Literary Evidence for a Battle near Dara Gap, Turkey, AD 530: Topography, Texts and Trenches" in BAR –S1717, 2007 The Late Roman Army in the Near East from Diocletian to the Arab Conquest Proceedings of a colloquium held at Potenza, Acerenza and Matera, Italy edited by Ariel S. Lewin and Pietrina Pellegrini, pp. 299–311; 2009, "Procopius, Belisarius and the Goths" in Journal of the Oxford University History Society,(2009) Odd Alliances edited by Heather Ellis and Graciela Iglesias Rogers. , pages 1– 17, https://sites.google.com/site/jouhsinfo/issue7specialissueforinternetexplorer; 2011, "Secret Histories", http://classicsconfidential.co.uk/2011/11/19/secret-histories/; 2012, "Hard and Soft Power on the Eastern Frontier: a Roman Fortlet between Dara and Nisibis, Mesopotamia, Turkey: Prokopios’ Mindouos?" in The Byzantinist, edited by Douglas Whalin, Issue 2 (2012), pp. 4–5, http://oxfordbyzantinesociety.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/obsnews2012final.pdf; 2013, Procopius on the struggle for Dara and Rome, in A. Sarantis, N. Christie (eds.): War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives (Late Antique Archaeology 8.1–8.2 2010–11), Leiden: Brill 2013, pp. 599–630, ; 2013 “La defensa de Roma por Belisario” in: Justiniano I el Grande (Desperta Ferro) edited by Alberto Pérez Rubio, no. 18 (July 2013), pages 40–45, ISSN 2171-9276; 2017, Procopius of Caesarea: Literary and Historical Interpretations (editor), Routledge (July 2017), www.routledge.com/9781472466044; 2017, "Introduction" and chapter 10, “Procopius, πάρεδρος / quaestor, Codex Justinianus, I.27 and Belisarius’ strategy in the Mediterranean” in Procopius of Caesarea: Literary and Historical Interpretations above. Maas, Michael Robert: Strabo and Procopius: Classical Geography for a Christian Empire, in H. Amirav et al. (eds.): From Rome to Constantinople. Studies in Honour of Averil Cameron, Leuven: Peeters, 2007, 67–84. Martindale, John: The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire III, Cambridge 1992, 1060–1066. Meier, Mischa: Prokop, Agathias, die Pest und das ′Ende′ der antiken Historiographie, in Historische Zeitschrift 278 (2004), 281–310. Meier, Mischa and Federico Montinaro (eds.): A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea. Brill, Leiden 2022, ISBN 978-3-89781-215-4. Pazdernik, Charles F.: Xenophon’s Hellenica in Procopius’ Wars: Pharnabazus and Belisarius, in: Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 46 (2006) 175–206. Rance, Philip: Narses and the Battle of Taginae (552 AD): Procopius and Sixth-Century Warfare, in: Historia. Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte 30.4 (2005) 424–472. Rubin, Berthold: Prokopios, in Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft 23/1 (1957), 273–599. Earlier published (with index) as Prokopios von Kaisareia, Stuttgart: Druckenmüller, 1954. Stewart, Michael, Contests of Andreia in Procopius’ Gothic Wars, Παρεκβολαι 4 (2014), pp. 21–54. Stewart, Michael, The Andreios Eunuch-Commander Narses: Sign of a Decoupling of martial Virtues and Hegemonic Masculinity in the early Byzantine Empire?, Cerae 2 (2015), pp. 1–25. Stewart, Michael, Masculinity, Identity, and Power Politics in the Age of Justinian: A Study of Procopius, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2020:https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789462988231/masculinity-identity-and-power-politics-in-the-age-of-justinian Treadgold, Warren: The Early Byzantine Historians, Basingstoke: Macmillan 2007, 176–226. The Secret History of Art by Noah Charney on the Vatican Library and Procopius. An article by art historian Noah Charney about the Vatican Library and its famous manuscript, Historia Arcana by Procopius. Whately, Conor, Battles and Generals: Combat, Culture, and Didacticism in Procopius' Wars. Leiden, 2016. Whitby, L. M. "Procopius and the Development of Roman Defences in Upper Mesopotamia", in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (ed.), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East, Oxford, 1986, 717–35. External links Texts of Procopius Complete Works, Greek text (Migne Patrologia Graeca) with analytical indexes The Secret History, English translation (Atwater, 1927) at the Internet Medieval Sourcebook The Secret History, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius The Buildings, English translation (Dewing, 1935) at LacusCurtius The Buildings, Book IV Greek text with commentaries, index nominum, etc. at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project Procopius on LibriVox H. B. Dewing's Loeb edition of the works of Procopius: vols. I–VI at the Internet Archive (History of the Wars, Secret History) Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society (1888): Of the buildings of Justinian by Procopius, (ca 560 A.D) Complete Works 1, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 1, 1833. (Persian Wars I–II, Vandal Wars I–II) Complete Works 2, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 2, 1833. (Gothic Wars I–IV) Complete Works 3, Greek ed. by K. W. Dindorf, Latin trans. by Claude Maltret in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae Pars II Vol. 3, 1838. (Secret History, Buildings of Justinian) Secondary material 500 births 565 deaths 6th-century Byzantine people 6th-century Byzantine writers 6th-century historians Byzantine historians Historians of Justinian I Secret histories De bello Gothico Vandalic War People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars

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Sabbatai Zevi (; August 1, 1626 – c. September 17, 1676), also spelled Shabbetai Ẓevi, Shabbeṯāy Ṣeḇī, Shabsai Tzvi, and Sabetay Sevi in Turkish, was a Sephardic Jewish mystic and ordained rabbi from Smyrna (now İzmir, Turkey). A kabbalist of Romaniote origin, Zevi, who was active throughout the Ottoman Empire, claimed to be the long-awaited Jewish Messiah. He was the founder of the Sabbatean movement, whose followers subsequently were to be known as Dönmeh "converts" or crypto-Jews. In February 1666, upon arriving in Constantinople, Sabbatai was imprisoned on the order of the grand vizier Köprülüzade Fazıl Ahmed Pasha; in September of that same year, after being moved from different prisons around the capital to Adrianople (the imperial court's seat) for judgment on accusations of fomenting sedition, Sabbatai was given by the Grand Vizier, in the name of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed IV, the choice of either facing death by some type of ordeal, or of converting to Islam. Sabbatai seems to have chosen the latter by donning from then on a turban. He was then also rewarded by the heads of the Ottoman state with a generous pension for his compliance with their political and religious plans. Some of his followers also converted to Islam—about 300 families who were known as Dönmeh, "converts". Subsequently, he was banished twice by the Ottomans, first to Constantinople, and, when he was discovered singing Psalms with the Jews, to a small town known today as Ulcinj in present-day Montenegro. He later died in isolation. Early life and education Sabbatai Zevi was born in the Ottoman city of Smyrna, supposedly on Tisha B'Av 1626, the holy day of mourning. In Hebrew Sabbatai means Saturn, and in Jewish tradition "The reign of Sabbatai", the highest planet, was often linked to the advent of the Messiah. Zevi's family were Romaniote Jews from Patras; his father, Mordecai, was a poultry dealer in the Morea. During the war between Turkey and Venice, Smyrna became the center of Levantine trade. Mordecai became the Smyrna agent of an English trading house and managed to achieve some wealth in this role. In accordance with the prevailing Jewish custom of the time, Sabbatai's father had him study the Talmud. He attended a yeshiva under the rabbi of Smyrna, Joseph Escapa. Studies in halakha, or Jewish law, did not appeal to him, but apparently Zevi did attain proficiency in the Talmud. On the other hand, he was fascinated by mysticism and the kabbalah, as influenced by Isaac Luria. He found the practical Kabbalah, with its asceticism, through which its devotees claimed to be able to communicate with God and the angels, to predict the future and to perform all sorts of miracles, especially appealing. He read the Zohar, in addition to Luria's writings, and practiced asceticism and purification exercises called tikkunim. Personal history Influence of English millenarianism During the first half of the 17th century, millenarian ideas of the approach of the Messianic time were popular. They included ideas of the redemption of the Jews and their return to the land of Israel, with independent sovereignty. The apocalyptic year was identified by Christian authors as 1666 and millenarianism was widespread in England. This belief was so prevalent that Manasseh ben Israel, in his letter to Oliver Cromwell and the Rump Parliament, appealed to it as a reason to re-admit Jews into England, saying, "[T]he opinions of many Christians and mine do concur herein, that we both believe that the restoring time of our Nation into their native country is very near at hand." Besides being involved in other commercial activities, Sabbatai's father was the agent for an English trading house in Smyrna and must have had some business contact with English people. Sabbatai could have learned something about these Western millenarian expectations at his father's house. The more precise extensions of the overall combined influence of English/Dutch Calvinist millenarianism within the messianic movement that developed around Zevi's activities is still being studied and assessed by scholars. Claims of messiahship Apart from this general Messianic belief, there was another computation, based on an interpreted passage in the Zohar (a famous Jewish mystical text), and particularly popular among the Jews, according to which the year 1648 was to be the year of Israel's redemption by their long-awaited Jewish Messiah. At age 22 in 1648, Sabbatai started declaring to his followers in Smyrna that he was the true Messianic redeemer. In order to prove this claim he started to pronounce the Tetragrammaton, an act which Judaism emphatically prohibited to all but the Jewish high priest in the Temple in Jerusalem on the Day of Atonement. For scholars acquainted with rabbinical, and kabbalistic literature, the act was highly symbolic. He would also claim that he could fly, but explained to his beholders that he couldn't do so in public because they were 'not worthy enough' to witness the sight. So too, he declared regularly that he was having various visions of God. He revealed his Messiahship early on to Isaac Silveyra and Moses Pinheiro, the latter a brother-in-law of the Italian rabbi and kabbalist Joseph Ergas. However, at this point he was still relatively young to be thought of as an accepted and established rabbinic authority; and his influence in the local community was not widespread. Even though Sabbatai had led the pious life of a mystic in Smyrna for several years, the older and more established rabbinic leadership was still suspicious of his activities. The local college of rabbis, headed by his teacher, Joseph Escapa, kept a watchful eye on him. When his Messianic pretensions became too bold, they put him and his followers under cherem, a type of excommunication in Judaism. About the year 1651 (according to others, 1654), the rabbis banished Sabbatai and his disciples from Smyrna. It is not certain where he went from there. By 1658, he was in Constantinople, where he met a preacher, Abraham Yachini (a disciple of Joseph di Trani), who confirmed Sabbatai's messianic mission. Yachini is said to have forged a manuscript in archaic characters which, he alleged, bore testimony to Sabbatai's Messiahship. It was entitled "The Great Wisdom of Solomon", and began: "I, Abraham, was confined in a cave for forty years, and I wondered greatly that the time of miracles did not arrive. Then was heard a voice proclaiming, 'A son will be born in the Hebrew year 5386 [the year 1626 CE] to Mordecai Zevi; and he will be called Shabbethai. He will humble the great dragon; ... he, the true Messiah, will sit upon My throne." In Salonica, Cairo, and Jerusalem With this document, Sabbatai chose Salonica, at that time a center of kabbalists, for his base. He proclaimed himself the Messiah or "anointed one," gaining many adherents. He put on all sorts of mystical events—e.g., the celebration of his marriage as the "One Without End" (the Ein Sof) with the Torah, preparing a solemn festival to which he invited his friends. The rabbis of Salonica, headed by Rabbi Hiyya Abraham Di Boton, banished him from the city. The sources differ widely as to the route he took after this expulsion, with Alexandria, Athens, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Smyrna mentioned as temporary centers. After wandering, he settled in Cairo, where he resided for about two years (1660–1662). Raphael Joseph Halabi ("of Aleppo") was a wealthy and influential Jew who held the high position of mint-master and tax-farmer in Cairo under the Ottoman government. He led an ascetic life, which included fasting, bathing in cold water, and scourging his body at night. He used his great wealth for charity, supporting poor Talmudists and Kabbalists, fifty of whom reportedly dined at his table regularly. Sabbatai befriended Raphael Joseph, who became a supporter and promoter of his Messianic claims. About 1663 Sabbatai moved on to Jerusalem. Here he resumed his former ascetic practice of frequent fasting and other penances. Many saw this as proof of his extraordinary piety. He was said to have a good voice, and sang psalms all night long, or at times Spanish love-songs, to which he gave mystical interpretations. He attracted crowds of listeners. At other times he prayed and cried at the graves of pious men and women. He distributed sweetmeats to children on the streets. Gradually he gathered a circle of adherents. The important community of Jerusalem at the time was also in need of money to keep up with the heavy taxes imposed on it by the Ottoman government. The community was coming up short of funds to pay these levies, and these arrears could have dire consequences. Sabbatai, known as the favorite of the rich and powerful Raphael Joseph Halabi in the Turkish government center in Cairo, was chosen as the community envoy to appeal to Halabi for money and support. His success in getting the funds to pay off the Turks raised his prestige. His followers dated his public career from this journey to Cairo. Marriage to Sarah Another event helped spread Sabbatai's fame in the Jewish world of the time in the course of his second stay in Cairo. During the Chmielnicki massacres in Poland, a Jewish orphan girl named Sarah, about six years old, was found by Christians and sent to a convent for care. After ten years, she escaped (through a miracle she claimed), and made her way to Amsterdam. Some years later she went to Livorno where, according to reports, she led a life of prostitution. She also conceived the notion that she was to become the bride of the Messiah, who was soon to appear. When the report of Sarah's adventures reached Cairo, Sabbatai claimed that such a consort had been promised to him in a dream because he, as the Messiah, was bound to fall in love with an unchaste woman. He reportedly sent messengers to Livorno to bring Sarah to him, and they were married at Halabi's house. Her beauty and eccentricity reportedly helped him gain new followers. Through her a new romantic and licentious element entered Sabbatai's career. Even the overturning of her past scandalous life was seen by Sabbatai's followers as additional confirmation of his messiahship, following the biblical story of the prophet Hosea, who had also been commanded to take a "wife of whoredom" as the first symbolic act of his calling. Nathan of Gaza With Halabi's financial and political backing, a charming wife, and many additional followers, Sabbatai triumphantly returned to Jerusalem. Passing through the city of Gaza, which at the time had an important Jewish community, he met Nathan Benjamin Levi, known since as Nathan of Gaza (נתן העזתי Nathan Ha'Azzati). Nathan became very active in Sabbatai's subsequent Messianic career, serving as Sabbatai's right-hand man and declaring himself to be the risen Elijah, who, it was predicted, would proclaim the arrival of the Messiah. In 1665, Nathan announced that the Messianic age would begin the following year with the conquest of the world without bloodshed. The Messiah would lead the Ten Lost Tribes back to the Holy Land, "riding on a lion with a seven-headed dragon in its jaws". The rabbis of Jerusalem viewed Sabbatai's movement with great suspicion, and threatened its followers with excommunication. Acknowledging that Jerusalem would not be the best place to enact his plans, Sabbatai left for his native city, Smyrna. Nathan proclaimed that henceforth Gaza, and not Jerusalem, would be the sacred city. On his way from Jerusalem to Smyrna, Sabbatai was greeted enthusiastically in Aleppo. In Smyrna, which he reached in the autumn of 1665, the greatest homage was paid to him. After some hesitation, he publicly declared himself to be the expected Messiah during the Jewish New Year in 1665; his declaration was made in the synagogue, with the blowing of horns, and shouts of "Long live our King, our Messiah!" His followers began to refer to him with the title AMIRAH, a Hebrew acronym for the phrase "Our Lord and King, his Majesty be exalted" (Adoneinu Malkeinu Yarum Hodo). Proclaimed messiah Assisted by his wife, Sabbatai became the leader of the community. He used his power to crush the opposition. He deposed the existing rabbi of Smyrna, Aaron Lapapa, and appointed Chaim Benveniste in his place. His popularity grew, as people of all faiths repeated his story. His fame extended far and wide. Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands had centers of his Messianic movement. The Jews of Hamburg and Amsterdam learned of the events in Smyrna from trustworthy Christians. Henry Oldenburg, a distinguished German savant who became the first secretary of the Royal Society, wrote to Baruch Spinoza (Spinozae Epistolae No 33): "All the world here is talking of a rumour of the return of the Israelites ... to their own country. ... Should the news be confirmed, it may bring about a revolution in all things." Sabbatai's followers included many prominent rabbis, such as Isaac Aboab da Fonseca, Moses Raphael de Aguilar, Moses Galante, Moses Zacuto, and the above-mentioned Chaim Benveniste. Dionysius Musaphia, an adherent of Spinoza, likewise became a follower. People spread fantastic reports, which were widely believed. For example, it was said, "In the north of Scotland a ship had appeared with silken sails and ropes, manned by sailors who spoke Hebrew. The flag bore the inscription 'The Twelve Tribes of Israel'." The Jewish community of Avignon, France prepared to emigrate to the new kingdom in the spring of 1666. The readiness of the Jews to believe the messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi may largely be explained by the desperate state of European Jewry in the mid-17th century. The bloody pogroms of Bohdan Khmelnytsky had wiped out around 100,000 Jews in Eastern Europe, or more, others put the numbers killed at between 40,000 and 100,000, about one third of Europe's Jewish population at the time and destroyed many centers of Jewish learning and communal life. For most of the Jews of Europe this was a propitious moment for the messiah to deliver salvation. Spread of his influence Probably with his consent, Sabbatai's adherents planned to abolish many of the ritualistic observances because, according to a minority opinion in the Talmud, in the Messianic time there would no longer be holy obligations. The fast of the Tenth of Tevet became a day of feasting and rejoicing. Samuel Primo, who became Sabbatai's secretary when the latter went to Smyrna, directed in the name of the Messiah the following circular to all of the Jews: "The first-begotten Son of God, Shabbethai Tebi, Messiah and Redeemer of the people of Israel, to all the sons of Israel, Peace! Since ye have been deemed worthy to behold the great day and the fulfilment of God's word by the Prophets, your lament and sorrow must be changed into joy, and your fasting into merriment; for ye shall weep no more. Rejoice with song and melody, and change the day formerly spent in sadness and sorrow into a day of jubilee, because I have appeared." Primo's message was considered blasphemous, as Sabbatai wanted to celebrate his birthday rather than the holy day. There was outrage and dissension in the communities; many of the leaders who had regarded the movement sympathetically were shocked at such radical innovations. Solomon Algazi, a prominent Talmudist of Smyrna, and other members of the rabbinate who opposed the abolition of the fast, narrowly escaped death at the hands of Sabbatai's followers. In Constantinople At the beginning of 1666, Sabbatai left Smyrna for Constantinople (İstanbul in present-day Turkey). He may have been forced to flee by city officials. Nathan Ghazzati had prophesied that, once in Constantinople, Sabbatai would place the sultan's crown on his own head. The grand vizier, Ahmed Köprülü, ordered Sabbatai's immediate arrest upon his arrival and had him imprisoned, maybe to avoid any doubts among local and foreign observers of the imperial court as to the power still wielded by the Turkish Sultanate and by the Sultan himself. Sabbatai's imprisonment discouraged neither him nor his followers at this stage. He was treated well in prison, perhaps because of bribes paid. This seems to have strengthened belief within his immediate circle of followers. Fabulous reports concerning the miraculous deeds "the Messiah" was performing in the Turkish capital were spread by Ghazzati, Abraham Yachini, and Primo among the Jews of Smyrna and in many other communities, and the messianic expectations in the Jewish diasporas continued to rise. At Abydos (Migdal Oz) After two months' imprisonment in Constantinople, Sabbatai was moved to the state prison at Abydos. Some of his friends were allowed to accompany him. As a result, the Sabbataians called the fortress Migdal Oz (Tower [of] Strength). As Sabbatai had arrived on the day preceding Passover, he slew a paschal lamb for himself and his followers. He ate it with its fat, a violation of Jewish Law. It is said that he pronounced over it the benediction: "Blessed be God who hath restored again that which was forbidden." The immense sums sent to him by his rich followers, the charms of the queenly Sarah, and the cooperation shown by the Turkish officials and others enabled Sabbatai to display royal splendor in the prison castle of Abydos. Accounts of his life there were exaggerated and spread among Jews in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In some parts of Europe, Jews began to unroof their houses and prepare for a new "exodus". In almost every synagogue, Sabbatai's initials were posted, and prayers for him were inserted in the following form: "Bless our Lord and King, the holy and righteous Sabbatai Zevi, the Messiah of the God of Jacob." In Hamburg, the council introduced the custom of praying for Sabbatai not only on Saturday (the Jewish Sabbath), but also on Monday and Thursday. Unbelievers were compelled to remain in the synagogue and join in the prayer with a loud Amen. Sabbatai's picture was printed together with that of King David in most of the prayer-books, along with his kabbalistic formulas and penances. These and similar innovations caused great commotion in some communities. In Moravia excitement reached such a pitch that the government had to intervene, while at Sale, Morocco, the emir ordered a persecution of the Jews. During this period Sabbatai declared the fasts of the Seventeenth of Tammuz and the Ninth of Av (his birthday) would henceforth be feast-days. He contemplated converting the Day of Atonement to one of celebration. Nehemiah ha-Kohen While Sabbatai was in the Abydos prison an incident occurred which ultimately led to Sabbatai's downfall. Two prominent Polish Talmudists from Lwów, Lesser Poland, who were among Sabbatai's visitors in Abydos, informed him that in their native country a prophet, Nehemiah ha-Kohen, had announced the coming of the Messiah. Sabbatai ordered the prophet to appear before him (see Jew. Encyc. ix. 212a, s.v. Nehemiah ha-Kohen). Nehemiah obeyed, reaching Abydos after a journey of three months at the beginning of September, 1666. The meeting between the two ended in mutual dissatisfaction. Some Sabbataians are said to have contemplated the secret murder of the rival. Conversion to Islam Nehemiah, however, escaped to Constantinople, where he pretended to embrace Islam to get an audience with the kaymakam. He told him of Sabbatai's ambitions. The kaymakam informed the Sultan, Mehmed IV. Sabbatai was taken from Abydos to Adrianople, where the sultan's vizier gave him three choices; subject himself to a trial of his divinity in the form of a volley of arrows (in which should the archers miss, his divinity would be proven); be impaled; or convert to Islam. On the following day (September 16, 1666) Zevi came before the sultan, cast off his Jewish garb and put a Turkish turban on his head. Thus his conversion to Islam was accomplished. The sultan was much pleased, and rewarded Sabbatai by conferring on him the title (Mahmed) Effendi, and appointing him as his doorkeeper with a generous salary. Sarah and approximately 300 families among Sabbatai's followers also converted to Islam. These new Muslims thereafter were known as Dönmeh. The sultan's officials ordered Sabbatai to take an additional wife to demonstrate his conversion. Some days after his conversion he wrote to Smyrna: "God has made me an Ishmaelite; He commanded, and it was done. The ninth day of my regeneration." Disillusionment Sabbatai's conversion devastated his followers. Muslims and Christians alike ridiculed his followers after the event. In spite of Sabbatai's apostasy, many of his adherents still clung tenaciously to their belief in him, claiming that his conversion was a part of the Messianic scheme. False Prophets such as Ghazzati and Primo, who were interested in maintaining the movement, encouraged such belief. In many communities, the Seventeenth of Tammuz and the Ninth of Av were still observed as feast-days in spite of bans and excommunications by the rabbis. At times Sabbatai assumed the role of a pious Muslim and reviled Judaism; at others he associated with Jews as one of their own faith. In March, 1668, he announced that he had been filled with the "Holy Spirit" at Passover, and had received a "revelation." He, or one of his followers, published a mystical work claiming Sabbatai was the true Messiah in spite of his conversion, whose goal was to bring thousands of Muslims to Judaism. He told the sultan, however, that he was trying to convert Jews to Islam. The sultan permitted Sabbatai to associate with other Jews and preach in their synagogues. He succeeded in bringing over a number of Muslims to his kabbalistic views. Whether through his efforts or their willingness to follow in his latest steps, about 300 families of Sephardi Jews converted to Islam. They became known as the Dönmeh converts. Some of these followers adhered to a combination of their former Jewish practices as well as Islam. Last Years Gradually the Turks tired of Sabbatai's schemes. They ended his doorkeeper's salary and banished him to Constantinople. When he was discovered singing psalms with Jews, the grand vizier ordered his banishment. At the beginning of 1673, the sultan had Zevi exiled to Ulcinj (Dulcigno, ). His wife died there in 1674, after which Zevi married Esther, the daughter of rabbi Joseph Filosoff of Thessaloniki. Death In August 1676, he wrote to the Jewish Community in Berat, Albania, requesting religious books, but he died shortly after in isolation, according to some accounts on September 17, 1676, the High Holy Day of Yom Kippur. Upon his death, his widow, brother and children by his first wife moved to Thessaloniki. His tomb was believed for a long time to have been in Berat, at a tekke built in the yard of the Imperial Mosque (), where a tomb stood until 1967. However, more recent research on the issue, done in 1985, has suggested that he was buried in Dulcigno. His biographer Gershom Scholem mentions that his tomb was visited by Dönme pilgrims from Salonika until the early 20th century. "By the 1680s, the Dönme had congregated in Salonica, the cosmopolitan and majority-Jewish city in Ottoman Greece. For the next 250 years, they would lead an independent communal life—intermarrying, doing business together, maintaining their own shrines, and handing down their secret traditions." By the 19th century, the Dönmeh had become prominent in the tobacco and textile trades. They established progressive schools and some members became politically active. Some joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), the revolutionary party known as the Young Turks. With independence, in the 1910s, Greece expelled the Muslims from its territory, including the Dönmeh. Most migrated to Turkey, where by mid-century they were becoming highly assimilated. Legacy Although rather little is known about them, various groups called Dönmeh (Turkish for "convert") continue to follow Sabbatai Zevi today, mostly in Turkey. Estimates of the numbers vary. Many sources claim that there are fewer than 100,000 and some of them claim there are several hundred thousand in Turkey. They have been described as presenting themselves as Muslim in public whilst practising their own forms of messianic/mystical Jewish beliefs in private. The Dönme eventually split into three sects, each with quite different beliefs, as Ottoman Jewish scholars Abraham Danon, and Joseph Néhama had pointed out in French-language Jewish studies journal articles over 100 years ago. In the 1930s a new comprehensive study on the history of the sects was also published in French by Abraham Galanté. More recently, Professor Cengiz Şişman has published a new study called The Burden of Silence. According to a review of his views published in the Israeli newspaper Jerusalem Post, the branch known as Karakaş follow Sufi-influenced practices, while the Kapancıs have not been influenced by Islam at all, and are now completely secular. See also Frankism Isaac La Peyrère Jacob Frank Jewish Messiah claimants Jews in apostasy List of messiah claimants Schisms among the Jews "Who is a Jew?" Notes Bibliography Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah: 1626–1676, Routledge Kegan Paul, London, 1973 , American Edition, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1973 (hardcover edn.). --, "Shabbetai Zevi," in Encyclopaedia Judaica, Second Edition, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2007, vol. 18, pp. 340–359. . Ada Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi, 1666-1816, Oxford: The Littman Library of Jewish Civilisation, 2011. John Freely, The Lost Messiah: In Search of the Mystical Rabbi Sabbatai Sevi, The Overlook Press, Woodstock & New York, NY, 2001. . Paweł Maciejko, editor, Sabbatian Heresy: Writings on Mysticism, Messianism, & the Origins of Jewish Modernity. Waltham, Massachusetts: Brandeis University Press, 2017. Mark Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, Muslims, and Jews, 1430–1950. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005, pp. 69–71. Print. Matt Goldish, The Sabbatean Prophets, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004. Moshe Idel, Messianic Mystics, New Haven: Harvard University Press, 1998 (Chapter Six: Sabbateanism and Mysticism, pp. 183–211. Rifat N. Bali, A Scapegoat for All Seasons: The Dönmes or Crypto-Jews of Turkey, Istanbul: The ISIS Press, 2008. Alexander van der Haven, From Lowly Metaphor to Divine Flesh: Sarah the Ashkenazi, Sabbatai Tsevi’s Messianic Queen and the Sabbatian Movement. Menasseh ben Israel Instituut Studies 7, Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam/Menasseh ben Israel Institute, 2012. . Cengiz Sisman, The Burden of Silence: Sabbatai Sevi and the Evolution of the Ottoman-Turkish Donmes, New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. Cengiz Sisman, Transcending Diaspora: Studies on Sabbateanism and Donmes, Istanbul: Libra Publishing, 2016. Paolo Lucca. Šabbetay Ṣewi and the Messianic Temptations of Ottoman Jews in the Seventeenth Century According to Christian Armenian Sources // Contacts and Controversies between Muslims, Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire and Pre-Modern Iran / Edited by Camille Adang, Sabine Schmidtke. — Würzburg: Ergon Verlag Würzburg in Kommission, 2016. — P. 197—206. References Graetz, Heinrich, History of the Jews, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1895, vol. V, pp 51–85. Further reading Litvinoff, Barnet Another Time, Another Voice: A novel of the seventeenth century, W. H. Allen, London, 1971 Yaacob Dweck. Dissident Rabbi: The Life of Jacob Sasportas (Princeton University Press, 2019) External links SHABBETAI ẒEVI by Gershom Scholem. Encyclopaedia Judaica article at Encyclopedia.com Sabbatai Zevi by Kaufmann Kohler and Henry Malter. The Jewish Encyclopedia Shabbetai Zvi Jewish Virtual Library Shabbetai Tsvi, False Messiah Video Lecture by Henry Abramson In search of followers of the false messiah by Orly Halpern. About Aubrey Ross and his book The Messiah of Turkey. Haaretz 28 June 2002 Shabbetai Tzvi and the Dangers of Messianic Kabbala Video lecture by Rabbi Menachem Levine 1626 births 1676 deaths 17th-century apocalypticists 17th-century people of the Ottoman Empire 17th-century Sephardi Jews Converts to Islam from Judaism Jewish messiah claimants Kabbalists People from İzmir Rabbis of the Ottoman Empire Romaniote Jews Sephardi Jews of the Ottoman Empire Smyrniote Jews

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Henry Clifford, 10th Baron Clifford (23 April 1523) was an English nobleman. His father, John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford, was killed in the Wars of the Roses fighting for the House of Lancaster when Henry was around five years old. A local legend later developed that—on account of John Clifford having killed one of the House of York's royal princes in battle, and the new Yorkist King Edward IV seeking revenge—Henry was spirited away by his mother. As a result, it was said, he grew up ill-educated, living a pastoral life in the care of a shepherd family. Thus, ran the story, Clifford was known as the "shepherd lord". More recently, historians have questioned this narrative, noting that for a supposedly ill-educated man, he was signing charters only a few years after his father's death, and that in any case, Clifford was officially pardoned by King Edward in 1472. It may be that he deliberately avoided attracting Yorkist attention in his early years, although probably not to the extent portrayed in the local mythology. The Yorkist regime came to an end in 1485 with the invasion of Henry Tudor, who defeated Edward's brother, Richard III, at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Henry's victory meant that he needed men to control the North of England for him, and Clifford's career as a loyal Tudor servant began. Soon after Bosworth, the King gave him responsibility for crushing the last remnants of rebellion in the north. Clifford was not always successful in this, and his actions were not always popular. On more than one occasion, he found himself at loggerheads with the city of York, the civic leadership of which was particularly independently minded. When another Yorkist rebellion broke out in 1487, Clifford suffered an embarrassing military defeat by the rebels outside the city walls. Generally, however, royal service was extremely profitable for him: King Henry needed trustworthy men in the region and was willing to build up their authority in order to protect his own. Although Clifford's later years were devoted to service in the north and fighting the Scots (he took part in the decisive English victory at Flodden in 1513) he fell out with the King on numerous occasions. Clifford's was not an easy-going personality; his abrasiveness caused trouble with his neighbours, occasionally breaking out in violent feuds. This was not the behaviour the King expected from his lords. Furthermore, Clifford had married a cousin of the King, yet Clifford's infidelity to her was notorious among his contemporaries. This also drew the King's ire, to the extent that the couple's separation was mooted. Clifford's first wife had died by 1511, and Clifford remarried. This was also a tempestuous match, and on one occasion he and his wife ended up in court accusing each other of adultery. Clifford's relations with his eldest son and heir, the eventual Henry Clifford, 1st Earl of Cumberland, were equally turbulent. Clifford rarely attended the royal court himself, but sent his son to be raised with the King's heir, Prince Arthur. Clifford later complained that young Henry not only lived above his station, he consorted with men of bad influence; Clifford also accused his son of regularly beating up his father's servants on his return to Yorkshire. Clifford outlived the King and attended the coronation of HenryVIII in 1509. While continuing to serve as the King's man in the north, Clifford carried on his feuds with local gentry. He also indulged his interests in astronomy, for which he built a small castle for observation purposes. Clifford grew ill in 1522 and died in April the following year; his widow later remarried. Young Henry inherited the title as 11th Baron Clifford as well as a large fortune and estate, the result of his father's policy of frugality and avoiding the royal court for most of his life. Background The Clifford family, originally from Normandy, settled in England after the conquest of 1066. The family was elevated to the peerage in 1299 as Barons Clifford, and also held the minor baronies of Skipton in North Yorkshire and of Appleby in Westmoreland. The historian Chris Given-Wilson has described the Clifford family as one of the greatest 15th-century families never to receive an earldom. By the time of Clifford's birth, the King, HenryVI, was politically weak and occasionally incapacitated, which prevented him from ruling effectively. His failure to control his nobility, combined with the loss of England's French territories during the latter years of the Hundred Years' War had seen the political situation in England deteriorate into what the scholar David Loades has called a "chaos of factional quarrels". Civil war (known to historians as the Wars of the Roses) broke out in 1455. By 1461 a number of battles had been fought between nobles loyal to the Lancastrian King and those of the Yorkists, led by Richard, Duke of York, who had claimed the throne in 1460. These engagements became increasingly bloody, comments the author Robin Neillands, "either in the actual battle or the subsequent rout". At the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460 Clifford's father supposedly encountered York's second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, on Wakefield Bridge, as the latter was attempting to flee the destruction of his father's army. John, Lord Clifford, crying "by God's blood, thy father slew mine and so shall I slay thee", stabbed Rutland to death.{{refn|Shakespeare immortalised the scene in his Henry VI, Part 3, with some adjustments for dramatic effect. Comments the Shakespearean scholar, Peter Saccio, "following the Tudor historians, Shakespeare made Rutland a child at the time of his death. The cruelty of Rutland's slaughter, compounded when Margaret flourished in York's face a handkerchief dipped in Rutland's blood, is an outrage many times recalled by the Yorkist characters in RichardIII".|group=note}} Lord Clifford himself died on 28 March the following year during another clash at Ferrybridge, North Yorkshire. Tradition states that he was killed by a headless arrow to the throat and buried, along with those who died with him, in a common burial pit. The next day, the bulk of the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies faced each other at the Battle of Towton. After what is believed to be the biggest and possibly bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, the Lancastrians were routed, and the son of the Duke of York was crowned King EdwardIV. On 4November 1461, at Edward's first parliament, the dead Lord Clifford was attainted and his estates and barony forfeited to the Crown. The bulk of the Clifford lands were granted to Richard, Earl of Warwick, while Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and Sir William Stanley received the Lordship of Westmorland and the Barony of Skipton respectively. The latter included the Clifford caput baroniae, Skipton Castle. Family and early life Henry Clifford was born around 1454, the eldest son and heir of John Clifford and Margaret Bromflete. In the view of the medievalist A. G. Dickens, Margaret, as sole heiress to her father Henry, brought Clifford's father a "questionable claim" to the title Lord Vescy. She also brought Clifford extensive lands in the East Riding. "Shepherd Lord" Popular belief later held that as a boy of seven, Clifford was spirited away from his home in Skipton Castle following his father's death. For his own protection, so it went, his mother sent him to live in Londesborough on the property of a trusted family nurse where he employed himself tending the family's sheep. Whenever his mother believed him likely to be discovered he would be moved. Precisely where to is unknown, but both Yorkshire and Cumberland are possible; in the latter case, for example, Clifford's father-in-law held estates in Threlkeld. This supposedly gave Clifford the soubriquet "shepherd lord". The story seems to have originated with the 16th-century antiquarian Edward Hall and been reiterated by Lady Anne Clifford, in her 17th-century family history. The early modern historian Jessica Malay, argues that "with EdwardIV on the throne (elder brother of the Earl of Rutland) and the Clifford hereditary lands forfeit, the Clifford dynasty was threatened with extinction". Lady Anne was, she says, "keen to emphasise the role of women in the survival of the Clifford dynasty", and as such created a "dramatic narrative" in which Margaret deliberately defies the crown for the sake of her dead husband's heir. Anne clearly believed that King Edward sought revenge for the murder of his younger brother, which put young Clifford's life in danger. Malay suggests that, while Anne Clifford believed the story of the shepherd's family taking her ancestor in, modern historians generally discount it as folklore, to greater or lesser degrees. It has received some traction; the 19th-century genealogist George Edward Cokayne accepted the story of Clifford's being "(for security against the disfavour with which his family was viewed by the reigning house) concealed by his mother" and raised as a shepherd, as did the antiquarian J. W. Clay in a 1905 article for the Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. The scholar R. T. Spence also repeated the story in his 1959 University of London PhD thesis on the later Cliffords (writing that Clifford was "brought up as a Shepherd boy to escape the fate of his father's victim"). Three years later Dickens (in his edition of the Clifford Papers) described how Clifford "aged about seven, lay in real danger and was brought up first as a shepherd". The topographer Thomas Dunham Whitaker expressed doubt as to the 'shepherd lord' story's veracity in 1821. More recently, the historian K. B. McFarlane has gone further, arguing that it was probably "apocryphal", and J. R. Lander calls it "very dubious indeed". James Ross has pointed out that Clifford was pardoned by EdwardIV in 1472 and could hardly have been in danger from the King thereafter. Further, he notes, as early as 1466 Clifford was named publicly as receiving a bequest of a sword and a silver bowl by Henry Harlington of Craven. This argues that the young lord could not have been difficult to find, comments Ross. He also, though, suggests that Clifford may well have kept a low profile after Towton, if only temporarily: "it may not have been with a shepherd, but surely Clifford was in hiding in secret somewhere". Malay also suggests that "in all likelihood, he spent only a few years in rural retreat" in Cumberland. Clifford's biographer Henry Summerson, writing in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, also refutes the theory, "later stories to the contrary notwithstanding, that the seven-year-old Henry Clifford was ever pursued by vengeful Yorkists". Summerson notes, for example, that Hall wrote that Clifford—due to his upbringing by remote shepherds—was illiterate. In reality, says Summerson, Clifford "was later to be not just literate but even bookish, owning volumes on law and medicine". Summerson agrees that "it may be that the Clifford heir thought it prudent to keep a low profile" in the early years of the new regime. While the medievalist Vivienne Rock subscribes to the theory that Clifford grew up ill-educated, she agrees that in later life "he did become an able administrator for his substantial estates". Inheritance and estates Ross described the Clifford estates—centred on Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham and Yorkshire—as "valuable and strategically important in the troubled north". The 9th Baron had never, though, been as wealthy as some of the neighbouring families, such as the Darcys. His 1461 attainder prevented his son from inheriting, but in 1470 King Edward was forced from the throne and into exile, and HenryVI was returned to the throne. The Earl of Warwick—now aligned with the House of Lancaster against Edward—was in charge of the government, and his brother, John, Marquess Montagu, was granted the Henry Clifford's wardship during his minority. Summerson posits that this was a chance for Clifford to regain his inheritance. There was probably insufficient time to press his claim, however, as both Nevilles were killed at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April the following year. EdwardIV's victory at Barnet, and at the Battle of Tewkesbury a few weeks later, destroyed the remnants of Lancastrian resistance and returned Edward to the throne. Despite Clifford's Lancastrian connections, he seems never to have been in any danger at this time, as on 16 March 1472 Edward granted him a royal pardon. This was despite an attempt by Clifford's brother Thomas to raise an—albeit unsuccessful—pro-Lancastrian rebellion in Hartlepool. Henry Clifford was duly allowed to inherit the estates of his maternal grandfather, Henry Bromflete, Lord Vescy—who had died in 1469—but not yet his Clifford patrimony. Further, as his mother was still alive, a third of his inheritance—her dower—remained out of his control until her death in 1493. Accession of Henry VII Edward IV died in April 1483 and his son EdwardV was intended to succeed to the throne. However, he and his brother were declared illegitimate by their uncle, Richard of Gloucester, who took the throne himself as RichardIII. Richard's reign was brief; in 1485 the heir of Lancaster, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond invaded England and defeated Richard at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485. Nothing is known of Clifford's career between his pardon in 1472 and the end of the Yorkist regime, except that he had remained in the country. Michael Hicks has suggested that his presence in the north, even though still attainted, made Gloucester's hold on the Clifford lands more fragile than was comfortable for the Duke: "no doubt Gloucester himself could keep what he had, but could his heirs?" Clifford had been one of a number of stalwart Lancastrian lords excluded from local power in the region during Gloucester's hegemony, first as Duke and then King. Henry Tudor took the throne as HenryVII and from that point Clifford's position swiftly, and radically, improved. He received a number of local offices and sat on commissions in Westmorland and Yorkshire, although he was not to be appointed justice of the peace in the West Riding until 1497. Following Bosworth, the new King's biggest priority was securing the north, where it was suspected that the Earls of Northumberland and of Westmorland were planning an insurrection. On 18 August Clifford was commissioned to raise a force to crush dissent in the region. He sent the earls to London under arrest and received into the King's grace those who wished to make peace with the new regime ("for all", notes A. J. Pollard, "but a number of named men"). On 24 October 1486, Clifford wrote to the city of York (at the time, the capital of the north) warning them not sell arms or armour to non-residents. Clifford was present at King Henry's first parliament on 15 September 1485, at which time he was legally still attainted. He attended every parliament until 23 November 1514, being summoned as Henrico Clifford de Clifford ch'r. During his first parliament Clifford successfully petitioned for the overturning of his father's attainder, which restored Clifford's patrimony to him. He was knighted on 9November 1485. Career in the north Clifford made a natural ally for King Henry, and soon became one of his most trusted men in the north. Summerson suggests that Henry had little choice in restoring Clifford to his traditional regional position, as Northern England had been firmly Yorkist for over 20 years, first under the Nevilles and then under Gloucester. The latter had made Yorkshire his powerbase. Clifford, already loyal to Lancaster and then Tudor, was an obvious choice to act as the King's man, and Henry gradually increased Clifford's power. On 2May 1486 Clifford received the stewardship of the Lordship of Middleham and bailiwick of the Honour of Richmond. The former had been one of Richard of Gloucester's most important headquarters. After Richard took the throne, he granted it to Sir John Conyers, one of Gloucester's closest advisers; both Middleham and Richmond had been Neville strongholds before that. Conyers seems to have been placed in Clifford's custody around this time, although relations between the two men seem to have improved: Clifford later jointly shared in a £1,000 bond to the King for Conyers's good behaviour. In October 1486 Clifford sat on a commission to "levy for the King, all profits arising from the King's manors and lands in the counties of Westmorland and Cumberland, the lordship of Penrith and the forest of Inglewood" in expectation of an invasion by Scotland. The city of York jealously guarded its liberties, and traditionally rejected all interference from the outside unless it was perceived as absolutely warranted. This resistance troubled Clifford throughout his career. During the Yorkist rebellion of 1487, which attempted to place Lambert Simnel on the throne (as a pretender for EdwardIV's second son, Richard of Shrewsbury) Clifford was responsible for guarding the city. He reinforced the garrison with 200 of his men at arms; when the rebel army passed close by, Clifford followed it to Braham. He attempted to engage it on 10 June, but was beaten off. He camped in Tadcaster overnight, where word was brought to him that a small force of rebels, led by Lords Scrope of Masham and of Bolton had launched an assault on Bootham Bar. This forced Clifford to withdraw back to York and face the rebels on 13 June. The subsequent encounter was not an unqualified success, notes Summerson; Clifford was defeated in a scuffle outside the gates, and lost all his baggage. The military historian Philip A. Haigh writes that Clifford was "utterly disgraced" and R. W. Hoyle describes his efforts as a "fiasco". The city scribes "laconically recorded the disastrous outcome", writes Anthony Goodman, and emphasised how the King's man in the north "had signally failed" to contain the rising. Meanwhile, the King's army under John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, had won a decisive victory over the rebels at the Battle of Stoke 16 June 1487. Clifford was again given responsibility for the safety of York, and he claimed "captenship" over the city, an assertion the city rejected. In 1488 Clifford and Lady Anne both joined the city's Corpus Christi Guild. This does not seem to have restored Clifford in the eyes of the city officialdom, as the following year they again refused him entry, claiming that his intentions threatened the city's liberties. This may well have been prescient, suggests Summerson, as in 1513 Clifford attempted to claim the city's troops for his own army. In 1489 the townspeople, "denyed the entrie of the Lords Clifford and othre, that in nowise noon othre gentilman of what degreor condiconhe he of be suffred to enter this the Kyngs Chaumbre and so all to be excludet and noon to have reule bot the Maiour, Aldermen and the Shireffs". The city's statement came just before rebellion again broke out in Yorkshire, this time against heavy taxes. The commons overran the city and refused to allow Clifford or the sheriff, Marmaduke Constable entry. Instead, the citizens not only allowed the rebels to enter, they provided them a degree of military assistance. The medievalist David Grummitt comments that the city's reluctance to allow Clifford either office or military assistance is in stark contrast to the fervour with which they served "our ful gode and gracious lorde the duc of Gloucestre" as both Duke and King. Clifford was in London in 1494 when he and the King's second son, Prince Henry, among others, were made Knights of the Bath. Clifford spent much of the remainder of the decade on service in the north. Although he never held office on the border, he led a major campaign in 1497, besieging and capturing Norham Castle from the Scots. Clifford was probably a member of the Council of the North around the turn of the century. This body was under the nominal leadership of Prince Arthur and managed by the Archbishop of York, Thomas Savage. Clifford's lordship of the north, posits Summerson, was reciprocal: Henry extended royal power in the region by strengthening Clifford, and likewise, Clifford strengthened and augmented his own position through royal service. Patronage, alliances and local relations Clifford, although a figure of political and social influence, only ever had regional interests. His approach to his estates was generally positive, suggests Summerson. Clifford regularly travelled between Westmorland and Yorkshire (visiting manors "where no Clifford had been seen for a quarter of a century") and took the opportunity to rebuild and repair castles and other properties as he did. These he funded with traditional feudal dues, such as offices, wardships and marriages that were within his purview. His determined augmentation of his estates occasionally led to summonses before the royal council for enclosing land. Conversely, Clifford attempted to build good relations with his tenants and neighbours through financial generosity and hospitality, such as in 1521, when he held a "great Christmas" at Brough Castle. On occasion, Clifford made the enmity of his neighbours as a direct result of his royal service. For example, it was often to the Crown's advantage that, where possible, it influenced civic elections in favour of royal candidates. A particularly important such office was that of the city recorder. In the early years of Henry's reign the administration of York, as the capital of the north, keenly interested the King. Its regional position, combined with a history of Yorkist loyalism, made it, the scholar James Lee suggests, a "touchstone for loyalty to Henry". The King attempted to impose his own man, but the city council disagreed. Clifford then attempted to intercede for the King, but to no avail, and in the end a compromise candidate, John Vavasour, was elected. Summerson notes that Clifford's attempts to insert himself into local politics were "not always well-received". Summerson highlights Clifford's declaration in 1486 to the Mayor and Common Council that he intended "to mynistre as myn auncistres haith done here to fore in all thinges that accordith to my dewtie". In response, York's officials "firmly" informed Clifford that he had no such duty as his ancestors had never wielded such authority. Clifford also attempted, unsuccessfully, to influence the civic celebrations the city organised for the King's first visit to York later the same year. He wished, says Lee, to show the King the degree to which he was in control now that he had been returned to his family's traditional position; he was told by Vavasour that the city would do as it saw fit. In 1487 the Earl of Oxford had been granted the wardship and marriage of the 17-year-old Elizabeth Greystoke, granddaughter and sole heiress of Ralph, Baron Greystoke. Oxford soon sold the rights (worth nearly £300 per annum) to Clifford. Within a short time, though, Elizabeth was taken from Clifford's custody ("without leave asking, and not without peril to his person") by Thomas, Lord Dacre. By 1491, relations between the two men had deteriorated to the extent that the King personally prosecuted them both in the Star Chamber for rioting; they were each fined £20. King Henry was more likely to have been concerned, in cases such as these, with bending his tenants-in-chief to his political will than the revenue these forfeits added to his Exchequer. Hicks has suggested that this behaviour made Clifford less trustworthy in Henry's eyes as a crown agent. In 1496 the Captain of Carlisle, Henry Wyatt, wrote to the King expressing, as Agnes Conway calls it, his "poor opinion" of Clifford. Wyatt considered Clifford's wife, Lady Anne St John, to be a more able administrator than her husband, whom he considered inefficient, and told the King so plainly. Clifford's success at improving his finances eventually placed him in the top third of the English nobility and enabled him to successfully create new connections and strengthen existing ones. This he achieved through both marriage alliances with, and retaining among, the local gentry. Clifford was also a major patron to local abbeys, monasteries and priories. To Bolton Priory, for example, he donated a manuscript now known as A Treatise of Natural Philosophy in Old French. Other houses included Gisborough, Mount Grace and Shap; Mount Grace was particularly favoured. Clifford was a regular correspondent with the heads of other houses, including Byland, Carlisle, Furness, Holmcultram and St. Mary's, York. His extensive patronage did not always bring him success in his political negotiations with them. In 1518, for example, the Dean of York, Brian Higton wrote to Clifford explaining why he had refused to accept Clifford's favoured nominee as parish priest of Conisbrough Church: Later years In the later years of the 15th century, Clifford was frequently the target of the King's displeasure. He often failed to act as the stabilising force in the north that Henry had intended. A feud with Christopher Moresby, an important member of the local gentry, had started in the 1470s and continued well into Henry's reign. Another time, Clifford led local resistance to a royal tax. In retaliation, Henry challenged Clifford's hereditary right to the shrievalty of Westmorland with quo warranto proceedings in 1505. Clifford's goods were sequestered until he could show by what authority he held the office, and he also had to provide a number of large obligations for his good behaviour. These included a £1,000 bond in May that year, £200 if he departed the council without permission and £2,000 on condition that he, his servants, tenants and "part-takers" kept the peace with Roger Tempest. Clifford had an on-going feud with Tempest and had attacked and pulled down Tempest's house in Broughton. Although Clifford's shrieval rights were in the event upheld, the case took over a year to be decided, during which time the profits of the office went to the King. On 14 June 1506 Edmund Dudley delivered Clifford his general pardon. By this time Clifford had paid another £100 in cash ("redie money") to the King and had been pressured for £120 more. King Henry died on 21 April 1509, and Clifford attended his funeral in Westminster. He stayed to attend the coronation of King HenryVIII on 23 June, when he was made a knight banneret. Shortly after, Dudley—by then imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of constructive treason—petitioned HenryVIII over what he believed were grave injustices carried out by the King's father against members of his nobility, including Clifford. The period Clifford spent in the south was one of the few occasions in Clifford's life where he spent a lengthy period away from his northern heartlands. According to Cokayne—possibly citing an unnamed contemporary—Clifford "seldom 'came to court, or London'", spending much of his time in Barden Tower, Bolton, from where most of his extant charters and letters are signed. War with Scotland and France War with Scotland broke out again in 1513 when the Scottish King, JamesIV, declared war on England. James intended to honour the Auld Alliance with France by diverting HenryVIII's English troops from their campaign against the French, against whom England was a member of the Catholic League in the War of the League of Cambrai, supporting the Pope. HenryVIII had also opened old wounds by claiming to be the overlord of Scotland, further angering the Scots. The first—and as it turned out, the only—engagement of the Scottish campaign was fought at Flodden on 9September. Clifford brought 207 archers and 116 billmen from Yorkshire under his banner of the Red Wyvern and commanded the vanguard. King James was killed in battle, and Clifford captured three Scottish cannons which he took to "decorate" Skipton Castle; the contemporary Ballad of Flodden Field refers to "Lord Clifford with his clapping guns". In 1521, the Emperor Charles V resumed war with FrancisI. King Henry offered to mediate, but this achieved little and by the end of the year England and the Empire were aligned together against France. Clifford provided 1,000 marks towards funding the campaign, one of the highest sums the crown received. Personal life Marriages, children and family problems Clifford is known to have married twice. Possibly at the end of 1486—and certainly by 1493—he had wed Anne St. John of Bletsoe Castle. She was the daughter of Sir John St John and Alice, daughter of Sir Thomas Bradshaigh of Haigh. Anne's grandmother was Margaret Beauchamp, the mother of Margaret Beaufort, making Anne half-cousin to King HenryVII. It is probable that the King and his mother had a hand in arranging Anne's marriage to Clifford. Their relationship does not seem to have been peaceful, and this probably exacerbated the King's disfavour of Clifford. Clifford's marriage problems were in part due to his conspicuous infidelity, which caused sufficient tension between him and Anne that their separation was suggested. Anne's chaplain began negotiating this with the King and Lady Margaret Beaufort, who went as far as to offer Anne and her daughters a position in Margaret's household expressing the wish that Anne "shall come up and attend upon my Lady". In the event, the crisis passed and Clifford and Anne stayed together until her death in 1508. She was buried in Skipton Church. By July 1511, Clifford had married Florence Pudsey, widow of Thomas Talbot. She was the daughter of Henry Pudsey of Berforth and Margaret Conyers, daughter of Christopher Conyers of Hornby. Clifford and Lady Florence were enjoined to the confraternity of Guisborough Abbey. Their marriage, too, was fraught with difficulties, and Florence sued her husband in York consistory court for the restitution of conjugal rights. In doing so, suggest the scholars Tim Thornton and Katherine Carlton, "she did not perhaps expect her own conduct to be brought into question". Clifford, though, in his turn, accused her of adultery with a member of his household, one Roger Wharton. Wharton, under examination in court, confessed that "I will never denye ffor a man may be in bedd with a woman and yett do noo hurte". Thornton and Carlton continue, "in one simple statement, Wharton shed light upon the sexual mores of the Clifford household". Wharton also accused Clifford of having an extra-marital relationship with one Jane Browne, also of his household. Clifford had several illegitimate children by a number of mistresses, including two sons, Thomas and Anthony. They both later received positions within the family, Thomas becoming deputy-governor of Carlisle Castle in 1537, and Anthony being appointed steward of Cowling, Grassington and Sutton. Both were also made master foresters of Craven. Thomas and Anthony may have been illegitimate, but Clifford considered them men of "substance, education and experience [and] gentlemen", and provided for them in his will. From his first marriage to Anne he left two sons, his heir Henry, and Thomas. With Anne, he also had four daughters, and by Florence, another daughter. A number of these married into the Bowes family of Streatlam, Co. Durham. Clifford's heir and namesake was born around 1493, and was raised at court with the King's son, the future HenryVIII. The relationship between father and son appears to have been as turbulent as that between Clifford and his wives, with a relationship "strained to breaking point", suggests Dickens. In 1511, Clifford complained that young Henry was both wild and a wastrel, who dressed flamboyantly in cloth of gold, "more lyk a duke than a pore baron's sonne as hee is". He protested about "the ungodly and ungudely disposition of my son Henrie Clifforde, in such wise as yt was abominable to heare it". Among his complaints was that Henry had threatened Clifford's servants and disobeyed his father. Clifford also alleged that his son had assaulted Clifford's old servant Henry Popely, had damaged and stolen Clifford's possessions and had sought to retain important men from Clifford's "countree" for himself. He had also harmed Clifford's close relations with local religious institutions, said Clifford, by stealing tithes and beating their tenants and servants. The King, meanwhile, had ordered Clifford to pay £40 to his son towards his upkeep at court, which Clifford had done. Clifford had urged his son "to forsake the dangerous counsels of certain evilly-disposed young gentlemen". Clifford's exhortations were not wholly successful, as on at least one occasion his son was incarcerated in the Fleet Prison. Summerson suggests that Clifford was to a degree culpable for his son's behaviour, considering that if he "had ideas above his station, the responsibility was largely his father's, who not only placed him at court but also set about marrying him into the high aristocracy". It is also probable, suggests Dickens, that Clifford's own frugality towards his son's expenses encouraged his heir's behaviour, perhaps combined with irritation at his father's longevity. Furthermore, Dickens asserts, young Henry's sojourn at court forced a great distance between him and his father, which prevented him from learning at first hand the responsibilities he would at some point be expected to take up in the north. Young Henry also appears to have fallen out with his stepmother Florence. It was intended that he marry Margaret, daughter of George, Earl of Shrewsbury, but she died before the betrothal. In 1512 young Henry married Margaret Percy, daughter of the Earl of Northumberland, which further augmented the Clifford family's wealth and influence in the north-east. Personality and interests Historians have speculated on Clifford's personality. Summerson, for example, suggests that Clifford was often an abrasive individual, particularly to his tenants and regularly caused the very kind of social disorder that he was expected to suppress. Ross has speculated that Clifford's early years, particularly "the impact of Towton... must have been profoundly shocking and traumatic", while Goodman has suggested that Clifford's solo attack on the 1487 rebels at Brougham indicates a chivalrous streak, as personal bravery was a highly prized quality. Micheal K. Jones and Malcolm G. Underwood have described Clifford as "eccentric", possibly on account of his upbringing. Clifford is known to have had an interest in astrology, astronomy and alchemy. A major eclipse crossed England in 1502, for which occasion Clifford is supposed to have built Barden Tower as an observatory. The astronomer S. J. Johnson has speculated that it was his witnessing the eclipse that sparked Clifford's interest in the subject, "in which he did greatly delight". It is likely that Clifford's obsession with the skies—which led him to spend most of his time as a recluse in Barden Tower—was the cause of his wife's consistory suit for her conjugal rights. In Barden, says Jones and Underwood, Clifford led a "strange, reclusive existence". Clifford had religious interests also and in 1515 spent a large sum on a new chapel, which was intended to be as extravagant as possible. Death By September 1522 Clifford was described as "feebled with sickness". The Scottish war was ongoing, and it had been planned that Clifford would again lead an army; in the event, he was too ill to do so, and his son took his place. Clifford died on 23 April 1523. His widow, Florence, later remarried to Richard Grey, son of Thomas Grey, Marquis of Dorset; she died in 1558. Clifford was buried in either Bolton Priory or that of Shap. Following his death, inquisition post mortems assessed his annual income at £1332 2s. 4d, and Lady Anne Clifford later reported him rich "in money, chattells, goods and great stocks of land". His son Henry—no longer a minor—gained livery of his patrimony on 18 July 1523. He was summoned two years later to parliament and created Earl of Cumberland. The elevation of the Clifford family to the upper peerage, suggests Summerson, "owed much to Henry Clifford [the elder]'s labours to revive the fortunes of his family". Spence explains Clifford's wealth as resulting from "the prudence and economy of a lifetime's residence on his estates", combined with abstinence of court and its expense, except when made unavoidable by summonses to parliament. Spence also notes, though, that the first Earl was to go on to both waste and neglect his estates in favour of extravagant court living. Cultural depictions The Romantic poet William Wordsworth wrote two pieces—Song at the Feast at Brougham Castle and White Doe of Rylstone—romanticising Clifford's career. The White Doe, written between 1806 and 1807 describes Clifford as being "most happy in the shy recess / of Barden's lowly quietness". Wordsworth depicts various aspects of Clifford's life: the loss of his estates in 1461, his rustic upbringing—and the role his father-in-law, Sir Lancelot Threlkeld played—his post-Bosworth revival and his castle building. Wordsworth also imagines the Christmas celebration at Brough Castle "and the peculiarly Wordsworthian results" of Clifford's early life. The poem, suggests the scholar Curtis Bradford, indicates that Wordsworth "was not entirely uninterested in the antiquarian romanticism so characteristic of his time". Charlotte Mary Yonge compares Clifford in his shepherd hut to the roaming of the deposed King HenryVI—now supposedly a hermit—around the north, and casts them together: "both are in hiding: each is content with his lot. The boy does not dream that the hermit is really a king. That he is a man of God is clear, and young Clifford loves him, for his goodness, and most willingly places himself under Henry's tutelage". The life and career of Henry Clifford was fictionalised by Isaac Albéniz and Francis Money-Coutts—the former writing the music, the latter the libretto—in their opera Henry Clifford'', which premiered in 1895. Notes References Bibliography 1454 births 1523 deaths 15th-century English nobility 16th-century English nobility Clifford family High Sheriffs of Westmorland People of the Wars of the Roses 16th-century English politicians 15th-century English politicians English justices of the peace Knights of the Bath de Clifford, Henry Clifford, 10th Baron

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{{Infobox film | name = The Thief and the Cobbler | image = Thiefwilliamsposter.jpg | caption = An unreleased poster made near the end of the film's production, before it was taken from Williams | director = Richard Williams | producer = Richard WilliamsImogen SuttonFred Calvert | writer = Richard WilliamsMargaret French | screenplay = | story = | based_on = | starring = Vincent PriceSteve Lively (Calvert)/Matthew Broderick (Miramax)Sara Crowe (Workprint)/Bobbi Page (Calvert)/Jennifer Beals (Miramax)Ed E. Carroll (Calvert)/Jonathan Winters (Miramax)Anthony Quayle (Workprint)/Clive Revill (Calvert and Miramax) | narrator = | music = David BurmanPeter ShadeDavid CullenRobert Folk | cinematography = John Leatherbarrow | editing = Peter Bond | studio = Richard Williams ProductionsAllied FilmmakersThe Completion Bond Company | distributor = Miramax Films (Arabian Knight)Majestic Films (The Princess and the Cobbler) | released = | runtime = 91 minutes (workprint)80 minutes (The Princess and the Cobbler)72 minutes (Arabian Knight)92 minutes (A Moment in Time) | country = United KingdomUnited StatesCanada | language = English | budget = $28 million | gross = $669,276 | image_size = 215px }}The Thief and the Cobbler is an unfinished animated fantasy film directed by Richard Williams. Originally conceived in the 1960s, the film was in and out of production for nearly three decades due to independent funding and ambitiously complex animation. It was finally placed into full production in 1989, when Warner Bros. agreed to finance and distribute the film. When production went over budget and fell behind schedule, it was heavily cut and hastily re-edited by producer Fred Calvert without Williams' involvement; it was eventually released by Allied Filmmakers in 1993 under the title The Princess and the Cobbler. Two years later, Disney's Miramax Films released another re-edit titled Arabian Knight. Both versions of the film performed poorly at the box office and received mixed reviews. Over the years, various people and companies, including Roy E. Disney, have discussed restoring the film to its original version. In 2013, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences archived Williams' own 35 mm workprint; Williams himself acknowledged the film's rehabilitated reputation, thanks to projects like The Recobbled Cut, a popular fan edit by Garrett Gilchrist, and Persistence of Vision, a 2012 documentary by Kevin Schreck detailing the film's production. With The Thief and the Cobbler being in and out of production from 1964 until 1993, a total of 29 years, it surpasses the 20-year Guinness record previously held by Tiefland (1954), although films exist with productions longer still, such as The Other Side of the Wind (2018) at 48 years. It was also the final film for several actors and artists, including animators Ken Harris (died 1982), Errol Le Cain (died January of 1989), Emery Hawkins (died June of 1989), Grim Natwick (died 1990), and Art Babbitt (died 1992), as well as actors Felix Aylmer (died 1979), Eddie Byrne (died 1981), Clinton Sundberg (died 1987), Kenneth Williams (died 1988), Sir Anthony Quayle (died 1989), and Vincent Price (died 1993, a month after the film's initial release). Plot 1992 workprint (unfinished) The prosperous Golden City is ruled by the narcoleptic King Nod and protected by three Golden Balls atop its tallest minaret. According to a prophecy, the city would fall to "destruction and death" if the Balls are removed, and could only be saved by "the simplest soul with the smallest and simplest of things". Living in the city is a cobbler, Tack, and a nameless, unsuccessful yet persistent Thief, both mute. When the Thief sneaks into Tack's house, the two get stitched together and stumble outside, causing Tack's tacks to fall onto the street. Zigzag, King Nod's Grand Vizier, who speaks in rhyme, steps on one of the tacks and orders Tack to be arrested while the Thief escapes. Tack is brought before King Nod and his daughter, Princess Yum-Yum. Before Zigzag can convince King Nod to have Tack beheaded, Yum-Yum saves Tack by ordering him to fix a shoe she intentionally breaks. During repairs, Tack and Yum-Yum become increasingly attracted to each other, much to the jealousy of Zigzag, who plots to take over the kingdom by marrying the princess. Meanwhile, the Thief, having noticed the Golden Balls atop the minaret on the courtyard, breaks into the palace through a gutter. He steals the repaired shoe from Tack, prompting the cobbler to chase him through the palace. Upon retrieving the shoe, Tack bumps into Zigzag, who notices the shoe is fixed and imprisons Tack in a cell. One-Eyes, a race of warlike, cycloptic monsters, plan to destroy the city, and have already slaughtered much of its frontier guard, all except for one mortally wounded soldier who escapes to warn the city; the next morning, King Nod has a vision of them. While Zigzag tries to convince Nod of the kingdom's security, the Thief steals the Balls after several attempts, only to lose them to Zigzag's minions. Tack escapes from his cell using his cobbling tools during the ensuing panic. King Nod notices the Balls' disappearance when the soldier warns them of the invading One-Eyes. Zigzag attempts to use the stolen Balls to negotiate Yum-Yum's hand in marriage in exchange for returning the Balls, but when King Nod dismisses him, Zigzag defects to the One-Eyes and gives them the Balls instead. King Nod sends Yum-Yum, her nurse, and Tack to ask help from a "mad and holy old Witch" in the desert. They are secretly followed by the Thief, who hears of a golden idol on the journey but fails in stealing it. In the desert, they discover a band of dimwitted brigands, led by Chief Roofless, whom Yum-Yum recruits as her bodyguards. They reach the hand-shaped tower where the witch lives, and learn that Tack is prophesied to save the Golden City. The Witch also presents a riddle—"Attack, attack, Tack! A tack, see? But it's what you do with what you've got!"—before destroying the entire tower with a storm cloud. Tack and the others return to the Golden City to find the One-Eyes' massive war machine approaching. Tack shoots a single tack into the enemy's midst, sparking a Goldberg-esque chain reaction that destroys the entire One-Eye army. Zigzag tries to escape, but falls into a pit where he is eaten alive by alligators and his vulture, Phido. The Thief, avoiding death with almost every step, steals the Golden Balls from the collapsing machine, only to run into Tack whilst escaping, and after a brief scuffle, he reluctantly gives up and leaves Tack with the Balls. With peace restored and the prophecy fulfilled, the city celebrates as Tack and Yum-Yum marry; Tack finally says "I love you" in a very deep voice. The film ends with the Thief stealing the reel of film and running away. Changes made in subsequent versions The Princess and the Cobbler (1993, Allied Filmmakers) The Allied Filmmakers cut is drastically different from the unfinished workprint. These changes include: Four musical numbers have been added ("She Is More", "Am I Feeling Love?", "Bom Bom Bom Beem Bom", and "It's So Amazing"); the film originally had none. An entirely new score composed by Robert Folk replaces the one utilized in the workprint, with the exception of the Night on Bald Mountain music when the Thief prepares to start flying. Many scenes have been cut, primarily involving the Thief, most notably his attempted theft of an emerald and his subsequent evasion of capital punishment for it (though many of these scenes appear in the credits), and the subplot wherein Zigzag tries to feed Tack to Phido. The introduction of the One-Eyes is moved to the beginning of the film, after it is stated that if the Golden Balls were removed, then the city would fall to doom and destruction. All of the mentions to the maiden from Mombasa, whom Zigzag gives to King Nod as a "plaything" in the workprint, were removed. Tack, almost mute in the workprint, speaks several times and narrates most scenes in past tense; the workprint had narration only in the beginning by a voiceover. Some subplots have been added; in one, Yum-Yum is tired of living a life of "regal splendor", and wishes to prove her worth to her father. Another subplot sees the nurse initially disliking Tack, and scolding Yum-Yum for harboring romantic feelings for him, but warming to him later on. When Zigzag tells King Nod he will give him the Balls as long as he lets him marry Princess Yum-Yum, in the workprint King Nod angrily tells him never and orders him to leave the palace, while in the Allied Filmmakers version he laughs him off and says that he'll never marry her since he's a practitioner of the black arts rather than someone pure of heart. When the Mighty One-Eye sees the destruction of the war machine, he wails in a horrified voice, "My machine!" as his slave women find him and start chanting "Throne!" at him, before picking him up and throwing him into the destruction. In the workprint, he instead goes onto all fours and they all sit on him. A scene during the climax is added where Zigzag pushes Tack out of his way and kidnaps Yum-Yum, who then throws his horse off balance. During his fight with the sorcerer, Tack then stitches Zigzag up and when the tied up Zigzag tries to escape, he steps on another tack causing him to fall into the pit with the alligators. When the Thief escapes the war machine, he runs into the King's guards, but King Nod believes that the Thief found the Balls, so the Thief reluctantly gives them to Tack and is hailed as a hero alongside him. In the workprint, he ran into Tack, and simply gave up on trying to steal the Balls before storming off back into the destruction. Arabian Knight (1995, Miramax) The Miramax cut includes all changes made in the Allied Filmmakers cut. In addition, several other changes that were requested by then-CEO Harvey Weinstein were added. Several lesser-known actors are replaced by more notable actors in this version. Matthew Broderick replaced Steve Lively as Tack, Jennifer Beals replaced Bobbi Page as Princess Yum-Yum (though their singing voices are still kept), and Toni Collette replaced Mona Marshall as the Nurse and the Witch. In addition to the recasts, many previously mute characters are given voices including Phido (now voiced by Eric Bogosian), the alligators, and most notably the Thief (now voiced by Jonathan Winters), who narrates over all of his scenes in the form of an inner monologue, with much of his lines also including anachronistic pop culture references. The Golden City is now sometimes referred to as Baghdad. Most scenes featuring the Mighty One-Eye's slave women in detail have been removed, because Miramax viewed them as sex slaves, although he can still be seen sitting on them due to it being part of an important scene. The sequence featuring the Witch has been almost entirely removed for drug references. It is stated that the Witch is the Mighty One-Eye's twin sister, explaining why she starts off as an eye when she is introduced. Most of the final battle sequence, which had already been greatly shortened in the Allied cut, is trimmed, most likely for time. Due to the removal of the slave women, One-Eye's death is cut, though he can be heard crying, "My machine!" as the war machine burns, whereupon he presumably burns with it. The ending musical number "It's So Amazing" is cut and instead moved to the end credits, while the number is replaced by a scene of the Thief trying to steal the Golden Balls, only for him to fly through the tower's window, which was included in the credits of the Calvert version. Some pieces of music are replaced, moved to different areas, or new pieces of music composed by Jack Maeby are added into some scenes. The Recobbled Cut (2006, 2007, 2013) Garrett Gilchrist's fan restorations mostly follow the workprint very closely, at least in their intent, using most of its original audio track and editing structure. In order to present a more complete film, Gilchrist added additional music (some from the released versions) and sound effects, and also included finished footage that does not appear in a finished state in the workprint, whether taken from the released versions or from other rare sources. Most of the story changes made by Fred Calvert and Miramax are not present, but it does include a few minor Calvert-only scenes or alterations, either as a side effect of using Calvert's footage as replacements for unfinished scenes in the workprint or because Gilchrist felt these scenes were useful to the plot. A minor revision is in the works with further restoration and additional animation by Dennis Van Hout. Cast Notes According to Richard Williams, Sean Connery was set to record Tack's one line, but never showed up at the studio, so the line was instead performed by a friend of his wife's. However, Connery's name remains credited in the end credits of the "Recobbled Cut" version. While Yum-Yum's dialogue was mostly re-voiced by Bobbi Page for the Allied Filmmakers version, one line of Crowe's dialogue is retained when Yum-Yum throws her pear at Zigzag in disgust during the polo game. In both of the 1992 workprints, the Thief is heard making short grunts/wheezes in a few scenes—though not as many as in the Allied Filmmakers version. It is unclear who provided these sounds, but it is known that Carroll did the additional ones for the Allied Filmmakers version. Although Quayle's voice was mostly re-dubbed by Revill in the re-edited versions of the film by Allied Filmmakers and Miramax, Quayle's uncredited voice can still be heard for an entire scene when King Nod gives a speech to his subjects. Sims' voice for the Witch was mostly re-dubbed by Marshall, but a few lines spoken by Sims were retained when she first fully materializes and when she receives her chest of money all the way up to the part when she's in a basket lighting a match to the fumes. Fred Calvert is credited on both of these versions. Hilary Pritchard was initially cast as Yum-Yum and is listed in some of the original drafts of the script and a 1989 Cannes brochure. By the time of the 1992 workprints, she had been replaced by Sara Crowe. Similarly, Miriam Margolyes was initially billed as the Maiden from Mombasa, but in the workprint, features co-writer Margaret French as the Maiden. According to animator Michael Sporn, Paul Matthews was an African-American delivery person with a deep, dark voice whom Williams met in an elevator on the way to a rehearsal space during production on Raggedy Ann and Andy: A Musical Adventure. Matthews had not done any acting before, and so Williams had promptly cast him as the Mighty One-Eye. Not long afterwards, however, Williams, wanting to go in a different direction, replaced Matthews' voice with "England's tallest man" Christopher Greener (mistakenly credited as Christopher Greenham or Chris Greenham in several pamphlets promoting the film) as the Mighty One-Eye. Catherine Schell and Thick Wilson (who was also the voice of Hook in this film) were proposed as the voices Princess Mee-Mee, the sister of Princess Yum-Yum, and the enchanted ogre Prince Bubba, respectively, in an early draft of the film. Both characters were dropped in 1989 at the request of Warner Bros. Many of the minor characters, such as Goblet, Gofer, Tickle, Slap, and the Dying Soldier all have additional dialogue provided by currently unknown voice actors in the Miramax version. Production history Development and early production as Nasrudin (1964–1972) In 1964, Richard Williams, a Canadian animator living in the United Kingdom, was running an animation studio assigned to animate commercials and special sequences for live-action films. Williams illustrated a series of books by Idries Shah, which collected the tales of Mulla Nasruddin, a philosophical yet "wise fool" of Near Eastern folklore from the 13th century. Williams began development work on a film based on the stories, with Shah and his family championing production. Shah asked for 50% of the profits from the film, and his sister, author and folklorist Amina Shah, who had done some of the translations for the Nasrudin books, stated ownership of the stories. Production took place at Richard Williams Productions in Soho Square, London. An early reference to the project came in the 1968 International Film Guide, which noted that Williams was about to begin work on "the first of several films based on the stories featuring Mulla Nasruddin". Williams took on television and feature film projects in order to fund his project, and work on his film progressed slowly. Williams hired veteran Warner Bros. animator Ken Harris as a chief animator on the project, which was then titled The Amazing Nasrudin. Roy Naisbitt was hired to design backgrounds for the film, and promotional art showed intricate Indian and Persian designs. In 1970, the project was re-titled The Majestic Fool. For the first time, a potential distributor for the independent film was mentioned–in this case, British Lion Film Corporation. The International Film Guide noted that the Williams Studio's staff had increased to forty people for production of the feature. Williams gained further attention when he and the studio produced a TV adaptation of A Christmas Carol for Chuck Jones, which won the studio an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. Dialogue tracks for the film, now being referred to as just Nasrudin, were recorded at this time. Actor Vincent Price was hired to perform the voice of the villain Anwar, later renamed "ZigZag", originally assigned to Kenneth Williams. Sir Anthony Quayle was cast as King Nod. Price was hired to make the villain more enjoyable for Williams, as he was a great fan of Price's work and ZigZag was based on two people that Williams hated. According to composer Howard Blake, Williams and the studio had animated around three hours of footage for Nasrudin by 1972. Blake insisted to Williams that while he thought the footage was excellent, he needed to structure the film and his footage into a three-act plot. The Shah family had a bookkeeper who was not keeping track of the studio's accounting, so Williams felt that producer Omar Shah had been embezzling financing from the studio for his own purposes. As a result, Williams was forced to abandon Nasrudin, as the Shah family took the rights of his illustrations, and Paramount Pictures withdrew a deal they had been negotiating. However, the Shah family allowed Williams to keep characters he designed for the books and the movie, including a thief character that was Williams' favorite. Prolonged production (1972–1978) In 1973, Williams commissioned a new script from Howard Blake, who wrote a treatment called Tin Tack that incorporated a character made by Margaret French and Dick. who is a clumsy cobbler named Tack and retained Williams' thief character from Nasrudin. The script would later be scrapped, but the character of Tack would be incorporated in another script written by French, which would use characters from Nasrudin, including a sleepy king, a thief and an evil vizier originally named Anwar. Many scenes that did not include Nasrudin himself were also retained. Throughout the 1970s, Williams would further rewrite the script with Margaret French, his wife at the time. Williams later began promising his new film as a "100-minute Panavision animated epic feature film with a hand-drawn cast of thousands." The characters were renamed at this point. Zigzag speaks mostly in rhyme throughout the entire film, while the other characters—with the exceptions of the Thief and Tack, who are mute—speak normally. Williams stated that he did not intend to follow "the Disney route" with his film, stating that it would be "the first animated film with a real plot that locks together like a detective story at the end." He also said that with its two mute main characters, it was essentially "a silent movie with a lot of sound." Silent comedies, like films from Charlie Chaplin and Harry Langdon, were already an inspiration on Nasrudin and carried over to the new film. Tack was modeled after said silent film stars. British illustrator Errol Le Cain created inspirational paintings and backgrounds, setting the style for the film. During the decades that the film was being made, the characters were redesigned several times and scenes were reanimated. Test animation of Princess Yum-Yum, as featured in the released versions, was traced from the live-action film Muqaddar Ka Sikandar, with her design slightly changed later on in production. In Williams' early drafts, the climax included a final battle with Zigzag after the collapse of the War Machine, where he conjures a larger-than-life Chinese dragon, only for Tack to reveal it to be nothing more than an inflatable balloon. Although there were some production designs of said scene, it was never made since it was found to be too difficult to animate. In 1974, a recession forced the studio to focus primarily on various TV commercial, special and feature film title assignments, leaving Williams' film to be worked on as a side project. Since Williams had no money to have a full team working on the film, which was a "giant epic", production dragged for decades. Ken Harris was still chief animator on the film, as he had been since Nasrudin, and Williams would assign him sequences while he was supervising production on commercials. To save money, scenes were kept in pencil stage without colour, as advised by Richard Purdum: "Work on paper! Don't put it in colour. Don't spend on special effects. Don't do camera-work, tracing or painting... just do the rough drawings!" Williams was planning to later finish these sequences when the financing would come in. Williams was learning the art of animation himself during the production of his film; his animation during the 1960s typically featured stylized designs in the vein of UPA animated shorts. Williams hired veteran animators from the golden age of animation, such as Art Babbitt, Emery Hawkins and Grim Natwick, to work at his studio in London and help teach him and his staff. Williams learned also from Milt Kahl, Frank Thomas, Ollie Johnston, and Ken Anderson at Disney, to whom he made yearly visits and would later pass their knowledge to the new generation of animators. Williams also allowed animators like Natwick and Babbitt to work on the studio assignments, such as the 1977 feature Raggedy Ann & Andy: A Musical Adventure. The Mad Holy Old Witch was designed as a caricature of animator Grim Natwick, by whom she was animated. After Natwick died, Williams would animate the Witch himself. As years passed, the project became more ambitious. Williams said that his idea was "to make the best animated film that has ever been made—there really is no reason why not." He also envisioned the film to feature very detailed and complex animation, the likes he thought no other studio would attempt to achieve. Additionally, much of the film's animation would be photographed "on ones", meaning that the animation would run at full 24 frames per second as opposed to the more common animation "on twos", in twelve frames per second. Gaining financial backing (1978–1988) In 1978, Saudi Arabian prince Mohammed bin Faisal Al Saud became interested in The Thief, and agreed to fund a ten-minute test sequence with a budget of $100,000. Williams chose the complex, penultimate sequence of the Thief in the War Machine for the test. The studio missed two deadlines, and the scene was completed in late 1979 for $250,000. Despite his positive impression of the finished scene, Faisal backed out of the production because of missed deadlines and budgetary overruns. In the 1980s, Williams put together a 20-minute sample reel of The Thief, which he showed to Milt Kahl, a friend and one of his animation mentors, at Skywalker Ranch in Marin County. Star Wars producer Gary Kurtz briefly worked with Williams to attempt to get financing in the mid-1980s. In 1986, Williams met producer Jake Eberts, who began funding the production through his Allied Filmmakers company and eventually provided US$10 million of the film's $28 million budget. Allied's distribution and sales partner Majestic Films began promoting the film in industry trades under the working title Once.... At this time, Eberts encouraged Williams to make changes to the script. A subplot involving the characters of Princess Mee-Mee, Yum-Yum's identical twin sister voiced by Catherine Schell, and the Prince Bubba, who had been turned into an ogre and was voiced by Thick Wilson, was deleted, and some of Grim Natwick's animation of the Witch had to be discarded. Also deleted was Ken Harris's sequence of a Brigand dreaming of a Biblical temptress. Steven Spielberg saw the footage of The Thief and was impressed enough that he and Robert Zemeckis asked Williams to direct the animation of Zemeckis' film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Williams agreed in order to get financing for The Thief and the Cobbler and get it finally finished. Roger Rabbit was released by Disney (under their Touchstone Pictures banner) in 1988, and became a blockbuster hit. Williams won two Oscars for his animation and contributions to the visual effects. Although Roger Rabbit ran over budget before animation production began, the success of the film proved that Williams could work within a studio structure and turn out high-quality animation on time and within budget. Disney and Spielberg told Williams that in return for doing Roger Rabbit, they would help distribute his film. This plan did not come to pass. Disney began to put their attention more in their own feature animation, while Spielberg instead opened a rival feature animation studio in London. Following his success, Williams and Warner Bros. negotiated a funding and a distribution deal for The Thief and the Cobbler, which included a US$25 million marketing budget. Williams' current wife Imogen Sutton suggested him to finance Thief with European backers, citing his appreciation of foreign films. Richard insisted he could produce the film with a major studio. Williams and Warner Bros. signed a negative pickup deal in late 1988, and Williams also received financial aid from Japanese investors. He later stated, "In hindsight we should have just gone to Europe, take another five years, made it on our own, and then go to a distributor and get people who find it as a novelty." Production under Warner Bros. (1989–1992) With the new funding, the film finally went into full production in 1989. Williams scoured art schools in Europe and Canada to find talented artists. At this point, with almost all of the original animators either deceased or having long since moved on to other projects, production began mostly with a new, younger team of animators, including Richard's own son Alexander Williams. In a 1988 interview with Jerry Beck, Williams stated that he had two and a half hours of pencil tests for Thief. Vincent Price had originally recorded his dialogue from 1967 to 1973. Williams recorded further dialogue with Price for the 1990 production, but Price's old age and illness meant that some lines remained unfinished. Williams had experimented with shots with characters animated by hand to move in three dimensions, including several shots in Roger Rabbit's opening sequence. With Thief, Williams began planning several sequences to feature a greater use of this technique, including Tack and the Thief's palace chase, which was achieved without computer-generated imagery. According to rumours, Williams approached The Thief with a live-action point of view, coming off of Roger Rabbit. He was creating extra footage and extending sequences to trim down later, and would have edited down the workprint he later assembled. Warner Bros. had signed a deal with the Completion Bond Company to ensure that the studio would be given a finished film, otherwise they would finish The Thief under their management. Dedicated but pressured, Williams was taking his time to ensure sequences would look perfect. Animators were working overtime, sometimes with sixty hours a week required, to get the film done. While Williams encouraged the best out of people, discipline was harsh and animators were frequently fired. Cameraman John Leatherbarrow recalled, "He fired hundreds of people. There's a list as long as your arm of people fired by Dick. It was a regular event. [...] There was one guy who got fired on the doorstep." Williams was just as hard on himself, with animator Roger Vizard stating, "He was the first person in the morning and the last one out at night." Funders pressured Williams to make finished scenes of the main characters for a marketing trailer. The final designs were made for the characters at this time. The film was not finished by a 1991 deadline that Warner Bros. originally imposed upon Williams, and had approximately 10 to 15 minutes of screen time to complete, which, at Williams' rate, was estimated to take "a tight six months" or longer. The animation department at Warner Bros. had put their enthusiasm towards high-quality television animation, but had little confidence towards backing feature animation. The studio had already released The Nutcracker Prince, a Canadian-produced animated feature, in 1990 to almost no promotion. Jean MacCurdy, Warner Bros.' then-head of animation, did not know anything about animation, as she admitted to an artist who had worked for Williams while she was seeing footage of The Thief. Another animator salvaged almost 40 minutes of 35 mm dailies footage from MacCurdy's trash. Meanwhile, Walt Disney Feature Animation had begun work on Aladdin, a film that bore striking resemblances in story, style and character to The Thief and the Cobbler; for example, the character Zigzag from Thief shares many physical characteristics with both Aladdin villain Jafar, and its Genie, as animated by Williams Studio alumnus Andreas Deja and Eric Goldberg. The Completion Bond Company asked television animation producer Fred Calvert to do a detailed analysis of the production status. Calvert traveled to Williams' London studio several times to check on progress of the film, and concluded that Williams was "woefully behind schedule and way over budget." Williams had a script, but "he wasn't following it faithfully." According to Garrett Gilchrist, however, this anecdote is false, as Calvert and people from the Completion Bond Company were visiting the studio more often towards the end of production. Williams was giving dailies of sequences that were finished or scrapped since the 1980s, hoping to give an indication of progress to Warner Bros. He was asked to show the investors a rough copy of the film with the remaining scenes filled in with storyboards in order to establish the film's narrative. Williams had avoided storyboards up to this point, but within two weeks he had done what the investors had asked. He made a workprint which combined finished footage, pencil tests, storyboards, and movements from the symphonic suite Scheherazade to cover the 10–15 minutes left to finish. Animators found out that they had completed more than enough footage for an 85-minute feature, but they had yet to finish certain vital sequences involving the central story. On 13 May 1992, this rough version of the film was shown to Warner Bros., and was not well-received. During the screening, the penultimate reel of the film was missing, which did not help matters. The studio lost confidence and backed out of production entirely, and the Completion Bond Company seized control of the film, ousting Williams from the project. Jake Eberts, then an executive producer, also abandoned the project. Additionally, Williams said that the production had lost a source of funding when Japanese investors pulled out due to the recession following the Japanese asset price bubble. Fans have cited this decision as an example of a trend of animated films being tampered with by studio executives. Production under Fred Calvert (1992–1993) Sue Shakespeare of Creative Capers Entertainment had previously offered to solve story problems with Richard Williams, suggested to bring in Terry Gilliam to consult, and proposed to allow Williams to finish the film under her supervision. Williams reportedly agreed to Shakespeare's proposal, but her bid was ultimately rejected by the Completion Bond Company in favor of a cheaper one by Fred Calvert, whom the company had assigned to finish the film as cheaply and quickly as possible. "I really didn't want to do it," Calvert said, "but if I didn't do it, it would have been given off to the lowest bidder. I took it as a way to try and preserve something and at least get the thing on the screen and let it be seen." It took Calvert 18 months to finish the film, which was turned into a Disney-type musical. The new scenes were photographed "on twos" rather than "on ones", with the animation being produced by freelance animators in Los Angeles and former Williams animators working with Neil Boyle at Premier Films in London. Sullivan Bluth Studios, the Dublin-based studio headed by former Disney animator Don Bluth, animated the first song sequence "She Is More", and Kroyer Films produced the second number "Am I Feeling Love?". The animation was subcontracted to Wang Film Productions in Taiwan and its division Thai Wang Film Productions in Thailand, as well as Pacific Rim Animation in China and Varga Studio in Hungary. Approximately 18 minutes of completed animation were cut by Calvert due to the repetitive nature of the scenes. Calvert said, "We hated to see all this beautiful animation hit the cutting room floor, but that was the only way we could make a story out of it. He [Williams] was kind of Rube Goldberg-ing his way through. I don't think he was able to step back and look at the whole thing as a story. He's an incredible animator, though. Incredible. One of the biggest problems we had was trying our desperate best, where we had brand new footage, to come up to the level of quality that he had set." Releases After the movie was completed, Allied Filmmakers, along with Majestic Films, reacquired the distribution rights from the Completion Bond Company. Calvert's version of the film was distributed in South Africa and in Australia as The Princess and the Cobbler on 23 September 1993. In December 1994, Miramax Films, then a subsidiary of Disney (which had already released Aladdin first), bought the North American rights to the film, which had already been rejected by several other American distributors. Calvert recalls, "It was a very difficult film to market, it had such a reputation, that I don't think they were looking at it objectively." Originally planning to release the Princess and the Cobbler version, then-Miramax president Harvey Weinstein decided to recut the film even further and released their version entitled Arabian Knight. This version featured newly written dialogue by Eric Gilliland, Michael Hitchcock and Gary Glasberg, with a celebrity voice cast that was added months before the film's release. Jake Eberts found that "It was significantly enhanced and changed by Miramax after they stepped in and acquired the domestic distribution rights." His comments on record, claiming that these altered versions were superior to Williams' version, indicated that Eberts had also lost confidence in Williams when the Completion Bond Company seized the film. Arabian Knight was quietly released by Miramax on 25 August 1995. It opened on 510 screens, and grossed US$319,723 (on an estimated budget of $24 million) during its theatrical run. Home media The Allied Filmmakers version of the film was released on VHS in Australia by Columbia TriStar Home Video in 1994. The Miramax version was set to be released by Miramax Home Entertainment on VHS in December 1995, five months after its theatrical release. However, it was eventually released on 18 February 1997, under its original title The Thief and the Cobbler. A widescreen LaserDisc was also released. The Miramax version of the film appeared on a DVD as a giveaway promotion in packages of Froot Loops cereal; its first DVD release. In 2001, this pan and scan DVD was released through Canadian studio Alliance Atlantis, which, at the time, distributed many of Miramax's films in Canada. It came in a paper sleeve and had no special features, other than the choice of English or French-language tracks. The Miramax version was first released on DVD in Japan by the Daiichi Kosho Company in 2002, using a widescreen copy of Miramax's Arabian Knight version with English and Japanese-language tracks. The Allied Filmmakers version was released on a pan and scan DVD in Australia in 2003 by Magna Pacific. However, it is severely cropped, and there are no additional features on the DVD. A commercially released North American DVD of the Miramax version was released by Miramax Family on 8 March 2005. This was basically the same as the Froot Loops cereal DVD, albeit with a new menu design and the addition of trailers for My Scene Goes Hollywood: The Movie and Pokémon: Destiny Deoxys. This DVD was re-released by The Weinstein Company Home Entertainment on 21 November 2006. Although the information supplied to online retailers said that it would be a new special edition, it was in fact only a reissue of Miramax's earlier DVD with revised packaging. The 2006 DVD was found by most reviewers to be unsatisfactory, with the only extra features being trailers for other Weinstein Company family films. The Digital Bits listed it as the worst standard-edition DVD of 2006. The Miramax/Weinstein DVD was re-issued again on 3 May 2011 by Echo Bridge Home Entertainment, an independent DVD distributor who made a deal to release 251 titles from the Miramax library until the deal expired in 2014. These releases are now out of print as further scheduling of the Region 1 release has yet to commence as of 2022. Lionsgate released the Miramax version on DVD in the United Kingdom on 13 February 2012. The film had previously never been released in any form there, ironically where the majority of the production took place. Music During production under Allied Filmmakers, four musical numbers were added: "It's So Amazing", "Am I Feeling Love", "She Is More", and "Bom Bom Bom Beem Bom". Note that these songs are only present in both the Princess and the Cobbler version of the film and the Arabian Knight version of the film. Reception The Miramax version of the film was a commercial failure and received mixed reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 50% based on 8 reviews. Caryn James of The New York Times criticised the songs sung by the princess, calling the lyrics "horrible" and the melodies "forgettable", although he did praise Williams' animation as "among the most glorious and lively ever created". Animation historian Jerry Beck felt that the added voiceovers of Jonathan Winters and Matthew Broderick were unnecessary and unfunny, and that Fred Calvert's new footage didn't meet the standards of Williams' original scenes. The Miramax version has been said to resemble a rip-off of Aladdin. However, in 2003, the Online Film Critics Society named the film the 81st greatest animated film of all time. In addition, the film won the 1995 Academy of Family Films Award. Alex Williams, the son of the original director who also worked on the film before it was re-edited, criticised changes made by Calvert and Miramax, called the finished film "more or less unwatchable" and found it "hard to find the spirit of the film as it was originally conceived". For years, Richard Williams was devastated by the film's production and had never publicly discussed it since then. In 2010, however, he discussed the film during an interview about his silent animated short Circus Drawings, a project he shelved in the 1960s before he started work on The Thief. He later participated in Q&As for screenings of his 1992 workprint at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater on 10 December 2013 and at the BFI Southbank in London on 1 June 2014. Williams also said he has never seen the Calvert and Miramax versions of the film, saying, "I'm not interested, but my son, who is also an animator, did tell me that if I ever want to jump off a bridge then I should take a look." Influence The Secret of Kells, Song of the Sea and Wolfwalkers, three Irish animated films that based their style on traditional native art, had The Thief and the Cobbler cited as one of their main inspirations. Tomm Moore, the director of all three films, said, "Some friends in college and I were inspired by Richard Williams's unfinished masterpiece The Thief and the Cobbler and the Disney movie Mulan, which took indigenous traditional art as the starting point for a beautiful style of 2D animation. I felt that something similar could be done with Irish art." Restoration attempts Richard Williams' workprint was bootlegged after Calvert's versions were released, and copies have been shared among animation fans and professionals for years. The problem in creating a high-quality restoration is that after the Completion Bond Company had finished the film, many scenes by Williams that were removed disappeared—many of these had fallen into the hands of private parties. Before losing control of the film, Williams had originally kept all artwork safe in a fireproof basement. Additionally, there are legal problems with Miramax. At the 2000 Annecy Festival, Williams showed Walt Disney Feature Animation head Roy E. Disney his workprint of The Thief, which Roy liked. With Williams' support, Roy Disney began a project to restore The Thief and the Cobbler, seeking original pencil tests and completed footage. However, due to the lackluster reception of most hand-drawn animated films released during the early 2000s, as well as his tough relationship with then-Disney CEO Michael Eisner, Roy left the Walt Disney Company in November 2003, and the project was put on hold. Disney film producer Don Hahn was later made the project supervisor of the restoration. However, after Roy's death in 2009, the project was once again put on hold. In 2006, Garrett Gilchrist, a filmmaker, artist and fan of Williams' work, created a non-profit fan restoration of Williams' workprint, titled The Thief and the Cobbler: The Recobbled Cut. It was done in as high quality as possible by combining available sources at the time, including a heavily compressed file of Williams' workprint and the American DVD release of Arabian Knight, which would later be replaced with higher quality footage from the Japanese DVD release. This edit was much supported by numerous people who had worked on the film (with the exception of Richard Williams himself), including Roy Naisbitt, Alex Williams, Andreas Wessel-Therhorn, Tony White, Holger Leihe, Simon Maddocks, Neil Boyle, and Steve Evangelatos, many of whom lent rare material for the project. Some minor changes were made to "make it feel more like a finished film", like adding more music and replacing some bits of audio and storyboards with those from the Princess and the Cobbler version of the film. Certain scenes, like the wedding ending, had to be redrawn frame by frame by Gilchrist due to flaws in the footage. Gilchrist described this as the most complex independent restoration of a film ever undertaken. This edit gained positive reviews on the Internet. Twitch Film called it "the best and most important 'fan edit' ever made".The Recobbled Cut has been revised three times in 2006, 2008, and 2013. Each version incorporated further higher-quality materials donated by animators from the film, including two rare workprints from the Fred Calvert production that contained footage not available in the released versions. The "Mark 3" version released in 2008 incorporated 21 minutes from a 49-minute reel of rare 35 mm film. Gilchrist's latest version, "Mark 4", was released in September 2013 and edited in HD. "Mark 4" features about 30 minutes of the film in full HD quality, restored from raw 35 mm footage which Gilchrist edited frame by frame. Artists were also commissioned to contribute new artwork and material. Gilchrist's YouTube account, "TheThiefArchive", now serves as an unofficial video archive of Richard Williams' films, titles, commercials, and interviews, including footage from the Nasrudin production. Williams said that while he never saw Gilchrist's Recobbled Cut, he acknowledged the role that the fan edits had played in rehabilitating the film's reputation. Academy preservation Williams stated that his unfinished version, from 13 May 1992, is now archived and digitally duplicated by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. "The Academy has it, it's in a 'golden box' now and it's safe," Williams said. The unfinished version, along with a selection of Art Babbitt's animation from the film, has been placed in an archive collection named "The Art Babbitt Collection". A collection of artwork from The Thief is also stored in Disney's "Animation Research Library" in the Feature Animation building. The unfinished version was screened at the Academy's Samuel Goldwyn Theater under the title The Thief and the Cobbler: A Moment in Time, on 10 December 2013, with Williams in attendance. Also attending the screening were other notable filmmakers, animators, composers, critics, actors, and directors like Eric Goldberg, Chris Wedge, June Foray, Alan Menken, David Silverman, Phil Roman, Art Leonardi, Tom Sito, Mark Kausler, John Musker, Ron Clements, Theodore Thomas, Charles Solomon, Bob Kurtz, Martha Sigall, Kevin Kurytnik, Carol Beecher, Jerry Beck, Yvette Kaplan, Carl Bell, Andreas Wessel-Therhorn, Kevin Schreck, and Garrett Gilchrist. After the screening Williams discussed the origins of the film and its production history. On 1 June 2014, "A Moment in Time" was screened in London under the British Film Institute, with many of the original crew present. On 25 November 2018, during another screening in London, Williams suggested the possibility of a Blu-ray release with the BFI. Williams said the European rights to The Thief were still available in order to release it, but the North American rights he felt were currently too complicated to also release the Blu-ray there. Williams died shortly after on 17 August 2019 at the age of 86, without ever seeing a finished version of The Thief and the Cobbler as he had originally envisioned. Documentary Persistence of Vision is a documentary by Kevin Schreck, about Richard Williams and the production of The Thief and the Cobbler, which the film calls "the greatest animated film never made". Because Williams did not participate in the documentary, it is instead a documentary from the perspective of animators and artists who had worked with Richard Williams and his studio during the film's lengthy production. Williams is featured in the documentary, through archival interviews. Garrett Gilchrist and Helge Bernhardt of the Recobbled Cut and Richard Williams Archive provided rare materials to Schreck for his production, which was funded via Kickstarter. First premiered in 2012 at the Vancouver International Film Festival, it has received many awards at festivals and received very positive critical reception. Williams was given a copy of the film before he passed away, but said he "doesn't plan on watching it". See also Lists of animated feature films History of British animation Re-edited film List of films with longest production time Other animated films with long production histories The Overcoat, an unfinished Russian animated film, in production since 1981 The King and the Mockingbird, a French animated film, produced in two parts (1948–52, 1967–80), initially released in recut form, eventually finished as per director's wishes The Tragedy of Man, a Hungarian animated film, produced in 1988 and premiered in 2011 References External links Eddie Bowers' The Thief and the Cobbler page – a website about Richard Williams' The Thief and the Cobbler'' with articles, clips from the workprint, pictures, and the history of the film The Thief Blog – a blog where people who worked on the film recount their memories of the film's production 1992 films 1993 films 1995 films 1992 animated films 1993 animated films 1995 animated films 1990s American animated films 1990s children's fantasy films British animated fantasy films British fantasy adventure films British films British children's films American animated fantasy films American films American fantasy adventure films American children's films Canadian animated fantasy films Canadian children's films 1990s English-language films Films directed by Richard Williams Films produced by Gary Kurtz Films set in Baghdad Unfinished animated films Miramax films Miramax animated films 1960s unfinished films 1970s unfinished films 1980s unfinished films 1990s unfinished films 1990s children's animated films Films scored by Robert Folk Alternative versions of films Canadian films Lost animated films 1990s rediscovered films Films with screenplays by Richard Williams (animator) Films produced by Richard Williams (animator) Films produced by Imogen Sutton Films set in Asia Films based on One Thousand and One Nights

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This is a list of episodes from the MTV show Bully Beatdown. Season 1 Ryan: The Family Favorite First aired: 22 March 2009 The victim for the series premier is named Alan, a man who gets bullied by his bigger younger brother. In his tape, Alan explains that Ryan gets away with bullying him because he is the family favorite. He also states that in the past Ryan pushed him down a flight of stairs and put his head through a wall. Another victim named Nick appears in the tape and accuses Ryan of humiliating him and giving him a scar on the forehead by pushing him down some bleachers. Ryan accepts Mayhem's challenge to fight an MMA fighter. Mayhem brings Ryan to his gym and decides to let Ryan punch him in the head (which he describes as annoying but not painful). After watching Ryan in the gym he decides to put Ryan up against Tony 'The Gun' Bonello. Ryan was tapped out three times in the first round; first for a rear naked choke, and then twice more for two consecutive guillotine chokes. In the second round, he was KO'd after a kick in the gut. After the fight Alan and Ryan hug and Ryan apologizes which Alan seems to accept. Bully: Ryan Height: 6' (note: see weight below) Weight: 200 lbs. (height and weight not officially given. listed height and weight are claimed by brother in his video, but are likely estimations.) Fighter: Tony 'The Gun' Bonello Height: 6'2" Weight: 200 lbs. Victim(s): Alan (bully's older brother). Another victim named Nick appeared in a testimonial in Alan's video, but doesn't actually take part in the episode. Money earned by Bully: $2,000 Money earned by victim(s): $8,000 Original airing: Sunday, 22 March 2009 Vince: The Roommate from Hell First aired: 29 March 2009 Mayhem shows a tape of Josh and Adam, who are bullied by Josh's current and Adam's former roommate Vince, a basketball player. According to Adam, Vince doesn't pay rent, once threw him out of his own house, and broke his door. Vince accepts the challenge to fight, after initially hesitating. In addition to the money, Mayhem adds the additional stipulation that if Vince loses, he has to move out. He shows up to train at Mayhem's gym, during which he falls down after kicking Mayhem's bag, which causes Mayhem to laugh. He shows up to the fight and learns that his opponent will be former NFL wide receiver Michael Westbrook. During the first round, Vince tapped out four times in the first round, and was KO'd in the second round. He apologizes to Adam and Josh after the fight, but says in an interview afterwards that he will not be paying them the back rent, as the $9,000 they have just won will cover it. Adam notes that he will need a new roommate since Vince will be moving out, and asks Josh if he would like to move in with him, which Josh accepts. Bully: Vince Carosso Height: 6'7" Weight: 236 lbs. Fighter: Michael Westbrook Height: 6'3" Weight: 223 lbs. Victim(s): Josh and Adam (bully's current and former roommate respectively) Money earned by Bully: $1,000 Money earned by victim(s): $9,000 Original airing: Sunday, 29 March 2010 Christian: The Angry Couch Potato First aired 5 April 2009 Mayhem helps out Cameron and Brian, by dropping Conor "Hurricane" Heun in the cage with Christian, a lazy, couch potato with a thirst for the pain of others. Bully: Christian Height: Weight: Fighter: Conor "Hurricane" Heun Height: 5'10 Weight: 155 lbs Victim(s): Brian and Cameron Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000($5,000 each.) Original airing: Jonathan: The Rollerblade Bully First aired 12 April 2009 Mayhem Miller helps Sergio and Thomas with Jonathan, a self-proclaimed "aggressive in-line skater," who thinks he has the right to pick on weaker people in the neighborhood, by putting him in the ring with MMA champion Jake Shields to teach him a lesson he won't soon forget. Bully: Jonathan Height: Weight: 175 lbs Fighter: Jake Shields Height: 5'11 Weight: 170 lbs Victim(s): Sergio and Thomas Money earned by Bully: $2000 Money earned by victim(s): $8000 Original airing: 12 April 2009 Eriq: The Bum Rapper First aired 19 April 2009 Mayhem Miller helps Eriq's ex-girlfriend Linda, by putting him in the ring with MMA champion Jon "Man of Faith" Murphy. She is the first female victim to appear on Bully Beatdown. Eriq taps out five times in the first round and quits very shortly into the second round, claiming his shoulder popped out. The on-site doctor found no such injury, and Linda states that Eriq frequently uses a shoulder injury claim when he fears losing a fight. The information Mayhem provided from the doctor and the statement from Linda leave the audience knowing the high likelihood that Eriq 'punked out' with a fake injury. She won $10,000. Bully: Eriq Height: Weight: Fighter: Jon Murphy Height: 6'3" Weight: 248 lb Victim(s): Linda (bully's ex-girlfriend) Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Dennis: The Neighborhood Menace First aired 26 April 2009 Mayhem finds Stan and Andrey and puts local bully, Dennis, an Uzbek, in the ring with Thomas "Wildman" Denny to teach him a lesson. In the first round, Dennis survived by holding onto Thomas to prevent a submission. In the second round, Thomas laid out a barrage of punches to the midsection, but Dennis was not knocked out. Final results? All $10,000 going to the bully. Despite winning all the money, Dennis decided to stop bullying his victims Stan and Andrey. This is the first and only bully to win all of the money. Bully: Dennis Height: Weight: Fighter: Thomas Denny Height: 5'10 Weight: 170 lbs Victim(s): Stan and Andrey Money earned by Bully: $10,000 Money earned by victim(s): $0 Original airing: Garret: The King of Tustin First aired: Online Robert and Kyle have one major problem: Garrett. This self-proclaimed King of Tustin makes their lives miserable. The Queen of Tustin is crowned, courtesy of MMA Middleweight Jake Shields. Bully: Garrett Height: Weight: Fighter: Jake Shields Height: 5'10 Weight: 170 lbs Victim(s): Kyle & Robert Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: This episode was an online exclusive and was not aired on MTV in regular chronology with other episodes. It first aired on MTV2. James: The Boss's Son First aired: Online James bullies fellow co-worker Sean. The only problem is that James is the boss's son. Ben Lagman submits James three times in the first round, but James survives the second round, despite taking quite a beating. This was Ben Lagman's first and, so far, only appearance in the series. The episode did not air in regular chronology and is not available on the Bully Beatdown website like most other episodes. It has been leaked on to the internet and it is unknown why the episode was not aired in the regular time slot. This episode has aired, late nights on MTV2. Bully: James Height: Weight: 200 lbs. Fighter: "Bad News" Ben Lagman Height: 6'2 Weight: 193 lbs. Victim(s): Sean (bully's co-worker) Money earned by Bully: $7,000 Money earned by victim(s): $3,000 Original airing: This episode was not aired on MTV in regular chronology with other episodes; it first aired on MTV2. Season 2 Brandon: The Line First aired 27 August 2009 Former high school bully, Brandon, thinks he defines the line between the weak and the strong. He thought it would be funny to pick Alex up by the ankles, and "throw him like 15 feet across the gym." Brandon broke Sean's arm, and Sean must deal with it every day. That is, until Mayhem Miller brings in MMA champion Eddie Alvarez to teach him a lesson... Bully Beatdown-style. Brandon, the tool, ends up apologizing to them both straight up in the end. Alex and Sean won $10,000. Brandon later did porn under the name Robby Vega. Bully: Brandon Victim(s): Sean & Alex. Fighter: Eddie Alvarez Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: 27 August 2009 Jason: The Pretty-Boy Bully First aired 3 September 2009 Jason gets in the ring with MMA fighter Jon Murphy. Out of the $5,000 Dollars he could have won in the first round, Jason walked away with $2,000 dollars, and in the kick boxing round lost and the Victims got the $5,000 Dollars. After giving Jason a wedgie, Mayhem refers to the bully beatdown as 'God's Work'. Victims- Step Brother, and friend from High school Bully: Jason Victim(s): Josh & Brett Fighter: Jon Murphy Money earned by Bully: $2,000 Money earned by victim(s): $8,000($4,000 each) Original airing: Randall: The Lyrical MC Bully First aired: 10 September 2009 Bully Randall thinks he's a rapper, likes to call himself Bac-Dizzle and makes life a living hell for Jefferson. Until Mayhem Miller unleashes MMA super-star Jake Shields on him, to show Randall what it's really like to get picked on. Randall stands as one of just three bullies to last the 2nd round, and has won the 3rd highest amount with $5,000 dollars. Bully: Randall Victim(s): Jefferson Fighter: Jake Shields Money earned by Bully: $5,000 Money earned by victim(s): $5,000 Original airing: Nathan: The Big Nasty Bully First aired: 17 September 2009 Victims Martin and Adesh have a big problem with big bully Nathan. He's made their lives miserable and have the physical and emotional scars to prove it. Mayhem calls upon legendary MMA fighter, Andrei Arlovski to clean this bully's clock. He was knocked out and submitted five times. Nathan's taunting of Arlovski only makes his beating worse. Martin and Adesh won $10,000 Bully: Nathan(Big Nasty) Height: 6'4 Weight 285 lbs. Victim(s): Martin and Adesh Fighter: Andrei Arlovski Height: 6'4 Weight 242 lbs. Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Wes: The Meat-Stick Bully First aired: 24 September 2009 Victim Chris has a problem with a tobacco spittin', hockey playing Texan and self-proclaimed "meat-stick", Wes. Mayhem enlists Tony Bonello to put this bully in his place. He was submitted 4 times and knocked out, but with an illegal head kick. Wes actually managed to knock down Tony Bonello which, apparently, upset the MMA fighter enough for him to break the rules. The kick to the head was hard enough that Wes could not remember where he was, or any of the fight. Because of the illegal kick, the bully received the $5,000 for that round. However, Wes refused it, stating "A knockout's a knockout," and then apologized to Chris by giving the money to him. Mayhem refers to Chris as his favorite victim because he is cute and adorable. Bully: Wes Victim(s): Chris Fighter: Tony Bonello Money earned by Bully: $6,000 (but turned down $5,000 from the 2nd round; left with $1,000). Money earned by victim(s): $4,000 (but the Bully let him keep the $5,000 from Round 2, left with $9,000). Original airing: Colt: The Nebraska Bad Ass First aired: 1 October 2009 DJ Timmy recruits Mayhem Miller to solve his bully problem... Colt, a tough-talking redneck from Nebraska. Mayhem gives Colt the heavyweight and light heavyweight champion of the King of the Cage, Tony Lopez. Colt tapped out four times in the first round, and got knocked out in the second, so Timmy received $9,000. Bully: Colt Nelms Height: 6'0 Weight: 212 lb Victim(s): Timmy(DJ) Fighter: Tony Lopez Height: 6'4 Weight: 205 lb Money earned by Bully: $1,000 Money earned by victim(s): $9,000 Original airing: Garrett: The Psycho Nut-job First aired: 8 October 2009 Mayhem Miller brings in NFL-player turned Pro MMA fighter Michael Westbrook to help victims Nicholas and Eric. How will Westbrook handle Garrett, the craziest bully ever? Garrett tapped out twice in the first round and was knocked out in the second round, so Nicholas and Eric won $7,000. Bully: Garrett Height: 6'0 Weight: 199 lb Victim(s): Nicholas and Eric Fighter: Michael Westbrook Height: 6'3 Weight: 212 lb Money earned by Bully: $3,000 Money earned by victim(s): $7,000 Original airing: Emil: The Beefy Barbarian Bully First aired: 15 October 2009 Emil is a self-proclaimed Assyrian bully who was brought to the show by his victims, Anthony and Mo. Mo's girlfriend is friends with the bully and she feels bad because he has made their lives miserable with his bullying. Emil was pitted against emerging MMA fighter Nick Gaston, who forced him to tap out five times in one minute, thirty six seconds. He withdrew from the second round, the only contestant having done so to this point. Anthony and Mo won $10,000 and an apology from Emil. Bully: Emil Mansoor Height: 5'9 Weight: 245 lb Victim(s): Anthony and Mo Fighter: Nick Gaston Height: 6'4 Weight: 265 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 ($5,000 each) Original airing: Unaired episodes Marquez: The Wannabe B-Boy Meet Marquez, a street fighter who makes life miserable for twins Richard and Edward. Mayhem brings in Brazilian jiu-jitsu specialist, Quinn Mulhern standing at 6'3 and weighing in at 177 lbs, with a record of 14 wins and 1 loss to put him in his place. This episode has never aired on American TV and is not available on the Bully Beatdown website like most other episodes. The episode has been aired in the Netherlands, the Fox8 channel of Foxtel and Austar in Australia, and MTV Latin America. Many have speculated that the bully winning more money is the reason why it was never broadcast in America. Bully: Marquez Height: 5'9 Weight: 167 lb Victim(s): Richard and Edward Fighter: Quinn Mulhern Height: 6'3 Weight: 177 lb Money earned by Bully: $6,000 Money earned by victim(s): $4,000 Original airing: This episode has never aired in the United States. Harley Ricky Legere fights a bully named Harley, to defend a French kid. The bully only taps out one time in the first round, and stands through the second one, leaving the bully with $9000. Bully: Harley Height: 5'8" Weight: 80kg Victim(s): Lewis Fighter: Rick Legere Height: 5'8 Weight: 85 kg Money earned by Bully: $9,000 Money earned by victim(s): $1,000 Season 3 Andy: Get The Poison Out First aired: 4 November 2010 Meet Andy, the self-appointed king of Fresno. He is an obnoxious bully who makes life miserable for his victims, Steven and Taylor. He also makes the biggest mistake of calling out Mayhem, so Mayhem brings out "the greatest fighter he has ever known" to take care of Andy. That fighter turns out to be Mayhem himself. After easily being tapped out 5 times in the first round and knocked out in the second round, Steven and Taylor won $10,000. After the fight, Mayhem tells a humbled Andy that he had to deal with bullies most of his life and implores him to change his ways because he eventually will come across someone that is bigger, badder and meaner than Andy himself. Bully: Andy Height: 6'2 Weight: 199 lbs Victim(s): Steven and Taylor Fighter: Jason "Mayhem" Miller Height: 6'1 Weight: 198 lbs Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Michael: All American D-Bag Michael, who calls himself an all-American badass, picked on William because of his culture and hobbies. It is unknown why this episode has never aired in America. However, it has aired on the Fox8 channel of Foxtel and Austar in Australia. It has never been leaked on the internet, and is not available on the Bully Beatdown website. A preview can be seen at the end of Andy's episode. Michael tapped out five times in the first round and was knocked out with a stomach blow in the second. William won $10,000 and an apology from his bully. Bully: Michael Victim: William Fighter: Daron Cruickshank Height: 5'8" Weight: 170 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim: $10,000 Original airing: This aired on 9/28/12. Nick: The Truck Stops Here First aired: 11 November 2010 Meet Nick, he is a bully who calls himself "The Truck". He's both a singer in a Death Metal band and an in-line skater who makes life miserable for his victims, Chris and Blair. Mayhem Miller brings in legendary MMA fighter, Jeremy Horn to stop the truck once and for all. Nick tapped out five times in the first round, and got knocked out in the second round with a kick to the body. Chris and Blair won $10,000 and an apology from Nick. Bully: Nick Height: 6'4 Weight: 197 lb Victim(s): Chris & Blair Fighter: Jeremy Horn Height: 6'1 Weight: 205 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Amanda: Two Girls, One Cage First aired: 18 November 2010 Meet Amanda, Bully Beatdown's first female bully with a bad attitude. She stands at 5'7 and makes life miserable for her victim, Keiko. Keiko is the second female victim to appear on the show, the first being Linda. Amanda calls herself "the queen" so Mayhem Miller brings in female MMA fighter Michelle Waterson who's done kickboxing since she was 10 years old to teach her a lesson. In the first round, she tapped out five times. In the second round, Amanda got KO'd with a brutal punch to her stomach. Keiko won $10,000 and an apology from Amanda. Bully: Amanda Height: 5'7 Victim(s): Keiko Fighter: Michelle Waterson Height: 5'3 Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Evermont: The Royal Rumble First aired: 2 December 2010 Meet Evermont, a wannabe rapper who says he can "smell the bitch" in his victims. He calls himself "the king" and makes life miserable for Jesse and Colton. Mayhem Miller brings in professional MMA Brazilian jiu-jitsu fighter Bobby "King" Green who has a record of 14 wins and 3 losses to put Evermont in his place. In the first round, Bobby Green made him tap out five times. In the second round, Evermont got scared and didn't continue into the second round. He was the second bully to withdraw from the second round, the first being Emil. Jesse and Colton won $10,000. Bully: Evermont King Height: 5'6 Weight: 181 lb Victim(s): Jesse and Colton Fighter: Bobby "King" Green Height: 5'10 Weight: 174 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Kevin: Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow First aired: 9 December 2010 Meet Kevin, a bully who calls himself a natural. He is a hair-obsessed greaser that makes life miserable for his victims, Anthony and Sam. Mayhem Miller recruits Amateur Wrestler and MMA fighter Tyron Woodley to beat him down. Kevin makes a bet with Mayhem that if he loses all $10,000, he has to cut his hair. In the first round, he tapped out four times and barely escapes with $1,000 with a bruised ego. In the second round, he got TKO'd. Despite technically being allowed to keep his hair, as part of Kevin's apology, he allows Mayhem to cut his hair. Anthony and Sam won $9,000. Bully: Kevin Garcia Height: 5'11 Weight: 175 lbs. Victim(s): Anthony (co-worker) and Sam Fighter: Tyron Woodley Height: 5'9 Weight: 182 lbs. Money earned by Bully: $1,000 Money earned by victim(s): $9,000 Original airing: Mike: Creatine Rage First Aired: 16 December 2010 Meet Mike, the shortest bully to appear on the show. He stands at 5'4 and is a Bronx gym rat who makes life miserable for his victims, Lorenzo and Joey. Mayhem Miller brings in MMA fighter Eddie Alvarez with a record of 22 wins and 2 losses to teach him a lesson. In the first round, Mike tapped out five times. In the second round, he got K.O'd. Mike is the first bully to get K.O.'d without getting 1 punch thrown at him. Lorenzo and Joey won $10,000. Bully: Mike Height: 5'4 Weight: 160 lbs Victim(s): Lorenzo and Joey Fighter: Eddie Alvarez Height: 5'9 Weight: 169 lbs Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Jordan: Bring Out The Boar First Aired: 23 December 2010 Meet Jordan, a loud mouthed bully who calls himself the boar. He makes life miserable for twins, Austin & Micah, since one of them is going to nursing school. His real name is Jordan Rush. The bad part of it is that he's a cop's son, so he says he's "At the Top of the Food Chain". So Mayhem brings in MMA Fighter Joe Riggs with a record of 34 wins and 12 losses, to teach Jordan a lesson. In the first round, he tapped out five times. During the second round, Joe finished Jordan off via TKO. Austin and Micah won $10,000. After the fight, a humbled Jordan apologized for his behavior. Bully: Jordan Height: 5'9 Weight: 195 lb Victim(s): Austin and Micah Fighter: Joe Riggs Height: 5'11 Weight: 202 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: Brett Hazard: A Bully finds Religion Meet Brett Hazard, a loud mouthed bully who picks on Zack because of his religion and even nominated him for Prom Queen. This episode did not air on American TV during the season's initial run on MTV but eventually aired on MTV2 on October 4, 2012. However, it has aired on the Fox8 channel of Foxtel and Austar in Australia. This episode is not available on the Bully Beatdown website or iTunes, and has not been leaked to the internet. A few clips of it can be seen at the end of the previous episode (Jordan: Bring Out The Boar). At the end of that episode, a preview for this episode was shown. Bully: Brett Height: 5'8 Weight: 164 lb Victim(s): Zack Fighter: Abel Cullum Height: 5'7 Weight: 158 lb Money earned by Bully: $1000 Money earned by victim(s): $9000 Original airing: Friday October 4, 2012. Brooklyn Bully The Supertrailer for Season 3 showed an episode with a Bully proclaiming that there was "nothing tougher than a Brooklyn Bully" fighting Nick Gaston. The Bully tapped out twice due to "nothing" among his 5 taps and was TKOed 1:04 into the kickboxing round. Bully: Tayfun Dasdemir Height: 5'11 Weight: 341 lb Victim(s): Chuckie, Yunas Fighter: Nick Gaston Height: 6'5 Weight: 266 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: This episode was aired on MTV Canada on March 7, 2011. This episode aired on September 28, 2012 on MTV 2. David: Tears Of A Clown David (self-nicknamed 'The Beast') is an angry, bartending bully that spends his time picking on performance artists Keith and Alex. To help them with their bully, Mayhem Miller brings in an undefeated MMA fighter. This episode has aired on Fox8 on Foxtel in Australia. Bully: David Height: 5'11 Weight: 184 lb Victim(s): Keith and Alex Fighter: Sam Oropeza Height: 6'2 Weight: 183 lb Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: This episode aired on September 28, 2012 on MTV 2. Tyler Tyler considers himself "an ambassador of awesomeness", and is really proud of his beer belly and high school wrestling experience. He bullies Joe and Dylan, with whom he shares his high school dorm, and seems to relish on peeing on things such as his dormmates' door and bed. Miller then decides to match him up with two-times olympic wrestler Daniel Cormier, who held a perfect MMA record. Bully: Tyler Height: 6'1" Weight: 250 lbs Victim(s): Joe and Dylan Fighter: Daniel Cormier Height: 5'11" Weight: 247 lbs Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim(s): $10,000 Original airing: This episode aired on MTV2 on September 29, 2012. In MTV Latin America, this is run as the first episode of season 3, followed by the "Michael" episode, thus omitting the episode where Mayhem fights Andy. Michael Michal considers himself an "all-American badass", and constantly disrespects the culture of his victim, William, a guy of Chinese descent. The bully got no money from the fight, getting knocked out 36 seconds into the kickboxing round. Bully: Michael Height: 6' Weight: 174 lbs Victim: William Fighter: Daron Cruickshank Height: 5'10" Weight: 176 lbs Money earned by Bully: $0 Money earned by victim: $10,000 References Bully Beatdown

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This is a list of people who died as a result of hanging, including suicides and judicial, extrajudicial, or summary executions. These deaths are notable due to history or due to media exposure. Suicide by hanging Ahitophel, counselor of David (c. 1000 BC) Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, who betrayed him for 30 pieces of silver according to the New Testament (c. 30-33 AD) Emperor Aizong of Jin, emperor of China's Jin Dynasty (February 14, 1234) Chongzhen Emperor, emperor of China's Ming dynasty (April 25, 1644) Gérard de Nerval, French poet and essayist (January 26, 1855) Philipp Mainländer, German philosopher (April 1, 1876) Ludwig Boltzmann, Austrian physicist, pioneer of statistical mechanics (September 5, 1906) Sergei Yesenin, Russian poet, ex-husband of Isadora Duncan (December 27, 1925) Nishinoumi Kajirō II, Japanese 25th yokozuna (January 27, 1931) Alberto Santos-Dumont, Brazilian aviation pioneer (July 23, 1932) Hans Berger, German inventor of electroencephalography (June 1, 1941) Marina Tsvetayeva, Russian poet (August 31, 1942) Eduard Wirths, German Nazi Chief SS Auschwitz concentration camp doctor (September 21, 1945) Leonardo Conti, Nazi Reich Health Leader; in prison cell (6 October 1945) Robert Ley, German Nazi Reichsorganisationsleiter; in prison cell (25 October 1945) Charles Armijo Woodruff, 11th Governor of American Samoa (November 23, 1945) Rudolf Jung, Nazi Director of Reich Inspection of Labour Administration; in prison cell (11 December 1945) Robert van Genechten, Dutch collaborator during German Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, in jail cell (13 December 1945) Gustav Simon, German Nazi NSKK-Obergruppenführer; in prison cell (18 December 1945) Hans Bothmann, German Nazi SS commandant of Chełmno extermination camp; while in custody (4 April 1946) Max Koegel, German Nazi SS commander of Lichtenburg concentration camp, Ravensbrück concentration camp, Majdanek concentration camp, and Flossenbürg concentration camp; in prison cell (27 June 1946) Carl Schneider, German Nazi Heidelberg University professor, researcher for Nazi euthanasia program; in prison cell (11 December 1946) Herbert Backe, German Nazi SS Obergruppenführer; in prison cell (6 April 1947) Irmfried Eberl, Austrian Nazi SS-Obersturmführer psychiatrist, commandant of Treblinka extermination camp (16 February 1948) Karl Jäger, Swiss-born German Nazi SS Einsatzkommando leader; in prison cell (22 June 1959) Wilfrid Garfield Case, Canadian Member of Parliament (22 September 1959) Hermann Höfle, Austrian-born Nazi SS commander and Holocaust perpetrator; in prison cell (21 August 1962) Werner Heyde, German Nazi SS psychiatrist, a main organizer of Nazi Germany's Euthanasia Program; in prison cell (13 February 1964) Frederick Fleet, British lookout on the Titanic who first spotted the iceberg (10 January 1965) Kurt Bolender, German Nazi SS sergeant who operated Sobibór extermination camp gas chambers; in prison cell (10 October 1966) Ilse Koch, German Nazi overseer at Buchenwald concentration camp and Majdanek concentration camp; in prison cell (1 September 1967) Mack Ray Edwards, American child sex abuser and serial killer; in prison cell (30 October 1971) Pete Ham, Welsh guitarist and singer of rock band Badfinger (23 April 1975) Phil Ochs, American political folksinger (9 April 1976) Ulrike Meinhof, imprisoned member of the German Red Army Faction, (9 May 1976) David Munrow, British musician and early music historian (15 May 1976) Gudrun Ensslin, imprisoned member of the German Red Army Faction, circumstances questionable (18 October 1977) Ian Curtis, English lead singer of Joy Division (18 May 1980) Trent Lehman, American former child actor of Nanny and the Professor (18 January 1982) Tom Evans, British member of the rock band Badfinger (19 November 1983) Richard Manuel, Canadian musician best known for his membership in The Band (4 March 1986) Rudolf Hess, German Nazi Deputy Führer to Hitler and convicted criminal; in prison (17 August 1987) Valery Legasov, Soviet chemist and lead investigator of the Chernobyl Disaster (27 April 1988) Michael Gothard, British actor (2 December 1992) Buster Edwards, British Great Train Robber (28 November 1994) Fred West, British serial killer (1 January 1995) Cheyenne Brando, Tahitian daughter of Marlon Brando (16 April 1995) Kim Kwang-Seok, South Korean folk rock singer (6 January 1996) Ray Combs, American host of Family Feud from 1988 to 1994 (2 June 1996) Terence Donovan, British fashion photographer (22 November 1996) Michael Hutchence, Australian lead singer of INXS (22 November 1997) Rozz Williams, American musician, founder of Christian Death (1 April 1998) Justin Fashanu, British footballer (2 May 1998) hide, Japanese rock musician (2 May 1998) Sarah Kane, British playwright (20 February 1999) Mackey Feary, American lead singer of Hawaiian band Kalapana (20 February 1999) Haan band Kalapana (20 February 1999) lapana (band) David Strickland, American actor, best known for his character Todd on Suddenly Susan (22 March 1999) Petr Lébl, Czech theatre director (11 December 1999) Stuart Adamson, British musician (16 December 2001) Jon Lee, Welsh drummer with Feeder (7 January 2002) Ryan Halligan, American 13-year-old schoolboy (7 October 2003) Jonathan Brandis, American actor (12 November 2003) Harold Shipman, English doctor and serial killer, convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment (13 January 2004) Jason Raize, American actor and singer (4 February 2004) Nafisa Joseph, Indian model and video jockey (29 July 2004) Norman "Dinky" Diamond, British drummer with Sparks in the 1970s (10 September 2004) Charlie Brandt, American murderer and suspected serial killer (13 September 2004) Lee Eun-ju, South Korean actress and singer (22 February 2005) Paul Hester, former drummer of Crowded House (26 March 2005) Kuljeet Randhawa, Indian model and actress (8 February 2006) Megan Meier, American 13-year-old schoolgirl (17 October 2006) U;Nee, South Korean singer and actress (21 January 2007) Jung Da Bin, South Korean actress (10 February 2007) Mike Awesome, American former professional wrestler, twice ECW Champion (17 February 2007) Kevin Whitrick, British online suicide via webcam (21 March 2007) Toshikatsu Matsuoka, Japanese politician (28 May 2007) Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler (24 June 2007) John David Roy Atchison, US Attorney and children's sports coach, in a prison after being charged with soliciting sex from a child (5 October 2007) Kunal Singh, Indian actor (7 February 2008) Mark Speight, British children's television presenter (7 April 2008) Deborah Jeane Palfrey, operator of an escort agency in Washington, D.C. (1 May 2008) David Foster Wallace, the American author of Infinite Jest (12 September 2008) Choi Jin-sil, South Korean actress (2 October 2008) Kurt Demmler, German songwriter accused of sexual abuse of underage girls; in prison cell (3 February 2009) Jang Ja-yeon, South Korean actress (7 March 2009) Lucy Gordon, English actress and model (20 May 2009) Daul Kim, South Korean-born model who modeled in France (19 November 2009) Phoebe Prince, a 15-year-old schoolgirl (14 January 2010) Alexander McQueen, British fashion designer (11 February 2010) Ambrose Olsen, American male model (22 April 2010) Choi Jin-young, South Korean brother of Choi Jin-sil (29 March 2010) Viveka Babajee, Indian model and actress (25 June 2010) Alex Whybrow, American professional wrestler better known as Larry Sweeney (11 April 2011) Miyu Uehara, Japanese glamour model (12 May 2011) Andrzej Lepper, former Deputy Prime Minister of Poland and former Minister of Agriculture of Poland (5 August 2011) Jamey Rodemeyer, American 14-year-old student (September 2011) Gary Speed, Wales national football team manager and former football player (27 November 2011) Ivan Pravilov, Ukrainian hockey coach, in prison as he awaited trial for alleged sexual abuse of teenager he coached (10 February 2012) Jacintha Saldanha, Indian nurse who worked at King Edward VII's Hospital in the City of Westminster, London (7 December 2012) Cho Sung-min, South Korean ex-husband of Choi Jin-sil (6 January 2013) Aaron Swartz, American 26-year-old computer programmer and Internet activist (11 January 2013) Ram Singh, one of the culprits of the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder case. He allegedly hanged himself in his cell (11 March 2013) Jiah Khan, British-American Bollywood actress (3 June 2013) Gia Allemand, American actress, model, and reality television contestant (14 August 2013) Ariel Castro, convicted kidnapper and rapist (3 September 2013) Uday Kiran, South Indian actor (5 January 2014) Charlotte Dawson, New Zealand-born Australian television personality (22 February 2014) L'Wren Scott, American fashion model, fashion designer, and costume designer (17 March 2014) Yoshiki Sasai, Japanese stem cell researcher (5 August 2014) Robin Williams, American actor and comedian (11 August 2014) Simone Battle, American X-Factor contestant, singer and member of the band G.R.L (5 September 2014) Sean O'Haire, American professional wrestler (8 September 2014) Alok Nembang, Nepali film and music video director (6 November 2014) Lil' Chris, English singer-songwriter, actor and television personality (23 March 2015) Joseph A. Bennett, English actor (13 April 2015) Kalief Browder, falsely imprisoned African American youth (6 June 2015) Julia Buencamino, Filipino teen actress (7 July 2015) Ranganath, South Indian actor (19 December 2015) Rohith Vemula, Indian PhD student (17 January 2016) Daryl Easton, American magician (24 February 2017) Pratyusha Banerjee, Indian television actress (1 April 2016) Mark Fisher, English writer, music critic, cultural theorist, philosopher and teacher (13 January 2017) Aaron Hernandez, former NFL player (19 April 2017) František Rajtoral, Czech footballer (23 April 2017) Chris Cornell, American musician, frontman of Soundgarden, Audioslave and Temple of the Dog (18 May 2017) Stevie Ryan, American YouTuber, actress and comedian (1 July 2017) Chester Bennington, American musician and frontman of Linkin Park, singer and founder/frontman of Dead by Sunrise (20 July 2017) August Ames, Canadian pornographic actress (5 December 2017) Mark Salling, American actor (30 January 2018) Boaz Arad, Israeli artist (2 February 2018) Jo Min-ki, South Korean actor (9 March 2018) Kate Spade, American fashion designer (5 June 2018) Anthony Bourdain, American chef, author, and television personality (8 June 2018) Oksana Shachko, Ukrainian artist and activist, co-founder of Femen (23 July 2018) Ellie Soutter, British snowboarder (25 July 2018) Brian Christopher, American professional wrestler, son of WWE Hall of Famer Jerry "The King" Lawler (29 July 2018) Brody Stevens, American comedian and actor (22 February 2019) Keith Flint, English vocalist, dancer and motorcycle racer, frontman of The Prodigy (4 March 2019) Mike Thalassitis, English television personality and professional footballer (15 March 2019) Ashley Massaro, American professional wrestler and model (16 May 2019) David Berman, American musician and poet, founder of the Silver Jews (7 August 2019) Jeffrey Epstein, American financier, in prison as he awaited trial for alleged sexual abuse of teenager (10 August 2019) Kodela Siva Prasada Rao, Indian politician (16 September 2019) Sulli, South Korean singer, songwriter and actress, member of f(x) (14 October 2019) Kushal Punjabi, Indian actor (26 December 2019) Stan Kirsch, American actor (11 January 2020) Caroline Flack, English television and radio presenter (15 February 2020) Hayden Hunstable, 12 year old son of Brad Hunstable (17 April 2020) Flávio Migliaccio, Brazilian actor and film director (4 May 2020) Jas Waters, American screenwriter and journalist (9 June 2020) Sushant Singh Rajput, Indian actor (14 June 2020) Haruma Miura, Japanese actor and singer (18 July 2020) Samir Sharma, Indian television actor (4 August 2020) Xavier Ortiz, Mexican actor, singer, model, television presenter and entrepreneur (7 September 2020) Yūko Takeuchi, Japanese actress (27 September 2020) Ashwani Kumar, Indian police officer and politician (7 October 2020) Asif Basra, Indian actor (12 November 2020) Chitra Kamaraj, Indian television actress (9 December 2020) John McAfee, British-American computer programmer and businessman, founder of McAfee (23 June 2021) Matt Holmes, British former Commandant General Royal Marines (2 October 2021) Verónica Forqué, Spanish actress (13 December 2021) Capital punishment by hanging Pawan Gupta, one of the four rapists and murderers of the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder (20 March 2020) Mukesh Singh, one of the four rapists and murderers of the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder (20 March 2020) Vinay Sharma, one of the four rapists and murderers of the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder (20 March 2020) Akshay Thakur, one of the four rapists and murderers of the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder (20 March 2020) Micheal Anak Garing, Malaysian who robbed and murdered 41-year-old Shanmuganathan Dillidurai during the last of his group's serial armed robbery spree in Kallang, Singapore. (22 March 2019) Shoko Asahara, founder of Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo and mastermind behind the Tokyo subway sarin attack in 1995. (6 July 2018) Chijioke Stephen Obioha, Nigerian who was found guilty of capital drug trafficking and sentenced to death. (18 November 2016) Ahmad Najib bin Aris, Malaysian who was sentenced to death in 2005 for abducting, murdering and raping 32-year-old Canny Ong in 2003, for which the case made shocking headlines in Malaysia. Additionally, Ahmad Najib received another sentence of 20 years' jail with 10 strokes of the cane for rape. The higher courts of Malaysia upheld and eventually finalized Ahmad Najib's death sentence, resulting in his execution 13 years after Ong's murder (23 September 2016) Kho Jabing, Malaysian who was responsible for the robbery and murder of Chinese national and construction worker Cao Ruyin in Singapore in 2008. (20 May 2016) Yakub Memon, Indian citizen convicted of involvement in the 1993 Bombay bombings. (30 July 2015) Wang Zhijian, Chinese convicted murderer who killed three women in a rental HDB flat in Yishun, Singapore. (after 28 November 2014) Abdul Quader Molla, Bangladeshi Islamist leader and politician of the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami, charged with rape and mass murder (12 December 2013) Afzal Guru, Indian convicted for the 2001 Indian Parliament attack (9 February 2013) Ajmal Kasab, Pakistani militant and a member of the Lashkar-e-Taiba Islamist group, convicted for the 2008 Mumbai attacks (21 November 2012) Zahra Bahrami, Dutch-Iranian dual citizen, for narcotics trafficking (29 January 2011) Ali Hassan al-Majid, Iraqi chief of the Iraqi Intelligence Service, military commander, cousin of Saddam Hussein, and war criminal (25 January 2010) Mohammed Ali bin Johari, Singaporean Malay and notorious convicted murderer who raped and killed his stepdaughter Nurasyura binte Mohamed Fauzi, who was nicknamed "Nonoi", for which the crime made headlines in Singapore (19 December 2008) Tsutomu Miyazaki, Japanese serial killer who killed four young girls between August 1988 and June 1989 before his arrest in July 1989. He was later convicted of murder and sentenced to death in April 1997, and he subsequently spent the final 11 years and 2 months of his life on death row before his execution (17 June 2008) Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, half brother of Saddam Hussein, leader of the Mukhabarat, decapitated due to the wrong measurements of the rope (15 January 2007) Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq and war criminal (30 December 2006) Took Leng How, Malaysian who murdered Huang Na, a 8-year-old Chinese citizen in Pasir Panjang, Singapore. (3 November 2006) Van Tuong Nguyen, Australian drug trafficker (2 December 2005) Dhananjoy Chatterjee, Indian convicted of rape and murder of a 14-year-old girl (14 August 2004) Mamoru Takuma, Japanese mass murderer (14 September 2004) Anthony Ler, full name Anthony Ler Wee Teang, Singaporean graphic designer who hired and manipulated a 15-year-old male minor to murder his 30-year-old wife Annie Leong Wai Mun (or Annie Leong), who was in the midst of divorcing him. Ler was sentenced to death while his 15-year-old accomplice was spared the death sentence and instead sentenced to indefinite detention at the President's Pleasure (13 December 2002) Mona Fandey, Malaysian pop singer and convicted killer who was sentenced to death for murdering Malaysian politician Mazlan bin Idris. Her husband Mohamad Nor Affandi bin Abdul Rahman and her assistant Juraimi bin Hassan were also sentenced to death and executed on the same day as her (2 November 2001) Kiyotaka Katsuta, Japanese serial killer (30 November 2000) Asogan Ramesh Ramachandren, Singaporean murderer who killed a gangster. His accomplices are Selvar Kumar Silvaras (executed) and Mathavakannan Kalimuthu (sentenced to life imprisonment). (29 May 1998) Selvar Kumar Silvaras, Singaporean murderer who killed a gangster. His accomplices are Asogan Ramesh Ramachandren (executed) and Mathavakannan Kalimuthu (sentenced to life imprisonment). (29 May 1998) Norio Nagayama, Japanese serial killer (1 August 1997) Auto Shankar, Indian serial killer (27 April 1995) Flor Contemplacion, Filipino domestic worker convicted of murder in Singapore (17 March 1995) Charles Rodman Campbell, convicted murderer (27 May 1994) Westley Allan Dodd, American serial killer and child molester (5 January 1993) Sek Kim Wah, former recruit of the Singapore Armed Forces and convicted armed robber and killer who robbed and murdered five people in two separate cases and was thus sentenced to death (9 December 1988) Adrian Lim, convicted child killer and perpetrator of the 1981 Toa Payoh ritual murders case. Accomplice of Hoe Kah Hong and Tan Mui Choo (25 November 1988) Tan Mui Choo, alias Catherine Tan, convicted child killer and perpetrator of the 1981 Toa Payoh ritual murders case. Accomplice of Adrian Lim and Hoe Kah Hong (25 November 1988) Hoe Kah Hong, convicted child killer and perpetrator of the 1981 Toa Payoh ritual murders case. Accomplice of Adrian Lim and Tan Mui Choo (25 November 1988) Barlow and Chambers execution, the first two Westerners who were sentenced to death in Malaysia for illegal drug trafficking (7 July 1986) Botak Chin, real name Wong Swee Chin, Malaysian convicted armed robber who was sentenced to hang for the capital crime of possessing a firearm in Malaysia (11 June 1981) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistani politician (4 April 1979) Kiyoshi Ōkubo, Japanese serial killer (22 January 1976) Michael X, black revolutionary, for murder (16 May 1975) Andrew Chou Hock Guan, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) David Chou Hock Heng, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Peter Lim Swee Guan, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Konesekaram Nagalingam, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Alex Yau Hean Thye, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Stephen Francis, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Richard James, one of the ten murderers involved in the 1971 Gold Bars triple murders (28 February 1975) Deniz Gezmiş, Turkish Marxist-Leninist revolutionary and political activist (6 May 1972) Akira Nishiguchi, Japanese serial killer (11 December 1970) Usman bin Haji Muhammad Ali, one of the two terrorists responsible for the 1963 MacDonald House bombing in Singapore, which killed three people. He was later convicted of three charges of murder in a jury trial and was hence sentenced to death. Harun Thohir was his accomplice (17 October 1968) Harun Thohir, one of the two terrorists responsible for the MacDonald House bombing in Singapore, which killed three people on 10 March 1965. He was later convicted of three charges of murder in a jury trial and was hence sentenced to death. Usman bin Haji Muhammad Ali was his accomplice (17 October 1968) Ronald Ryan (murderer), the last person executed in Australia (3 February 1967) Richard "Dick" Hickock and Perry Edward Smith, murderers of the Clutter family (14 April 1965) Arthur Lucas and Ronald Turpin, murderers, executed side by side in the last executions performed in Canada (11 December 1962) Adolf Eichmann, German Nazi major organizer of the Holocaust and war criminal (31 May 1962) Adnan Menderes, Turkish Prime Minister between 1950–1960 (17 September 1961) Genzo Kurita, Japanese serial killer (14 October 1959) Derek Bentley, English man hanged for aiding the murder of a police officer during an attempted robbery (28 January 1953) Marguerite "Madame le Corbeau" Pitre, Canadian conspirator in the bombing of Canadian Pacific Flight 108, last woman executed in Canada (9 January 1953) Nathuram Godse, assassin of Mahatma Gandhi (15 November 1949) Narayan Apte, executed for his role in the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi (15 November 1949) Yoshio Kodaira, Japanese serial killer (5 October 1949) Hideki Tōjō, Prime Minister of Japan and war criminal (23 December 1948) Hans Frank, German Nazi Governor-General of occupied Poland and war criminal (16 October 1946) Wilhelm Frick, German Nazi Minister of the Interior 1933-1943 and war criminal (16 October 1946) Alfred Jodl, German Nazi Chief of the Operations Staff of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht and war criminal (16 October 1946) Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Austrian Nazi highest surviving SS leader and war criminal (16 October 1946) Wilhelm Keitel, German Nazi head of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht and war criminal (16 October 1946) Joachim von Ribbentrop, German Nazi foreign minister and war criminal (16 October 1946) Alfred Rosenberg, German Nazi theorist and propagandist and war criminal (16 October 1946) Amon Göth, Austrian Nazi commandant of the Nazi concentration camp in Płaszów and war criminal (13 September 1946) Tomoyuki Yamashita, Japanese general and war criminal (23 February 1946) William Joyce (Lord Haw-Haw), Nazi propagandist (3 January 1946) Irma Grese, German Nazi concentration camp guard and war criminal (13 December 1945) Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German theologian (9 April 1945) Udham Singh, Indian revolutionary (31 July 1940) Rainey Bethea, last public hanging in U.S., for rape and murder (14 August 1936) Tarakeswar Dastidar, Indian revolutionary (12 January 1934) Surya Sen, Indian revolutionary (12 January 1934) Dinesh Gupta, Indian revolutionary (7 July 1931) Harikishan Talwar, Indian revolutionary (9 June 1931) Bhagat Singh, Indian revolutionary (23 March 1931) Sukhdev, Indian revolutionary (23 March 1931) Shivaram Rajguru, Indian revolutionary (23 March 1931) Rajendra Lahiri, Indian revolutionary (17 December 1927) Ram Prasad Bismil, Indian revolutionary (19 December 1927) Ashfaqulla Khan, Indian revolutionary (19 December 1927) Roshan Singh, Indian revolutionary (19 December 1927) Pramod Ranjan Choudhury, Indian revolutionary (28 September 1926) Gopinath Saha, Indian revolutionary (1 March 1924) Kevin Barry, Irish nationalist militant (1 November 1920) Roger Casement, Irish nationalist (3 August 1916) Manoranjan Sengupta, Indian revolutionary (15 October 1915) Niren Dasgupta, Indian revolutionary (15 October 1915) Basanta Kumar Biswas, Indian revolutionary (11 May 1915) Hawley Harvey Crippen, convicted wife murderer (23 November 1910) An Jung-geun, Korean-independence activist, known for Assassinating Itō Hirobumi (26 March 1910) Satyendranath Basu, Indian revolutionary (21 November 1908) Khudiram Bose, Indian revolutionary (11 August 1908) Tom Horn, American frontier scout, lawman, private detective, and hired killer (1903) Tom "Black Jack" Ketchum, American old west outlaw (26 April 1901) H. H. Holmes, American serial killer and con man (7 May 1896) William Henry Bury, murderer and Jack the Ripper suspect (24 April 1889) Aleksandr Ulyanov, Russian revolutionary and brother of Vladimir Lenin, for plot to assassinate Tsar Alexander III (8 May 1887) Louis Riel, Canadian political activist, for high treason (6 November 1885) Charles Guiteau, American assassin of President James A. Garfield (30 June 1882) Ned Kelly, Australian bushranger, (11 November 1880) Kate Webster, murderer of Julia Martha Thomas (29 July 1879) Tom Dula, inspiration for the song "Tom Dooley", for murder (1 May 1868) Henry Wirz, Confederate commandant of the notorious Andersonville POW camp (10 November 1865) George Atzerodt, conspirator in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (7 July 1865) David Herold, conspirator in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (7 July 1865) Lewis Powell, conspirator in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (7 July 1865) Mary Surratt, conspirator in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln (7 July 1865) Boone Helm, American frontier outlaw and serial killer known as "The Kentucky Cannibal" (14 January 1864) John Brown, militant U.S. anti-slavery activist (2 December 1859) Jemadar Iswari Prasad, part of Indian Sepoy Mutiny (21 April 1857) Mangal Pandey, leader of Indian Sepoy Mutiny (8 April 1857) John André, British officer, for espionage (2 October 1780) Nathan Hale, American patriot (22 September 1776) Maharaja Nandakumar, Indian tax collector on false allegations which led to the impeachment of Warren Hastings (5 August 1775) Nian Gengyao, Chinese military commander of Qing Dynasty (13 January 1726) Dulla Bhatti, Punjabi who led a revolt against Mughal rule during the rule of the emperor Akbar (1599) Yue Fei, Chinese military general, calligrapher, and poet of Song Dynasty (28 January, 1142) Yang Guifei, consort of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang who was thought of the cause of An Lushan Rebellion (15 July 756) Yan Zhenqing, Chinese calligrapher, military general, and politician of Tang Dynasty (785) Zhangsun Wuji, Chinese chancellor of Tang Dynasty (659) Emperor Yang of Sui, second and last emperor of Sui dynasty (11 April 618) Fu Jian, emperor of Former Qin (385) Accidental hanging Sada Abe (1905–after 1971), Japanese geisha killed her lover through strangulation while he was sleeping, after having experimented with erotic asphyxiation, in 1936, proceeding to cut off his penis and testicles and carry them around with her in her kimono for three days. Vaughn Bodé (1941–1975), American artist, died during autoerotic asphyxiation Albert Dekker (1905–1968), American actor, found dead in his bathroom in with a noose around his neck, looped around the shower curtain rod. Frantisek Kotzwara (1730-1791), Czech violinist composer, died during erotic asphyxiation Nigel Tetley (c. 1924–1972), British sailor who was the first person to circumnavigate the world solo in a trimaran; his body was found hanging from a tree, clothed in lingerie, considered by the pathologist to have been engaging in masochistic sexual activity. Diane Herceg sued Hustler magazine in 1983, accusing it of causing the death of her 14-year-old son, who had experimented with autoerotic asphyxia after reading about it in that publication and whose nude body was found hanging by its neck in closet, while spread at his feet was a copy of Hustler opened to its article on "Orgasm of Death.". Stephen Milligan (1948–1994), British politician and Conservative MP for Eastleigh, died from autoerotic asphyxiation, wearing only stockings and suspenders. Kevin Gilbert (1966–1996), musician and songwriter, died of apparent autoerotic asphyxiation David Carradine (1936–June 3, 2009), American actor died from accidental asphyxiation, according to medical examiner who performed a private autopsy. His body was found hanging by a rope in a closet in his hotel room in Thailand, and there was evidence of a recent orgasm; two autopsies were conducted and concluded that his death was not suicide, and the Thai forensic pathologist who examined the body stated that his death may have been due to autoerotic asphyxiation. Two of Carradine's ex-wives, Gail Jensen and Marina Anderson, stated publicly that his sexual interests included the practice of self-bondage. References Hanging

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