Task: sc_issue_8

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to determine the issue of the Court's decision. Determine the issue of the case on the basis of the Court's own statements as to what the case is about. Focus on the subject matter of the controversy rather than its legal basis.

Justice Ginsburg
delivered the opinion of the Court.
The Bankruptcy Code accords a priority, among unsecured creditors’ claims, for unpaid “wages, salaries, or commissions,” 11 U. S. C. § 507(a)(4)(A), and for unpaid contributions to “an employee benefit plan,” § 507(a)(5). It is uncontested here that § 507(a)(5) covers fringe benefits that complete a pay package — typically pension plans, and group health, life, and disability insurance — whether unilaterally provided by an employer or the result of collective bargaining. This case presents the question whether the § 507(a)(5) priority also encompasses claims for unpaid premiums on a policy purchased by an employer to cover its workers’ compensation liability. We hold that premiums owed by an employer to a workers’ compensation carrier do not fit within § 507(a)(5).
Workers’ compensation laws ensure that workers will be compensated for work-related injuries whether or not negligence of the employer contributed to the injury. To that extent, arrangements for the payment of compensation awards might be typed “employee benefit plants].” On the other hand, statutorily prescribed workers’ compensation regimes do not run exclusively to the employees’ benefit. In this regard, they differ from privately ordered, employer-funded pension and welfare plans that, together with wages, remunerate employees for services rendered. Employers, too, gain from workers’ compensation prescriptions. In exchange for no-fault liability, employers gain immunity from tort actions that might yield damages many times higher than awards payable under workers’ compensation schedules. Although the question is close, we conclude that premiums paid for workers’ compensation insurance are more appropriately bracketed with premiums paid for other liability insurance, e.g., motor vehicle, fire, or theft insurance, than with contributions made to secure employee retirement, health, and disability benefits.
In holding that claims for workers’ compensation insurance premiums do not qualify for § 507(a)(5). priority, we are mindful that the Bankruptcy Code aims, in the main, to secure equal distribution among creditors. See Kothe v. R. C. Taylor Trust, 280 U. S. 224, 227 (1930); Kuehner v. Irving Trust Co., 299 U. S. 445, 451 (1937). We take into account, as well, the complementary principle that preferential treatment of a class of creditors is in order only when clearly authorized by Congress. See Nathanson v. NLRB, 344 U. S. 25, 29 (1952); United States v. Embassy Restaurant, Inc., 359 U. S. 29, 31 (1959).
I
Petitioner Howard Delivery Service, Inc. (Howard), for many years owned and operated a freight trucking business. Howard employed as many as 480 workers and operated in about a dozen States. Each of those States required Howard to maintain workers’ compensation coverage to secure its employees’ receipt of health, disability, and death benefits in the event of on-the-job accidents. Howard contracted with Zurich to provide this insurance for Howard’s operations in ten States.
On January 30, 2002, Howard filed a Chapter 11 bankruptcy petition. Zurich filed an unsecured creditor’s claim in that proceeding, seeking priority status for some $400,000 in unpaid workers’ compensation premiums. In an amended proof of claim, Zurich asserted that these unpaid premiums qualified as “[(Contributions to an employee benefit plan” entitled to priority under § 507(a)(5). App. 32a. The Bankruptcy Court denied priority status to Zurich’s claim, reasoning that the overdue premiums do not qualify as bargained-for benefits furnished in lieu of increased wages, hence they fall outside § 507(a)(5)’s compass. App. to Pet. for Cert. 51a-57a. The District Court affirmed, similarly determining that unpaid workers’ compensation premiums do not share the priority provided for unpaid contributions to employee pension and health plans. Id., at 39a-50a.
The Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit reversed 2 to 1 in a per curiam opinion. 403 F. 3d 228 (2005). The judges in the majority, however, disagreed on the rationale. Judge King concluded that § 507(a)(5) unambiguously accorded priority status to claims for unpaid workers’ compensation premiums. Id., at 237. Judge Shedd, concurring in the judgment, found the § 507(a)(5) phrase “employee benefit plan” ambiguous. Looking to legislative history, he concluded that Congress likely intended to give past due workers’ compensation premiums priority status. Id., at 238-239. In dissent, Judge Niemeyer, like Judge King, relied on the “plain meaning” of § 507(a)(5), but read the provision unequivocally to deny priority status to an insurer’s claim for unpaid workers’ compensation premiums. Id., at 241-244.
We granted certiorari, 546 U. S. 1002 (2005), to resolve a split among the Circuits concerning the priority status of premiums owed by a bankrupt employer to a workers’ compensation carrier. Compare In re Birmingham-Nashville Express, Inc., 224 F. 3d 511, 517 (CA6 2000) (denying priority status to unpaid workers’ compensation premiums), In re Southern Star Foods, Inc., 144 F. 3d 712, 717 (CA10 1998) (same), and In re HLM Corp., 62 F. 3d 224, 226-227 (CA8 1995) (same), with Employers Ins. of Wausau v. Plaid Pantries, Inc., 10 F. 3d 605, 607 (CA9 1993) (according priority status), and 403 F. 3d, at 229 (case below) (same).
II
Adjoining subsections of the Bankruptcy Code, § 507(a)(4) and (5), are centrally involved in this case. Subsections 507(a)(4) and (5) currently provide:
“(a) The following expenses and claims have priority in the following order:
“(4) Fourth, allowed unsecured claims... for—
“(A) wages, salaries, or commissions, including vacation, severance, and sick leave pay earned by an individual....
“(5) Fifth, allowed unsecured claims for contributions to an employee benefit plan—
“(A) arising from services rendered within 180 days before the date of the filing of the [bankruptcy] petition or the date of the cessation of the debtor’s business, whichever occurs first....” 11 U. S. C. §507.
Two decisions of this Court, United States v. Embassy Restaurant, Inc., 359 U. S. 29 (1959), and Joint Industry Bd. of Elec. Industry v. United States, 391 U. S. 224 (1968), prompted the enactment of § 507(a)(5). Embassy Restaurant concerned a provision of the 1898 Bankruptcy Act that granted priority status to “wages” but said nothing of “employee benefits plans” or anything similar. 11 U. S. C. § 104(a)(2) (1952 ed., Supp. V; repealed 1978). We held that a debtor’s unpaid contributions to a union welfare plan — which provided life insurance, weekly sick benefits, hospital and surgical benefits, and other advantages — did not qualify within the priority for unpaid “wages.” 359 U. S., at 29-35. In Joint Industry Bd., we followed Embassy Restaurant and held that an employer’s bargained-for contributions to an employees’ annuity plan did not qualify as “wages” entitled to priority status. 391 U. S., at 228-229.
To provide a priority for fringe benefits of the kind at issue in Embassy Restaurant and Joint Industry Bd., Congress added what is now § 507(a)(5) when it amended the Bankruptcy Act in 1978. See H. R. Rep. No. 95-595, p. 187 (1977) (hereinafter H. R. Rep.) (explaining that the amendment covers “health insurance programs, life insurance plans, pension funds, and all other forms of employee compensation that [are] not in the form of wages”); S. Rep. No. 95-989, p. 69 (1978). Notably, Congress did not enlarge the “wages, salaries, [and] commissions” priority, § 507(a)(4), to include fringe benefits. Instead, Congress created a new priority for such benefits, one step lower than the wage priority. The new provision, currently contained in § 507(a)(5), allows the provider of an employee benefit plan to recover unpaid premiums — albeit only after the employees’ claims for “wages, salaries, or commissions” have been paid. § 507(a)(4).
Beyond genuine debate, the main office of § 507(a)(5) is to capture portions of employee compensation for services rendered not covered by § 507(a)(4). Cf. Embassy Restaurant, 359 U. S., at 35; Joint Industry Bd., 391 U. S., at 228-229 (both emphasizing Congress’ prerogative in this regard). The current Code’s juxtaposition of the wages and employee benefit plan priorities manifests Congress’ comprehension that fringe benefits generally complement, or “substitute” for, hourly pay. See H. R. Rep., at 357 (noting “the realities of labor contract negotiations, under which wage demands are often reduced if adequate fringe benefits are substituted”); id., at 187 (“[T]o ignore the reality of collective bargaining that often trades wage dollars for fringe benefits does a severe disservice to those working for a failing enterprise.”); In re Saco Local Development Corp., 711 F. 2d 441, 449 (CA1 1983) (majority opinion of Breyer, J.) (substitution of fringe benefits for wages “can normally be assumed, unless the employer is a philanthropist”).
Congress tightened the linkage of subsections (a)(4) and (a)(5) by imposing a combined cap on the two priorities, currently set at $10,000 per employee. See § 507(a)(5)(B). Because (a)(4) has a higher priority status, all claims for wages are paid first, up to the $10,000 limit; claims under (a)(5) for contributions to employee benefit plans can be recovered next up to the remainder of the $10,000 ceiling. No other subsections of §507 are joined together by a common cap in this way.
Putting aside the clues provided by Embassy Restaurant, Joint Industry Bd., and the textual ties binding § 507(a)(4) and (5), we recognize that Congress left undefined the § 507(a)(5) terms: “contributions to an employee benefit plan... arising from services rendered within 180 days before the date of the filing of the [bankruptcy] petition.” (Emphasis added.) Maintaining that subsection (a)(5) covers more than wage substitutes of the kind at issue in Embassy Restaurant and Joint Industry Bd., Zurich urges the Court to borrow the encompassing definition of employee benefit plan contained in the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), 88 Stat. 829, as amended, 29 U. S. C. § 1001 et seq. (2000 ed. and Supp. III). See §1002(1) (term “employee welfare benefit plan” means, inter alia, “any plan, fund, or program [that provides] its participants or their beneficiaries, through the purchase of insurance or otherwise,... benefits in the event of sickness, accident, disability, death or unemployment”); § 1002(3) (term “employee benefit plan... means an employee welfare benefit plan or an employee pension benefit plan or a plan which is both an employee welfare benefit plan and an employee pension benefit plan”); cf. § 1003(b)(3) (excluding plans “maintained solely for the purpose of complying with applicable workers’] compensation laws or unemployment compensation or disability insurance laws”). The dissent endorses this borrowing. See post, at 676.
Federal courts have questioned whether ERISA is appropriately used to fill in blanks in a Bankruptcy Code provision, and the panel below parted ways on this issue. See 403 F. 3d, at 235, n. 9 (King, J., concurring in judgment) (“declin[ing] to rely upon the ERISA definition”); id., at 239-241 (Shedd, J., concurring in judgment) (reading legislative history to indicate that Congress intended “‘employee benefit plan’ in the bankruptcy priority provision to have the same meaning that [the term] has in ERISA”); id., at 245 (Niemeyer, J., dissenting) (maintaining that ERISA definition is inapt in Bankruptcy Code priority context); cf. Birmingham-Nashville Express, 224 F. 3d, at 516-517 (noting division of opinion but concluding that decisions rejecting incorporation of ERISA’s “employee benefit plan” definition into § 507(a)(5) “ha[ve] the better of the argument”); HLM Corp., 62 F. 3d, at 226 (“[T]he ERISA definition and associated court guidelines were designed to effectuate the purpose of ERISA, not the Bankruptcy Code.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Southern Star Foods, 144 F. 3d, at 714 (same). Compare Brief for American Home Assurance Company et al. as Amici Curiae 17-25 (legislative history suggests Congress intended to incorporate ERISA definition) with Brief for National Coordinating Committee for Multiemployer Plans as Amicus Curiae 22-27, and n. 21 (legislative history suggests Congress did not intend to incorporate ERISA definition).
ERISA’s omnibus definition does show, at least, that the term “employee welfare benefit plan” is susceptible of a construction that would include workers’ compensation plans. That Act’s signals are mixed, however, for 29 U. S. C. § 1003(b)(3) specifically exempts from ERISA’s coverage the genre of plan here at issue, i. e., one “maintained solely for the purpose of complying with applicable workers’] compensation laws.” The § 1003(b)(3) exemption strengthens our resistance to Zurich’s argument. We follow the lead of an earlier decision, United States v. Reorganized CF&I Fabricators of Utah, Inc., 518 U. S. 213, 219 (1996), in noting that “[h]ere and there in the Bankruptcy Code Congress has included specific directions that establish the significance for bankruptcy law of a term used elsewhere in the federal statutes.” Id., at 219-220. No such directions are contained in § 507(a)(5), and we have no warrant to write them into the text.
This case turns, we hold, not on a definition borrowed from a statute designed without bankruptcy in mind, but on the essential character of workers’ compensation regimes. Unlike pension provisions or group life, health, and disability insurance plans — negotiated or granted as pay supplements or substitutes — workers’ compensation prescriptions have a dominant employer-oriented thrust: They modify, or substitute for, the common-law tort liability to which employers were exposed for work-related accidents. See 6 A. Larson & L. Larson, Workers’ Compensation Law §100.01[1], pp. 100-2 to 100-3 (2005) (hereinafter Larson & Larson); 4 J. Lee & B. Lindahl, Modern Tort Law: Liability and Litigation §43:25, pp. 43-45 to 43-46 (2d ed. 2003). As typically explained:
“The invention of workers compensation as it has existed in this country since about 1910 involves a classic social trade-off or, to use a Latin term, a quid pro quo.... What is given to the injured employee is the right to receive certain limited benefits regardless of fault, that is, even in cases in which the employee is partially or entirely at fault, or when there is no fault on anyone’s part. What is taken away is the employee’s right to recover full tort damages, including damages for pain and suffering, in cases in which there is fault on the employer’s part.” P. Lencsis, Workers Compensation: A Reference and Guide 9 (1998) (hereinafter Lencsis).
Workers’ compensation regimes thus provide something for employees — they ensure limited fixed payments for on-the-job injuries — and something for employers — they remove the risk of large judgments and heavy costs generated by tort litigation. See 6 Larson & Larson §100.03[1], at 100-11 (“[Workers’ compensation] relieves the employer not only of common-law tort liability, but also of statutory liability under virtually all state statutes, as well as of liability in contract and in admiralty, for an injury covered by the compensation act.” (footnote omitted)); Lubove, Workmen’s Compensation and the Prerogatives of Voluntarism, 8 Lab. Hist. 254, 258-262 (Fall 1967) (workers’ compensation programs were adopted by nearly every State in large part because employers anticipated significant benefits from the programs; other programs workers’ groups sought to make mandatory — notably, health insurance — were not similarly embraced). No such tradeoff is involved in fringe benefit plans that augment each covered worker’s hourly pay.
Employer-sponsored pension plans, and group health or life insurance plans, characteristically insure the employee (or his survivor) only. In contrast, workers’ compensation insurance, in common with other liability insurance in this regard, e. g., fire, theft, and motor vehicle insurance, shield the insured enterprise: Workers’ compensation policies both protect the employer-policyholder from liability in tort, and cover its obligation to pay workers’ compensation benefits. See In re HLM Corp., 165 B. R. 38, 41 (Bkrtcy. Ct. Minn. 1994). When an employer fails to secure workers’ compensation coverage, or loses coverage for nonpayment of premiums, an affected employee’s remedy would not lie in a suit for premiums that should have been paid to a compensation carrier. Instead, employees who sustain work-related injuries would commonly have recourse to a state-maintained fund. See, e. g., Minn. Stat. § 176.183, subd. 1 (2004); N. Y. Work. Comp. Law Ann. § 26-a (West Supp. 2006). Or, in lieu of the limited benefits obtainable from a state fund under workers’ compensation schedules, the injured employee might be authorized to pursue the larger recoveries successful tort litigation ordinarily yields. See, e. g., id., § 11 (West 2005); W. Va. Code §23-2-8 (Lexis 2005); Lencsis 67.
Further distancing workers’ compensation arrangements from bargained-for or voluntarily accorded fringe benefits, nearly all States, with limited exceptions, require employers to participate in their workers’ compensation systems. See, e. g., Ill. Comp. Stat., ch. 820, § 305/4 (West 2004); Minn. Stat. § 176.181, subd. 2 (2004); U. S. Dept, of Labor, Office of Workers’ Compensation, State Workers’ Compensation Laws, Table 1: Type of Law and Insurance Requirements for Private Employment (2005), online at http://www.dol.gov/esa/ regs/statutes/owcp/stwclaw/tables-pdf/tablel.pdf (as visited June 13, 2006, and available in Clerk of Court’s case file). An employer who fails to secure the mandatory coverage is subject to substantial penalties, even criminal liability. We do not suggest, as the dissent hypothesizes, see post, at 674, that a compensation carrier would gain § 507(a)(5) priority for unpaid premiums in States where workers’ compensation coverage is elective. Nor do we suggest that wage surrogates or supplements, e. g., pension and health benefits plans, would lose

Question: What is the issue of the decision?
年. involuntary confession
数. habeas corpus
日. plea bargaining: the constitutionality of and/or the circumstances of its exercise
的. retroactivity (of newly announced or newly enacted constitutional or statutory rights)
月. search and seizure (other than as pertains to vehicles or Crime Control Act)
用. search and seizure, vehicles
成. search and seizure, Crime Control Act
名. contempt of court or congress
时. self-incrimination (other than as pertains to Miranda or immunity from prosecution)
件. Miranda warnings
一. self-incrimination, immunity from prosecution
请. right to counsel (cf. indigents appointment of counsel or inadequate representation)
中. cruel and unusual punishment, death penalty (cf. extra legal jury influence, death penalty)
据. cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty (cf. liability, civil rights acts)
码. line-up
不. discovery and inspection (in the context of criminal litigation only, otherwise Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations)
新. double jeopardy
文. ex post facto (state)
下. extra-legal jury influences: miscellaneous
分. extra-legal jury influences: prejudicial statements or evidence
入. extra-legal jury influences: contact with jurors outside courtroom
人. extra-legal jury influences: jury instructions (not necessarily in criminal cases)
功. extra-legal jury influences: voir dire (not necessarily a criminal case)
上. extra-legal jury influences: prison garb or appearance
户. extra-legal jury influences: jurors and death penalty (cf. cruel and unusual punishment)
为. extra-legal jury influences: pretrial publicity
间. confrontation (right to confront accuser, call and cross-examine witnesses)
号. subconstitutional fair procedure: confession of error
取. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy (cf. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure: conspiracy)
回. subconstitutional fair procedure: entrapment
在. subconstitutional fair procedure: exhaustion of remedies
页. subconstitutional fair procedure: fugitive from justice
字. subconstitutional fair procedure: presentation, admissibility, or sufficiency of evidence (not necessarily a criminal case)
有. subconstitutional fair procedure: stay of execution
个. subconstitutional fair procedure: timeliness
作. subconstitutional fair procedure: miscellaneous
示. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
出. statutory construction of criminal laws: assault
是. statutory construction of criminal laws: bank robbery
失. statutory construction of criminal laws: conspiracy (cf. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy)
表. statutory construction of criminal laws: escape from custody
除. statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements (cf. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury)
加. statutory construction of criminal laws: financial (other than in fraud or internal revenue)
败. statutory construction of criminal laws: firearms
生. statutory construction of criminal laws: fraud
信. statutory construction of criminal laws: gambling
类. statutory construction of criminal laws: Hobbs Act; i.e., 18 USC 1951
置. statutory construction of criminal laws: immigration (cf. immigration and naturalization)
理. statutory construction of criminal laws: internal revenue (cf. Federal Taxation)
本. statutory construction of criminal laws: Mann Act and related statutes
息. statutory construction of criminal laws: narcotics includes regulation and prohibition of alcohol
行. statutory construction of criminal laws: obstruction of justice
定. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury (other than as pertains to statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements)
改. statutory construction of criminal laws: Travel Act, 18 USC 1952
市. statutory construction of criminal laws: war crimes
期. statutory construction of criminal laws: sentencing guidelines
以. statutory construction of criminal laws: miscellaneous
修. jury trial (right to, as distinct from extra-legal jury influences)
元. speedy trial
方. miscellaneous criminal procedure (cf. due process, prisoners' rights, comity: criminal procedure)
录. voting
区. Voting Rights Act of 1965, plus amendments
单. ballot access (of candidates and political parties)
位. desegregation (other than as pertains to school desegregation, employment discrimination, and affirmative action)
型. desegregation, schools
法. employment discrimination: on basis of race, age, religion, illegitimacy, national origin, or working conditions.
县. affirmative action
存. slavery or indenture
品. sit-in demonstrations (protests against racial discrimination in places of public accommodation)
前. reapportionment: other than plans governed by the Voting Rights Act
称. debtors' rights
注. deportation (cf. immigration and naturalization)
值. employability of aliens (cf. immigration and naturalization)
输. sex discrimination (excluding sex discrimination in employment)
建. sex discrimination in employment (cf. sex discrimination)
能. Indians (other than pertains to state jurisdiction over)
大. Indians, state jurisdiction over
例. juveniles (cf. rights of illegitimates)
度. poverty law, constitutional
始. poverty law, statutory: welfare benefits, typically under some Social Security Act provision.
到. illegitimates, rights of (cf. juveniles): typically inheritance and survivor's benefits, and paternity suits
面. handicapped, rights of: under Rehabilitation, Americans with Disabilities Act, and related statutes
载. residency requirements: durational, plus discrimination against nonresidents
点. military: draftee, or person subject to induction
密. military: active duty
动. military: veteran
果. immigration and naturalization: permanent residence
图. immigration and naturalization: citizenship
提. immigration and naturalization: loss of citizenship, denaturalization
发. immigration and naturalization: access to public education
式. immigration and naturalization: welfare benefits
国. immigration and naturalization: miscellaneous
登. indigents: appointment of counsel (cf. right to counsel)
错. indigents: inadequate representation by counsel (cf. right to counsel)
者. indigents: payment of fine
认. indigents: costs or filing fees
误. indigents: U.S. Supreme Court docketing fee
接. indigents: transcript
关. indigents: assistance of psychiatrist
重. indigents: miscellaneous
第. liability, civil rights acts (cf. liability, governmental and liability, nongovernmental; cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty)
地. miscellaneous civil rights (cf. comity: civil rights)
如. First Amendment, miscellaneous (cf. comity: First Amendment)
设. commercial speech, excluding attorneys
目. libel, defamation: defamation of public officials and public and private persons
开. libel, privacy: true and false light invasions of privacy
事. legislative investigations: concerning internal security only
可. federal or state internal security legislation: Smith, Internal Security, and related federal statutes
要. loyalty oath or non-Communist affidavit (other than bar applicants, government employees, political party, or teacher)
代. loyalty oath: bar applicants (cf. admission to bar, state or federal or U.S. Supreme Court)
小. loyalty oath: government employees
选. loyalty oath: political party
标. loyalty oath: teachers
明. security risks: denial of benefits or dismissal of employees for reasons other than failure to meet loyalty oath requirements
编. conscientious objectors (cf. military draftee or military active duty) to military service
求. campaign spending (cf. governmental corruption):
列. protest demonstrations (other than as pertains to sit-in demonstrations): demonstrations and other forms of protest based on First Amendment guarantees
网. free exercise of religion
万. establishment of religion (other than as pertains to parochiaid:)
最. parochiaid: government aid to religious schools, or religious requirements in public schools
器. obscenity, state (cf. comity: privacy): including the regulation of sexually explicit material under the 21st Amendment
所. obscenity, federal
内. due process: miscellaneous (cf. loyalty oath), the residual code
体. due process: hearing or notice (other than as pertains to government employees or prisoners' rights)
通. due process: hearing, government employees
务. due process: prisoners' rights and defendants' rights
此. due process: impartial decision maker
商. due process: jurisdiction (jurisdiction over non-resident litigants)
序. due process: takings clause, or other non-constitutional governmental taking of property
化. privacy (cf. libel, comity: privacy)
消. abortion: including contraceptives
否. right to die
保. Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations
使. attorneys' and governmental employees' or officials' fees or compensation or licenses
次. commercial speech, attorneys (cf. commercial speech)
机. admission to a state or federal bar, disbarment, and attorney discipline (cf. loyalty oath: bar applicants)
对. admission to, or disbarment from, Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court
量. arbitration (in the context of labor-management or employer-employee relations) (cf. arbitration)
查. union antitrust: legality of anticompetitive union activity
部. union or closed shop: includes agency shop litigation
性. Fair Labor Standards Act
和. Occupational Safety and Health Act
更. union-union member dispute (except as pertains to union or closed shop)
后. labor-management disputes: bargaining
证. labor-management disputes: employee discharge
题. labor-management disputes: distribution of union literature
确. labor-management disputes: representative election
格. labor-management disputes: antistrike injunction
了. labor-management disputes: jurisdictional dispute
于. labor-management disputes: right to organize
金. labor-management disputes: picketing
公. labor-management disputes: secondary activity
午. labor-management disputes: no-strike clause
円. labor-management disputes: union representatives
片. labor-management disputes: union trust funds (cf. ERISA)
空. labor-management disputes: working conditions
态. labor-management disputes: miscellaneous dispute
管. miscellaneous union
主. antitrust (except in the context of mergers and union antitrust)
天. mergers
自. bankruptcy (except in the context of priority of federal fiscal claims)
我. sufficiency of evidence: typically in the context of a jury's determination of compensation for injury or death
全. election of remedies: legal remedies available to injured persons or things
今. liability, governmental: tort or contract actions by or against government or governmental officials other than defense of criminal actions brought under a civil rights action.
来. liability, other than as in sufficiency of evidence, election of remedies, punitive damages
正. liability, punitive damages
说. Employee Retirement Income Security Act (cf. union trust funds)
意. state or local government tax
送. state and territorial land claims
容. state or local government regulation, especially of business (cf. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction, federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation)
已. federal or state regulation of securities
结. natural resources - environmental protection (cf. national supremacy: natural resources, national supremacy: pollution)
会. corruption, governmental or governmental regulation of other than as in campaign spending
段. zoning: constitutionality of such ordinances, or restrictions on owners' or lessors' use of real property
计. arbitration (other than as pertains to labor-management or employer-employee relations (cf. union arbitration)
源. federal or state consumer protection: typically under the Truth in Lending; Food, Drug and Cosmetic; and Consumer Protection Credit Acts
色. patents and copyrights: patent
時. patents and copyrights: copyright
交. patents and copyrights: trademark
系. patents and copyrights: patentability of computer processes
过. federal or state regulation of transportation regulation: railroad
电. federal and some few state regulations of transportation regulation: boat
询. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation:truck, or motor carrier
符. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: pipeline (cf. federal public utilities regulation: gas pipeline)
未. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: airline
程. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: electric power
常. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: nuclear power
条. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: oil producer
当. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas producer
情. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas pipeline (cf. federal transportation regulation: pipeline)
口. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: radio and television (cf. cable television)
合. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: cable television (cf. radio and television)
车. federal and some few state regulations of public utilities regulation: telephone or telegraph company
实. miscellaneous economic regulation
组. comity: civil rights
版. comity: criminal procedure
周. comity: First Amendment
址. comity: habeas corpus
记. comity: military
二. comity: obscenity
同. comity: privacy
业. comity: miscellaneous
权. comity primarily removal cases, civil procedure (cf. comity, criminal and First Amendment); deference to foreign judicial tribunals
其. assessment of costs or damages: as part of a court order
进. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure including Supreme Court Rules, application of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure in civil litigation, Circuit Court Rules, and state rules and admiralty rules
试. judicial review of administrative agency's or administrative official's actions and procedures
验. mootness (cf. standing to sue: live dispute)
料. venue
传. no merits: writ improvidently granted
述. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question, or a nonsuit
集. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of jurisdiction (cf. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal from federal district courts or courts of appeals)
多. no merits: adequate non-federal grounds for decision
无. no merits: remand to determine basis of state or federal court decision (cf. judicial administration: state law)
员. no merits: miscellaneous
报. standing to sue: adversary parties
他. standing to sue: direct injury
無. standing to sue: legal injury
服. standing to sue: personal injury
线. standing to sue: justiciable question
这. standing to sue: live dispute
制. standing to sue: parens patriae standing
将. standing to sue: statutory standing
处. standing to sue: private or implied cause of action
高. standing to sue: taxpayer's suit
子. standing to sue: miscellaneous
道. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal district courts or territorial courts
章. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal courts of appeals
手. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from federal district courts or courts of appeals (cf. 753)
库. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from highest state court
三. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of the Court of Claims
从. judicial administration: Supreme Court's original jurisdiction
支. judicial administration: review of non-final order
家. judicial administration: change in state law (cf. no merits: remand to determine basis of state court decision)
长. judicial administration: federal question (cf. no merits: dismissed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question)
付. judicial administration: ancillary or pendent jurisdiction
秒. judicial administration: extraordinary relief (e.g., mandamus, injunction)
路. judicial administration: certification (cf. objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal)
完. judicial administration: resolution of circuit conflict, or conflict between or among other courts
象. judicial administration: objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal
则. judicial administration: collateral estoppel or res judicata
现. judicial administration: interpleader
京. judicial administration: untimely filing
转. judicial administration: Act of State doctrine
辑. judicial administration: miscellaneous
限. Supreme Court's certiorari, writ of error, or appeals jurisdiction
力. miscellaneous judicial power, especially diversity jurisdiction
学. federal-state ownership dispute (cf. Submerged Lands Act)
外. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction
调. federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation. cf. state regulation of business. rarely involves union activity. Does not involve constitutional interpretation unless the Court says it does.
项. Submerged Lands Act (cf. federal-state ownership dispute)
北. national supremacy: commodities
工. national supremacy: intergovernmental tax immunity
笑. national supremacy: marital and family relationships and property, including obligation of child support
监. national supremacy: natural resources (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
任. national supremacy: pollution, air or water (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
相. national supremacy: public utilities (cf. federal public utilities regulation)
微. national supremacy: state tax (cf. state tax)
册. national supremacy: miscellaneous
联. miscellaneous federalism
平. boundary dispute between states
增. non-real property dispute between states
听. miscellaneous interstate relations conflict
解. incorporation of foreign territories
等. federal taxation, typically under provisions of the Internal Revenue Code
得. federal taxation of gifts, personal, business, or professional expenses
收. priority of federal fiscal claims: over those of the states or private entities
安. miscellaneous federal taxation (cf. national supremacy: state tax)
价. legislative veto
藏. executive authority vis-a-vis congress or the states
命. miscellaneous
应. real property
看. personal property
索. contracts
资. evidence
产. civil procedure
串. torts
布. wills and trusts
原. commercial transactions
Answer:

Answer: 自