Task: sc_authoritydecision

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to determine the bases on which the Supreme Court rested its decision with regard to the legal provision that the Court considered in the case. Consider "judicial review (national level)" if the majority determined the constitutionality of some action taken by some unit or official of the federal government, including an interstate compact. Consider "judicial review (state level)" if the majority determined the constitutionality of some action taken by some unit or official of a state or local government. Consider "statutory construction" for cases where the majority interpret a federal statute, treaty, or court rule; if the Court interprets a federal statute governing the powers or jurisdiction of a federal court; if the Court construes a state law as incompatible with a federal law; or if an administrative official interprets a federal statute. Do not consider "statutory construction" where an administrative agency or official acts "pursuant to" a statute, unless the Court interprets the statute to determine if administrative action is proper. Consider "interpretation of administrative regulation or rule, or executive order" if the majority treats federal administrative action in arriving at its decision.Consider "diversity jurisdiction" if the majority said in approximately so many words that under its diversity jurisdiction it is interpreting state law. Consider "federal common law" if the majority indicate that it used a judge-made "doctrine" or "rule; if the Court without more merely specifies the disposition the Court has made of the case and cites one or more of its own previously decided cases unless the citation is qualified by the word "see."; if the case concerns admiralty or maritime law, or some other aspect of the law of "             nations other than a treaty; if the case concerns the retroactive application of a constitutional provision or a previous decision of the Court; if the case concerns an exclusionary rule, the harmless error rule (though not the statute), the abstention doctrine, comity, res judicata, or collateral estoppel; or if the case concerns a "rule" or "doctrine" that is not specified as related to or connected with a constitutional or statutory provision. Consider "Supreme Court supervision of lower federal or state courts or original jurisdiction" otherwise (i.e., the residual code); for issues pertaining to non-statutorily based Judicial Power topics; for cases arising under the Court's original jurisdiction; in cases in which the Court denied or dismissed the petition for review or where the decision of a lower court is affirmed by a tie vote; or in workers' compensation litigation involving statutory interpretation and, in addition, a discussion of jury determination and/or the sufficiency of the evidence.

II
Together with the right to vote, those who wrote our Constitution considered the right to trial by jury "the heart and lungs, the mainspring and the center wheel" of our liberties, without which "the body must die; the watch must run down; the government must become arbitrary." Letter from Clarendon to W. Pym (Jan. 27, 1766), in 1 Papers of John Adams 169 (R. Taylor ed. 1977). Just as the right to vote sought to preserve the people's authority over their government's executive and legislative functions, the right to a jury trial sought to preserve the people's authority over its judicial functions. J. Adams, Diary Entry (Feb. 12, 1771), in 2 Diary and Autobiography of John Adams 3 (L. Butterfield ed. 1961); see also 2 J. Story, Commentaries on the Constitution § 1779, pp. 540-541 (4th ed. 1873).
Toward that end, the Framers adopted the Sixth Amendment's promise that "[i]n all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury." In the Fifth Amendment, they added that no one may be deprived of liberty without "due process of law." Together, these pillars of the Bill of Rights ensure that the government must prove to a jury every criminal charge beyond a reasonable doubt, an ancient rule that has "extend[ed] down centuries." Apprendi v. New Jersey, 530 U.S. 466, 477, 120 S.Ct. 2348, 147 L.Ed.2d 435 (2000).
But when does a "criminal prosecution" arise implicating the right to trial by jury beyond a reasonable doubt? At the founding, a "prosecution" of an individual simply referred to "the manner of [his] formal accusation." 4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England 298 (1769) (Blackstone); see also N. Webster, An American Dictionary of the English Language (1st ed. 1828) (defining "prosecution" as "the process of exhibiting formal charges against an offender before a legal tribunal"). And the concept of a "crime" was a broad one linked to punishment, amounting to those "acts to which the law affixes... punishment," or, stated differently, those "element[s] in the wrong upon which the punishment is based." 1 J. Bishop, Criminal Procedure §§ 80, 84, pp. 51-53 (2d ed. 1872) (Bishop); see also J. Archbold, Pleading and Evidence in Criminal Cases *106 (5th Am. ed. 1846) (Archbold) (discussing a crime as including any fact that "annexes a higher degree of punishment"); Blakely v. Washington, 542 U.S. 296, 309, 124 S.Ct. 2531, 159 L.Ed.2d 403 (2004) ; Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 481, 120 S.Ct. 2348.
Consistent with these understandings, juries in our constitutional order exercise supervisory authority over the judicial function by limiting the judge's power to punish. A judge's authority to issue a sentence derives from, and is limited by, the jury's factual findings of criminal conduct. In the early Republic, if an indictment or "accusation... lack[ed] any particular fact which the laws ma[d]e essential to the punishment," it was treated as "no accusation" at all. 1 Bishop § 87, at 55; see also 2 M. Hale, Pleas of the Crown *170 (1736); Archbold *106. And the "truth of every accusation" that was brought against a person had to "be confirmed by the unanimous suffrage of twelve of his equals and neighbours." 4 Blackstone 343. Because the Constitution's guarantees cannot mean less today than they did the day they were adopted, it remains the case today that a jury must find beyond a reasonable doubt every fact " 'which the law makes essential to [a] punishment' " that a judge might later seek to impose. Blakely, 542 U.S. at 304, 124 S.Ct. 2531 (quoting 1 Bishop § 87, at 55).
For much of our history, the application of this rule of jury supervision proved pretty straightforward. At common law, crimes tended to carry with them specific sanctions, and "once the facts of the offense were determined by the jury, the judge was meant simply to impose the prescribed sentence." Alleyne v. United States, 570 U.S. 99, 108, 133 S.Ct. 2151, 186 L.Ed.2d 314 (2013) (plurality opinion) (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted). Even when judges did enjoy discretion to adjust a sentence based on judge-found aggravating or mitigating facts, they could not "'swell the penalty above what the law ha[d] provided for the acts charged' " and found by the jury. Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 519, 120 S.Ct. 2348 (THOMAS, J., concurring) (quoting 1 Bishop § 85, at 54); see also 1 J. Bishop, Criminal Law §§ 933-934(1), p. 690 (9th ed. 1923) ("[T]he court determines in each case what within the limits of the law shall be the punishment" (emphasis added)). In time, of course, legislatures adopted new laws allowing judges or parole boards to suspend part (parole) or all (probation) of a defendant's prescribed prison term and afford him a period of conditional liberty as an "act of grace," subject to revocation. Escoe v. Zerbst, 295 U.S. 490, 492, 55 S.Ct. 818, 79 L.Ed. 1566 (1935) ; see Anderson v. Corall, 263 U.S. 193, 196-197, 44 S.Ct. 43, 68 L.Ed. 247 (1923). But here, too, the prison sentence a judge or parole board could impose for a parole or probation violation normally could not exceed the remaining balance of the term of imprisonment already authorized by the jury's verdict. So even these developments did not usually implicate the historic concerns of the Fifth and Sixth Amendments. See Blakely, 542 U.S. at 309, 124 S.Ct. 2531 ; Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 498, 120 S.Ct. 2348 (Scalia, J., concurring); 4 Atty. Gen.'s Survey of Release Proc. 22 (1939); 2 id., at 333.
More recent legislative innovations have raised harder questions. In Apprendi, for example, a jury convicted the defendant of a gun crime that carried a maximum prison sentence of 10 years. But then a judge sought to impose a longer sentence pursuant to a statute that authorized him to do so if he found, by a preponderance of the evidence, that the defendant had committed the crime with racial bias. Apprendi held this scheme unconstitutional. "[A]ny fact that increases the penalty for a crime beyond the prescribed statutory maximum," this Court explained, "must be submitted to a jury, and proved beyond a reasonable doubt" or admitted by the defendant. 530 U.S. at 490, 120 S.Ct. 2348. Nor may a State evade this traditional restraint on the judicial power by simply calling the process of finding new facts and imposing a new punishment a judicial "sentencing enhancement." Id., at 495, 120 S.Ct. 2348. "[T]he relevant inquiry is one not of form, but of effect-does the required [judicial] finding expose the defendant to a greater punishment than that authorized by the jury's guilty verdict?" Id., at 494, 120 S.Ct. 2348.
While "trial practices ca[n] change in the course of centuries and still remain true to the principles that emerged from the Framers' " design, id., at 483, 120 S.Ct. 2348, in the years since Apprendi this Court has not hesitated to strike down other innovations that fail to respect the jury's supervisory function. See, e.g., Ring v. Arizona, 536 U.S. 584, 122 S.Ct. 2428, 153 L.Ed.2d 556 (2002) (imposition of death penalty based on judicial factfinding); Blakely, 542 U.S. at 303, 124 S.Ct. 2531 (mandatory state sentencing guidelines); Cunningham v. California, 549 U.S. 270, 127 S.Ct. 856, 166 L.Ed.2d 856 (2007) (same); United States v. Booker, 543 U.S. 220, 125 S.Ct. 738, 160 L.Ed.2d 621 (2005) (mandatory federal sentencing guidelines); Southern Union Co. v. United States, 567 U.S. 343, 132 S.Ct. 2344, 183 L.Ed.2d 318 (2012) (imposition of criminal fines based on judicial factfinding).
Still, these decisions left an important gap. In Apprendi, this Court recognized that " '[i]t is unconstitutional for a legislature to remove from the jury the assessment of facts that increase the prescribed range of penalties.' "
530 U.S. at 490, 120 S.Ct. 2348. But by definition, a range of punishments includes not only a maximum but a minimum. And logically it would seem to follow that any facts necessary to increase a person's minimum punishment (the "floor") should be found by the jury no less than facts necessary to increase his maximum punishment (the "ceiling"). Before Apprendi, however, this Court had held that facts elevating the minimum punishment need not be proven to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt. McMillan v. Pennsylvania, 477 U.S. 79, 106 S.Ct. 2411, 91 L.Ed.2d 67 (1986) ; see also Harris v. United States, 536 U.S. 545, 122 S.Ct. 2406, 153 L.Ed.2d 524 (2002) (adhering to McMillan ).
Eventually, the Court confronted this anomaly in Alleyne. There, a jury convicted the defendant of a crime that ordinarily carried a sentence of five years to life in prison. But a separate statutory "sentencing enhancement" increased the mandatory minimum to seven years if the defendant "brandished" the gun. At sentencing, a judge found by a preponderance of the evidence that the defendant had indeed brandished a gun and imposed the mandatory minimum 7-year prison term.
This Court reversed. Finding no basis in the original understanding of the Fifth and Sixth Amendments for McMillan and Harris, the Court expressly overruled those decisions and held that "the principle applied in Apprendi applies with equal force to facts increasing the mandatory minimum" as it does to facts increasing the statutory maximum penalty. Alleyne, 570 U.S. at 112, 133 S.Ct. 2151. Nor did it matter to Alleyne's analysis that, even without the mandatory minimum, the trial judge would have been free to impose a 7-year sentence because it fell within the statutory sentencing range authorized by the jury's findings. Both the "floor" and "ceiling" of a sentencing range "define the legally prescribed penalty." Ibid. And under our Constitution, when "a finding of fact alters the legally prescribed punishment so as to aggravate it" that finding must be made by a jury of the defendant's peers beyond a reasonable doubt. Id., at 114, 133 S.Ct. 2151. Along the way, the Court observed that there can be little doubt that "[e]levating the low end of a sentencing range heightens the loss of liberty associated with the crime: The defendant's expected punishment has increased as a result of the narrowed range and the prosecution is empowered, by invoking the mandatory minimum, to require the judge to impose a higher punishment than he might wish." Id., at 113, 133 S.Ct. 2151 (internal quotation marks omitted).
By now, the lesson for our case is clear. Based on the facts reflected in the jury's verdict, Mr. Haymond faced a lawful prison term of between zero and 10 years under § 2252(b)(2). But then a judge-acting without a jury and based only on a preponderance of the evidence-found that Mr. Haymond had engaged in additional conduct in violation of the terms of his supervised release. Under § 3583(k), that judicial factfinding triggered a new punishment in the form of a prison term of at least five years and up to life. So just like the facts the judge found at the defendant's sentencing hearing in Alleyne, the facts the judge found here increased "the legally prescribed range of allowable sentences" in violation of the Fifth and Sixth Amendments. Id., at 115, 133 S.Ct. 2151. In this case, that meant Mr. Haymond faced a minimum of five years in prison instead of as little as none. Nor did the absence of a jury's finding beyond a reasonable doubt only infringe the rights of the accused; it also divested the " 'people at large' "-the men and women who make up a jury of a defendant's peers-of their constitutional authority to set the metes and bounds of judicially administered criminal punishments. Blakely, 542 U.S. at 306, 124 S.Ct. 2531 (quoting Letter XV by the Federal Farmer (Jan. 18, 1788), in 2 The Complete Anti-Federalist 315, 320 (H. Storing ed. 1981)).
III
In reply, the government and the dissent offer many and sometimes competing arguments, but we find none persuasive.
A
The government begins by pointing out that Alleyne arose in a different procedural posture. There, the trial judge applied a "sentencing enhancement" based on his own factual findings at the defendant's initial sentencing hearing; meanwhile, Mr. Haymond received his new punishment from a judge at a hearing to consider the revocation of his term of supervised release. This procedural distinction makes all the difference, we are told, because the Sixth Amendment's jury trial promise applies only to "criminal prosecutions," which end with the issuance of a sentence and do not extend to "postjudgment sentence-administration proceedings." Brief for United States 24; see also post, at 2393 - 2395 (ALITO, J., dissenting) (echoing this argument).
But we have been down this road before. Our precedents, Apprendi, Blakely, and Alleyne included, have repeatedly rejected efforts to dodge the demands of the Fifth and Sixth Amendments by the simple expedient of relabeling a criminal prosecution a "sentencing enhancement." Calling part of a criminal prosecution a "sentence modification" imposed at a "postjudgment sentence-administration proceeding" can fare no better. As this Court has repeatedly explained, any "increase in a defendant's authorized punishment contingent on the finding of a fact" requires a jury and proof beyond a reasonable doubt "no matter" what the government chooses to call the exercise. Ring, 536 U.S. at 602, 122 S.Ct. 2428.
To be sure, and as the government and dissent emphasize, founding-era prosecutions traditionally ended at final judgment. But at that time, generally, "questions of guilt and punishment both were resolved in a single proceeding" subject to the Fifth and Sixth Amendment's demands. Douglass, Confronting Death: Sixth Amendment Rights at Capital Sentencing, 105 Colum. L. Rev. 1967, 2011 (2005) ; see also supra, at 7. Over time, procedures changed as legislatures sometimes bifurcated criminal prosecutions into separate trial and penalty phases. But none of these developments licensed judges to sentence individuals to punishments beyond the legal limits fixed by the facts found in the jury's verdict. See ibid. To the contrary, we recognized in Apprendi and Alleyne, a "criminal prosecution" continues and the defendant remains an "accused" with all the rights provided by the Sixth Amendment, until a final sentence is imposed. See Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 481-482, 120 S.Ct. 2348.
Today, we merely acknowledge that an accused's final sentence includes any supervised release sentence he may receive. Nor in saying that do we say anything new: This Court has already recognized that supervised release punishments arise from and are "treat[ed]... as part of the penalty for the initial offense." Johnson v. United States, 529 U.S. 694, 700, 120 S.Ct. 1795, 146 L.Ed.2d 727 (2000). The defendant receives a term of supervised release thanks to his initial offense, and whether that release is later revoked or sustained, it constitutes a part of the final sentence for his crime. As at the initial sentencing hearing, that does not mean a jury must find every fact in a revocation hearing that may affect the judge's exercise of discretion within the range of punishments authorized by the jury's verdict. But it does mean that a jury must find any facts that trigger a new mandatory minimum prison term.
This logic respects not only our precedents, but the original meaning of the jury trial right they seek to protect. The Constitution seeks to safeguard the people's control over the business of judicial punishments by ensuring that any accusation triggering a new and additional punishment is proven to the satisfaction of a jury beyond a reasonable doubt. By contrast, the view the government and dissent espouse would demote the jury from its historic role as "circuitbreaker in the State's machinery of justice," Blakely, 542 U.S. at 306, 124 S.Ct. 2531, to " 'low-level gatekeeping,' " Booker, 543 U.S. at 230, 125 S.Ct. 738. If the government and dissent were correct, Congress could require anyone convicted of even a modest crime to serve a sentence of supervised release for the rest of his life. At that point, a judge could try and convict him of any violation of the terms of his release under a preponderance of the evidence standard, and then sentence him to pretty much anything. At oral argument, the government even conceded that, under its theory, a defendant on supervised release would have no Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial when charged with an infraction carrying the death penalty. We continue to doubt whether even Apprendi's fiercest critics "would advocate" such an "absurd result." Blakely, 542 U.S. at 306, 124 S.Ct. 2531.
B
Where it previously suggested that Mr. Haymond's supervised release revocation proceeding was entirely divorced from his criminal prosecution, the government next turns around and suggests that Mr. Haymond's sentence for violating the terms of his supervised release was actually fully authorized by the jury's verdict. See also post, at 2389 - 2390 (ALITO, J., dissenting) (proposing a similar theory). After all, the government observes, on the strength of the jury's findings the judge was entitled to impose as punishment a term of supervised release; and, in turn, that term of supervised release was from the outset always subject to the possibility of judicial revocation and § 3583(k)'s mandatory prison sentence. Presto: Sixth Amendment problem solved.
But we have been down this road too. In Apprendi and Alleyne, the jury's verdict triggered a statute that authorized a judge at sentencing to increase the defendant's term of imprisonment based on judge-found facts. This Court had no difficulty rejecting that scheme as an impermissible evasion of the historic rule that a jury must find all of the facts necessary to authorize a judicial punishment. See Alleyne, 570 U.S. at 117, 133 S.Ct. 2151 ; Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 483, 120 S.Ct. 2348. And what was true there can be no less true here: A mandatory minimum 5-year sentence that comes into play only as a result of additional judicial factual findings by a preponderance of the evidence cannot stand. This Court's observation that "postrevocation sanctions" are "treat[ed]... as part of the penalty for the initial offense," Johnson, 529 U.S. at 700, 120 S.Ct. 1795, only highlights the constitutional infirmity of § 3583(k) : Treating Mr. Haymond's 5-year mandatory minimum prison term as part of his sentence for his original offense makes clear that it mirrors the unconstitutional sentencing enhancement in Alleyne. See supra, at 2379 - 2380.
Notice, too, that following the government down this road would lead to the same destination as the last: If the government were right, a jury's conviction on one crime would (again) permit perpetual supervised release and allow the government to evade the need for another jury trial on any other offense the defendant might commit, no matter how grave the punishment. And if there's any doubt about the incentives such a rule would create, consider this case. Instead of seeking a revocation of supervised release, the government could have chosen to prosecute Mr. Haymond under a statute mandating a term of imprisonment of 10 to 20 years for repeat child-pornography offenders. 18 U.S.C. § 2252(b)(2). But why bother with an old-fashioned jury trial for a new crime when a quick-and-easy "supervised release revocation hearing" before a judge carries a penalty of five years to life? This displacement of the jury's traditional supervisory role, under cover of a welter of new labels, exemplifies the "Framers' fears that the jury right could be lost not only by gross denial, but by erosion." Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 483, 120 S.Ct. 2348 (internal quotation marks omitted).
C
Pivoting once more, the government and the dissent seem to accept for argument's sake that "postjudgment sentence-administration proceedings" can implicate the Fifth and Sixth Amendments. See post, at 2376 - 2379. But, they contend, § 3583(k)'s supervised release revocation procedures are practically identical to historic parole and probation revocation procedures. See, e.g., Gagnon v. Scarpelli, 411 U.S. 778, 93 S.Ct. 1756, 36 L.Ed.2d 656 (1973) ; Morrissey v. Brewer, 408 U.S. 471, 92 S.Ct. 2593, 33 L.Ed.2d 484 (1972). And, because those other procedures have usually been understood to comport with the Fifth and Sixth Amendments, they submit, § 3583(k)'s procedures must do so as well.
But this argument, too, rests on a faulty premise, overlooking a critical difference between § 3583(k) and traditional parole and probation practices. Before the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, a federal criminal defendant could serve as little as a third of his assigned prison term before becoming eligible for release on parole. See 18 U.S.C. § 4205(a) (1982 ed.). Or he might avoid prison altogether in favor of probation. See § 3561 (1982 ed.). If the defendant violated the terms of his parole or probation, a judge could send him to prison. But either way and as we've seen, a judge generally could sentence the defendant to serve only the remaining prison term authorized by statute for his original crime of conviction. See supra, at 2376 - 2377; Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 477, 92 S.Ct. 2593 ("The essence of parole is release from prison, before the completion of sentence" (emphasis added)). Thus, a judge could not imprison a defendant for any longer than the jury's factual findings allowed-a result entirely harmonious with the Fifth and Sixth Amendments. See Apprendi, 530 U.S. at 498, 120 S.Ct. 2348 (Scalia, J., concurring); Blakely, 542 U.S. at 309, 124 S.Ct. 2531.
All that changed beginning in 1984. That year, Congress overhauled federal sentencing procedures to make prison terms more determinate and abolish the practice of parole. Now, when a defendant is sentenced to prison he generally must serve the great bulk of his assigned term. In parole's place, Congress established the system of supervised release. But "[u]nlike parole," supervised release wasn't introduced to replace a portion of the defendant's prison term, only to encourage rehabilitation after the completion of his prison term. United States Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual ch. 7, pt. A(2)(b) (Nov. 2012); see Doherty, Indeterminate Sentencing Returns: The Invention of Supervised Release, 88 N. Y. U. L. Rev. 958, 1024 (2013).
In this case, that structural difference bears constitutional consequences. Where parole and probation violations generally exposed a defendant only to the remaining prison term authorized for his crime of conviction, as found by a unanimous jury under the reasonable doubt standard, supervised release violations subject to § 3583(k) can, at least as applied in cases like ours, expose a defendant to an additional mandatory minimum prison term well beyond that authorized by the jury's verdict-all based on facts found by a judge by a mere preponderance of the evidence. In fact, § 3583(k) differs in this critical respect not only from parole and probation; it also represents a break from the supervised release practices that Congress authorized in § 3583(e)(3) and that govern most federal criminal proceedings today. Unlike all those procedures, § 3583(k) alone requires a substantial increase in the minimum sentence to which a defendant may be exposed based only on judge-found facts under a preponderance standard. And, as we explained in Alleyne and reaffirm today, that offends the Fifth and Sixth Amendments' ancient protections.
D
The dissent suggests an analogy between revocation under § 3583(k) and prison disciplinary procedures that do not normally require the involvement of a jury. Post, at 2396 - 2397. But the analogy is a strained one: While the Sixth Amendment surely does not require a jury to find every fact that the government relies on to adjust the terms of a prisoner's confinement (say, by reducing some of his privileges as a sanction for violating the prison rules), that does not mean the government can send a free man back to prison for years based on judge-found facts.
Again, practice in the early Republic confirms this. At that time, a term of imprisonment may have been understood as encompassing a degree of summary discipline for alleged infractions of prison regulations without the involvement of a jury. See F. Gray, Prison Discipline in America 22-23, 48-49 (1848). But that does not mean any sanction, no matter how serious, would have been considered part and parcel of the original punishment. On the contrary, the few courts that grappled with this issue seem to have recognized that "infamous" punishments, such as a substantial additional term in prison, might implicate the right to trial by jury. See, e.g., Gross v. Rice, 71 Me. 241, 246-252 (1880) ; In re Edwards, 43 N.J.L. 555, 557-558 (1881).
What's more, a tradition of summary process in prison, where administrators face the "formidable task" of controlling a large group of potentially unruly prisoners, does not necessarily support the use of such summary process outside the prison walls. O'Lone v. Estate of Shabazz, 482 U.S. 342, 353, 107 S.Ct. 2400, 96 L.Ed.2d 282 (1987) ; cf. Morrissey, 408 U.S. at 482, 92 S.Ct. 2593. We have long held that prison regulations that impinge on the constitutional rights inmates would enjoy outside of prison must be "reasonably related to legitimate penological interests" in managing the prison. Turner v. Safley, 482 U.S. 78, 89, 107 S.Ct. 2254, 96 L.Ed.2d 64 (1987). That approach, we have said, ensures that corrections officials can " 'anticipate security problems' " and address " 'the intractable problems of prison administration.' " O'Lone, 482 U.S. at 349, 107 S.Ct. 2400 ; see also Dahne v. Richey, 587 U. S. ----, ----, 139 S.Ct. 1531, 1532, --- L.Ed.2d ---- (2019) (ALITO, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari) ("To maintain order, prison authorities may insist on compliance with rules that would not be permitted in the outside world"). Whether or not the Turner test applies to prisoners' jury trial rights, we certainly have never extended it to the jury rights of persons out in the world who retain the core attributes of liberty. Cf. Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 874, n. 2, 107 S.Ct. 3164, 97 L.Ed.2d 709 (1987) (reserving question whether Turner applies to probation). Even the government has not asked us to do so today.
E
Finally, much of the dissent is consumed by what it calls the "potentially revolutionary" consequences of our opinion. Post, at 2396 - 2397; see also post, at 2394, 2399 (calling our opinion "inexcusable," "unpardonabl[e]," and "dangerous"); post, at 2388 (our opinion threatens to bring "the whole concept of supervised release... crashing down"); post, at 2391 (under our opinion, "the whole system of supervised release would be like a 40-ton truck speeding down a steep mountain road with no brakes"). But what agitates the dissent so much is an issue not presented here: whether all supervised release proceedings comport with Apprendi. As we have emphasized, our decision is limited to § 3583(k) -an unusual provision enacted little more than a decade ago-and the Alleyne problem raised by its 5-year mandatory minimum term of imprisonment. See n. 7, supra. Section § 3583(e), which governs supervised release revocation proceedings generally, does not contain any similar mandatory minimum triggered by judge-found facts.
Besides, even if our opinion could be read to cast doubts on § 3583(e) and its consistency with Apprendi, the practical consequences of a holding to that effect would not come close to fulfilling the dissent's apocalyptic prophecy. In most cases (including this one), combining a defendant's initial and post-revocation sentences issued under § 3583(e) will not yield a term of imprisonment that exceeds the statutory maximum term of imprisonment the jury has authorized for the original crime of conviction. That's because "courts rarely sentence defendants to the statutory maxima," United States v. Caso, 723 F.3d 215, 224-225 (C.A.D.C. 2013) (citing Sentencing Commission data indicating that only about 1% of defendants receive the maximum), and revocation penalties under § 3583(e)(3) are only a small fraction of those available under § 3583(k). So even if § 3583(e)(3) turns out to raise Sixth Amendment issues in a small set of cases, it hardly follows that "as a practical matter supervised-release revocation proceedings cannot be held" or that "the whole idea of supervised release must fall." Post, at 238. Indeed, the vast majority of supervised release revocation proceedings under subsection (e)(3) would likely be unaffected.
In the end, the dissent is left only to echo an age-old criticism: Jury trials are inconvenient for the government. Yet like much else in our Constitution, the jury system isn't designed to promote efficiency but to protect liberty. In what now seems a prescient passage, Blackstone warned that the true threat to trial by jury would come less from "open attacks," which "none will be so hardy as to make," as from subtle "machinations, which may sap and undermine i[t] by introducing new and arbitrary methods." 4 Blackstone 343. This Court has repeatedly sought to guard the historic role of the jury against such incursions. For "however convenient these may appear at first, (as doubtless all arbitrary powers, well executed, are the most convenient ) yet let it be again remembered, that delays, and little inconveniences in the forms of justice, are the price that all free nations must pay for their liberty in more substantial matters." Id., at 344.
IV
Having concluded that the application of § 3583(k)'s mandatory minimum in this case violated Mr. Haymond's right to trial by jury, we face the question of remedy. Recall that the Tenth Circuit declared the last two sentences of § 3583(k) "unconstitutional and unenforceable." Those two sentences provide in relevant part that "[i]f a defendant required to register under [SORNA]" commits certain specified offenses, "the court shall revoke the term of supervised release and require the defendant to serve a term of imprisonment [of] not... less than 5 years."
Before us, the government suggests that the Tenth Circuit erred in declaring those two sentences "unenforceable." That remedy, the government says, sweeps too broadly. In the government's view, any constitutional infirmity can be cured simply by requiring juries acting under the reasonable doubt standard, rather than judges proceeding under the preponderance of the evidence standard, to find the facts necessary to trigger § 3583(k)'s mandatory minimum. This remedy would be consistent with the statute's terms, the government assures us, because "the court" authorized to revoke a term of supervised release in § 3583(k) can and should be construed as embracing not only judges but also juries. And, the government insists, that means we should direct the court of appeals to send this case back to the district court so a jury may be empaneled to decide whether Mr. Haymond violated § 3583(k). Unsurprisingly, Mr. Haymond contests all of this vigorously.
We decline to tangle with the parties' competing remedial arguments today. The Tenth Circuit did not address these arguments; it appears the government did not even discuss the possibility of empaneling a jury in its brief to that court; and this Court normally proceeds as a "court of review, not of first view," Cutter v. Wilkinson, 544 U.S. 709, 718, n. 7, 125 S.Ct. 2113, 161 L.Ed.2d 1020 (2005). Given all this, we believe the wiser course lies in returning the case to the court of appeals for it to have the opportunity to address the government's remedial argument in the first instance, including

Question: What is the basis of the Supreme Court's decision?
A. judicial review (national level)
B. judicial review (state level)
C. Supreme Court supervision of lower federal or state courts or original jurisdiction
D. statutory construction
E. interpretation of administrative regulation or rule, or executive order
F. diversity jurisdiction
G. federal common law
Answer:

Answer: A