Task: songer_genapel1

What follows is an opinion from a United States Court of Appeals.
Intervenors who participated as parties at the courts of appeals should be counted as either appellants or respondents when it can be determined whose position they supported. For example, if there were two plaintiffs who lost in district court, appealed, and were joined by four intervenors who also asked the court of appeals to reverse the district court, the number of appellants should be coded as six.
When coding the detailed nature of participants, use your personal knowledge about the participants, if you are completely confident of the accuracy of your knowledge, even if the specific information is not in the opinion. For example, if "IBM" is listed as the appellant it could be classified as "clearly national or international in scope" even if the opinion did not indicate the scope of the business. 
Your task is to determine the nature of the first listed appellant.

TJOFLAT, Chief Judge:
This is a suit brought by ten present and former inmates of Glades Correctional Institution (GCI), a Florida prison. They seek individually, under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1988), money damages for cruel and unusual punishment they allege they suffered because of the deliberate indifference of a former superintendent of the institution, Randall Turner. The plaintiffs still housed at GCI also seek an injunction, on behalf of all present and future inmates at the prison, against the current superintendent, Chester Lambdin, to correct certain allegedly unconstitutional conditions of confinement.
After the parties joined issue (on the plaintiffs’ third amended complaint), the district court, having denied Turner’s demand for a jury trial, tried the ten damages claims and entered judgment for eight of them. Turner appealed, but we dismissed the appeal for want of a final judgment as the district court had not disposed of the still pending claim for injunctive relief. LaMarca v. Turner, 861 F.2d 724 (11th Cir.1988) (Table) (the first appeal). After our order dismissing the appeal reached the district court, Turner moved the court to reopen the record on the plaintiffs’ damages claims so that he could introduce some additional evidence on the issue of liability. The court, concluding that it lacked jurisdiction to revisit those claims, denied the motion. The court then turned to the claim for injunctive relief.
After hearing five days of testimony relating to the current conditions of confinement, the court identified several areas of concern that “require[d its] attention.” Although the challenged prison conditions had improved considerably, the court concluded that injunc-tive relief was necessary. The court’s final judgment therefore granted injunctive relief and the money damages previously awarded, along with attorney’s fees under 42 U.S.C. § 1988 (1988). The instant appeal is from that final judgment. Turner appeals the damages awards; Lambdin appeals the injunction.
We now vacate all of the damages awards and remand them for further proceedings. We do so as to five of the appellees because the court should have honored Turner’s demand for a jury trial. As to the three remaining appellees, the court applied the wrong legal standard for Eighth Amendment damages liability and, moreover, erred in concluding that it lacked jurisdiction (following dismissal of the first appeal) to reopen the record and entertain the evidence Turner proffered in defense of the damages claims. Finally, we vacate in part the injunction against Lambdin and remand the matter of equitable relief for further proceedings.
Part I of this opinion outlines the case’s procedural history and describes the facts underlying the damages claims and the claim for injunctive relief. Part II rejects Turner’s argument that the plaintiffs failed to present sufficient evidence to prevail, but holds that the district court applied the wrong legal standard for Eighth Amendment liability for money damages. Part III addresses the district court’s grant of injunctive relief. Part IV considers Turner’s Seventh Amendment jury demand. Finally, part V reviews Turner’s attacks on the trial court’s treatment of his motions to continue and to augment the trial record.
I.
A
On May 14, 1982, Anthony LaMarca, then an inmate at GCI, filed a handwritten pro se complaint in the district court stating that he had “been countlessly approached, threatened with physical violence and assaulted by other inmates at [GCI] because [he] refused to participate in homosexual activities, or pay protection to be left alone.” He alleged that “a severe lack of protection” existed at GCI and that “the institution seem[ed] unable or unwilling to handle the situation.” On September 21, 1983, LaMarca, having obtained counsel, filed an amended complaint adding three other GCI prisoners as plaintiffs, Martin Saunders, Edwin Johnson, and Henry Rosenbaum. Each-prisoner sought damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, and, as class representatives, “injunctive relief for all... present and future inmates of GCI.” On November 2, 1983, the defendants, Turner and Lambdin, filed their answer to the first amended complaint.
On August 26, 1985, more than a year and a half after the defendants answered the first amended complaint, the plaintiffs moved the court to amend the complaint a second time, adding seven plaintiffs, David Aldred, Steve H. Bronson, Jr., Eddie Cobb, Ron Durrance, Wayne Eppreeht, Michael Gordon, and Keith Harris. Each alleged that he was assaulted while an inmate at GCI, and sought damages against Turner under 42 U.S.C. § 1983.
The defendants objected to the joinder of these additional plaintiffs, claiming that the joinder would unreasonably burden their preparation for trial which was then set for November 4,1985. Nevertheless, the magistrate judge who was to hear the case granted plaintiffs’ motion to amend. The defendants immediately requested a continuance of the trial, arguing that in light of the presence of the seven new plaintiffs, they required at least ninety days for additional discovery and trial preparation. The magistrate judge granted the defendants a one-month continuance, resetting the trial for December 2, 1985. On November 8, 1985, the defendants filed a demand for jury trial “of all issues so triable.”
On November 13,1985, Turner and Lamb-din requested another continuance, claiming that they could not complete discovery and prepare for trial by the December 2 trial date. Two days later, before the court could act on the motion, the plaintiffs moved the court for leave to file a third amended complaint, adding another plaintiff, Billy Joe Harper, who sought damages against Turner, and dropping Harris from the suit. The court referred both motions to the magistrate judge. On November 28, the magistrate judge gave the plaintiffs leave to amend, but refused to grant the defendants a continuance or a jury trial. The defendants, pursuant to S.D.Fla.Mag.J.R. 4(a), immediately appealed the magistrate judge’s rulings to the district court. On December 2, the court affirmed these rulings and the trial began.
To summarize, on December 2, the case proceeded to trial on the allegations of the third amended complaint. This complaint stated section 1983 claims for damages against Turner, individually, by LaMarca, Saunders, and Johnson (the original plaintiffs), and Aldred, Bronson, Cobb, Durrance, Epprecht, Gordon, and Harper (the new plaintiffs). The original plaintiffs also served as representatives for purposes of the class action claim for injunctive relief against Lambdin in his official capacity as superintendent of GCI.
B.
The magistrate judge, operating under S.D.Fla.Mag.J.R. 1(f), commenced the bench trial. At the plaintiffs’ request, the magistrate judge bifurcated the proceeding, indefinitely postponing consideration of the claim for injunctive relief. The trial, therefore, considered only the damages claims against Turner. The following is a brief statement of the facts the court found.
The inmate assaults complained of occurred between 1981 and 1984, during Turner’s tenure as superintendent. GCI had four dorms (“A”, “B”, “C”, “D”). The A and D dorms each had two wings containing three rows of twenty bunk beds. The B and C dorms were smaller, but also had bunk beds arranged in three rows. Each dorm had a shower, located at one end of the building, and a “wicket,” or cage, located in the center of the dorm, that provided officers with a vantage point from which to observe the inmates. A guard’s view from the wicket into the interior of the dorm and the shower area was obstructed by sheets and towels the inmates hung from their bunk beds, the placement of bunk beds next to the isles leading to the shower area, and opaque glass on the shower door. While officers were supposed to patrol the interiors of the dorms regularly, they did not.
The prison also maintained cells for disciplinary, administrative, and protective confinements. This special detention suffered from substandard conditions. The cells lacked adequate ventilation, had poor lighting, and were infested with roaches and vermin. Prisoners were allowed little or no exercise, only three showers a week, no canteen privileges, and only limited use of the law library. Inmates in the general population could gain access to the confinement area by crawling under a poorly maintained fence or with the permission of the guard in charge of the area. These confinements, therefore, failed to insulate inmates from their tormentors. Finally, an inordinate number of inmates requested protective confinement, leading to overcrowding and indicating that a serious problem existed in the general population. The court found that the conditions in protective confinement were substandard, and therefore discouraged inmates from remaining in this potential safe-haven.
Turner, in a July 16, 1981 letter to his superior, described the prevailing atmosphere at GCI: “On an almost daily basis I feel that our security staff is simply being tolerated by the inmate population rather than being in control of the operation of the institution.” LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 673. The presence of contraband (weapons, alcohol, and drugs), corruption of GCI’s staff, inmate violence, and homosexual activity were accepted as part of prison life.
While a minimal level of contraband may be an unavoidable aspect of prison life, excessive quantities of contraband flowed freely into and within the prison. Prison officials made “little or no effort... to control illicit activity at GCI, resulting in readily-available contraband.” Id. at 657. Inmates carried knives and openly used drugs. The contraband problem was compounded by staff corruption, as prison officials contributed to, and apparently profited from, the contraband, and utilized prisoners to “control” and punish other prisoners.
GCI’s staff permitted regular, unsupervised showings of hard-core pornographic movies. As Dr. Swanson, an expert witness for the plaintiffs, testified, these movies “would only serve to maximize the possibility of sexual and other violence.” Indicative of this observation, during the movies, “[s]ounds of inmates screaming and crying could be heard.”
When alerted to specific dangers, prison staff often looked the other way rather than protect inmates. Rather than offer to help, the staff suggested that the inmates deal with their problems “like men,” that is, use physical force against the aggressive inmate.
Several management problems persisted during Turner’s tenure as superintendent: low morale among the prison’s staff, high employee turnover (leading to a less experienced staff), high vacancy rates for staff positions, and inadequate supervision of employees. As Turner confirmed, these problems had a direct effect on GCI’s ability to maintain security. Certain of the prison’s standard operating procedures were insufficient to protect prisoner safety. For example, the procedures for investigating rapes, to the extent such procedures existed, were not followed; some of the reported incidents were not investigated at all. The lack of such procedures created an atmosphere of tolerance of rape which enhanced the risk that incidents would occur. Id. at 678 (finding an atmosphere where “inmates could rape other vulnerable inmates without concern of being detected or deterred”).
Aggression was commonplace and exacerbated by the readily available contraband and an excessively permissive atmosphere. While underfunding, overcrowding, and a lack of security personnel no doubt contributed to these problems, Turner could have controlled the permissive atmosphere through proper supervision and could have remedied the contraband problems with inexpensive modifications to the prison’s procedures and physical plant. In sum, as the court concluded, “Turner’s overall laxity in managing and controlling his staff’ directly contributed to an unconstitutional condition of confinement at GCI consisting of an undeterred atmosphere of violence. Id. at 662, 684.
For purposes of this appeal, the appellants concede the credibility of the plaintiffs’ accounts of the alleged assaults. A group of inmates, one brandishing a bush ax, made an unsuccessful attempt sexually to assault La-Marca in a dorm. Inmates raped Saunders in a small bathroom adjacent to the confinement area; he reported the incident but officials did not investigate and refused his request for a medical examination. Inmates repeatedly attacked Johnson while he was in protective confinement. Inmates raped Al-dred and Durranee in shower areas. Aldred reported the incident to an officer, but there was no investigation. Bronson was sexually assaulted with the handle of a baseball bat on GCI’s recreation field. Cobb was stabbed by an inmate who, because of his cooperation with guards in conducting illicit activities, was protected.
C.
On January 8, 1986, after the parties had filed proposed findings of fact and conclusions of law, and had argued them before the magistrate judge, the magistrate judge issued a 135-page “Report and Recommendation” recommending a specific damages award for each of the ten plaintiffs. The district court reviewed the magistrate judge’s report de novo, see Federal Magistrate’s Act, 28 U.S.C. § 636(b)(1) (1988); S.D.Fla.Mag-is.J.R. 4(b), and adopted his recommendations in all relevant detail as to eight of the plaintiffs. The court entered judgment accordingly on June 4, 1987.
As noted earlier, although the district court had neither addressed nor disposed of the claim for injunctive relief, Turner appealed to this court. We dismissed the appeal for want of a final judgment and returned the case to the district court for further proceedings on that claim.
D.
On the first day of trial before the district court on the claim for injunctive relief, David M. Lipman, counsel for the inmate class, conceded that the atmosphere at GCI had changed “in such a manner that as to [many] conditions and practices, [the class] no longer [sought] injunctive relief.” Although the district court observed that Superintendent Lambdin “appears to be a dedicated public servant,” and that physical conditions at GCI were “generally satisfactory,” the court found “ample room for improvement in the conditions at GCI.” In the court’s view, the superintendent and his staff still did not take the threat of inmate violence seriously enough. In particular, they failed to ensure that GCI’s policies designed to protect prisoners, including regular security patrols, were properly carried out. Finally, the court concluded that GCI’s failure to make adequate psychological counseling available to rape victims constituted cruel and unusual punishment because it constituted deliberate indifference to a serious medical need. See generally Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97, S.Ct. 285, 50 L.Ed.2d 251 (1976).
Concluding that Lambdin had not shown that “the wrongs of the past could not reasonably be expected to recur,” the court ordered injunctive relief. On October 6, 1990, the court entered a final judgment (1) providing such relief, (2) incorporating by reference the judgment it had entered on June 4,1987, which awarded eight of the plaintiffs money damages against Turner, and (3) awarding the plaintiffs attorney’s fees.
II.
Turner challenges the court’s determination that he was deliberately indifferent to the plaintiffs’ safety in violation of the Eighth Amendment and 42 U.S.C. § 1983. He asserts that the plaintiffs failed to make out a case of liability against him — in particular, he claims that the evidence does not support the district court’s findings of fact — and that the court applied the wrong legal standard in determining liability. We conclude that although the record contains sufficient evidence upon which the district court could find liability, the court failed to make certain essential findings of fact and erred in its legal analysis. Consequently, we return this case to the district court for further consideration.
In subpart A, we review the elements necessary to establish Turner’s liability for money damages under section 1983 and the sufficiency of the evidence presented as to each element. We review the evidence presented at trial in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs. Whitley v. Albers, 475 U.S. 312, 322, 106 S.Ct. 1078, 1085, 89 L.Ed.2d 251 (1986). Because we conclude that the evidence was sufficient as to each element, in subpart B we address Turner’s specific challenges to the legal standard the district court employed. As discussed in part IV, Turner was entitled to a jury trial as to the new plaintiffs’ claims; we, therefore, only review these challenges in the context of the original plaintiffs’ claims.
A.
The plaintiffs claim that Turner failed to provide them with reasonable protection from prison violence in violation of the Eighth Amendment. The plaintiffs do not argue that Turner knew of specific threats to their safety. Rather, they argue that Turner failed to ensure their protection from the general danger arising from a prison environment that both stimulated and condoned violence. This theory of liability creates substantial, but, as we shall see, not insurmountable obstacles to the plaintiffs’ claims.
To prevail on their Eighth Amendment claim for damages brought under section 1983, the plaintiffs must prove three elements: (1) a condition of confinement that inflicted unnecessary pain or suffering, Rhodes v. Chapman, 452 U.S. 337, 347, 101 S.Ct. 2392, 2399, 69 L.Ed.2d 59 (1981), (2) the defendant’s “deliberate indifference” to that condition, Wilson v. Seiter, — U.S. -, 111 S.Ct. 2321, 2327, 115 L.Ed.2d 271 (1991), and (3) causation, Williams v. Bennett, 689 F.2d 1370, 1389-90 (11th Cir.1982). For our purposes, the Eighth Amendment defines the contours of the first two elements and section 1983 delimits the third.
1.
First, the condition must have inflicted unnecessary pain or suffering upon the prisoner. This objective standard “embodies ‘broad and idealistic concepts of dignity, civilized standards, humanity, and decency...,’” but must be balanced against competing penological goals. Gamble, 429 U.S. at 102, 97 S.Ct. at 290 (quoting Jackson v. Bishop, 404 F.2d 571, 579 (8th Cir.1968)). The evidence presented at trial of an unjustified constant and unreasonable exposure to violence at GCI, as described in part I.B., clearly satisfies this standard. Zatler v. Wainwright, 802 F.2d 397, 400 (11th Cir. 1986); Williams, 689 F.2d at 1376; see Wilson, — U.S. at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2326-27; Jones v. Diamond, 636 F.2d 1364, 1374 (5th Cir.) (“When prison officials have failed to control or separate prisoners who endanger the physical safety of other prisoners and the level of violence has become so high... it constitutes cruel and unusual punishment-”), cert. dismissed, 453 U.S. 950, 102 S.Ct. 27, 69 L.Ed.2d 1033 (1981), and overruled on other grounds by International Woodworkers of Am. v. Champion Intern. Corp., 790 F.2d 1174 (5th Cir.1986); Gates v. Collier, 501 F.2d 1291, 1308-10 (5th Cir. 1974).
2.
Second, the plaintiffs must show the defendant’s deliberate indifference to the conditions. The Supreme Court recently held that the Eighth Amendment contains a subjective component: whether the defendant wantonly permitted the constitutionally infirm condition to persist. Wilson, — U.S. at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2323; see also Gamble, 429 U.S. at 104, 97 S.Ct. at 291. In prison condition cases, “deliberate indifference” constitutes wantonness. Wilson, — U.S. at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2327.
To be deliberately indifferent, a prison official must knowingly or recklessly disregard an inmate’s basic needs so that knowledge can be inferred. Duckworth v. Franzen, 780 F.2d 645, 652 (7th Cir.1985), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 816, 107 S.Ct. 71, 93 L.Ed.2d 28 (1986). Because the Eighth Amendment requires a subjective standard, to demonstrate an official’s deliberate indifference, a plaintiff must prove that the official possessed knowledge both of the infirm condition and of the means to cure that condition, “so that a conscious, culpable refusal to prevent the harm can be inferred from the defendant’s failure to prevent it.” Duck-worth, 780 F.2d at 653. Thus, if an official attempts to remedy a constitutionally deficient prison condition, but fails in that endeavor, he cannot be deliberately indifferent unless he knows of, but disregards, an appropriate and sufficient alternative.
In this case, the plaintiffs presented incident reports, internal staff reports, and reports by external investigators each supporting a finding that Turner knew that an unreasonable risk of violence existed at GCI and knew of alternative means that would have brought that risk to within constitutional norms. For example, a January 30,1980 Palm Beach County Grand Jury Presentment identified evidence of “lax security precautions,” and recommended procedural changes in light of “accusations of drugs, alcohol, and other contraband, gambling, theft, confiscation, and payoffs among the inmates and personnel of GCI.” Similarly, an external management review of GCI conducted from August 26 to 29,1980, concluded that “[t]he assault trend, both inmate on inmate and inmate on staff, from July 1979, through June 1980, has increased.” Finally, Turner’s July 16, 1981 letter to his superiors evidenced his knowledge of a lack of
control of the operation of the institution.... Many of the officers that we have assigned to very sensitive security posts are so inexperienced or else have so little capability in this business that they simply do not realize the seriousness of dealing with the type of personnel that we are receiving.
The plaintiffs’ evidence painted a dark picture of life at GCI; a picture that would be apparent to any knowledgeable observer, and certainly to an official in Turner’s position. An inference can be drawn from this evidence that Turner did know that GCI failed to provide inmates with reasonable protection from violence.
Mere knowledge of the infirm conditions persisting at GCI does not establish deliberate indifference. The plaintiffs must also demonstrate that, with knowledge of the infirm conditions, Turner knowingly or recklessly declined to take actions that would have improved the conditions.
Turner points to evidence of his actions to improve safety conditions at GCI to illustrate his affirmative efforts to improve the conditions of confinement there. Turner testified that he attempted to secure additional funds, make improvements to GCI’s physical plant, expand recruitment efforts, and institute policies that would have reduced the risk of violence if his staff had followed them. Turner argues that he was unable to ameliorate further the unsafe conditions at GCI; he did all he could within the budgetary constraints he faced, and, therefore, was not deliberately indifferent.
In rebuttal, the plaintiffs presented evidence (1) that Turner failed to ensure that his direct subordinates followed the policies he established, and (2) of specific, low-cost actions that Turner could have taken and that his successors successfully undertook. This evidence supports a finding that Turner knowingly “fail[ed] adequately to supervise correctional officers up to the lieutenant level[,] resulting] in corruption and incompetence among the officers and a lack of reasonable protection of inmates.” LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 665; see Harris v. Thigpen, 941 F.2d 1495, 1505 (11th Cir.1991) (suggesting that inadequate staffing may rise to deliberate indifference as to prisoner safety (citing Ramos v. Lamm, 639 F.2d 559, 575 (10th Cir.1980, cert. denied, 450 U.S. 1041, 101 S.Ct. 1759, 68 L.Ed.2d 239 (1981))); cf. Jordan v. Gardner, 986 F.2d 1521, 1530 (9th Cir.1993) (en banc) (“It is simply not enough to say... that [the official] gave the issue a great deal of thought. The ‘sufficiently culpable state of mind’ necessary to find deliberate indifference has more meaning than that.”).
Determining whether Turner otherwise lacked the means to correct GCI’s failure adequately to protect inmates requires a more detailed analysis. In Williams, we held that an official “may not escape liability solely because of the legislature’s failure to appropriate requested [and necessary] funds.” 689 F.2d at 1387. Where, as here, the lack of funds contributed to the condition, the plaintiffs must “demonstrate that a particular defendant [nevertheless] had the capability (authority and means) to provide adequate security and did not do so.” Id. at 1389.
To circumvent Turner’s “insufficient funds defense,” the plaintiffs presented evidence of Turner’s capacity, within budgetary constraints, to improve prison safety. We agree with the district court that the plaintiffs’ evidence supports the findings that Turner could have, but did not, take steps to minimize at least the following problems at GCI:
(1) improper and inadequate staff training..., (2) a staff out of control who did not report rapes, assaults, and illegal activities up through the chain of command, (3) [Turner’s] failure to supervise staff and administer measures which would “minimize the chance of error and maximize the full satisfaction of constitutional protection,” in (i) not stationing officers to patrol throughout the dormitories, particularly at night, and leave the wicket cage, and in (ii) permitting the obscuring of vision of the officers in the wicket by allowing inmates to hang sheets..., (4) [Turner’s] shocking failure to employ any standard procedure to investigate incidents of alleged rapes, [ (5) ] [Turner’s] failure to provide inmate movement controls thus reducing the casual egress and ingress of aggressive assailant wolves within the open dormitories, and [ (6) ] [Turner’s] failure to transfer know[n] assailants or inmates who should have been known to be assailants out of GCI.
LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 708 (citations omitted).
Consideration of such evidence comes perilously close to second-guessing the difficult choices that prison officials must face and of improperly extending deliberate indifference standards to mere “inadvertence or error[s] in good faith.” Wilson, — U.S. at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2324 (citing Whitley v. Albers, 475 U.S. 312, 319, 106 S.Ct 1078, 1084, 89 L.Ed.2d 251 (1986)). Nevertheless, such evidence is probative of the means available to Turner and must be considered. This evidence directly addresses the question of whether monetary restraints frustrated Turner’s good faith efforts, or whether he knowingly or recklessly disregarded solutions within his means. While much of the record indicates that Turner did make good faith efforts to resolve the dilemmas facing GCI, the evidence does support the plaintiffs’ position that Turner recklessly disregarded the necessary means to protect inmate safety.
3.
Third, section 1983 “requires proof of an affirmative causal connection between the actions taken by a particular person ‘under color of state lavif and the constitutional deprivation.” Williams, 689 F.2d at 1380 (citing Monell v. Department of Social Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 692, 98 S.Ct. 2018, 2036, 56 L.Ed.2d 611 (1978)); Redman v. County of San Diego, 942 F.2d 1435, 1439 (9th Cir. 1991) (en banc) (requiring an act or omission causing the constitutional deprivation), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 112 S.Ct. 972, 117 L.Ed.2d 137 (1992). Section 1983 thus focuses our inquiry on whether an official’s acts or omissions were the cause — not merely a contributing factor — of the constitutionally infirm condition.
“A causal connection may be established by proving that the official was personally involved in the acts that resulted in the constitutional deprivation.” Zatler v. Wainwright, 802 F.2d 397, 401 (11th Cir. 1986). Because the analysis focuses on the defendant’s conduct, the doctrine of respondeat superior does not apply. Whether a defendant actually controls, or fails properly to supervise a subordinate, however, may prove to be relevant inquiries. See Rizzo, 423 U.S. at 375-76, 96 S.Ct. at 606.
If a plaintiff establishes a causal link between the defendant’s acts or omissions and the infirm condition, the defendant is “precluded from contending that the unconstitutional condition was not at least a proximate cause of... injuries” that arose from that condition. Williams, 689 F.2d at 1389. This is not to say that a plaintiff need not show a causal link between the constitutionally infirm condition and the alleged injuries. Rather, the finding that a prison condition offends the Eighth Amendment presupposes the distinct likelihood that the harm threatened will result. The wrong in Eighth Amendment cases is the deliberate indifference to a constitutionally infirm condition; that wrong must, in turn, have been the proximate cause of the plaintiffs’ injuries, here the injuries brought about by the assaults.
In Doe v. Sullivan County, 956 F.2d 545 (6th Cir.), cert. denied, — U.S. -, 113 S.Ct. 187, 121 L.Ed.2d 131 (1992), the Sixth Circuit addressed causation under section 1983 arising from allegations of “systematic deficiencies” in a prison’s protection of inmates similar to those in the instant case. The plaintiff presented evidence of overcrowding, dark cells, insufficient staff, lack of mental and physical evaluations, and inadequate surveillance. Id. at 550. Additionally, a penological expert testifying for the plaintiff concluded that there was a pattern of violence among inmates at the prison and that because of the plaintiffs slight build and mental disability, prison officials should have placed him in protective custody. Id. at 549. In reviewing the sufficiency of the evidence to show causation, the Sixth Circuit concluded “that more is required than [a] naked assertion that the assault would not have occurred but for the offensive conditions. To hold otherwise would effectively transform the causality requirement from a substantive element of proof into one of pleading.” Id. at 550. In this case, the plaintiffs presented evidence to support their allegations that Turner “was in a position to take steps that could have averted” the alleged unconstitutional condition at GCI, “but, through [deliberate] indifference, [he] failed to do so.” Williams, 689 F.2d at 1384.
The plaintiffs presented evidence supporting five conditions of confinement that were under Turner’s control and that together created an unconstitutional risk of violence at GCI: (1) a “prevalence of... weapons” at GCI, (2) the lack of adequate patrols, (3) the lack of adequate reporting procedures for rapes and assaults, (4) the presence of “obvious and rampant indicia of homosexual activity,” and (5) a lack of supervision of officers leading to corruption and incompetence. La-Marca, 662 F.Supp. at 664-65. The evidence supports the plaintiffs’ assertion that Turner could have brought GCI within constitutional norms through more diligent supervision of his officers, by establishing and enforcing rules and procedures to eliminate specific sources of danger to prisoners, and through low-cost modifications to GCI’s physical plant. In particular, Turner could have taken significant steps to eliminate the highly permissive atmosphere at GCI both as to officers shirking their duties and as to prisoners engaging in extortion, harassment, sexual activity, and sexual and other assaults.
As we discussed in part II.A2., the evidence strongly supports a finding that, even within the constraints he faced, Turner had the means substantially to improve prisoner safety at GCI. This evidence also supports findings that Turner knew that the actions he undertook would be insufficient to provide inmates with reasonable protection from violence, and that other means were available to him which he nevertheless disregarded. Such evidence provides the necessary causal link between Turner and the infirm conditions at GCI.
Finally, the evidence shows a link between the unconstitutional conditions and the plaintiffs’ injuries. The record supports the district court’s finding “that due to [their] very nature as acts of violence, the rapes that occurred are not isolated incidents of sexual conduct, but rather flow directly from the lawless prison conditions at GCI.... [These conditions created] the background and climate which... preordained homosexual rapes and other inmate assault[s].” LaMar-ea, 662 F.Supp. at 687. The evidence thus permits a finding of a causal link between the objectively intolerable conditions at GCI and the plaintiffs’ injuries.
B.
Having determined that the plaintiffs presented sufficient evidence to establish liability on their damages claims against Turner, we turn to Turner’s specific challenges to the legal standard the district court employed in assessing liability. Turner contends that the district court clearly erred in its analysis of (1) his deliberate indifference to the constitutionally infirm injury producing conditions, and (2) causation. We disagree.
1.
Turner challenges the district court’s finding that he knew of several problems at GCI that contributed to the constitutionally infirm conditions. He argues that without this finding, the district court might not have concluded that he knew of the infirm conditions and thus that he had been deliberately indifferent to the plaintiffs’ safety.
Turner points to specific language in the district court’s opinion indicating that the court applied a negligence standard to determine his knowledge of the infirm conditions and the problems that caused them. For instance, in its discussion of Turner’s indifference to prisoner safety, the court stated that “[a] section 1983 plaintiff must prove either that the official knew or should, have known that his action infringed a clearly established constitutional right of the plaintiff, regardless of the officials’ subjective intent-” LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 663 (emphasis added) (internal quotations and citations omitted); see also id. at 658, 678-79 (relying on knowledge “discernable to any prudent prison administrator”). In light of Wilson which has clarified that a subjective standard must be applied to Eighth Amendment claims, the district court’s resort to such an objective standard was erroneous.
The court also erred by inquiring as to Turner’s knowledge during the “relevant time period of Plaintiffs’ damage claims,” instead of making a directed inquiry into Turner’s knowledge at the time of each incident. See, e.g., LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 708-09 (“Plaintiffs’ claims are not isolated incidents. They stem from a far ranging and serious failure of Defendant Turner to properly manage[ ] GCI.”). The alleged assaults occurred over a three-year period, and, as one would expect, Turner’s knowledge ripened during this period. The district court failed to determine properly whether Turner possessed the requisite knowledge at the time of each incident.
As we have already discussed, the evidence as a whole, and, in particular Turner’s July 16, 1991 letter, provide strong support for the court’s ultimate conclusion that Turner knew of the pervasively and obviously unsafe conditions at GCI. The district court, however, did not rely solely on such evidence. We therefore cannot conclude as a matter of law that Turner had a sufficient awareness of the infirm conditions to satisfy Wilson’s subjective standard. Thus, while sufficient evidence exists upon which to find knowledge of the conditions, see supra part II.A, the court must reconsider its findings as to whether Turner had knowledge of or recklessly disregarded the constitutionally infirm conditions at the time of each incident.
2.
Turner also challenges the court’s findings as to causation, i.e., whether his deliberate indifference caused the alleged constitutionally infirm condition, and whether the condition caused the assaults. The district court incorrectly stated that an official must “accomplish!] what [can] be accomplished within the limits of his authority.” LaMarca, 662 F.Supp. at 664 (citing Williams, 689 F.2d at 1388). As our discussion of Turner’s deliberate indifference and causation indicates, see supra parts II.A.2 & 3, merely showing that an official had the means to correct a constitutional infirmity will not suffice. For the plaintiffs to demonstrate the requisite causal nexus, Turner must not only have had the means to correct the alleged constitutional infirmities, but also must have at least recklessly disregarded the inadequacy of the approach he took, the availability of other approaches, and their capacity to provide a cure. As we have already noted, it is, after all, “ ‘obduracy and wantonness, not inadvertence or error in good faith, that characterize the conduct prohibited by the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause...." Wilson, —

Question: What is the nature of the first listed appellant?
A. private business (including criminal enterprises)
B. private organization or association
C. federal government (including DC)
D. sub-state government (e.g., county, local, special district)
E. state government (includes territories & commonwealths)
F. government - level not ascertained
G. natural person (excludes persons named in their official capacity or who appear because of a role in a private organization)
H. miscellaneous
I. not ascertained
Answer:

Answer: E