Task: sc_issue_8

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to determine the issue of the Court's decision. Determine the issue of the case on the basis of the Court's own statements as to what the case is about. Focus on the subject matter of the controversy rather than its legal basis.

Justice White
delivered the opinion of the Court.
This case concerns the application of state-law rules affecting the measure of damages in an action brought in state court under the Federal Employers’ Liability Act (FELA), 35 Stat. 65, as amended, 45 U. S. C. § 51 et seq.
H
Appellee was employed by appellant as a railroad brakeman and conductor. In August 1977, appellee fell while alighting from a railroad car and suffered a permanent injury to his back. He returned to work in February 1979 in the less physically demanding position of radio and supply clerk.
Appellee brought an FELA action in the Court of Common Pleas of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, alleging that his fall was attributable to appellant’s negligence. He claimed that his future earning power had been impaired as a result of his injury because he could not obtain certain incentive and shift differential payments in his new position.
The trial judge refused to instruct the jury that any damages award for loss of future earnings would have to be reduced to present value. Instead, she informed the jury that “[t]he law now provides that there need not be such a reduction.” App. 61. The judge apparently was referring to the Pennsylvania Supreme Court’s decision in Kaczkowski v. Bolubasz, 491 Pa. 561, 583, 421 A. 2d 1027, 1038-1039 (1980), which had instructed state courts to cease discounting future lost earnings to present value because “as a matter of law... future inflation shall be presumed equal to future interest rates with these factors offsetting.”
The jury found in favor of appellee and awarded damages of $125,000. The trial judge assessed an additional $26,712.50 as prejudgment interest pursuant to Rule 238 of the Pennsylvania Rules of Civil Procedure. Rule 238 requires state courts in personal injury actions to “add to the amount of compensatory damages..., damages for delay at ten (10) percent per annum, not compounded,” from “the date the plaintiff filed the initial complaint in the action or from a date one year after the accrual of the cause of action, whichever is later,” to the date of the verdict. The judge rejected appellant’s contention that Rule 238 could not be applied to FELA actions.
A three-judge panel of the Pennsylvania Superior Court affirmed. 339 Pa. Super. 465, 489 A. 2d 254 (1985).
The Pennsylvania Supreme Court granted appellant’s petition for allowance of appeal and subsequently affirmed by a narrow margin. 513 Pa. 86, 518 A. 2d 1171 (1986).
The court characterized Rule 238 as a mere “rule of procedure” designed to encourage meaningful settlement negotiations and thereby alleviate congestion in the trial courts. Id., at 98-99, 518 A. 2d, at 1177. The court concluded that, as neither the “worthy goal” nor the specific provisions of Rule 238 contravened the purposes and provisions of the FELA, the Pennsylvania courts could apply Rule 238 to award prejudgment interest in FELA cases as well as in cases involving only state law. Ibid.
The court recognized that whether the trial judge had properly refused to instruct the jury to discount future damages to present value, and instead applied the so-called “total offset” method, was a question of federal law. See St. Louis Southwestern R. Co. v. Dickerson, 470 U. S. 409, 411 (1985) (per curiam). The court noted our discussion of a Federal District Court’s use of Pennsylvania’s total offset rule in Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. v. Pfeifer, 462 U. S. 523 (1983), a case brought under the Longshoremen’s and Harbor Workers’ Compensation Act (LHWCA), 33 U. S. C. §904. We held in Pfeifer that “whatever rate the District Court may choose to discount the estimated stream of future earnings, it must make a deliberate choice, rather than assuming that it is bound by a rule of state law.” 462 U. S., at 552-553. Here, the trial judge’s use of the total offset rule was held to have been permissible under Pfeifer because the reviewing court had itself “deliberately selected” that rule in Kaczkowski v. Bolubasz “after a thorough consideration of various present worth theories and rules. ” 513 Pa., at 92-93, 518 A. 2d, at 1174. Nor did the court find any inconsistency between the trial judge’s use of the total offset rule and our holding in Dickerson that “an utter failure to instruct the jury that present value is the proper measure of [an FELA] damages award is error.” 470 U. S., at 412. Here, reasoned the court, “the trial judge did instruct the jury on present value by charging on the total offset method.” 513 Pa., at 94-95, 518 A. 2d, at 1175.
We noted probable jurisdiction, 484 U. S. 813 (1987), and now reverse.
II
We first consider whether state courts may award prejudgment interest pursuant to local practice in actions brought under the FELA.
A
State courts are required to apply federal substantive law in adjudicating FELA claims. Dickerson, supra, at 411; Chesapeake & Ohio R. Co. v. Kuhn, 284 U. S. 44, 46-47 (1931). It has long been settled that “the proper measure of damages [under the FELA] is inseparably connected with the right of action,” and therefore is an issue of substance that “must be settled according to general principles óf law as administered in the Federal courts.” Chesapeake & Ohio R. Co. v. Kelly, 241 U. S. 485, 491 (1916); see also Dickerson, supra, at 411; Norfolk & Western R. Co. v. Liepelt, 444 U. S. 490, 493 (1980).
The question of what constitutes “the proper measure of damages” under the FELA necessarily includes the question whether prejudgment interest may be awarded to a prevailing FELA plaintiff. Prejudgment interest is normally designed to make, the plaintiff whole and is part of the actual damages sought to be recovered. West Virginia v. United States, 479 U. S. 305, 310, and 310-311, n. 2 (1987); General Motors Corp. v. Devex Corp., 461 U. S. 648, 655-656 (1983); Poleto v. Consolidated Rail Corporation, 826 F. 2d 1270, 1278 (CA3 1987); Wilson v. Burlington Northern R. Co., 803 F. 2d 563, 566 (CA10 1986) (McKay, J., concurring), cert. denied, 480 U. S. 946 (1987). Moreover, prejudgment interest may constitute a significant portion of an FELA plaintiff’s total recovery. Here, for example, the trial court’s award of $26,712.50 in prejudgment interest under Rule 238 increased appellee’s total recovery by more than 20 percent. Accordingly, the Pennsylvania courts erred in treating the availability of prejudgment interest in FELA actions as a matter of state law rather than federal law.
The Pennsylvania courts cannot avoid the application of federal law to determine the availability of prejudgment interest under the FELA by characterizing Rule 238 as nothing more than a procedural device to relieve court congestion. In Dice v. Akron, C. & Y. R. Co., 342 U. S. 359 (1952), the Ohio courts had applied a state procedural rule in an FELA action that permitted the judge rather than the jury to resolve factual questions as to whether a release had been fraudulently obtained. We reversed on the ground that “the right to trial by jury is too substantial a part of the rights accorded by the Act to permit it to be classified as a mere ‘local rule of procedure’ for denial in the manner that Ohio has here used.” Id., at 363. See also Brown v. Western R. Co. of Alabama, 338 U. S. 294, 298-299 (1949). Similarly, prejudgment interest constitutes too substantial a part of a defendant’s potential liability under the FELA for this Court to accept a State’s classification of a provision such as Rule 238 as a mere “local rule of procedure.” We therefore turn to the issue whether federal law authorizes awards of prejudgment interest in FELA actions.
B
Neither the FELA itself nor the general federal interest statute, 28 U. S. C. § 1961, makes any mention of prejudgment interest. It is true that Congress’ silence as to the availability of interest on an obligation created by federal law does not, without more, “manifes[t] an unequivocal congressional purpose that the obligation shall not bear interest.” Rodgers v. United States, 332 U. S. 371, 373 (1947).
We can discern a sufficiently clear indication of legislative intent with regard to prejudgment interest under the FELA, however, when we consider Congress’ silence on this matter in the appropriate historical context. In 1908, when Congress enacted the FELA, the common law did not allow prejudgment interest in suits for personal injury or wrongful death. See C. McCormick, Law of Damages § 56 (1935); 1 T. Sedgwick, Measure of Damages §316 (9th ed. 1912). This was the rule in the federal courts. Pierce v. United States, 255 U. S. 398, 406 (1921); Mowry v. Whitney, 14 Wall. 620, 653 (1872); see also Poleto, supra, at 1276, 1278; Wilson, supra, at 565; Louisiana & Arkansas R. Co. v. Pratt, 142 F. 2d 847, 848 (CA5 1944). Congress expressly dispensed with other common-law doctrines of that era, such as the defense of contributory negligence, see 45 U. S. C. § 53, in order “to provide liberal recovery for injured workers” under the FELA. Kernan v. American Dredging Co., 355 U. S. 426, 432 (1958). But Congress did not deal at all with the equally well-established doctrine barring the recovery of prejudgment interest, and we are unpersuaded that Congress intended to abrogate that doctrine sub silentio.
Moreover, we have recognized that Congress’ failure to disturb a consistent judicial interpretation of a statute may provide some indication that “Congress at least acquiesces in, and apparently affirms, that [interpretation].” Cannon v. University of Chicago, 441 U. S. 677, 703. (1979); see also Gulf Oil Corp. v. Copp Paving Co., 419 U. S. 186, 200-201 (1974); Flood v. Kuhn, 407 U. S. 258, 283-284 (1972). The federal and state courts have held with virtual unanimity over more than seven decades that prejudgment interest is not available under the FELA. See, e. g., Poleto, 826 F. 2d, at 1279; Wilson, 803 F. 2d, at 566; Kozar v. Chesapeake & Ohio R. Co., 449 F. 2d 1238, 1244 (CA6 1971); Pratt, supra, at 848-849; Chicago, M., St. P. & P. R. Co. v. Busby, 41 F. 2d 617, 619 (CA9 1930); Carmouche v. Southern Pacific Transportation Co., 734 S. W. 2d 46, 47 (Tex. App. 1987); Melin v. Burlington Northern R. Co., 401 N. W. 2d 418, 420 (Minn. App. 1987); Wicks v. Central R. Co., 129 N. J. Super. 145, 147, 322 A. 2d 488, 489, cert. denied, 66 N. J. 317, 331 A. 2d 17 (1974); Murmann v. New York, N. H. & H. R. Co., 258 N. Y. 447, 450, 180 N. E. 114, 115 (1932) (per curiam); Mobile & O. R. Co. v. Williams, 219 Ala. 238, 249, 121 So. 722, 731 (1929); Bennett v. Atchison, T. & S. F. R. Co., 187 Iowa 897, 903-904, 174 N. W. 805, 807 (1919); Grow v. Oregon Short Line R. Co., 47 Utah 26, 29, 150 P. 970, 971 (1915). Congress has amended the FELA on several occasions since 1908. See 36 Stat. 291 (1910); 53 Stat. 1404 (1939); 62 Stat. 989 (1948). Yet, Congress has never attempted to amend the FELA to provide for prejudgment interest. We are unwilling in the face of such congressional inaction to alter the longstanding apportionment between carrier and worker of the costs of railroading injuries. If prejudgment interest is to be available under the FELA, then Congress must expressly so provide.
Ill
We turn now to the question whether the trial court acted consistently with federal law in instructing the jury not to discount appellee’s future lost earnings to present value.
We have consistently recognized that “damages awards in suits governed by federal law should be based on present value.” Dickerson, 470 U. S., at 412. The “self-evident” reason is that “a given sum of money in hand is worth more than the like sum of money payable in the future.” Kelly, 241 U. S., at 489; see also Dickerson, supra, at 412. And, as Kelly and Dickerson demonstrate, the rule governs in FELA cases. Hence, a “failure to instruct the jury that present value is the proper measure of a damages award is error.” 470 U. S., at 412.
Here, the trial court instructed the jury that although it “used to be” that juries were to reduce an award to “something called present worth,” the law now provided that there need not be such a reduction. Tr. 701-702. The “law” referred to was the Pennsylvania Supreme Court’s decision in Kaczkowski v. Bolubasz, 491 Pa. 561, 421 A. 2d 1027 (1980), which held that future inflation would be conclusively presumed to equal future interest rates and that state courts in Pennsylvania therefore were not to reduce damages to present worth. It was error for the court to have refused on the basis of this state rule to allow an FELA award to be reduced to present value, just as it was error for the court in Pfeifer to have failed to make “a deliberate choice”- as to how an LHWCA award was to be reduced to present value and to have “assum[ed] that it [was] bound by a rule of state law.” 462 U. S., at 553.
Under the Court’s FELA cases, the jury has the task of making the present value determination. It was observed in Kelly, for example, that “it may be a difficult mathematical computation for the ordinary juryman to calculate interest on deferred payments, with annual rests, and reach a present cash value.” 241 U. S., at 491. We declined to decide in that case “[w]hether the difficulty should be met by admitting the testimony of expert witnesses, or by receiving in evidence the standard interest and annuity tables in which present values are worked out at various rates of interest and for various periods covering the ordinary expectancies of life.” Ibid. We did not suggest that the difficulty could also be met by permitting the present value calculation to be made by the judge rather than the jury.
The question was addressed more directly two years later in Louisville & Nashville R. Co. v. Holloway, 246 U. S. 525 (1918), which held that an FELA defendant was not entitled to a jury instruction that the present value of future losses must as a matter of law be computed at the State’s 6 percent legal interest rate. The state trial court had properly refused to give an instruction that “sought to subject the jury’s estimate to [such a] rigid mathematical limitatio[n].” Id., at 528.
There is nothing in Pfeifer to suggest that the judge rather than the jury is to determine the discount rate in FELA actions. There, we repeatedly indicated that the present value calculation is to be made by the “trier of fact.” See 462 U. S., at 534, 536, 538, 547-548, 550-551, n. 32. Of course, because Pfeifer was tried to the bench, the “trier of fact” in that case was a judge rather than a jury.
We do not mean to suggest that the judge in an FELA action is foreclosed from assisting the jury in its present value calculations. Indeed, because “ ‘[t]he average accident trial should not be converted into a graduate seminar on economic forecasting,’” id., at 548 (quoting Doca v. Marina Mercante Nicaraguense, S. A., 634 F. 2d 30, 39 (CA2 1980)), the judge has an obligation to prevent the trial proceedings on the present value issue from becoming unnecessarily prolonged and the jury from becoming hopelessly mired in “difficult mathematical computation.” It is therefore permissible for the judge to recommend to the jury one or more methods of calculating present value so long as the judge does not in effect pre-empt the jury’s function. A trial judge’s instructions to the jury with regard to discount methods — provided that they do not “subject the jury’s estimate to... rigid mathematical limitatio[n],” Holloway, supra, at 528 — are entitled to substantial deference on appellate review.
In the present case, however, the trial judge instructed the jury that a zero discount rate was to be applied as a matter of law to appellee’s future damages. This instruction improperly took from the jury the essentially factual question of the appropriate rate at which to discount appellee’s FELA award to present value, and therefore requires reversal.
H-i <3
We conclude that Pennsylvania’s prejudgment interest and “total offset” rules were improperly applied to this FELA action. The judgment of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court is therefore reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceedings not inconsistent with this opinion.
It is so ordered.
Rule 238 provides that, if the defendant made a pretrial settlement offer and the plaintiff’s recovery does not exceed 125 percent of that offer, the court cannot award “delay damages” for the period after the offer was made.
The three dissenting justices maintained that the trial court’s award of “delay damages” under Rule 238 contravened federal substantive law and “undermine[d] the national uniformity FELA was designed to achieve.” 513 Pa., at 102, 518 A. 2d, at 1179. They dismissed as “pure sophistry” the majority’s assertion that Rule 238 was a mere procedural device, observing that “[a]ny rule which increases a damage award by twenty-five percent has an undeniably material effect on damages.” Id., at 101-102, 518 A. 2d, at 1179

Question: What is the issue of the decision?
年. involuntary confession
数. habeas corpus
日. plea bargaining: the constitutionality of and/or the circumstances of its exercise
的. retroactivity (of newly announced or newly enacted constitutional or statutory rights)
月. search and seizure (other than as pertains to vehicles or Crime Control Act)
用. search and seizure, vehicles
成. search and seizure, Crime Control Act
名. contempt of court or congress
时. self-incrimination (other than as pertains to Miranda or immunity from prosecution)
件. Miranda warnings
一. self-incrimination, immunity from prosecution
请. right to counsel (cf. indigents appointment of counsel or inadequate representation)
中. cruel and unusual punishment, death penalty (cf. extra legal jury influence, death penalty)
据. cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty (cf. liability, civil rights acts)
码. line-up
不. discovery and inspection (in the context of criminal litigation only, otherwise Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations)
新. double jeopardy
文. ex post facto (state)
下. extra-legal jury influences: miscellaneous
分. extra-legal jury influences: prejudicial statements or evidence
入. extra-legal jury influences: contact with jurors outside courtroom
人. extra-legal jury influences: jury instructions (not necessarily in criminal cases)
功. extra-legal jury influences: voir dire (not necessarily a criminal case)
上. extra-legal jury influences: prison garb or appearance
户. extra-legal jury influences: jurors and death penalty (cf. cruel and unusual punishment)
为. extra-legal jury influences: pretrial publicity
间. confrontation (right to confront accuser, call and cross-examine witnesses)
号. subconstitutional fair procedure: confession of error
取. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy (cf. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure: conspiracy)
回. subconstitutional fair procedure: entrapment
在. subconstitutional fair procedure: exhaustion of remedies
页. subconstitutional fair procedure: fugitive from justice
字. subconstitutional fair procedure: presentation, admissibility, or sufficiency of evidence (not necessarily a criminal case)
有. subconstitutional fair procedure: stay of execution
个. subconstitutional fair procedure: timeliness
作. subconstitutional fair procedure: miscellaneous
示. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
出. statutory construction of criminal laws: assault
是. statutory construction of criminal laws: bank robbery
失. statutory construction of criminal laws: conspiracy (cf. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy)
表. statutory construction of criminal laws: escape from custody
除. statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements (cf. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury)
加. statutory construction of criminal laws: financial (other than in fraud or internal revenue)
败. statutory construction of criminal laws: firearms
生. statutory construction of criminal laws: fraud
信. statutory construction of criminal laws: gambling
类. statutory construction of criminal laws: Hobbs Act; i.e., 18 USC 1951
置. statutory construction of criminal laws: immigration (cf. immigration and naturalization)
理. statutory construction of criminal laws: internal revenue (cf. Federal Taxation)
本. statutory construction of criminal laws: Mann Act and related statutes
息. statutory construction of criminal laws: narcotics includes regulation and prohibition of alcohol
行. statutory construction of criminal laws: obstruction of justice
定. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury (other than as pertains to statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements)
改. statutory construction of criminal laws: Travel Act, 18 USC 1952
市. statutory construction of criminal laws: war crimes
期. statutory construction of criminal laws: sentencing guidelines
以. statutory construction of criminal laws: miscellaneous
修. jury trial (right to, as distinct from extra-legal jury influences)
元. speedy trial
方. miscellaneous criminal procedure (cf. due process, prisoners' rights, comity: criminal procedure)
录. voting
区. Voting Rights Act of 1965, plus amendments
单. ballot access (of candidates and political parties)
位. desegregation (other than as pertains to school desegregation, employment discrimination, and affirmative action)
型. desegregation, schools
法. employment discrimination: on basis of race, age, religion, illegitimacy, national origin, or working conditions.
县. affirmative action
存. slavery or indenture
品. sit-in demonstrations (protests against racial discrimination in places of public accommodation)
前. reapportionment: other than plans governed by the Voting Rights Act
称. debtors' rights
注. deportation (cf. immigration and naturalization)
值. employability of aliens (cf. immigration and naturalization)
输. sex discrimination (excluding sex discrimination in employment)
建. sex discrimination in employment (cf. sex discrimination)
能. Indians (other than pertains to state jurisdiction over)
大. Indians, state jurisdiction over
例. juveniles (cf. rights of illegitimates)
度. poverty law, constitutional
始. poverty law, statutory: welfare benefits, typically under some Social Security Act provision.
到. illegitimates, rights of (cf. juveniles): typically inheritance and survivor's benefits, and paternity suits
面. handicapped, rights of: under Rehabilitation, Americans with Disabilities Act, and related statutes
载. residency requirements: durational, plus discrimination against nonresidents
点. military: draftee, or person subject to induction
密. military: active duty
动. military: veteran
果. immigration and naturalization: permanent residence
图. immigration and naturalization: citizenship
提. immigration and naturalization: loss of citizenship, denaturalization
发. immigration and naturalization: access to public education
式. immigration and naturalization: welfare benefits
国. immigration and naturalization: miscellaneous
登. indigents: appointment of counsel (cf. right to counsel)
错. indigents: inadequate representation by counsel (cf. right to counsel)
者. indigents: payment of fine
认. indigents: costs or filing fees
误. indigents: U.S. Supreme Court docketing fee
接. indigents: transcript
关. indigents: assistance of psychiatrist
重. indigents: miscellaneous
第. liability, civil rights acts (cf. liability, governmental and liability, nongovernmental; cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty)
地. miscellaneous civil rights (cf. comity: civil rights)
如. First Amendment, miscellaneous (cf. comity: First Amendment)
设. commercial speech, excluding attorneys
目. libel, defamation: defamation of public officials and public and private persons
开. libel, privacy: true and false light invasions of privacy
事. legislative investigations: concerning internal security only
可. federal or state internal security legislation: Smith, Internal Security, and related federal statutes
要. loyalty oath or non-Communist affidavit (other than bar applicants, government employees, political party, or teacher)
代. loyalty oath: bar applicants (cf. admission to bar, state or federal or U.S. Supreme Court)
小. loyalty oath: government employees
选. loyalty oath: political party
标. loyalty oath: teachers
明. security risks: denial of benefits or dismissal of employees for reasons other than failure to meet loyalty oath requirements
编. conscientious objectors (cf. military draftee or military active duty) to military service
求. campaign spending (cf. governmental corruption):
列. protest demonstrations (other than as pertains to sit-in demonstrations): demonstrations and other forms of protest based on First Amendment guarantees
网. free exercise of religion
万. establishment of religion (other than as pertains to parochiaid:)
最. parochiaid: government aid to religious schools, or religious requirements in public schools
器. obscenity, state (cf. comity: privacy): including the regulation of sexually explicit material under the 21st Amendment
所. obscenity, federal
内. due process: miscellaneous (cf. loyalty oath), the residual code
体. due process: hearing or notice (other than as pertains to government employees or prisoners' rights)
通. due process: hearing, government employees
务. due process: prisoners' rights and defendants' rights
此. due process: impartial decision maker
商. due process: jurisdiction (jurisdiction over non-resident litigants)
序. due process: takings clause, or other non-constitutional governmental taking of property
化. privacy (cf. libel, comity: privacy)
消. abortion: including contraceptives
否. right to die
保. Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations
使. attorneys' and governmental employees' or officials' fees or compensation or licenses
次. commercial speech, attorneys (cf. commercial speech)
机. admission to a state or federal bar, disbarment, and attorney discipline (cf. loyalty oath: bar applicants)
对. admission to, or disbarment from, Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court
量. arbitration (in the context of labor-management or employer-employee relations) (cf. arbitration)
查. union antitrust: legality of anticompetitive union activity
部. union or closed shop: includes agency shop litigation
性. Fair Labor Standards Act
和. Occupational Safety and Health Act
更. union-union member dispute (except as pertains to union or closed shop)
后. labor-management disputes: bargaining
证. labor-management disputes: employee discharge
题. labor-management disputes: distribution of union literature
确. labor-management disputes: representative election
格. labor-management disputes: antistrike injunction
了. labor-management disputes: jurisdictional dispute
于. labor-management disputes: right to organize
金. labor-management disputes: picketing
公. labor-management disputes: secondary activity
午. labor-management disputes: no-strike clause
円. labor-management disputes: union representatives
片. labor-management disputes: union trust funds (cf. ERISA)
空. labor-management disputes: working conditions
态. labor-management disputes: miscellaneous dispute
管. miscellaneous union
主. antitrust (except in the context of mergers and union antitrust)
天. mergers
自. bankruptcy (except in the context of priority of federal fiscal claims)
我. sufficiency of evidence: typically in the context of a jury's determination of compensation for injury or death
全. election of remedies: legal remedies available to injured persons or things
今. liability, governmental: tort or contract actions by or against government or governmental officials other than defense of criminal actions brought under a civil rights action.
来. liability, other than as in sufficiency of evidence, election of remedies, punitive damages
正. liability, punitive damages
说. Employee Retirement Income Security Act (cf. union trust funds)
意. state or local government tax
送. state and territorial land claims
容. state or local government regulation, especially of business (cf. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction, federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation)
已. federal or state regulation of securities
结. natural resources - environmental protection (cf. national supremacy: natural resources, national supremacy: pollution)
会. corruption, governmental or governmental regulation of other than as in campaign spending
段. zoning: constitutionality of such ordinances, or restrictions on owners' or lessors' use of real property
计. arbitration (other than as pertains to labor-management or employer-employee relations (cf. union arbitration)
源. federal or state consumer protection: typically under the Truth in Lending; Food, Drug and Cosmetic; and Consumer Protection Credit Acts
色. patents and copyrights: patent
時. patents and copyrights: copyright
交. patents and copyrights: trademark
系. patents and copyrights: patentability of computer processes
过. federal or state regulation of transportation regulation: railroad
电. federal and some few state regulations of transportation regulation: boat
询. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation:truck, or motor carrier
符. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: pipeline (cf. federal public utilities regulation: gas pipeline)
未. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: airline
程. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: electric power
常. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: nuclear power
条. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: oil producer
当. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas producer
情. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas pipeline (cf. federal transportation regulation: pipeline)
口. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: radio and television (cf. cable television)
合. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: cable television (cf. radio and television)
车. federal and some few state regulations of public utilities regulation: telephone or telegraph company
实. miscellaneous economic regulation
组. comity: civil rights
版. comity: criminal procedure
周. comity: First Amendment
址. comity: habeas corpus
记. comity: military
二. comity: obscenity
同. comity: privacy
业. comity: miscellaneous
权. comity primarily removal cases, civil procedure (cf. comity, criminal and First Amendment); deference to foreign judicial tribunals
其. assessment of costs or damages: as part of a court order
进. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure including Supreme Court Rules, application of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure in civil litigation, Circuit Court Rules, and state rules and admiralty rules
试. judicial review of administrative agency's or administrative official's actions and procedures
验. mootness (cf. standing to sue: live dispute)
料. venue
传. no merits: writ improvidently granted
述. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question, or a nonsuit
集. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of jurisdiction (cf. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal from federal district courts or courts of appeals)
多. no merits: adequate non-federal grounds for decision
无. no merits: remand to determine basis of state or federal court decision (cf. judicial administration: state law)
员. no merits: miscellaneous
报. standing to sue: adversary parties
他. standing to sue: direct injury
無. standing to sue: legal injury
服. standing to sue: personal injury
线. standing to sue: justiciable question
这. standing to sue: live dispute
制. standing to sue: parens patriae standing
将. standing to sue: statutory standing
处. standing to sue: private or implied cause of action
高. standing to sue: taxpayer's suit
子. standing to sue: miscellaneous
道. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal district courts or territorial courts
章. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal courts of appeals
手. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from federal district courts or courts of appeals (cf. 753)
库. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from highest state court
三. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of the Court of Claims
从. judicial administration: Supreme Court's original jurisdiction
支. judicial administration: review of non-final order
家. judicial administration: change in state law (cf. no merits: remand to determine basis of state court decision)
长. judicial administration: federal question (cf. no merits: dismissed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question)
付. judicial administration: ancillary or pendent jurisdiction
秒. judicial administration: extraordinary relief (e.g., mandamus, injunction)
路. judicial administration: certification (cf. objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal)
完. judicial administration: resolution of circuit conflict, or conflict between or among other courts
象. judicial administration: objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal
则. judicial administration: collateral estoppel or res judicata
现. judicial administration: interpleader
京. judicial administration: untimely filing
转. judicial administration: Act of State doctrine
辑. judicial administration: miscellaneous
限. Supreme Court's certiorari, writ of error, or appeals jurisdiction
力. miscellaneous judicial power, especially diversity jurisdiction
学. federal-state ownership dispute (cf. Submerged Lands Act)
外. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction
调. federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation. cf. state regulation of business. rarely involves union activity. Does not involve constitutional interpretation unless the Court says it does.
项. Submerged Lands Act (cf. federal-state ownership dispute)
北. national supremacy: commodities
工. national supremacy: intergovernmental tax immunity
笑. national supremacy: marital and family relationships and property, including obligation of child support
监. national supremacy: natural resources (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
任. national supremacy: pollution, air or water (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
相. national supremacy: public utilities (cf. federal public utilities regulation)
微. national supremacy: state tax (cf. state tax)
册. national supremacy: miscellaneous
联. miscellaneous federalism
平. boundary dispute between states
增. non-real property dispute between states
听. miscellaneous interstate relations conflict
解. incorporation of foreign territories
等. federal taxation, typically under provisions of the Internal Revenue Code
得. federal taxation of gifts, personal, business, or professional expenses
收. priority of federal fiscal claims: over those of the states or private entities
安. miscellaneous federal taxation (cf. national supremacy: state tax)
价. legislative veto
藏. executive authority vis-a-vis congress or the states
命. miscellaneous
应. real property
看. personal property
索. contracts
资. evidence
产. civil procedure
串. torts
布. wills and trusts
原. commercial transactions
Answer:

Answer: 全