Task: sc_issue_2

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to determine the issue of the Court's decision. Determine the issue of the case on the basis of the Court's own statements as to what the case is about. Focus on the subject matter of the controversy rather than its legal basis.

Justice Breyer
delivered the opinion of the Court.
Immigration law provides for removal from the United States of an alien convicted of “a theft offense (including receipt of stolen property)... for which the term of imprisonment [is] at least one year.” 8 U. S. C. § 1101(a)(43)(G) (emphasis added; footnote omitted); § 1227(a)(2)(A). The question here is whether the term “theft offense” in this federal statute includes the crime of “aiding and abetting” a theft offense. We hold that it does. And we vacate a Ninth Circuit determination to the contrary.
I
The Immigration and Nationality Act, 66 Stat. 163, as amended, 8 U. S. C. § 1101 et seq. (2000 ed. and Supp. IV), lists a set of offenses, conviction for any one of which subjects certain aliens to removal from the United States, § 1227(a). In determining whether a conviction (say, a conviction for violating a state criminal law that forbids the taking of property without permission) falls within the scope of a listed offense (e. g., “theft offense”), the lower courts uniformly have applied the approach this Court set forth in Taylor v. United States, 495 U. S. 575 (1990). E. g., Soliman v. Gonzales, 419 F. 3d 276, 284 (CA4 2005); Abimbola v. Ashcroft, 378 F. 3d 173, 176-177 (CA2 2004); Huerta-Guevara v. Ashcroft, 321 F. 3d 883, 886-888 (CA9 2003); Hernandez-Mancilla v. INS, 246 F. 3d 1002, 1008-1009 (CA7 2001).
Taylor concerned offenses listed in the federal Armed Career Criminal Act, 18 U. S. C. § 924(e) (2000 ed. and Supp. IV). That Act mandates a lengthy prison sentence for offenders with previous convictions for, e. g., a “violent felony”; and the Act sets forth certain specific crimes, e. g., “burglary,” included in this category. The Court, in Taylor, considered whether a conviction for violating a state statute criminalizing certain burglary-like behavior fell within the listed federal term “burglary.” 495 U. S., at 589, 598.
The Court held that Congress meant its listed term “burglary” to refer to a specific crime, i. e., “ ‘burglary’ ” in “the generic sense in which the term is now used in the criminal codes of most States.” Id., at 598 (emphasis added). The Court also held that a state conviction qualifies as a burglary conviction, “regardless of” the “exact [state] definition or label” as long as it has the “basic elements” of “generic” burglary, namely, “unlawful or unprivileged entry into, or remaining in, a building or structure, with intent to commit a crime.” Id., at 599. The Court added that, when a sentencing court seeks to determine whether a particular prior conviction was for a generic burglary offense, it should normally look not to the facts of the particular prior case, but rather to the state statute defining the crime of conviction. Id., at 599-600.
The Court further noted that a “few States’ burglary statutes” “define burglary more broadly” to include both a (generically defined) listed crime and also one or more nonlisted crimes. Id., at 599. For example, Massachusetts defines “burglary” as including not only breaking into “ ‘a building’ ” but also breaking into a “vehicle” (which falls outside the generic definition of “burglary,” for a car is not a “ ‘building or structure’ ”). See Shepard v. United States, 544 U. S. 13, 16, 17 (2005); see also Taylor, 495 U. S., at 599 (discussing Missouri burglary statutes). In such cases the Court’s “categorical approach” permits the sentencing court “to go beyond the mere fact of conviction” in order to determine whether the earlier “jury was actually required to find all the elements of generic burglary.” Id., at 602; see also Conteh v. Gonzales, 461 F. 3d 45, 54 (CA1 2006) (observing that some courts refer to this step of the Taylor inquiry as a “modified categorical approach”). “For example,” the sentencing court might examine “the indictment or information and jury instructions” in the earlier case. 495 U. S., at 602. In Shepard, we added that, in a nonjury case, the sentencing court might examine not only the “charging document” but also “the terms of a plea agreement,” the “transcript of colloquy between judge and defendant,” or “some comparable judicial record” of information about the “factual basis for the plea.” 544 U. S., at 26.
II
The case before us concerns the application of the framework just set forth to Luis Dueñas-Alvarez, the respondent here, a permanent resident alien of the United States. In 2002, Duenas-Alvarez was convicted of violating Cal. Veh. Code Ann. § 10851(a) (West 2000). That section states:
“Any person who drives or takes a vehicle not his or her own, without the consent of the owner thereof, and with intent either to permanently or temporarily deprive the owner thereof of his or her title to or possession of the vehicle, whether with or without intent to steal the vehicle, or any person who is a party or an accessory to or an accomplice in the driving or unauthorized taking or stealing, is guilty of a public offense.” (Emphasis added.)
After Duenas-Alvarez was convicted, the Federal Government, claiming that the conviction was for a generic theft offense, began removal proceedings. A Federal Immigration Judge, agreeing with the Government that the California offense is “a theft offense... for which the term of imprisonment [is] at least one year,” found Duenas-Alvarez removable. 8 U. S. C. § 1101(a)(43)(G) (footnote omitted); § 1227(a)(2)(A). The Board of Immigration Appeals (BIA) affirmed. Duenas-Alvarez sought review of the BIA’s decision in the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
While respondent’s petition for court review was pending, the Ninth Circuit, in Penuliar v. Ashcroft, 395 F. 3d 1037 (2005), held that the relevant California Vehicle Code provision, § 1.0851(a), sweeps more broadly than generic theft. See id., at 1044-1045. In particular, the court said that generic theft has as an element the taking or control of others’ property. But, the court added, the California statutory phrase “‘[who] is a party or an accessory... or an accomplice’” would permit conviction “for aiding and abetting a theft.” Id., at 1044 (emphasis deleted). And the court believed that one might “aid” or “abet” a theft without taking or controlling property. Id., at 1044-1045 (citing Martinez-Perez v. Ashcroft, 393 F. 3d 1018 (CA9 2004), withdrawn and amended, 417 F. 3d 1022 (2005)). Hence, in the Court of Appeals’ view, the provision must cover some generically defined “theft” crimes and also some other crimes (aiding and abetting crimes) that, because they are not generically defined “theft” crimes, fall outside the scope of the term “theft” in the immigration statute. 395 F. 3d, at 1044-1045.
The Ninth Circuit subsequently heard Duenas-Alvarez’s petition for review and summarily remanded the case to the agency for further proceedings in light of Penuliar. 176 Fed. Appx. 820 (2006). We granted the Government’s petition for certiorari in order to consider the legal validity of the Ninth Circuit’s holding set forth in Penuliar and applied here, namely, the holding that “aiding and abetting” a theft is not itself a crime that falls within the generic definition of theft. We conclude that the Ninth Circuit erred.
III
The Ninth Circuit, like other Circuits and the BIA, accepted as a generic definition of theft, the “taking of property or an exercise of control over property without consent with the criminal intent to deprive the owner of rights and benefits of ownership, even if such deprivation is less than total or permanent.” Penuliar v. Gonzales, 435 F. 3d 961, 969 (2006) (internal quotation marks omitted). See Abimbola, 378 F. 3d, at 176 (analyzing the BIA’s definition and citing cases from three other Circuits, including the Ninth Circuit, approving that definition). The question before us is whether one who aids or abets a theft falls, like a principal, within the scope of this generic definition. We conclude that he does.
The common law divided participants in a felony into four basic categories: (1) first-degree principals, those who actually committed the crime in question; (2) second-degree principals, aiders and abettors present at the scene of the crime; (3) accessories before the fact, aiders and abettors who helped the principal before the basic criminal event took place; and (4) accessories after the fact, persons who helped the principal after the basic criminal event took place. See Standefer v. United States, 447 U. S. 10, 15 (1980). In the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories. Id., at 16-19; Nye & Nissen v. United States, 336 U. S. 613, 618 (1949).
Indeed, every jurisdiction — all States and the Federal Government — has “expressly abrogated the distinction” among principals and aiders and abettors who fall into the second and third categories. 2 W. LaFave, Substantive Criminal Law § 13.1(e), p. 333 (2d ed. 2003) (LaFave). The Solicitor General has presented us with a comprehensive account of the law of all States and federal jurisdictions as well. And we have verified that these jurisdictions treat similarly principals and aiders and abettors who fall into the second or third common-law category. See Appendix A, infra. Since criminal law now uniformly treats those who fall into the first three categories alike, “the generic sense in which” the term “theft” “is now used in the criminal codes of most States,” Taylor, 495 U. S., at 598, covers such “aiders and abettors” as well as principals. And the criminal activities of these aiders and abettors of a generic theft must themselves fall within the scope of the term “theft” in the federal statute.
A
Duenas-Alvarez does not defend the Ninth Circuit’s position. He agrees with the Government that generically speaking the law treats aiders and abettors during and before the crime the same way it treats principals; and that the immigration statute must then treat them similarly as well. Instead, Duenas-Alvarez argues that the California Vehicle Code provision in other ways reaches beyond generic theft to cover certain nongeneric crimes.
Duenas-Alvarez points out that California defines “aiding and abetting” such that an aider and abettor is criminally responsible not only for the crime he intends, but also for any crime that “naturally and probably” results from his intended crime. People v. Durham, 70 Cal. 2d 171, 181, 449 P. 2d 198, 204 (1969) (“‘aider and abettor... liable for the natural and reasonable or probable consequences of any act that he knowingly aided or encouraged’ ” (quoting People v. Villa, 156 Cal. App. 2d 128, 134 (1957); emphasis deleted)). This fact alone does not show that the statute covers a non-generic theft crime, for relatively few jurisdictions (only 10 in Dueñas-Alvarez’s own view) have expressly rejected the “natural and probable consequences” doctrine. See Brief for Respondent 21-22; Appendix B, infra. Moreover, many States and the Federal Government apply some form or variation of that doctrine, or permit jury inferences of intent in circumstances similar to those in which California has applied the doctrine, as explained below. See Appendix C, infra. To succeed, Duenas-Alvarez must show something special about California’s version of the doctrine — for example, that California in applying it criminalizes conduct that most other States would not consider “theft.”
Duenas-Alvarez attempts to make just such a showing. In particular, he says that California’s doctrine, unlike that of most other States, makes a defendant criminally liable for conduct that the defendant did not intend, not even as a known or almost certain byproduct of the defendant’s intentional acts. See 1 LaFave § 5.2(a), at 341 (person intends that which he knows “is practically certain to follow from his conduct”). At oral argument, Duenas-Alvarez’s counsel suggested that California’s doctrine, for example, might hold an individual who wrongly bought liquor for an underage drinker criminally responsible for that young drinker’s later (unforeseen) reckless driving. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 44. And Duenas-Alvarez refers to several California cases in order to prove his point. See Brief for Respondent 19.
We have reviewed those cases, however, and we cannot agree that they show that California’s law is somehow special. In the first case, People v. Nguyen, 21 Cal. App. 4th 518, 26 Cal. Rptr. 2d 323 (1993), the Third Appellate District in California upheld the jury conviction of individuals who had aided several robberies at houses of prostitution, for aiding and abetting a sexual assault used by one of the individuals to convince a proprietor, by frightening her, to give up property. Id., at 528, 533-534, 26 Cal. Rptr. 2d, at 329, 333. The court, in upholding the verdict, wrote that “knowledge of another’s criminal purpose is not sufficient for aiding and abetting; the defendant must also share that purpose or intend to commit, encourage, or facilitate the commission of the crime.” Id., at 530, 26 Cal. Rptr. 2d, at 330 (emphasis added). The court added that “[wjhile the defendants participated in the criminal endeavor the foreseeability of sexual assault went from possible or likely to certain, yet defendants continued to lend their aid and assistance to the endeavor.” Id., at 534, 26 Cal. Rptr. 2d, at 333 (emphasis added). The court said that the jury could find that the defendants’
“continuing participation in the criminal endeavor aided the perpetrators by providing the control and security they needed to tarry long enough to commit the sexual offense, by helping to convince the victim that resistance would be useless, and by dissuading the victim’s employee from any notion she may have formed of going to the victim’s assistance.”
And the court concluded:
“Under these circumstances it will not do for defendants to assert that they were concerned only with robbery and bear no responsibility for the sexual assault.” Id., at 533-534, 26 Cal. Rptr. 2d, at 333.
People v. Simpson, 66 Cal. App. 2d 319 (1944), affirmed a kidnaping and robbery conviction on an aiding and abetting theory. Id., at 322. Although the defendant argued to the appeals court that she and her compatriots had not planned to kidnap the robbery victim, the record showed that she had brought the gun used to intimidate the victim while he was tied up and placed in a car, in which she and her co-robbers rode with the victim to another location while they robbed him. Id., at 322-323. As in Nguyen, the court, noting that kidnaping was the means by which the robbery was committed, found that the defendant had the requisite “motive,” or intent to commit the kidnaping. 66 Cal. App. 2d, at 326.
People v. Montes, 74 Cal. App. 4th 1050, 88 Cal. Rptr. 2d 482 (1999), affirmed an attempted murder conviction where a confederate of the defendant shot the victim after the defendant committed armed assault, simple assault, and breach of the peace. Id., at 1055, 88 Cal. Rptr. 2d, at 485. The court found that the conduct for which the appellant was charged with assault and breach of the peace was a “confrontation... punctuated by threats and weaponry” “in the context of an ongoing rivalry between... two gangs [that] acted violently toward each other.” Ibid. The court reasoned that the escalating violence, resulting in someone being shot, was a foreseeable consequence of the defendant’s intended act of participating in the gang confrontation. Ibid.
Although the court in Montes applied a more expansive concept of “motive” or “intent” than did the courts in Nguyen and Simpson, we cannot say that those concepts as used in any of these cases extend significantly beyond the concept as set forth in the cases of other States. See Appendix C, infra.
Moreover, in our view, to find that a state statute creates a crime outside the generic definition of a listed crime in a federal statute requires more than the application of legal imagination to a state statute’s language. It requires a realistic probability, not a theoretical possibility, that the State would apply its statute to conduct that falls outside the generic definition of a crime. To show that realistic probability, an offender, of course, may show that the statute was so applied in his own case. But he must at least point to his own case or other cases in which the state courts in fact did apply the statute in the special (nongeneric) manner for which he argues.
Because Duenas-Alvarez makes no such showing here, we cannot find that California’s statute, through the California courts’ application of a “natural and probable consequences” doctrine, creates a subspecies of the Vehicle Code section crime that falls outside the generic definition of “theft.”
B
Duenas-Alvarez makes two additional claims. First, he argues that § 10851 holds liable accessories after the fact; and to prove that an individual was an accessory after the fact does not require the Government to show that the individual committed a theft. Second, Duenas-Alvarez argues that § 10851 applies, not only to auto theft, but also to joyriding, which he argues involves so limited a deprivation of the use of a car that it falls outside the generic “theft” definition. See Van Vechten v. American Eagle Fire Ins. Co., 239 N. Y. 303, 146 N. E. 432 (1925) (Cardozo, J.) (citing cases for proposition that a very temporary use is not theft).
We shall not consider these claims. The question that we agreed to decide is whether “ Theft offense’ ” in the federal statute “includes aiding and abetting the commission of the offense.” See Brief for Petitioner I. Context makes clear that “aiding and abetting” in this question referred to the use of that term in Penuliar, i. e., to the second and third common-law categories (principal in the second degree, accessory before the fact), see supra, at 189, see also Brief for Petitioner 13, and not to “accessory after the fact.” Thus neither this claim nor the “joyriding” claim falls within the terms

Question: What is the issue of the decision?
年. involuntary confession
数. habeas corpus
日. plea bargaining: the constitutionality of and/or the circumstances of its exercise
的. retroactivity (of newly announced or newly enacted constitutional or statutory rights)
月. search and seizure (other than as pertains to vehicles or Crime Control Act)
用. search and seizure, vehicles
成. search and seizure, Crime Control Act
名. contempt of court or congress
时. self-incrimination (other than as pertains to Miranda or immunity from prosecution)
件. Miranda warnings
一. self-incrimination, immunity from prosecution
请. right to counsel (cf. indigents appointment of counsel or inadequate representation)
中. cruel and unusual punishment, death penalty (cf. extra legal jury influence, death penalty)
据. cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty (cf. liability, civil rights acts)
码. line-up
不. discovery and inspection (in the context of criminal litigation only, otherwise Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations)
新. double jeopardy
文. ex post facto (state)
下. extra-legal jury influences: miscellaneous
分. extra-legal jury influences: prejudicial statements or evidence
入. extra-legal jury influences: contact with jurors outside courtroom
人. extra-legal jury influences: jury instructions (not necessarily in criminal cases)
功. extra-legal jury influences: voir dire (not necessarily a criminal case)
上. extra-legal jury influences: prison garb or appearance
户. extra-legal jury influences: jurors and death penalty (cf. cruel and unusual punishment)
为. extra-legal jury influences: pretrial publicity
间. confrontation (right to confront accuser, call and cross-examine witnesses)
号. subconstitutional fair procedure: confession of error
取. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy (cf. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure: conspiracy)
回. subconstitutional fair procedure: entrapment
在. subconstitutional fair procedure: exhaustion of remedies
页. subconstitutional fair procedure: fugitive from justice
字. subconstitutional fair procedure: presentation, admissibility, or sufficiency of evidence (not necessarily a criminal case)
有. subconstitutional fair procedure: stay of execution
个. subconstitutional fair procedure: timeliness
作. subconstitutional fair procedure: miscellaneous
示. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
出. statutory construction of criminal laws: assault
是. statutory construction of criminal laws: bank robbery
失. statutory construction of criminal laws: conspiracy (cf. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy)
表. statutory construction of criminal laws: escape from custody
除. statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements (cf. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury)
加. statutory construction of criminal laws: financial (other than in fraud or internal revenue)
败. statutory construction of criminal laws: firearms
生. statutory construction of criminal laws: fraud
信. statutory construction of criminal laws: gambling
类. statutory construction of criminal laws: Hobbs Act; i.e., 18 USC 1951
置. statutory construction of criminal laws: immigration (cf. immigration and naturalization)
理. statutory construction of criminal laws: internal revenue (cf. Federal Taxation)
本. statutory construction of criminal laws: Mann Act and related statutes
息. statutory construction of criminal laws: narcotics includes regulation and prohibition of alcohol
行. statutory construction of criminal laws: obstruction of justice
定. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury (other than as pertains to statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements)
改. statutory construction of criminal laws: Travel Act, 18 USC 1952
市. statutory construction of criminal laws: war crimes
期. statutory construction of criminal laws: sentencing guidelines
以. statutory construction of criminal laws: miscellaneous
修. jury trial (right to, as distinct from extra-legal jury influences)
元. speedy trial
方. miscellaneous criminal procedure (cf. due process, prisoners' rights, comity: criminal procedure)
录. voting
区. Voting Rights Act of 1965, plus amendments
单. ballot access (of candidates and political parties)
位. desegregation (other than as pertains to school desegregation, employment discrimination, and affirmative action)
型. desegregation, schools
法. employment discrimination: on basis of race, age, religion, illegitimacy, national origin, or working conditions.
县. affirmative action
存. slavery or indenture
品. sit-in demonstrations (protests against racial discrimination in places of public accommodation)
前. reapportionment: other than plans governed by the Voting Rights Act
称. debtors' rights
注. deportation (cf. immigration and naturalization)
值. employability of aliens (cf. immigration and naturalization)
输. sex discrimination (excluding sex discrimination in employment)
建. sex discrimination in employment (cf. sex discrimination)
能. Indians (other than pertains to state jurisdiction over)
大. Indians, state jurisdiction over
例. juveniles (cf. rights of illegitimates)
度. poverty law, constitutional
始. poverty law, statutory: welfare benefits, typically under some Social Security Act provision.
到. illegitimates, rights of (cf. juveniles): typically inheritance and survivor's benefits, and paternity suits
面. handicapped, rights of: under Rehabilitation, Americans with Disabilities Act, and related statutes
载. residency requirements: durational, plus discrimination against nonresidents
点. military: draftee, or person subject to induction
密. military: active duty
动. military: veteran
果. immigration and naturalization: permanent residence
图. immigration and naturalization: citizenship
提. immigration and naturalization: loss of citizenship, denaturalization
发. immigration and naturalization: access to public education
式. immigration and naturalization: welfare benefits
国. immigration and naturalization: miscellaneous
登. indigents: appointment of counsel (cf. right to counsel)
错. indigents: inadequate representation by counsel (cf. right to counsel)
者. indigents: payment of fine
认. indigents: costs or filing fees
误. indigents: U.S. Supreme Court docketing fee
接. indigents: transcript
关. indigents: assistance of psychiatrist
重. indigents: miscellaneous
第. liability, civil rights acts (cf. liability, governmental and liability, nongovernmental; cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty)
地. miscellaneous civil rights (cf. comity: civil rights)
如. First Amendment, miscellaneous (cf. comity: First Amendment)
设. commercial speech, excluding attorneys
目. libel, defamation: defamation of public officials and public and private persons
开. libel, privacy: true and false light invasions of privacy
事. legislative investigations: concerning internal security only
可. federal or state internal security legislation: Smith, Internal Security, and related federal statutes
要. loyalty oath or non-Communist affidavit (other than bar applicants, government employees, political party, or teacher)
代. loyalty oath: bar applicants (cf. admission to bar, state or federal or U.S. Supreme Court)
小. loyalty oath: government employees
选. loyalty oath: political party
标. loyalty oath: teachers
明. security risks: denial of benefits or dismissal of employees for reasons other than failure to meet loyalty oath requirements
编. conscientious objectors (cf. military draftee or military active duty) to military service
求. campaign spending (cf. governmental corruption):
列. protest demonstrations (other than as pertains to sit-in demonstrations): demonstrations and other forms of protest based on First Amendment guarantees
网. free exercise of religion
万. establishment of religion (other than as pertains to parochiaid:)
最. parochiaid: government aid to religious schools, or religious requirements in public schools
器. obscenity, state (cf. comity: privacy): including the regulation of sexually explicit material under the 21st Amendment
所. obscenity, federal
内. due process: miscellaneous (cf. loyalty oath), the residual code
体. due process: hearing or notice (other than as pertains to government employees or prisoners' rights)
通. due process: hearing, government employees
务. due process: prisoners' rights and defendants' rights
此. due process: impartial decision maker
商. due process: jurisdiction (jurisdiction over non-resident litigants)
序. due process: takings clause, or other non-constitutional governmental taking of property
化. privacy (cf. libel, comity: privacy)
消. abortion: including contraceptives
否. right to die
保. Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations
使. attorneys' and governmental employees' or officials' fees or compensation or licenses
次. commercial speech, attorneys (cf. commercial speech)
机. admission to a state or federal bar, disbarment, and attorney discipline (cf. loyalty oath: bar applicants)
对. admission to, or disbarment from, Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court
量. arbitration (in the context of labor-management or employer-employee relations) (cf. arbitration)
查. union antitrust: legality of anticompetitive union activity
部. union or closed shop: includes agency shop litigation
性. Fair Labor Standards Act
和. Occupational Safety and Health Act
更. union-union member dispute (except as pertains to union or closed shop)
后. labor-management disputes: bargaining
证. labor-management disputes: employee discharge
题. labor-management disputes: distribution of union literature
确. labor-management disputes: representative election
格. labor-management disputes: antistrike injunction
了. labor-management disputes: jurisdictional dispute
于. labor-management disputes: right to organize
金. labor-management disputes: picketing
公. labor-management disputes: secondary activity
午. labor-management disputes: no-strike clause
円. labor-management disputes: union representatives
片. labor-management disputes: union trust funds (cf. ERISA)
空. labor-management disputes: working conditions
态. labor-management disputes: miscellaneous dispute
管. miscellaneous union
主. antitrust (except in the context of mergers and union antitrust)
天. mergers
自. bankruptcy (except in the context of priority of federal fiscal claims)
我. sufficiency of evidence: typically in the context of a jury's determination of compensation for injury or death
全. election of remedies: legal remedies available to injured persons or things
今. liability, governmental: tort or contract actions by or against government or governmental officials other than defense of criminal actions brought under a civil rights action.
来. liability, other than as in sufficiency of evidence, election of remedies, punitive damages
正. liability, punitive damages
说. Employee Retirement Income Security Act (cf. union trust funds)
意. state or local government tax
送. state and territorial land claims
容. state or local government regulation, especially of business (cf. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction, federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation)
已. federal or state regulation of securities
结. natural resources - environmental protection (cf. national supremacy: natural resources, national supremacy: pollution)
会. corruption, governmental or governmental regulation of other than as in campaign spending
段. zoning: constitutionality of such ordinances, or restrictions on owners' or lessors' use of real property
计. arbitration (other than as pertains to labor-management or employer-employee relations (cf. union arbitration)
源. federal or state consumer protection: typically under the Truth in Lending; Food, Drug and Cosmetic; and Consumer Protection Credit Acts
色. patents and copyrights: patent
時. patents and copyrights: copyright
交. patents and copyrights: trademark
系. patents and copyrights: patentability of computer processes
过. federal or state regulation of transportation regulation: railroad
电. federal and some few state regulations of transportation regulation: boat
询. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation:truck, or motor carrier
符. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: pipeline (cf. federal public utilities regulation: gas pipeline)
未. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: airline
程. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: electric power
常. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: nuclear power
条. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: oil producer
当. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas producer
情. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas pipeline (cf. federal transportation regulation: pipeline)
口. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: radio and television (cf. cable television)
合. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: cable television (cf. radio and television)
车. federal and some few state regulations of public utilities regulation: telephone or telegraph company
实. miscellaneous economic regulation
组. comity: civil rights
版. comity: criminal procedure
周. comity: First Amendment
址. comity: habeas corpus
记. comity: military
二. comity: obscenity
同. comity: privacy
业. comity: miscellaneous
权. comity primarily removal cases, civil procedure (cf. comity, criminal and First Amendment); deference to foreign judicial tribunals
其. assessment of costs or damages: as part of a court order
进. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure including Supreme Court Rules, application of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure in civil litigation, Circuit Court Rules, and state rules and admiralty rules
试. judicial review of administrative agency's or administrative official's actions and procedures
验. mootness (cf. standing to sue: live dispute)
料. venue
传. no merits: writ improvidently granted
述. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question, or a nonsuit
集. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of jurisdiction (cf. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal from federal district courts or courts of appeals)
多. no merits: adequate non-federal grounds for decision
无. no merits: remand to determine basis of state or federal court decision (cf. judicial administration: state law)
员. no merits: miscellaneous
报. standing to sue: adversary parties
他. standing to sue: direct injury
無. standing to sue: legal injury
服. standing to sue: personal injury
线. standing to sue: justiciable question
这. standing to sue: live dispute
制. standing to sue: parens patriae standing
将. standing to sue: statutory standing
处. standing to sue: private or implied cause of action
高. standing to sue: taxpayer's suit
子. standing to sue: miscellaneous
道. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal district courts or territorial courts
章. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal courts of appeals
手. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from federal district courts or courts of appeals (cf. 753)
库. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from highest state court
三. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of the Court of Claims
从. judicial administration: Supreme Court's original jurisdiction
支. judicial administration: review of non-final order
家. judicial administration: change in state law (cf. no merits: remand to determine basis of state court decision)
长. judicial administration: federal question (cf. no merits: dismissed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question)
付. judicial administration: ancillary or pendent jurisdiction
秒. judicial administration: extraordinary relief (e.g., mandamus, injunction)
路. judicial administration: certification (cf. objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal)
完. judicial administration: resolution of circuit conflict, or conflict between or among other courts
象. judicial administration: objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal
则. judicial administration: collateral estoppel or res judicata
现. judicial administration: interpleader
京. judicial administration: untimely filing
转. judicial administration: Act of State doctrine
辑. judicial administration: miscellaneous
限. Supreme Court's certiorari, writ of error, or appeals jurisdiction
力. miscellaneous judicial power, especially diversity jurisdiction
学. federal-state ownership dispute (cf. Submerged Lands Act)
外. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction
调. federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation. cf. state regulation of business. rarely involves union activity. Does not involve constitutional interpretation unless the Court says it does.
项. Submerged Lands Act (cf. federal-state ownership dispute)
北. national supremacy: commodities
工. national supremacy: intergovernmental tax immunity
笑. national supremacy: marital and family relationships and property, including obligation of child support
监. national supremacy: natural resources (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
任. national supremacy: pollution, air or water (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
相. national supremacy: public utilities (cf. federal public utilities regulation)
微. national supremacy: state tax (cf. state tax)
册. national supremacy: miscellaneous
联. miscellaneous federalism
平. boundary dispute between states
增. non-real property dispute between states
听. miscellaneous interstate relations conflict
解. incorporation of foreign territories
等. federal taxation, typically under provisions of the Internal Revenue Code
得. federal taxation of gifts, personal, business, or professional expenses
收. priority of federal fiscal claims: over those of the states or private entities
安. miscellaneous federal taxation (cf. national supremacy: state tax)
价. legislative veto
藏. executive authority vis-a-vis congress or the states
命. miscellaneous
应. real property
看. personal property
索. contracts
资. evidence
产. civil procedure
串. torts
布. wills and trusts
原. commercial transactions
Answer:

Answer: 注