Task: songer_usc1

What follows is an opinion from a United States Court of Appeals.
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OPINION OF THE COURT
A. LEON HIGGINBOTHAM, Jr., Circuit Judge:
The plaintiffs in this “distributor termination” case, a franchised tractor dealership and its new owners, appeal a final order of the district court granting summary judgment in favor of the defendant franchisor and other corporate and individual defendants on plaintiffs’ federal antitrust claims. The appealed from order also dismissed plaintiffs’ state common law breach of contract and tort claims without prejudice.
We reverse and remand for further proceedings.
I. THE SUMMARY JUDGMENT RECORD
A. The Complaint and Other Pleadings
The six-count complaint filed by plaintiffs Tunis Brothers Company, Inc. (“Tunis Brothers”), Richard N. de la Rigaudiere (“de la Rigaudiere”) and David C. Smith (“Smith”) on December 15, 1982 and amended July 14, 1983, includes four counts alleging violations of section 1 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1 (1982) by three corporate defendants and eight individual defendants. The remaining two counts allege state common law tort and contract claims against the defendants and invoke pendent jurisdiction. The plaintiffs claim injuries to their business and property in the amount of $7,724,357 and seek treble damages from the defendants in the amount of $23,173,071. Appendix (“App.”) at 11-94.
Count I alleges, inter alia, that corporate defendants Ford Motor Company (“Ford”), Ford Credit Company (“Ford Credit”), Wenner Ford Tractor, Inc. (“Wenner Ford”), and individual defendant John S. Wenner (“Wenner”) conspired to terminate the authorized Ford tractor dealership of plaintiff Tunis Brothers, a Pennsylvania corporation located in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. Complaint $ 66, App. at 35.
The business of Tunis Brothers had been established in 1934 by Richard M. Tunis and his brother Robert. In 1959, Tunis Brothers entered into an agreement with Ford and became a franchised tractor dealership owned and operated by Richard Tunis and his wife Isabelle. From 1959 until April 1981 when its Ford dealership franchise was terminated, Tunis Brothers was an authorized dealer of Ford tractors and related equipment and it sold Ford tractors, Ford accessories and non-Ford products. On March 13, 1981, plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere and Smith purchased the business and became the sole directors and stockholders of Tunis Brothers Company, Inc.
Count I further alleges that the defendants conspired to prevent plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere and Smith, the new owners of Tunis Brothers, from operating in Kennett Square to eliminate or substantially decrease competition with defendant Wenner Ford Tractor, Inc. Complaint 66, App. at 35-6.
Wenner Ford is a Delaware Corporation whose principal place of business prior to 1982 was Concordville, Pennsylvania, about 11 miles east of Kennett Square. Wenner Ford was the authorized Ford dealer of farm and industrial tractors, machinery, equipment and parts nearest Tunis Brothers. It is a Ford Dealer Development Company, established by Ford in November 1979, in which defendant Ford owns all of the voting stock and 79% of the equity stock. App. at 3522-37. Defendant John 5. Wenner owned 21% of Wenner Ford’s equity stock, app. at 3712-3883, and operated Wenner Ford as its president and chief executive officer pursuant to a Dealer Development Agreement and a Management Agreement. App. at 3434, 3449.
It is alleged in Count 1 that, in addition to John S. Wenner, the other named individual defendants, employed by Ford in varying managerial capacities, participated in and aided and abetted the conspiracy. These individuals are: John Watson (“Watson”); Douglas N. Crawford (“Crawford”); Eugene W. Fraher (“Fraher”); E.S. Hasel (“Hasel”); Hugh Nickel (“Nickel”); Kenneth E. Harris (“Harris”) and C.W. Wenzel (“Wenzel”).
It is further averred in Count 1 that the conspiracy and actions of the defendants were not only in unreasonable restraint of trade but were illegal per se because they were in furtherance of an illegal horizontal territorial restriction by Ford where Ford was in both a horizontal and a vertical relationship with Tunis Brothers, as both franchisor and competitor. Complaint U 74, App. at 38.
Count II alleges that the 1974 franchise agreement between Ford and Richard and Isabelle Tunis constituted a contract in unreasonable restraint of trade due to the existence of certain unlawful provisions. The individual defendants are alleged to have aided and abetted Ford in exercising its rights under the agreement in furtherance of illegal objectives. Complaint j[ 95, App. at 48.
Count III alleges, inter alia, that the franchise agreement and the conspiracy included “dirty business tricks and unfair business dealing... in furtherance of defendants’ illegal antitrust objectives and their unreasonable restraint of trade...” Complaint j[ 97, App. at 49.
Count IV avers that the franchise agreement and the conspiracy, by eliminating Tunis Brothers as a competitor, eliminated intrabrand competition in the sale and service of Ford products. Because no inter-brand competition of any significance or consequence was promoted by such elimination of intrabrand competition, it is alleged that the anti-competitive effect constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade. Complaint j[ 100, 102; App. at 50, 51.
As to the state causes of action, Count V alleges tort liability under common law based on fraud and other tortious conduct. App. at 52-9. Count VI alleges contract liability on the part of the defendants at common law. App. at 60-5.
The defendants’ answers and amended answers to the amended complaint deny all material allegations.
B. Defendants’ Rule 56 Motions
On November 30, 1983, the defendants filed motions for summary judgment pursuant to Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, with supporting memoranda, affidavits, depositions and exhibits. App. at 200-900. The major argument presented by defendants was that there were no genuine issues of material fact in dispute and, on the basis of the undisputed facts, the plaintiffs not only failed to show direct evidence of a conspiracy but also failed to present facts which would permit a reasonable inference of conspiracy. Moreover, defendants argued that plaintiffs presented no facts showing an adverse impact on competition. They also asserted that there were no facts supporting plaintiffs’ breach of contract claim.
In reply, the plaintiffs filed memoranda, affidavits, depositions and exhibits in opposition to defendants’ summary judgment motions. App. at 900-1375. They argued in a 141-page brief that the factual record fully supported the allegations in the complaint and that there were genuine issues of material fact in dispute. The district court heard oral argument on February 8, 1984. App. at 1375.
In its May 7, 1984 memorandum opinion, the district court found that the plaintiffs failed to establish a “... contract or conspiracy, in restraint of trade” under section 1 of the Sherman Act in two respects.
First, the district court held that plaintiffs did not satisfy their burden of producing sufficient evidence of a conspiracy to terminate Tunis Brothers and to prevent de la Rigaudiere and Smith from operating the dealership as a franchise in competition with Wenner Ford. According to the district court, “there is no evidence of a conspiracy under section 1 of the Sherman Act” and therefore, “there is no genuine issue of material fact and all defendants are entitled to judgment as a matter of law on Counts I, III, and IV”. Tunis Brothers Co. v. Ford Motor Co., 587 F.Supp. 267, 274 (E.D.Pa.1984).
Second, the district court determined that the 1974 franchise agreement, which contained provisions preventing Tunis Brothers from transferring the franchise without the approval of Ford and which gave Ford the right to terminate the agreement, was not a contract in unreasonable restraint of trade violative of section 1 of the Sherman Act. The district court also determined that “there are no facts which show that Ford improperly used the franchise agreement to deny transfer of the Ford franchise to plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere and Smith.” Tunis Brothers Co., 587 F.Supp. at 275. Summary judgment as to Count II was also granted.
Having dismissed all of the federal claims before trial, the district court then exercised its discretion and dismissed the pendent claims in Counts V and VI. 587 F.Supp. at 275.
The plaintiffs noticed this appeal on June 4, 1984.
II. STANDARD OF REVIEW
Although Tunis Brothers, de la Rigaudiere and Smith challenge the district court’s ruling as to the validity of the franchise agreement and the dismissal of the state claims, they have launched their major offensive against the district court’s holding with respect to the entry of summary judgment on the conspiracy charge. They strongly take issue with the district court’s evaluation of the material facts and staunchly maintain that it failed to examine all of the admissible evidence, direct and circumstantial, which they presented in opposition to the defendants’ Rule 56 motions. The plaintiffs contend that the district court did not properly determine what legitimate inferences could be drawn as to the ultimate facts in issue. They assail the trial court’s conclusions by asking: Where are the facts?
Of course, in the true nature of our adversarial process, each side has provided us with a portrayal of the evidence which, if selectively read, could be viewed as providing a solid foundation of evidentiary support. Our function on appeal, however, in regard to summary judgment, is the same as that of a trial court: it is not within our province to adjudicate genuine factual issues. We are to view the evidence in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs, the nonmoving parties, giving Tunis Brothers, de la Rigaudiere and Smith the benefit of all reasonable inferences without assessing credibility.
To determine whether the defendants have satisfied their burden under Rule 56, we must on the one hand closely scrutinize the affidavits, depositions, and exhibits submitted by the defendants, while on the other, indulgently treat those proffered by plaintiffs. 6 J. Moore, W. Taggert & J. Wicker, Moore’s Federal Practice j| 56.15[3] (2d ed. 1985). Only if we conclude that the evidence is so one-sided that it leaves no room for any reasonable difference of opinion as to any material fact should we hold that the case should have been decided by the district court as a matter of law rather than submitted to a jury.
Although we recognize that summary judgments are somewhat disfavored in antitrust cases, especially when motive or intent is at issue, see Poller v. Columbia Broadcasting System, 368 U.S. 464, 473, 82 S.Ct. 486, 491, 7 L.Ed.2d 458 (1962); Cernuto, Inc. v. United Cabinet Corp., 595 F.2d 164, 165 (3d Cir.1979), they are not automatically precluded in antitrust litigation, if otherwise justified. First National Bank v. Cities Service Co., 391 U.S. 253, 290, 88 S.Ct. 1575, 1593, 20 L.Ed.2d 569 (1968); Sound Ship Building v. Bethlehem Steel Co., 533 F.2d 96, 99-100 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 860, 97 S.Ct. 161, 50 L.Ed.2d 137 (1976); Innovation Data Processing, Inc. v. International Business Machines Corp., 585 F.Supp. 1470, 1472 (D.N.J.1984). Therefore, we have, with painstaking care, reviewed this massive 3,712 page record to ascertain whether it does or does not have the quantum of evidence required to sustain the district court’s grant of summary judgment on behalf of the defendants as to Counts I through IV. The critical inquiry is: did the district court err in concluding that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law? Cernuto, 595 F.2d at 165.
We believe that, in evaluating the evidence contained in this veritable mountain of briefs and appendices, the trial judge, unintentionally of course, tilted the scale against plaintiffs by failing to factor into the overall conspiracy equation certain significant evidence that clearly favored the plaintiffs. Therefore, we reverse the entry of summary judgment as to Counts I, III and IV. As to Count II, we also reverse the judgment of the district court, again for the reason that evidence favoring the plaintiffs was not taken into account as to the improper use of the franchise agreement.
Our review of the dismissal of plaintiffs’ pendent state claims is for an abuse of discretion. In light of our disposition of the federal claims, we reinstate Counts V and VI and remand this matter for trial.
III. ANALYSIS
A. The Antitrust Claims
For activities to constitute a section 1 violation, the following four elements must be present: (1) that the defendants contracted, combined or conspired among each other; (2) that the combination or conspiracy produced adverse, anti-competitive effects within the relevant product and geographic markets; (3) that the objects of and the conduct pursuant to that contract or conspiracy were illegal; and (4) that the plaintiffs were injured as a proximate result of that conspiracy. Martin B. Glauser Dodge Co. v. Chrysler Corp., 570 F.2d 72, 81-2 (3d Cir.1977), cert. denied, 436 U.S. 913, 98 S.Ct. 2253, 56 L.Ed.2d 413 (1978).
Although the literal language of section 1 declares “every” contract, combination or conspiracy in restraint of trade to be illegal, it has been construed to proscribe only those combinations that “unduly” restrain trade. Cernuto, 595 F.2d at 166. Thus, unless the particular restraint falls within a category that has been judicially determined to be illegal per se, the legality of a restraint challenged under section 1 of the Sherman Act must be assessed under the “rule of reason” standard.
To demonstrate an antitrust violation under the “rule of reason,” plaintiffs would have to show an actual anti-competitive impact on the sale of tractors in the relevant market area. Plaintiffs allege, and may be able to prove such harmful effects, but the district court did not reach the question of adverse impact, having determined that the first element of a section 1 claim was not satisfied. Plaintiffs’ claims, however, are not entirely grounded on the “rule of reason;” in Count 1, plaintiffs allege the per se illegality of the defendants’ combination in the form of a horizontal territorial restriction.
1. Counts I, III, IV — Concerted Action
We will first consider whether the defendants met their burden of establishing that, as to the undisputed material facts, there could not have been a conspiracy as a matter of law either because (a) there was not sufficient evidence of concerted action or (b) even if there was such evidence, the acts complained of are not violative of the antitrust laws.
(a) Burden of Proof
We begin with the proposition that “liability under the antitrust laws [cannot] be measured by any rigid or mechanical formula____” Continental Ore Co. v. Union Carbide & Carbon Corp., 370 U.S. 690, 699, 82 S.Ct. 1404, 1410, 8 L.Ed.2d 777 (1962).
To establish the existence of concerted action as a matter of fact, the plaintiff must submit evidence from which a jury could reasonably infer that the defendants “had a conscious commitment to a common scheme designed to achieve an unlawful objective”, Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Service Corp., — U.S. -, 104 S.Ct. 1464, 1471, 79 L.Ed.2d 775 (1984), quoting Edward J. Sweeney & Sons, Inc. v. Texaco, 637 F.2d 105, 111 (3d Cir.1980), cert. denied, 451 U.S. 911, 101 S.Ct. 1981, 68 L.Ed.2d 300 (1981), or, in other words, “a unity of purpose or a common design and understanding, or a meeting of minds in an unlawful arrangement____” American Tobacco Co. v. United States, 328 U.S. 781, 810, 66 S.Ct. 1125, 1139, 90 L.Ed. 1575 (1946); American Motor Inns, Inc. v. Holiday Inns, Inc., 521 F.2d 1230, 1243 (3d Cir.1975). Direct proof of an express agreement is not required. Edward J. Sweeny & Sons, Inc. v. Texaco, Inc., 637 F.2d 105, 111 (3d Cir.1980), cert. denied, 451 U.S. 911, 101 S.Ct. 1981, 68 L.Ed.2d 300 (1981).
As we noted in In re Japanese Electronic Products Antitrust Litigation, 723 F.2d 238, 304 (3d Cir.1983), cert. granted, — U.S. -, 105 S.Ct. 1863, 85 L.Ed.2d 157 (1985), “[b]ecause the concert of action which violates the antitrust laws will so rarely be the subject of direct evidence, the Supreme Court has permitted broad latitude with respect to what inferences are permissible from the totality of the circumstances.” (Emphasis added). The Supreme Court stated in American Tobacco Co.,.328 U.S. at 809-10, 66 S.Ct. at 1139:
It is not the form of the combination or the particular means used but the result to be achieved that the statute condemns. It is not of importance whether the means used to accomplish the unlawful objective are in themselves lawful or unlawful. Acts done to give effect to the conspiracy may be in themselves wholly innocent acts. Yet, if they are part of the sum of the acts which are relied upon to effectuate the conspiracy which the statute forbids, they come within its prohibition. No formal agreement is necessary to constitute an unlawful conspiracy. Often crimes are a matter of inference deduced from the acts of the person accused and done in pursuance of a criminal purpose____ The essential combination or conspiracy in violation of the Sherman Act may be found in a course of dealings or other circumstances as well as in an exchange of words, (citations omitted).
Conspiracies under the Sherman Act are not dependent on any overt act other than the act of conspiring. See Associated Press v. United States, 326 U.S. 1, 12-13, 65 S.Ct. 1416, 1420-1421, 89 L.Ed. 2013 (1945). Those who, with knowledge of the conspiracy, aid or assist in carrying out the purposes of the conspiracy make themselves parties thereto and are equally liable to or guilty with the original conspirators.
The primary facts upon which plaintiffs rely to support their allegation of conspiracy are these:
(1) Plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere’s and Smith’s conversations and communications with defendants Ford, John Watson and Eugene W. Fraher regarding the purchase of Tunis Brothers by de la Rigaudiere and Smith and their application for Ford franchise from April 1980 to January 1981
Complaint U 35-45, App. at 23-27.
(2) Plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere’s and Smith’s conversations and communications with defendants
Eugene W. Fraher and Hugh Nickel regarding their franchise application Complaint H 46-56, App. at 27-32.
(3) The events surrounding the rejection of plaintiffs de la Riguadiere’s and Smith’s franchise application
Complaint K 57-65, App. at 32-35.
The character and effect of an alleged conspiracy are determined only by analyzing the activities in question as a whole, Continental Ore Co. v. Union Carbide, 370 U.S. at 699, 82 S.Ct. at 1410. This court “need not affirmatively find that a conspiracy exists, but merely that there are factual questions concerning such a conspiracy in order to deny the motions for summary judgment.” American Dermatologists’ Medical Group, Inc. v. Collagen Corp., 595 F.Supp. 79, 81 n. 1 (N.D.Ill. 1984). Therefore, we will look to the affidavits, depositions, and exhibits to determine whether the facts alleged by plaintiffs are susceptible of an interpretation that might give rise to an inference of a conspiracy.
(1) Plaintiffs’ Conversations and Communications With Defendants Ford, John Watson and Eugene W. Fraher Regarding the Purchase of Tunis Brothers and Ford Franchise April 1980 to January 1981.
The district court found, as a matter of undisputed fact, that in March 1980 plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere and Smith began negotiations with Mr. and Mrs. Tunis as to the sale of the dealership. They initiated a series of meetings and negotiations with Richard and Isabelle Tunis, extending over a period of months, culminating in an Agreement of Sale dated December 16, 1980. App. at 2787.
Richard de la Rigaudiere deposed that he contacted defendant John Watson, a Zone Manager for Ford’s Tractor Operations for an area including Kennett Square and Concordville, in April of 1980 regarding the proposed sale. App. at 1554. He further testified that Watson suggested that they meet at Wenner Ford and then have lunch at the Concordville Inn, near Wenner Ford. App. at 1908-11. It is undisputed that on May 23, 1980, prior to the sale of the business, de la Rigaudiere and Smith met with defendant John Watson for the purpose of discussing the transfer of the Ford franchise to them once Richard and Isabelle Tunis sold the business. The parties met at Wenner Ford.
Meeting at Wenner Ford and Concord-ville Inn — May 23, 1980
De la Rigaudiere testified that Watson introduced him and Smith to John S. Wenner and took them on a tour of the Wenner Ford facility. App. at 1564-5; 1910-91. It is undisputed that the May 23, 1980 meeting also included lunch at the Concordville Inn, during which de la Rigaudiere and Smith told Watson of their plans to purchase Tunis Brothers, expand the business and become franchised tractor dealers in Kennett Square. Defendant Watson indicated that Ford did not intend to have a franchised dealership selling tractors in Kennett Square after Tunis Brothers was sold but rather was interested in having a franchised dealership in the area, 15 miles west of Kennett Square.
De la Rigaudiere and Smith both testified that Watson also said that the Kennett Square area was to belong to Wenner Ford after Mr. Tunis retired or sold the business. App. at 1567-15; 1919; 2142, 2377. Watson denies making the statement.
De la Rigaudiere further testified that Wenner was seated nearby during lunch at the Concordville Inn and was “in an excellent position to overhear... our conversation.” App. at 1916. Defendant Wenner testified that he remembered the meeting with Watson, de la Rigaudiere and Smith at Wenner Ford but that he had no recollection of having lunch at the Concordville Inn on that same day and no recollection of ever eating at the Concordville Inn. App. at 108-10. Plaintiffs’ Exhibit P-8, an invoice to Wenner Ford which shows that John Wenner had been at the Concordville Inn on May 23, app. at 2778, contradicts the testimony of Wenner. Watson denied in his deposition knowing that Wenner was at the Concordville Inn.
Following the May 23rd meeting, defendant Watson, in his Ford New Dealer Prospecting Report wrote that the two men were very well qualified to represent Ford in the trade area — Oxford and Cochran-ville, Pennsylvania — not Kennett Square. App. at 2779-80.
Whether or not Wenner saw Watson, de la Rigaudiere and Smith at the Concordville Inn; whether it was just a coincidence that Wenner was seated at an adjacent table or whether this was planned and prearranged, are disputed issues of material fact properly left for a jury.
Meeting on June 13, 1980 with Defendant Eugene E. Fraher
Smith testified that he and de la Rigaudiere felt that Watson and Wenner had been collaborating and decided to “go over their heads.” App. at 2143. It is undisputed that later, in June 1980, plaintiffs de la Rigaudiere and Smith met with Watson’s superiors, defendant Eugene E. Fraher, who was then Northeastern District Manager of Ford Tractor Operations, and his associate, Edward Poole, in Cohoes, New York.
Smith and de la Rigaudiere did not know that Fraher was also then a Director and Senior Vice President of Wenner Ford Tractor and that he had served in those official capacities since November 1979. App. at 3723, 3735, 3757, 3781, 3790, 3813, 3820, 3828, 3833-34, 3482. De la Rigaudiere testified that Fraher did not mention that Ford had a stock interest in Wenner Ford, or that he was an officer of Wenner Ford. App. at 1936-37.
It is undisputed that Fraher confirmed Watson’s report that Ford intended to realign its distributorship and eliminate the Kennett Square outlet. According to Smith, Fraher agreed with Watson that Kennett Square was going to be Wenner’s territory. App. at 2146. De la Rigaudiere testified to the same effect. App. at 1936.
De la Rigaudiere testified that Fraher also told them Ford preferred not to have its dealers competing with each other but went on to say that he thought de la Rigaudiere and Smith could have a dealership in Kennett Square for two to three years before they would have to move to the Cochranville area. App. at 1579-80, 1935-36, 1939-40. Smith testified, “Finally, we reached an agreement that we would start out in Kennett Square and after a period of time set up a place in Cochranville.” App. at 2149. Fraher gave de la Rigaudiere and Smith dealer applications and told them to apprise him of the progress of the sale negotiations. App. at 1940. After mortgage financing had been arranged through the Chester County Industrial Development Authority (“CCIDA”), App. at 2790, 3051, Richard and Isabelle Tunis and de la Rigaudiere and Smith signed an Agreement of Sale for Tunis Brothers. It is undisputed that performance of the agreement was not conditioned on de la Rigaudiere and Smith obtaining Ford’s approval to continue the Tunis Brothers dealership as a Ford franchised dealership.
In January of 1981 de la Rigaudiere sent to Fraher de la Rigaudiere’s and Smith’s personal financial statements, a copy of the sales agreement, their business plan, a description of the CCIDA and a copy of CCIDA approval. App. at 2857-58. The same package was mailed to defendant Douglas N. Crawford, who had succeeded Watson as Ford’s zone manager. App. at 1666-67.
(2) Plaintiffs’ Conversations and Communications With Defendant Hugh Nickel Regarding the Franchise Application
March 3, 1981 Meeting At Tunis Brothers
The district court found it to be an undisputed fact that on March 3, 1981, defendants Douglas N. Crawford and Hugh Nickel, a Dealer Replacement Representative in the Northern Region of Ford Tractor Operations, met de la Rigaudiere and Smith in Kennett Square to obtain more application information for: 1) a franchised dealership; and 2) credit from defendant Ford Credit As to this particular meeting, the district court made no further findings, nor did it consider record evidence and inferences in support of several important allegations made by plaintiffs. It is especially at this stage that the plaintiffs allege that the district court improperly tilted the scales against them by failing to note several critical facts and inferences favorable to plaintiffs that create a genuine dispute as to material facts within the admonitions of Rule 56.
De la Rigaudiere testified that he received a telephone call from defendant Crawford, who said that “Mr. Fraher was sending him.” App. at 1668. Crawford testified that it was Mr. Fraher who telephoned him and told him to go to Tunis Brothers to take the dealer application. App. at 1292-94. Fraher testified that he did not call Crawford. App. at 1338-41.
During the meeting with de la Rigaudiere, Smith and Mr. and Mrs. Tunis, Nickel explained that Ford would not process an application for a replacement dealer unless the present dealer submitted a letter of resignation. Nickel presented Mr. Tunis with a form letter of unconditional resignation and termination notice for Mr. Tunis to copy and submit to Ford. Nickel told them Tunis’ resignation letter would not be finally processed until the application of the new owners for Ford franchise was approved. Nickel assured them it would be approved and that the resignation and termination letter would be kept in a drawer and not acted upon.
Nickel also recorded considerable detailed financial information which de la Rigaudiere and Smith supplied orally. He had de la Rigaudiere and Smith sign blank applications on which the credit information was to be typed later. He stated that he would have the forms typed up in his office and then return them to de la Rigaudiere and Smith for their review before submitting them. De la Rigaudiere and Smith never saw those papers again. App. at 1954-59. See generally deposition testimony of de la Rigaudiere, App. at 1950-54; Smith, App. at 2158-60; Isabelle Tunis, App. at 2661-63; Richard Tunis, App. at 2556-69.
During this meeting, neither Nickel nor Crawford mentioned any move to Cochran-ville or Oxford or any time limit on the franchise in Kennett Square. App. at 1959-62; 2162.
Despite his assurance to de la Rigaudiere and Smith that the dealer applications would be approved, Nickel subsequently wrote a Ford New Dealer Prospecting Report which stated that he did not feel that de la Rigaudiere and Smith were qualified businessmen or that their net worth or financial strength was adequate to qualify for a line of credit.
(3) Rejection of Plaintiffs' Application
According to de la Rigaudiere and Smith, after the March 3, 1981 meeting with Nickel and Crawford, the purchase and sale of Tunis Brothers was consummated based on Nickel’s repeated assurances that the dealership application of de la Rigaudiere and Smith would be approved. The closing of the sale of Tunis Brothers took place on March 13, 1981, and by letter dated March 17, 1981, Richard Tunis sent Ford his letter of resignation. App. at 2929. Upon receipt of Tunis’ resignation, Nickel completed, by hand, a request that the Market Representation Manager accept Tunis’ resignation immediately. App. at 2972, 1018. The request was then typed and signed by Fraher. It is undisputed that defendant Kenneth E. Harris, the Market Representative Manager of the Northern Region of Ford Motor Company’s Tractor Division, did not process the resignation letter, but rather, held the resignation pending a decision on plaintiffs’ applications.
On April 1, 1981, H.W. Stoneback, Manager of the Philadelphia Branch of Ford Credit, telephoned Harris and indicated that Ford Credit would not approve credit. Consequently, Harris called Ford to complete the resignation letter. In May 1981, de la Rigaudiere and Smith were informed that their credit application had not been approved by Ford Credit.
After de la Rigaudiere’s and Smith’s credit applications had been rejected, they discovered that Nickel had, in completing the dealer applications signed by them in blank, supplied information that de la Rigaudiere and Smith were investing in Tunis Brothers business only $2,500 each. Yet, they had informed Nickel at the March 3, 1981 meeting that they were putting $25,-000 each into the business settlement. See deposition testimony of de la Rigaudiere, App. at 1959. Although Ford concedes that Nickel inserted the wrong figures, the district court opinion does not address the blank applications or the erroneous information supplied. However, because the decision had been based on erroneous financial information, de la Rigaudiere and Smith were permitted to submit a new credit application to Ford Credit. App. at 3052-80.
Fraher opposed granting de la Rigaudiere and Smith a Ford dealership in Kennett Square and so advised defendant E.S. Hasel, Regional Manager of the Northern Region of Ford’s Tractor Division and Senior Vice President and Director of Wenner Ford. Hasel notified de la Rigaudiere and Smith by letter dated August 7, 1981, that Ford would not approve their application for a franchised dealership in Kennett Square. App. at 3084. The district court does not discuss, although it acknowledges, this second rejection of de la Rigaudiere’s and Smith’s application. Subsequently, they became, and still are, an Allis-Chalmers dealership selling Allis-Chalmers tractors.
On the basis of the foregoing examination of the summary judgment record, we believe that there are numerous factual questions unresolved in this case. Issues of material fact need not be' resolved conclusively in favor of the party opposing summary judgment; it is enough for the opposing party to show that sufficient evidence supporting some factual dispute requires a judge or jury at trial to resolve the parties’ differing versions of the truth. See Cedillo v. International Association of Bridge & Structural Iron Workers, Local Union No. 1, 603 F.2d 7, 10-11 (7th Cir.1979). The plaintiffs present a plausible, albeit somewhat complex and dramatic, view of the facts, but the inferences which the plaintiffs draw from the facts are not so far-fetched that a trier of fact should not be allowed to consider them. When viewed in the light most favorable to the plaintiffs, the facts are susceptible of an inference of concerted action.
However, we must still examine the relationships of the defendants in order to determine whether the alleged concerted conduct is violative of the antitrust laws.
(b) Liability of Co-conspirators
The character of an individual’s relationship with a corporation in an intracorporate or intra-enterprise conspiracy situation is extremely significant if not determinative. Ford, Ford Credit, Wenner Ford, and John Wenner are the key corporate characters in this alleged conspiracy. The individuals who are or were employees of Ford, are denominated as “participants.” The plaintiffs take the position that Ford and Wenner Ford conspired with each other and with all of the individual defendants, both employees and non-employees; that all of the individual defendants conspired with each other; and that Ford Credit conspired with Wenner Ford and with all of the individual defendants. The only change in position on appeal is that plaintiffs no longer contend that Ford conspired with Ford Credit, its wholly-owned subsidiary.
(1) Ford and Ford Employees, Including John Wenner; Wenner Ford and Wenner Ford Employees, Including John Wenner
Relying on our decision in Tose v. First Pennsylvania Bank, N.A., 648 F.2d 879, 894 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 454 U.S. 893, 102 S.Ct. 390, 70 L.Ed.2d 208 (1981), the district court determined that individual Ford employees and John Wenner are incapable, as a matter of law, of conspiring with their respective corporations. Thus, the district court concluded that any acts between Ford and its employees or between Wenner Ford and John Wenner cannot be used to show that two or more persons or entities conspired to terminate Tunis Brothers or deny the transfer of the Ford franchise.
We do not disagree with the general proposition that officers and employees of a single firm are legally incapable of conspiring among themselves or with their firm in violation of section 1, Copperweld Corp. v. Independence Tube Corp., — U.S. -, 104 S.Ct. 2731, 81 L.Ed.2d 628 (1984); Tose, 648 F.2d at 894. But, this court has recently reaffirmed a recognized exception. If corporate officers or employees act for their own interests, and outside the interests of the corporation, they are legally capable of conspiring with their employers for purposes of section 1. Weiss v. York Hospital, 745 F.2d 786 (3d Cir.1984). See also Johnston v. Baker, 445 F.2d 424, 426-27 (3d Cir.1971); H & B Equipment Co. v. International Harvester Co., 577 F.2d 239, 244 (5th Cir.1978); Greenville Publishing Co. v. Daily Reflector, Inc., 496 F.2d 391, 399 (4th Cir.1974).
Plaintiffs allege that defendants John S. Wenner, Eugene W. Fraher, Hugh Nickel, John Watson, Kenneth R. Harris, Douglas N. Crawford and E.S. Hasel conspired with their respective corporations and employers and fall within the exception to the general rule because each had an “independent personal stake” in achieving the allegedly illegal objective of their respective corporations and the conspiracy. As a general principle, questions of motive and intent are particularly inappropriate for summary adjudication. Magill v.

Question: What is the most frequently cited title of the U.S. Code in the headnotes to this case? Answer with a number.
Answer:

Answer: 15