Task: sc_casesource

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to identify the court whose decision the Supreme Court reviewed. If the case arose under the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction, note the source as "United States Supreme Court". If the case arose in a state court, note the source as "State Supreme Court", "State Appellate Court", or "State Trial Court". Do not code the name of the state. 

Justice BREYER
delivered the opinion of the Court.
The Fair Debt Collection Practices Act, 91 Stat. 874, 15 U.S.C. § 1692 et seq., prohibits a debt collector from asserting any “false, deceptive, or misleading representation,” or using any “unfair or unconscionable means” to collect, or attempt to collect, a debt, §§ 1692e, 1692f. In this case, a debt collector filed a written statement in a Chapter 13 bankruptcy proceeding claiming that the debtor owed the debt collector money. The statement made clear, however, that the 6-year statute of limitations governing collection of the claimed debt had long since run. The question before us is whether the debt collector’s filing of that statement falls within the scope of the aforementioned provisions of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act. We conclude that it does not.
1 — i
In March 2014, Aleida Johnson, the respondent, filed for personal bankruptcy under Chapter 13 of the Bankruptcy Code (or Code), 11 U.S.C. § 1301 et seq., in the Federal District Court for the Southern District of Alabama. Two months later, Midland Funding, LLC, the petitioner, filed a “proof of claim,” a written statement asserting that Johnson owed Midland a credit-card debt of $1,879.71. The statement added that the last time any charge appeared on Johnson’s account was in May 2003, more than 10 years before Johnson filed for bankruptcy. The relevant statute of limitations is six years. See Ala. Code § 6-2-34 (2014). Johnson, represented by counsel, objected to the claim; Midland did not respond to the objection; and the Bankruptcy Court disallowed the claim.
Subsequently, Johnson brought this lawsuit against Midland seeking actual damages, statutory damages, attorney’s fees, and costs for a violation of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act. See 15 U.S.C. § 1692k. The District Court decided that the Act did not apply and therefore dismissed the action. The Court of Appeals for' the Eleventh Circuit disagreed and reversed the District Court. 823 F.3d 1334 (2016). Midland filed a petition for certiorari, noting a division of opinion among the Courts of Appeals on the question whether the conduct at issue here is “false,” “deceptive,” “misleading,” “unconscionable,” or “unfair” within the meaning of the Act, Compare ibid, (finding the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act applicable) with In re Dubois, 834 F.3d 522 (C.A.4 2016) (finding the Act inapplicable); Owens v. LVNV Funding, LLC, 832 F.3d 726 (C.A.7 2016) (same); and Nelson v. Midland Credit Management, Inc., 828 F.3d 749 (C.A.8 2016) (same). We granted the petition. We now reverse the Court of Appeals.
II
Like the majority of Courts of Appeals that have considered the matter, we conclude that Midland’s filing of a proof of claim that on its face indicates that the limitations period has run does not fall within the scope of any of the five relevant words of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act. We believe it reasonably clear that Midland’s proof of claim was not “false, deceptive, or misleading.” Midland’s proof of claim falls within the Bankruptcy Code’s definition of the term “claim.” A “claim” is a “right to payment.” 11 U.S.C. § 101(5)(A). State law usually determines whether a person has such a right. See Travelers Casualty & Surety Co. of America v. Pacific Gas & Elec. Co., 549 U.S. 443, 450-451, 127 S.Ct. 1199, 167 L.Ed.2d 178 (2007). The relevant state law is’ the law of Alabama. And Alabama’s law, like the law of many States, provides that a creditor has the right to payment of a debt even after the limitations period has expired. See Ex parte HealthSouth Corp., 974 So.2d 288, 296 (Ala.2007) (passage of time extinguishes remedy but the right remains); see also, e.g., Sallaz v. Rice, 161 Idaho 223, 228, 384 P.3d 987, 992-993 (2016) (similar); Notte v. Merchants Mut. Ins. Co., 185 N.J. 490, 499-500, 888 A.2d 464, 469 (2006) (similar); Potterton v. Ryland Group, Inc., 289 Md. 371, 375-376, 424 A.2d 761, 764 (1981) (similar); Summers v. Connolly, 159 Ohio St. 396, 400-402, 112 N.E.2d 391, 394 (1953) (similar); De Vries v. Secretary of State, 329 Mich. 68, 75, 44 N.W.2d 872, 876 (1950) (similar); Fleming v. Yeazel, 379 Ill. 343, 344-346, 40 N.E.2d 507, 508 (1942) (similar); Fidelity & Cas. Co. of N.Y. v. Lackland, 175 Va. 178, 185-187, 8 S.E.2d 306, 309 (1940) (similar); Insurance Co. v. Dunscomb, 108 Tenn. 724, 728-731, 69 S.W. 345, 346 (1902) (similar); but see, e.g., Miss. Code Ann. § 15-1-3(1) (2012) (expiration of the limitations period extinguishes the remedy and the right); Wis. Stat. § 893.05 (2011-2012) (same).
Johnson argues that the Code’s word “claim” means “enforceable claim.” She notes that this Court once referred to a bankruptcy “claim” as “an enforceable obligation.” Pennsylvania Dept. of Public Welfare v. Davenport, 495 U.S. 552, 559, 110 S.Ct. 2126, 109 L.Ed.2d 588 (1990). And, she concludes, Midland’s “proof of claim” was false (or deceptive or misleading) because its “claim” was not enforceable. Brief for Respondent 22; Brief for United States as Amicus Curiae 18-20 (making a similar argument).
But we do not find this argument convincing. The word “enforceable” does not appear in the Code’s definition of “claim.” See 11 U.S.C. § 101(5). The Court in Davenport likely used the word “enforceable” descriptively, for that case involved an enforceable debt. 495 U.S., at 559, 110 S.Ct. 2126. And it is difficult to square Johnson’s interpretation with our later statement that “Congress intended... to adopt the broadest available definition of ‘claim.’ ” Johnson v. Home State Bank, 501 U.S. 78, 83, 111 S.Ct. 2150, 115 L.Ed.2d 66 (1991).
It is still more difficult to square Johnson’s interpretation with other provisions of the Bankruptcy Code. Section 502(b)(1) of the Code, for example, says that, if a “claim” is “unenforceable,” it will be disallowed. It does not say that an “unenforceable” claim is not a “claim.” Similarly, § 101(5)(A) says that a “claim” is a “right to payment,” “whether or not such right is... fixed, contingent,... [or] disputed.” If a contingency does not arise, or if a claimant loses a dispute, then the claim is unenforceable. Yet this section makes clear that the unenforceable claim is nonetheless a “right to payment,” hence a “claim,” as the Code uses those terms.
Johnson looks for support to other provisions that govern bankruptcy proceedings, including § 502(a) of the Bankruptcy Code, which states that a claim will be allowed in the absence of an objection, and Rule 3001(f) of the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure, which states that a properly filed “proof of claim.,. shall constitute prima facie evidence of the validity and amount of the claim.” But these provisions do not discuss the scope of the term “claim.” Rather, they restate the Bankruptcy Code’s system for determining whether a claim will be allowed. Other provisions make clear that the running of a limitations period constitutes an affirmative defense, a defense that the debtor is to assert after a creditor makes a “claim.” §§ 502, 558. The law has long treated unenforceability of a claim (due to the expiration of the limitations period) as an affirmative defense. See, e.g., Fed. Rule Civ. Proc. 8(c)(1); 13 Encyclopaedia of Pleading and Practice 200 (W. McKinney ed. 1898). And we see nothing misleading or deceptive in the filing of a proof of claim that, in effect, follows the Code’s similar system.
Indeed, to determine whether a statement is misleading normally “requires consideration of the legal-sophistication of its audience.” Bates v. State Bar of Ariz., 433 U.S. 350, 383, n. 37, 97 S.Ct. 2691, 53 L.Ed.2d 810 (1977). The audience in Chapter 13 bankruptcy cases includes a trustee, 11 U.S.C. § 1302(a), who must examine proofs of claim and, where appropriate, pose an objection, §§ 704(a)(5), 1302(b)(1) (including any timeliness objection, §§ 502(b)(1), 558). And that trustee is likely to understand that, as the Code says, a proof of claim is a statement by the creditor that he or she has a right to payment subject to disallowance (including disallowance based upon, and following, the trustee’s objection for untimeliness). §§ 101(5)(A), 502(b), 704(a)(5), 1302(b)(1). (We do not address the appropriate standard in ordinary civil litigation.)
Ill
Whether Midland’s assertion of an obviously time-barred claim is “unfair” or “unconscionable” (within the terms of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act) presents a closer question. First, Johnson points out that several lower courts have found or indicated that, in the context of an ordinary civil action to collect a debt, a debt collector’s assertion of a claim known to be time barred is “unfair.” See, e.g., Phillips v. Asset Acceptance, LLC, 736 F.3d 1076, 1079 (C.A.7 2013) (holding as much); Kimber v. Federal Financial Corp., 668 F.Supp. 1480, 1487 (M.D.Ala. 1987) (same); Huertas v. Galaxy Asset Management, 641 F.3d 28, 32-33 (C.A.3 2011) (indicating as much); Castro v. Collecto, Inc., 634 F.3d 779, 783 (C.A.5 2011) (same); Freyermuth v. Credit Bureau Servs., Inc., 248 F.3d 767, 771 (C.A.8 2001) (same).
We are not convinced, however, by this precedent. It considers a debt collector’s assertion in a civil suit of a claim known to be stale. We assume, for argument’s sake, that the precedent is correct in that context (a matter this Court itself has not decided and does not now decide). But the context of a civil suit differs significantly from the present context, that of a Chapter 13 bankruptcy proceeding. The lower courts rested their conclusions upon their concern that a consumer might unwittingly repay a time-barred debt. Thus the Seventh Circuit pointed out that “ ‘few unsophisticated consumers would be aware that a statute of limitations could be used to defend against lawsuits based on stale debts.’ ” Phillips, supra, at 1079 (quoting Kimber, supra, at 1487). The “ ‘passage of time,’ ” the Circuit wrote, “ ‘dulls the consumer’s memory of the circumstances and validity of the debt’” and the consumer may no longer have “ ‘personal records.’ ” 736 F.3d. at 1079 (quoting Kimber, supra, at 1487). Moreover, a consumer might pay a stale debt simply to avoid the cost and embarrassment of suit. 736 F.3d, at 1079.
These considerations have significantly diminished force in the context of a Chapter 13 bankruptcy. The consumer initiates such a proceeding, see 11 U.S.C. §§ 301, 303(a), and consequently the consumer is not likely to pay a stale claim just to avoid going to court. A knowledgeable trustee is available. See § 1302(a). Procedural bankruptcy rules more directly guide the evaluation of claims. See Fed. Rule Bkrtcy. Proc. 3001(c)(3)(A); Advisory Committee’s Notes on Rule 3001-2011 Arndt, 11 U.S.C. App., p. 678. And, as the Eighth Circuit Bankruptcy Appellate Panel put it, the claims resolution process is “generally a more streamlined and less unnerving prospect for a debtor than facing a collection lawsuit.” In re Gatewood, 533 B.R. 905, 909 (2015); see also, e.g., 11 U.S.C. § 502 (outlining generally the claims resolution process). These features of a Chapter 13 bankruptcy proceeding make it considerably more likely that an effort to collect upon a stale claim in bankruptcy will be met with resistance, objection, and disallowance.
Second, Johnson argues that the practice at least risks harm to the debtor and that there is not “a single legitimate reason” for allowing this kind of behavior. Brief for Respondent 32. Would it not be obviously “unfair,” she asks, for a debt collector to adopt a practice of buying up stale claims cheaply and asserting them in bankruptcy knowing they are stale and hoping for careless trustees? The United States, supporting Johnson, adds its view that the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure make the practice open to sanction, and argues that sanetionable conduct is unfair conduct. Brief for United States as Amicus Curiae 20. See Fed. Rule Bkrtcy. Proc. 9011(b)(2) (sanction possible if party violates the Rule that by “presenting to the [bankruptcy] court” any “paper,” a “party is certifying that to the best of’ his or her “knowledge,... the claims... therein are warranted by existing law”).
We are ultimately not persuaded by these arguments. The bankruptcy system, as we have already noted, treats untimeliness as an affirmative defense. The trustee normally bears the burden of investigating claims and pointing out that a claim is stale. See supra, at 1412 -1413. Moreover, protections available in a Chapter 13 bankruptcy proceeding minimize the risk to the debtor. See supra, at 1413. And, at least on occasion, the assertion of even a stale claim can benefit a debtor. Its filing and disallowance “discharge[s]” the debt. 11 U.S.C. § 1328(a). And that discharge means that the debt (even if unenforceable) will not remain on a credit report potentially affecting an individual’s ability to borrow money, buy a home, and perhaps secure employment. See 15 U.S.C. § 1681c(a)(4) (debt may remain on a credit report for seven years); cf. Ala. Code § 6-2-34 (6-year statute of limitations); Md. Cts. & Jud. Proc. Code Ann. § 5-101 (2013) (3-year statute of limitations); cf. 16 C.F.R. pt. 600, App. § 607, ¶ 6 (1991) (a credit report may include discharged debt only if “the debt [is reported] as having a zero balance due to reflect the fact that the consumer is no longer liable for the discharged debt”); FTC, 40 Years of Experience with the Fair Credit Reporting Act: An FTC Staff Report with Summary of Interpretations 66 (2011) (similar).
More importantly, a change in the simple affirmative-defense approach, carving out an exception, itself would require defining the boundaries of the exception. Does it apply only where (as Johnson alleged in the complaint) a claim’s staleness appears “on [the] face” of the proof of claim? Does it apply to other affirmative defenses or only to the running of a limitations period?
At the same time, we do not find in either the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act or the Bankruptcy Code good reason to believe that Congress intended an ordinary civil court applying the Act to determine answers to these bankruptcy-related questions. The Act and the Code have different purposes and structural features. The Act seeks to help consumers, not necessarily by closing what Johnson and the United States characterize as a loophole in the Bankruptcy Code, but by preventing consumer bankruptcies in the first place. See, e.g., 15 U.S.C. § 1692(a) (recognizing the “abundant evidence of the use of abusive, deceptive, and unfair debt collection practices [which] contribute to the number of personal bankruptcies”); see also § 1692(b) (“Existing laws and procedures... are inadequate to protect consumers”); § 1692(e) (statute seeks to “eliminate abusive debt collection practices”). The Bankruptcy Code, by way of contrast, creates and maintains what we have called the “delicate balance of a debtor’s protections and obligations.” Kokoszka v. Belford, 417 U.S. 642, 651, 94 S.Ct. 2431, 41 L.Ed.2d 374 (1974).
To find the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act applicable here would upset that “delicate balance.” From a substantive perspective it would authorize a new significant bankruptcy-related remedy in the absence of language in the Code providing for it. Administratively, it would permit postbankruptcy litigation in an ordinary civil court concerning a creditor’s state of mind — a matter often hard to determine. See 15 U.S.C. § 1692k(c) (safe harbor for any debt collector who “shows by a preponderance of evidence that the violation was not intentional and resulted from a bona fide error notwithstanding the maintenance of procedures reasonably adapted to avoid any such error”). Procedurally, it would require creditors (who assert a claim) to investigate the merits of an affirmative defense' (typically the debtor’s job to assert and prove) lest the creditor later be found to have known the claim was untimely. The upshot could well be added complexity, changes in settlement incentives, and a shift from the debtor to the creditor the obligation to investigaté the staleness of a claim.
Unlike the United States, we do not believe that the Advisory Committee on Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure settled the issue when it promulgated Bankruptcy Rule 9011. The Committee, in considering amendments to the Federal Rules of Bankruptcy Procedure in 2009, specifically rejected a proposal that would have required a creditor to certify that there is no valid statute of limitations defense. See Agenda Book for Meeting 86-87 (Mar. 26-27, 2009). It did so in part because the working group did not want to impose an affirmative obligation on a creditor to make a prefiling investigation of a potential time-bar defense. Ibid. In rejecting that proposal, the Committee did note that Rule 9011 imposes a general “obligation on a claimant to undertake an inquiry reasonable under the circumstances to determine... that a claim is warranted by existing law and that factual contentions have evi-dentiary support,” and to certify as much on the proof of claim. Id., at 87. The Committee also acknowledged, however, that this requirement would “not addres[s] the statute of limitation issue,” but would only ensure “the accuracy of the information provided.” Ibid.
We recognize that one Bankruptcy Court has held that filing a time-barred claim without a prefiling investigation of a potential time-bar defense merits sanctions under Rule 9011. In re Sekema, 523 B.R. 651, 654 (Bkrtcy.Ct.N.D.Ind.2015). But others have held to the contrary. See, e.g., In re Freeman, 540 B.R. 129, 143-144 (Bkrtcy.Ct.E.D.Pa.2015); In re Jenkins, 538 B.R. 129, 134-136 (Bkrcty.Ct.N.D.Ala.2015); In re Keeler, 440 B.R. 354, 366-369 (Bkrtcy.Ct.E.D.Pa. 2009); see also In re Andrews, 394 B.R. 384, 387-388 (Bkrtcy.Ct.E.D.N.C.2008) (recognizing that “[mjany courts have... found that sanctions [under Rule 9011] were not warranted for filing stale claims”).
These circumstances, taken together, convince us that we cannot find the practice at issue here “unfair” or “unconscionable” within the terms of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act.
IV
For these reasons, we conclude that filing (in a Chapter 13 bankruptcy proceeding) a proof of claim that is obviously time barred is not a false, deceptive, misleading, unfair, or unconscionable debt collection practice within the meaning of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act. The judgment of the Eleventh Circuit is reversed.
It is so ordered.
Justice GORSUCH took no part in the consideration or decision of this case.
Justice SOTOMAYOR, with whom Justice GINSBURG and Justice KAGAN join, dissenting.
The Fair Debt Collection Practices Act (FDCPA or Act) prohibits professional debt collectors from using “false, deceptive, or misleading representation^] or means in connection with the collection of any debt” and from “us[ing] unfair or unconscionable means to collect” a debt. 15 U.S.C. §§ 1692e, 1692f. The Court today wrongfully holds that a debt collector that knowingly attempts to collect a time-barred debt in bankruptcy proceedings has violated neither of these prohibitions.
Professional debt collectors have built a business out of buying stale debt, filing claims in bankruptcy proceedings to collect it, and hoping that no one notices that the debt is too old to be enforced by the courts. This practice is both “unfair” and “unconscionable.” I respectfully dissent from the Court’s conclusion to the contrary.
I
Americans owe trillions of dollars in consumer debt to creditors — credit card companies, schools, and car dealers, among others. See Fed. Reserve Bank of N.Y., Quarterly Report on Household Debt and Credit 3 (2017). Most people will repay their debts, but some cannot do so. The debts they do not pay are increasingly likely to end up in the hands of professional debt collectors — companies whose business it is to collect debts that are owed to other companies. See Consumer Financial Protection Bur., Fair Debt Collection Practices Act: Annual Report 2016, p. 8 (CFPB Report). Debt collection is a lucrative and growing industry. Last year, the Nation’s 6,000 debt collection agencies earned over $13 billion in revenue. Ibid.
Although many debt collectors are hired by creditors to work on a third-party basis, more and more collectors also operate as “debt buyers” — purchasing debts from creditors outright and attempting to collect what they can, with the profits going to their own accounts. See FTC, The Structure and Practices of the Debt Buying Industry 11-12 (2013) (FTC Report); CFPB Report 10. Debt buyers now hold hundreds of billions of dollars in consumer debt; indeed, a study conducted by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 2009 found that nine of the leading debt buyers had purchased over $140 billion in debt just in the previous three years. FTC Report, at i-ii, T-3 (Table 3).
Because creditors themselves have given up trying to collect the debts they sell to debt buyers, they sell those debts for pennies on the dollar. Id., at 23. The older the debt, the greater the discount: While debt buyers pay close to eight cents per dollar for debts under three years old, they pay as little as two cents per dollar for debts greater than six years old, and “effectively nothing” for debts greater than 15 years old. Id., at 23-24. These prices reflect the basic fact that older debts are harder to collect. As time passes, consumers move or forget that they owe the debts; creditors have more trouble documenting the debts and proving their validity; and debts begin to fall within state statutes of limitations — time limits that “operate to bar a plaintiffs suit” once passed. CTS Corp. v. Waldburger, 573 U.S. -, -, 134 S.Ct. 2175, 2182, 189 L.Ed.2d 62 (2014). Because a creditor (or a debt collector) cannot enforce a time-barred debt in court, the debt is inherently worth very little indeed.
But statutes of limitations have not deterred debt buyers. For years, they have filed suit in state courts — often in small-claims courts, where formal rules of evidence do not apply — to collect even debts too old to be enforced by those courts. See Holland, The One Hundred Billion Dollar Problem in Small-Claims Court, 6 J. Bus. & Tech. L. 259, 261 (2011). Importantly, the debt buyers’ only hope in these cases is that consumers will fail either to invoke the statute of limitations or to respond at all: In most States the statute of limitations is an affirmative defense, meaning that a consumer must appear in court and raise it in order to dismiss the suit. See ante, at 1412 -1413 (majority opinion). But

Question: What is the court whose decision the Supreme Court reviewed?
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程. New Jersey U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of New Jersey
常. New York U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of New York
条. North Carolina U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of North Carolina
当. Ohio U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Ohio
情. Oregon U.S. Circuit for the District of Oregon
口. Pennsylvania U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Pennsylvania
合. Rhode Island U.S. Circuit for the District of Rhode Island
车. South Carolina U.S. Circuit for the District of South Carolina
实. Tennessee U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Tennessee
组. Texas U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Texas
版. Vermont U.S. Circuit for the District of Vermont
周. Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Virginia
址. West Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of West Virginia
记. Wisconsin U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Wisconsin
二. Wyoming U.S. Circuit for the District of Wyoming
同. Circuit Court of the District of Columbia
业. Nebraska U.S. Circuit for the District of Nebraska
权. Colorado U.S. Circuit for the District of Colorado
其. Washington U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Washington
进. Idaho U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Idaho
试. Montana U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Montana
验. Utah U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Utah
料. South Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of South Dakota
传. North Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of North Dakota
述. Oklahoma U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Oklahoma
集. Court of Private Land Claims
Answer:

Answer: 回