Task: sc_caseorigin

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Mr. Justice White
delivered the opinion of the Court.
The question for decision in this case is whether a State whose federally approved implementation plan forbids an air contaminant source to operate without a state permit may require existing federally owned or operated installations to secure such a permit. The case presents an issue of statutory construction requiring examination of the Clean Air Act, as amended, 42 U. S. C. § 1857 et seq., and its legislative history in light of established constitutional principles governing the determination of whether and the extent to which federal installations have been subjected to state regulation. The specific question is whether obtaining a permit to operate is among those “requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution” with which existing federal facilities must comply under § 118 of the Clean Air Act.
I
Last Term in Train v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 421 U. S. 60 (1975), we reviewed the development of federal air pollution legislation through the Clean Air Amendments of 1970 (Amendments) and observed that although the Amendments “sharply increased federal authority and responsibility in the continuing effort to combat air pollution,” they “explicitly preserved the principle” that “ ‘[e]ach State shall have the primary responsibility for assuring air quality within the entire geographic area comprising such State id., at 64, quoting from § 107 (a) of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1678, 42 U. S. C. § 1857c-2 (a). Consistently with this principle, the Amendments required that within nine months after the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) promulgated the primary and secondary ambient air quality standards required by § 109 (a) of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1679, 42 U. S. C. § 1857c-4 (a), for certain air pollutants, each State submit to the EPA a plan by which it would implement and maintain those standards within its territory. § 110 (a)(1) of the Clean Air Act, as added, 84 Stat. 1680, 42 U. S. C. § 1857c-5 (a)(1).' See 40 CFR pt. 51 (1975). The EPA was required to approve each State’s implementation plan as long as it was adopted after public hearings and satisfied the conditions specified in § 110(a) (2).
For existing sources the State must propose “emission limitations, schedules, and timetables for compliance with such limitations” necessary to meet the air quality standards. §110(a)(2)(B). As we observed in Train, supra, at 78-79, given the EPA’s nationwide air quality standards, the State is to adopt a plan setting
“the specific rules to which operators of pollution sources are subject, and which if enforced should result in ambient air which meets the national standards.
“[The EPA] is relegated by the Act to a secondary role in the process of determining and enforcing the specific, source-by-source emission limitations which are necessary if the national standards it has set are to be met.... The Act gives [the EPA] no authority to question the wisdom of a State’s choices of emission limitations if they are part of a plan which satisfies the standards of § 110 (a) (2).... Thus, so long as the ultimate effect of a State’s choice of emission limitations is compliance with the national standards for ambient air, the State is at liberty to adopt whatever mix of emission limitations it deems best suited to its particular situation.” (Footnote omitted.)
Along with increasing federal authority and “taking a stick to the States” by requiring them to implement the federal standards promulgated pursuant to that authority, Congress also intended the Amendments “to strengthen the strictures against air pollution by federal facilities.” Before 1970, § 111 (a) of the Clean Air Act simply declared “the intent of Congress” to be that federal installations “shall, to the extent practicable and consistent with the interests of the United States and within any available appropriations, cooperate with” federal and state air pollution control authorities “in preventing and controlling the pollution of the air in any area insofar as the discharge of any matter from or by such” federal installation “may cause or contribute to pollution of the air in such area.”
Experience with performance by federal sources of air pollution under this voluntary scheme led the Congress to conclude that admonishing federal agencies to prevent and control air pollution was inadequate, because “ [instead of exercising leadership in controlling or eliminating air pollution” “Federal agencies have been notoriously laggard in abating pollution.” Both to provide the leadership to private industry and to abate violations of air pollution standards by federal facilities, in 1970 Congress added § 118 to the Clean Air Act. The first sentence of the section provides:
“Each department, agency, and instrumentality of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the Federal Government (1) having jurisdiction over any property or facility, or (2) engaged in any activity resulting, or which may result, in the discharge of air pollutants, shall comply with Federal, State, interstate, and local requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution to the same extent that any person is subject to such requirements.” 42 U. S. C. § 1857f.
The remainder of § 118 authorizes the President, upon a determination that it is “in the paramount interest of the United States to do so” and subject to several limitations, to exempt certain federal emission sources from “compliance with such a requirement.”
After enactment of § 118 there is no longer any question whether federal installations must comply with established air pollution control and abatement measures. The question has become how their compliance is to be enforced.
II
In February 1972, Kentucky submitted its implementation plan to the EPA. On May 31, 1972, the plan was approved by the Administrator in relevant part. Chapter 7 of the plan included Kentucky Air Pollution Control Commission (Commission) Regulation No. AP-1, §5(1), which provides:
“No person shall construct, modify, use, operate, or maintain an air contaminant source or maintain or allow physical conditions to exist on property owned by or subject to the control of such person, resulting in the presence of air contaminants in the atmosphere, unless a permit therefor has been issued by the Commission and is currently in effect.”
An applicant for a permit must complete a form supplied by the Commission and, “when specifically requested by the Commission, include an analysis of the characteristics, properties, and volume of the air contaminants based upon source or stack samples of the air contaminants taken under normal operating conditions.” The process of review of the application may include hearings. Permits are denied if the applicant does not supply the “information required or deemed necessary by the Commission to enable it to act upon the permit application,” or when “the air contaminant source will prevent or interfere with the attainment or maintenance of state or federal air quality standards.” When granted, a permit may be “subject to such terms and conditions set forth and embodied in the permit as the Commission shall deem necessary to insure compliance with its standards.” Once issued, a permit may be revoked or modified for failure to comply with the terms and conditions of the permit, with emission standards applicable to the air contaminant source, or with the ambient air standards for the area in which the air contaminant source is located. Reg. AP-1, § 5 (5), CA App. 122.
Soon after the implementation plan was approved, a Commission official wrote to numerous officials responsible for various Kentucky facilities of the United States Army, of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) requesting that they apply for and obtain permits as requested by the EPA-approved plan. The responses to these requests were to the effect that federally owned or operated facilities located in Kentucky were not required to secure an operating permit. Each response, however, either offered to or did supply the information and data requested on the standard permit application form.
The Commission continued to press the federal officials to apply for operating permits. In October 1972, the Regional Administrator of the EPA sent a letter to the operators of all federal facilities in the region, including those to which the Kentucky officials had addressed their requests, and to the Commission. Setting forth EPA policy and the agency’s interpretation of § 118 of the Clean Air Act, the Regional Administrator stated: “It is clear that Section 118... requires Federal facilities to meet state air quality standards and emission limitations and to comply with deadlines established in the approved state air implementation plans.” App. 57. To aid the States in accomplishing these objections, wrote the Administrator, each federal facility should develop a' compliance schedule and should provide “reasonable and specific” data requested by the State. Id., at 58. On the question whether federal facilities must apply for state permits, the letter reiterated the EPA position that although “Federal agencies are [not] required to apply for state operating permits... [o]ur aim is to encourage Federal agencies to provide the states with all the information required to assess compliance of pollution sources with standards, emission and discharge limitations and the needs for additional abatement measures.” Ibid.
Kentucky then brought this suit in the United States District Court for the Western District of Kentucky. The complaint sought declaratory and injunctive relief requiring the Army, TVA, and AEC facilities to secure operating permits. Kentucky also named several EPA officials as defendants and asked the District Court to order them to commence appropriate actions under § 113 of the Clean Air Act, directing the Army, the TVA, and the AEC facilities to comply with the provisions of Regulation AP-1, § 5 (l). On cross-motions for summary judgment, the District Court ordered the complaint dismissed. Kentucky ex rel. Hancock v. Ruckelshaus, 362 F. Supp. 360 (1973).
The Court of Appeals affirmed, 497 F. 2d 1172 (CA6 1974). Like the District Court, 362 F. Supp., at 363 n. 3, the Court of Appeals found it unnecessary to determine whether the federal installations were in compliance with Kentucky’s emission limitations or had adopted adequate compliance schedules, for it was Kentucky’s position that notwithstanding possible compliance “the Kentucky Plan is so formulated that the State cannot meet its primary responsibility under the Clean Air Act without the use of permits.” 497 F. 2d, at 1174^-1175. After examining § 118 and its purposes in relation to other provisions of the Clean Air Act, the court concluded:
“We do not believe the congressional scheme for accomplishment of these purposes included subjection of federal agencies to state or local permit requirements. Congress did commit the United States to compliance with air quality and emission standards, and it is undisputed in this record that the federal facilities in Kentucky have cooperated with the Commission toward this end.” 497 F. 2d, at 1177.
We granted Kentucky’s petition for certiorari, 420 U. S. 971 (1975), to resolve a conflict in the Courts of Appeals, and now affirm.
Ill
It is a seminal principle of our law “that the constitution and the laws made in pursuance thereof are supreme; that they control the constitution and laws of the respective States, and cannot be controlled by them.” M’Culloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 426 (1819). From this principle is deduced the corollary that
“[i]t is of the very essence of supremacy to remove all obstacles to its action within its own sphere, and so to modify every power vested in subordinate governments, as to exempt its own operations from their own influence.” Id., at 427.
The effect of this corollary, which derives from the Supremacy Clause and is exemplified in the Plenary Powers Clause giving Congress exclusive legislative authority over federal enclaves purchased with the consent of a State, is “that the activities of the Federal Government are free from regulation by any state.” As Mr. Justice Holmes put it in Johnson v. Maryland, 254 U. S. 51, 57 (1920):
“[T]he immunity of the instruments of the United States from state control in the performance of their duties extends to a requirement that they desist from performance until they satisfy a state officer upon examination that they are competent for a necessary part of them....”
Taken with the “old and well-known rule that statutes which in general terms divest pre-existing rights or privileges will not be applied to the sovereign” “without a clear expression or implication to that effect,” this immunity means that where “Congress does not affirmatively declare its instrumentalities or property subject to regulation,” “the federal function must be left free” of regulation. Particular deference should be accorded that “old and well-known rule” where, as here, the rights and privileges of the Federal Government at stake not only find their origin in the Constitution, but are to be divested in favor of and subjected to regulation by a subordinate sovereign. Because of the fundamental importance of the principles shielding federal installations and activities from regulation by the States, an authorization of state regulation is found only when and to the extent there is “a clear congressional mandate,” “specific congressional action” that makes this authorization of state regulation “clear and unambiguous.” Neither the Supremacy Clause nor the Plenary Powers Clause bars all state regulation which may touch the activities of the Federal Government. See Penn Dairies v. Pennsylvania Milk Control Comm’n, 318 U. S. 261 (1943); Alabama v. King & Boozer, 314 U. S. 1, 9 (1941), and cases cited. “Here, however, the State places a prohibition on the Federal Government.” The permit requirement is not intended simply to regulate the amount of pollutants which the federal installations may discharge. Without a permit, an air contaminant source is forbidden to operate even if it is in compliance with every other state measure respecting air pollution control and abatement. It is clear from the record that prohibiting operation of the air contaminant sources for which the State seeks to require permits, App. 14-17, is tantamount to prohibiting operation of the federal installations on which they are located. Id., at 89-93.
Kentucky, like the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F. 2d 1238, 1247-1248 (1974), finds in § 118 a sufficient congressional authorization to the States, not only to establish the amount of pollutants a federal installation may discharge, but also to condition operation of federal installations on securing a state permit. We disagree because we are not convinced that Congress intended to subject federal agencies to state permits. We are unable to find in § 118, on its face or in relation to the Clean Air Act as a whole, or to derive from the legislative history of the Amendments any clear and unambiguous declaration by the Congress that federal installations may not perform their activities unless a state official issues a permit. Nor can congressional intention to submit federal activity to state control be implied from the claim that under Kentucky’s EPA-approved implementation plan it is only through the permit system that compliance schedules and other requirements may be administratively enforced against federal installations.
IV
The parties rightly agree that § 118 obligates federal installations to conform to state air pollution standards or limitations and compliance schedules. With the enactment of the Amendments in 1970 came the end of the era in which it was enough for federal facilities to volunteer their cooperation with federal and state officials. In Kentucky’s view that era has been replaced by one in which federal installations are not only required to limit their air pollutant emissions to the same extent as their nonfederal neighbors, but also, subject only to case-by-case Presidential exemption, to submit themselves completely to the state regime by which the necessary information to promulgate emission limitations and compliance schedules is gathered and by which collection of that information and enforcement of the emission limitations and compliance schedules are accomplished. Respondents (hereafter sometimes EPA) take the position that the Congress has not gone so far. While federal and nonfederal installations are governed by the same emission standards, standards which the States have the primary responsibility to develop, the EPA maintains that the authority to compel federal installations to provide necessary information to the States and to conform to state standards necessary to carry out the federal policy to control and regulate air pollution has not been extended to the States.
Analysis must begin with § 118. Although the language of this provision is notable for what it states in comparison with its predecessor, it is also notable for what it does not state. It does not provide that federal installations “shall comply with all federal, state, interstate, and local requirements to the same extent as any other person.” Nor does it state that federal installations “shall comply with all requirements of the applicable state implementation plan.” Section 118 states only to what extent — the same as any person— federal installations must comply with applicable state requirements; it does not identify the applicable requirements. There is agreement that § 118 obligates existing federal installations to join nonfederal sources in abating air pollution, that comparable federal and nonfederal sources are expected to achieve the same levels of performance in abating air pollution, and that those levels of performance are set by the States. Given agreement that § 118 makes it the duty of federal facilities to comply with state-established air quality and emission standards, the question is, as the Fifth Circuit put it in another case, “whether Congress intended that the enforcement mechanisms of federally approved state implementation plans, in this case permit systems, would be” available to the States to enforce that duty. Alabama v. Seeber, 502 F. 2d, at 1247. In the case before us the Court of Appeals concluded that federal installations were obligated to comply with state substantive requirements, as opposed to state procedural requirements, 497 F. 2d, at 1177, but Kentucky rejects the distinction between procedural and substantive requirements, saying that whatever is required by a state implementation plan is a “requirement” under § 118.
The heart of the argument that the requirement that all air contaminant sources secure an operating permit is a “requirement respecting control and abatement of air pollution” is that Congress necessarily implied the power to enforce from the conceded authority to develop and set emission standards. Under Kentucky’s EPA-approved implementation plan, the permit requirement “is the mechanism through which [it] is able to compel the production of data concerning air contaminant sources, including the ability to prescribe the monitoring techniques to be employed, and it is the only mechanism which allows [it] to develop and review a source’s compliance schedule and insure that schedule is followed.” When a State is without administrative means of implementing and enforcing its standards against federal sources, a duty to comply with those standards is said to be utterly meaningless.
The difficulty with this position is threefold. First, it assumes that only the States are empowered to enforce federal installations’ compliance with the standards. Second, it assumes the Congress intended to grant the States such authority over the operation of federal installations. Third, it unduly disregards the substantial change in the responsibilities of federal air contaminant sources under § 118 in comparison with 42 U. S. C. § 1857f (a) (1964 ed., Supp. V), supra, at 171. Contrary to Kentucky’s contention that Congress necessarily intended to subject federal facilities to the enforcement mechanisms of state implementation plans, our study of the Clean Air Act not only discloses no clear declaration or implication of congressional intention to submit federal installations to that degree of state regulation and control but also reveals significant indications that in preserving a State’s “primary responsibility for assuring air quality within [its] entire geographic area” the Congress did not intend to extend that responsibility by subjecting federal installations to such authority.
The Clean Air Act, as amended, does not expressly provide for a permit system as part of a State’s implementation plan. It is true that virtually every State has adopted a form of permit system much like that adopted by Kentucky, see 40 CFR pt. 52 (1975), as a means of gathering information to determine what emission standards to set and compliance schedules to approve and of assuring compliance with them. Also, only an implementation plan enabling a State to meet these— and other — objectives can be approved by the EPA. Nonetheless we find in the 1970 Amendments several firm indications that the Congress intended to treat emission standards and compliance schedules — those requirements which when met work the actual reduction of air pollut-. ant discharge — differently from administrative and enforcement methods and devices — those provisions by which the States were to establish and enforce emission standards, compliance schedules, and the like. This is so in spite of the absence of any definition of the word “requirements” or of the phrase “requirements respecting control and abatement of air pollution.”
In § 110 (e) (1) (A), for example, the EPA is authorized to extend for two years a State’s three-year deadline for attaining a national primary air quality standard if, upon timely application, it is determined that an emission source is unable to meet “the requirements of such plan which implement such primary standard because the necessary technology” is unavailable. 42 U. S. C. § 1857c-5 (e)(1)(A). Although compiling the information necessary for a permit may require familiarity with technology, it is plain that the “requirements” to which this section refers are those for which technologically adequate industrial processes might not be available. Section 110 (e) (2) (A) necessarily contemplates the same meaning of “requirements,” that is, emission standards and compliance schedules, as does § 110 (f) which provides for one-year postponement of the application of “requirements” to sources the continued operation of which is “essential to national security or to the public health.” 42 U. S. C. § 1857c-5 (f)(1) (D). See Train, 421 U. S., at 80-84.
Stronger indications that the term “requirements” as used in § 118 does not embrace every measure incorporated in a State’s implementation limitations and cona-pliance schedules appear in the emergence of § 118 from the House bill and Senate amendment from which it was derived.
The House bill provided that federal installations “shall comply with applicable Federal, State, interstate, and local emission standards.” The House Report stated that this “legislation directs Federal agencies in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches to comply with applicable Federal, State, interstate, and local emission standards.” The Senate amendment provided that federal agencies “shall provide leadership in carrying out the policy and purposes of this Act and shall comply with the requirements of this Act in the same manner as any person... The Senate Report stated that this provision “requires that Federal facilities meet the emission standards necessary to achieve ambient air quality standards as well as those established in other sections of Title I.”
Thus while the House bill spoke of “emission standards,” the Senate amendment, like § 118 as enacted, spoke of “requirements.” In accommodating the different language in the two bills and formulating what is now § 118, the Conference Committee simply combined the House and Senate provisions. If, as Kentucky argues, the Conference Committee in taking the Senate language of “requirements” meant thereby to subject federal facilities to enforcement measures obviously not embraced in the language of the House bill, it is remarkable that it made no reference to its having reconciled this difference in favor of extending state regulation over federal installations. Given the interchangeable use of “emission standards” and “emission requirements” in the Senate amendment, see n. 52, supra, the predominance of the language of the Senate version in § 118 as enacted, and the absence of any mention of disagreement between the two bills, it is moré probable that the Conference Committee intended only that federal installations comply with emission standards and compliance schedules than that its intention was to empower a State to require federal installations to comply with every measure in its implementation plan. See Alabama v. Seeber, 502 P. 2d, at 1247.
The impression that Congress intended only that federal agencies comply with emission limitations and standards is strengthened by the Conference Report, which stated in full:
“The House bill and the Senate amendment declared that Federal departments and agencies should comply with applicable standards of air quality and emissions.
“The conference substitute modifies the House provision to require that the President rather than the Administrator be responsible for assuring compliance by Federal agencies.”
This examination of § 118 and the central phrase “requirements respecting control or abatement of air pollution,” discloses a regime of divided responsibility for the mobilization of federal installations in the effort to abate air pollution. Kentucky agrees but persists in its contention that existing federal sources have been subjected to state regulation by differing on where that division places authority to enforce compliance by existing federal facilities — “'sources with respect to which state implementation plans establish the criteria for enforcement.’ ” For such — existing—sources, Kentucky maintains, the States are granted primary enforcement authority while “ 'the responsibility and authority for enforcement... is granted to EPA in those instances (i. e., new sources and hazardous pollutants) where EPA establishes the criteria.’ ” Perhaps we could agree if the issue were not whether there is a clear and unambiguous congressional authorization for the regulatory authority petitioner seeks, for as the Fifth Circuit has said, such a “scheme is a reasonable one.” Alabama v. Seeber, supra, at 1244. But that is the issue, and the implications Kentucky draws from its evaluation of the manner in which the Congress divided responsibility for regulation of new sources and of hazardous air pollutants do not persuade us.
In drawing on the manner in which the Clean Air Act has divided the authority to regulate new sources of air pollutants and the emission of hazardous air pollutants in comparison with existing air pollutant sources, Kentucky makes two separate though related arguments. The first is that when Congress wanted to exempt federal facilities from compliance with a state requirement, it did so by express exclusionary language. Thus § 111 (c)(1) authorizes the Administrator to delegate to a State “any authority

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程. New Jersey U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of New Jersey
常. New York U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of New York
条. North Carolina U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of North Carolina
当. Ohio U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Ohio
情. Oregon U.S. Circuit for the District of Oregon
口. Pennsylvania U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Pennsylvania
合. Rhode Island U.S. Circuit for the District of Rhode Island
车. South Carolina U.S. Circuit for the District of South Carolina
实. Tennessee U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Tennessee
组. Texas U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Texas
版. Vermont U.S. Circuit for the District of Vermont
周. Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Virginia
址. West Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of West Virginia
记. Wisconsin U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Wisconsin
二. Wyoming U.S. Circuit for the District of Wyoming
同. Circuit Court of the District of Columbia
业. Nebraska U.S. Circuit for the District of Nebraska
权. Colorado U.S. Circuit for the District of Colorado
其. Washington U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Washington
进. Idaho U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Idaho
试. Montana U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Montana
验. Utah U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Utah
料. South Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of South Dakota
传. North Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of North Dakota
述. Oklahoma U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Oklahoma
集. Court of Private Land Claims
多. United States Supreme Court
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