Task: sc_casesource

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to identify the court whose decision the Supreme Court reviewed. If the case arose under the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction, note the source as "United States Supreme Court". If the case arose in a state court, note the source as "State Supreme Court", "State Appellate Court", or "State Trial Court". Do not code the name of the state. 

Mr. Justice Blackmun
delivered the opinion of the Court.
This case presents the issue whether the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico possesses jurisdiction, under 28 U. S. C. § 1343 (3), to entertain a suit based upon 42 U. S. C. § 1983, and, if the answer is in the affirmative, the further issue whether Puerto Rico’s restriction, by statute, of licenses for civil engineers to United States citizens is constitutional. The first issue, phrased another way, is whether Puerto Rico is a “State,” for purposes of § 1343 (3), insofar as that statute speaks of deprivation “under color of any State law”; the resolution of that question was reserved in Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U. S. 663, 677 n. 11 (1974).
I
A. Puerto Rico’s Act of May 10, 1951, No. 399, as amended, now codified as P. R. Laws Ann., Tit. 20, §§ 681-710 (Supp. 1973), relates to the practice of engineering, architecture, and surveying. The administration and enforcement of the statute, by § 683, are committed to the Commonwealth’s Board of Examiners of Engineers, Architects, and Surveyors, an appellant here. Section 689 sets forth the qualifications “for registration as licensed engineer^ architect or surveyor.” For a “licensed engineer or architect,” these qualifications in-elude a specified education, the passing of a written examination, and a stated minimum practical experience. The statute also requires that an applicant for registration be a citizen of the United States. It, however, exempts an otherwise qualified alien from the citizenship requirement if he has “studied the total courses” in the Commonwealth, or if he is employed by an agency or instrumentality of the government of the Commonwealth or by a municipal government or public corporation there; in the case of such employment, the alien receives a conditional license valid only during the time he is employed by the public entity.
B. Maria C. Flores de Otero is a native of Mexico and a legal resident of Puerto Rico. She is, by profession, a civil engineer. She is not a United States citizen. In June 1972 she applied to the Board for registration as a licensed engineer. It is undisputed that the applicant met all the specifications of formal education, examination, and practice required for licensure,- except that of United States citizenship. The Board denied her application until she furnished proof of that citizenship.
In October 1973 Flores instituted an action in the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico against the Board and its individual members. She asserted jurisdiction under 28 U. S. C. § 1343 (3), and alleged that the citizenship requirement was violative of her rights under 42 U. S. C. §§ 1981 and 1983. A declaratory judgment and injunctive relief were requested.
In their answer to Flores’ complaint, the defendants alleged that the United States District Court lacked jurisdiction to entertain the complaint, and that the provisions of § 689 did not contravene rights secured under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments or any rights guaranteed to Flores under the Constitution. They also alleged that Flores had adequate remedies available to her in the courts of Puerto Rico and that she had not exhausted those remedies. They requested that the court “abstain from assuming jurisdiction in this case and allow the Courts of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico the opportunity to pass upon the issues raised by plaintiff.” App. 5.
C. Sergio Perez Nogueiro is a native of Spain and a legal resident of Puerto Rico. He is, by profession, a civil engineer. He possesses degrees from universities in Spain and Colombia and from the University of Puerto Rico. He is not a United States citizen. He, like Flores, met all the specifications of formal education, examination, and practice required for licensure, except that of United States citizenship. He is presently employed as an engineer by the Public Works Department of the municipality of Carolina, Puerto Rico, and holds a conditional license granted by the Board, as authorized by § 689, after he passed the required examination.
In May 1974 Perez instituted an action against the Board in the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico. He asserted that the citizenship requirement “is repugnant to the Due Process Clause of the Fifth or Fourteenth Amendments.” App. 10. The complaint in all relevant respects was like that filed by Flores, and Perez, too, requested declaratory and in-junctive relief, including a full and unconditional license to practice as an engineer in the Commonwealth.
D. A three-judge court was convened to hear Flores’ case. It determined that it had jurisdiction under §§ 1983 and 1343. It concluded that abstention was unnecessary because § 689 was unambiguous and not susceptible of an interpretation that would obviate the need for reaching the constitutional question. On the merits, with one judge dissenting, it rejected the justifications proffered by the defendants for the citizenship requirement. It found that requirement unconstitutional and directed the defendants to license Flores as an engineer.
In a separate and subsequent judgment the same three-judge court, by the same vote, granted like relief to Perez. It decreed that he, too, be licensed as an engineer. Jurisdictional Statement 7a.
Appeals were taken by the defendants from both judgments, with a single jurisdictional statement pursuant to our Rule 15 (3). We noted probable jurisdiction and granted a stay of the execution and enforcement of the judgments. 421 U. S. 986 (1975).
II
On the jurisdictional issue, the appellants do not contend that the United States Constitution has no application in Puerto Rico or that claims' cognizable under § 1983 may not be enforced there. Instead, they argue that unless a complainant establishes the $10,000 juris•dictional amount prescribed by 28 U. S. C. § 1331 (a), a claim otherwise cognizable under § 1983 must be adjudicated in the courts of Puerto Rico.
In approaching this question we are to examine the language of § 1343, the purposes of Congress in enacting it, “and the circumstances under which the words were employed.” Puerto Rico v. Shell Co. (P. R.), Ltd., 302 U. S. 253, 258 (1937); District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U. S. 418, 420 (1973). As is so frequently the case, however, the language is not free of ambiguity, the purposes appear to be diverse and sometimes contradictory, and the circumstances are not fully spread upon the record for our instruction.
A. The federal civil rights legislation, with which we are here concerned, was enacted nearly 30 years before the conflict with Spain and the resulting establishment of the ties between Puerto Rico and the United States. Both § 1343 (3) and § 1983 have their origin in the Ku Klux Klan Act of April 20, 1871, § 1, 17 Stat. 13. That statute contained not only the substantive provision protecting against “the deprivation of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution” by any person acting under color of state law, but, as well, the jurisdictional provision authorizing a proceeding for the enforcement of those rights “to be prosecuted in the several district or circuit courts of the United States.” Jurisdiction was not independently defined; it was given simply to enforce the substantive rights created by the statute. The two aspects, seemingly, were deemed to coincide.
It has been said that the purpose of the legislation was to enforce the provisions of the Fourteenth, not the Thirteenth, Amendment. District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U. S., at 423; Lynch v. Household Finance Corp., 405 U. S. 538, 545 (1972); Monroe v. Pape, 365 U. S. 167, 171 (1961). As originally enacted, § 1 of the 1871 Act applied only to action under color of law of any “State.” In 1874, however, Congress, presumably pursuant to its power to “make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States,” granted by the Constitution’s Art. IV, § 3, cl. 2, added, without explanation, the words “or Territory” in the 1874 codification of United States statutes. Rev. Stat. § 1979 (1874). See District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U. S., at 424 n. 11. The evident aim was to insure that all persons residing in the Territories not be denied, by persons acting under color of territorial law, rights guaranteed them by the Constitution and laws of the United States.
Although one might say that the purpose of Congress was evident, the method chosen to implement this aim was curious and, indeed, somewhat confusing. In the 1874 codification, only the substantive portion (the predecessor of today’s § 1983) of § 1 of the 1871 Act was redesignated as § 1979. It became separated from the jurisdictional portion (the predecessor of today’s § 1343 (3)) which appeared as § 563 Twelfth and § 629 Sixteenth (concerning, respectively, the district courts and the circuit courts) of the Revised Statutes. But the words “or Territory” appeared only in § 1979; they did not appear in §§ 563 and 629.
Our question, then, is whether, in separately codifying the provisions and in having this discrepancy between them, Congress intended to restrict federal-court jurisdiction in some way. We conclude that it intended no such restriction. First, as stated above, the common origin of §§ 1983 and 1343 (3) in § 1 of the 1871 Act suggests that the two provisions were meant to be, and are, complementary. Lynch v. Household Finance Corp., 405 U. S., at 543 n. 7. There is no indication that Congress intended to prevent federal district and circuit courts from exercising subject-matter jurisdiction of claims of deprivation of rights under color of territorial law if they otherwise had personal jurisdiction of the parties. Second, a contrary interpretation necessarily would lead to the conclusion that persons residing in a Territory were not effectively afforded a federal-court remedy there for a violation of the 1871 Act despite Congress’ obvious intention to afford one. The then existing territorial district courts established by Congress were granted “the same jurisdiction, in all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, as is vested in the circuit and district courts of the United States.” Rev. Stat. § 1910 (1874) (emphasis added). Thus, if the federal district and circuit courts had jurisdiction to redress deprivations only under color of state (but not territorial) law, the territorial courts were likewise so limited. Further, the United States District Courts for the Districts of California and Oregon, and the territorial District Court for Washington possessed jurisdiction over violations of laws extended to the Territory of Alaska. Rev. Stat. § 1957 (1874). Unless the federal courts had jurisdiction to redress deprivations of rights by persons acting under color of territorial law, Congress’ explicit extension of the 1871 Act to provide a remedy against persons acting under color of territorial law was only theoretical because no forum existed in which these rights might be enforced.
This conclusion that Congress granted territorial courts jurisdiction to enforce the provisions of § 1979 is strengthened by two additional factors. First, Congress explicitly provided: “The Constitution and all laws of the United States which are not locally inapplicable shall have the same force and effect within all the organized Territories, and in every Territory hereafter organized as elsewhere within the United States.” Rev. Stat. § 1891 (1874). Section 1979, with its reference to Territories was obviously an applicable statute. Second, it was not until the following year that Congress conferred on United States district courts general federal-question jurisdiction. Act of Mar. 3, 1875, § 1, 18 Stat. 470, now codified as 28 U. S. C. § 1331 (a). See generally Zwickler v. Koota, 389 U. S. 241, 245-247 (1967). Accordingly, unless in 1874 the federal district and circuit courts had jurisdiction to redress deprivations under color of territorial law, Congress, although providing rights and remedies, could be said to have failed to provide a means for their enforcement.
For all these reasons, we conclude that the federal territorial as well as the federal district and circuit courts generally had jurisdiction to redress deprivations of constitutional rights by persons acting under color of territorial law. We turn, then, to the legislation specifically applicable to Puerto Rico.
B. A similar approach was taken by Congress in its establishment of the civil government in Puerto Rico in the exercise of its territorial power under Const., Art. IV, § 3, cl. 2. By the Treaty of Paris, 30 Stat. 1754 (1899), Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States. 30 Stat. 1755. Shortly thereafter, the Foraker Act, being the Act of April 12, 1900, 31 Stat. 77, became law. This legislation established a civil government for Puerto Rico, including provisions for courts. The judicial structure so created consisted of a local court system with a Supreme Court, and, as well, of a Federal District Court. The Act, § 34,31 Stat. 84, provided: “The [federal] district court... shall have, in addition to the ordinary jurisdiction of district courts of the United States, jurisdiction of all cases cognizant in the circuit courts of the United States.”
On its face, this appears to have been a broad grant of jurisdiction similar to that conferred on the United States district courts and comparable to that conferred on the earlier territorial courts. The earlier territorial grants, however, were different. Whereas the Federal District Court for Puerto Rico was to have “the ordinary jurisdiction of district courts of the United States,” the earlier territorial courts had been given explicitly, by Rev. Stat. § 1910 noted above, “the same jurisdiction, in all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, as is vested in the circuit and district courts of the United States.” One might expect that the grant of jurisdiction in the former necessarily encompassed or was the same as the grant of jurisdiction in the latter. Congress, however, was divided over the question whether the Constitution extended to Puerto Rico by its own force or whether Congress possessed the power to withhold from Puerto Ricans the constitutional guarantees available to all persons within the several States and the earlier Territories. See S. Rep. No. 249, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. (1900); H. R. Rep. No. 249, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. (1900).
The division within Congress was reflected in the legislation governing Puerto Rico. Thus, despite some support for the measure, see S. Rep. No. 249, pp. 12-13, Congress declined to grant citizenship to the inhabitants of Puerto Rico. 33 Cong. Rec. 3690 (1900). And, in contrast to some earlier territorial legislation, Congress did not expressly extend to Puerto Rico the Constitution of the United States or impose on the statutes of Puerto Rico then in effect the condition that they be continued only if consistent with the United States Constitution.
At the same time, however, Congress undoubtedly was aware of the above-mentioned Rev. Stat. § 1891 providing : “The Constitution and all laws of the United States which are not locally inapplicable shall have the same force and effect... in every Territory hereafter organized as elsewhere within the United States.” Yet no mention of this statute was made in the Foraker Act. In contrast, two years later, Congress made § 1891 expressly inapplicable when it created a civil government for the Territory of the Philippines. Act of July 1, 1902, c. 1369, § 1, 32 Stat. 692. Moreover, Congress, by § 14 of the Foraker Act, extended to Puerto Rico “the statutory laws [other than the internal revenue laws] of the United States not locally inapplicable,” 31 Stat. 80, and Rev. Stat. § 1979, providing remedies for deprivation of rights guaranteed by the Constitution and laws of the United States by persons acting under color of territorial law was at least potentially “applicable.”
This review of the For alter Act and its legislative history leads to several conclusions: Congress was uncertain of its own powers respecting Puerto Rico and of the extent to which the Constitution applied there. At the same time, it recognized, at least implicitly, that the ultimate resolution of these questions was the responsibility of this Court. S. Rep. No. 249, pp. 9-12; H. R. Rep. No. 249, pp. 9-15, 25-28. Thus Congress appears to have left the question of the personal rights to be accorded to the inhabitants of Puerto Rico to orderly development by this Court and to whatever further provision Congress itself might make for them. The grant of jurisdiction to the District Court in Puerto Rico, nevertheless, appeared to be sufficiently broad to permit redress of deprivations of those rights by persons acting under color of territorial law. See Insular Police Comm’n v. Lopez, 160 F. 2d 673, 676-677 (CA1), cert. denied, 331 U. S. 855 (1947). Nothing in the language of § 34 of the Foraker Act precluded the grant of jurisdiction accorded the earlier territorial courts by Rev. Stat. § 1910, and its language, containing no limitations, cautions us against reading into it an exception not supported by persuasive evidence in the legislative history.
Subsequent legislation respecting Puerto Rico tends to support the conclusion that uncertainty over the application of the Constitution did not lead Congress to deprive the inhabitants of Puerto Rico of a federal forum for vindication of whatever rights did exist. In the Organic Act of 1917, sometimes known as the Jones Act, 39 Stat. 951, Congress made more explicit the jurisdiction of the Federal District Court by according it “jurisdiction of all cases cognizable in the district courts of the United States,” § 41, 39 Stat. 965; generally granted Puerto Rico citizens United States citizenship, § 5, 39 Stat. 953; and codified for Puerto Rico a bill of rights, § 2, 39 Stat. 951. This bill of rights, which remained in effect until 1952, provided Puerto Ricans with nearly all the personal guarantees found in the United States Constitution. The very first provision, for example, read: “That no law shall be enacted in Porto Rico which shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or deny to any person therein the equal protection of the laws.” These words are almost identical with the language of the Fourteenth Amendment; and when Congress selected them, it must have done so with the Fourteenth Amendment in mind and with a view to further development by this Court of the doctrines embodied in it. See Kepner v. United States, 195 U. S. 100, 124 (1904). In its passage of the Jones Act, Congress clearly set the stage for the federal court in Puerto Rico to enforce the provisions of § 1983’s predecessor (Rev. Stat. § 1979) which prohibited the deprivation “under color of any statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any... Territory... of any rights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Constitution and laws.” See Munoz v. Porto Rico Ry. Light & Power Co., 83 F. 2d 262, 26A-266 (CA1), cert. denied, 298 U. S. 689 (1936).
The jurisdictional provision of the Act, referring to “all cases cognizable in the district courts of the United States,” remained in effect until 1948. At that time Congress, in the course of a major revision of the Judicial Code, placed the nonterritorial jurisdiction of the District Court of Puerto Rico, as well as the District Court of Hawaii, squarely within Title 28 of the United States Code. It provided: “Puerto Rico constitutes one judicial district.” Act of June 25, 1948, c. 646, § 119, 62 Stat. 889. The stated reason for this change was that “Hawaii and Puerto Rico are included as judicial districts of the United States, since in matters of jurisdiction, powers, and procedure, they are in all respects equal to other United States district courts.” H. R. Rep. No. 308, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 6 (1947). This confirms our conclusion that until the establishment of the Commonwealth, the Federal District Court in Puerto Rico had the same jurisdiction to enforce the provisions of 42 U. S. C. § 1983 as that conferred by 28 U. S. C. § 1343 (3) and its predecessor statutes on the United States district courts in the several States. See Miranda v. United States, 255 F. 2d 9 (CA1 1958); Insular Police Comm’n v. Lopez, supra.
Only two years later, Congress responded to demands for greater autonomy for Puerto Rico with the Act of July 3, 1950; c. 446, 64 Stat. 319. This legislation, offered, in the “nature of a compact” to “the people of Puerto Rico,” § 1, 48 U. S. C. § 731b, authorized them to draft their own constitution which, however, “shall provide a republican form of government and shall include a bill of rights,” § 2, 48 U. S. C. § 731c. The proposed constitution thereafter submitted declared that it was drafted “within our union with the United States of America,” and that among the “determining factors in our life” were considered “our citizenship of the United States of America” and “our loyalty to the principles of the Federal Constitution.” Preamble of the Constitution of Puerto Rico, 1 P. R. Laws Ann. p. 207 (1965). See note following 48 U. S. C. § 731d. Congress approved the proposed constitution after adding, among other things, a condition that any amendment or revision of the document be consistent with “the applicable provisions of the Constitution of the United States.” 66 Stat. 327. The condition was accepted, the compact became effective, and Puerto Rico assumed “Commonwealth” status. This resulted in the repeal of numerous provisions of the Organic Act of 1917, including the bill of rights that Act contained. Act of July 3, 1950, c. 446, § 5, 64 Stat. 320. The remainder became known as the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act. § 4, 64 Stat. 319.
The question then arises whether Congress, by entering into the compact, intended to repeal by implication the jurisdiction of the Federal District Court of Puerto Rico to enforce 42 U. S. C. § 1983. We think not. As was observed in Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U. S., at 671, the purpose of Congress in the 1950 and 1952 legislation was to accord to Puerto Rico the degree of autonomy and independence normally associated with States of the Union, and accordingly, Puerto Rico “now ‘elects its Governor and legislature; appoints its judges, all cabinet officials, and lesser officials in the executive branch; sets its own educational policies; determines its own budget; and amends its own civil and criminal codq.’ ” See generally Leibowitz, The Applicability of Federal Law to the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, 56 Geo. L. J. 219, 221 (1967); Magruder, The Commonwealth Status of Puerto Rico, 15 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 1 (1953); Americana of Puerto Rico, Inc. v. Kaplus, 368 F. 2d 431 (CA3 1966), cert. denied, 386 U. S. 943 (1967). More importantly, the provisions relating to the jurisdiction of a Federal District Court in Puerto Rico were left undisturbed, and there is no evidence in the legislative history that would support a determination that Congress intended such a departure. In the absence of a change in the language of the jurisdictional provision or of affirmative evidence in the legislative history, we are unwilling to read into the 1952 legislation a restriction of the jurisdiction of the Federal District Court.
C. Our conclusion not to attribute to Congress an inclination to leave the protection of federal rights exclusively to the local Puerto Rico courts is supported by District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U. S. 418 (1973). There the Court held that the District was neither a State nor a Territory within the meaning of 42 U. S. C. § 1983. The District, it was observed, occupies a unique status within our system of government. It is the seat of the National Government, and, at the time the Civil Rights Act of 1871 was enacted, Congress exercised plenary power over its activities. These geographical and political considerations, as well as “the absence of any indication in the language, purposes, or history of § 1983 of a legislative intent to include the District within the scope of its coverage,” supported the Court’s conclusion. 409 U. S., at 432.
Appellants, however, focus upon the characterization of the District as “sui generis in our governmental structure,” ibid., and argue that because the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is also sui generis, the conduct of persons acting under color of Commonwealth law is similarly exempted from scrutiny under § 1983. We readily concede that Puerto Rico occupies a relationship to the United States that has no parallel in our history, but we think that it does not follow that Congress intended to relinquish federal enforcement of § 1983 by restricting the jurisdiction of the Federal District Court in Puerto Rico. It was observed in Carter, 409 U. S., at 427, that Congress, in enacting the civil rights legislation with which we are concerned, recognized that it “had neither the means nor the authority to exert any direct control, on a day-to-day basis, over the actions of state officials,” and that the “solution chosen was to involve the

Question: What is the court whose decision the Supreme Court reviewed?
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日. U.S. Court of Claims, Court of Federal Claims
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版. Vermont U.S. Circuit for the District of Vermont
周. Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Virginia
址. West Virginia U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of West Virginia
记. Wisconsin U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Wisconsin
二. Wyoming U.S. Circuit for the District of Wyoming
同. Circuit Court of the District of Columbia
业. Nebraska U.S. Circuit for the District of Nebraska
权. Colorado U.S. Circuit for the District of Colorado
其. Washington U.S. Circuit for (all) District(s) of Washington
进. Idaho U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Idaho
试. Montana U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Montana
验. Utah U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Utah
料. South Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of South Dakota
传. North Dakota U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of North Dakota
述. Oklahoma U.S. Circuit Court for (all) District(s) of Oklahoma
集. Court of Private Land Claims
Answer:

Answer: 如