Task: sc_adminaction

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to identify the federal agency involved in the administrative action that occurred prior to the onset of litigation. If the administrative action occurred in a state agency, respond "State Agency". Do not code the name of the state. The administrative activity may involve an administrative official as well as that of an agency. If two federal agencies are mentioned, consider the one whose action more directly bears on the dispute;otherwise the agency that acted more recently. If a state and federal agency are mentioned, consider the federal agency. Pay particular attention to the material which appears in the summary of the case preceding the Court's opinion and, if necessary, those portions of the prevailing opinion headed by a I or II. Action by an agency official is considered to be administrative action except when such an official acts to enforce criminal law. If an agency or agency official "denies" a "request" that action be taken, such denials are considered agency action. Exclude: a "challenge" to an unapplied agency rule, regulation, etc.; a request for an injunction or a declaratory judgment against agency action which, though anticipated, has not yet occurred; a mere request for an agency to take action when there is no evidence that the agency did so; agency or official action to enforce criminal law; the hiring and firing of political appointees or the procedures whereby public officials are appointed to office; attorney general preclearance actions pertaining to voting; filing fees or nominating petitions required for access to the ballot; actions of courts martial; land condemnation suits and quiet title actions instituted in a court; and federally funded private nonprofit organizations.

Justice Alito
delivered the opinion of the Court.
These cases concern the interplay between two federal environmental statutes. Section 402(b) of the Clean Water Act requires that the Environmental Protection Agency transfer certain permitting powers to state authorities upon an application and a showing that nine specified criteria have been met. Section 7(a)(2) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides that a federal agency must consult with agencies designated by the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior in order to “insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency... is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered species or threatened species.” The question presented is whether §7(a)(2) effectively operates as a tenth criterion on which the transfer of permitting power under the first statute must be conditioned. We conclude that it does not. The transfer of permitting authority to state authorities — who will exercise that authority under continuing federal oversight to ensure compliance with relevant mandates of the Endangered Species Act and other federal environmental protection statutes — was proper. We therefore reverse the judgment of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
I
A
1
The Clean Water Act (CWA), 86 Stat. 816, as amended, 33 U. S. C. § 1251 et seq., established a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) that is designed to prevent harmful discharges into the Nation’s waters. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or Agency) initially administers the NPDES permitting system for each State, but a State may apply for a transfer of permitting authority to state officials. See 33 U. S. C. § 1342; see also § 1251(b) (“It is the policy of Congress that the Stat[e]... implement the permit progra[m] under sectio[n] 1342... of this title”). If authority is transferred, then state officials — not the federal EPA — have the primary responsibility for reviewing and approving NPDES discharge permits, albeit with continuing EPA oversight.
Under § 402(b) of the CWA, “the Governor of each State desiring to administer its own permit program for discharges into navigable waters within its jurisdiction may submit to [the EPA] a foil and complete description of the program it proposes to establish and administer under State law or under an interstate compact,” as well as a certification “that the laws of such State... provide adequate authority to carry out the described program.” 33 U. S. C. § 1342(b). The same section provides that the EPA “shall approve each submitted program” for transfer of permitting authority to a State “unless [it] determines that adequate authority does not exist” to ensure that nine specified criteria are satisfied. Ibid. These criteria all relate to whether the state agency that will be responsible for permitting has the requisite authority under state law to administer the NPDES program. 2 If the criteria are met, the transfer must be approved.
2
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA), 87 Stat. 884, as amended, 16 U. S. C. § 1531 et seq., is intended to protect and conserve endangered and threatened species and their habitats. Section 4 of the ESA directs the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior to list threatened and endangered species and to designate their critical habitats. §1533. The Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) administers the ESA with respect to species under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior, while the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) administers the ESA with respect to species under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Commerce. See 50 CFR §§17.11, 222.101(a), 223.102, 402.01(b) (2006).
Section 7 of the ESA prescribes the steps that federal agencies must take to ensure that their actions do not jeopardize endangered wildlife and flora. Section 7(a)(2) provides that “[e]ach Federal agency shall, in consultation with and with the assistance of the Secretary [of Commerce or the Interior], insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency (hereinafter in this section referred to as an ‘agency action’) is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered species or threatened species.” 16 U. S. C. § 1536(a)(2).
Once the consultation process contemplated by § 7(a)(2) has been completed, the Secretary is required to give the agency a written biological opinion “setting forth the Secretary’s opinion, and a summary of the information on which the opinion is based, detailing how the agency action affects the species or its critical habitat.” § 1536(b)(3)(A); see also 50 CFR §402.14(h). If the Secretary concludes that the agency action would place the listed species in jeopardy or adversely modify its critical habitat, “the Secretary shall suggest those reasonable and prudent alternatives which he believes would not violate [§ 7(a)(2)] and can be taken by the Federal agency... in implementing the agency action.” 16 U. S. C. § 1536(b)(3)(A); see also 50 CFR § 402.14(h)(3). Regulations promulgated jointly by the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior provide that, in order to qualify as a “reasonable and prudent alternative,” an alternative course of action must be able to be implemented in a way “consistent with the scope of the Federal agency’s legal authority and jurisdiction.” §402.02. Following the issuance of a “jeopardy” opinion, the agency must either terminate the action, implement the proposed alternative, or seek an exemption from the Cabinet-level Endangered Species Committee pursuant to 16 U. S. C. § 1536(e). The regulations also provide that “Section 7 and the requirements of this part apply to all actions in which there is discretionary Federal involvement or control.” 50 CFR § 402.03.
B
1
In February 2002, Arizona officials applied for EPA authorization to administer that State’s NPDES program. The EPA initiated consultation with the FWS to determine whether the transfer of permitting authority would adversely affect any listed species.
The FWS regional office concluded that the transfer of authority would not cause any direct impact on water quality that would adversely affect listed species. App. to Pet. for Cert, in No. 06-340, p. 564. However, the FWS office was concerned that the transfer could result in the issuance of more discharge permits, which would lead to more development, which in turn could have an indirect adverse effect on the habitat of certain upland species, such as the cactus ferruginous pygmy-owl and the Pima pineapple cactus. Specifically, the FWS feared that, because § 7(a)(2)’s consultation requirement does not apply to permitting decisions by state authorities, the transfer of authority would empower Arizona officials to issue individual permits without considering and mitigating their indirect impact on these upland species. Id., at 565-566. The FWS regional office therefore urged that, in considering the proposed transfer of permitting authority, those involved in the consultation process should take these potential indirect impacts into account.
The EPA disagreed, maintaining that “its approval action, which is an administrative transfer of authority, [would not be] the cause of future non-discharge-related impacts on endangered species from projects requiring State NPDES permits.” Id., at 564. As a factual matter, the EPA believed that the link between the transfer of permitting authority and the potential harm that could result from increased development was too attenuated. Ibid. And as a legal matter, the EPA concluded that the mandatory nature of CWA § 402(b) — which directs that the EPA “shall approve” a transfer request if that section’s nine statutory criteria are met — stripped it of authority to disapprove a transfer based on any other considerations. Id., at 564-565.
Pursuant to procedures set forth in a memorandum of understanding between the agencies, the dispute was referred to the agencies’ national offices for resolution. In December 2002, the FWS issued its biological opinion, which concluded that the requested transfer would not cause jeopardy to listed species. The opinion reasoned that “the loss of section 7-related conservation benefits... is not an indirect effect of the authorization action,” id., at 117, because
“loss of any conservation benefit is not caused by EPA’s decision to approve the State of Arizona’s program. Rather, the absence of the section 7 process that exists with respect to Federal NPDES permits reflects Congress’ decision to grant States the right to administer these programs under state law provided the State’s program meets the requirements of [section] 402(b) of the Clean Water Act.” Id., at 114.
In addition, the FWS opined that the EPA’s continuing oversight of Arizona’s permitting program, along with other statutory protections, would adequately protect listed species and their habitats following the transfer. Id., at 101-107.
The EPA concluded that Arizona had met each of the nine statutory criteria listed in § 402(b) and approved the transfer of permitting authority. In the notice announcing the approval of the transfer, the EPA noted that the issuance of the FWS’ biological opinion had “conclude[d] the consultation process required by ESA section 7(a)(2) and reflects the [FWS’] agreement with EPA that the approval of the State program meets the substantive requirements of the ESA.” Id., at 78.
2
On April 2,2003, respondents filed a petition in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit seeking review of the transfer pursuant to 33 U. S. C. § 1369(b)(1)(D), which allows private parties to seek direct review of the EPA’s determinations regarding state permitting programs in the federal courts of appeals. The court granted petitioner National Association of Home Builders leave to intervene as a respondent in that case. Respondent Defenders of Wildlife also filed a separate action in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona, alleging, among other things, that the biological opinion issued by the FWS in support of the proposed transfer did not comply with the ESA’s standards. The District Court severed that claim and transferred it to the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which consolidated the case with the suit challenging the EPA transfer. See 420 F. 3d 946 (2005).
A divided panel of the Ninth Circuit held that the EPA’s approval of the transfer was arbitrary and capricious because the EPA “relied during the administrative proceedings on legally contradictory positions regarding its section 7 obligations.” Id., at 959. The court concluded that the EPA “fail[ed] to understand its own authority under section 7(a)(2) to act on behalf of listed species and their habitat,” id., at 977, because “the two propositions that underlie the EPA’s action — that (1) it must, under the [ESA], consult concerning transfers of CWA permitting authority, but (2) it is not permitted, as a matter of law, to take into account the impact on listed species in making the transfer decision — cannot both be true,” id., at 961. The court therefore concluded that it was required to “remand to the agency for a plausible explanation of its decision, based on a single, coherent interpretation of the statute.” Id., at 962.
The panel majority, however, did not follow this course of action. Rather, the panel went on to review the EPA's substantive construction of the statutes at issue and held that the ESA granted the EPA both the power and the duty to determine whether its transfer decision would jeopardize threatened or endangered species. The panel did not dispute that Arizona had met the nine criteria set forth in § 402(b) of the CWA, but the panel nevertheless concluded that § 7(a)(2) of the ESA provided an “affirmative grant of authority to attend to [the] protection of listed species,” id., at 965, in effect adding a tenth criterion to those specified in § 402(b). The panel dismissed the argument that the EPA’s approval of the transfer application was not subject to § 7(a)(2) because it was not a “discretionary action” within the meaning of 50 CFR §402.03 (interpreting § 7(a)(2) to apply only to agency actions “in which there is discretionary Federal involvement or control”). 420 F. 3d, at 967-969. It viewed the FWS’ regulation as merely “coterminous” with the express statutory language encompassing all agency actions that are “ ‘authorized, funded, or carried out’ ” by the agency. Id., at 969 (quoting 16 U. S. C. § 1536(a)(2)). On these grounds, the court granted the petition and vacated the EPA’s transfer decision.
In dissent, Judge Thompson explained that the transfer decision was not a “discretionary action” under 50 CFR §402.03 because “[t]he Clean Water Act, by its very terms, permits the EPA to consider only the nine specified factors. If a state’s proposed permitting program meets the enumerated requirements,” he reasoned, “the EPA administrator ‘shall approve’ the program. 33 U. S. C. § 1342(b). This [congressional directive does not permit the EPA to impose additional conditions.” 420 F. 3d, at 980.
The Ninth Circuit denied rehearing and rehearing en banc. 450 F. 3d 394 (2006). Writing for the six judges who dissented from the denial of rehearing en banc, Judge Kozinski disagreed with the panel’s conclusion that the EPA’s analysis was so internally inconsistent as to be arbitrary and capricious. He further noted that, if the panel was correct on this point, the proper resolution would have been to remand to the EPA for further explanation. Id., at 396-398. On the statutory question, Judge Kozinski echoed Judge Thompson’s conclusion that once the nine criteria set forth in § 402(b) of the CWA are satisfied, a transfer is mandatory and nondiscretionary. Id., at 397-399. He rejected the panel majority’s broad construction of ESA § 7(a)(2), concluding that “[i]f the ESA were as powerful as the majority contends, it would modify not only the EPA’s obligation under the CWA, but every categorical mandate applicable to every federal agency.” Id., at 399, n. 4.
The Ninth Circuit’s construction of § 7(a)(2) is at odds with that of other Courts of Appeals. Compare 420 F. 3d 946 (case below) with Platte River Whooping Crane Critical Habitat Maintenance Trust v. FERC, 962 F. 2d 27, 33-34 (CADC 1992), and American Forest & Paper Assn. v. EPA, 137 F. 3d 291, 298-299 (CA5 1998). We granted certiorari to resolve this conflict, 549 U. S. 1105 (2007), and we now reverse.
II
Before addressing this question of statutory interpretation, however, we first consider whether the Court of Appeals erred in holding that the EPA’s transfer decision was arbitrary and capricious because, in that court’s words, the agencies involved in the decision “relied... on legally contradictory positions regarding [their] section 7 obligations.” App. to Pet. for Cert, in No. 06-340, at 23.
As an initial matter, we note that if the EPA’s action was arbitrary and capricious, as the Ninth Circuit held, the proper course would have been to remand to the Agency for clarification of its reasons. See Gonzales v. Thomas, 547 U. S. 183 (2006) (per curiam). Indeed, the court below expressly recognized that this finding required it to “remand to the Agency for a plausible explanation of its decision, based on a single, coherent interpretation of the statute.” App. to Pet. for Cert, in No. 06-340, at 28. But the Ninth Circuit did not take this course; instead, it jumped ahead to resolve the merits of the dispute. In so doing, it erroneously deprived the Agency of its usual administrative avenue for explaining and reconciling the arguably contradictory rationales that sometimes appear in the course of lengthy and complex administrative decisions. We need not examine this question further, however, because we conclude that the Ninth Circuit’s determination that the EPA’s action was arbitrary and capricious is not fairly supported by the record.
Review under the arbitrary and capricious standard is deferential; we will not vacate an agency’s decision unless it
“has relied on factors which Congress had not intended it to consider, entirely failed to consider an important aspect of the problem, offered an explanation for its decision that runs counter to the evidence before the agency, or is so implausible that it could not be ascribed to a difference in view or the product of agency expertise.” Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Assn. of United States, Inc. v. State Farm Mut. Automobile Ins. Co., 463 U. S. 29, 43 (1983).
‘We will, however, ‘uphold a decision of less than ideal clarity if the agency’s path may reasonably be discerned.’” Ibid. (quoting Bowman Transp., Inc. v. Arkansas-Best Freight System, Inc., 419 U. S. 281, 286 (1974)).
The Court of Appeals concluded that the EPA’s decision was “internally inconsistent” because, in its view, the Agency stated — both during preliminary review of Arizona’s transfer application and in the Federal Register notice memorializing its final action — “that section 7 requires consultation regarding the effect of a permitting transfer on listed species.” App. to Pet. for Cert, in No. 06-340, at 23.
With regard to the various statements made by the involved agencies’ regional offices during the early stages of consideration, the only “inconsistency” respondents can point to is the fact that the agencies changed their minds — something that, as long as the proper procedures were followed, they were fully entitled to do. The federal courts ordinarily are empowered to review only an agency’s final action, see 5 U. S. C. § 704, and the fact that a preliminary determination by a local agency representative is later overruled at a higher level within the agency does not render the decision-making process arbitrary and capricious.
Respondents also point to the final Federal Register notice memorializing the EPA’s approval of Arizona’s transfer application. This notice stated that the FWS’ issuance of its biological opinion had “concludefd] the consultation process required by ESA section 7(a)(2).” App. to Pet. for Cert, in No. 06-340, at 73. Respondents contend that this statement is inconsistent with the EPA’s previously expressed position — and their position throughout this litigation — that §7(a)(2)’s consultation requirement is not triggered by a transfer application under § 402 of the CWA.
We are not persuaded that this statement constitutes the type of error that requires a remand. By the time the Federal Register statement was issued, the EPA had already consulted with the FWS about the Arizona application, and the question whether that consultation had been required, as opposed to voluntarily undertaken by the Agency, was simply not germane to the final agency transfer decision. The Federal Register statement, in short, was dictum, and it had no bearing on the final agency action that respondents challenge. Mindful of Congress’ admonition that in reviewing agency action, “due account shall be taken of the rule of prejudicial error,” 5 U. S. C. § 706, we do not believe that this stray statement, which could have had no effect on the underlying agency action being challenged, requires that we further delay the transfer of permitting authority to Arizona by remanding to the Agency for clarification. See also PDK Labs. Inc. v. United States Drug Enforcement Admin., 362 F. 3d 786, 799 (CADC 2004) (“In administrative law, as in federal civil and criminal litigation, there is a harmless error rule”).
We further disagree with respondents’ suggestion that, by allegedly altering its legal position while the Arizona transfer decision and its associated litigation was pending, the “EPA is effectively nullifying respondents’ rights to participate in administrative proceedings concerning Arizona’s application, and particularly respondents’ rights under EPA’s own regulations to comment on NPDES transfer applications.” Brief for Respondents 28 (citing 40 CFR § 123.61(b); emphasis deleted). Consistent with EPA regulations, the Agency made available “a comment period of not less than 45 days during which interested members of the public [could] express their views on the State program.” § 123.61(a)(1). Respondents do not suggest that they were deprived of their right to comment during this period.
Respondents also contend that if the case were remanded to the EPA, they would raise additional challenges — including, for example, a challenge to the EPA’s provision of financial assistance to Arizona for the administration of its NPDES program. However, as explained below, any such agency action is separate and independent of the agency’s decision to authorize the transfer of permitting authority pursuant to § 402(b). See n. 11, infra. We express no opinion as to the viability of a separate administrative or legal challenge to such actions.
III
A
We turn now to the substantive statutory question raised by the petitions, a question that requires us to mediate a clash of seemingly categorical — and, at first glance, irreconcilable — legislative commands. Section 402(b) of the CWA provides, without qualification, that the EPA “shall approve” a transfer application unless it determines that the State lacks adequate authority to perform the nine functions specified in the section. 33 U. S. C. § 1342(b). By its terms, the statutory language is mandatory and the list exclusive; if the nine specified criteria are satisfied, the EPA does not have the discretion to deny a transfer application. Cf. Lopez v. Davis, 531 U. S. 230, 241 (2001) (noting Congress’ “use of a mandatory ‘shall’... to impose discretionless obligations”); Lexecon Inc. v. Milberg Weiss Bershad Hynes & Lerach, 523 U. S. 26, 35 (1998) (“[T]he mandatory ‘shall’... normally creates an obligation impervious to judicial discretion”); Association of Civil Technicians v. FLRA, 22 F. 3d 1150, 1153 (CADC 1994) (“The word ‘shall’ generally indicates a command that admits of no discretion on the part of the person instructed to carry out the directive”); Black’s Law Dictionary 1375 (6th ed. 1990) (“As used in statutes... this word is generally imperative or mandatory”). Neither respondents nor the Ninth Circuit has ever disputed that Arizona satisfied each of these nine criteria. See 420 F. 3d, at 963, n. 11; Brief for Respondents 19, n. 8.
The language of § 7(a)(2) of the ESA is similarly imperative: It provides that “[e]ach Federal agency shall, in consultation with and with the assistance of the Secretary, insure that any aetion authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency... is not likely to jeopardize” endangered or threatened species or their habitats. 16 U. S. C. § 1536(a)(2). This mandate is to be carried out through consultation and may require the agency to adopt an alternative course of action. As the author of the panel opinion below recognized, applying this language literally would “ad[dJ one [additional] requirement to the list of considerations under the Clean Water Act permitting transfer provision.” 450 F. 3d, at 404, n. 2 (Berzon, J., concurring in denial of rehearing en banc) (emphasis in original). That is, it would effectively repeal the mandatory and exclusive list of criteria set forth in § 402(b), and replace it with a new, expanded list that includes §7(a)(2)’s no-jeopardy requirement.
B
While a later enacted statute (such as the ESA),can sometimes operate to amend or even repeal an earlier statutory provision (such as the CWA), “repeals by implication are not favored” and will not be presumed unless the “intention of the legislature to repeal [is] clear and manifest.” Watt v. Alaska, 451 U. S. 259, 267 (1981) (internal quotation marks omitted). We will not infer a statutory repeal “unless the later statute ‘“expressly contradices] the original act”’ or unless such a construction ‘“is absolutely necessary... in order that [the] words [of the later statute] shall have any meaning at all.” ’ ” Traynor v. Turnage, 485 U. S. 535, 548 (1988) (quoting Radzanower v. Touche Ross & Co., 426 U. S. 148, 158 (1976), in turn quoting T. Sedgwick, The Interpretation and Construction of Statutory and Constitutional Law 98 (2d ed. 1874)); see also Branch v. Smith, 538 U. S. 254, 273 (2003) (“An implied repeal will only be found where provisions in two statutes are in ‘irreconcilable conflict/ or where the latter Act covers the whole subject of the earlier one and ‘is clearly intended as a substitute’”); Posadas v. National City Bank, 296 U. S. 497, 503 (1936) (“[T]he intention of the legislature to repeal must be clear and manifest”). Outside these limited circumstances, “a statute dealing with a narrow, precise, and specific subject is not submerged by a later enacted statute covering a more generalized spectrum.” Radzanower, supra, at 153.
Here, reading § 7(a)(2) as the Court of Appeals did would effectively repeal §402(b)’s statutory mandate by engrafting. a tenth criterion onto the CWA. Section 402(b) of the CWA commands that the EPA “shall” issue a permit whenever all nine exclusive statutory prerequisites are met. Thus, § 402(b) does not just set forth minimum requirements for the transfer of permitting authority; it affirmatively mandates that the transfer “shall” be approved if the specified criteria are met. The provision operates as a ceiling as well as a floor. By adding an additional criterion, the Ninth Circuit’s construction of § 7(a)(2) raises that floor and alters §402(b)’s statutory command.
The Ninth Circuit’s reading of § 7(a)(2) would not only abrogate §402(b)’s statutory mandate, but also result in the implicit repeal of many additional otherwise categorical statutory commands. Section 7(a)(2) by its terms applies to “any action authorized, funded, or carried out by” a federal agency — covering, in effect, almost anything that an agency might do. Reading the provision broadly would thus partially override every federal statute mandating agency action by subjecting such action to the further condition that it pose no jeopardy to endangered species. See, e. g., Platte River Whooping Crane Critical Habitat Maintenance Trust v. FERC, 962 F. 2d, at 33-34 (considering whether § 7(a)(2) overrides the Federal Power Act’s prohibition on amending annual power licenses). While the language of § 7(a)(2) does not explicitly repeal any provision of the CWA (or any other statute), reading it for all that it might be worth runs foursquare into our presumption against implied repeals.
C
1
The agencies charged with implementing the ESA have attempted to resolve this tension through regulations implemeriting § 7(a)(2). The NMFS and the FWS, acting jointly on behalf of the Secretaries of Commerce and the Interior and following notice-and-comment rulemaking procedures, have promulgated a regulation stating that “Section 7 and the requirements of this part apply to all actions in which there is discretionary Federal involvement or control.” 50 CFR §402.03 (emphasis added). Pursuant to this regulation, § 7(a)(2) would not be read as impliedly repealing non-discretionary statutory mandates, even when they might result in some agency action. Rather, the ESA’s requirements would come into play only when an action results from the exercise of agency discretion. This interpretation harmonizes the statutes by giving effect to the ESA’s no-jeopardy mandate whenever an agency has discretion to do so, but not when the agency is prohibited from considering such extra-statutory factors.
We have recognized that “[t]he latitude the ESA gives the Secretary in enforcing the statute, together with the degree of regulatory expertise necessary to its enforcement, establishes that we owe some degree of deference to the Secretary’s reasonable interpretation” of the statutory scheme. Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter, Communities for Great Ore., 515 U. S. 687, 703 (1995). But such deference is appropriate only where “Congress has not directly addressed the precise question at issue” through the statutory text. Chevron U. S. A. Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U. S. 837, 843 (1984).
“If the intent of Congress is clear, that is the end of the matter; for the court, as well as the agency, must give effect to the unambiguously expressed intent of Congress.... [However,] if the statute is silent or ambiguous with respect to the specific issue, the question for the court is whether the agency’s answer is based on a permissible construction of the statute.” Id., at 842-843.
In making the threshold determination under Chevron, “a reviewing court should not confine itself to examining a particular statutory provision in isolation.” FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 U. S. 120, 132 (2000). Rather, “[t]he meaning — or ambiguity — of certain words or phrases may only become evident when placed in context.... It is a ‘fundamental canon of statutory construction that the words of a statute must be read in their context and with a view to their place in the overall statutory scheme.’ ” Id., at 182-133 (quoting Davis v. Michigan Dept. of Treasury, 489 U. S. 803, 809 (1989)).
We must therefore read § 7(a)(2) of the ESA against the statutory backdrop of the many mandatory agency directives whose operation it would implicitly abrogate or repeal if it were construed as broadly as the Ninth Circuit did below. When § 7(a)(2) is read this way, we are left with a fundamental ambiguity that is not resolved by the statutory text. An agency cannot simultaneously obey the differing mandates set forth in § 7(a)(2) of the ESA and § 402(b) of the CWA, and consequently the statutory language — read in light of the canon against implied repeals — does not itself provide clear guidance as to which command must give way.
In this situation, it is appropriate to look to the implementing agency’s expert interpretation, which cabins §7(a)(2)’s application to “actions in which there is discretionary Federal involvement or control.” 50 CFR §402.03. This reading harmonizes the statutes by applying § 7(a)(2) to guide agencies’ existing discretionary authority, but not reading it to override express statutory mandates.
2
We conclude that this interpretation is reasonable in light of the statute’s text and the overall statutory scheme, and that it is therefore entitled to deference under Chevron. Section 7(a)(2) requires that an agency “insure” that the actions it authorizes, funds, or carries out are not likely to jeopardize listed species or their habitats. To “insure” something — as the court below recognized — means “ '[t]o make certain, to secure, to guarantee (some

Question: What is the agency involved in the administrative action?
年. Army and Air Force Exchange Service
数. Atomic Energy Commission
日. Secretary or administrative unit or personnel of the U.S. Air Force
的. Department or Secretary of Agriculture
月. Alien Property Custodian
用. Secretary or administrative unit or personnel of the U.S. Army
成. Board of Immigration Appeals
名. Bureau of Indian Affairs
时. Bureau of Prisons
件. Bonneville Power Administration
一. Benefits Review Board
请. Civil Aeronautics Board
中. Bureau of the Census
据. Central Intelligence Agency
码. Commodity Futures Trading Commission
不. Department or Secretary of Commerce
新. Comptroller of Currency
文. Consumer Product Safety Commission
下. Civil Rights Commission
分. Civil Service Commission, U.S.
入. Customs Service or Commissioner or Collector of Customs
人. Defense Base Closure and REalignment Commission
功. Drug Enforcement Agency
上. Department or Secretary of Defense (and Department or Secretary of War)
户. Department or Secretary of Energy
为. Department or Secretary of the Interior
间. Department of Justice or Attorney General
号. Department or Secretary of State
取. Department or Secretary of Transportation
回. Department or Secretary of Education
在. U.S. Employees' Compensation Commission, or Commissioner
页. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
字. Environmental Protection Agency or Administrator
有. Federal Aviation Agency or Administration
个. Federal Bureau of Investigation or Director
作. Federal Bureau of Prisons
示. Farm Credit Administration
出. Federal Communications Commission (including a predecessor, Federal Radio Commission)
是. Federal Credit Union Administration
失. Food and Drug Administration
表. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
除. Federal Energy Administration
加. Federal Election Commission
败. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
生. Federal Housing Administration
信. Federal Home Loan Bank Board
类. Federal Labor Relations Authority
置. Federal Maritime Board
理. Federal Maritime Commission
本. Farmers Home Administration
息. Federal Parole Board
行. Federal Power Commission
定. Federal Railroad Administration
改. Federal Reserve Board of Governors
市. Federal Reserve System
期. Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation
以. Federal Trade Commission
修. Federal Works Administration, or Administrator
元. General Accounting Office
方. Comptroller General
录. General Services Administration
区. Department or Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare
单. Department or Secretary of Health and Human Services
位. Department or Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
型. Administrative agency established under an interstate compact (except for the MTC)
法. Interstate Commerce Commission
县. Indian Claims Commission
存. Immigration and Naturalization Service, or Director of, or District Director of, or Immigration and Naturalization Enforcement
品. Internal Revenue Service, Collector, Commissioner, or District Director of
前. Information Security Oversight Office
称. Department or Secretary of Labor
注. Loyalty Review Board
值. Legal Services Corporation
输. Merit Systems Protection Board
建. Multistate Tax Commission
能. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
大. Secretary or administrative unit or personnel of the U.S. Navy
例. National Credit Union Administration
度. National Endowment for the Arts
始. National Enforcement Commission
到. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
面. National Labor Relations Board, or regional office or officer
载. National Mediation Board
点. National Railroad Adjustment Board
密. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
动. National Security Agency
果. Office of Economic Opportunity
图. Office of Management and Budget
提. Office of Price Administration, or Price Administrator
发. Office of Personnel Management
式. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
国. Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission
登. Office of Workers' Compensation Programs
错. Patent Office, or Commissioner of, or Board of Appeals of
者. Pay Board (established under the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970)
认. Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation
误. U.S. Public Health Service
接. Postal Rate Commission
关. Provider Reimbursement Review Board
重. Renegotiation Board
第. Railroad Adjustment Board
地. Railroad Retirement Board
如. Subversive Activities Control Board
设. Small Business Administration
目. Securities and Exchange Commission
开. Social Security Administration or Commissioner
事. Selective Service System
可. Department or Secretary of the Treasury
要. Tennessee Valley Authority
代. United States Forest Service
小. United States Parole Commission
选. Postal Service and Post Office, or Postmaster General, or Postmaster
标. United States Sentencing Commission
明. Veterans' Administration or Board of Veterans' Appeals
编. War Production Board
求. Wage Stabilization Board
列. State Agency
网. Unidentifiable
万. Office of Thrift Supervision
最. Department of Homeland Security
器. Board of General Appraisers
所. Board of Tax Appeals
内. General Land Office or Commissioners
体. NO Admin Action
通. Processing Tax Board of Review
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Answer: 字