Task: sc_issue_9

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to determine the issue of the Court's decision. Determine the issue of the case on the basis of the Court's own statements as to what the case is about. Focus on the subject matter of the controversy rather than its legal basis.

Justice Brennan
delivered the opinion of the Court.
The question to be decided in this case is whether a federal court has authority to review a decision of the National Labor Relations Board’s General Counsel dismissing an unfair labor practice complaint pursuant to an informal settlement in which the charging party refused to join. We hold that such a dismissal is not subject to judicial review under either the amended National Labor Relations Act or the Administrative Procedure Act.
I
In August 1984, respondent, the United Food Workers, filed unfair labor practice charges with the Pittsburgh regional office of the National Labor Relations Board (Board). The charges alleged that Charley Brothers, Inc., the owner of several grocery stores, and the United Steelworkers Union (Steelworkers) had committed an unfair labor practice by bargaining for and executing a collective-bargaining agreement for a Charley Brothers store where the Steelworkers did not represent an uncoerced majority of the employees. The Regional Director duly investigated the charges, and entered into settlement negotiations with Charley Brothers and the Steelworkers. No agreement was reached, and the Regional Director filed a formal complaint substantially incorporating respondent’s charges.
On September 24,1984, Vic’s Market’s, Inc. (Vic’s), bought the relevant store, and the Regional Director filed a second complaint that reflected this fact. A hearing on the complaints was scheduled for December 4, 1984. However, shortly before the hearing was to begin, Vic’s, Charley Brothers, the Steelworkers, and the Regional Director came to a tentative settlement agreement. The agreement called for the charged parties to take certain remedial action in return for dismissal of the complaint, but they were not required to admit that they had committed any unfair labor practice. The Regional Director invited respondent to join the agreement, but respondent refused, citing a number of purported deficiencies.
Eventually, the settlement was entered into by all parties except respondent, who, as permitted by Board regulations, challenged the Regional Director’s action before the General Counsel. The General Counsel determined that there was no need for an evidentiary hearing and sustained the settlement. Respondent then sought review in the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit.
The Board argued that the petition for review should be dismissed on the ground that the court lacked jurisdiction to review an informal settlement that did not result in an order of the Board and that was entered into before hearings began. Alternatively, the Board argued that the settlement should be sustained. The Court of Appeals, considering itself bound by its own precedent, concluded that it had jurisdiction and on the merits held that the complaint should not have been dismissed without an evidentiary hearing. 788 F. 2d 178 (1986). We granted the Board’s petition for a writ of certiorari to resolve a conflict among the Courts of Appeals. 479 U. S. 1029 (1987). We now reverse.
h — I ► — I
Petitioners argue that the courts of appeals have no jurisdiction under the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) to review settlement decisions of the General Counsel that do not result in Board orders and that are entered into before the commencement of hearings on the complaint. Respondent asserts two grounds for jurisdiction. The first is that all settlements occurring after a complaint is filed must be approved by the Board. Because final orders of the Board are judicially reviewable under § 10(f) of the NLRA, 49 Stat. 455, as amended, 29 U. S. C. § 160(f), respondent maintains that the courts of appeals have jurisdiction to review settlements. Alternatively, respondent argues that because the General Counsel acts “on behalf of the Board,” his or her decisions are subject to judicial review as if they were orders “of the Board.” Neither of respondent’s submissions persuades us.
A
The NLRA, as originally enacted, granted the Board plenary authority over all aspects of unfair labor practice disputes: the Board controlled not only the filing of complaints, but their prosecution and adjudication. The Labor Management Relations Act, 1947 (LMRA), 61 Stat. 136, altered this structure.
One of the major goals of the LMRA was to divide the old Board’s prosecutorial and adjudicatory functions between two entities. The House passed a bill that would have created a separate agency, known as the “office of Administrator of the National Labor Relations Act,” to prosecute unfair labor practice complaints. Under the House bill, the Board would have been retained to adjudicate the disputes. The Conference Committee did not go so far as to create a new agency. It did, though, determine that the General Counsel of the Board should be independent of the Board’s supervision and review. To this end, the General Counsel is appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and is the “final authority, on behalf of the Board, in respect of the investigation of charges and issuance of complaints... and in respect of the prosecution of such complaints before the Board.” 29 U. S. C. § 153(d).
The methods and procedures for the resolution of unfair labor practice charges are set out in statutes and in regulations promulgated by the Board pursuant to congressional authority. §156. A union, employer, or employee may bring an unfair labor practice charge to a regional office. Until such a charge is brought, the Board may take no enforcement action. NLRB v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 421 U. S. 132, 156 (1975). Once a charge is brought and investigated, the regional director may, in his discretion, dismiss it. Should this occur, the charging party may appeal to the General Counsel, but not to the Board. 29 CFR § 101.6 (1987). Alternatively, the regional director may enter into an “informal settlement” agreement with the charged party. Such an agreement provides that the charged party will take or refrain from taking certain action, in return for which the regional director agrees not to file a complaint. If the charging party refuses to consent to this informal agreement, it may appeal to the General Counsel, but again, there is no provision for review by the Board. § 101.7.
If the regional director concludes that the charges have merit, and if no informal settlement is reached, he may issue a complaint. Once a complaint issues, it may be disposed of by withdrawal before hearing, settlement, or formal adjudication.
The regional director is authorized to withdraw a complaint on his own motion at any time before the hearing. Such a withdrawal may be appealed to the General Counsel, but no Board review is available.
If the complaint is settled before the hearing, the disposition may take one of several forms. “Formal settlement” requires Board approval and is accompanied by the charged party’s agreement to a remedial Board order and usually consent to the entry of an enforcement order in the court of appeals. § 101.9(b)(1). “Informal settlement” is similar to the precomplaint settlement already discussed. The only difference is that rather than refraining from filing a complaint, the regional director dismisses the complaint without prejudice to reinstatement should the charged party not fulfill its part of the agreement. § 101.9(b)(2).
Because a Board order is part of all formal settlements, Board approval is required before such an agreement may be executed. The applicable regulations expressly allow an opportunity for a nonconsenting party to appeal to the General Counsel, and from there to the Board. §§ 101.9(c)(1) and (2). Ultimately, judicial review of the Board order is available. 29 U. S. C. § 160(f). If the prehearing settlement is informal, an appeal is permitted to the General Counsel by a nonjoining party, but there is no provision for Board review. 29 CFR § 101.9(c)(3) (1987).
Once the hearing on the complaint begins, the Board’s regulations do not permit the General Counsel to enter into an unreviewable settlement agreement, even if it is “informal.” Rather, a nonconsenting party may challenge the settlement before the administrative law judge, and an appeal is available from the judge’s determination to the Board. Judicial review is authorized from the Board’s decision. 29 U. S. C. § 160(f).
Finally, the complaint may be disposed of by formal adjudication. The procedures for such determinations are provided by statute. Once a complaint issues, the charged party has the right to answer and the right to a hearing. If the Board finds, based on a preponderance of the testimony, that the charged party engaged in an unfair labor practice, it is empowered to issue a cease-and-desist order and other appropriate relief. Conversely, it must dismiss the complaint if it finds that no such practice occurred. Any party, including the charging party, aggrieved by an order of the Board granting or denying in whole or in part the relief sought may obtain review of the Board’s final order in the court of appeals. 29 U. S. C. § 160(f).
The dispute in the ease before us is a narrow one. The parties agree that the General Counsel’s approval of a determination not to file an unfair labor practice complaint is not subject to judicial review, whether or not it is the result of an informal settlement. See Sears, Roebuck & Co., 421 U. S., at 148; Vaca v. Sipes, 386 U. S. 171, 182 (1967). The parties also agree that any settlement that ultimately results in Board approval is subject to judicial review, even if the settlement is informal but entered into after the hearing commenced. The sole dispute is whether a postcomplaint, prehearing informal settlement is subject to judicial review.
B
We first address respondent’s argument that the regulations just described, which permit the General Counsel to determine the validity of a postcomplaint informal settlement, but do not provide for an appeal to the Board, are inconsistent with the NLRA. Essentially, this is an argument that respondent was entitled to a Board order subject to judicial review under 29 U. S. C. § 160(f).
We review the validity of the relevant regulations, promulgated pursuant to congressional authority, under the standards prescribed in INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U. S. 421 (1987). On a pure question of statutory construction, our first job is to try to determine congressional intent, using “traditional tools of statutory construction.” If we can do so, then that interpretation must be given effect, and the regulations at issue must be fully consistent with it. Id., at 446-448. See also Chevron U. S. A. Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U. S. 837, 842-843, and n. 9 (1984). However, where “the statute is silent or ambiguous with respect to the specific issue, the question for the court is whether the agency’s answer is based on a permissible construction of the statute.” Id., at 843. Under this principle, we have traditionally accorded the Board deference with regard to its interpretation of the NLRA as long as its interpretation is rational and consistent with the statute. See, e. g., Fall River Dyeing & Finishing Corp. v. NLRB, 482 U. S. 27, 42 (1987); Ford Motor Co. v. NLRB, 441 U. S. 488, 495, 497 (1979); Beth Israel Hospital v. NLRB, 437 U. S. 483, 501 (1978).
The words, structure, and history of the LMRA amendments to the NLRA clearly reveal that Congress intended to differentiate between the General Counsel’s and the Board’s “final authority” along a prosecutorial versus adjudicatory line. Section 3(d) of the NLRA provides that the General Counsel has “final authority” regarding the filing, investigation, and “prosecution” of unfair labor practice complaints. Conversely, when the authority of the Board is discussed (with regard to unfair labor practice complaints), it is in the context of the adjudication of complaints. Specifically, § 10 of the Act refers to the Board and the procedures it must follow to decide unfair labor practice cases.
The history of the LMRA also reflects this dichotomy. The House Conference Report on the LMRA states: “The conference agreement does not make provision for an independent agency to exercise the investigating and prosecuting functions under the act, but does provide that there shall be a General Counsel of the Board... [who] is to have the final authority to act in the name of, but independently of any direction, control, or review by, the Board in respect of the investigation of charges and the issuance of complaints of unfair labor practices, and in respect of the prosecution of such complaints before the Board.” H. R. Conf. Rep. No. 510, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 37 (1947) (emphasis added). Similarly, a summary submitted to the Senate detailing the Conference Committee compromise reads: “Further [the LMRA] recognizes the principle of separating judicial and prosecuting functions without going to the extent of establishing a completely independent agency. It accomplishes separation of functions within the framework of the existing agency by establishing a new statutory office, that is, a general counsel of the Board....” 93 Cong. Rec. 6442 (1947) (emphasis added). The legislative debates further support this division. See, e. g., id., at 3423-3424 (1947) (remarks of Rep. Hartley); id., at 6383 (remarks of Rep. Owens). Finally, the contemporaneous agency interpretation of the LMRA emphasized the prosecutorial/adjudicatory dichotomy. See 13 Fed. Reg. 654 (1948).
In light of the foregoing, the general congressional framework, dividing the final authority of the General Counsel and the Board along a prosecutorial and adjudicatory line, is easy to discern. Some agency decisions can be said with certainty to fall on one side or the other of this line. For example, as already discussed, decisions whether to file a complaint are prosecutorial. In contrast, the resolution of contested unfair labor practice cases is adjudicatory. But between these extremes are cases that might fairly be said to fall on either side of the division. Our task, under Cardoza-Fonseca and Chevron, is not judicially to categorize each agency determination, but rather to decide whether the agency’s regulatory placement is permissible.
Respondent would have us hold that after a complaint is filed all dispositions can only be deemed adjudicatory. It is true that the filing of a complaint is the necessary first step to trigger the Board’s adjudicatory authority. However, until a hearing is held the Board has taken no action; no adjudication has yet taken place. We hold that it is a reasonable construction of the NLRA to find that until the hearing begins, settlement or dismissal determinations are prosecutorial.
Moreover, we fail to see why the General Counsel should have the concededly unreviewable discretion to file a com-'plaint, but not the same discretion to withdraw the complaint before hearing if further investigation discloses that the case is too weak to prosecute. See International Assn. of Machinists & Aerospace Workers v. Lubbers, 681 F. 2d 598, 604 (CA9 1982), cert. denied, 459 U. S. 1201 (1983); George Banta Co. v. NLRB, 626 F. 2d 354, 356-357 (CA4 1980), cert. denied, 449 U. S. 1080 (1981); Local 282, International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen & Helpers of America v. NLRB, 339 F. 2d 795, 799 (CA2 1964); cf. Cuyahoga Valley R. Co. v. Transportation Union, 474 U. S. 3 (1985) (the Secretary of Labor’s decision to dismiss an Occupational Safety and Health Act complaint is not subject to review by the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission). The General Counsel’s unreviewable discretion to file and withdraw a complaint, in turn, logically supports a reading that he or she must also have final authority to dismiss a complaint in favor of an informal settlement, at least before a hearing begins.
But respondent contends that the LMRA’s legislative history makes clear Congress’ understanding that the Board would review all dismissals once a complaint is filed. Our examination of the legislative history discloses no such support for respondent’s argument. Indeed, we find that the legislative history supports petitioners’ position.
Respondent asserts that at the time the LMRA was passed, in 1947, the practice of the Board was to delegate to an “anonymous committee” the resolution of appeals from determinations by regional directors not to file complaints. Respondent further argues that once a complaint was filed, any final disposition was subject to Board approval. The conclusion respondent would have us draw from this is that Congress intended only to replace the “anonymous committee” with the General Counsel, and that the authority that the Board had retained prior to 1947 survived and was carried forward in the LMRA amendments to the NLRA.
This inference is too strained to withstand scrutiny. It is clear of course that Congress intended to place final authority regarding the filing of complaints in the General Counsel. But it is equally clear that Congress intended the scope of the General Counsel’s authority to be far broader than respondent suggests. Congress intended that the General Counsel should not only resolve appeals regarding the filing of complaints, but that he or she should be the “final authority” concerning the “prosecution” of complaints as well, a function not performed by the “anonymous committee” prior to 1947. We repeat that Congress intended to create an officer independent of the Board to handle prosecutions, not merely the filing of complaints.
Moreover, the silence of the legislative history regarding settlements does not suggest that Congress was carrying forward the prior settlement structure. For Congress was aware that settlements constitute the “lifeblood” of the administrative process, especially in labor relations. Given their importance, we cannot attribute to Congress an intention to deny the Board the usual flexibility accorded an agency in interpreting its authorizing statute and in developing new regulations to meet changing needs.
In short, the Board’s regulations are consistent with amended NLRA. Respondent was not entitled to Board review of the settlement.
C
Alternatively, respondent argues that because the General Counsel acts “on behalf of the Board” his or her final determinations are reviewable under the NLRA as orders “of the Board.” We find this argument, too, unpersuasive.
The plain language cited by respondent reflects that the General Counsel acts “on behalf of ” the Board. 29 U. S. C. § 153(d). Clearly this is not the same as an act “of the Board” itself. 29 U. S. C. § 160(f).
Further, the structure of the Act, far from supporting respondent, leads inescapably to the conclusion that Congress distinguished orders of the General Counsel from Board orders. The statute describing the organization of the agency, in which the “on behalf of the Board” language appears, differentiates between the two independent branches. 29 U. S. C. §153. The structure of §10 of the NLRA (29 U. S. C. § 160) emphasizes the distinction. Section 10 specifies the procedure for adjudicating unfair labor practice charges. Subsection 10(f) provides that final decisions “of the Board” shall be judicially reviewable, and, in the context of the entire section, discloses Congress’ decision to authorize review of adjudications, not of prosecutions. Fairly read, this may encompass any Board adjudication resolving an unfair labor practice complaint, whether by final order, consent decree, or settlement. But it plainly cannot be read to provide for judicial review of the General Counsel’s prosecutorial function.
The history of the Act confirms the distinction between orders of the General Counsel and Board orders. In the House bill, the General Counsel was styled the “Administrator of the National Labor Relations Act,” and headed a separate agency. The Conference Committee decided to place the General Counsel within the agency, but to make the office independent of the Board’s authority. The Committee added the language “on behalf of the Board” to make it clear that the General Counsel acted within the agency, not to imply that the acts of the General Counsel would be considered acts of the Board.
Finally, since respondent concedes that the General Counsel’s decision not to

Question: What is the issue of the decision?
年. involuntary confession
数. habeas corpus
日. plea bargaining: the constitutionality of and/or the circumstances of its exercise
的. retroactivity (of newly announced or newly enacted constitutional or statutory rights)
月. search and seizure (other than as pertains to vehicles or Crime Control Act)
用. search and seizure, vehicles
成. search and seizure, Crime Control Act
名. contempt of court or congress
时. self-incrimination (other than as pertains to Miranda or immunity from prosecution)
件. Miranda warnings
一. self-incrimination, immunity from prosecution
请. right to counsel (cf. indigents appointment of counsel or inadequate representation)
中. cruel and unusual punishment, death penalty (cf. extra legal jury influence, death penalty)
据. cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty (cf. liability, civil rights acts)
码. line-up
不. discovery and inspection (in the context of criminal litigation only, otherwise Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations)
新. double jeopardy
文. ex post facto (state)
下. extra-legal jury influences: miscellaneous
分. extra-legal jury influences: prejudicial statements or evidence
入. extra-legal jury influences: contact with jurors outside courtroom
人. extra-legal jury influences: jury instructions (not necessarily in criminal cases)
功. extra-legal jury influences: voir dire (not necessarily a criminal case)
上. extra-legal jury influences: prison garb or appearance
户. extra-legal jury influences: jurors and death penalty (cf. cruel and unusual punishment)
为. extra-legal jury influences: pretrial publicity
间. confrontation (right to confront accuser, call and cross-examine witnesses)
号. subconstitutional fair procedure: confession of error
取. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy (cf. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure: conspiracy)
回. subconstitutional fair procedure: entrapment
在. subconstitutional fair procedure: exhaustion of remedies
页. subconstitutional fair procedure: fugitive from justice
字. subconstitutional fair procedure: presentation, admissibility, or sufficiency of evidence (not necessarily a criminal case)
有. subconstitutional fair procedure: stay of execution
个. subconstitutional fair procedure: timeliness
作. subconstitutional fair procedure: miscellaneous
示. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure
出. statutory construction of criminal laws: assault
是. statutory construction of criminal laws: bank robbery
失. statutory construction of criminal laws: conspiracy (cf. subconstitutional fair procedure: conspiracy)
表. statutory construction of criminal laws: escape from custody
除. statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements (cf. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury)
加. statutory construction of criminal laws: financial (other than in fraud or internal revenue)
败. statutory construction of criminal laws: firearms
生. statutory construction of criminal laws: fraud
信. statutory construction of criminal laws: gambling
类. statutory construction of criminal laws: Hobbs Act; i.e., 18 USC 1951
置. statutory construction of criminal laws: immigration (cf. immigration and naturalization)
理. statutory construction of criminal laws: internal revenue (cf. Federal Taxation)
本. statutory construction of criminal laws: Mann Act and related statutes
息. statutory construction of criminal laws: narcotics includes regulation and prohibition of alcohol
行. statutory construction of criminal laws: obstruction of justice
定. statutory construction of criminal laws: perjury (other than as pertains to statutory construction of criminal laws: false statements)
改. statutory construction of criminal laws: Travel Act, 18 USC 1952
市. statutory construction of criminal laws: war crimes
期. statutory construction of criminal laws: sentencing guidelines
以. statutory construction of criminal laws: miscellaneous
修. jury trial (right to, as distinct from extra-legal jury influences)
元. speedy trial
方. miscellaneous criminal procedure (cf. due process, prisoners' rights, comity: criminal procedure)
录. voting
区. Voting Rights Act of 1965, plus amendments
单. ballot access (of candidates and political parties)
位. desegregation (other than as pertains to school desegregation, employment discrimination, and affirmative action)
型. desegregation, schools
法. employment discrimination: on basis of race, age, religion, illegitimacy, national origin, or working conditions.
县. affirmative action
存. slavery or indenture
品. sit-in demonstrations (protests against racial discrimination in places of public accommodation)
前. reapportionment: other than plans governed by the Voting Rights Act
称. debtors' rights
注. deportation (cf. immigration and naturalization)
值. employability of aliens (cf. immigration and naturalization)
输. sex discrimination (excluding sex discrimination in employment)
建. sex discrimination in employment (cf. sex discrimination)
能. Indians (other than pertains to state jurisdiction over)
大. Indians, state jurisdiction over
例. juveniles (cf. rights of illegitimates)
度. poverty law, constitutional
始. poverty law, statutory: welfare benefits, typically under some Social Security Act provision.
到. illegitimates, rights of (cf. juveniles): typically inheritance and survivor's benefits, and paternity suits
面. handicapped, rights of: under Rehabilitation, Americans with Disabilities Act, and related statutes
载. residency requirements: durational, plus discrimination against nonresidents
点. military: draftee, or person subject to induction
密. military: active duty
动. military: veteran
果. immigration and naturalization: permanent residence
图. immigration and naturalization: citizenship
提. immigration and naturalization: loss of citizenship, denaturalization
发. immigration and naturalization: access to public education
式. immigration and naturalization: welfare benefits
国. immigration and naturalization: miscellaneous
登. indigents: appointment of counsel (cf. right to counsel)
错. indigents: inadequate representation by counsel (cf. right to counsel)
者. indigents: payment of fine
认. indigents: costs or filing fees
误. indigents: U.S. Supreme Court docketing fee
接. indigents: transcript
关. indigents: assistance of psychiatrist
重. indigents: miscellaneous
第. liability, civil rights acts (cf. liability, governmental and liability, nongovernmental; cruel and unusual punishment, non-death penalty)
地. miscellaneous civil rights (cf. comity: civil rights)
如. First Amendment, miscellaneous (cf. comity: First Amendment)
设. commercial speech, excluding attorneys
目. libel, defamation: defamation of public officials and public and private persons
开. libel, privacy: true and false light invasions of privacy
事. legislative investigations: concerning internal security only
可. federal or state internal security legislation: Smith, Internal Security, and related federal statutes
要. loyalty oath or non-Communist affidavit (other than bar applicants, government employees, political party, or teacher)
代. loyalty oath: bar applicants (cf. admission to bar, state or federal or U.S. Supreme Court)
小. loyalty oath: government employees
选. loyalty oath: political party
标. loyalty oath: teachers
明. security risks: denial of benefits or dismissal of employees for reasons other than failure to meet loyalty oath requirements
编. conscientious objectors (cf. military draftee or military active duty) to military service
求. campaign spending (cf. governmental corruption):
列. protest demonstrations (other than as pertains to sit-in demonstrations): demonstrations and other forms of protest based on First Amendment guarantees
网. free exercise of religion
万. establishment of religion (other than as pertains to parochiaid:)
最. parochiaid: government aid to religious schools, or religious requirements in public schools
器. obscenity, state (cf. comity: privacy): including the regulation of sexually explicit material under the 21st Amendment
所. obscenity, federal
内. due process: miscellaneous (cf. loyalty oath), the residual code
体. due process: hearing or notice (other than as pertains to government employees or prisoners' rights)
通. due process: hearing, government employees
务. due process: prisoners' rights and defendants' rights
此. due process: impartial decision maker
商. due process: jurisdiction (jurisdiction over non-resident litigants)
序. due process: takings clause, or other non-constitutional governmental taking of property
化. privacy (cf. libel, comity: privacy)
消. abortion: including contraceptives
否. right to die
保. Freedom of Information Act and related federal or state statutes or regulations
使. attorneys' and governmental employees' or officials' fees or compensation or licenses
次. commercial speech, attorneys (cf. commercial speech)
机. admission to a state or federal bar, disbarment, and attorney discipline (cf. loyalty oath: bar applicants)
对. admission to, or disbarment from, Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court
量. arbitration (in the context of labor-management or employer-employee relations) (cf. arbitration)
查. union antitrust: legality of anticompetitive union activity
部. union or closed shop: includes agency shop litigation
性. Fair Labor Standards Act
和. Occupational Safety and Health Act
更. union-union member dispute (except as pertains to union or closed shop)
后. labor-management disputes: bargaining
证. labor-management disputes: employee discharge
题. labor-management disputes: distribution of union literature
确. labor-management disputes: representative election
格. labor-management disputes: antistrike injunction
了. labor-management disputes: jurisdictional dispute
于. labor-management disputes: right to organize
金. labor-management disputes: picketing
公. labor-management disputes: secondary activity
午. labor-management disputes: no-strike clause
円. labor-management disputes: union representatives
片. labor-management disputes: union trust funds (cf. ERISA)
空. labor-management disputes: working conditions
态. labor-management disputes: miscellaneous dispute
管. miscellaneous union
主. antitrust (except in the context of mergers and union antitrust)
天. mergers
自. bankruptcy (except in the context of priority of federal fiscal claims)
我. sufficiency of evidence: typically in the context of a jury's determination of compensation for injury or death
全. election of remedies: legal remedies available to injured persons or things
今. liability, governmental: tort or contract actions by or against government or governmental officials other than defense of criminal actions brought under a civil rights action.
来. liability, other than as in sufficiency of evidence, election of remedies, punitive damages
正. liability, punitive damages
说. Employee Retirement Income Security Act (cf. union trust funds)
意. state or local government tax
送. state and territorial land claims
容. state or local government regulation, especially of business (cf. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction, federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation)
已. federal or state regulation of securities
结. natural resources - environmental protection (cf. national supremacy: natural resources, national supremacy: pollution)
会. corruption, governmental or governmental regulation of other than as in campaign spending
段. zoning: constitutionality of such ordinances, or restrictions on owners' or lessors' use of real property
计. arbitration (other than as pertains to labor-management or employer-employee relations (cf. union arbitration)
源. federal or state consumer protection: typically under the Truth in Lending; Food, Drug and Cosmetic; and Consumer Protection Credit Acts
色. patents and copyrights: patent
時. patents and copyrights: copyright
交. patents and copyrights: trademark
系. patents and copyrights: patentability of computer processes
过. federal or state regulation of transportation regulation: railroad
电. federal and some few state regulations of transportation regulation: boat
询. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation:truck, or motor carrier
符. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: pipeline (cf. federal public utilities regulation: gas pipeline)
未. federal and some few state regulation of transportation regulation: airline
程. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: electric power
常. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: nuclear power
条. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: oil producer
当. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas producer
情. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: gas pipeline (cf. federal transportation regulation: pipeline)
口. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: radio and television (cf. cable television)
合. federal and some few state regulation of public utilities regulation: cable television (cf. radio and television)
车. federal and some few state regulations of public utilities regulation: telephone or telegraph company
实. miscellaneous economic regulation
组. comity: civil rights
版. comity: criminal procedure
周. comity: First Amendment
址. comity: habeas corpus
记. comity: military
二. comity: obscenity
同. comity: privacy
业. comity: miscellaneous
权. comity primarily removal cases, civil procedure (cf. comity, criminal and First Amendment); deference to foreign judicial tribunals
其. assessment of costs or damages: as part of a court order
进. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure including Supreme Court Rules, application of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure in civil litigation, Circuit Court Rules, and state rules and admiralty rules
试. judicial review of administrative agency's or administrative official's actions and procedures
验. mootness (cf. standing to sue: live dispute)
料. venue
传. no merits: writ improvidently granted
述. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question, or a nonsuit
集. no merits: dismissed or affirmed for want of jurisdiction (cf. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal from federal district courts or courts of appeals)
多. no merits: adequate non-federal grounds for decision
无. no merits: remand to determine basis of state or federal court decision (cf. judicial administration: state law)
员. no merits: miscellaneous
报. standing to sue: adversary parties
他. standing to sue: direct injury
無. standing to sue: legal injury
服. standing to sue: personal injury
线. standing to sue: justiciable question
这. standing to sue: live dispute
制. standing to sue: parens patriae standing
将. standing to sue: statutory standing
处. standing to sue: private or implied cause of action
高. standing to sue: taxpayer's suit
子. standing to sue: miscellaneous
道. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal district courts or territorial courts
章. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of federal courts of appeals
手. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from federal district courts or courts of appeals (cf. 753)
库. judicial administration: Supreme Court jurisdiction or authority on appeal or writ of error, from highest state court
三. judicial administration: jurisdiction or authority of the Court of Claims
从. judicial administration: Supreme Court's original jurisdiction
支. judicial administration: review of non-final order
家. judicial administration: change in state law (cf. no merits: remand to determine basis of state court decision)
长. judicial administration: federal question (cf. no merits: dismissed for want of a substantial or properly presented federal question)
付. judicial administration: ancillary or pendent jurisdiction
秒. judicial administration: extraordinary relief (e.g., mandamus, injunction)
路. judicial administration: certification (cf. objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal)
完. judicial administration: resolution of circuit conflict, or conflict between or among other courts
象. judicial administration: objection to reason for denial of certiorari or appeal
则. judicial administration: collateral estoppel or res judicata
现. judicial administration: interpleader
京. judicial administration: untimely filing
转. judicial administration: Act of State doctrine
辑. judicial administration: miscellaneous
限. Supreme Court's certiorari, writ of error, or appeals jurisdiction
力. miscellaneous judicial power, especially diversity jurisdiction
学. federal-state ownership dispute (cf. Submerged Lands Act)
外. federal pre-emption of state court jurisdiction
调. federal pre-emption of state legislation or regulation. cf. state regulation of business. rarely involves union activity. Does not involve constitutional interpretation unless the Court says it does.
项. Submerged Lands Act (cf. federal-state ownership dispute)
北. national supremacy: commodities
工. national supremacy: intergovernmental tax immunity
笑. national supremacy: marital and family relationships and property, including obligation of child support
监. national supremacy: natural resources (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
任. national supremacy: pollution, air or water (cf. natural resources - environmental protection)
相. national supremacy: public utilities (cf. federal public utilities regulation)
微. national supremacy: state tax (cf. state tax)
册. national supremacy: miscellaneous
联. miscellaneous federalism
平. boundary dispute between states
增. non-real property dispute between states
听. miscellaneous interstate relations conflict
解. incorporation of foreign territories
等. federal taxation, typically under provisions of the Internal Revenue Code
得. federal taxation of gifts, personal, business, or professional expenses
收. priority of federal fiscal claims: over those of the states or private entities
安. miscellaneous federal taxation (cf. national supremacy: state tax)
价. legislative veto
藏. executive authority vis-a-vis congress or the states
命. miscellaneous
应. real property
看. personal property
索. contracts
资. evidence
产. civil procedure
串. torts
布. wills and trusts
原. commercial transactions
Answer:

Answer: 试