Task: sc_respondentstate

What follows is an opinion from the Supreme Court of the United States. Your task is to identify the state associated with the respondent. If the respondent is a federal court or federal judge, note the "state" as the United States. The same holds for other federal employees or officials.

Chief Justice ROBERTS delivered the opinion of the Court.
A Texas jury convicted petitioner Duane Buck of capital murder. Under state law, the jury could impose a death sentence only if it found that Buck was likely to commit acts of violence in the future. Buck's attorney called a psychologist to offer his opinion on that issue. The psychologist testified that Buck probably would not engage in violent conduct. But he also stated that one of the factors pertinent in assessing a person's propensity for violence was his race, and that Buck was statistically more likely to act violently because he is black. The jury sentenced Buck to death.
Buck contends that his attorney's introduction of this evidence violated his Sixth Amendment right to the effective assistance of counsel. This claim has never been heard on the merits in any court, because the attorney who represented Buck in his first state postconviction proceeding failed to raise it. In 2006, a Federal District Court relied on that failure-properly, under then-governing law-to hold that Buck's claim was procedurally defaulted and unreviewable.
In 2014, Buck sought to reopen that 2006 judgment by filing a motion under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 60(b)(6). He argued that this Court's decisions in Martinez v. Ryan, 566 U.S. 1, 132 S.Ct. 1309, 182 L.Ed.2d 272 (2012), and Trevino v. Thaler, 569 U.S. ----, 133 S.Ct. 1911, 185 L.Ed.2d 1044 (2013), had changed the law in a way that provided an excuse for his procedural default, permitting him to litigate his claim on the merits. In addition to this change in the law, Buck's motion identified ten other factors that, he said, constituted the "extraordinary circumstances" required to justify reopening the 2006 judgment under the Rule. See Gonzalez v. Crosby, 545 U.S. 524, 535, 125 S.Ct. 2641, 162 L.Ed.2d 480 (2005).
The District Court below denied the motion, and the Fifth Circuit declined to issue the certificate of appealability (COA) requested by Buck to appeal that decision. We granted certiorari, and now reverse.
I
A
On the morning of July 30, 1995, Duane Buck arrived at the home of his former girlfriend, Debra Gardner. He was carrying a rifle and a shotgun. Buck entered the home, shot Phyllis Taylor, his stepsister, and then shot Gardner's friend Kenneth Butler. Gardner fled the house, and Buck followed. So did Gardner's young children. While Gardner's son and daughter begged for their mother's life, Buck shot Gardner in the chest. Gardner and Butler died of their wounds. Taylor survived.
Police officers arrived soon after the shooting and placed Buck under arrest. An officer would later testify that Buck was laughing at the scene. He remained "happy" and "upbeat" as he was driven to the police station, "[s]miling and laughing" in the back of the patrol car. App. 134a-135a, 252a.
Buck was tried for capital murder, and the jury convicted. During the penalty phase of the trial, the jury was charged with deciding two issues. The first was what the parties term the "future dangerousness" question. At the time of Buck's trial, a Texas jury could impose the death penalty only if it found-unanimously and beyond a reasonable doubt-"a probability that the defendant would commit criminal acts of violence that would constitute a continuing threat to society." Tex.Code Crim. Proc. Ann., Art. 37.071, § 2(b)(1) (Vernon 1998). The second issue, to be reached only if the jury found Buck likely to be a future danger, was whether mitigating circumstances nevertheless warranted a sentence of life imprisonment instead of death. See § 2(e).
The parties focused principally on the first question. The State called witnesses who emphasized the brutality of Buck's crime and his evident lack of remorse in its aftermath. The State also called another former girlfriend, Vivian Jackson. She testified that, during their relationship, Buck had routinely hit her and had twice pointed a gun at her. Finally, the State introduced evidence of Buck's criminal history, including convictions for delivery of cocaine and unlawfully carrying a weapon. App. 125a-127a, 185a.
Defense counsel answered with a series of lay witnesses, including Buck's father and stepmother, who testified that they had never known him to be violent. Counsel also called two psychologists to testify as experts. The first, Dr. Patrick Lawrence, observed that Buck had previously served time in prison and had been held in minimum custody. From this he concluded that Buck "did not present any problems in the prison setting." Record in No. 4:04-cv-03965 (SD Tex.), Doc. 5-116, pp. 12-13. Dr. Lawrence further testified that murders within the Texas penal system tend to be gang related (there was no evidence Buck had ever been a member of a gang) and that Buck's offense had been a "crime of passion" occurring within the context of a romantic relationship. Id., at 4, 19, 21. Based on these considerations, Dr. Lawrence determined that Buck was unlikely to be a danger if he were sentenced to life in prison. Id., at 20-21.
Buck's second expert, Dr. Walter Quijano, had been appointed by the presiding judge to conduct a psychological evaluation. Dr. Quijano had met with Buck in prison prior to trial and shared a report of his findings with defense counsel.
Like Dr. Lawrence, Dr. Quijano thought it significant that Buck's prior acts of violence had arisen from romantic relationships with women; Buck, of course, would not form any such relationships while incarcerated. And Dr. Quijano likewise considered Buck's behavioral record in prison a good indicator that future violence was unlikely. App. 36a, 39a-40a.
But there was more to the report. In determining whether Buck was likely to pose a danger in the future, Dr. Quijano considered seven "statistical factors." The fourth factor was "race." His report read, in relevant part: "4. Race. Black: Increased probability. There is an over-representation of Blacks among the violent offenders." Id., at 19a.
Despite knowing Dr. Quijano's view that Buck's race was competent evidence of an increased probability of future violence, defense counsel called Dr. Quijano to the stand and asked him to discuss the "statistical factors" he had "looked at in regard to this case." Id., at 145a-146a. Dr. Quijano responded that certain factors were "know[n] to predict future dangerousness" and, consistent with his report, identified race as one of them. Id., at 146a. "It's a sad commentary," he testified, "that minorities, Hispanics and black people, are over represented in the Criminal Justice System." Ibid. Through further questioning, counsel elicited testimony concerning factors Dr. Quijano thought favorable to Buck, as well as his ultimate opinion that Buck was unlikely to pose a danger in the future. At the close of Dr. Quijano's testimony, his report was admitted into evidence. Id., at 150a-152a.
After opening cross-examination with a series of general questions, the prosecutor likewise turned to the report. She asked first about the statistical factors of past crimes and age, then questioned Dr. Quijano about the roles of sex and race: "You have determined that the sex factor, that a male is more violent than a female because that's just the way it is, and that the race factor, black, increases the future dangerousness for various complicated reasons; is that correct?" Id., at 170a. Dr. Quijano replied, "Yes." Ibid.
During closing arguments, defense counsel emphasized that Buck had proved to be "controllable in the prison population," and that his crime was one of "jealousy,... passion and emotion" unlikely to be repeated in jail. Id., at 189a-191a. The State stressed the crime's brutal nature and Buck's lack of remorse, along with the inability of Buck's own experts to guarantee that he would not act violently in the future-a point it supported by reference to Dr. Quijano's testimony. See id., at 198a-199a ("You heard from Dr. Quijano,... who told you that... the probability did exist that [Buck] would be a continuing threat to society.").
The jury deliberated over the course of two days. During that time it sent out four notes, one of which requested the "psychology reports" that had been admitted into evidence. Id., at 209a. These reports-including Dr. Quijano's-were provided. The jury returned a sentence of death.
B
Buck's conviction and sentence were affirmed on direct appeal. Buck v. State, No. 72,810 (Tex.Crim.App., Apr. 28, 1999). His case then entered a labyrinth of state and federal collateral review, where it has wandered for the better part of two decades.
Buck filed his first petition for a writ of habeas corpus in Texas state court in 1999. The four claims advanced in his petition, however, were all frivolous or noncognizable. See Ex parte Buck, No. 699684-A (Dist. Ct. Harris Cty., Tex., July 11, 2003), pp. 6-7. The petition failed to mention defense counsel's introduction of expert testimony that Buck's race increased his propensity for violence.
But Dr. Quijano had testified in other cases, too, and in 1999, while Buck's first habeas petition was pending, one of those cases reached this Court. The petitioner, Victor Hugo Saldano, argued that his death sentence had been tainted by Dr. Quijano's testimony that Saldano's Hispanic heritage "was a factor weighing in the favor of future dangerousness." App. 302a. Texas confessed error on that ground and asked this Court to grant Saldano's petition for certiorari, vacate the state court judgment, and remand the case. In June 2000, the Court did so. Saldano v. Texas, 530 U.S. 1212, 120 S.Ct. 2214, 147 L.Ed.2d 246.
Within days, the Texas Attorney General, John Cornyn, issued a public statement concerning the cases in which Dr. Quijano had testified. The statement affirmed that "it is inappropriate to allow race to be considered as a factor in our criminal justice system." App. 213a. In keeping with that principle, the Attorney General explained that his office had conducted a "thorough audit" and "identified eight more cases in which testimony was offered by Dr. Quijano that race should be a factor for the jury to consider in making its determination about the sentence in a capital murder trial." Ibid. Six of those cases were "similar to that of Victor Hugo Saldano"; in those cases, letters had been sent to counsel apprising them of the Attorney General's findings. Id., at 213a-214a. The statement closed by identifying the defendants in those six cases. Buck was one of them. Id., at 215a-217a. By the close of 2002, the Attorney General had confessed error, waived any available procedural defenses, and consented to resentencing in the cases of five of those six defendants. See Alba v. Johnson, 232 F.3d 208 (C.A.5 2000) (Table); Memorandum and Order in Blue v. Johnson, No. 4:99-cv-00350 (SD Tex.), pp. 15-17; Order in Garcia v. Johnson, No. 1:99-cv-00134 (ED Tex.), p. 1; Order in Broxton v. Johnson, No. 4:00-cv-01034 (SD Tex.), pp. 10-11; Final Judgment in Gonzales v. Cockrell, No. 7:99-cv-00072 (WD Tex.), p. 1.
Not, however, in Buck's. In 2002, Buck's attorney filed a new state habeas petition alleging that trial counsel had rendered ineffective assistance by introducing Dr. Quijano's testimony. The State was not represented by the Attorney General in this proceeding-the Texas Attorney General represents state respondents in federal habeas cases, but not state habeas cases-and it did not confess error. Because Buck's petition was successive, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals dismissed it as an abuse of the writ. Ex parte Buck, Nos. 57,004-01, 57,004-02 (Tex.Crim.App., Oct. 15, 2003) (per curiam ).
Buck turned to the federal courts. He filed a petition for habeas corpus under 28 U.S.C. § 2254 in October 2004, by which time Attorney General Cornyn had left office. See Buck v. Dretke, 2006 WL 8411481, *2 (S.D.Tex., July 24, 2006). Buck sought relief on the ground that trial counsel's introduction of Dr. Quijano's testimony was constitutionally ineffective. The State responded that the state court had dismissed Buck's ineffective assistance claim because Buck had failed to press it in his first petition, raising it for the first time in a procedurally improper second petition. The State argued that such reliance on an established state rule of procedure was an adequate and independent state ground precluding federal review. Texas acknowledged that it had waived similar procedural defenses in Saldano's case. But it argued that Buck's case was different because "[i]n Saldano's case Dr. Quijano testified for the State "; in Buck's, "it was Buck who called Dr. Quijano to testify." Answer and Motion for Summary Judgment in No. 4:04-cv-03965 (SD Tex.), p. 20.
Buck countered that, notwithstanding his procedural default, the District Court should reach the merits of his claim because a failure to do so would result in a miscarriage of justice. Buck did not argue that his default should be excused on a showing of "cause" and "prejudice"-that is, cause for the default, and prejudice from the denial of a federal right. And for good reason: At the time Buck filed his § 2254 petition, our decision in Coleman v. Thompson, 501 U.S. 722, 752-753, 111 S.Ct. 2546, 115 L.Ed.2d 640 (1991), made clear that an attorney's failure to raise an ineffective assistance claim during state postconviction review could not constitute cause. The District Court rejected Buck's miscarriage of justice argument and held that, because of his procedural default, his ineffective assistance claim was unreviewable. Buck v. Dretke, 2006 WL 8411481, at *8. Buck unsuccessfully sought review of the District Court's ruling. See Buck v. Thaler, 345 Fed.Appx. 923 (C.A.5 2009) (per curiam ) (denying application for a COA), cert. denied, 559 U.S. 1072, 130 S.Ct. 2096, 176 L.Ed.2d 730 (2010).
In 2011, Buck sought to reopen his case, arguing that the prosecution had violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses by asking Dr. Quijano about the relationship between race and future violence on cross-examination and referring to his testimony during summation. Buck also argued that the State's decision to treat him differently from the other defendants affected by Dr. Quijano's testimony justified relieving him of the District Court's adverse judgment. The Fifth Circuit disagreed, see Buck v. Thaler, 452 Fed.Appx. 423, 427-428 (C.A.5 2011) (per curiam ), and we denied certiorari, Buck v. Thaler, 565 U.S. 1022, 132 S.Ct. 32, 181 L.Ed.2d 411 (2011). Buck, still barred by Coleman from avoiding the consequences of his procedural default, did not pursue his ineffective assistance claim.
C
In 2012, this Court "modif[ied] the unqualified statement in Coleman that an attorney's ignorance or inadvertence in a postconviction proceeding does not qualify as cause to excuse a procedural default." Martinez, 566 U.S., at 9, 132 S.Ct. 1309. We held that when a state formally limits the adjudication of claims of ineffective assistance of trial counsel to collateral review, a prisoner may establish cause for procedural default if (1) "the state courts did not appoint counsel in the initial-review collateral proceeding," or "appointed counsel in [that] proceeding... was ineffective under the standards of Strickland v. Washington, 466 U.S. 668 [104 S.Ct. 2052, 80 L.Ed.2d 674] (1984)"; and (2) "the underlying... claim is a substantial one, which is to say that... the claim has some merit." Id., at 14, 132 S.Ct. 1309.
By its terms, Martinez did not bear on Buck's ineffective assistance claim. At the time of Buck's conviction and appeal, Texas did not formally require criminal defendants to reserve such claims for collateral review. In Trevino, however, the Court concluded that the exception announced in Martinez extended to state systems that, as a practical matter, deny criminal defendants "a meaningful opportunity" to press ineffective assistance claims on direct appeal. 569 U.S., at ----, 133 S.Ct., at 1921. The Court further concluded that the system in Texas, where petitioner had been convicted, was such a system. Ibid. The upshot: Had Martinez and Trevino been decided before Buck filed his § 2254 petition, a federal court could have reviewed Buck's ineffective assistance claim if he demonstrated that (1) state postconviction counsel had been constitutionally ineffective in failing to raise it, and (2) the claim had "some merit." Martinez, 566 U.S., at 14, 132 S.Ct. 1309.
D
When Trevino was decided, Buck's third state habeas petition was pending in Texas court. That petition was denied in November 2013. Ex parte Buck, 418 S.W.3d 98 (Tex.Crim.App.2013) (per curiam ). Two months later, Buck returned to federal court, where he filed a motion to reopen his § 2254 case under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 60(b)(6). Rule 60(b) enumerates specific circumstances in which a party may be relieved of the effect of a judgment, such as mistake, newly discovered evidence, fraud, and the like. The Rule concludes with a catchall category-subdivision (b)(6)-providing that a court may lift a judgment for "any other reason that justifies relief." Relief is available under subdivision (b)(6), however, only in "extraordinary circumstances," and the Court has explained that "[s]uch circumstances will rarely occur in the habeas context." Gonzalez, 545 U.S., at 535, 125 S.Ct. 2641.
In his motion, Buck identified 11 factors that, in his view, justified reopening the judgment. These included his attorney's introduction of expert testimony linking Buck's race to violence, the central issue at sentencing; the prosecution's questions about race and violence on cross-examination and reliance on Dr. Quijano's testimony in summation; the State's confession of error in other cases in which Dr. Quijano testified, but its refusal to concede error in Buck's case; and the change in law effected by Martinez and Trevino, which, if they had been decided earlier, would have permitted federal review of Buck's defaulted claim. App. 283a-285a.
The District Court denied relief on two grounds. First, the court concluded that Buck had failed to demonstrate extraordinary circumstances. To that end, the court observed that a change in decisional law is rarely extraordinary by itself. Buck v. Stephens, 2014 WL 11310152, *4 (S.D.Tex., Aug. 29, 2014). It further determined that the State's "promise" not to oppose resentencing did not count for much, reasoning that "Buck's case is different in critical respects from the cases in which Texas confessed error" in that Buck's lawyer, not the prosecutor, had first elicited the objectionable testimony. Id., at *4-*5. The court also dismissed the contention that the nature of Dr. Quijano's testimony argued for reopening the case. Although "the introduction of any mention of race was," in the court's view, "ill[ ]advised at best and repugnant at worst," it was also "de minimis ": Dr. Quijano had discussed the connection between race and violence only twice. Id., at *5. The court accordingly concluded that Buck had failed to make out the predicate for Rule 60(b)(6) relief.
Second, the court determined that-even if the circumstances were extraordinary-Buck's claim would fail on the merits. The court noted that under Strickland, Buck was obliged to show that counsel's performance was both deficient and prejudicial. The court held that Buck's lawyer had indeed performed deficiently in calling Dr. Quijano to give testimony that "len[t] credence to any potential latent racial prejudice held by the jury." 2014 WL 11310152, at *6. But, the court concluded, Buck had failed to demonstrate prejudice. It observed that Buck's crime had been "horrific." Ibid. And the court had already concluded that "the introduction of any mention of race was... de minimis." Id., at *5. For those reasons, it held, Buck had failed to show a reasonable probability that he would not have been sentenced to death but for Dr. Quijano's testimony about race and violence.
Buck sought to appeal the denial of his Rule 60(b)(6) motion. He accordingly filed an application for a COA with the Fifth Circuit. To obtain a COA, Buck was required to make "a substantial showing of the denial of a constitutional right." 28 U.S.C. § 2253(c)(2).
The Fifth Circuit denied a COA, concluding that Buck's case was "not extraordinary at all in the habeas context." Buck v. Stephens, 623 Fed.Appx. 668, 673 (2015). The panel agreed with the District Court that Martinez and Trevino were not significant factors in the analysis. It characterized most of the other factors Buck had identified as "variations on the merits" of his claim, which was "at least unremarkable as far as [ineffective assistance] claims go." 623 Fed.Appx., at 673. The panel likewise rejected Buck's argument that he was entitled to relief because the State had issued a press release indicating that his case would be treated like Saldano's, and then had confessed error in the other cases identified as similar in the statement, but not in Buck's. Id., at 674. Because Buck had "not shown extraordinary circumstances that would permit relief under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 60(b)(6)," the panel "den[ied] the application for a COA." Id., at 669.
Buck's motion for rehearing en banc was denied over two dissenting votes. Buck v. Stephens, 630 Fed.Appx. 251 (C.A.5 2015) (per curiam ). We granted certiorari. Buck v. Stephens, 578 U.S. ----, 136 S.Ct. 2409, 195 L.Ed.2d 779 (2016).
II
A state prisoner whose petition for a writ of habeas corpus is denied by a federal district court does not enjoy an absolute right to appeal. Federal law requires that he first obtain a COA from a circuit justice or judge. 28 U.S.C. § 2253(c)(1). A COA may issue "only if the applicant has made a substantial showing of the denial of a constitutional right." § 2253(c)(2). Until the prisoner secures a COA, the Court of Appeals may not rule on the merits of his case. Miller-El v. Cockrell, 537 U.S. 322, 336, 123 S.Ct. 1029, 154 L.Ed.2d 931 (2003).
The COA inquiry, we have emphasized, is not coextensive with a merits analysis. At the COA stage, the only question is whether the applicant has shown that "jurists of reason could disagree with the district court's resolution of his constitutional claims or that jurists could conclude the issues presented are adequate to deserve encouragement to proceed further." Id., at 327, 123 S.Ct. 1029. This threshold question should be decided without "full consideration of the factual or legal bases adduced in support of the claims." Id., at 336, 123 S.Ct. 1029. "When a court of appeals sidesteps [the COA] process by first deciding the merits of an appeal, and then justifying its denial of a COA based on its adjudication of the actual merits, it is in essence deciding an appeal without jurisdiction." Id., at 336-337, 123 S.Ct. 1029.
The court below phrased its determination in proper terms-that jurists of reason would not debate that Buck should be denied relief, 623 Fed.Appx., at 674 -but it reached that conclusion only after essentially deciding the case on the merits. As the court put it in the second sentence of its opinion: "Because [Buck] has not shown extraordinary circumstances that would permit relief under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 60(b)(6), we deny the application for a COA." Id., at 669. The balance of the Fifth Circuit's opinion reflects the same approach. The change in law effected by Martinez and Trevino, the panel wrote, was "not an extraordinary circumstance." 623 Fed.Appx., at 674. Even if Texas initially indicated to Buck that he would be resentenced, its "decision not to follow through" was "not extraordinary." Ibid. Buck "ha[d] not shown why"
the State's alleged broken promise "would justify relief from the judgment." Ibid.
But the question for the Fifth Circuit was not whether Buck had "shown extraordinary circumstances" or "shown why [Texas's broken promise] would justify relief from the judgment." Id., at 669, 674. Those are ultimate merits determinations the panel should not have reached. We reiterate what we have said before: A "court of appeals should limit its examination [at the COA stage] to a threshold inquiry into the underlying merit of [the] claims," and ask "only if the District Court's decision was debatable." Miller-El, 537 U.S., at 327, 348, 123 S.Ct. 1029.
The dissent does not accept this established rule, arguing that a reviewing court that deems a claim nondebatable "must necessarily conclude that the claim is meritless." Post, at 781 (opinion of THOMAS, J.). Of course when a court of appeals properly applies the COA standard and determines that a prisoner's claim is not even debatable, that necessarily means the prisoner has failed to show that his claim is meritorious. But the converse is not true. That a prisoner has failed to make the ultimate showing that his claim is meritorious does not logically mean he failed to make a preliminary showing that his claim was debatable. Thus, when a reviewing court (like the Fifth Circuit here) inverts the statutory order of operations and "first decid[es] the merits of an appeal,... then justif[ies] its denial of a COA based on its adjudication of the actual merits," it has placed too heavy a burden on the prisoner at the COA stage. Miller-El, 537 U.S., at 336-337, 123 S.Ct. 1029. Miller-El flatly prohibits such a departure from the procedure prescribed by § 2253. Ibid.
The State defends the Fifth Circuit's approach by arguing that the court's consideration of an application for a COA is often quite thorough. The court "occasionally hears oral argument when considering whether to grant a COA in a capital case." Brief for Respondent 50. Indeed, in one recent case, it "received nearly 200 pages of initial briefing, permitted a reply brief, considered the parties' supplemental authorities, invited supplemental letter briefs from both sides, and heard oral argument before denying the request for a COA." Id., at 50-51.
But this hurts rather than helps the State's case. "[A] claim can be debatable even though every jurist of reason might agree, after the COA has been granted and the case has received full consideration, that petitioner will not prevail." Miller-El, 537 U.S., at 338, 123 S.Ct. 1029. The statute sets forth a two-step process: an initial determination whether a claim is reasonably debatable, and then-if it is-an appeal in the normal course. We do not mean to specify what procedures may be appropriate in every case. But whatever procedures are employed at the COA stage should be consonant with the limited nature of the inquiry.
Given the approach of the court below, it is perhaps understandable that the parties have essentially briefed and argued the underlying merits at length. See, e.g., Brief for Petitioner 32 ("[T]rial counsel rendered deficient performance under Strickland."); id., at 39 ("[T]here is a reasonable probability that Dr. Quijano's race-as-dangerousness opinion swayed the judgment of jurors in favor of death." (internal quotation marks and alteration omitted)); id., at 59 (Buck "has demonstrated his entitlement to relief under Rule 60(b)(6)"); Brief for Respondent 40 ("The particular facts of petitioner's case do not establish extraordinary circumstances justifying relief from the judgment." (boldface type deleted)). With respect to this Court's review, § 2253 does not limit the scope of our consideration of the underlying merits, and at this juncture we think it proper to meet the decision below and the arguments of the parties on their own terms.
III
Buck's request for a COA raised two separate questions for the Fifth Circuit, one substantive and one procedural: first, whether reasonable jurists could debate the District Court's conclusion that Buck was not denied his right to effective assistance of counsel under Strickland ; and second, whether reasonable jurists could debate the District Court's procedural holding that Buck had not made the necessary showing to reopen his case under Rule 60(b)(6).
A
We begin with the District Court's determination (not specifically addressed by the Fifth Circuit) that Buck's constitutional claim failed on the merits. The Sixth Amendment right to counsel "is the right to the effective assistance of counsel." Strickland, 466 U.S., at 686, 104 S.Ct. 2052 (quoting McMann v. Richardson, 397 U.S. 759, 771, n. 14, 90 S.Ct. 1441, 25 L.Ed.2d 763 (1970) ). A defendant who claims to have been denied effective assistance must show both that counsel performed deficiently and that counsel's deficient performance caused him prejudice. 466 U.S., at 687, 104 S.Ct. 2052.
1
Strickland's first prong sets a high bar. A defense lawyer navigating a criminal proceeding faces any number of choices about how best to make a client's case. The lawyer has discharged his constitutional responsibility so long as his decisions fall within the "wide range of professionally competent assistance." Id., at 690, 104 S.Ct. 2052. It is only when the lawyer's errors were "so serious that counsel was not functioning as the 'counsel' guaranteed... by the Sixth Amendment" that Strickland's first prong is satisfied. Id., at 687, 104 S.Ct. 2052.
The District Court determined that, in this case, counsel's performance fell outside the bounds of competent representation. We agree. Counsel knew that Dr. Quijano's report reflected the view that Buck's race disproportionately predisposed him to violent conduct; he also knew that the principal point of dispute during the trial's penalty phase was whether Buck was likely to act violently in the future. Counsel nevertheless (1) called Dr. Quijano to the stand; (2) specifically elicited testimony about the connection between Buck's race and the likelihood of future violence; and (3) put into evidence Dr. Quijano's expert report that stated, in reference to factors bearing on future dangerousness, "Race. Black: Increased probability." App. 19a, 145a-146a.
Given that the jury had to make a finding of future dangerousness before it could impose a death sentence, Dr. Quijano's report said, in effect, that the color of Buck's skin made him more deserving of execution. It would be patently unconstitutional for a state to argue that a defendant is liable to be a future danger because of his race. See Zant v. Stephens, 462 U.S. 862, 885, 103 S.Ct. 2733, 77 L.Ed.2d 235 (1983) (identifying race among factors that are "constitutionally impermissible or totally irrelevant to the sentencing process"). No competent defense attorney would introduce such evidence about his own client. See Buck v. Thaler, 565 U.S., at 1022, 132 S.Ct. 32 (statement of ALITO, J., joined by Scalia and BREYER, JJ., respecting denial of certiorari) (Buck's case "concerns bizarre and objectionable testimony").
2
To satisfy Strickland, a litigant must also demonstrate prejudice-"a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different." 466 U.S., at 694, 104 S.Ct. 2052. Accordingly, the question before the District Court was whether Buck had demonstrated a reasonable probability that, without Dr. Quijano's testimony on race, at least one juror would have harbored a reasonable doubt about whether Buck was likely to be violent in the future. The District Court concluded that Buck had not made such a showing. We disagree.
In arguing that the jury would have imposed a death sentence even if Dr. Quijano had not offered race-based testimony, the State primarily emphasizes the brutality of Buck's crime and his lack of remorse. A jury may conclude that a crime's vicious nature calls for a sentence of death. See Wong v. Belmontes, 558 U.S. 15, 130 S.Ct. 383, 175 L.Ed.2d 328 (2009) (per curiam ). In this case, however, several considerations convince us that it is reasonably probable-notwithstanding the nature of Buck's crime and his behavior in its aftermath-that the proceeding would have ended differently had counsel rendered competent representation.
Dr. Quijano testified on the key point at issue in Buck's sentencing. True, the jury was asked to decide two issues-whether Buck was likely to be a future danger, and, if so, whether mitigating circumstances nevertheless justified a sentence of life imprisonment. But the focus of the proceeding was on the first question. Much of the penalty phase testimony was directed to future dangerousness, as were the summations for both sides. The jury, consistent with the focus of the parties, asked during deliberations to see the expert reports on dangerousness. See App. 187a-196a, 198a-203a, 209a.
Deciding the key issue of Buck's dangerousness involved an unusual inquiry. The jurors were not asked to determine a historical fact concerning Buck's conduct, but to render a predictive judgment inevitably entailing a degree of speculation. Buck, all agreed, had committed acts of terrible violence. Would he do so again?
Buck's prior violent acts had occurred outside of prison, and within the context of romantic relationships with women. If the jury did not impose a death sentence, Buck would be sentenced to life in prison, and no such romantic relationship would be likely to arise. A jury could conclude that those changes would minimize the prospect of future dangerousness.
But one thing would never change: the color of Buck's skin. Buck would always be black. And according to Dr. Quijano, that immutable characteristic carried with it an "[i]ncreased probability

Question: What state is associated with the respondent?
年. Alabama
数. Alaska
日. American Samoa
的. Arizona
月. Arkansas
用. California
成. Colorado
名. Connecticut
时. Delaware
件. District of Columbia
一. Federated States of Micronesia
请. Florida
中. Georgia
据. Guam
码. Hawaii
不. Idaho
新. Illinois
文. Indiana
下. Iowa
分. Kansas
入. Kentucky
人. Louisiana
功. Maine
上. Marshall Islands
户. Maryland
为. Massachusetts
间. Michigan
号. Minnesota
取. Mississippi
回. Missouri
在. Montana
页. Nebraska
字. Nevada
有. New Hampshire
个. New Jersey
作. New Mexico
示. New York
出. North Carolina
是. North Dakota
失. Northern Mariana Islands
表. Ohio
除. Oklahoma
加. Oregon
败. Palau
生. Pennsylvania
信. Puerto Rico
类. Rhode Island
置. South Carolina
理. South Dakota
本. Tennessee
息. Texas
行. Utah
定. Vermont
改. Virgin Islands
市. Virginia
期. Washington
以. West Virginia
修. Wisconsin
元. Wyoming
方. United States
录. Interstate Compact
区. Philippines
单. Indian
位. Dakota
Answer:

Answer: 息