Title: North Dakota v. Gardner
Citation: 2019 ND 122
Docket Number: 20180239
State: north-dakota
Issuer: north-dakota Supreme Court
Date: May 16, 2019

)LOHG E\&OHUNRI6XSUHPH&RXUW ,17+(6835(0(&2857 67$7(2)1257+'$.27$  1' 6WDWHRI1RUWK'DNRWD 3ODLQWLIIDQG$SSHOOHH Y 6WHYHQ*DUGQHU 'HIHQGDQWDQG$SSHOODQW 1R $SSHDOIURPWKH'LVWULFW&RXUWRI&DVV&RXQW\(DVW&HQWUDO-XGLFLDO'LVWULFW WKH+RQRUDEOH:DGH/:HEE-XGJH 5(9(56('$1'5(0$1'(' 2SLQLRQRIWKH&RXUWE\7XIWH-XVWLFH 0DUN5%RHQLQJ$VVLVWDQW6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\)DUJR1'IRUSODLQWLIIDQG DSSHOOHH /XNH 7 +HFN DUJXHG  DQG 'UHZ - +XVKND RQ EULHI  )DUJR 1' IRU GHIHQGDQWDQGDSSHOODQW 6WDWHY*DUGQHU 1R 7XIWH-XVWLFH >@ 6WHYHQ *DUGQHU DSSHDOV IURP DQ RUGHU GHIHUULQJ LPSRVLWLRQ RI VHQWHQFH IROORZLQJKLVFRQGLWLRQDOJXLOW\SOHDWRFRQVSLUDF\WRSRVVHVVPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHZLWK LQWHQWWRGHOLYHUDVZHOODVIURPDQRUGHUGHQ\LQJKLVPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVHYLGHQFH IRXQGLQDSDFNDJHWKDWZDVQHLWKHUDGGUHVVHGWRKLPQRUVHQWWRKLVUHVLGHQFH *DUGQHUDUJXHVKHZDVWKHRZQHURIDSDFNDJHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\VHL]HGE\SROLFH RIILFHUVDQGKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHGE\WKHVHL]XUHDQGVXEVHTXHQWVHDUFKRIWKH SDFNDJH7KH6WDWHDUJXHV*DUGQHUGLGQRWHVWDEOLVKDSHUVRQDOSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVW LQWKHSURSHUW\VXIILFLHQWWRVXSSRUWDFODLPWKDWKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG:HUHYHUVH WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ *DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD , >@ 8QLWHG3DUFHO6HUYLFH ³836´ QRWLILHGODZHQIRUFHPHQWDERXWDVXVSLFLRXV SDFNDJHLQLWVSRVVHVVLRQDGGUHVVHGWRD³3DXOLH0FFDII´DWDUHVLGHQFHRQ WK6WUHHW 1RUWKLQ)DUJR$)DUJRSROLFHRIILFHUDVNHG836WRVHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHVRDFDQLQH VHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHFRXOGEHSHUIRUPHG836VHWWKHSDFNDJHDVLGHZKHQLWDUULYHG LQ)DUJREXWZRXOGQRWSHUPLW)DUJR3ROLFH'HSDUWPHQWFDQLQHVRQ836SURSHUW\ 836WROGWKHRIILFHUKHFRXOGWHPSRUDULO\WDNHWKHSDFNDJHHOVHZKHUHWRFRQGXFW DFDQLQHVHDUFK7KHRIILFHUWRRNWKHSDFNDJHWRWKH&LW\RI)DUJR3XEOLF6DIHW\ %XLOGLQJZKHUHDVHFRQGRIILFHUFRQGXFWHGDFDQLQHIUHHDLUVQLII7KHGRJDOHUWHGRQ WKHSDFNDJH$IWHUREWDLQLQJDVHDUFKZDUUDQWIRUWKHSDFNDJHWKHRIILFHUVVHDUFKHG LWDQGIRXQGPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHLQVLGH2IILFHUVOHDUQHGWKDW3DXO0HWFDOIOLYHGLQ DSDUWPHQWIRXUDWWKHDGGUHVVOLVWHGRQWKHSDFNDJH$QRIILFHULGHQWLILHGDYHKLFOH UHJLVWHUHGWR3DXO0HWFDOILQWKHDSDUWPHQWSDUNLQJORWDQGDWWHPSWHGGHOLYHU\RIWKH SDFNDJHDWWKHDSDUWPHQW0HWFDOIDQVZHUHGWKHGRRUVKRZHGKLV1RUWK'DNRWD LGHQWLILFDWLRQ DQG DFFHSWHG WKH SDFNDJH 0RPHQWV ODWHU RIILFHUV VHDUFKHG WKH  DSDUWPHQWDQGGHWDLQHG0HWFDOIZKRZDVDORQHLQWKHDSDUWPHQW0HWFDOIWROGODZ HQIRUFHPHQWWKDWKLVEURWKHUZRXOGVHQGSDFNDJHVWRWKHDSDUWPHQWLQWHQGLQJWKHP IRU*DUGQHU0HWFDOIGHVFULEHGKLPVHOIDVD³PLGGOHPDQ´UHJDUGLQJWKHSDFNDJHV 8SRQUHFHLSWRIDSDFNDJH0HWFDOIZDVWRFDOO*DUGQHUZKRZRXOGFRPHDQGSLFN XSWKHSDFNDJH0HWFDOIWROGSROLFHWKHSDFNDJHZDV*DUGQHU¶VDQG*DUGQHUZRXOG RUGLQDULO\JLYHKLPVRPHPHWKDPSKHWDPLQHIRUWKHXVHRIKLVDGGUHVV$WWKHRIILFHUV¶ UHTXHVW0HWFDOIFDOOHG*DUGQHUWRFRPHSLFNXSWKHSDFNDJH:KHQ*DUGQHUDUULYHG 0HWFDOIJDYHKLPWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWSD\0HWFDOIRURWKHUZLVHH[FKDQJH DQ\WKLQJIRUWKHSDFNDJH8SRQOHDYLQJWKHDSDUWPHQWEXLOGLQJZLWKWKHSDFNDJH *DUGQHUZDVDUUHVWHG*DUGQHUILOHGDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVVWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURP WKHSDFNDJHVHDUFK >@ $IWHUFRQGXFWLQJDKHDULQJWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRXQGWKDWWKHSDFNDJHZDVDQ ³HIIHFW´IRUSXUSRVHVRIWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW5HO\LQJRQState v. Ressler1' 1:G WKHFRXUWGHWHUPLQHGWKDWWKHUHPRYDORIWKHSDFNDJH IURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHVHDUFKZDVDQLOOHJDOVHL]XUH,QXOWLPDWHO\GHQ\LQJ *DUGQHU¶V PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV WKH FRXUW FRQFOXGHG *DUGQHU ODFNHG D VXIILFLHQW SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDO ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWIRFXVHGH[FOXVLYHO\RQWKHSDFNDJHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWKH IDFWWKDW*DUGQHU¶VQDPHDQGDGGUHVVZHUHQRWRQWKHSDFNDJH$GGLQJWKDW*DUGQHU GLGQRWOLYHDWWKHDGGUHVVZKHUHWKHSDFNDJHZDVGHOLYHUHGWKHFRXUWFRQFOXGHG³, VHHQRUHDOFRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH´ ,, >@ 7KHLVVXHRQDSSHDOLVZKHWKHUXQGHUWKH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWWRWKH8QLWHG 6WDWHV&RQVWLWXWLRQRU$UWLFOH,RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQDQLQGLYLGXDO PD\DVVHUWKLVULJKWDJDLQVWXQUHDVRQDEOHVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVUHODWLQJWRDSDFNDJH WKDWZDVQHLWKHUDGGUHVVHGWRKLPQRUVHQWWRSURSHUW\ZKHUHKHZDVOLYLQJ,IVXFK IDFWVGRQRWFDWHJRULFDOO\EDU*DUGQHU¶VFODLPZHWKHQPXVWFRQVLGHUZKHWKHUWKH WRWDOLW\RIFLUFXPVWDQFHVSUHVHQWHGLQWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWVXSSRUWV  DILQGLQJWKDW*DUGQHUODFNHGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRDVVHUW DYLRODWLRQRIKLVSHUVRQDOULJKWV >@ :KHQUHYLHZLQJDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VGHFLVLRQRQDPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV :HZLOOGHIHUWRDGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVRIIDFWLQWKHGLVSRVLWLRQRI DPRWLRQWRVXSSUHVV&RQIOLFWVLQWHVWLPRQ\ZLOOEHUHVROYHGLQIDYRU RIDIILUPDQFHDVZHUHFRJQL]HWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWLVLQDVXSHULRUSRVLWLRQ WRDVVHVVFUHGLELOLW\RIZLWQHVVHVDQGZHLJKWKHHYLGHQFH*HQHUDOO\D GLVWULFW FRXUW¶V GHFLVLRQ WR GHQ\ D PRWLRQ WR VXSSUHVV ZLOO QRW EH UHYHUVHGLIWKHUHLVVXIILFLHQWFRPSHWHQWHYLGHQFHFDSDEOHRIVXSSRUWLQJ WKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VILQGLQJVDQGLILWVGHFLVLRQLVQRWFRQWUDU\WRWKH PDQLIHVWZHLJKWRIWKHHYLGHQFH State v. Adams1' 1:G$OWKRXJKZHGHIHUWRWKHGLVWULFW FRXUW¶VUHVROXWLRQRIXQGHUO\LQJIDFWXDOGLVSXWHVWKHXOWLPDWHFRQFOXVLRQRIZKHWKHU WKHIDFWVVDWLVI\WKHDSSOLFDEOHOHJDOVWDQGDUGLVDTXHVWLRQRIODZIXOO\UHYLHZDEOHRQ DSSHDOState v. Nickel1'1:G >@ $QLQGLYLGXDOFKDOOHQJLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQWRVKRZD FRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState v. Zacher1'1:G State v. Glaesman1:G Q 1'   ³,QVXSSUHVVLRQFDVHVWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHLQLWLDOEXUGHQRI HVWDEOLVKLQJDSULPDIDFLHFDVHWKDWWKHHYLGHQFHZDVLOOHJDOO\VHL]HG´ :KHQWKH 6WDWH FRQGXFWV D VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH ZLWKRXW D ZDUUDQW LW EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ RI RYHUFRPLQJWKHSUHVXPSWLRQWKDWDZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLVXQUHDVRQDEOH State v. Pogue1'1:G :D\QH5/D)DYH Search and Seizure E S GHG   VWDWLQJ³LIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHZDV SXUVXDQWWRDZDUUDQWWKHGHIHQGDQWKDVWKHEXUGHQRISURRI EXWLIWKHSROLFHDFWHG ZLWKRXWDZDUUDQWWKHEXUGHQRISURRILVRQWKHSURVHFXWLRQ´ . :KHUHWKHLVVXHLV ZKHWKHUWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VSHUVRQDOULJKWVKDYHEHHQYLRODWHGDVRSSRVHGWRWKHULJKWV RIDWKLUGSDUW\ZHKDYHVDLGWKHGHIHQGDQWEHDUVWKHEXUGHQWRVKRZDVXIILFLHQW SHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQWKHDVVHUWHGYLRODWLRQSee State v. Raywalt1:G 1'   ³2QFHWKH6WDWHUDLVHVODFNRIVWDQGLQJLWLVWKHGHIHQGDQW¶VEXUGHQWR HVWDEOLVKWKDWKHKDGDOHJLWLPDWHH[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LQWKHSODFHVHDUFKHG´   >@ 7KH H[FOXVLRQDU\ UXOH LV DQ DWWHPSW WR HIIHFWXDWH WKH VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH SURWHFWLRQVRIWKHVWDWHDQGIHGHUDOFRQVWLWXWLRQVState v. Klevgaard1:G   1'   GHVFULELQJWKHUXOH¶VWZRSXUSRVHV ³  WRGHWHUXQODZIXOSROLFH FRQGXFWDQG  WRSUHVHUYHMXGLFLDOLQWHJULW\E\QRWSHUPLWWLQJHYLGHQFHWDLQWHG ZLWKLOOHJDOLW\WREHDGPLWWHGLQFRXUW´ $OWKRXJKRULJLQDOO\DSSOLHGE\WKH8QLWHG 6WDWHV 6XSUHPH &RXUW WR H[FOXGH HYLGHQFH REWDLQHG LQ YLRODWLRQ RI WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQWMapp v. Ohio86   WKLV&RXUWKDVDOVRDSSOLHGWKH H[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRYLRODWLRQVRI$UWLFOH,RIWKH1RUWK'DNRWD&RQVWLWXWLRQState v. Stockert  1:G   1'    $Q LQGLYLGXDO LV HQWLWOHG WR WKH SURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHRQO\LIthe individual’s own FRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV ZHUHYLRODWHG²WKHLQGLYLGXDOPD\QRWFODLPYLRODWLRQRIDWKLUGSDUW\¶VULJKWVState v. Oien 1', ¶ 1:G  State v. Fischer1:G 1'    FLWLQJ Mancusi v. DeForte   86      ³)RXUWK $PHQGPHQWULJKWVDUHSHUVRQDOULJKWVDQGPD\EHHQIRUFHGE\H[FOXVLRQRI HYLGHQFHRQO\DWWKHLQVWDQFHRIRQHZKRVHRZQSURWHFWLRQZDVLQIULQJHGE\WKH VHDUFKDQGVHL]XUH´  abrogatedRQRWKHUJURXQGV Plumhoff v. Rickard86    ³)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVDUHSHUVRQDOULJKWVZKLFKPD\QRW EHYLFDULRXVO\DVVHUWHG´  >@ ³7KHULJKWRIWKHSHRSOHWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLUSHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQG HIIHFWVDJDLQVWXQUHDVRQDEOHVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVVKDOOQRWEHYLRODWHGDQGQR :DUUDQWVVKDOOLVVXHEXWXSRQSUREDEOHFDXVHVXSSRUWHGE\2DWKRUDIILUPDWLRQDQG SDUWLFXODUO\GHVFULELQJWKHSODFHWREHVHDUFKHGDQGWKHSHUVRQVRUWKLQJVWREH VHL]HG´86&RQVWDPHQG,97KHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOWH[WWHOOVXVDYLRODWLRQRFFXUV ZKHQIRXUWKLQJVDUHWUXH   WKH6WDWHHQJDJHGLQDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHRI  WKH FODLPDQW¶V   SHUVRQ KRXVH SDSHU RU HIIHFW DQG   WKH VHDUFK RU VHL]XUH XQUHDVRQDEO\YLRODWHGWKHFODLPDQW¶VULJKWWREHVHFXUHLQWKHREMHFWVHDUFKHGRU VHL]HGSee State v. Planz1:G 1'   > @ )LUVWZDVWKHUHD³VHDUFK´RUD³VHL]XUH´E\WKH6WDWH"State v. Garrett  1'     1:G  ³,W LV D[LRPDWLF WKDW WKH )RXUWK$PHQGPHQW¶V  SURWHFWLRQIURPXQODZIXOVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHVLVQRWWULJJHUHGXQOHVVWKHUHKDVLQIDFW EHHQDµVHDUFK¶RUµVHL]XUH¶E\WKH6WDWH´ 2XUFDVHVKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\FRQVLGHUHGD ³VHDUFK´WRLPSOLFDWHWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOSURWHFWLRQLQWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH³UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\´WHVWId. FLWLQJKatz v. United States 86    +DUODQ - FRQFXUULQJ  United States v. Jones HPSKDVL]HG WKDW Katz¶ GHILQLWLRQVXSSOHPHQWHGUDWKHUWKDQUHSODFHGWKHSODLQPHDQLQJRID³VHDUFK´DVDQ ³LQWUXVLRQRIDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\SURWHFWHGDUHDLQRUGHUWRREWDLQLQIRUPDWLRQ´ 86  $³VHL]XUH´RIDSHUVRQRFFXUVZKHQWKHVWDWHPHDQLQJIXOO\ LQWHUIHUHVZLWKWKHSHUVRQ¶VOLEHUW\RUIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWState v. Mercier 1'1:G³$µVHL]XUH¶RISURSHUW\RFFXUVZKHQWKHUHLVVRPH PHDQLQJIXOLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQWKDWSURSHUW\´ State v. Heier1'1:G Ressler1' 1:G  ³,QLWLDOO\ ZH PXVW GHFLGH ZKHWKHU    PRYHPHQW RI WKH SDFNDJH FRQVWLWXWHGDVHL]XUHDWDOO´ United States v. Jacobsen86     >@ 6HFRQGZDVWKHLWHPVXEMHFWWRVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHRZQHGRUSRVVHVVHGE\WKH SHUVRQRUSHUVRQVFODLPLQJSURWHFWLRQDWWKHWLPHRIWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH²ZDVLW ³WKHLU´HIIHFW"7KLVLVWKHSRLQWRIFRQWHQWLRQKHUHDVGLVFXVVHGEHORZ >@ 7KLUG LVWKHLWHPWKDWZDVDOOHJHGO\VHL]HGRUVHDUFKHGDSHUVRQKRXVHSDSHU RUHIIHFW"$VHDUFKRUVHL]XUHLPSOLFDWHVWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQLILWLVGLUHFWHGDWVRPHWKLQJ ZLWKLQRQHRIWKHHQXPHUDWHGFDWHJRULHV ³SHUVRQVKRXVHVSDSHUVDQGHIIHFWV´See Heier1'1:G Lubenow v. N.D. State Highway Comm’r 1:G 1'  Oliver v. United States86    UHMHFWLQJ DUJXPHQW WKDW RSHQ ILHOGV ZHUH ³HIIHFWV´ DQG VWDWLQJ Katz’ ³UHDVRQDEOH H[SHFWDWLRQ RI SULYDF\´ VWDQGDUG GLG QRW VHYHU )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW GRFWULQHIURPWKH$PHQGPHQW¶VODQJXDJH´  >@ )RXUWKZDVWKHVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHDQ³XQUHDVRQDEOH´YLRODWLRQRIWKHFODLPDQW¶V ULJKWWREHVHFXUHLQWKHLWHPVHDUFKHGRUVHL]HG"7KHWRXFKVWRQHIRUGHWHUPLQLQJ FRQVWLWXWLRQDOLW\ RI D VHDUFK LV UHDVRQDEOHQHVV ZKLFK W\SLFDOO\ UHTXLUHV ODZ HQIRUFHPHQWWRREWDLQDMXGLFLDOZDUUDQWEHIRUHFRQGXFWLQJDVHDUFKRUVHL]XUHState  v. Helm1' 1:G:DUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUH XQUHDVRQDEOH XQOHVV VXSSRUWHG E\ SUREDEOH FDXVH DQG RQH RI WKH UHFRJQL]HG H[FHSWLRQVWRWKHZDUUDQWUHTXLUHPHQWState v. Morales1' 1:G Ressler1' 1:G 7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI DVHL]XUHGHSHQGVRQDEDODQFLQJRIWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVWDGYDQFHGE\WKHVHL]XUHDQG WKHLQGLYLGXDOULJKWWRDOLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWIUHHIURPDUELWUDU\JRYHUQPHQW LQWHUIHUHQFHGHWHUPLQHGE\ZHLJKLQJWKHJUDYLW\RIWKHLQWHUHVWWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFK WKHVHL]XUHDGYDQFHVWKHLQWHUHVWDQGWKHVHYHULW\RIWKHLQWHUIHUHQFHZLWKWKHSULYDWH OLEHUW\RUSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSee Brown v. Texas86    ,,, >@ 2XULQTXLU\KHUHFHQWHUVRQWKHVHFRQGTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUWKHSDFNDJHZDV *DUGQHU¶VDWWKHUHOHYDQWWLPH²RULQWKHFRQVWLWXWLRQDOODQJXDJHZKHWKHUVRPHRQH LQ*DUGQHU¶VFLUFXPVWDQFHVFRXOGVD\LWZDV³WKHLU´HIIHFW >@ %XWYHU\EULHIO\ZHFOHDUDZD\WKHXQGHUEUXVKRIZKDWLVQRWLQGLVSXWH7KH SDUWLHVGRQRWGLVSXWHWKDWWKHSDFNDJHDWLVVXHKHUHLVDQ³HIIHFW´State v. Nickel 1'1:G Ressler1'1:G  FLWLQJJacobsen86DW 7KHSDUWLHVDOVRDJUHHWKDWXQGHUResslerDVHL]XUH RFFXUUHGZKHQDQRIILFHUUHPRYHGWKHSDFNDJHIURP836WRFRQGXFWDFDQLQHIUHHDLU VQLII  1'       1:G  7KHUH ZDV QR ZDUUDQW DXWKRUL]LQJ WKH RIILFHU WR UHPRYH WKH SDFNDJH IURP 836 VR WKH VHL]XUH ZDV SUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOHState v. Karna1'1:G VWDWLQJ³ZDUUDQWOHVVVHDUFKHVDQGVHL]XUHVDUHSUHVXPSWLYHO\XQUHDVRQDEOH´ ,QD ZULWWHQVWDWHPHQWGHFOLQLQJWRSURVHFXWH0HWFDOIWKH6WDWH¶V$WWRUQH\DFNQRZOHGJHG WKDW WKHUH KDG EHHQ DQ XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO VHL]XUH XQGHU Ressler DQG DQ\ HYLGHQFH UHVXOWLQJIURPWKDWVHL]XUHZRXOGEHVXSSUHVVHGDWWULDO%HFDXVHWKHUHZDVDZDUUDQW IRUWKHVHDUFKRIWKHSDFNDJHWKHHYLGHQFHUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHVHDUFKLVLPSOLFDWHG RQO\EHFDXVHWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHVHDUFKGHSHQGVRQWKHOHJDOLW\RIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH >@ :HWXUQQRZWRZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKH SDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHRIWKHXQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOVHL]XUHWRFODLPWKDWVHL]XUHYLRODWHGKLV  ULJKWV7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWFRQFOXGHGWKDW*DUGQHU³KDGQRUHDVRQDEOHH[SHFWDWLRQRI SULYDF\LQWKHSDFNDJH´7KLVIRFXVRQSULYDF\LQWHUHVWVLVFHQWUDOLQGHWHUPLQLQJ ZKHWKHUDsearch LVXQUHDVRQDEOHEXWLWKDVOLWWOHWRGRZLWKZKHWKHUDseizure LV XQUHDVRQDEOHRUZKHWKHU*DUGQHUKDVVXIILFLHQWSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWWRFKDOOHQJHWKH VHL]XUHKHUHZKLFKWKH6WDWHDJUHHGZDVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\XQUHDVRQDEOH,QFRQWUDVWWR D VHDUFK ZKLFK LPSOLFDWHV SULYDF\ D VHL]XUH LPSOLFDWHV LQGLYLGXDO OLEHUW\ RI PRYHPHQWDQGSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\6HHJacobsen86DW GLVWLQJXLVKLQJSRVVHVVRU\DQGOLEHUW\LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHL]XUHVIURPSULYDF\ LQWHUHVWVLPSOLFDWHGE\VHDUFKHV Soldal v. Cook County86    ³RXU FDVHVXQPLVWDNDEO\KROGWKDWWKH>)RXUWK@$PHQGPHQWSURWHFWVSURSHUW\DVZHOODV SULYDF\´ United States v. Miller )G  '&&LU  ILQGLQJ³D EDVLFPLVPDWFKEHWZHHQ0LOOHU¶VZKROHVDOHUHOLDQFHRQKLVprivacyLQWHUHVWLQWKH ER[HVDQGKLVFKDOOHQJHWRWKHseizureRIWKRVHER[HV´ Lavan v. City of Los Angeles  )G  WK&LU  GLVWLQJXLVKLQJVHDUFKHVIURPVHL]XUHVDQG FRQFOXGLQJ³7KHUHDVRQDEOHQHVVRI$SSHOOHHV¶H[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LVLUUHOHYDQWDV WR WKH TXHVWLRQ EHIRUH XV  ZKHWKHU WKH )RXUWK $PHQGPHQW SURWHFWV $SSHOOHHV¶ XQDEDQGRQHGSURSHUW\IURPXQUHDVRQDEOHVHL]XUHV´ Bonds v. Cox)G  WK&LU   FRQFOXGLQJKRPHRZQHUKDGVWDQGLQJWRFKDOOHQJHVHL]XUHRIKHUUHDO SURSHUW\GHVSLWHKDYLQJQRUHDVRQDEOHH[SHFWDWLRQRISULYDF\LQWKHKRXVH :H FRQFOXGHWKHSURSHUIRFXVLQHYDOXDWLQJDVHL]XUHLVRQWKHFODLPDQW¶VSRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVWVLQSURSHUW\ >@ *DUGQHU¶Vprivacy interests ZHUHQRWLPSOLFDWHGE\WKHVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJH LQ ZKLFK WKH SDFNDJH ZDV QRW RSHQHG EXW RQO\ UHPRYHG IURP 836 SURSHUW\ *DUGQHU¶V possessory interests ZHUH LPSOLFDWHG E\ WKH VHL]XUH ZKLFK WKH 6WDWH FRQFHGHVZDVDFRQVWLWXWLRQDOYLRODWLRQ7KHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VIRFXVRQSULYDF\ ZKLOH SHUKDSVXQGHUVWDQGDEOHLQYLHZRIWKHVRPHWLPHVPXUN\ZD\KatzKDVLQIOXHQFHG VHDUFK DQG VHL]XUH FDVHV WR WXUQ VROHO\ RQ H[SHFWDWLRQV RI SULYDF\  ZDV D PLVDSSOLFDWLRQ RI ODZ EHFDXVH *DUGQHU¶V SULYDF\ LQWHUHVWV LQ WKH SDFNDJH DUH LUUHOHYDQW2QO\KLVSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWVDUHUHOHYDQW  >@ *DUGQHU EHDUV WKH EXUGHQ WR VKRZ WKH SDFNDJH ZDV KLV²WKDW KH KDG D VXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRFODLPKLVULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHGSee Rakas v. Illinois 86Q    ³7KHSURSRQHQWRIDPRWLRQWR VXSSUHVVKDVWKHEXUGHQRIHVWDEOLVKLQJWKDWKLVRZQ)RXUWK$PHQGPHQWULJKWVZHUH YLRODWHGE\WKHFKDOOHQJHGVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH´ Adams1'  1:G 7XIWH-FRQFXUULQJ 7KHUHDUHPDQ\IDFWRUVDFRXUWFDQDQGVKRXOG FRQVLGHUZKHQGHWHUPLQLQJSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWSeeWilliams1' 1:G  FRQVLGHULQJ ZKHWKHU WKH FODLPDQW KDV D SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW LQ WKH ORFDWLRQVHDUFKHGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRNHHSWKHLWHPSULYDWH RUZLWKLQKLVSRVVHVVLRQDQGZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVDFFHVVWRWKHWKLQJRUORFDWLRQ HYHQWKRXJKLWLVORFNHGRUFORVHG Rawlings v. Kentucky86    FRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDVWKHSRZHUWRH[FOXGH ZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDO KDVSUHYLRXVO\DFFHVVHGRULVSHUPLWWHGWRDFFHVVWKHDUHDRUWKLQJ ZKHWKHUWKH LQGLYLGXDOWDNHVSUHFDXWLRQVWRPDLQWDLQSULYDF\ ZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOFODLPVRU GHQLHVSRVVHVVLRQ DQGKRZORQJWKHFODLPDQWKDVNQRZQWKHSHUVRQLQSRVVHVVLRQRI WKHFRQWDLQHUZLWKWKHFRQWUDEDQG AdamsDW FRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHUWKH LQGLYLGXDODVVHUWVRZQHUVKLSRYHUWKHLWHPRUWKHFRQWDLQHUZKHWKHUWKHUHLVHYLGHQFH RISRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWZKHWKHUWKHLQGLYLGXDOLVSUHVHQWGXULQJWKHVHDUFKDQGGRHVQRW REMHFWDQGZKHWKHUWKHUHDUHDQ\LGHQWLI\LQJPDUNVRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRQHLWKHUWKH FRQWDLQHURUWKHFRQWHQWV :KHWKHUDSHUVRQKDVDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQ DQ LWHP WR FODLP LW ZDV XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDOO\ VHDUFKHG RU VHL]HG LV UHYLHZHG RQ D FDVHE\FDVHEDVLVFRQVLGHULQJWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHV-RKQ:HVOH\+DOO -USearch and Seizure  WKHG ³>1@RVLQJOHIDFWRUGHWHUPLQHVZKHWKHU DQLQGLYLGXDOOHJLWLPDWHO\PD\FODLP´WKHIUHHGRPIURPDYLRODWLRQRIKLVVHDUFKDQG VHL]XUHULJKWVId. Adams, DW State v. Gatlin1'1:G FRQVLGHULQJWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶V³SRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHWKLQJVVHL]HGRUWKHSODFH VHDUFKHG´DVVKRZQE\H[FOXGLQJRWKHUVWDNLQJSULYDF\SUHFDXWLRQVDQGUHWDLQLQJ DFFHVVGHVSLWHDORFNRURWKHUDFFHVVUHVWULFWLRQ see Oliver86DW  >@ +HUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWQDUURZHGLWVFRQVLGHUDWLRQRI*DUGQHU¶VSRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHWRWKHQDPHDQGDGGUHVVRQWKHSDFNDJHDQGZKHWKHUKH RFFXSLHGWKHORFDWLRQWRZKLFKWKHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHG7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWVWDWHG >7@KHSDFNDJHZDVDGGUHVVHGWR0U0HWFDOIQRW0U*DUGQHU+H ZDVQRWDGGUHVVHG,WZDVGHOLYHUHGWRDQDGGUHVVRI0U0HWFDOI¶VWKDW LWZDVDGGUHVVHGWRQRW0U*DUGQHU¶V+HZDVQ¶WRQWKHSDFNDJH7KDW LVQRWZKHUHKHOLYHGHWFHWHUD7KHSDFNDJHZDVQRWDGGUHVVHGWR *DUGQHUQRUZDVLWVHQWWRDSODFHZKHUHKHZDVVWD\LQJ,VHHQRUHDO FRQQHFWLRQVZKDWVRHYHURI0U*DUGQHUWRWKHSDFNDJH 7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWYLHZHGWKHLVVXHWRRQDUURZO\7KHIDFWWKDWWKHSDFNDJHGRHVQRW EHDU *DUGQHU¶V QDPH RU DGGUHVV LV UHOHYDQW EXW QRW GHWHUPLQDWLYH ³:KHQ DQ LQGLYLGXDODVNVVRPHRQHHOVHWRUHFHLYHPDLOIRUKLPKHGRHVQRWE\WKDWIDFWDORQH VXUUHQGHU´KLVVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWVUnited States v. Allen)6XSS '0H  7KHXVHRIDQDOLDVRUILFWLWLRXVQDPHZKHQVHQGLQJDQGUHFHLYLQJ SDFNDJHVLVQRWFRQFOXVLYHUnited States v. Pitts)G   WK&LU  United States v. Villarreal )G WK&LU  United States v. Richards  )G   WK &LU    7KHUH DUH PDQ\ UHDVRQV VRPH LQQRFHQWDQGVRPHVXVSLFLRXVWKDWDSHUVRQPLJKWXVHDQDOLDVZKHQVHQGLQJRU UHFHLYLQJDSDFNDJHPittsDW(IIRUWVDWDQRQ\PLW\DUHQRWHTXLYDOHQWWR GLVFODLPHUVRIRZQHUVKLSZKHQVHQGLQJRUUHFHLYLQJDSDFNDJHId. DW see also AllenDW :D\QH5/D)DYHSearch & Seizure I  WKHG 6XSS   > @ 6HYHUDOFDVHVIURPRWKHUMXULVGLFWLRQVKDYHUHMHFWHGDFODLPHGVHDUFKRUVHL]XUH YLRODWLRQE\DSHUVRQZKRZDVQRWWKHVHQGHURUUHFHLYHURIDSDFNDJH7KHVHFDVHV DUHGLVWLQJXLVKDEOHLQWKDWWKHSHUVRQFODLPLQJDYLRODWLRQIDLOHGHLWKHUWRFODLPRU VXEVWDQWLDWHRZQHUVKLSRIHLWKHUWKHSDFNDJHRULWVFRQWHQWVSee United States v. Pierce  )G  WK&LU   FRQFOXGLQJQRULJKWWRFODLPVHDUFKDQG VHL]XUHYLRODWLRQZKHUHSDFNDJHZDVQHLWKHUVHQWE\QRUDGGUHVVHGWRGHIHQGDQWDQG GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSRIERWKWKHSDFNDJHDQGWKHFRQWHQWV United States v. Givens)G  WK&LU   SHUFXULDP  UHMHFWLQJFODLPZKHUH GHIHQGDQWFODLPHGDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQSDFNDJHDGGUHVVHGWRWKLUGSDUW\ZKLFKFRQWDLQHG GUXJVIRUZKLFKKHKDGQRW\HWSDLG Compare United States v. DiMaggio)6XSS  1'1<   FRQFOXGLQJQRSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWHVWDEOLVKHGZKHQ VXSSRUWHG RQO\ E\ FODLP RI RZQHUVKLS RI WKH FRQWHQWV DQG DOOHJHG FRQWURO RYHU SDFNDJHVDVDFWXDOVHQGHUDQGUHFLSLHQW with Richards)GDW ILQGLQJ GHIHQGDQWKDGVXIILFLHQWSHUVRQDOLQWHUHVWLQSDFNDJHWRUDLVH)RXUWK$PHQGPHQW FODLPGHVSLWHKLVQDPHQRWDSSHDULQJRQLWDQGKLVGHQLDORIRZQHUVKLS :HKDYH HPSKDVL]HGFODLPLQJDSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQDFRQWDLQHUDQGLWVFRQWHQWVLVLPSRUWDQW DOWKRXJKQRWFRQFOXVLYHLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDYDULHW\RIRWKHUFRQVWLWXWLRQDOHIIHFWVSee Adams1' 1:G UHMHFWLQJGHIHQGDQW¶VFODLPHG)RXUWK $PHQGPHQWLQWHUHVWLQDEDFNSDFNORFDWHGZLWKLQVRPHRQHHOVH¶VYHKLFOHZKHUH GHIHQGDQWGHQLHGRZQHUVKLSGLGQRWREMHFWWRVHDUFKDQGEDFNSDFNODFNHGLGHQWLI\LQJ PDUNVVKRZLQJKLVRZQHUVKLS State v. Dunn1' 1:G DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRIMDFNHWIRXQGO\LQJRQSULYDWHGULYHZD\ZKHUH RZQHURIMDFNHWLQLWLDOO\GHQLHGEXWODWHUFODLPHGLWZDVKLV State v. Huether 1:G 1'   DIILUPLQJRUGHUVXSSUHVVLQJVHDUFKRISDSHUEDJXQGHU IURQWVHDWGXULQJWUDIILFVWRSGHVSLWHGHIHQGDQW¶VGHQLDORIRZQHUVKLSRIDEDJRU NQRZOHGJH RI LWV FRQWHQWV Rawlings  86 DW  KROGLQJ LQVXIILFLHQW SRVVHVVRU\ LQWHUHVW WR REMHFW WR VHDUFK RI SXUVH ZKHUH WKH GHIHQGDQW FODLPHG RZQHUVKLSRIGUXJVLQWKHSXUVHEXWQRWRIWKHSXUVHLWVHOI United States v. Parada )G WK&LU  HPSKDVL]LQJIDLOXUHWRUHVSRQGRUFODLP RZQHUVKLSZKHQTXHVWLRQHGDVZHLJKLQJDJDLQVWDVVHUWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKW United States v. Zabalaga)G '&&LU   KROGLQJGHIHQGDQW PD\QRWDVVHUWYLRODWLRQRIVHDUFKDQGVHL]XUHULJKWEHFDXVHGHIHQGDQWVWDWHGZKHQ DUUHVWHGWKDWKHGLGQRWRZQWKHFDUKDGQRSHUPLVVLRQWRXVHWKHFDUDQGGLGQRW FODLPDSRVVHVVRU\ULJKWWRWKHFRQWHQWVRIWKHFDUQRUZHUHWKHUHLGHQWLI\LQJPDUNV RQWKHFRQWHQWV  >@ +HUH WKH GLVWULFW FRXUW HUUHG E\ IDLOLQJ WR H[DPLQH WKH WRWDOLW\ RI WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHVSeeAllen)6XSSDW United States v. Sheldon)6XSS G '+DZ 7KHGLVWULFWFRXUWGLGQRWFRQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJ  XQGLVSXWHG IDFWV 0HWFDOI H[SODLQHG WR D SROLFH RIILFHU WKDW KH KDG D VWDQGLQJ DUUDQJHPHQWEHWZHHQKLPVHOIKLVEURWKHUDQG*DUGQHU0HWFDOIPDGHVWDWHPHQWVWR WKHSROLFHWKDWKHZDVWKH³PLGGOHPDQ´ZKRVLPSO\UHFHLYHGSDFNDJHVZKLFKKHJDYH WR*DUGQHU*DUGQHUUHVSRQGHGWR0HWFDOI¶VFDOODERXWWKHSDFNDJHE\GULYLQJWR 0HWFDOI¶VDSDUWPHQWDQGUHWULHYLQJWKHSDFNDJH*DUGQHUGLGQRWH[FKDQJHDQ\WKLQJ IRU WKLV SDFNDJH ZKHQ KH UHWULHYHG LW 7KH ODFN RI SD\PHQW WHQGV WR VKRZ ERWK *DUGQHUDQG0HWFDOIXQGHUVWRRGWKHSDFNDJHWREH*DUGQHU¶VSURSHUW\)XUWKHU *DUGQHUSRVVHVVHGWKHSDFNDJHZKHQKHZDVDUUHVWHGFORVHLQWLPHWRWKHLOOHJDO VHL]XUHZLWKRXWDQ\LQWHUYHQLQJSXUFKDVHDEDQGRQPHQWRURWKHUDFWLQGLFDWLQJD FKDQJHLQODZIXOSRVVHVVLRQRIWKHSDFNDJHSee Richards)GDW:KHQWKH WRWDOLW\RIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVLVFRQVLGHUHGUDWKHUWKDQRQO\WKHQDPHDQGDGGUHVVRQ WKHSDFNDJHZHFRQFOXGHWKHIDFWVHVWDEOLVK*DUGQHU¶VSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKH SDFNDJHIRUSXUSRVHVRIDVVHUWLQJDYLRODWLRQRIKLVFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWV%HFDXVHWKH LQLWLDOVHL]XUHRIWKHSDFNDJHZDVFRQFHGHGO\XQFRQVWLWXWLRQDO*DUGQHULVHQWLWOHGWR FODLPWKHSURWHFWLRQRIWKHH[FOXVLRQDU\UXOHWRWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUHDQGWKH VHDUFKHVWKDWIORZHGIURPWKHLQLWLDOVHL]XUH ,9 >@ :HFRQFOXGHWKHWRWDOLW\RIWKHHYLGHQFHEHIRUHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUWGHPRQVWUDWHV WKDW*DUGQHUKDGDVXIILFLHQWSRVVHVVRU\LQWHUHVWLQWKHSDFNDJHDWWKHWLPHLWZDV VHL]HGDWWKH836IDFLOLW\WRFODLPKLVSHUVRQDOFRQVWLWXWLRQDOULJKWVZHUHYLRODWHG $FFRUGLQJO\DOOHYLGHQFHIORZLQJIURPWKHLOOHJDOVHL]XUHDQGVXEVHTXHQWVHDUFKPXVW EHVXSSUHVVHG:HUHYHUVHWKHGLVWULFWFRXUW¶VRUGHUGHQ\LQJ*DUGQHU¶VPRWLRQWR VXSSUHVVDQGUHPDQGWRDOORZ*DUGQHUWRZLWKGUDZKLVJXLOW\SOHD >@ -HURG(7XIWH 'DQLHO-&URWKHUV /LVD)DLU0F(YHUV -RQ--HQVHQ  ,FRQFXULQWKHUHVXOW *HUDOG:9DQGH:DOOH&- 