Title: Newman v. Cole
Citation: 872 So. 2d 138
Docket Number: 1012110
State: Alabama
Issuer: Alabama Supreme Court
Date: July 18, 2003

872 So. 2d 138 (2003)
Anna Belle NEWMAN, as personal representative of the estate of Clinton Patterson Cole, a minor, deceased
v.
John COLE and Tara Cole.
1012110.

Supreme Court of Alabama.
July 18, 2003.
*139 Dennis R. Weaver and Page Stanley Ellis of Cory, Watson, Crowder &amp; DeGaris, Birmingham, for appellant.
Craig W. Goolsby and Jeremy P. Taylor of Carr, Allison, Pugh, Howard, Oliver &amp; Sisson, P.C., Daphne, for appellees.
Rhonda Pitts Chambers of Taylor &amp; Taylor, Birmingham, for amicus curiae National Crime Victim Bar Association, in support of the appellant.
Leigh King Forstman of Pittman, Hooks, Dutton, Kirby &amp; Hellums, P.C., Birmingham; and David G. Wirtes and George M. Dent III of Cunningham, Bounds, Yance, Crowder &amp; Brown, L.L.C., Mobile, for amicus curiae Alabama Trial Lawyers Association, in support of the appellant.
PER CURIAM.
In this wrongful-death action, Anna Belle Newman, the personal representative of the estate of the decedent, Clinton Patterson Cole ("Clinton"), sued Clinton's father, John Cole, and his stepmother, Tara Cole (sometimes referred to hereinafter collectively as "the Coles"), for allegedly causing Clinton's death. Newman's complaint asserted claims of negligence, wantonness, and willful and intentional conduct.
The Coles moved to dismiss the complaint based on the doctrine of parental immunity. That doctrine was judicially created in the case of Hewellette v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (Miss.1891), abrogated by Glaskox v. Glaskox, 614 So. 2d 906 (Miss.1992), and was adopted by the this Court in Owens v. Auto Mutual Indemnity Co., 235 Ala. 9, 177 So. 133 (Ala. 1937). The present form of the doctrine in this State was most recently discussed by the Court of Civil Appeals:
Hinson v. Holt, 776 So. 2d 804, 811 (Ala. Civ.App.1998).
*140 On July 3, 2002, the trial court granted the Coles' motion to dismiss the complaint. Newman appealed, arguing that this Court should abolish the doctrine, or, in the alternative, craft an exception to the doctrine that encompasses the facts alleged in this case.
Clinton was 16 years old at the time of his death, which occurred during an altercation with his father over Clinton's failure to perform household chores; Newman asserts that the altercation ended with the father's striking Clinton repeatedly in the chest and then holding him on the ground in a "choke hold" while Tara Cole sprayed him in the face with water from a garden hose. The father held Clinton on the ground for approximately 20 minutes; he let go of Clinton when a police officer arrived. Clinton was unconscious, and he was taken to a local hospital; he died the next day.
Although the facts in this case are tragic and compelling, the legal issue is clear-cut: Whether this Court should abolish the doctrine of parental immunity, or to what extent, if any, it should modify the application of the doctrine in light of the circumstances of this case. We hold that a further exception to the doctrine should be recognized where it is shown by clear and convincing evidence that a parent's willful and intentional injury caused the death of his or her child.
Newman asserts that Alabama is the last state not to have entirely abrogated or significantly modified the doctrine. Newman's argument, supported by the briefs of amici curiae National Crime Victims Bar Association and Alabama Trial Lawyers Association, asserts that to apply the parental-immunity doctrine in the circumstances of this case is fundamentally unjust and contrary to long-settled principles of tort law. Newman and the amici support their argument by noting the large number of other states that have abrogated, or significantly modified, the doctrine.[1] Newman argues that this Court should abrogate the doctrine entirely, or, alternatively, either craft an exception to the doctrine in the case of a parent who intentionally or willfully and wantonly injures his or her child, or craft an exception for a wrongful-death action in which a parent is accused of causing a child's death. Newman and the amici assert, without significant rebuttal from the Coles, *141 that Alabama's application of the doctrine is the strictest imposition of parental immunity against minors in the United States.
The Coles, on the other hand, argue that the Legislature is the entity that should make any changes to the settled doctrine of parental immunity, and that abrogation of the doctrine would adversely impact families and give rise to unwarranted lawsuits by unemancipated minors against their parents.
Thus, the parties' arguments offer the Court three options: (1) we might simply decline to interfere with the doctrine, (2) we might abrogate the doctrine entirely, or (3) we might craft an exception to the doctrine, as we did in Hurst v. Capitell, 539 So. 2d 264 (Ala.1989), to fit the circumstances of this case.
We discussed the history of the doctrine in this State, and the rationale for crafting an exception, in Hurst:
539 So. 2d  at 265-66 (last emphasis added).
At this time, some 14 years after Hurst was decided, the Legislature has made no other modification to the doctrine. During that same time, we considered the doctrine once more in Mitchell v. Davis, 598 So. 2d 801 (Ala.1992), holding that the doctrine of parental immunity applied to foster parents and recognizing the exception crafted in Hurst. As stated in Hurst, the doctrine was judicially created, and it is therefore subject to judicial modification. But this Court still attaches great importance to the underlying reason for the doctrineto avoid unduly limiting the legitimate interest of parents in rearing and disciplining their children. In Broadwell v. Holmes, 871 S.W.2d 471 (Tenn.1994), the Supreme Court of Tennessee articulated well the importance of this interest:
871 S.W.2d  at 475-76.
This Court has been equally loathe to interfere with the parent-child relationship:
Ex parte Sullivan, 407 So. 2d 559, 563 (Ala. 1981) (quoting Striplin v. Ware, 36 Ala. 87, 89-90 (1860)). See also R.J.D. v. Vaughan Clinic, P.C., 572 So. 2d 1225, 1228 (Ala. 1990).
Given the weight we assign to the sanctity of the parent-child relationship, we decline to follow the example of many of our sister states and wholly abrogate the doctrine of parental immunity. Further, we decline to consider any exception to the doctrine that would permit a claim by an injured child against a parent where the injury was not willful and intentional. In Hurst we held that the exception to the parental-immunity doctrine giving the injured child a right to redress was in response to "wrongful, intentional, heinous acts," 539 So. 2d  at 266, committed by the parent. Most recently, in Mitchell, supra, we held that the parental-immunity doctrine also protected foster parents as to any claim by a foster child based upon the foster parents' alleged negligence. As the court stated in Broadwell:
871 S.W.2d  at 475.
In view of this unique and special relationship, we note first that this opinion leaves the doctrine unchanged with respect to the protection afforded a parent from any claim by his or her child based upon unintentional conduct. Further, we consider only the specific circumstances of the case before us and apply our holding only to the situation where it can be shown by clear and convincing evidence that a parent's willful and intentional infliction of injury resulted in the death of his or her child.
As we noted in Hurst, supra, this Court declined to modify the doctrine in Hill, supra, a wrongful-death case in which the father's alleged negligence in piloting a plane resulted in the deaths of his two minor sons. However, the holding in Hurst makes clear that the rationale that supported Hill, i.e., deference to the Legislature, is no longer a dispositive basis for not modifying the judicially created doctrine. *145 Accordingly, we cannot overlook the fact that the wrongful death of a child profoundly impacts the parent-child relationship. Plainly, the death of a child removes the parental interests the doctrine was intended to protect with respect to that child. Certainly, the parent's responsibilities to the child and the child's dependence upon the parent are terminated by the child's death. See, e.g., Floyd v. Abercrombie, 816 So. 2d 1051 (Ala.Civ.App. 2001); Anderson v. Loper, 689 So. 2d 118 (Ala.Civ.App.1996)(discussing a parent's duties toward his or her unemancipated child). As Justice Jones, dissenting from the majority's opinion in Hill, aptly stated:
447 So. 2d  at 168.
In assessing the balance between the unique nature and critical importance of the parent-child relationship and the right of any victim for redress for a willful or intentional injury, we find the analysis of the Supreme Court of West Virginia instructive. In Courtney v. Courtney, 186 W.Va. 597, 413 S.E.2d 418 (1991), that court considered claims by a mother and her son against her ex-husband and the son's father for a number of intentional assaults. The court stated:
186 W.Va. at 607, 413 S.E.2d  at 428.
Similarly, we recognize an exception to the doctrine of parental immunity in this State for a civil wrongful-death action by the personal representative of a decedent child against the child's parent where the parent willfully and intentionally inflicted *146 the injury that caused the child's death. As in Hurst, supra, "in the interest of preserving the unqualified right of parents to reasonably discipline their children," 539 So. 2d  at 266, we require that the proof of the alleged willful and intentional nature of the injury that caused the child's death be tested under the clear-and-convincing-evidence standard rather than the substantial-evidence standard.
Accordingly, the judgment of the trial court is affirmed with respect to Newman's wrongful-death claims based on negligence and wantonness; the judgment is reversed with respect to Newman's wrongful-death claim based upon willful and intentional conduct, to the extent that claim implicates a willful and intentional injury, and the cause is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
AFFIRMED IN PART; REVERSED IN PART; AND REMANDED.
JOHNSTONE and WOODALL, JJ., concur.
HOUSTON and HARWOOD, JJ., concur in the result.
LYONS, J., concurs in the result in part and dissents in part.
MOORE, C.J., and SEE, BROWN, and STUART, JJ., dissent.
HARWOOD, Justice (concurring in the result).
I concur in the result. I would prefer that the exception recognized today to the parental-immunity doctrine require only that the parental conduct in question, whether negligent, wanton, or willful and intentional, result in the death of the minor. The doctrine does not preclude an emancipated or adult child from suing a parent in tort, in recognition of the cessation of parent-child reciprocal rights and duties upon a child's emancipation or reaching adulthood. What more final cessation of those rights and duties could there be than that occasioned by death? Accordingly, I would go further than the per curiam opinion and hold that any wrongful-death action predicated on the death of a minor could be brought against his or her parent or parents pursuant to Ala.Code 1975, § 6-5-391.
HOUSTON, J., concurs.
LYONS, Justice (concurring in the result in part and dissenting in part).
I concur in the result in that portion of the per curiam opinion reversing the trial court's judgment so as to permit the action to proceed as to Newman's wrongful-death claim based on willful and intentional conduct. For the reasons set forth below, I dissent from that portion of the per curiam opinion affirming the trial court's judgment dismissing the claims based on negligence and wantonness.
The genesis of the parental-immunity doctrine is an opinion of the Supreme Court of Mississippi in Hewellette v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (1891), abrogated on other grounds, Glaskox ex rel. Denton v. Glaskox, 614 So. 2d 906 (Miss.1992). The per curiam opinion quotes that portion of Hewellette in which the court observed that if the relationship of parent and child has been finally dissolved, "then it may be the child could successfully maintain an action against the parent for personal injuries." 68 Miss. at 711, 9 So.  at 887. Continuing, the Mississippi court noted, "But so long as the parent is under obligation to care for, guide, and control, and the child is under reciprocal obligation to aid and comfort and obey, no such action as this can be maintained." 68 Miss. at 711, 9 So.  at 887.
The per curiam opinion states that "the death of the child removes the parental *147 interests the doctrine was intended to protect." 872 So. 2d  at 145. One might assume that the death of a parent would have the same effect. However, the Mississippi court must have contemplated dissolution of the relationship of parent and child by some mechanism other than death when it made the foregoing observation about when an action by a child could be maintained against the parent. This is so because in the case before the Supreme Court of Mississippi, a minor daughter was attempting to sue the estate of her deceased mother; the court, notwithstanding the absence of an ongoing parent-child relationship, refused to permit the action to proceed. Therefore, the denial of immunity in Hewellette could not have been based upon a public policy against such actions only in instances where there existed the possibility of a viable parent-and-child relationship at the time of the pendency of the action. I conclude that the public policy the Mississippi court was protecting related to the need to shield the parent from liability as to decisions made while the parent was under a duty to protect, care for, and control the child, and the child was under a concomitant duty to aid, comfort, and obey the parent. In this setting, the Mississippi court's standard should be read as follows:
This Court, in Hurst v. Capitell, 539 So. 2d 264 (Ala.1989), embraced an exception to the parental-immunity doctrine in instances where a child can prove by clear and convincing evidence sexual abuse by the parent. The Court noted that "the harm to the family fabric has already occurred through that abuse." 539 So. 2d  at 266. Could we not just as easily say that harm to the family fabric would occur through a brutal assault not involving sexual abuse? I am not persuaded that "harm to the family fabric" or the termination of the parent-child relationship by death are meaningful bases upon which to chip away at the parental-immunity doctrine.
I prefer to view the rationale for creating the parental-immunity doctrine as a means of protecting the parent in the discharge of his or her duties from second-guessing in subsequent litigation, where hindsight is always crystal clear. Under this view, an after-the-fact analysis of whether there has been "harm to the family fabric" or whether either the parent or the child or both are dead does not offer meaningful justification for reconsidering the wisdom of applying the parental-immunity doctrine to a given situation.
I would prefer to address the prospect for exceptions by formulating a standard sufficient to protect the child when a parent causes injury under circumstances where no reasonable person could expect immunity from the consequences of his or her action, such as where the conduct had been made a felony by the Legislature or is a misdemeanor with respect to conduct directed toward children below an age limit that is irrelevant to the duties imposed by the parent-child relationship. See, e.g., § 13A-6-67, Ala.Code 1975, defining the Class A misdemeanor of second-degree sexual abuse as occurring when a person 19 years old or older subjects another person who is less than 16 years old, but no more than 12 years old, to sexual contact.
Under the above-stated standard, a parent acting in good faith could discipline a child, yet remain secure in the knowledge that only the most egregious acts committed *148 in the course of parenting would expose him or her to the prospect of civil liability in an action brought on behalf of a child. We would thereby recognize the wisdom in permitting a parent to discipline a child without concern over subsequently being required to answer in court for what the child deems excessive corporal punishment. Likewise, negligence not amounting to criminal negligence (§ 13A-2-2(4), Ala.Code 1975) or other breach of duty not amounting to recklessness (§ 13A-2-2(3)) would not become the basis for a civil action, even where the parent-child relationship has been terminated by the child's death. On the other hand, conduct constituting the felonies of manslaughter (§ 13A-6-3, Ala.Code 1975) or criminally negligent homicide (§ 13A-6-4) would not be subject to the defense of parental immunity in a civil action against the parent.
The allegations of the complaint in this action, if proven, would constitute the criminal offense of murder (§ 13A-6-2, Ala.Code 1975). As previously noted, I therefore concur in the result as to the per curiam opinion's reversal of the trial court's judgment dismissing Newman's wrongful-death claim based on willful and intentional conduct. I dissent from that portion of the per curiam opinion affirming the trial court's judgment dismissing the claims alleging negligence and wantonness, because the facts in this case relating to the Coles' negligence or wantonness could be determined to be sufficient to fall under the heading of the felony offenses of either manslaughter or criminally negligent homicide. Under these circumstances, no reasonable person could expect immunity from the consequences of his or her action, and the doctrine of parental immunity should not bar the action.
I agree with the per curiam opinion's insistence upon a standard of proof by clear and convincing evidence in instances where the defense of parental immunity is rejected. I would require the trial court to apply this standard of proof to the elements of the analogous crime in the Alabama Code.
MOORE, Chief Justice (dissenting).
I must dissent from the per curiam opinion because this Court appears to have created a right in the estate of a minor child to maintain a wrongful-death action against his parent. Such a right does not exist under the law of this State, and the maintenance of a tort action by a minor child (or his estate) against a parent does not exist under the common law. This is a tragic case in which the wrongful death of a minor child cries out for redress. But it is the criminal law that has consistently been the source of punishment for any wrong committed by a parent against a child. One of the defendants in this case, John Cole, was found guilty of manslaughter by a jury in criminal court and faces the punishment prescribed by law for his actions.
With regard to the civil liability of a parent for wrongs committed against a minor child, the parental-immunity doctrine first recognized in Owens v. Auto Mutual Indemnity Co., 235 Ala. 9, 177 So. 133 (Ala.1937), has been the precedent of this State. According to Hurst v. Capitell, 539 So. 2d 264, 265 (Ala.1989): "The parental immunity doctrine had its genesis in the United States in Hewellette v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (1891)." But, in fact, a precursor to the doctrine appeared 36 years before Hewellette when the Supreme Court of Texas held:
In 1984, in Hill v. Giordano, 447 So. 2d 164 (Ala.1984), the Alabama Supreme Court specifically rejected an attempt to abolish or modify the parental-immunity doctrine that had existed in Alabama since 1937, stating that "any modification or abolition of the parental immunity doctrine should be left to the prerogative of the legislature." 447 So. 2d  at 164.
However, the per curiam opinion today rejects Hill, stating that "`[b]ecause the doctrine was judicially created, it is not exclusively a legislative issue and it may be judicially qualified,'" 872 So.2d at 142:
872 So. 2d  at 142 (quoting Hurst, 539 So. 2d  at 266, quoting in turn Lloyd v. Service Corp. of Alabama, Inc., 453 So. 2d 735 (Ala. 1984)).
But was the doctrine of parental immunity in fact a judicial creation? Even the per curiam opinion must recognize that for the past 65 years, Owens has been precedent in our law. The rule of precedent was stated clearly by Sir William Blackstone in his Commentaries on the common law:
1 Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries 69. The rule of precedent obviously has a valid purpose, i.e., to ensure the orderly rule of law by reliance upon former decisions, *150 solemnly declared and determined. I would submit that the rule in Owens was solemnly declared and determined and that it reflected a fixed principle of the common law, i.e., that the common law did not sanction a tort action by a minor child against his parent,[3] and the doctrine of parental immunity was therefore not judicially created. However, the common law did permit exceptions to precedent when "the former determination is most evidently contrary to reason; much more if it be contrary to the divine law." 1 Blackstone, Commentaries 70. The rule espoused in Owens contradicts neither reason nor the divine law. Simply stated, the per curiam opinion has disregarded precedent in favor of its own private judgment and has judicially created an exception to the doctrine of parental immunity.
The entire rationale of the Court's opinion rests on the premise that the parental-immunity doctrine was judicially created; nevertheless, the Court cannot and does not explain why there is a complete void in the history of the common law of tort actions even being attempted by a minor against a parent. As the Rhode Island Supreme Court stated in 1925:
Matarese v. Matarese, 47 R.I. 131, 134, 131 A. 198, 199 (1925).
An even earlier court in Washington recognized this absence at common law of a tort action by a minor against his parent:
Roller v. Roller, 37 Wash. 242, 245, 79 P. 788, 789 (1905), disapproved as too broad in Borst v. Borst, 41 Wash. 2d 642, 251 P.2d 149 (1952).
The history of the common law dictates that the immunity of a parent from a tort action by his minor child stems not from a judicially created doctrine, but from a well-reasoned and logical understanding that parents were afforded protection from civil actions by their minor children because of parental authority and a corresponding duty to care for, nurture, and administer discipline to those entrusted by God to their care. Parental authority to use force or restraint against a child in the exercise of discipline was recognized under the *151 common law.[4]
William E. McCurdy, Torts Between Persons in Domestic Relations, 43 Harvard L.Rev. 1030, 1076, 1078 (1929-30).
Sir Frederick Pollock, in the section entitled "Parental and Quasi-parental Authority" of his 1908 treatise on tort law in England, stated:
Sir Frederick Pollock, The Law of Torts: A Treatise on the Principles of Obligations Arising from Civil Wrongs in the Common Law, 127 (8th ed.1908). Should a parent act outside the bounds of reasonable discipline he would not be protected from criminal proceedings, but there are no instances to be found under the common law of civil actions in tort filed by a child against a parent.
Section 1-3-1, Ala.Code 1975, expressly adopts the common law of England unless it is specifically altered or repealed by legislative enactment. Because tort litigation between a child and his parent is not acknowledged in the common law and is not authorized by statute, it should not be created by judicial fiat. Yet, the per curiam opinion today carves out an exception to this long-standing rule, without specifying where the line between the growing exceptions[5] and the rule lies.
Roller, 37 Wash.  at 244, 79 P.  at 789. Beyond the obvious point that this case involves tragic facts in that the father's discipline clearly involved excessive force, the per curiam opinion fails to explain the impetus for making another exception to this long-standing and rational rule.
Owens and the opinions of other states make clear that the principle of parental immunity is logical. The per curiam opinion clearly agrees that the principle is logical because the opinion only modifies the principle; it does not abolish it. Furthermore, the doctrine is not unjust, because the criminal law is available as redress for any acts by a parent that threaten the life or health of his or her child. Finally, other states have written extensively in the judicial opinions of their highest court as to the validity of the parental-immunity doctrine and have explained the multiple rationales behind the rule. See, e.g., Roller, supra; Wick v. Wick, 192 Wis. 260, 260-61, 212 N.W. 787, 787-88 (1927) (action by child against parents for injuries incurred in automobile accident), abrogated by Goller v. White, 20 Wis.2d 402, 122 N.W.2d 193 (1963); Matarese, supra. Because history and logic support the parental-immunity doctrine, I see no reason to modify the rule in this case. Therefore, I dissent.
SEE, Justice, dissenting.
I respectfully dissent for the reason stated by Justice Stuart in her dissent, that Alabama's criminal laws sufficiently punish wrongdoing by a parent toward a child, and also because the public policy of Alabama has long favored the support of family life. In Hurst v. Capitell, 539 So. 2d 264, 265 (Ala.1989), citing with approval language from Hewellette v. George, 68 Miss. 703, 9 So. 885 (1891), this Court stated the general rule that "`[t]he peace of ... the families composing society, and a sound public policy, ... forbid to the minor child a right to appear in court in the assertion of a claim to civil redress for personal injuries suffered at the hands of the parent.'"
In Hurst, this Court carved out an exception to that rule for cases involving sexual abuse, because, this Court reasoned, in such a case the parent-child relationship had been irrevocably broken. Where a parent has caused the death of a child, it is true that the relationship between that parent and that child is similarly irrevocably broken; however, that child will not be the one to bring the legal action arising out of the death. The action necessarily will be brought by a representative, most probably the other parent. To encourage suits between surviving family members after the tragic death of a child would serve to further fray the family fabric when it is most susceptible to unraveling. I, therefore, dissent.
BROWN, Justice (dissenting).
I respectfully dissent. With one exceptionwhen a child alleges that he has been sexually abused by a parentthis Court has recognized the doctrine of parental immunity for almost 66 years. Owens v. Auto Mut. Indem. Co., 235 Ala. 9, 177 So. 133 (1937). Given our long-standing adherence to the doctrine, I believe any additional "modification or abolition of the parental immunity doctrine should be left to the prerogative of the legislature." Hill v. Giordano, 447 So. 2d 164, 164 (Ala. 1984).
John Cole, the father in this case, has been convicted of criminally negligent homicide, a violation of § 13A-6-4, Ala. Code 1975, for the death of his son Clinton. He has been sentenced to one year's imprisonment and has been ordered to pay a *153 $2,000 fine, a $1,000 assessment to the Crime Victims Compensation Fund, restitution, and court costs. The Court of Criminal Appeals has affirmed his conviction. Cole v. State, (No. CR-01-0911, October 18, 2002) ___ So.2d ____ (Ala.Crim.App.2002)(table).
I believe that, rather than judicially creating a new cause of action, we should continue to punish under the criminal laws of this state a parent whose willful and intentional injury results in the death of his child.
STUART, Justice (dissenting).
I respectfully dissent. I consider it unwise to create the exception to the parental-immunity doctrine advocated by the per curiam opinion in this case. I believe the criminal statutes in this State are adequate to deter a parent from engaging in intentional conduct directed at a child that results in the child's death.
[1]  Six statesHawaii, Nevada, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Vermont, and the District of Columbiahave declined to adopt the doctrine. See Rousey v. Rousey, 528 A.2d 416 (D.C.1987); Petersen v. City &amp; County of Honolulu, 51 Haw. 484, 462 P.2d 1007 (1969); Rupert v. Stienne, 90 Nev. 397, 528 P.2d 1013 (1974); Nuelle v. Wells, 154 N.W.2d 364 (N.D.1967); Kloppenburg v. Kloppenburg, 66 S.D. 167, 280 N.W. 206 (1938); Elkington v. Foust, 618 P.2d 37 (Utah 1980); and Wood v. Wood, 135 Vt. 119, 370 A.2d 191 (1977). Eleven statesArizona, California, Minnesota, Missouri, New Mexico, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and South Carolinaadopted the doctrine at some point but subsequently abolished it. See Broadbent v. Broadbent, 184 Ariz. 74, 907 P.2d 43 (1995); Hartman v. Hartman, 821 S.W.2d 852 (Mo.1991); Shearer v. Shearer, 18 Ohio St.3d 94, 480 N.E.2d 388 (1985); Winn v. Gilroy, 296 Or. 718, 681 P.2d 776 (1984); Guess v. Gulf Ins. Co., 96 N.M. 27, 627 P.2d 869 (1981); Anderson v. Stream, 295 N.W.2d 595 (Minn.1980); Elam v. Elam, 275 S.C. 132, 268 S.E.2d 109 (1980); Gibson v. Gibson, 3 Cal. 3d 914, 92 Cal. Rtr. 288, 479 P.2d 648 (1971); Falco v. Pados, 444 Pa. 372, 282 A.2d 351 (1971); Gelbman v. Gelbman, 23 N.Y.2d 434, 297 N.Y.S.2d 529, 245 N.E.2d 192 (1969); and Briere v. Briere, 107 N.H. 432, 224 A.2d 588 (1966). The remaining 33 states all retain the doctrine in some form, usually with one or more significant exceptions.
[2]  In Lander the Supreme Court of Vermont stated:

"The parent, unquestionably, is answerable only for malice or wicked motives or an evil heart in punishing his child. This great and to some extent irresponsible power of control and correction is invested in the parent by nature and necessity. It springs from the natural relation of parent and child. It is felt rather as a duty than a power. From the intimacy and nature of the relation, and the necessary character of family government, the law suffers no intrusion upon the authority of the parent, and the privacy of domestic life, unless in extreme cases of cruelty and injustice."
32 Vt. at 122. In "extreme cases of cruelty and injustice," the criminal law existed to address the problem.
[3]  In a case dealing with a tort action brought by a child against a parent, the North Carolina Supreme Court stated:

"There is no authority at the common law for an action like the present; and while some may not regard the sources of the common law with reverence or with respect, yet, in its truest and most comprehensive sense, the common law is the richest heritage of the race. It is the embodiment of usage and general customs, common to all mankind; it is grounded in natural justice, and it is based upon rules of conduct which have been sanctioned by common consent and approved by the wisdom and experience of the ages."
Small v. Morrison, 185 N.C. 577, 586, 118 S.E. 12, 16 (1923) (action against father on behalf of infant child seeking recovery for injuries to infant allegedly caused by father's negligent operation of automobile).
[4]  In an 1846 case in which a father brought an action alleging false arrest, the defendants asserted that they had had the father arrested because they had seen him striking a child. The plaintiff-father responded by pleading that the child was his minor son, still domiciled under the paternal roof and under the care and control of his father, and that he had behaved disrespectfully and had refused to obey his father's lawful commands. Winterburn v. Brooks, 175 Eng. Rep. 7 (1846).

In an 1828 case, Denison v. Cornwell, 17 Serg. &amp; Rawle 374 (Pa.1828), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated that a child could not bring an action against a parent for work, labor, and service done. Interestingly, the Court described such an action as a son's "treat[ing] his parent as a stranger." 17 Serg. &amp; Rawle at 378.
[5]  In Hurst, this Court opened the door with its first exception to blanket parental immunity in civil cases when it held that the doctrine would no longer apply in cases involving the sexual abuse of a child by a parent.