Title: MATTER OF INQUIRY INTO J L B
Citation: N/A
Docket Number: 14399
State: Montana
Issuer: Montana Supreme Court
Date: May 16, 1979

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF MONTANA IN THE MATTER OF INQUIRY INTO J.L.B. YOUTH IN NEED OF CARE. Appeal from: District Court of the Fourth Judicial District, Honorable E. Gardner Brownlee, Judge presiding. Counsel of Record: For Appellant: Klaus Sitte argued, Legal Services, Missoula, Montana For Respondent: Robert L. Deschamps, 111, County Attorney, Missoula Montana Karen Townsend, Deputy County Attorney, argued, Missoula, Montana Suzann Weiland, Deputy County Attorney, argued, Missoula, Montana Dennis Lind argued, Missoula, Montana Mary B. Troland appeared, Assistant Attorney General, Helena, Montana David Scott, SRS appeared, Helena, Montana Submitted: February 1, 1979 M r . ~ u s t i c e Gene B. Daly d e l i v e r e d t h e Opinion of t h e Court. A mother b r i n g s t h i s appeal from t h e conclusions and judgment of t h e D i s t r i c t Court, Fourth J u d i c i a l D i s t r i c t , which declared h e r daughter a neglected c h i l d , and g r a n t e d permanent custody over t h e c h i l d t o t h e Department of S o c i a l and R e h a b i l i t a t i o n S e r v i c e s with a u t h o r i t y t o consent t o h e r adoption. The mother contends f i r s t t h a t s e c t i o n 10-1301(2) ( a ) and ( b ) , R.C.M. 1947, now s e c t i o n 41-3-102(2) ( a ) and ( b ) MCA, d e f i n i n g "abuse" and " n e g l e c t " w e r e u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y vague a s a p p l i e d t o her. Second s h e contends t h a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e standard of proof t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e S t a t e i n a termination of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s proceeding i s t h e " c l e a r and convincing" s t a n d a r d , r a t h e r than t h e "preponderance of evidence" standard. The mother's t h i r d c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t t h e D i s t r i c t Court abused i t s d i s c r e t i o n i n removing t h e c h i l d permanently from her mother because t h a t d e c i s i o n w a s n o t supported by even a preponderance of t h e evidence. W e a f f i r m t h e d e c i s i o n of t h e D i s t r i c t Court. The c h i l d was born on May 16, 1975, when h e r mother w a s seventeen y e a r s o l d . H e r p a r e n t s w e r e n o t married a t t h e t i m e of her b i r t h , nor have they e v e r been married. They d i d l i v e t o g e t h e r on a f a i r l y r e g u l a r b a s i s from s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c h i l d ' s b i r t h u n t i l December 1977. I n her f i f t h month of pregnancy t h e mother was r e f e r r e d t o a P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e nurse, Mary XcCall, by a high school counselor. From t h a t t i m e on t h e mother and c h i l d have been f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t e d by a v a r i e t y of h e a l t h and w e l f a r e o f f i c i a l s o f f e r i n g a s s i s t a n c e and i n s t r u c t i o n i n c h i l d c a r e . Mary McCall t e s t i f i e d t h a t s h e m e t w i t h t h e mother and arranged t o have a s o c i a l worker assigned t o h e r . s h e f u r t h e r arranged f o r t h e mother t o m e e t w i t h an e l i g i b i l i t y t e c h n i c i a n t o provide a s s i s t a n c e i n r e c e i v i n g Iledicaid money f o r p r e n a t a l c a r e and arranged an appointment w i t h a physi- c i a n t o provide her w i t h t h a t c a r e . She a l s o r e f e r r e d t h e mother t o t h e W.I.C. program, a f e d e r a l n u t r i t i o n a l program f o r women, i n f a n t s , and c h i l d r e n , f o r p r e n a t a l n u t r i t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e . A s e n i o r s t u d e n t s o c i a l worker from t h e Univer- s i t y of Montana, Tricia W i l l i a m s , made weekly v i s i t s t o t h e mother from December 1974 u n t i l t h e c h i l d was born. The mother was l a t e r r e f e r r e d t o t h e "At-Risk Program" of t h e Missoula City-County Health Department, which a t t e m p t s t o i d e n t i f y mothers and c h i l d r e n t h a t w i l l be a t r i s k f o r p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h problems due t o p r e n a t a l o r d e l i v e r y compli- c a t i o n s . According t o Mary McCall, t h e mother was r e f e r r e d t o t h e program because s h e was under e i g h t e e n , had n o t had p r e n a t a l c a r e f o r t h e f i r s t f i v e months of h e r pregnancy, w a s unable t o r e a d o r w r i t e , had s u f f e r e d a kidney i n f e c t i o n and anemia during h e r pregnancy, and was unmarried. A s a r e s u l t of t h i s r e f e r r a l , Mary XcCall r e g u l a r l y v i s i t e d t h e mother a t h e r mother's home d u r i n g t h e summer of 1975 and learned of t h e baby's problem of s t a y i n g awake and c r y i n g most of t h e t i m e . I n McCall's judgment, t h e problem was caused by t h e i n f a n t ' s d i e t . H e r mother had p u t c e r e a l i n h e r formula, which McCall concluded was probably con- s t i p a t i n g t h e baby because s h e w a s t o o young t o handle s o l i d food. McCall a l s o found t h e mother t o be depressed and anxious from l a c k of s l e e p . She a s s i s t e d h e r w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of formula f o r h e r baby, demonstrating each s t e p r a t h e r than leaving w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s because t h e mother was unable t o read. 14cCall a l s o helped t h e mother with an a p p l i c a t i o n f o r a low-income housing p r o j e c t i n Missoula when she i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e f o r independence from her home. The mother obtained t h e low-income housing and l i v e d i n h e r own apartment i n t h e f a l l of 1975. Another s e n i o r s t u d e n t from t h e U n i v e r s i t y made a t o t a l of 22 v i s i t s w i t h t h e mother t h a t f a l l t o a s s i s t w i t h c a r e f o r h e r c h i l d . During t h a t t i m e , PllcCall received a r e f e r r a l from t h e W.I.C. program r e q u e s t i n g n u t r i t i o n a l counseling f o r t h e mother, and v i s i t e d h e r once again. The mother had been feeding t h e c h i l d soda pop r a t h e r than j u i c e , t e l l i n g McCall t h a t j u i c e gave t h e baby d i a r r h e a . McCall t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e mother's apartment was messy, w i t h empty beer cans l y i n g around, sacks of garbage on t h e f l o o r and d i r t y d i s h e s i n t h e s i n k . She a l s o noted t h a t t h e mother made no e f f o r t t o pick up h e r daughter when s h e c r i e d , and t h a t t h e baby appeared i r r i t a b l e . PlcCall was t o l d by t h e apartment manager t h a t t h e baby had been c r y i n g a l l n i g h t , b u t t h e mother denied t h a t claim when asked by McCall. McCall a l s o had s e v e r a l v i s i t s w i t h t h e baby's f a t h e r , who was o c c a s i o n a l l y w i t h t h e mother during her v i s i t s . H e t o l d McCall t h a t he hoped t o marry t h e mother sometime, b u t never had d e f i n i t e p l a n s . H e t o l d h e r t h a t h e had f a i l e d one armed s e r v i c e s test b u t was hoping t o t a k e another s o t h a t he could e n t e r t h e m i l i t a r y and then marry t h e mother. The marriage always appeared t o be c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e f a t h e r ' s a b i l i t y t o o b t a i n a s t a b l e job and home, b u t t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s never m a t e r i a l i z e d . McCall concluded from h e r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e mother t h a t she was n o t r e t a i n i n g t h e b a s i c c h i l d c a r e information given her: "When I would v i s i t h e r , I u s u a l l y r e i t e r a t e d t h e same k i n d s of t h i n g s about n u t r i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e need f o r a r e g u l a r physician f o r [ t h e baby], t h e need f o r immunizations t o p r o t e c t [ t h e baby] from preventable childhood d i s e a s e s and many t i m e s when I would v i s i t h e r , t h i s m a t e r i a l seemed t o be new a s i f s h e had never heard it before. She i n d i c a t e d t o m e t h a t s h e was n o t r e t a i n i n g t h i s information t h a t I had been g i v i n g her." I n A p r i l 1976 t h e p a r e n t s brought t h e baby t o D r . K i t Johnson, a p e d i a t r i c i a n , following t h e i r attempts t o g i v e t h e baby a "green d i s h soap" enema. According t o t h e par- e n t s , t h e baby had s u f f e r e d c o n s t i p a t i o n f o r t h r e e days p r i o r t o t h e attempted enema. D r . Johnson t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e baby appeared " a c u t e l y i l l " and "screamed of pain." H e had her admitted t o a h o s p i t a l where she stayed overnight. Mary McCall had l i t t l e formal c o n t a c t w i t h t h e mother and c h i l d a f t e r February 1976 when they moved from h e r geographical j u r i s d i c t i o n . However, s h e continued t o have some c o n t a c t . On August 2 4 , 1976, t h e mother appeared i n an a l l e y behind t h e Missoula County Health and Welfare Building a s McCall r e t u r n e d from a home v i s i t . She had t h e baby w i t h h e r and t o l d Piccall t h a t s h e was going t o have a nervous breakdown; t h a t s h e and t h e f a t h e r had had a f i g h t ; t h a t she needed a b a b y s i t t e r f o r h e r daughter f o r two weeks; t h a t she had no money o r food f o r t h e baby; t h a t t h e f a t h e r was d r i n k i n g heavily; t h a t she was angered by t h e baby's con- tinuous c r y i n g ; and t h a t she was a f r a i d s h e was going t o h u r t t h e c h i l d . The baby was unwashed and c a r r i e d a b o t t l e o f s p o i l e d , curdled milk. McCall took them i n t o t h e Department of S o c i a l S e r v i c e s t o make care arrangements f o r mother and daughter. With two s o c i a l w e l f a r e workers t h e r e , Gwen P e t e r s o n and Arlene Grossman, McCall agreed t h a t t h e baby should be placed i n temporary f o s t e r c a r e u n t i l her mother was again a b l e t o t a k e c a r e of her. The mother went along w i t h t h i s d e c i s i o n , and t h e c h i l d was temporarily placed. The following day, however, t h e mother reappeared, demanded h e r c h i l d ' s r e t u r n , and accused t h e w e l f a r e s t a f f of s t e a l i n g h e r daughter. A f t e r some d i s c u s s i o n w i t h Peterson, Grossman, and McCall, t h e mother agreed t o placement f o r h e r c h i l d and h e r s e l f w i t h a family i n C l i n t o n , I:Iontana, where t h e mother h e r s e l f had once been a f o s t e r c h i l d . She later signed a s t i p u l a t i o n s t a t i n g t h e t e r m s of t h a t agreement, which became t h e b a s i s of a temporary custody o r d e r signed by District Court Judge E. Gardner Brownlee on September 3, 1976. The Baker family, with whom mother and daughter were t o s t a y , agreed t o s e r v e a s p a r e n t i n g models, helping t h e mother t o understand h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . I n October 1976, t h e mother and h e r c h i l d r e t u r n e d t o Missoula t o l i v e w i t h t h e f a t h e r . H e had obtained a job and a t r a i l e r house, b u t soon l o s t t h e job due t o excessive drinking. Through t h e f a l l months t h e mother missed s e v e r a l W.I.C. appointments a t which she was t o r e c e i v e high p r o t e i n foods. She d i d , however, r e c e i v e in-home a s s i s t a n c e from B e a t r i c e Fournier, a home a t t e n d a n t f o r t h e Nissoula County Welfare Department. Fournier helped t h e mother p l a n menus and, r e a l i z i n g h e r i n a b i l i t y t o r e a d , brought h e r p i c t u r e s of food groups t o a i d i n her planning. She t e s t i f i e d , however, t h a t t h e mother f a i l e d t o comprehend t h e need f o r a balanced d i e t and t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e n o t g e t t i n g through t o h e r . I n November 1976 Arlene Grossinan took t h e c h i l d t o D r . Johnson t o examine a stomach r a s h . D r . Johnson concluded t h a t t h e r a s h was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t b u t diagnosed an i n f e c t i o n i n both of t h e baby's e a r s . He prescribed an a n t i b i o t i c , b u t Arlene Grossman discovered t h a t t h e mother f a i l e d t o g i v e her daughter t h e prescribed amount a t t h e appropriate t i m e s . Nor d i d t h e mother r e t u r n t o D r . Johnson i n two weeks f o r a checkup on t h e c h i l d ' s e a r s a s she had been i n s t r u c t e d . On January 18, 1977, t h e c h i l d had another appointment with D r . Johnson. A t t h a t time she exhibited physical and emotional s i g n s which D r . Johnson concluded required f o s t e r placement: ". . . a t t h i s t i m e t h e c h i l d was very r e s t l e s s and i r r i t a b l e and she was b i t i n g on her mother a s her mother p u t it. She appeared t h i n , s l i g h t l y swollen abdomen, her mother s t a t e d t h a t she had had inadequate food f o r t h e last month because of i n s u f f i c i e n t amount of money, s t a t e d she was n o t l i v i n g with [ t h e f a t h e r ] , s t a t e d [ t h e c h i l d ] had a cold and n o t feeding w e l l f o r t h e last month . . . The abdomen was s l i g h t l y distended, t h e e a r s , t h e r i g h t was s l i g h t l y d u l l i n d i c a t i n g t h a t maybe some r e s i - dual i n f e c t i o n . . . I thought a t t h i s time t h e c h i l d was maybe s u f f e r i n g from malnutri- t i o n and maternal inadequacy, unable t o cope with t h e c h i l d . " D r . Johnson f u r t h e r t e s t i f i e d t h a t h i s examination showed t h a t t h e c h i l d had l o s t weight s i n c e t h e previous November. I n February 1977 D r . Johnson again examined t h e c h i l d when her temporary f o s t e r mother, Marlene Donnelly, brought her t o him. The ear i n f e c t i o n had n o t y e t c l e a r e d up b u t otherwise her physical condition appeared normal. M r s . Donnelly described t o him, however, t h a t t h e c h i l d had a strong tendency t o scavenge f o r food, e s p e c i a l l y t o e a t o u t of household garbage. D r . Johnson t e s t i f i e d t h a t such a tendency bears a high c o r r e l a t i o n t o food deprivation. H e reported h i s f i n d i n g s t o t h e Missoula County Welfare Depart- ment and t e s t i f i e d l a t e r t h a t t h e c h i l d d i d n o t r e c e i v e adequate p a r e n t a l c a r e . Based upon t h e mother's and d a u g h t e r ' s p a s t r e c o r d of d i f f i c u l t i e s , and D r . Johnson's recommendations, Carol LaCasse, a Missoula County s o c i a l worker, f i l e d a p e t i t i o n f o r temporary i n v e s t i g a t i v e a u t h o r i t y and p r o t e c t i v e ser- v i c e s . The D i s t r i c t Court granted t h e p e t i t i o n on January 19, 1977, a u t h o r i z i n g t h e Department of S o c i a l and Rehabili- t a t i o n S e r v i c e s t o t a k e temporary custody of t h e c h i l d . During t h e n e x t s e v e r a l weeks SRS continued t o a s s i s t t h e p a r e n t s i n l e a r n i n g p a r e n t i n g s k i l l s , b u t w i t h r e s u l t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e experienced e a r l i e r . I n p a r t i c u l a r , Carol LaCasse sought p a r e n t i n g t r a i n i n g f o r t h e mother. She placed t h e c h i l d i n t h e home of an experienced f o s t e r mother, Marilyn F e r n e l i u s , who served a s a p a r e n t i n g model f o r t h e mother during January 1977. The mother v i s i t e d M r s . F e r n e l i u s on weekdays and discussed and planned menus w i t h h e r . M r s . F e r n e l i u s a l s o i n s t r u c t e d t h e mother i n d i s c i p l i n i n g her daughter b u t t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e mother was incapable of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e baby, t h a t i n e f f e c t t h e c h i l d c o n t r o l l e d h e r mother. M r s . F e r n e l i u s t e s t i f i e d t h a t she observed t h e same a t t r a c t i o n t o garbage which Marlene Donnelly l a t e r r e p o r t e d t o D r . Johnson. ~ f t e r s e v e r a l weeks Marilyn F e r n e l i u s requested t h a t t h e c h i l d be placed elsewhere because she was a l r e a d y providing f o s t e r c a r e f o r a teenage g i r l who r e q u i r e d a g r e a t d e a l of h e r t i m e . Within a few weeks t h e c h i l d was placed i n t h e f o s t e r care of M r s . Sadie Milward where s h e remained u n t i l t h e t i m e of t h e hearing on t h e p e t i t i o n t o g r a n t permanent custody t o SRS. While t h e c h i l d stayed w i t h t h e Milwards, t h e p a r e n t s v i s i t e d t h e i r daughter and took her with them a t times b u t returning her t h e same day. The record, however, does not r e f l e c t t h a t e i t h e r n a t u r a l parent was provided with f u r t h e r p a r e n t a l t r a i n i n g s e r v i c e s during t h i s time. Following t h e c h i l d ' s temporary removal t h e c h i l d and parents had psychological examinations by t h r e e psycholo- g i s t s , D r . Richard Ball, D r . Herman Walters and D r . William S t r a t f o r d . D r s . B a l l and Walters, who examined t h e parents, and D r . S t r a t f o r d , who examined t h e c h i l d , a l l concluded t h a t SRS should seek permanent adoptive custody because of t h e general inadequacy of t h e parents, t h e parents' apparent i n a b i l i t y t o change, and because of t h e c h i l d ' s s p e c i a l needs. O n t h e o t h e r hand, a p s y c h i a t r i s t , D r . Yoel Hoell, who a l s o examined t h e mother, concluded t h a t he could f i n d no p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which would absolutely prevent her from being an adequate parent. He t e s t i f i e d t h a t many people with r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s of i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e ade- quate parents. A p e d i a t r i c i a n , D r . Daniel Harper, saw t h e mother and c h i l d on s e v e r a l occasions a s D r . Johnson's successor a f t e r t h e c h i l d had been placed i n temporary SRS custody. H e t e s t i f i e d t h a t following t h e temporary custody order t h e c h i l d while i n t h e presence of her mother seemed more "bonded" t o her f o s t e r mother than t o her n a t u r a l mother, and t h a t t h e c h i l d d i d not look t o her own mother a s an "orientating" o r "guiding" force. D r . Harper a l s o t e s t i f i e d t h a t D r . Johnson's concerns about growth d e f i c i e n c i e s w e r e probably not a source of g r e a t concern, s i n c e it w a s l a t e r c l e a r t h a t t h e c h i l d was of normal s h o r t s t a t u r e . Following t h e hearing on t h e p e t i t i o n f o r permanent custody, t h e D i s t r i c t Court issued i t s findings, conclusions and judgment. The c o u r t found t h a t t h e mother's l i m i t e d education and o t h e r l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s and t h e f a t h e r ' s excessive d r i n k i n g had r e s u l t e d i n "improper parenting" and had " s u b j e c t e d t h e minor c h i l d t o p h y s i c a l and emotional n e g l e c t a s w e l l as o t h e r evidence of improper t r a i n i n g . " I t found f u r t h e r t h a t t h e p a r e n t s w e r e unable o r unwilling t o provide t h e necessary t r a i n i n g and guidance f o r t h e i r c h i l d ; t h a t SRS was r e q u i r e d t o p l a c e t h e c h i l d i n f o s t e r c a r e p r i m a r i l y because of a l a c k of and need f o r emotional develop- ment; t h a t f o s t e r placement had r e s u l t e d i n " g r e a t improve- ment" i n h e r development; t h a t t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of t h e c h i l d would n o t be served by r e t u r n i n g h e r t o one o r both p a r e n t s because t h e n a t u r a l mother "appears incompetent t o f a c e and handle t h e problems presented t o p a r e n t s by c h i l - dren i n t h e i r advancing y e a r s " ; and t h a t t h e c h i l d ' s b e s t i n t e r e s t s could only be m e t by h e r adoption " i n t o a home where t h e p a r e n t s have demonstrated t h e i r a b i l i t y " t o r a i s e and guide a " c h i l d w i t h problems." The c o u r t concluded f i r s t t h a t t h e c h i l d was neglected and second t h a t h e r b e s t i n t e r e s t s and f u t u r e w e l f a r e could only be served by g r a n t i n g permanent adoptive custody t o t h e Department of S o c i a l and R e h a b i l i t a t i o n S e r v i c e s . ~ a s e d upon t h e s e f i n d i n g s and conclusions, t h e c o u r t g r a n t e d custody t o SRS w i t h a u t h o r i t y t o consent t o h e r adoption. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y -- of t h e Neglect S t a t u t e A s - Applied The mother's f i r s t contention i s t h a t s e c t i o n 10- 1301(2) ( a ) and (b) , R.C.M. 1947, now s e c t i o n 41-3-102 ( 2 ) ( a ) and ( b ) MCA, was u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y a p p l i e d t o terminate h e r p a r e n t a l r i g h t s . H e r argument i s t h a t because s e c t i o n 10- 1 3 0 1 ( 2 ) , which d e f i n e s "abuse" and " n e g l e c t " , f a i l s t o s t a t e any s p e c i f i c harms t o a c h i l d which might j u s t i f y termina- t i o n of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s , it i s s u b j e c t t o overly-broad i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and a r b i t r a r y a p p l i c a t i o n . She contends t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e c h i l d i s n o t s u f f e r i n g any p a r t i c u l a r harm which r e q u i r e s state i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o family l i f e b u t t h a t t h e S t a t e merely p e r c e i v e s t h a t t h e c h i l d would be b e t t e r o f f i n some home o t h e r than her n a t u r a l mother's. This, she asserts, i s an inadequate j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r termination of h e r p a r e n t a l r i g h t s . This Court has recognized t h a t family i n t e g r i t y i s a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d i n t e r e s t . Guardianship of Doney (1977) I Mont. , 570 P.2d 575, 577, 34 St.Rep. 1107, 1110. A s t h e United S t a t e s Supreme Court held i n S t a n l e y v . I l l i n o i s (1972), 405 U.S. 645, 651, 92 S.Ct. "The Court has f r e q u e n t l y emphasized t h e i m - p o r t a n c e of t h e family. The r i g h t s t o conceive and t o r a i s e o n e ' s c h i l d r e n have been deemed ' e s s e n t i a l , ' Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, 399 (1923), ' b a s i c c i v i l r i g h t s of man,' Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535, 541 (1942), and ' [ r l i g h t s f a r more precious . . . than p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , ' May v. Anderson, 345 U.S. 528, 533 (1953). 'It i s c a r d i n a l with u s t h a t t h e cus- tody, c a r e and n u r t u r e of t h e c h i l d r e s i d e f i r s t i n t h e p a r e n t s , whose primary f u n c t i o n and f r e e - dom i n c l u d e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r o b l i g a t i o n s t h e s t a t e can n e i t h e r supply nor h i n d e r . ' P r i n c e v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158, 166 (1944). The i n t e g r i t y of t h e family u n i t has found protec- t i o n i n t h e Due Process Clause of t h e Fourteenth Amendment, Meyer v. Nebraska, supra, a t 399, t h e Equal P r o t e c t i o n Clause of t h e Fourteen Amend- ment, Skinner v. Oklahoma, supra, a t 541, and t h e Ninth Amendment, Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479, 496 (1965) (Goldberg, J., concur- r i n g ) . " The mother contends t h a t s e c t i o n 10-1301(2) w i l l inade- q u a t e l y p r o t e c t t h e s e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s i f it i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o a u t h o r i z e a termination of her r i g h t s a s a p a r e n t i n t h i s case. The s t a t u t e i t s e l f merely d e f i n e s "abuse" o r " n e g l e c t " : (2) 'Abuse' o r ' n e g l e c t ' means: " ( a ) t h e commission o r omission of any a c t o r a c t s which m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t t h e normal p h y s i c a l o r emotional development of a youth. Any exces- s i v e p h y s i c a l i n j u r y , sexual a s s a u l t , o r f a i l u r e t o t h r i v e , t a k i n g i n t o account t h e age and medi- cal h i s t o r y of t h e youth, s h a l l be presumed t o be nonaccidental and t o ' m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t ' t h e normal development of t h e youth. " ( b ) t h e commission o r omission of any act o r a c t s by any person i n t h e s t a t u s of p a r e n t , guardian, o r custodian who thereby and by rea- son of p h y s i c a l o r mental i n c a p a c i t y o r o t h e r cause r e f u s e s o r , w i t h s t a t e and p r i v a t e a i d and a s s i s t a n c e i s unable, t o d i s c h a r g e t h e d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r proper and necessary s u b s i s t e n c e , education, medical, o r any o t h e r c a r e necessary f o r t h e y o u t h ' s physi- cal, moral, and emotional well-being." S i n c e a f i n d i n g of "abuse o r n e g l e c t " however g i v e s t h e District Court j u r i s d i c t i o n t o t e r m i n a t e p a r e n t a l r i g h t s , Guardianship of Doney, 570 P.2d a t 577, 34 St.Rep. a t 1110, t h e meaning a p p l i e d t o it i s t h e p a r e n t ' s only safeguard a g a i n s t u n j u s t i f i e d i n t r u s i o n i n t o t h e family u n i t . To i l l u s t r a t e h e r contention, t h e mother c o n t r a s t s t h e r e l a t i v e l y u n s p e c i f i c t e r m s contained i n s e c t i o n 10-1301(2) w i t h t h e more p r e c i s e standards proposed by t h e I n s t i t u t e of J u d i c i a l Administration-American Bar Association J o i n t Commission on J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e Standards i n i t s Standards R e l a t i n g t o Abuse and Neglect ( T e n t a t i v e D r a f t 1977) (IJA/ABA s t a n d a r d s ) . The IJA/ABA proposals a r e based upon a " s t r o n g presumption f o r p a r e n t a l autonomy i n c h i l d r e a r i n g , " and l i m i t " c o e r c i v e i n t e r v e n t i o n " t o p r o t e c t c h i l d r e n "only where t h e c h i l d i s s u f f e r i n g o r t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l s u f f e r , s e r i o u s harm." IJA/ABA Standards 1.1 and 1.3(A). The IJA/ABA p r o p o s a l s seek t o avoid unnecessary o r u n j u s t i f i e d i n t r u s i o n s i n t o family i n t e g r i t y by c l o s e l y d e f i n i n g t h e grounds f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t e r m s of s p e c i f i c , o b j e c t i v e , s e r i o u s harm t o t h e c h i l d . For example, a c o u r t may o r d e r in-home s u p e r v i s i o n o r remove a c h i l d from h i s o r h e r p a r e n t s i f : "A c h i l d has s u f f e r e d , o r t h e r e i s a substan- t i a l r i s k t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l imminently suf- f e r , p h y s i c a l harm causing disfigurement, impairment of b o d i l y functioning, o r o t h e r s e r i o u s p h y s i c a l i n j u r y a s a r e s u l t of condi- t i o n s c r e a t e d by h i s / h e r p a r e n t s o r by t h e f a i l u r e of t h e p a r e n t s t o adequately s u p e r v i s e o r p r o t e c t him/her; "A c h i l d i s s u f f e r i n g s e r i o u s emotional damage, evidenced by s e v e r e a n x i e t y , depression, o r withdrawal, o r untoward a g g r e s s i v e behavior toward s e l f o r o t h e r s , and t h e c h i l d ' s p a r e n t s a r e n o t w i l l i n g t o provide t r e a t m e n t f o r him/ her. " IJA/ABA Standards 2 . 1 (B) and (C) . The r a t i o n a l e behind t h e s e s t a n d a r d s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important t o t h e mother's p o s i t i o n because t h e District C o u r t ' s f i n d i n g s focused p r i n c i p a l l y on emotional r a t h e r than p h y s i c a l n e g l e c t of h e r daughter: ". . . t h e Department of S o c i a l and Rehabili- t a t i o n S e r v i c e s was r e q u i r e d t o p l a c e t h i s very young c h i l d i n f o s t e r homes p a r t i a l l y because of t h e c h i l d ' s p h y s i c a l needs b u t mostly be- cause t h e emotional development of t h e c h i l d w a s s o lacking t h a t t h e only chance f o r t h e c h i l d t o have a reasonable f u t u r e was t o p l a c e t h e c h i l d i n a home a b l e t o provide f o r i t s p h y s i c a l and emotional needs." (Emphasis added.) A s t h e mother p o i n t s o u t , vague abuse and n e g l e c t s t a t u t e s o f t e n r e s u l t i n a r b i t r a r y a p p l i c a t i o n when t h e p a r e n t s involved i n t h e a l l e g e d n e g l e c t a r e poor and unedu- c a t e d . Katz, Ambrosino, McGrath & Sawitsky, Legal Research on Child Abuse & Neglect: P a s t and F u t u r e , 11 Fam.L.Q. 151, 172-75 (1977); Wald, S t a t e I n t e r v e n t i o n on Behalf of "Ne- g l e c t e d " Children: Standards f o r Removal of Children from T h e i r Homes, Xonitoring t h e S t a t u s of Children i n F o s t e r Care, and Termination of P a r e n t a l Rights, 28 Stan.L.Rev. 623 (1976) (Wald 11); Wald, S t a t e I n t e r v e n t i o n on Behalf of "Neglected" Children: A Search f o r X e a l i s t i c Standards, 27 S t a n . ~ . ~ e v . 985 (1975) (Wald I ) ; Areen, I n t e r v e n t i o n Between P a r e n t and Child: A Reappraisal of t h e S t a t e ' s Role i n Child ~ b u s e and Neglect Cases, 6 3 Ge0.L.J. 887, 917-32 (1975) (Areen) . I t i s l i k e l y however t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t percentage of c h i l d n e g l e c t c a s e s involve m a t t e r s s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e s e n t one i n which t h e a l l e g e d n e g l e c t r e s u l t s n o t from t h e de- l i b e r a t e design of a p a r e n t , b u t r a t h e r from t h e p a r e n t ' s low mental o r emotional c a p a c i t y and low f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s . Wald I a t 1020-21; Areen a t 888; Dembitz, Welfare Home V i s i t s : Child v e r s u s P a r e n t s , 57 A.B.A.J. 871 (1971). P a r e n t s i n t h i s category are sometimes d e s c r i b e d a s "mar- g i n a l " people: " . . . they a r e c o n t i n u a l l y a t t h e border- l i n e of being a b l e t o s u s t a i n themselves--economically, emotionally, and mentally." Wald I a t 1021. A s B e a t r i c e Fournier described t h e mother i n t h i s c a s e , "Well, I t h i n k [ t h e mother] i s going t o have a hard enough t i m e t o t a k e c a r e of h e r s e l f . " A p a r e n t ' s a b i l i t y t o c a r e f o r himself o r h e r s e l f n a t u r a l l y a f f e c t s h i s o r h e r a b i l i t y t o provide a s t a b l e , supportive home f o r a c h i l d . "Such p a r e n t s may provide l i t t l e emotional support f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . While t h e c h i l d r e n may n o t be p h y s i c a l l y abused, l e f t unattended, dangerously malnourished, o r o v e r t l y r e j e c t e d , they may r e c e i v e l i t t l e love, a t t e n t i o n , s t i m u l a t i o n , o r emotional involvement." Wald I a t 1021. The United S t a t e s Supreme Court has r e c e n t l y observed t h a t middle-class s o c i a l workers tend t o favor long t e r m f o s t e r placement f o r c h i l d r e n of such f a m i l i e s , " t h u s re- f l e c t i n g a b i a s t h a t treats t h e n a t u r a l p a r e n t s ' poverty and l i f e s t y l e a s p r e j u d i c i a l t o t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of t h e c h i l d . " Smith v. Organization of F o s t e r Families f o r E q u a l i t y & Reform (1977), 431 U.S. 816, 832, 97 S.Ct. 2094, 2105, 53 L.Ed.2d 1 4 , 29 ( c i t i n g , Rein, Nutt & Weiss, F o s t e r Family C a r e : Myth and R e a l i t y , i n Children and Decent People 24, 25-29 (A. Schorr ed. 1 9 7 4 ) ) . Y e t , t h e mother contends poverty and i t s v a r i o u s a t t e n d a n t l i f e s t y l e s must n o t be equated w i t h n e g l e c t a b s e n t some showing of a c t u a l o r i m - minent harm t o t h e c h i l d . See Wald I a t 1001-02; Wald I1 a t 649-50; Areen a t 925-28, 930-32. This Court has h e l d t h a t t h e S t a t e may n o t t e r m i n a t e a p a r e n t ' s r i g h t t o r a i s e h i s o r h e r own c h i l d "merely because a d i s t r i c t judge o r a state agency might f e e l t h a t a non- p a r e n t has more f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s o r pursues a ' p r e f e r - a b l e ' l i f e s t y l e . " Guardianship of Doney, 570 P.2d a t 578, 34 St.Rep. a t 1110. Beyond t h a t p r i n c i p l e , however, it i s more d i f f i c u l t t o say what i s t h e minimum c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y a c c e p t a b l e standard f o r such an extreme i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t o family i n t e g r i t y . The IJA/ABA s t a n d a r d s , which remain i n t e n t a t i v e d r a f t form, might provide a p o l i c y measure by which t o e v a l u a t e t h e adequacy of s e c t i o n 10-1301(2), b u t they r e p r e s e n t only one proposal. Other proposals a r e e q u a l l y a v a i l a b l e f o r our c o n s i d e r a t i o n . Areen f o r example, h a s proposed a standard f o r n e g l e c t which i s d e l i b e r a t e l y less s p e c i f i c than t h e proposed IJA/ABA s t a n d a r d s , espe- c i a l l y i n t h e a r e a most r e l e v a n t t o t h i s c a s e , "emotional" n e g l e c t : "A ' n e g l e c t e d ' c h i l d i s one whose p h y s i c a l o r emotional h e a l t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y impaired, o r i s i n danger of being s i g n i f i c a n t l y impaired, a s a r e s u l t of t h e a c t i o n o r i n a c t i o n of h i s p a r e n t , guardian, o r primary c a r e t a k e r . " Areen a t 933. While t h i s standard, l i k e t h e IJA/ABA proposal, focuses t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e c o u r t on t h e "condition of t h e c h i l d r a t h e r t h a n on p a r e n t a l f a u l t , " it d e l i b e r a t e l y avoids l i s t i n g s p e c i f i c evidences of emotional damage such a s "severe a n x i e t y , " "depression," "withdrawal," and "untoward aggres- s i v e behavior." The reason, which i s of obvious importance h e r e , i s a l a c k of adequate consensus among c h i l d behavior e x p e r t s a s t o what behavior symptoms i n d i c a t e emotional d e p r i v a t i o n . Areen a t 933. A t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t approach i s found i n t h e Model S t a t u t e f o r Termination of P a r e n t a l Rights (MSTPR), prepared by t h e Neglected Children Committee of t h e National Council of J u v e n i l e and Family Court Judges. See, 27 J u v . J u s t . No. 4 , 3, 7 (1976). The NSTPR d i r e c t s t h e c o u r t t o c o n s i d e r t h e p a r e n t ' s f i t n e s s d i r e c t l y r a t h e r than look f o r s p e c i f i c evidence of harm t o t h e c h i l d . S e c t i o n 1 2 ( 1 ) ( a ) , f o r example, r e q u i r e s t h e c o u r t t o consider t h e "emotional i l l n e s s , mental i l l n e s s o r mental d e f i c i e n c y of -- t h e p a r e n t , of such d u r a t i o n o r n a t u r e a s t o render t h e p a r e n t u n l i k e l y t o c a r e f o r t h e ongoing p h y s i c a l , mental and emotional needs of t h e c h i l d . " (Ehnphasis added. ) I n a p r e f a c e t o t h e MSTPR, i t s a u t h o r s , judges from s e v e r a l s t a t e s , n o t e t h a t they "have n o t been i s o l a t e d from nor unmindful of t h e c r o s s c u r r e n t s of t h e behavioral sci- ences which have preoccupied t h i s n a t i o n i n r e c e n t years." 27 J u v . J u s t . a t 3 . Y e t a s judges, they continue, they have been a b l e t o " t e s t t h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l fermentations a g a i n s t t h e r e a l i t i e s of t h e i r day-to-day p r a c t i c e . " 27 J u v . J u s t . a t 3-4. The Council of J u v e n i l e and Family Court Judges has re- sponded more d i r e c t l y t o t h e IJA/ABA proposed s t a n d a r d s , concluding t h a t they o f f e r e n t i r e l y inadequate p r o t e c t i o n t o c h i l d r e n : "This lengthy volume needs d r a s t i c r e v i s i o n i n t h a t it t o t a l l y d i s r e g a r d s t h e r i g h t s of a c h i l d t o be p r o t e c t e d and s a f e i n h i s home en- vironment. These standards g r e a t l y l i m i t t h e process by which a neglected o r abused c h i l d may be p r o t e c t e d through t h e j u v e n i l e j u s t i c e system. There i s an attempt by t h e a u t h o r s t o restrict t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e of s o c i e t y i n t h e upbringing of c h i l d r e n . While t h i s i s obvi- o u s l y a worthwhile g o a l , t h e r e needs t o be a balance s o t h a t youngsters can be adequately p r o t e c t e d from t h e p h y s i c a l and mental abuse and n e g l e c t of p a r e n t s . " 8 J u v e n i l e and Family Court N e w s l e t t e r , No. 6 a t 9 (1978). Thus, t h e IJA/ABA t e n t a t i v e d r a f t proposals which t h e mother relies on l a c k n o t only a consensus of s u p p o r t among c h i l d behavior e x p e r t s , Areen a t 933, b u t a r e considered inadequate by t h e National Council of J u v e n i l e and Family Court Judges. While it i s n o t t h i s C o u r t ' s p o s i t i o n t o d e c l a r e whether one proposal o r another i s a b e t t e r ap- proach, w e can say w i t h some confidence t h a t t h e IJA/ABA proposal i s n o t t h e only c o n s t i t u t i o n a l approach. The proceedings i n t h i s case need n o t b e measured a g a i n s t t h e IJA/ABA model and r e j e c t e d on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l due p r o c e s s grounds i f they f a i l t o m e e t i t s strict standards. See, S t a t e v. McMaster (1971), 259 O r . 291, 486 P.2d 567, 569. Our p a s t d e c i s i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t s e c t i o n 10-1301(2) is n o t so broadly i n t e r p r e t e d a s t o permit termination of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s merely because t h e c o u r t s o r t h e concerned s o c i a l w e l f a r e agency disapprove of t h e p a r e n t s ' l i f e s t y l e s . See, Guardianship of Doney, 570 P.2d a t 578, 34 St.Rep. a t 1110; Matter of F i s h e r (1976), 169 Flont. 254, 258-59, 545 P.2d 654, 656. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s t a t u t e i s broad enough t o include emotional d e p r i v a t i o n , inadequate n u t r i - t i o n , and extreme and prolonged u n c l e a n l i n e s s of t h e c h i l d under t h e d e f i n i t i o n of n e g l e c t . Matter of J. J.S. (1978), Mont. I 577 P.2d 378, 380-81, 35 S t . ~ e p . 394, 395, 397. See a l s o , Matter of Henderson (1975), 168 Mont. 329, 332, 542 P.2d 1204, 1205-06. I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e t h e D i s t r i c t C o u r t ' s f i n d i n g of poor emotional development of t h e c h i l d was based on t h e testimony of s e v e r a l q u a l i f i e d witnesses. The record does n o t show t h a t t h e mother d e l i b e r a t e l y r e f u s e d t o provide emotional support f o r h e r daughter. Rather, t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e workers who attempted t o h e l p h e r t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e mother was simply incapable of c a r i n g f o r h e r daughter, p h y s i c a l l y a s w e l l as emotionally. Thus, t h i s c a s e i n v o l v e s n o t s o much a l e g a l due process problem of n o t i c e t o t h e mother of what behavior was expected of h e r o r what she could do t o have h e r daughter r e t u r n e d t o h e r , b u t r a t h e r a human problem of a mother's i n a b i l i t y t o understand her c h i l d ' s needs and t o r e a l i s t i c a l l y provide f o r them. W e a r e aware t h a t t h e mother may have received con- f l i c t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y regarding d i s c i p l i n e of h e r c h i l d . However, an o v e r a l l reading of t h e testimony i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e mother's problem went beyond t h e s e ap- p a r e n t c o n f l i c t s , f o r she was n o t even capable of under- standing o r r e t a i n i n g simple i n s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e . The mother's c o n d i t i o n , which was d e s c r i b e d t o t h i s Court a s " b o r d e r l i n e mentally r e t a r d e d , " p r e s e n t s a s p e c i a l problem which c o u r t s i n o t h e r s t a t e s have r e c e n t l y considered. The New York Family Court, i n Guardianship of Strausberg (1977), 92 Misc.2d 620, 400 N.Y.S.2d 1013, d e a l t w i t h t h e same s o r t of c o n d i t i o n a s w e f a c e here: "A summary of t h e e x p e r t testimony . . . showed t h e respondent t o be a b o r d e r l i n e r e t a r d e d person, who under stress i s e a s i l y confused i n h e r thinking. That a t t h e pres- e n t t i m e and i n t h e immediate f u t u r e t h e respondent has l i t t l e understanding o r ca2a- c i t y t o provide t h e nurturance, s t r u c t u r e and c o n t r o l s and f u l f i l l o t h e r emotional needs of a developing c h i l d . " 400 N.Y.S.2d a t 1014. The c o u r t noted p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e impending d i f f i c u l t i e s which would c o n f r o n t p a r e n t and c h i l d i f they w e r e r e u n i t e d and expressed concern over t h e t i m e which f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s a t t r a i n i n g t h e mother i n c h i l d c a r e methods would r e q u i r e : "The o l d e r t h e c h i l d g e t s t h e more d i f f i c u l t it w i l l become f o r t h e respondent t o f u l f i l l t h e p a r e n t a l r o l e and provide t h e d i r e c t i o n s t r u c t u r e and o t h e r emotional needs of t h e c h i l d herein. The i n f a n t . . . should n o t be h e l d i n limbo f o r t h i s i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d of t i m e f o r t h e purposes of t r a i n i n g t h e respon- d e n t i n t h e a r e a of c h i l d c a r e . " 400 N.Y.S.2d a t 1015. On t h i s b a s i s , t h e c o u r t r e f u s e d t o o r d e r t h e c h i l d r e t u r n e d t o h e r mother. However, mental d e f i c i e n c i e s a l o n e do not j u s t i f y termination i f t h e r e i s no evidence t h a t t h e c h i l d i s i n some way harmed o r l i k e l y t o be harmed because of t h e p a r e n t ' s condition. I n construing i t s termination s t a t u t e , t h e Minnesota Supreme Court made t h i s requirement c l e a r : ". . . w e wish t o s t a t e unequivocally t h a t mental i l l n e s s i n and of i t s e l f s h a l l n o t be c l a s s i f i e d as ' o t h e r conduct' which w i l l per- m i t termination of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s . Rather, i n each case, t h e a c t u a l conduct of t h e p a r e n t i s t o be evaluated t o determine h i s o r h e r f i t n e s s t o maintain t h e p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d i n q u e s t i o n s o a s t o n o t be d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e c h i l d . " I n re Kidd (Minn. 1978), 261 N.W. 2d 833, 835. See a l s o , I n re E&B (Utah 1 9 7 8 ) , 578 P.2d 831, 833-34; I n re Telles (1978), Gal-App., 151 Cal.Rptr. 263, 266-67; Matter of F i s h Mont. - I n t h e p r e s e n t case t h e D i s t r i c t Court found t h a t t h e c h i l d was harmed by h e r mother's f a i l u r e t o provide adequate emotional support, and concluded t h a t t h e mother was "incom- p e t e n t t o f a c e and handle t h e problems presented t o p a r e n t s by c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r advancing y e a r s . " These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e beyond t h e m e r e "poverty" o r " l i f e s t y l e " c h a r a c t e r i z a - t i o n s which t h i s Court found inadequate i n F i s h e r and Doney. Here, t h e D i s t r i c t C o u r t ' s conclusion t h a t t h e c h i l d was harmed by her home environment i s supported by t h e testimony of s o c i a l workers, p h y s i c i a n s , and psychologists. W e con- c l u d e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s e c t i o n 10-1301 (2) was c o n s t i t u - t i o n a l l y a p p l i e d i n t h i s c a s e . Standard - of Proof The mother's second contention on appeal i s t h a t t h e burden of proof r e q u i r e d of t h e S t a t e i n a termination of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s a c t i o n i s t h e " c l e a r and convincing" s t a n - dard, and t h a t t h e S t a t e f a i l e d t o m e e t t h a t burden. N o previous d e c i s i o n of t h i s Court has set f o r t h t h i s r e q u i r e - ment, nor is any p a r t i c u l a r burden mandated by s t a t u t e . However, i n l i g h t of o u r p a s t r u l i n g s and t h e i n t e r e s t s involved i n such c a s e s , w e hold t h a t t h e s t a t e must show, by c l e a r and convincing evidence, t h a t t h e c h i l d i s neglected o r abused b e f o r e p a r e n t a l r i g h t s may be terminated. A s t h e foregoing a n a l y s i s shows, p a r e n t a l i n t e r e s t s i n r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n a r e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y p r o t e c t e d . W e n o t e f u r t h e r t h a t i n t h i s c a s e t h e p r o t e c t i o n which t h e mother enjoys i s n o t weakened by t h e f a c t t h a t h e r c h i l d was born o u t of wedlock. S t a n l e y v. I l l i n o i s , 405 U . S . a t 651-52, 92 S.Ct. a t 1213, 31 L.Ed.2d a t 559. The c o n s t i t u t i o n a l v a l u e of p r o t e c t i n g family i n t e g r i t y a l s o has received s u p p o r t from a p o l i c y p o i n t of view a s noted by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s above. s i m i l a r l y , t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of p o l i c y which accom- p a n i e s t h e s t a t u t e s governing termination p l a c e s emphasis on t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of family u n i t y "whenever p o s s i b l e . " S e c t i o n 10-1300(4), R.C.M. 1947, now s e c t i o n 41-3-101(1) (d) MCA. See, Matter of F i s h e r , 169 Mont. a t 258-59, 545 P.2d a t 656. I n t h e p a s t t h i s Court has held t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d of proof i n a termination of p a r e n t a l r i g h t s c a s e i s " s u b s t a n t i a l c r e d i b l e evidence" t h a t t h e c h i l d i s abused, neglected, o r dependent. Matter of F i s h e r , 169 Mont. a t 258, 545 P.2d a t 656. Y e t , of t h o s e s t a t e s t h a t have con- s i d e r e d t h e i s s u e , most have chosen between a "preponderance of t h e evidence" s t a n d a r d and t h e " c l e a r and convincing" t e s t proposed by t h e mother. See, Matter of Orzo (1975), 84 Misc.2d 482, 374 N.Y.S.2d 554, 564-65 and n. 20. While t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e s e standards i s o f t e n e l u s i v e , w e conclude t h a t t h e higher standard r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e " c l e a r and convincing" test more adequately f u r t h e r s t h e p o l i c y of family u n i t y and more n e a r l y approximates t h e previous approach of t h i s Court than does t h e "preponderance of evidence" test. See I n re Maria (U.S. T e r r i t o r i a l Court, V . I . 1978), 5 Fam.L.Rep. 2089, 2090; I n re T e l l e s , 151 Cal.Rptr. a t 265-66; Matter of Rosenbloom (Minn. 1978), 266 N.W.2d 888, 889-90. I t i s important t o observe t h a t t h i s t e s t does n o t deny c h i l d r e n t h e p r o t e c t i o n they need. W e n o t e i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t t h e t h e " c l e a r and convincing" s t a n d a r d of proof i s n o t a s r i g o r o u s as t h e "beyond reasonable doubt" standard. See, I n re Maria, 5 Fam.L.Rep. a t 2090; I n re T e l l e s , 151 CaL.Rptr. a t 265; Matter of Rosenbloom, 266 N.W.2d a t 889. The D i s t r i c t Court d i d n o t abuse i t s d i s c r e t i o n i n concluding t h a t t h e mother was a n u n f i t p a r e n t ; r a t h e r , i t s conclusion i s supported by s u b s t a n t i a l c r e d i b l e evidence. The judgment g r a n t i n g permanent adoptive custody t o t h e Department of S o c i a l and R e h a b i l i t a t i o n S e r v i c e s i s affirmed. W e concur: - Chief J u s t i c e e, ,2i?LA J u s t i c e s