Case Title: PETER ANTHONY GEZZI v. STATE OF WYOMING

Citation: 

Docket Number: 

State: wyoming

Court: Wyoming Supreme Court

Date: 1989-09-27T00:00:00Z

Document:
PETER ANTHONY GEZZI v. STATE OF WYOMING1989 WY 180780 P.2d 972Case Number: 88-266Decided: 09/27/1989Supreme Court of Wyoming
PETER ANTHONY GEZZI, 
APPELLANT (DEFENDANT),

v.

STATE OF WYOMING, APPELLEE 
(PLAINTIFF).

Appeal from the District 
Court, LaramieCounty, Edward L. Grant, 
J.

Leonard Munker, 
State Public Defender, Cheyenne, Wyoming Defender 
Aid Program: Gerald M. Gallivan, Director, and Samuel B. Benham, Student Intern, 
Laramie, for appellant.

Joseph B. Meyer, 
Atty. Gen., John W. Renneisen, Deputy Atty. Gen., Karen A. Byrne, Sr. Asst. 
Atty. Gen., Cheyenne, Jo Messex Casey, Student Intern, Prosecution Assistance 
Program, Laramie, for 
appellee.

Before CARDINE, C.J., and THOMAS, URBIGKIT, MACY 
and GOLDEN, JJ. 

GOLDEN, Justice.

[¶1.]     Anthony Gezzi (Gezzi) 
was convicted of two counts of immoral or indecent acts with his daughter, in 
violation of W.S. 14-3-105 (July 1986 Repl.). On appeal, he contends that the 
trial court erroneously admitted evidence of his prior bad acts involving 
earlier similar immoral or indecent acts with another of his 
daughters.

[¶2.]     We affirm.

[¶3.]     On Friday, December 4, 
1987, the victim and daughter of Gezzi, seven-year old G.G., watched a good 
touch/bad touch film at school with her classmates. After the film, G.G. went to 
her regularly scheduled group counseling session with her counselor. While in 
session, G.G. revealed to her counselor that her father, Gezzi, had "bad 
touched" her or touched her private parts, and had been doing so since G.G. was 
in kindergarten. She stated that the latest incidents had occurred the previous 
Monday and Wednesday of that week, November 30 and December 2, 1987, when her 
father made her touch his penis, touched his penis to her and touched her with 
his hands between her legs. She further stated that her father had told her not 
to tell anyone because her mother and brothers would not love her anymore. After 
G.G. repeated her statements to the police and to the Department of Public 
Assistance and Social Services, Gezzi moved out of the family home. Following an 
investigation, on March 15, 1988, a criminal complaint was filed against Gezzi 
charging him with two counts of violating W.S. 14-3-105.1

[¶4.]     G.G. was examined by a 
pediatrician who concluded from the physical evidence, including scarring and 
thickening of the hymen and a larger than normal hymenal opening for a seven 
year old, that G.G. had been the victim of chronic sexual abuse, and that such 
physical symptoms could not have been caused by masturbation. A jury trial was 
held on June 7 through 10, 1988. At trial, a pediatrician for the defense 
testified that the physical evidence the first pediatrician relied on in making 
her conclusion could be consistent with but was inconclusive of sexual abuse, 
and could be consistent with masturbation. This pediatrician did not examine 
G.G.

[¶5.]     Gezzi did not testify 
at trial; his counsel's theory of defense was that Gezzi was innocent of the 
crime charged. In so defending, his counsel attacked G.G.'s credibility by 
introducing evidence at trial indicating that G.G. had several behavioral 
problems, the most important of which were a propensity to lie, to make up 
stories about her family and to distort reality more than most children her age. 
Because of these acknowledged behavioral problems, after an in-chambers hearing 
the prosecution introduced the testimony of G.G.'s older sister, P.G.P.G. 
testified that Gezzi had sexually abused her for almost five years before she 
finally ran away from home. She stated that she had reported the sexual abuse, 
that her father admitted it, that the family went into counseling after the 
report, but that no charges were brought against him. Further evidence of the 
sexual abuse of P.G. was introduced through other witnesses. Gezzi objected to 
the introduction of this evidence of prior bad acts under W.R.E. 404(b), stating 
that the only purpose the prosecution could have in introducing it was to 
inflame the jury. The trial court disagreed, finding that the evidence was 
admissible on the issue of G.G.'s credibility.

[¶6.]     On June 10, 1988, the 
jury found Gezzi guilty of two counts of immoral or indecent acts with a child, 
as proscribed by W.S. 14-3-105. The trial court entered judgment on August 6, 
1988, sentenced Gezzi to two to three years on each count, suspended the 
sentence on the second count and imposed three years probation to be served at 
the end of the first sentence. This appeal followed.

[¶7.]     Gezzi contends that 
P.G.'s testimony implicating him of prior sexual activity with her was 
inadmissible under W.R.E. 404(b). The rule provides:

Other crimes, wrongs or 
acts. - Evidence of other crimes, wrongs or acts is not admissible to prove the 
character of a person in order to show that he acted in conformity therewith. It 
may, however, be admissible for other purposes, such as proof of motive, 
opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, knowledge, identity, or absence of 
mistake or accident.

This rule 
generally prohibits the introduction of evidence of extrinsic acts that might 
adversely reflect upon the accused's character. Unquestionably, Wyoming is committed to 
applying the 404(b) general rule of exclusion in criminal cases. Elliott v. 
State, 600 P.2d 1044, 1047 (Wyo. 1979). Yet, several exceptions to the 
exclusionary rule exist. The exceptions noted in Rule 404(b) under which 
evidence of other crimes may be admissible are not exhaustive, but rather are 
illustrative. United States v. Masters, 622 F.2d 83, 86 (4th Cir. 1980); United 
States v. Beechum, 582 F.2d 898, n. 15 (5th Cir. 1978)2; Makinen v. State, 737 P.2d 345, 
347 (Wyo. 1987); Brown v. State, 736 P.2d 1110, 1111, n. 1 (Wyo. 1987); 
Hopkinson v. State, 632 P.2d 79, 127 (Wyo. 1981), cert. denied 455 U.S. 922, 102 S. Ct. 1280, 71 L. Ed. 2d 463 (1982). "We have previously recognized exceptions to 
the 404(b) exclusionary rule other than those catalogued in the rule." Brown, 
736 P.2d  at 1111, n. 1. This recognition of exceptions apart from those 
suggested in the rule affords the trial courts greater discretion in the 
admission of such evidence. Consequently, in our review of a trial court's 
admission of similar acts evidence we look to see if there has been an abuse of 
that discretion in light of our previous decisions. Elliott, 600 P.2d  at 
1049.

[¶8.]     As early as 1927, this 
court held that in the context of sexual offenses other similar acts of the 
defendant could be admitted if they involved the victim of the charged offense. 
Strand v. State, 36 Wyo. 78, 252 P. 1030 (1927) (in prosecution for rape of a 
ten-year old, the court properly admitted evidence of other acts of intercourse 
occurring between the victim and the accused to show "the lustful disposition 
and intent of the defendant.") See also State v. Quirk, 38 Wyo. 462, 268 P. 189 
(1928) (citing Strand, for the rule of admission); and State v. Koch, 64 Wyo. 
175, 189 P.2d 162 (1948) (citing Strand and Quirk for the general rule and 
noting that most jurisdictions permit such testimony to corroborate the victim's 
testimony of the offense charged or to prove identity of the perpetrator). In 
recent years we have expanded on the exceptions to Rule 404(b) in the context of 
sexual offenses and have permitted the admission of testimony of third persons 
as to other similar acts between themselves and the accused.3 Brown; and Elliott. These cases, 
recognizing the nationally predominant trend towards admission of third party 
testimony of similar acts, are helpful to our determination here.4 

[¶9.]     The facts in Brown and 
Elliott are virtually identical to those in the case before us. In Elliott, the 
defendant was charged with sexually assaulting his step-daughter; at trial the 
victim's older sister testified regarding three prior instances of sexual 
assault involving the defendant and herself. In Brown, the defendant was charged 
with incest with his natural daughter; at trial the victim's half-sister and 
adopted daughter of the defendant testified about a continuing course of conduct 
involving sexual intercourse or sexual contact between herself and the defendant 
occurring over a period of several years beginning when the half-sister was 
about six years old. In each case, the trial court admitted the testimony for 
the purpose of showing motive. Brown, 736 P.2d  at 1113; Elliott, 600 P.2d  at 
1048. We said: 

Incest involves aberrant 
sexual behavior - it is a type of sexual deviancy that is difficult to 
understand. Therefore, a trier of fact might well wonder what would motivate the 
accused to behave in such bizarre manner. The evidence of prior sexual acts then 
was probative under the motive exception because of the unusual sexual behavior 
involved. It seems, however, that motive is usually thought of as the reason the 
crime was committed. If motive equates to reason, then perhaps appellant's 
motive for having sexual relations with his younger daughter was that the older 
daughter was no longer available and the younger daughter was taking her place. 
The older daughter's testimony would be admissible for this purpose.

If the accused had a 
predilection to deviant sexual practices with young female relatives, it would 
not be unreasonable for the trier of fact to determine that he had a motive to 
commit the acts complained of by the victim in this case.

Consistent with our 
holding in Elliott, we determine the admission of testimony regarding conduct of 
appellant described by the victim and her older sister was justified as proof of 
motive and was sufficiently similar to meet the relevancy requirements of Rule 
404(b).

Brown, 736 P.2d 
at 1113:

[¶10.]  Gezzi began sexually molesting his older 
daughter, P.G., when she was ten years old, and often with G.G. present in the 
same bed. When P.G. was thirteen, she reported the sexual abuse, which Gezzi 
admitted to. No charges were brought and the family went into counseling. 
However, the sexual abuse of P.G. did not stop. Finally, when she turned 
fifteen, P.G. ran away from home to escape her father's continued molestation 
and was ultimately removed from the home. Shortly after her departure, Gezzi 
began molesting five-year-old G.G. and continued the abuse for two years until 
G.G. reported the incidents involved here. In both situations, Gezzi told the 
girls that if they told anyone of his abuse, their mother and brothers would not 
love them anymore.

[¶11.]  Under the facts of this case and the 
rationale of Brown and Elliott, the evidence may have been properly admitted for 
the purpose of showing motive; the trial court ruled that the evidence was 
admissible on the issue of G.G.'s credibility, which was attacked by the 
defense. In discussing the admission of prior bad acts testimony for 
corroborative purposes, the author of Comment, Defining Standards for 
Determining the Admissibility of Evidence of Other Sex Offenses, 25 UCLA L.Rev. 
261 (1977), aptly notes that in sex offenses where the victim is acquainted with 
the accused the victim's credibility will be of paramount 
importance.

The victim's credibility 
or apparent lack thereof may be determinative on the question of the defendant's 
ultimate guilt or innocence. In many sex crimes, where the only eyewitnesses are 
the complaining witness and the perpetrator, and where there is a dearth of any 
independent physical evidence tending to establish the crime's commission, 
admission of corroborative evidence serves the dual purpose of reducing the 
probability that the prosecuting witness is lying, while at the same time 
increasing the probability that the defendant committed the crime.

Id. at 286. Similarly, this 
court has noted that "one of the principal reasons for allowing evidence of 
prior acts or crimes in cases involving sex offenses is the fact that the usual 
situation places the testimony of a victim against that of the accused, 
increasing the pertinency of intent, knowledge, plan, motive, etc." Grabill v. 
State, 621 P.2d 802, 810 (Wyo. 1980). See also C. Wright & K. 
Graham, Federal Practice and Procedure: Evidence § 5248 (1978). We quote from a 
case cited by Justice Thomas in the Elliott opinion:

The [prior bad acts] 
testimony was also admissible * * * as evidence tending to buttress the 
credibility of M and S, minor witnesses who had been charged by the accused with 
fabricating the evidence against him. Where proof necessarily depends on the 
credibility of testimony of child witnesses about sexual acts performed in 
private, and where the accusations of misconduct are flatly denied by the 
accused, evidence of similar acts may be received on the issue of the 
credibility of the minor witnesses.

People v. 
Fritts, 72 Cal. App. 3d 319, 325, 140 Cal. Rptr. 94, 97 (1977). This language is 
particularly pertinent here. Although not testifying himself, Gezzi attacked 
G.G.'s credibility through the introduction, in defense to the charge, of the 
testimony of Mrs. Gezzi and a social worker that G.G. had a tendency to lie. 
Moreover, the physical evidence admitted at trial was inconclusive as to the 
cause of G.G.'s physical symptoms. P.G.'s testimony relating a course of sexual 
misconduct occurring between herself and Gezzi was sufficiently similar to the 
events of molestation occurring between Gezzi and G.G. to be particularly 
relevant under Rule 404(b) for the purpose of corroborating G.G.'s 
testimony.

[¶12.]  Our inquiry does not end here, however. 
Although relevant, P.G.'s testimony may not be admissible if its prejudicial 
effect outweighs its probative value. W.R.E. 403 provides:

Although relevant, 
evidence may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by 
the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, 
or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of 
cumulative evidence.

In Elliott, 600 P.2d  at 1049, we said:

The function of 
performing the comparisons required by Rule 403, W.R.E., generally is held to be 
discretionary with the trial court. The fact that the evidence is detrimental to 
the defendant is neutral. For the prejudice factor to come into play the court 
must conclude that it is unfair. United States v. Dolliole, 597 F.2d 102 (7th Cir. 1979).

[¶13.]  Evaluating the evidence in this case in 
light of our earlier decisions and those of other jurisdictions, we cannot say 
that the danger of unfair prejudice to Gezzi outweighs the probative value of 
P.G.'s testimony of earlier acts of sexual misconduct involving Gezzi and 
herself. The evidence was properly admitted for the purpose of corroborating the 
testimony of G.G., whose credibility was directly placed in issue. The trial 
court did not abuse its discretion.

[¶14.]  Affirmed.

FOOTNOTES

1 W.S. 14-3-105 provides 
in part:

Any person knowingly 
taking immodest, immoral or indecent liberties with any child or knowingly 
causing or encouraging any child to cause or encourage another child to commit 
with him any immoral or indecent act is guilty of a felony * * *.

2 Rule 404(b), Federal 
Rules of Evidence is identical to Rule 404(b), Wyoming Rules of Evidence. 
Therefore, we find federal cases addressing this rule instructive.

3 In 2 D. Louisell and C. 
Mueller, Federal Evidence, § 140, at 36 (Supp. Aug. 1989), the authors 
characterize Rule 404(b) as an "inclusionary" rule, as opposed to the 
traditional characterization of the rule as "exclusionary," thus emphasizing the 
more liberal stance taken by most jurisdictions regarding the admission of prior 
bad acts evidence. Nine federal circuit courts have determined that Congress' 
use of "such as" in Rule 404(b) commits the federal courts to this inclusionary 
approach. See e.g. United 
States v. Moore, 732 F.2d 983 (D.C. Cir. 1984); and United States v. Gustafson, 728 F.2d 1078 (8th Cir. 1984), cert. denied, 469 U.S. 979, 105 S. Ct. 380, 83 L. Ed. 2d 315 
(1984). Also, thirty state jurisdictions have adopted evidence codes patterned 
after the liberal federal rules. Under today's liberal position, exclusion is 
the exception to the rule of inclusion, which is the norm. "The true problem in 
administering this inclusionary principle is not to find a pigeonhole in which 
the proof might fit, but to determine whether the prior act does tend to prove 
something other than propensity and, if so, to determine whether its particular 
relevancy outweighs the risk of prejudice - that is, the risk that the jury will 
either draw the forbidden and deadly three-step inference from bad act to bad 
person to guilt, or give way to unthinking and emotional impulse to punish." 
Id.

4 Several jurisdictions 
liberally recognize the admissibility of prior bad acts evidence in sexual 
offenses for various purposes. See Bowden v. State, 538 So. 2d 1226 (Ala. 1988) 
(evidence admissible to prove any "material other purpose," including identity 
and motive); Soper v. State, 731 P.2d 587 (Alaska App. 1987) (evidence of prior 
acts with older sisters of victim, also daughters of defendant, was admissible 
to show the defendant's lewd disposition and was highly corroborative of the 
victim's testimony); State v. Weatherbee, 158 Ariz. 303, 762 P.2d 590 (1988) 
(admissible to show common scheme and emotional propensity); Young v. State, 296 
Ark. 394, 757 S.W.2d 544 (1988) (evidence of prior occurrences between the 
victim and the accused is admissible under Arkansas Rule of Evidence 404(b) if 
it is independently relevant to the main issue in the sense of tending to prove 
some material point rather than to prove the defendant is a criminal, and can be 
admissible to show sexual instinct. A cautionary instruction must be given. 
Evidence of acts occurring between defendant and third party is not admissible 
under any of the exceptions.); People v. Hunt, 72 Cal. App. 3d 190, 139 Cal. Rptr. 675 (2d Dist. 1977) (corroboration); Adrian v. People, 770 P.2d 1243 (Colo. 1989) 
(evidence admissible if offered for the limited purpose of establishing a common 
plan, scheme, design, identity, modus operandi, motive, guilty knowledge or 
intent. However, the prosecution must first have a prima facie case before such 
evidence can be introduced. Moreover, a limiting instruction must be given. 
Finally, the remoteness of the crime (in this case, fifteen years) affects only 
the weight not the admissibility of the evidence.); State v. Hauck, 172 Conn. 
140, 374 A.2d 150 (1976) (common scheme or design); Snowden v. State, 537 So. 2d 1383 (Fla. App. 1989) (identity, credibility of witness); Calloway v. State, 520 So. 2d 665 (Fla.App. 1988) (when crime occurs in the familial setting and the 
victim is the only witness to the crime, the victim's credibility becomes a 
focal issue; therefore, the court relaxed the strict standard applicable to 
similar acts evidence and allowed evidence of a sexual battery of another family 
member as relevant to modus operandi, scheme, plan and design in order to 
corroborate the victim's testimony); Beasley v. State, 518 So. 2d 917 (Fla. 1988) 
(opportunity); McGuire v. State, 188 Ga. App. 891, 374 S.E.2d 816 (1988) (notes 
that an exception to the general rule that evidence of independent crimes is 
inadmissible has been most liberally extended in the area of sexual offenses; is 
admissible to show motive, scheme, plan, bent of mind and course of conduct); 
Conaway v. State, 188 Ga. App. 561, 373 S.E.2d 660 (1988) (evidence of prior bad 
acts with victim's sister admissible to show lustful disposition and the 
defendant's attitude toward the female members of his family); State v. 
Greensweig, 102 Idaho 794, 641 P.2d 340 (1982) (intent); People v. Daniels, 172 
Ill. App.3d 616, 122 Ill.Dec. 687, 527 N.E.2d 59 (2d Dist. 1988) (evidence 
admissible to show motive, intent, identity, absence of mistake, knowledge, 
common design, scheme of plan and modus operandi); Hickman v. State, 537 N.E.2d 64 (Ind. App. 1989) (depraved sexual instinct); Bixler v. State, 537 N.E.2d 21 
(Ind. 1989) (depraved sexual instinct); Lutz v. State, 536 N.E.2d 526 (Ind. App. 
1989) (depraved sexual instinct); Stwalley v. State, 534 N.E.2d 229 (Ind. 1989) 
(evidence admissible to show a depraved sexual instinct and to bolster the 
credibility of the complaining witness where the acts seem improbable.); Andrews 
v. State, 529 N.E.2d 360 (Ind. App. 1988) (evidence is not admissible on 
question of guilt but is for depraved sexual instinct, motive, intent, purpose, 
identity, common scheme or plan. The rationale is to bolster the credibility of 
the prosecution's witness when the acts chargeable seem improbable, or the acts 
are continuing, and it is likely that they occurred before or will occur 
again.); State v. Plaster, 424 N.W.2d 226 (Iowa 1988) (evidence admissible to 
prove motive, opportunity, intent, preparation, plan, identity, knowledge, or 
absence of mistake or accident. The court noted that the list of purposes listed 
in I.R.E. 404(b) was not exclusive. "The key is whether the challenged evidence 
is relevant and material to some legitimate issue other than the defendant's 
general propensity to commit wrongful acts. If the evidence meets this litmus 
test, it is prima facie admissible, notwity to demonstrate the accused's bad 
character." Sex cases, the court noted, are like signature crimes; thus, prior 
evidence would be highly relevant.); State v. Hampton, 215 Kan. 907, 529 P.2d 127 (1974) (intent, plan of operation); State v. Walker, 540 So. 2d 1059 (La. 
App. 1989) (evidence admissible to prove res gestae if prior act is part of a 
whole deed); State v. Baker, 535 So. 2d 861 (La. App. 1988) (evidence admitted 
for corroboration of the offense and to show the intimate relations between the 
parties, the defendant's lustful disposition, probability of commission of the 
offense and to rebut defendant's alibi); State v. Howard, 520 So. 2d 1150 (La. 
App. 1987) (citing Elliott, the court held that evidence was admissible to show 
motive, plan, intent, lustful disposition, unnatural desires of sexual 
intercourse, propensity, inclination, disposition toward sex in general, 
opportunity to systematically engage in nonconsensual relations with daughters; 
was also permitted to corroborate the victim's testimony); State v. Ouellette, 
544 A.2d 761 (Me. 1988) (evidence of prior conviction on sex related crime was 
held admissible to show the relationship between the parties); People v. Burton, 
28 Mich. App. 253, 184 N.W.2d 336 (1970) (credibility of complaining victim, 
intent, scheme, plan or system); State v. Shamp, 422 N.W.2d 520 (Minn.App. 1988) 
(common scheme); State v. Lingle, 759 S.W.2d 638 (Mo. App. 1988) (in rape of an 
adult, evidence of prior bad acts was admissible to show common plan, scheme or 
depraved sexual instinct); State v. Simerly, 463 S.W.2d 846 (Mo. 1971) (evidence 
of prior incestuous acts with sister of victim admissible for corroborative 
purposes.); State v. Eiler, 762 P.2d 210 (Mont. 1988) (evidence admissible to 
show plan, motive, opportunity. The court applied a four-part test, first 
enunciated in Just v. State, 184 Mont. 262, 602 P.2d 957 (1979), to determine 
whether the evidence would be admitted. The four factors to be considered are: 
(1) similarity of the crimes or acts; (2) nearness in time; (3) tendency of the 
evidence to establish a common scheme, plan, or system; and (4) whether the 
probative value of the evidence was outweighed by its prejudicial effect. The 
court noted that the acts need not be identical but only "sufficiently similar" 
to justify their admission, and that a five-year lapse of time between the 
charged act and the prior acts was not too remote (defendant was stepfather to 
the complaining victim through one marriage and stepfather of the prior victim 
through a previous marriage). The lack of opportunity caused the time lapse to 
be insignificant); State v. Gilpin, 756 P.2d 445 (Mont. 1988) (admissible for 
general 404(b) purposes but must have: (1) notice to the defendant prior to 
trial of the intent to introduce such evidence; (2) an admonition to the jury of 
the evidence's limited purpose; and (3) a similar cautionary instruction); State 
v. Hoffmeyer, 187 Neb. 701, 193 N.W.2d 760 (1972) (intent or motive); Findley v. 
State, 94 Nev. 212, 577 P.2d 867 (1978) (intent, lack of mistake); State v. 
Johnson, 130 N.H. 578, 547 A.2d 213 (1988) (evidence of prior bad acts with 
victim allowed to show mode of operation and on question of coercion to show 
system of the crime, activity, identity, motive, and context); People v. 
Velasquez, 141 A.D.2d 882, 530 N.Y.S.2d 208 (2 Dept. 1988) (state of mind); 
People v. Bagarozy, 132 A.D.2d 225, 522 N.Y.S.2d 848 (1 Dept. 1987) (noting the 
general 404(b) exceptions of motive, intent, absence of mistake or accident, 
common scheme or plan and identity, the court admitted prior bad acts evidence 
to show the defendant's amorous design); State v. Thomas, 310 N.C. 369, 312 S.E.2d 458 (1984) (identity and in response to defense alibi); State v. Jackson, 
82 Ohio App. 318, 81 N.E.2d 546 (1948) (motive, passion, emotion, or degeneracy 
of same type prompting commission of the offense); Jett v. State, 525 P.2d 1247 
(Okla. Cr. 1974) (system or plan characterized by peculiar method of operation); 
State v. Woodson, 551 A.2d 1187 (R.I. 1988) (evidence admissible to show design, 
plan, or scheme; also admissible to show defendant's lewd disposition or intent 
if it is reasonably necessary to show a material aspect of the case); State v. 
Loop, 422 N.W.2d 420 (S.D. 1988) (motive, intent, opportunity, plan, 
preparation, knowledge, absence of mistake or accident, or tending to show acts 
constituting continuous offenses); Turner v. State, 754 S.W.2d 668 (Tex.Cr.App. 
1988) (citing Albrecht v. State, 486 S.W.2d 97 (Tex.Cr.App. 1972), the court 
listed several common exceptions to the general rule prohibiting admission of 
extraneous offenses: evidence of extraneous offenses committed by accused has 
been held admissible: (1) to show the context in which the criminal act occurred 
- res gestae - under the reasoning that events do not occur in a vacuum and the 
jury has the right to hear what occurred immediately before and after commission 
of the act so that they may realistically evaluate the evidence; (2) to 
circumstantially prove identity where the state lacks direct evidence on the 
issue; (3) to prove scienter, where intent or guilty knowledge is an essential 
element of the state's case and cannot be inferred from the act itself; (4) to 
prove malice or state of mind, when malice is essential and cannot be inferred 
from the criminal act; (5) to show motive, where the commission of the offense 
is either conditioned upon commission of extraneous offenses or is part of a 
continuing plan or scheme with the charged crime; and (6) to refute defense 
theories raised by the defendant. The court noted that while this list is not 
exhaustive, rote application of the exceptions should be avoided and an in-depth 
analysis of the probative value of the evidence should be performed in every 
case.); State v. Hurley, 150 Vt. 165, 552 A.2d 382 (1988) (citing Elliott, the 
court noted that although evidence of prior bad acts is admissible under the 
exceptions in V.R.E. 404(b) to show modus operandi, or consistency and 
similarity of plan or pattern, in this case a time lapse of ten to twelve years 
operated to make relevance of the prior acts not available; but Cf. State v. 
Parker, 149 Vt. 393, 545 A.2d 512 (1988) (probative value of defendant's prior 
sexual assault on another male juvenile, although remote in time, was highly 
significant in its tendency to establish motive, plan, opportunity, intent, 
preparation); State v. Schut, 71 Wn.2d 400, 429 P.2d 126 (1967) (evidence of 
prior acts with victim admissible to show lustful inclination); State v. Mink, 
146 Wis.2d 1, 429 N.W.2d 99 (App. 1988) (noting the greater latitude of 
admissibility of prior bad acts in the context of sex crimes with a minor, the 
court permitted evidence to show motive and to corroborate the victim's 
testimony against a credibility attack by the defense).

URBIGKIT, Justice, 
dissenting.

[¶15.]  The majority assumptively claims Peter 
Gezzi attacked G.G.'s credibility, in part, by simply presenting the defense 
that he "was innocent of the crime charged."1 This audacity to maintain his 
innocence permitted the prosecutor to bring onto the witness stand a third party 
to recite prior bad acts by Gezzi. This holding permits a prosecutor, faced with 
a weak case and an accused citizen with the audacity to proclaim his or her 
innocence, to open the floodgates to drown the reputation of the accused in a 
brackish litany of prior bad acts. Prior bad acts should not be used to grease 
the wheels of justice simply to crush the accused who maintain their innocence 
to criminal charges.

[¶16.]  I would feel considerably more 
comfortable if Gezzi had been convicted on relevant evidence of his commission 
of the charged offenses. In dissent, I claim Gezzi should have been charged with 
incest with his older daughter if her testimony to that effect was allowed in 
open court when he was being tried for such acts with his younger daughter - 
then he would have been afforded a realistic opportunity to defend himself 
through effective counsel. I cannot justify the admissibility of evidence on the 
basis that our common constitutional right to defend was exercised by this 
particular defendant. I dissent.

[¶17.]  It is generally stated to be the basic 
foundation of English law that the common law rule excluding evidence of other 
crimes, wrongs and acts originated in the Treason Act of 1695 "to destroy the 
reign of terror of the Star Chamber." Reed, Trial by Propensity: Admission of 
Other Criminal Acts Evidenced in Federal Criminal Trials, 50 U.Cin.L.Rev. 713, 
717 (1981).2 Professor Reed states: 

[¶18.]  Since the close of the eighteenth 
century, the propensity rule has been one of the fundamental restraints on 
prosecutorial proof in American criminal trials. The propensity rule excludes 
evidence offered to establish the accused's disposition to commit crime. The 
rule had its roots in the accusative, as opposed to inquisitorial, nature of the 
Anglo-American criminal process. Under an accusative system, the state must 
establish that the accused did some act forbidden by law. In contrast, an inquisitorial process assumes the accused 
committed the crime and imposes upon him the burden of establishing his 
innocence. The courts admit evidence of the accused's prior criminal 
activity which the accused must also overcome.

* * * The federal rules' 
expansion of the scope of prosecutorial use of evidence of other crimes and the 
federal courts' willingness to admit such evidence is subtly transforming the 
American criminal justice system from an accusative to an inquisitorial 
process.

Id. at 713-14 (emphasis 
added and footnotes omitted).

[¶19.]  Anticipating the prosecutorial enthusiasm 
for bad acts evidence, Justice Jackson wrote in 1948:

Courts that follow the 
common-law tradition almost unanimously have come to disallow resort by the 
prosecution to any kind of evidence of a defendant's evil character to establish 
a probability of his guilt. Not that the law invests the defendant with a 
presumption of good character, Greer v. United 
States, 245 U.S. 559 [38 S. Ct. 209, 62 L. Ed. 469 
(1918)] but it simply closes the whole matter of character, disposition and 
reputation on the prosecution's case-in-chief. The state may not show 
defendant's prior trouble with the law, specific criminal acts, or ill name 
among his neighbors, even though such facts might logically be persuasive that 
he is by propensity a probable perpetrator of the crime. The inquiry is not 
rejected because character is irrelevant; on the contrary, it is said to weigh 
too much with the jury and to so overpersuade them as to prejudge one with a bad 
general record and deny him a fair opportunity to defend against a particular 
charge. The overriding policy of excluding such evidence, despite its admitted 
probative value, is the practical experience that its disallowance tends to 
prevent confusion of issues, unfair surprise and undue prejudice.

Michelson v. 
United States, 335 U.S. 469, 475-76, 69 S. Ct. 213, 
218-19, 93 L. Ed. 168 (1948) (footnotes omitted).

[¶20.]  Committed to a jurisprudence which judges 
an accused citizen by actual evidence of the real events, I reject this trend of 
trial by propensity. The usage of bad acts evidence in Wyoming, outlined in Pena 
v. State, 780 P.2d 316 (Wyo. 1989) (Urbigkit, J., dissenting), is no more 
relevant to direct proof than is the use in this case of an older sister's 
recitation of her father's prior inappropriate behavior. See similarly Brown v. 
State, 736 P.2d 1110 (Wyo. 1987) (Urbigkit, J., 
dissenting).

[¶21.]  I recognize the foundations of our 
democratic society are thinly anchored in preservation of constitutional rights 
and historical values which, once weakened, may not survive attitude and 
exasperation under the pervasively confining and accelerative existence of these 
modern times. Compromises for efficiency to deny individual justice can destroy 
the system before the weakening of the structure is actually observed. I cannot 
acclimate to either "liberal rules,"3 by which admission of all bad acts 
extrinsic occurrence evidence is the mode and denial without defining principle 
is the exception, or our retention of a facade that admission is improper unless 
justified by exception. The termite-like exceptions will devour the infested 
structure. Either way, nothing of the historical superstructure 
remains.

[¶22.]  Consequently, it is appropriate to 
continue, at least for now, to clutch to the explications of criminal law that 
conviction of an offense should be proved by evidence directly related to the 
events of the alleged commission as intrinsic occurrence evidence. Adjudication 
has not yet moved properly to search out "extrinsic activity," United States v. 
Beechum, 582 F.2d 898 (5th Cir. 1978), cert. denied 440 U.S. 920, 99 S. Ct. 1244, 
59 L. Ed. 2d 472 (1979), as an avenue of proof which reflects adversely on the 
character of the defendant regardless of whether that activity might give rise 
to criminal liability. Due process is circumvented and our right to an impartial 
jury trial when charged is invalidated. I reaffirm what the dissent a decade ago 
said in Beechum, 582 F.2d at 926-27:

At the heart of the 
majority's error in this case is its mistaken placement of the spotlight on the 
Federal Rules of Evidence, instead of where it rightfully belongs - on the 
criminal trial of a human being. The majority places the vague and uninformed 
stage hands of the drama - the Federal Rules of Evidence - in the center of the 
stage, and pushes the principles of a fair criminal trial into weak, whispered 
supporting roles off to the edge of the proscenium wall.

[¶23.]  Additionally, we should understand the 
basic principle of our law is stated in the first clause of W.R.E. 404(a). What 
follows are exceptions to be justified in reason, logic and justice with the 
exercise of directed discretion for application only when appropriate. "Evidence 
of a person's character or a trait of his character is not admissible for the 
purpose of proving that he acted in conformity therewith on a particular 
occasion, * * *." W.R.E. 404(a). Admissibility of bad acts evidence under W.R.E. 
404(b) and 609 is perhaps the major procedural inquiry in the massive volume of 
present criminal appeals.4 For reasons better restricted to 
political science and sociology than dissenting opinion review, it is apparent 
the use of this character of evidence will accelerate with observable social 
problems. Our historical standards of what evidence is proper for the 
prosecution to prove its case now seem like soft soil beneath a tidal wave.5 The problem with the Wyoming Rules 
of Evidence, which is the same problem infecting the Federal Rules of Evidence - 
specifically F.R.E. 403 and 404(b) - was recognized almost before they became 
effective. "Given the wide latitude for judicial discretion in admitting 
evidence, a reviewing court has little opportunity to question a trial judge's 
decision to admit such information." Symposium, The Federal Rules of Evidence, 
71 NW U.L. Rev. 634, 644 (1976).

[¶24.]  My particular problem with the majority 
is not so much the other person sexual assault testimony exception6 as it is the contended exceptions 
seem to have mutated to become the rule for all cases, removing any direct 
deterrents to admissibility of propensity and character evidence in all criminal 
cases.

[¶25.]  With the handwriting on the wall, those 
jurists dedicated to the proposition that guilt or innocence should be 
determined by the actual evidence of real facts have begun sounding cries of 
alarm as the current trend to slipshod prosecution by bad acts allegations.7 The great care requirement 
authenticated in recent federal court review is uncontrollably not evidenced 
here by this liberal Wyoming attitude for other bad acts 
prosecution evidence. United 
States v. Colon, 880 F.2d 650, 656 (2d Cir. 1989); United States v. Brown, 880 F.2d 1012 
(9th Cir. 1989).

[¶26.]  Perhaps some basic considerations within 
W.R.E. 403, 404(b) and 609 will call us back to our ancestral home in law. We 
first need to understand the nature of the basic charge which is to find a 
system faithful to our traditional value of conviction of a crime by proof of 
the elements without infusion of character and propensity prejudice. Perhaps the 
march away from the historical Anglo-American concept of criminal justice is 
irreversible, but at least within the body of case law, some relatively direct 
and understandable concepts could deter total extinguishment. Each of the 
suggestions have support in basic case reviews and, as a combination, the 
totality seems unavailable in present Wyoming process.

[¶27.]  In analysis of these cases, the trial 
tribunal must first decide whether actual W.R.E. 404(b) evidence is presented. 
The phraseology in Crozier v. State, 723 P.2d 42 (Wyo. 1986) may have been 
improvident since that first question is whether the proffered facts relate to 
the course of conduct or history of the event which serves to develop the 
natural development of the facts. Id. at 49. If the evidence fits within this 
field of examination, it is not bad acts evidence. Justice v. State, 775 P.2d 1002 (Wyo. 1989); Miller v. State, 755 P.2d 855 
(Wyo. 1988); Scadden v. State, 732 P.2d 1036 
(Wyo. 1987). 
Consequently, in a technical sense, course of conduct or history of the 
occurrence evidence is not an exception to the bad acts, other crimes, wrongs or 
acts within the character of extrinsic offense evidence. United States v. 
Leavitt, 878 F.2d 1329 (11th Cir. 1989). Course of conduct evidence to be 
applied as intrinsic offense evidence involves those events from which the 
contended offense arises and is to be tested by a much broader arena of court 
discretion generally defined by the sound discretion of the court.8 Arnold v. Mountain West Farm Bureau Mut. Ins. 
Co., Inc., 707 P.2d 161 (Wyo. 1985); Matter of 
MLM, 682 P.2d 982 (Wyo. 1984); People v. Melton, 44 Cal. 3d 713, 
244 Cal. Rptr. 867, 750 P.2d 741, cert. denied ___ U.S. ___, 109 S. Ct. 329, 102 L. Ed. 2d 346 (1988).

[¶28.]  Obvious examples frequently litigated but 
almost never with success include objections to photographs of the victim, 
Munden v. State, 698 P.2d 621 (Wyo. 1985); 
State v. Leavitt, 116 Idaho 285, 775 P.2d 599 (1989), autopsy 
reports and granting or denying of a request to view the site of the alleged 
crime. Cases, rules and discretion applicable to the intrinsic evidence course 
of conduct should not be applied to the much more confined bad acts extrinsic 
offense evidence of W.R.E. 404(b) and convictions of W.R.E. 609. Scadden, 732 P.2d 1036. See however, Lauthern v. State, 769 P.2d 350, 357 (Wyo. 1989). It should 
also be noted before we address true W.R.E. 404(b) evidence, such as testimony 
of another victim, that the testimony of the same victim is not normally 
exception evidence within W.R.E. 404(b). King v. State, 545 So. 2d 375 (Fla.App. 
1989).9 Testimony of the victim about a 
continued course of criminal behavior fits comfortably within the non-W.R.E. 
404(b) definition to be applied to the evidence. Historically, this is the basis 
that the victim in sexual assaults was entitled to testify about other events 
and the general circumstances of the relationship with the accused. It was when 
the non-W.R.E. 404(b) rules applicable to the same victim were stretched to 
include other victims and admissibility of their testimony as a true W.R.E. 
404(b) evidence exception that present tensions developed which attack the basic 
principles of conviction by proof of a charged event and not bad character or 
propensity prejudicial offerings for jury consumption.10

[¶29.]  Consequently, the trial court is entitled 
to determine whether the contested evidence is intrinsic: full story - course of 
conduct. With that determination, no deterrent exists to admissibility except 
those generally vested in the court relating to introduction of all evidence 
including relevance, repetitiveness, unduly prejudicial nature or even just a 
waste of time for presentation and jury review.11

[¶30.]  The bad acts evidence litigation as the 
pervasive present dispute of our judiciary today comes forward with the 
extrinsic offense evidence and it is in this arena where the battleground is 
located in developing and applying rules of evidence for trial. It is also this 
present court's "liberal attitude" for introduction of the extrinsic offense 
evidence to which my numerous dissents have been addressed as founded in a 
simple determinant that conviction should occur on evidence of the offense 
charged and not propensity, bad character or unfavorable history.

[¶31.]  Once the trial court has made the first 
exclusion and found extrinsic offense evidence presented, then certain rules and 
standards should be applied to minimize unnecessary erosion of the endangered 
notion that guilt should be proved by evidence of the occurrence. 
Systematically, these should include:

1. The decision on 
introduction of W.R.E. 404(b) and 609 evidence should be addressed by pretrial 
submission or motion in limine before trial. C. Wright & K. Graham, Federal 
Practice and Procedure: Evidence § 5224 at 320-21 (1978); 2 Weinstein's 
Evidence, United States Rules ¶ 404[19] at 404-163 (1989); 3 Weinstein's 
Evidence, supra, ¶ 609[05] at 609-95 (prior convictions). See Newell v. State, 
548 P.2d 8 (Wyo. 1976). See also State v. Howell, 226 
Mont. 148, 734 P.2d 214 (1987), where a notice before trial is required.

2. The court should ask 
first of the proponent of the evidence in criminal cases: (a) what is the 
evidence presented, how and by whom;12 (b) what is the specific contended 
issue of trial to which it will be addressed;13 and (c) what will that evidence 
prove on this contested issue in addition to propensity, character and bad 
reputation.14

3. The opponent should 
address reasons for objection and assert particular prejudice anticipated at the 
pretrial session.15

4. The decision then to 
be made by the trial court, after fidelity to the balancing requirement of 
W.R.E. 403 and 609, is whether the prejudicial effect outweighs the probative 
value.16

5. The trial court should 
make a finding justifying admissibility or rejection by a specific determination 
of the contested issue to be addressed and what probative value, if any, is to 
be provided by the evidence. This is so whether the ruling is made or reserved 
for a time of attempted presentation at trial when evidence is rejected or a 
decision to admit is made.17

6. An appropriate 
limiting instruction should be given at the time of introduction to confine the 
jury consideration of the evidence to the purpose or intent for which admission 
was permitted in accord with the court's finding.18 Howell, 734 P.2d 214; Com. v. 
Billa, 555 A.2d 835 (Pa. 1989). See also Llach v. 
United States, 739 F.2d 1322 
(8th Cir. 1984); United 
States v. McClain, 440 F.2d 241 (D.C. Cir. 
1971); and State v. Stevens, 115 N.J. 289, 558 A.2d 833, 841 (1989). Cf. 
United 
States v. Jimenez, 613 F.2d 1373 (5th Cir. 
1980), where that court said even the most careful of instructions, however, 
would not have sufficiently limited the prejudicial nature of the extrinsic 
offense evidence.

[¶32.]  The effect of these procedural safeguards 
are both to ameliorate unnecessary prejudice in the search for truth and also to 
define carefully what is to be accomplished during that search. Justice Blume 
warned us years ago of the dangers in allowing evidence of other crimes in 
Rosencrance v. State, 33 Wyo. 360, 366, 239 P. 952 (1925) (quoting Commonwealth v. Shepard, 1 Allen (Mass.) 575 and Towne v. 
People, 89 Ill. App. 258) :

"It is a dangerous 
species of evidence, not only because it requires a defendant to meet and 
explain other acts than those charged against him and for which he is on trial, 
but also because it may lead the jury to violate the great principle that a 
party is not to be convicted of one crime by proof that he is guilty of 
another."

* * * * * *

"But the general rule is 
salutary and a departure from it is perilous, and hence courts are reluctant to 
extend the exception to the rule beyond well established lines."

[¶33.]  I do not fall into the justification by 
necessity and adaptation that admissibility is determined by the relative 
weakness of the prosecution's case. If the evidence of guilt is overwhelming, 
the intrinsic offense evidence is either redundant, repetitive or harmless 
error. The real issue of bad acts evidence in criminal case prosecution is where 
the result is questionable unless the particularized effect can be secured by 
the use of intrinsically prejudicial material as persuasively and factually 
related to the character, reputation or propensity of the charged defendant. It 
is in this circumstance that the method of securing a criminal conviction is 
most frequently pressed and more often abused.

[¶34.]  There is another fundamental concern 
which attaches to our current trend of pretending to use bad acts evidence for 
something beyond pure propensity evidence. The author in Comment, Defining 
Standards for Determining the Admissibility of Evidence of Other Sex Offenses, 
25 UCLA L.Rev. 261, 274 (1977), as an authority cited by the majority, 
accurately observes:

Given the objective of 
fairness to the defendant, it would be incongruous if a defendant were forced to 
choose between not testifying and appearing guilty, and testifying and 
subjecting himself to certain prejudice.

My sense of 
disquiet with our mutation into an inquisitorial judicial system for criminal 
trials comes not only from the realization that the defendant is deterred from 
personally presenting his testimony to the jury, but that the defense is 
deterred from effective cross-examination and use of other witnesses in order to 
avoid "opening the door." If innocence is maintained or any defense is made, 
credibility of the complainants is arguably presented and bad acts evidence is 
available to attack "credibility" of the defense or support credibility of the 
prosecution. Defendant's counsel then faces not only the inquiry for truth as a 
perceived criteria of the trial environment, but assessing prejudicial bad acts 
evidence and what will happen if he makes any effort to effectively mount a 
defense in representation of his client.19 There is a world of difference in 
moral justification between use of bad acts evidence to discredit a witness from 
usage to underpin the credibility of the complainant by attacking defendant or 
his witnesses.

[¶35.]  In urging a revision of F.R.E. 403, 
Professor Craig Lewis in Proof and Prejudice: A Constitutional Challenge to the 
Treatment of Prejudicial Evidence in Federal Criminal Cases, 64 Wn.L.Rev. 289, 
362-63 (1989) contends:

Federal Rule of Evidence 
403 fails to account for constitutionally protected interests of defendants in 
criminal trials. In its present form it invites decisions on the admissibility 
of potentially prejudicial evidence that jeopardize the trustworthiness of 
determinations of guilt. Appellate review offers little more than a placebo for 
the risks of error created by the rule.

The problem with Rule 403 
is fundamental: the rule and its current jurisprudence conflict with the 
presumption of innocence and the most basic precepts of criminal justice in an 
accusatorial system. The cure must come from a revision of the rule that will 
reorder trial and appellate court priorities to account for the individual and 
societal interest in reasonable certainty about the accuracy of 
convictions.

A call for that cure 
undoubtedly will find disfavor in an era of judicial sensitivity to a publicly 
perceived overindulgence of those charged with crime. Nonetheless, the concept 
of criminal justice reflected in the reasonable doubt standard and the 
constitutional doctrine established by Winship demand a revision of Rule 403 to 
reallocate the risks of factfinder error in criminal cases. The revision 
proposed in this Article would shift to the prosecution the burden of justifying 
the creation of a potential for unfair prejudice and the incentive to offer the 
least prejudicial proof on an issue. It also would heighten judicial awareness 
of the fundamental interests placed at risk by the use of prejudicial evidence 
in criminal cases and would place the greater share of the risks of factfinding 
error on the prosecution, where it belongs.

The price of the revision 
would be - indeed, would be calculated to be - the acquittal of some persons who 
would have been convicted under the present Rule 403. Some portion of this 
increase in acquittals will include defendants who in fact are guilty of the 
crimes with which they were charged. But a significant portion of these 
additional acquittals will be of defendants who are in fact innocent but who 
would have been convicted under the present rule because of its error-inducing 
structure. If our professed interest in reasonable certainty about the guilt of 
persons convicted of crimes is genuine, we should readily pay the price of the 
revision.

[¶36.]  We should look to what Wigmore once 
recognized, but since the immersion in present "liberal rules" is now seldom 
acknowledged:

Most courts recognize 
that the allowance of a course of examination into particular misconduct places 
in the hands of cross-examining counsel an instrument which he may use not 
wisely but too well. * * *

The first reason, to be sure, is purely one 
of sentiment. The ordinary instincts of decency, not to say courtesy, are 
violated by such examinations, and every new instance makes us more sodden to 
the spectacle and tends to bring us towards the same level of degradation. It is 
the difference between the hunt and the slaughterhouse. One may well enough find 
sport in stalking the lion in the desert or beating the bush for the tiger, 
because there is a risk for the hunter which dignifies his sport, and there is a 
rapacity and destructiveness in the hunted which leaves no room for sympathy; 
but the process of cutting the throat or knocking the head of a sheep or an ox 
penned in the shambles is both safe and brutal, and is to be justified only on 
the ground of its absolute necessity. The hunting down of a fleeing desperado, 
or the ensnaring of a chief of counterfeiters by the craft of detectives, is a 
process which does not violate instincts of fairness or principles of justice. 
But the ruthless flaying of personal character in the witness box is not only 
cowardly - because there is no escape for the victim - and brutal - because it 
inflicts the pain of public exposure of misdeeds to idle bystanders - but it has 
often not the slightest justification of necessity. Severe limits must be put to 
such conduct. As Lord Ellenborough said, "I will put it to your own feelings, 
your own good sense." Some weight must be allowed to the instincts of manly 
fairness and good sense.

The second reason is a 
politic one, i.e., that, with the prospect of such an examination as a 
possibility, the public is certain to dread the witness box. From time to time 
those whose knowledge would have been valuable will seek to evade disclosing it; 
the ascertainment of the truth will be hampered and perhaps prevented. That such 
a feeling exists today, in a greater or less degree, can hardly be 
doubted.

3A Wigmore, 
Evidence § 983 at 841 (1970) (emphasis in original and footnote omitted).20

[¶37.]  The majority, although first recognizing 
the accused always maintained his innocence, reveals latent inquisitorial 
tendencies with but a few sentences:

Although not testifying 
himself [within the defense that he was innocent of the crime charged], Gezzi 
attacked G.G.'s credibility through the introduction, in defense to the charge, 
of the testimony of Mrs. Gezzi and a social worker that G.G. had a tendency to 
lie. Moreover, the physical evidence admitted at trial was inconclusive as to 
the cause of G.G.'s physical symptoms. P.G.'s testimony relating a course of 
sexual misconduct occurring between herself and Gezzi was sufficiently similar 
to the events of molestation occurring between Gezzi and G.G. to be particularly 
relevant under Rule 404(b) for the purpose of corroborating G.G.'s 
testimony.

[¶38.]  Again, I claim Gezzi should have been 
charged with incest with his older daughter if her testimony to that effect was 
allowed in open court when he was being tried for such acts with his younger 
daughter - then he would have been afforded a realistic opportunity to defend 
himself through effective counsel. I cannot justify the admissibility of the 
extrinsic offense evidence in this case within the procedure followed or on the 
substantive basis of availability whenever our common constitutional right to 
defend might be undertaken by anyone criminally accused. I 
dissent.

FOOTNOTES

1 See p. 986, 
infra.

2 See Note, The 
Admissibility of Prior Bad Acts in Sexual Assault Cases Under Alaska Rule of Evidence 404(b) - An Emerging Double 
Standard, V Alaska L.Rev. 193 (1988).

3 The judicial sponsors 
who now rush to increase the power of the state by pointing out the "inclusive" 
characteristics of W.R.E. 404 seem paralyzed by their own logic when the 
"inclusive" characteristics of such conservative provisions as U.S. Const. 
amend. IX or Wyo.Const. art. 1, § 36 are pointed out as well.

4 See citation of other 
current authorities and scholastic reviews in Brown, 736 P.2d 1110 (Urbigkit, 
J., dissenting).

5 Weinstein states the 
problem as:

Although all American 
jurisdictions agree that no evidence may be introduced which seeks solely to 
prove that the accused has a criminal disposition, the question of when evidence 
of a particular criminal act may be admitted is so perplexing that the cases 
sometimes seem as numerous "as the sands of the sea," and often cannot be 
reconciled.

2 Weinstein's 
Evidence, United 
States Rules ¶ 404[08] at 404-53 
(1989).

On a more limited field 
of mutation by all-inclusive exception, a recent federal court case 
recognized:

Because intent is an 
element of virtually every crime, if evidence of other criminal activity were 
routinely allowed in simply to prove the intent element of a crime, the intent 
"exception" would soon swallow the rule. * * * Thus, we have stressed that 
intent must be a genuinely contested matter in the case and not merely a formal 
issue.

Landrum v. 
United 
States, 559 A.2d 1323, 1326 (D.C.App. 
1989).

6 Cf. Note, supra n. 2, V 
Alaska L.Rev. 193.

7

"If a murderous propensity may be proved 
against a defendant as one of the tokens of his guilt, a rule of criminal 
evidence . . . must first be declared away. Fundamental hitherto has been the 
rule that character is never an issue in a criminal prosecution unless the 
defendant chooses to make it one. . . . In a very real sense a defendant starts his 
life afresh when he stands before a jury, a prisoner at the bar. . . . 
Inflexibly the law has set its face against the endeavor to fasten guilt upon 
him by proof of character or experience predisposing to an act of crime. . . . 
The principle back of the exclusion is one, not of logic, but of policy. . . . 
There may be cogency in the argument that a quarrelsome defendant is more likely 
to start a quarrel than one of a milder type, a man of dangerous mode of life 
more likely than a shy recluse. The law is not blind to this but equally it is 
not blind to the peril to the innocent if character is accepted as probative of 
crime. `The natural and inevitable tendency of the tribunal - whether judge or 
jury - is to give excessive weight to the vicious record of crime thus 
exhibited, and either to allow it to bear too strongly on the present charge, or 
to take the proof of it as justifying a condemnation irrespective of guilt of 
the present charge.'"

Payne, The Law 
Whose Life is Not Logic: Evidence of Other Crimes in Criminal Cases, 3 
U.Rich.L.Rev. 62, 67-68 (1968) (quoting People v. Zackowitz, 254 N.Y. 192, 172 N.E. 466, 468 (1930)) (emphasis in original).

8 It is also my persuasion 
that the rule for determining whether the proffered testimony is bad acts, extrinsic offense evidence or immediate 
circumstance intrinsic offense 
evidence comes within the same general rules for admission of other evidence 
as a general standard of exercised trial court discretion. It follows that the 
broad arena of discretion to determine existence of and admission for course of 
events evidence is less confined in prejudicial analysis, probative criteria and 
relevance than is the proper application to the W.R.E. 404(b) evidence which is 
principally related to propensity and character. If there has been any specific 
analysis of this proper differentiation, it has not come to the attention of 
this writer in the multitude of cases and hordes of law journal analyses. See 
Scadden, 732 P.2d 1036 and Crozier, 723 P.2d 42. See also Leavitt, 878 F.2d 1329.

9 See Wyoming historical precedent in Lauthern, 769 P.2d 350; 
State v. Koch, 64 Wyo. 175, 189 P.2d 162 
(1948); State v. Quirk, 38 Wyo. 462, 268 P. 189 
(1928); and Strand v. State, 36 Wyo. 78, 252 P. 1030 (1927) to be compared with Brown, 736 P.2d 1110 and Elliott v. State, 600 P.2d 1044 (Wyo. 1979). See also Note, Evidence - The 
Impotence of Wyoming Rule of Evidence 404 in Sex Crime Trials: Brown v. State, 
736 P.2d 1110 (Wyo. 1987), XXIII Land & Water L.Rev. 267, 
280 (1988).

10 Note, supra n. 2, V 
Alaska L.Rev. 193.

11 Banks v. Crowner, 694 P.2d 101 (Wyo. 1985); City of Evanston v. Whirl Inn, Inc., 647 P.2d 1378 (Wyo. 1982). See generally 
2 D. Louisell and C. Mueller, Federal Evidence § 125 (1985).

12 Howell, 734 P.2d 214; 2 
Weinstein's Evidence, supra, ¶ 404[19] at 404-163.

13 United States v. 
Robinson, 700 F.2d 205 (5th Cir. 1983); State v. Stevens, 115 N.J. 289, 558 A.2d 833 (1989); State v. Niemeyer, 195 N.J. Super. 559, 480 A.2d 963 
(1984).

14 United States v. 
Phillips, 599 F.2d 134 (6th Cir. 1979); Beechum, 582 F.2d 898; Reed, supra, 50 
U.Cin.L.Rev. 713.

15 Goodman v. State, 601 P.2d 178 (Wyo. 
1979).

16 C. Wright & K. 
Graham, supra, § 5215 at 273-74 (footnotes omitted) states:

Once probative value has 
been determined, the court must look to the six countervailing factors listed in 
Rule 403. These are grouped into three "dangers" - unfair prejudice, confusion 
of issues, misleading the jury - and three "considerations" - undue delay, waste 
of time, and needless presentation of cumulative evidence. In the original 
scheme, exclusion was mandatory when probative value was outweighed by one or 
more of the "dangers," but only discretionary when "considerations" were 
involved. Although the original distinction has been abolished, "dangers" will 
still be weightier than "considerations" when the balance is struck because the 
three "dangers" all threaten the validity of factfinding, whereas the 
"considerations" only effect the efficiency of the courts.

"Unfair prejudice" will 
probably become the most significant of the three "dangers." Attorneys are more 
alert to this factor and invoke it more often. Since the categories of 
prejudice, confusion, and misleading the jury tend to overlap, courts often 
discuss all three in terms of prejudice. In extreme cases, the use of unfair 
prejudice against a criminal defendant can deny him a fair trial in violation of 
the right to due process.

See also C. 
Wright & K. Graham, supra, § 5214 at 263; 2 Weinstein's Evidence, supra, ¶ 
404[18] at 404-141; Lewis, Proof and Prejudice: A Constitutional Challenge to 
the Treatment of Prejudicial Evidence in Federal Criminal Cases, 64 Wn.L.Rev. 
289 (1989).

The two stage analysis is 
engrossed by Judge Selya in United States v. Rodriguez-Estrada, 
877 F.2d 153, 155 (1st Cir. 1989) (footnotes omitted):

Determining the 
admissibility of evidence of other (uncharged) bad acts requires a bifurcated 
inquiry. First, the district court must be satisfied that the proffered material 
has "special" probative value, that is, that the evidence is relevant not to 
show a defendant's propensity toward evil, but to prove some controverted issue 
in the case. * * *

Once shown to be relevant 
in the requisite sense, the evidence must pass still another sentry, embodied in 
Fed.R.Evid. 403. If the evidence brings unwanted baggage, say, unfair prejudice 
or a cognizable risk of confusing the jury, and if the baggage's weight 
substantially overbalances any probative value, then the evidence must be 
excluded.

17 Stevens, 558 A.2d  at 
833; C. Wright & K. Graham, supra, § 5224 at 321; Weinstein and Berger, 
Basic Rules of Evidence in the Proposed Federal Rules of Evidence, 4 Ga.L.Rev. 
43, 86 (1969). Cf. United 
States v. Dolliole, 597 F.2d 102 (7th Cir.), 
cert. denied 442 U.S. 946, 99 S. Ct. 2894, 61 L. Ed. 2d 318 (1979).

18 However, trial error may 
not result unless counsel requests that a limiting instruction, appropriate to 
the circumstances, be given. United 
States v. Sangrey, 586 F.2d 1312 (9th Cir. 1978); 
United 
States v. Cooper, 577 F.2d 1079 (6th Cir.), 
cert. denied 439 U.S. 868, 99 S. Ct. 196, 58 L. Ed. 2d 179 (1978).

19 Ladd, Credibility Tests 
- Current Trends, 89 U.Pa.L.Rev. 166, 191 (1940).

20 It has been the 
principal attention of the courts to consider bad acts evidence in reference to 
the criminally accused and perhaps his witnesses. State v. Shaw, 775 P.2d 207 
(Mont. 1989). 
It should, however, be recognized that impeachment and credibility destruction 
of witnesses is not logically confined to defendants in criminal cases. 
Complainants and other witnesses for the prosecution and all participants in 
civil cases can, in time, be similarly subjected to a regurgitation of their 
history to create and influence the jury by credibility destruction. This 
general trend is directly contrary to rape shield statutes and evidentiary 
principles which seek to deny defensive tactics to destroy the believability and 
worth of the complainant. Murder or rape is no less a crime when committed upon 
a person who might be a prostitute than is the question when perpetrated upon 
someone of unimpeachable virtue. See civil trial application of conviction 
without balancing in Green v. Bock Laundry Mach. Co., ___ U.S. ___, 109 S. Ct. 1981, 104 L. Ed. 2d 557 (1989). However, do not expect fairness in any consistency 
for equal rights for the defendant. See Carey v. State, 715 P.2d 244 (Wyo.), cert. denied 479 U.S. 882, 107 S. Ct. 270, 93 L. Ed. 2d 247 (1986) which creates a post-crime rape 
victim shield. See also Note, Evidence - Diggs v. Lyons: The Use of Prior Criminal Convictions to 
Impeach Credibility in Civil Actions Under Rule 609(a), 60 Tul.L.Rev. 863 
(1986); and Note, Impeachment With Prior Convictions Under Federal Rule of 
Evidence 609(a)(i): A Plea for Balance, 63 Wn.U.L.Q. 469 (1985).

MACY, Justice, specially 
concurring.

[¶39.]  I concur solely because this case is in 
accord with Brown v. State, 736 P.2d 1110 (Wyo. 
1987), and Elliott v. State, 600 P.2d 1044 (Wyo. 1979). I still contend, however, that we 
are laboring over a rule of evidence which has been emasculated by judicial 
exceptions.