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A set is an unordered collection of objects.

A set is an unordered collection of objects.

Methods include observation, psychological tests, neurological tests, and the clinical interview, to name a few.

Observation. Psychological tests. Neurological tests. The clinical interview.

The behavioral model explains depression as a result of a change in the number of rewards and punishments one receives throughout their life. This change can come from work, intimate relationships, family, or even the environment in general. Among the most influential in the field of depression is Peter Lewinsohn. He stated depression occurred in most people due to the reduced positive rewards in their life. Because they were not positively rewarded, their constructive behaviors occurred more infrequently until they stop engaging in the behavior completely (Lewinsohn et al., 1990; 1984). An example of this is a student who keeps receiving bad grades on their exam despite studying for hours. Over time, the individual will reduce the amount of time they are studying, thus continuing to earn poor grades.

The behavioral model explains depression as a result of a change in the number of rewards and punishments one receives throughout their life.

Specific phobia is distinguished by an individual’s fear or anxiety specific to an object or a situation. While the amount of fear or anxiety related to the specific object or situation varies among individuals, it also varies related to the proximity of the object/situation. When individuals are face-to-face with their specific phobia, immediate fear is present.

Specific phobia is an individual's fear or anxiety specific to an object or situation.

The behavioral explanation of obsessive compulsive-related disorders focuses on compulsions rather than obsessions. Behaviorists believe that these compulsions begin with and are maintained through operant conditioning.

The behavioral explanation of obsessive compulsive-related disorders focuses on compulsions rather than obsessions. These compulsions begin with and are maintained through operant conditioning.

Lists are crucial for recursion since we know each element we recur on has the same type and thus can be applied to the same set of functions. Also, unlike tuples, lists are flexible with respect to length.

Lists are essential for recursion due to their flexibility.

There are two types of herpes simplex virus: HSV-1 and HSV-2. About 50 to 60 percent of American adults have HSV-1, which usually appears as cold sores on their mouths (see Figure 12.10) and sometimes causes genital herpes infections.73 Only about 1 in 6 Americans are believed to have HSV-2; however, exact numbers are difficult to assess.74 Both types can infect any area of the body.75 Herpes simplex virus remains in nerve cells for life and can flare up when the body’s ability to maintain itself is weakened.

HSV-1 and HSV-2 are two types of herpes simplex virus, both of which can infect any area of the body.

Infections can cause brain damage and lead to the development of mental illness or exacerbate existing symptoms. For example, evidence suggests that contracting strep infection can lead to the development of OCD, Tourette’s syndrome, and tic disorder in children .

Infections can cause brain damage and lead to the development of mental illness or exacerbate existing symptoms.

Simply append ? to the quantifier to ensure it only matches the minimum number of times

Simply append ? to the quantifier to ensure it only matches the minimum number of times.

Patients usually seek help during the depression phase, which has symptoms very similar to unipolar depression. Hence it is often misdiagnose as unipolar depression.

Patients seek help during the depression phase, often misdiagnosed as unipolar depression.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), defines bullying as “…any unwanted aggressive behavior(s) by another youth or group of youths, who are not siblings or current dating partners, involving an observed or perceived power imbalance. These behaviors are repeated multiple times or are highly likely to be repeated. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm.”

Bullying is any unwanted aggressive behavior by another youth or group of youths involving an observed or perceived power imbalance. Bullying may inflict harm or distress on the targeted youth including physical, psychological, social, or educational harm.

- Batch prediction (Cloud): train the model offline, you run the model on some input data and you dump the results into a database, then run the rest of the application normally. Your application will query the database to get the model’s predictions and then serve these predictions to the users. - Model-as-Service (Cloud): the webserver loads the model, and when it receives a request from the user, it calls the model to get predictions, then returns the predictions to the user. - Edge prediction: you first send the model weights to the client edge device. Then, the client loads the model and interacts with it directly. This can either be a mobile application, a web browser or an embedded device.

Catch prediction (cloud), model-as-service (cloud), and edge prediction (edge) are all methods of training a model offline. Batch prediction involves training the model offline and dumping the results into a database, while model-as-service involves loading the model and calling it to get predictions. Edge prediction involves sending the model weights to a client edge device and interacting with it directly.

Seizures and delirium tempers (tremors, hallucinations, agitation, confusion…). For more, see textbook: p.151

Seizures and delirium tempers (tremors, hallucinations, agitation, confusion…).

Link and Phelan (2013) have highlighted six dimensions to characterize a particular stigmatizing circumstance and to assess how it differs from other stigmatizing circumstances. These dimensions include: 1) Concealability. It refers to how apparent or detectable a characteristic is to other people. 2) Course. It refers to the extent to which the stigmatizing circumstance is believed to be reversible. 3) Disruptiveness. It refers to the extent to which such a circumstance strains and adds to the difficulty of interpersonal interactions. 4) Aesthetics. It refers to the extent to which different marks elicit an instinctive and affective reaction of disgust 5) Origin. It refers to how the stigma came into being and especially the extent to which the stigmatized person’s behavior may have caused the condition 6) Peril. It refers to the extent to which they induce fear or perceived threat in others. III note that, you do not have to remember all of them, but I would expect you to familiarize with the definitions of each dimension. I might have you do a match-up question here.

Concealability refers to how apparent or detectable a characteristic is to other people. Course refers to the extent to which the stigmatizing circumstance is believed to be reversible. Disruptiveness refers to the extent to which such a circumstance strains and adds to the difficulty of interpersonal interactions. Aesthetics refers to the extent to which different marks elicit an instinctive and affective reaction of disgust Origin refers to how the stigma came into being and especially the extent to which the stigmatized person’s behavior may have caused the condition Peril refers to the extent to which they induce fear or perceived threat in others.

The majority of individuals diagnosed with bulimia nervosa also present with at least one other mental disorder. Similar to anorexia nervosa, there is also a high frequency of depressive symptoms, as well as bipolar disorder. While some experience mood fluctuations as a result of their eating pattern, a large number of individuals will identify mood symptoms prior to the onset of bulimia nervosa. Anxiety, particularly social anxiety, is often present in those with bulimia nervosa.

Bulimia nervosa is often associated with other mental disorders, such as depressive and bipolar disorder, and anxiety.

Closed classes are those with relatively fixed membership, such as prepositions. Closed class words are usually function words, and it's hard to create new words in closed classes. Open class words are words that can be created or borrowed. Nouns and verbs are two major classes in open class types. For example, "google" or "app" are very recently created words.

Closed classes are those with relatively fixed membership, such as prepositions. Closed class words are usually function words, and it's hard to create new words in closed classes. Open class words are words that can be created or borrowed. Nouns and verbs are two major classes in open class types.

Psycholinguistics is interested in exploring the fields of language comprehension, language production and language acquisition. Language Comprehension is the ability to understand and process information in the form of written or spoken language. Another field is language production. This is the ability to encode, create and communicate information through written or spoken language. Another field is language acquisition, which looks at the processes and steps involved when a child develops the communicate to comprehend and produce language.

Psycholinguistics explores the fields of language comprehension, language production and language acquisition to understand and process information.

Individuals with personality disorders within Cluster A often do not seek out treatment as they do not identify themselves as someone who needs help. When patients are enrolled in treatment, cognitive-behavioral strategies are most commonly used with the primary intention of reducing anxiety-related symptoms. Treatment options for antisocial personality disorder are limited and generally not effective. Like Cluster A disorders, many individuals are forced to participate in treatment, thus impacting their ability to engage in and continue with treatment. Borderline personality disorder is the one personality disorder with an effective treatment option—Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT). Individuals with histrionic personality disorder are more likely to seek out treatment than other personality disorder patients. Of all the personality disorders, narcissistic personality disorders are among the most difficult to treat (with maybe the exception of antisocial personality disorder). While many individuals within avoidant and OCPD personality disorders seek out treatment to address their anxiety or depressive symptoms, it is often difficult to keep them in treatment due to distrust or fear of rejection from the clinician. Treatment goals for avoidant personality disorder are similar to that of social anxiety disorder. CBT techniques, such as identifying and challenging distressing thoughts, have been effective in reducing anxiety-related symptoms.

Individuals with personality disorders within Cluster A often do not seek out treatment as they do not identify themselves as someone who needs help. Treatment options for antisocial personality disorder are limited and generally not effective. While many individuals within avoidant and OCPD personality disorders seek out treatment to address their anxiety or depressive symptoms, it is often difficult to keep them in treatment due to distrust or fear of rejection from the clinician.

Python syntax for string literals requires you to close a string in the same way that you start it. If you open a string with `"`, you must conclude it with `"`. If you open a string with `'`, you must conclude it with `'`.

Python syntax for string literals requires you to close a string in the same way that you start it.

Phonetics, syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics, pragmatics.

Phonetics. Syntax. Morphology. Phonology. Semantics. Pragmatics.

Psychologists again, rely on parent-report, teacher-report, and observations. If the child is old enough, a psychologist will also incorporate the child’s own self-report of symptoms. However, this must be done carefully, because the behaviors being assessed are ones that an individual may be more inclined to under-report or deny.

Psychologists again, rely on parent-report, teacher-report, and observations. If the child is old enough, a psychologist will also incorporate the child’s own self-report of symptoms.

Antidepressant medications, Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), Tricyclic antidepressants, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), Behavioral Activation (BA), Interpersonal therapy (IPT), and Multimodal treatment are used to treat depressive disorders.

Antidepressant medications. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Tricyclic antidepressants. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Behavioral Activation (BA). Interpersonal therapy (IPT). Multimodal treatment are used to treat depressive disorders.

Eating disorders are overwhelmingly found in Western countries where there is a heavy emphasis on thinness—a core feature of eating disorders. It is also found in countries where food is in abundance, as in places of deprivation, round figures are viewed as more desirable (Polivy & Herman, 2002). While eating disorders were once thought of as disorders of higher SES, recent research suggests that as our country becomes more homogenized, the more universal eating disorders become.

Eating disorders are mainly found in Western countries, where thinness is emphasized and food is abundant. Recent research suggests that as the country becomes more homogenized, eating disorders become more universal. This is due to the emphasis on thinness and abundance of food.

Individuals are prone to report behaviors in ways that inaccurately reflect how they want people to think they behave rather than how they actually behave.

Individuals are prone to report behaviors in ways that inaccurately reflect how they want people to think they behave rather than how they actually behave.

Your main goal is to find a subset of the population that has similar properties as the population. For example, if half of the population identifies as female, then you may want a sample with half its members identifying as female.

Your main goal is to find a subset of the population that has similar properties as the population.

The Tuskegee Syphilis experiment withheld the treatment of syphilis for Black men under the guise of treatment and research.

The Tuskegee Syphilis experiment withheld the treatment of syphilis for Black men under the guise of treatment and research.

The majority of individuals diagnosed with bulimia nervosa also present with at least one other mental disorder, if not more. Similar to anorexia nervosa, there is also a high frequency of depressive symptoms, as well as bipolar disorder. Anxiety, particularly social anxiety is often present in those with bulimia nervosa. Alcohol use, as well as substance abuse is also prevalent in those with bulimia.

Bulimia nervosa is associated with multiple mental disorders, including depressive, bipolar, anxiety, alcohol, and substance abuse.

Proving a concept involves the entrepreneurial leader validating the capacity and feasibility of an innovation prior to initiation and implementation, which in turn helps reduce the risk of failure and optimize the intended value proposition of an initiative/venture.

Validating concept helps reduce risk and optimize value proposition.

The structure of the lexicon is revealed to us by how people successfully use a language and also how the use of language can go wrong, producing things such as speech errors or tip-of-the-tongue states.

The structure of the lexicon is revealed to us by how people successfully use a language. It is also how the use of language can go wrong, producing things such as speech errors or tip-of-the-tongue states.

Schramm's Model calls for the identification and strategic leveraging of commonalities between communicators and target audiences. Accordingly, communicators are encouraged to identify commonalities between themselves and those within echo chambers, no matter how minor, to be used as starting points to impactful communication.

Communicators are encouraged to identify commonalities between themselves and those within echo chambers to be used as starting points to impactful communication.

The prevalence rate for generalized anxiety disorder is estimated to be 3% of the general population, with nearly 6% of individuals experiencing GAD sometime during their lives. While it can present at any age, it generally appears first in childhood or adolescence. Similar to most anxiety-related disorders, females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with GAD as males.

GAD is estimated to be 3% of the general population, with 6% experiencing it at some point in their lives. Females are twice as likely to be diagnosed as males.

For me, the main point is that the typical GLM analysis takes place at two levels and requires a **model** (design matrix) that characterizes the task (See [Short Introduction to the General Linear Model for Neuroimaging](https://www.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/primers/appendices/glm.pdf)). - First-level analysis: Analysis of each participant (which shows how brain activity relates to the statistical hypothesis only for that subject). - Group-level analysis: Analysis of the whole group (which means intensity normalizing their scans to each other and warping them into a shared standard space)

Typical GLM analysis takes place at two levels and requires a model that characterizes the task. First-level analysis is analysis of each participant, which shows how brain activity relates to the statistical hypothesis only for that subject. Group-level analysis is analysis of the whole group, which means intensity normalizing their scans to each other and warping them into a shared standard space.

The hallmark symptoms of schizophrenia include the presentation of at least two of the following during a one month period: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized/abnormal behavior, or negative symptoms. These symptoms create significant impairment in an individual’s ability to engage in normal daily functioning such as work, school, relationships with others, or self-care, and continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6 months. It should be noted that the presentation of schizophrenia varies significantly among individuals, as it is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome.

Schizophrenia is a heterogeneous clinical syndrome that presents with delusions, hallucinations, speech, behavior, and negative symptoms, lasting at least 6 months.

Serious mental illness costs the United States an estimated $193 billion in lost earnings each year and worldwide there was an estimated $2.5 trillion in global costs in 2010. Thirty-seven percent of students with a mental disorder age 14 and older drop out of school. The costs for mental illness are greater than the combined costs of cancer, diabetes, and respiratory disorders.

Serious mental illness costs the United States an estimated $193 billion in lost earnings each year. Mental illness costs the US and world more than cancer, diabetes, and respiratory disorders combined.

Trace tables are used to debug programs. They provide a step-by-step view of a program, including the values of all variables at any point in its execution. In addition to being helpful for debugging code, having students complete trace tables is a great teaching exercise to assess student knowledge of their code and help them identify any syntax or logic errors by slowly walking through their code.

Trace tables are used to debug programs.

Biological – includes genetics, chemical imbalances in the brain, the functioning of the nervous system, etc. Psychological – includes learning, personality, stress, cognition, self-efficacy, and early life experiences. We will examine several perspectives that make up the psychological model to include psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic-existential. Sociocultural – includes factors such as one’s gender, religious orientation, race, ethnicity, and culture.

Biological includes genetics, chemical imbalances in the brain, the functioning of the nervous system. Psychological includes learning, personality, stress, cognition, self-efficacy, and early life experiences. Sociocultural includes factors such as one’s gender, religious orientation, race, ethnicity, and culture.

Modifies a noun.

Modifies a noun.

Oppression and social control

Oppression and social control

Not only are we concerned about the person we are right now, but we focus on the person we might become, called possible selves. These could be positive conceptions of our future self, but likewise, they could be something we are afraid of becoming and could elicit guilt and anxiety in the individual.

Not only are we concerned about the person we are right now, but we focus on the person we might become, called possible selves.

The three actor-types are end-users, customers, and stakeholders. End-users are those who directly benefits from an entrepreneurial intervention or venture. Customers are those who "pay" for an entrepreneurial intervention or venture. Stakeholders are those who are not considered end-users or customers, but nonetheless have a strong interest in the success of an intervention or venture.

End-users are those who directly benefits from an entrepreneurial intervention or venture.Customers are those who pay for an entrepreneurial intervention or venture.Stakeholders are those who are not considered end-users or customers, but nonetheless have a strong interest in the success of an intervention or venture.

Some argue that eating disorders are, in fact, a variant of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). The obsession with body shape and weight—the hallmark of an eating disorder—is likely a driving factor in anorexia nervosa. Distorted thought patterns and an over-evaluation of body size likely contribute to this obsession and one’s desire for thinness. Research has identified high levels of impulsivity, particularly in those with binge eating episodes, suggesting a temporary lack of control is responsible for these episodes. Post binge-eating episode, many individuals report feelings of disgust or even thoughts of failure. These strong cognitive factors are indicative as to why cognitive-behavioral therapy is the preferred treatment for eating disorders.

Some argue that eating disorders are, in fact, a variant of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD).The obsession with body shape and weight—the hallmark of an eating disorder—is likely a driving factor in anorexia nervosa. Research has identified high levels of impulsivity, particularly in those with binge eating episodes, suggesting a temporary lack of control is responsible for these episodes.

Research across the personality disorders suggests some underlying biological or genetic component; however, identification of specific mechanisms have not been identified in most disorders, with the exception of those below. Surprisingly, antisocial personality disorder and borderline personality disorder also have similar neurological changes. More specifically, individuals with both disorders reportedly show deficits in serotonin activity. These low levels of serotonin activity in combination with deficient functioning of the frontal lobes—particularly the prefrontal cortex which is used in planning, self-control, and decision making—as well as an overly reactive amygdala, may explain the impulsive and aggressive nature of both antisocial and borderline personality disorder.

Research across the personality disorders suggests some underlying biological or genetic component; however, identification of specific mechanisms have not been identified in most disorders.

The cumulative inequality theory maintains that “social systems generate inequality, which is manifested over the life course via demographic and developmental processes, and that personal trajectories are shaped by the accumulation of risk, available resources, perceived trajectories, and human agency” This theory gives explicit attention to many structural forces—familial, socioeconomic, demographic, and community—that predispose people toward life trajectories. It highlights human agency and resource mobilization to modify those trajectories. It also emphasizes the role of perceived life trajectories. That is, each person reflects on his or her life by comparing it to others and to earlier points in the life course. Subjectively perceived life course timing influences psychosomatic processes.

The cumulative inequality theory maintains that social systems generate inequality, which is manifested over the life course via demographic and developmental processes, and that personal trajectories are shaped by the accumulation of risk, available resources, perceived trajectories, and human agency.

Muzafer Sherif was convinced that our views of the world were shaped by those around us. This construction of our reality or truths was necessary to give our perceptions meaning. In order to empirically support these beliefs, he conducted a number of studies using the autokinetic effect. This is an illusion that when a pinpoint of light is projected in a dark space it appears to move even though it is actually stationary. This paradigm was the perfect situation for Sherif to test his idea that in an ambiguous situation we will seek out the right thing to do or a framework to interpret our perceptions.

Muzafer Sherif was convinced that our views of the world were shaped by those around us. This is an illusion that when a pinpoint of light is projected in a dark space it appears to move even though it is actually stationary.

the disease tends to progress slowly.

the disease tends to progress slowly.

- a. \(\emptyset\): The empty set is the set which contains no elements. - b. \(\mathbb{N}\): The set of natural numbers. That is, \(\mathbb{N} = \{ 0 , 1 , 2 , 3, ... \}\). - c. \(\mathbb{Z}\): The set of integers. That is, \(\mathbb{Z} = \{ ..., -2, -1, 0 , 1 , 2 , 3, ... \}\).

The empty set is the set without elements. N is the set of natural numbers. Z is the set of integers.

Data visualization can help in understanding the patterns in the data, and therefore it makes us understand our data even more. In addition to that, data visualization helps in communicating our results to non technical people because they can tell the findings easily.

Data visualization helps us understand our data and communicate results to non technical people, making it easier to understand and communicate.

Prescriptive linguistic rules are rules that tell a person what they "should" and "should"not do with a language, like "do not split an infinitive." They are the kind of rules that appear in grammar books for non-linguists and constitute what non-linguists think of as "grammar." In linguistics, a lot of these are not considered grammatical rules at all, but rather rules of social convention; they reflect our ideas about language, which are often incorrect. Descriptive rules are the rules linguists write to describe the natural patterns occurring in what people actually say. A lot of these rules, such as "a phrase must be headed by a word with the same grammatical category as the phrase" are so abstract that they are never intentionally followed or broken. These rules are taken by linguists to describe the true contents of "grammar," which are sub-conscious, not learned from books.

Prescriptive linguistic rules are rules that tell a person what they should and should not do with a language. Descriptive rules are the rules linguists write to describe the natural patterns occurring in what people actually say.

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is a common general purpose cable that has continued to evolve since the late 1990s.

USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is a common general purpose cable that has continued to evolve since the late 1990s.

LD50/ED50: ratio of (1) the amount of a drug that is lethal to 50% of subjects tested / (2) amount of drug that produces the desired effect in 50% of subjects tested. Another way to put it is that it is the ratio of the average lethal dose to the average therapeutic dose. For more, see textbook: p. 90-91 The therapeutic window is the range of blood concentration levels of a drug associated with optimal clinical response. That is, it is the range of doses for which there is enough drug in the bloodstream to safely produce the desired therapeutic effect. Knowing the therapeutic window provides half the information required to know the therapeutic index.

The LD50/ED50 ratio is the ratio of the amount of a drug that is lethal to 50% of subjects tested to the amount of drug that produces the desired effect in 50% of subjects tested. The therapeutic window is the range of blood concentration levels of a drug associated with optimal clinical response. Knowing the therapeutic window provides half the information required to know the therapeutic index.

TBIs occur when an individual experiences significant trauma or damage to the head. Neurocognitive disorder due to TBI is diagnosed when persistent cognitive impairment is observed immediately following the head injury, along with one or more of the following symptoms: loss of consciousness, posttraumatic amnesia, disorientation, and confusion, or neurological impairment (APA, 2013). The presentation of symptoms varies among individuals and depends largely on the location of the injury and the intensity of the trauma. Furthermore, the effects of a TBI can be temporary or permeant. Symptoms generally range from headaches, disorientation, confusion, irritability, fatigue, poor concentration, as well as emotional and behavioral changes.

A head injury with loss of consciousness, posttraumatic amnesia, disorientation, and confusion, or neurological impairment.

In multiclass classification (i.e., assigning one label out of several), we calculate how likely it is for a given datapoint to belong to each class. The class assigned is the one with the highest likelihood. For example, when if a classifier predicts whether the sentiment of the given sentence is "positive", "neutral", or "negative", the model doesn't return `POSITIVE`, but rather a consistently ordered list of three probabilities where each probability corresponds to a particular label (ex. `[0.3, 0.2, 0.5]`; `0.3 -> "positive", 0.2 -> "neutral", 0.5 -> "negative"`). The `argmax` function is used to find the **index** (position in the array) of highest (max) probability. This index corresponds to a particular class label.

Multiclass classification assigns one label out of several, calculating how likely it is for a given datapoint to belong to each class. The argmax function is used to find the index of highest probability.

The prevalence rate for generalized anxiety disorder is estimated to be 3% of the general population, with nearly 6% of individuals experiencing GAD sometime during their lives. While it can present at any age, it generally appears first in childhood or adolescence. Similar to most anxiety related disorders, females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with GAD as males.

GAD is estimated to be 3% of the general population, with 6% experiencing it sometime during their lives. It is more common in childhood or adolescence. Females are twice as likely to be diagnosed as males.

There is some evidence of a genetic predisposition for eating disorders, with relatives of those diagnosed with an eating disorder being up to six times more likely than other individuals to be diagnosed also. In addition to hereditary causes, disruption in the neuroendocrine system is common in those with eating disorders.

Genetic predisposition for eating disorders is common, with relatives of those diagnosed being up to six times more likely to be diagnosed. Neuroendocrine disruption is also common.

They are confused because they both follow the verb. The object of a verb is a different entity than the verb’s subject, which is related to the subject by the action of the verb; usually it is target of the subject’s action. Such as "the man" in "The dog bit the man." A complement also follows the verb, but predicates something of the subject, the action, or the object. For example, in "That man is a great teacher," "a great teacher" is an intensional complement, not an object; it describes the subject. In "The lunatic believed she could fly"; "she could fly" is a sentential complement reporting the content of the subject’s belief.

The object of a verb is related to the subject by the action of the verb. A complement follows the verb and predicates something of the subject, the action, or the object.

Separation anxiety disorder is a disorder that is characterized by excessive fear of separating from a caregiver. A child may worry about the caregiver becoming seriously ill, dying, or being permanently separated from them. They may refuse to go to school or other places due to, by nature, forced separation.

Separation anxiety disorder is a disorder that is characterized by excessive fear of separating from a caregiver.

Social stratification refers to the unequal distribution of valued resources across social groups or social categories. Stratification is not random, with groups and individuals occupying different positions by chance; rather, stratification are structured systems and social institutions such as government, the economy, and education operate to assure the position of various groups. Moreover, the system of stratification is further legitimized by an ideology that justifies inequality.

Social stratification is the unequal distribution of resources across social groups or categories, and is structured by social institutions such as government, the economy, and education. It is legitimized by an ideology that justifies inequality.

We collect information in terms of physical cues, salience, facial expressions, personality traits, eye contact, moral character, and nonverbal communication.

We collect information in terms of physical cues, salience, facial expressions, personality traits, eye contact, moral character, and nonverbal communication.

- chmod (change mod) is used to change permissions. - Permissions are added with + and subtracted with -. - Permissions are set at three levels: u (user), g (group), and o (other). - If you want to set permissions on all three levels at once, you can use `ugo` or the shart form `a` (all). - Allowed permissions are for r (reading), w (writing), and x (executing). - For example: chmod ugo-wx README.md changes permissions for user, group, and other by subtracting write and execute permissions from the file README.md.

chmod is used to change permissions.

Western cultures view the self as independent or individualistic, meaning that individuals reject conformity, focus on individual traits and goals, and seek personal achievement while Asian cultures are interdependent or collectivistic and identify the self in a social context, believe in blending in, focus on group goals, promote solidarity, and are against egotism.

Western cultures view the self as independent or individualistic. Asian cultures are interdependent or collectivistic.

A term-term matrix is formed by counting the number of times two terms co-occur in a given context (in this case, a sentence). In real world examples, term-term matrices can be huge––|V| x |V|––and sparse. Window sizes can be adjusted, such as considering a context +/- k terms rather than considering the context to be a sentence.

A term-term matrix is formed by counting the number of times two terms co-occur in a given context (in this case, a sentence).

If you don't have enough RAM, the computer tries to use the hard drive as virtual memory. Because the hard drive is slow, this can cause the performance of the computer to degrade or collapse. This is called **thrashing**. Rebooting the computer clears the RAM, but won't help if you try to run just as much processing again. That is, it helps to reboot. It helps to close some programs. Ultimately, though, you may need to buy more RAM.

If you don't have enough RAM, the computer tries to use the hard drive as virtual memory. Because the hard drive is slow, this can cause the performance of the computer to degrade or collapse, called thrashing.

Demographics, which simply cluster people together according to relatively static features (e.g., broad physical categories).

Demographics, which simply cluster people together according to relatively static features.

Nearly 1.1% of all high school seniors have used cocaine within the past month (Johnston et al., 2014). Due to the high cost of cocaine, it is more commonly found in suburban neighborhoods where consumers have the financial means to purchase the drugs. Methamphetamine is used by men and women equally. It is popular among biker gangs, rural America, and urban gay communities, as well as in clubs and all-night dance parties (aka raves; Hopfer, 2011). A growing concern is the abuse of stimulant medication among college students as 17% of college students reported abusing stimulant medications. Greek organization membership, academic performance, and other substance use were the most highly correlated variables related to stimulant medication abuse.

Cocaine is used in high schools particularly in affluent suburban neighborhoods. Methamphetamine is popular among biker gangs, rural America, and urban gay communities. College students reported abusing stimulant medications, with Greek organization membership, academic performance, and other substance use being the most correlated variables.

Infinite recursion means that a recursive function continuously calls itself until the end of time. Here is an example of infinite recursion: ```python3 def recurse(): recurse() ``` This function continuously calls itself with no way out. But identifying infinite recursion is not always so clear. Sometimes we may have logic that causes a function to infinitely recurse depending on certain input values. Example: ```python3 def recurse(n): if n == 15: return else: recurse(n+1) ``` In this example, if we input a number that is less than or equal to 15 (i.e., `recurse(7)`), we will not run into any issues. Eventually, that `recurse(n+1)` will reach `n = 15`, and our function will return without recursing deeper. But if we input a number that is greater than 15 (i.e., `recurse(18)`), our value of `n` will only increase with each call of `recurse(n+1)`, and we will never reach `n = 15`. Infinite recursion! The moral here is that when you are using recursion, you must be careful to avoid such cases!

Infinite recursion means that a recursive function continuously calls itself until the end of time.

See Box 2.2 in Jenkinson and Chappell. Multishell acquisitions acquire data with multiple B-values (e.g. 500, 1000, 2000) in addition to the B0 images.

Multishell acquisitions acquire data with multiple B-values in addition to the B0 images.

Preexisting conditions of depression or anxiety may predispose an individual to develop PTSD or other stress disorders. One theory is that these individuals may ruminate or over-analyze the traumatic event, thus bringing more attention to the traumatic event and leading to the development of stress-related symptoms. Furthermore, negative cognitive styles or maladjusted thoughts about themselves and the environment may also contribute to PTSD symptoms.

Preexisting conditions of depression or anxiety may predispose an individual to develop PTSD or other stress disorders.

Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by a range of impairment in social and interpersonal relationships due to discomfort in relationships, along with odd cognitive or perceptual distortions and eccentric behaviors. Similar to those with schizoid personality disorder, individuals also seek isolation and have few, if any established relationships outside of family members. One of the most prominent features of schizotypal personality disorder is ideas of reference, or the belief that unrelated events pertain to them in a particular and unusual way. Ideas of reference also lead to superstitious behaviors or preoccupation with paranormal activities that are not generally accepted in their culture.

Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by impairment in social and interpersonal relationships, odd cognitive or perceptual distortions, eccentric behaviors, isolation, and ideas of reference. It also leads to superstitious behaviors and preoccupation with paranormal activities that are not accepted in their culture.

tighten your privacy settings, and untag yourself in photos and videos you don't want others to see

Tighten your privacy settings. Untag yourself in photos and videos you don't want others to see.

One of the reasons that Python is so popular is because it is a "general purpose" programming language. That means it can be used for all sorts of tasks from video game development to web app development to building machine learning models.

Python is so popular is because it is a "general purpose" programming language. It can be used for all sorts of tasks from video game development to web app development to building machine learning models.

Both Schramm's Feedback Model and Riley and Riley's Sociological Theory of Communication involve exchange between communicators and their target audiences. Likewise, both emphasize the influence of sociological conditions and factors on how individuals construct and interpret messages. The primary difference is that Schramm's Model encourages the communicator to focus on likely commonalities between themselves and their target audiences, whereas Riley and Riley stress the importance of differences between communicators and target audiences.

They both emphasize the influence of sociological conditions and factors on how individuals construct and interpret messages. Schramm's Model encourages communicators to focus on commonalities. Riley and Riley stress differences.

A vaccine injects a piece of a pathogen or an inactivated pathogen into the human body so the immune system can learn to identify it. The piece or inactivated pathogen can’t make a person sick itself, but it trains are immune system to recognize the actual dangerous pathogen. Then, the immune system will be able to attack the actual pathogen much more quickly and efficiently when it sees it again.

A vaccine injects a piece of a pathogen or an inactivated pathogen into the body to train the immune system to recognize the actual dangerous pathogen. This allows the immune system to attack it more quickly and efficiently.

$$ L_{CE}(w,b) = −[ylog\sigma(w·x+b)+(1−y)log(1−\sigma(w·x+b))] $$ $$ = −[log(1−\sigma(w·x+b))] $$ $$ = -log(0.27) $$ $$ = 1.309 $$ 1.309 is our loss, which is a high value for the cross-entropy loss function. This is expected because our prediction is \(\hat y = 1\) even though \(y=0\), and thus we want a large loss to make a larger adjustment to our weights and bias.

1.309

First, consider that our judgment of a person or situation could be affected by biased information we have received. Maybe we have decided that a new colleague we have had limited contact with is not a nice person due to what a friend tells us about them. Of course, we do not know that our friend does not like this individual for personal reasons and nothing specific that the person has done. Hence, the friend has affected our judgment of the new employee by providing us with biased information. Additionally, we may make an inference about a person or group based on a very limited amount of information. Maybe we are only basing our opinion of the person on what we heard about them from a few others (assume the information is not biased) or when we saw them walking down the hall.

We may make an inference about a person or group based on biased information we have received, such as what a friend tells us about them.

The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is the persistent pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others. This pattern of behavior begins in late childhood or early adolescence and continues throughout adulthood. While this behavior presents before age 15, the individual cannot be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder until the age of 18. Prior to age 18, the individual would be diagnosed with Conduct Disorder. Although not discussed in this book as it is a disorder of childhood, conduct disorder involves a repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviors that violate the rights of others or major age-appropriate norms (APA, 2013). Common behaviors of individuals with conduct disorder that go on to develop antisocial personality disorder are aggression toward people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious violation of rules (APA, 2013).

Antisocial personality disorder is a pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, which begins in late childhood or early adolescence and continues throughout adulthood. Conduct Disorder involves a repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviors that violate the rights of others.

Participants were asked to read a procatharsis message which stated that aggressive behavior can reduce anger and aid with relaxation. Results showed that these participants desired to hit a punching bag more than participants who read an anticatharsis message. In the second study, participants were given the same messages and then actually could hit a punching bag. What would they do if given the chance to engage in laboratory aggression after this? Results showed that the procatharsis group was subsequently more aggressive which contradicts the catharsis

Results showed that the procatharsis group was more aggressive when given the chance to engage in laboratory aggression, contradicting the catharsis message.

While studies on the involvement of genetic underpinnings need additional research, there is some suggestion that heritability rates for dissociation rage from 50-60% (Pieper, Out, Bakermans-Kranenburg, Van Ijzendoorn, 2011). However, it is suggested that the combination of genetic and environmental factors may play a larger role in the development of dissociative disorders than genetics alone (Pieper, Out, Bakermans-Kranenburg, Van Ijzendoorn, 2011).

Genetic and environmental factors may play a larger role in the development of dissociative disorders than genetics alone. Heritability rates range from 50-60%.

We sometimes employ deception in our interactions with others as a way to mask our true feelings or intentions, or to spare their feelings.

We sometimes employ deception in our interactions with others as a way to mask our true feelings or intentions, or to spare their feelings.

An independent variable refers to the hypothesized/presumed cause that explain the variations in another variables. It is also known as predictor, influencer, or explanatory. A dependent variable is the conditions/consequences that researchers try to explain. It is hypothesized effect/consequence that can vary depending on the influence of another variable. It is also known as outcome variables, explained variables. Changes in the independent variable will affect changes in the dependent variable.

Independent variables are hypothesized causes that explain variations in other variables, while dependent variables are hypothesized effects/consequences that can vary depending on the influence of another variable.

Psychodynamic theory suggests that somatic symptoms present as a response against unconscious emotional issues. Two factors initiate and maintain somatic symptoms: primary gain and secondary gain. Primary gains produce internal motivators, whereas secondary gains produce external motivators. When you relate this to somatic disorders, the primary gain, according to psychodynamic theorists, provides protection from the anxiety or emotional symptoms and/or conflicts. This need for protection is expressed via a physical symptom such as pain, headache, etc. The secondary gain, the external experiences from the physical symptoms that maintain these physical symptoms, can range from attention and sympathy to missed work, obtaining financial assistance, or psychiatric disability, to name a few.

Psychodynamic theory suggests that somatic symptoms present as a response against unconscious emotional issues. Primary gains produce internal motivators. Secondary gains produce external motivators.

**False** Dictionaries in Python require keys to be *immutable*, such as ints or strings.

FALSE

Loneliness occurs when our interpersonal relationships are not fulfilling and can lead to psychological discomfort.

Loneliness occurs when our interpersonal relationships are not fulfilling and can lead to psychological discomfort.

Individuals with major neurocognitive disorder show a significant decline in both overall cognitive functioning as well as the ability to independently meet the demands of daily living such as paying bills, taking medications, or caring for oneself.

Major neurocognitive disorder affects cognitive functioning and independence.

The two most common types of depressive disorders are Major Depressive Disorder and Persistent Depressive Disorder. Persistent Depressive Disorder, previously known as Dysthymia, is a continuous and chronic form of depression. While the symptoms of Persistent Depressive Disorder are very similar to Major Depressive Disorder, they are usually less acute, as symptoms tend to ebb and flow over a long period of time (more than two years).

Persistent Depressive Disorder is a continuous and chronic form of depression. Major Depressive disorder defines depression.

Grammar is a set of structural rules governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of a sentence.

Grammar is a set of structural rules governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in a language. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of a sentence.

Compared to depression, the epidemiological studies on the rates of Bipolar Disorder suggest a significantly lower prevalence rate for both bipolar I and bipolar II. Within the two disorders, there is a very minimal difference in the prevalence rates with yearly rates reported as 0.6% and 0.8% in the United States for bipolar I and bipolar II, respectively (APA, 2013). As for gender differences, there are no apparent differences in the frequency of men and women diagnosed with bipolar I; however, bipolar II appears to be more common in women, with approximately 80-90% of individuals with rapid-cycling episodes being women (Bauer & Pfenning, 2005). Women are also more likely to experience rapid cycling between manic/hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes.

Bipolar Disorder has a lower prevalence rate than depression, with yearly rates of 0.6% and 0.8% respectively. Gender differences exist, with women more likely to experience rapid cycling between manic/hypomanic and depressive episodes.

The prevalence rate of agoraphobia worldwide for adolescents and adults is 1% to 1.7%. As with other anxiety disorders, women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with it. Older adults in the United States (aged 65 and up) have a 12-month prevalence of 0.4% and for older adults aged 55 and up in Europe and North America, the prevalence is 0.5%.

The prevalence rate of agoraphobia worldwide for adolescents and adults is 1% to 1.7%. As with other anxiety disorders, women are twice as likely to be diagnosed with it.

Bag of words refers to using an *unordered* count (ex. binary, raw, normalized, etc.) of the words in a document to represent that document. For instance, consider the following sentence: "Today is a great day to have a great day." A standard bag of words might represent this sentence as follows: Today: 1 is: 1 a: 2 great: 2 day: 2 to: 1 have: 1 Before tallying such counts, it's common to preprocess the documents via normalization (including case folding to lowercase all terms and/or lemmatization to convert all words to a root word) and by removing stop words (removing common words such as 'and' or 'there' that are common words with little-to-no bearing on a prediction label). Other variations of bag of words using binary counts (0 or 1) for each term to record wether aa word is included in a document (1) or not (0). One disadvantage to the bag-of-words approach is that in its simplest form, bag-of-words only captures word frequency information, and nothing about word order. In other words, "The cat ate the mouse" and "The mouse ate the cat" would end up having the same representation.

Bag of words is the use of an unordered count of words in a document to represent it. It only captures word frequency information, not word order.

Individuals with borderline personality disorder display a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affect (APA, 2013). The combination of these symptoms causes significant impairment in establishing and maintaining personal relationships. They will often go to great lengths to avoid real or imagined abandonment. Fears related to abandonment often lead to inappropriate anger as they often interpret the abandonment as a reflection of their own behaviors. It is not uncommon to experience intense fluctuations in mood, often observed as volatile interactions with family and friends (Herpertz & Bertsch, 2014). Those with borderline personality disorder may be friendly one day and hostile the next.

Individuals with borderline personality disorder display instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affect, leading to impairment in establishing and maintaining relationships and intense fluctuations in mood.

dcm2niix is a cross-platform tool to convert DICOM images to NIfTI. By default, it creates the JSON sidecar files required by BIDS. It is almost universally the engine that drives BIDS conversion tools.

dcm2niix is a cross-platform tool to convert DICOM images to NIfTI.

Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) said that mental disorders were akin to physical ailments and had natural causes. Specifically, they arose from brain pathology, or head trauma/brain dysfunction or disease, and were also affected by heredity. Hippocrates classified mental disorders into three main categories – melancholia, mania, and phrenitis (brain fever) – and gave detailed clinical descriptions of each.

Greek physician Hippocrates said that mental disorders were akin to physical ailments and had natural causes. Hippocrates classified mental disorders into three main categories melancholia, mania, and phrenitis (brain fever) and gave detailed clinical descriptions of each.

Theoretical linguists study a language to develop theories of its structure and functions. They are not concerned with practical applications. Applied linguistics deals with application of findings and concepts to practical tasks.

Theoretical linguists study a language to develop theories of its structure and functions. Applied linguistics deals with application of findings and concepts to practical tasks.

Credit scores are an example of interval data. The data is inherently numeric and ordered, and all points are equal in size and the zero point is arbitrary.

Credit scores are an example of interval data. The data is inherently numeric and ordered. All points are equal in size. The zero point is arbitrary.

Use `datalad run` to save a record of any command-line you run that creates or removes files. It also saves the new or revised files.

Use datalad run to save a record of any command-line you run that creates or removes files. It also saves the new or revised files.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) aims to reduce attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that may increase the likelihood of sexual offenses against children. Its content varies widely between therapists, but a typical program might involve training in self-control, social competence and empathy, and use cognitive restructuring to change views on sex with children. Empathy training involves helping the offender take on the perspective of the victim, identify with the victim, and understand the harm they are inflicting. Restructuring cognitive distortions involves correcting a pedophile’s thoughts that the child wishes to be involved in the activity. The most common form of this therapy is relapse prevention, where the patient is taught to identify and respond to potentially risky situations based on principles used for treating addictions. Positive conditioning approaches center on social skills training and alternative, more appropriate behaviors. Reconditioning, for example, involves giving the patient immediate feedback, which may help him change his behavior. Behavioral treatments target sexual arousal to children, using satiation and aversion techniques to suppress sexual arousal to children and covert sensitization (or masturbatory reconditioning) to increase sexual arousal to adults. Effective covert conditioning is said to rely upon careful application of behavioral treatment principles such as a thorough behavioral analysis. Behavioral treatments appear to have an effect on sexual arousal patterns during phallometric testing, but it is not known whether the effect represents changes in sexual interests or changes in the ability to control genital arousal during testing, nor whether the effect persists in the long term. For sex offenders with mental disabilities, applied behavior analysis has been used. The name “applied behavior analysis” has replaced behavior modification because the latter approach suggested attempting to change behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. Pharmacological interventions are used to lower the sex drive in general, which can ease the management of pedophilic feelings, but does not change sexual preference. Antiandrogens work by interfering with the activity of testosterone. Cyproterone acetate (Androcur) and medroxyprogesterone acetate (Depo-Provera) are the most commonly used. The efficacy of antiantrogens has some support, but few high-quality studies exist. Cyproterone acetate has the strongest evidence for reducing sexual arousal, while findings on medroxyprogesterone acetate have been mixed. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues such as leuprorelin (Lupron), which last longer and have fewer side-effects, are also used to reduce libido, as are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The evidence for these alternatives is more limited and mostly based on open trials and case studies. All of these treatments, commonly referred to as “chemical castration“, are often used in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy. According to the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers, when treating child molesters, “anti-androgen treatment should be coupled with appropriate monitoring and counseling within a comprehensive treatment plan.” These drugs may have side-effects, such as weight gain, breast development, liver damage and osteoporosis. Historically, surgical castration, where the gonads are removed through an incision in the body, was used to lower sex drive by reducing testosterone. The emergence of pharmacological methods of adjusting testosterone has made it largely obsolete, because they are similarly effective and less invasive. It is still occasionally performed in Germany, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, and a few U.S. states. Non-randomized studies have reported that surgical castration reduces recidivism in contact sex offenders. The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers opposes surgical castration and the Council of Europe works to bring the practice to an end in Eastern European countries where it is still applied through the courts.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) aims to reduce attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that may increase the likelihood of sexual offenses against children. Chemical castration and pharmacological methods of adjusting testosterone are effective and less invasive.

It all depends on what the prosocial behavior is. When it comes to being heroic or chivalrous, men are more likely to help, while nurturant expressions of aid are generally engaged in by women

It all depends on what the prosocial behavior is. When it comes to being heroic or chivalrous, men are more likely to help.While nurturant expressions of aid are generally engaged in by women.

These schizophrenia spectrum disorders are defined by one of the following main symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking (speech), disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Individuals diagnosed with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder experience psychosis, which is defined as a loss of contact with reality.

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders involve delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and psychosis.

Schemas make cognitive processing move quicker. But they also complete incomplete pictures in terms of what we know about someone. Though we may not know Johnny personally, placing him in the schema football player helps us to fill in these blanks about what his personality is like and how he might behave. Using our schema for football player we can now predict what a future interaction with Johnny might involve.

Schemas help cognitive processing move faster, but also fill in incomplete pictures of someone. Placing Johnny in the schema football player helps us to predict what a future interaction with him will involve.

A **relation** is simply a rule for associating objects with each other in equal sized tuples. A **function** is relation between two sets, in which each input is only associated with one output.

A relation is simply a rule for associating objects with each other in equal sized tuples. A function is relation between two sets, in which each input is only associated with one output.

Treatment for dissociative disorders is limited for a few reasons. First, with respect to dissociative amnesia, many individuals recover on their own without any intervention. Occasionally treatment is sought out after recovery due to the traumatic nature of memory loss. Second, the rarity of these disorders has offered limited opportunities for research on both the development and effectiveness of treatment methods. Due to the differences between dissociative disorders, treatment options will be discussed specific to each disorder.

Dissociative amnesia is rare, limiting research on its development and effectiveness.