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The reading makes the point that data that is held in memory could be accessed much more quickly (at the time the book was written) than data on disk, so keeping the index in memory allows for faster access to it. For data that is stored on hard disks with physical spinning platters, there is time required to move the mechanical head to the proper position to read data (called *seek time*), as well as time required for the actual reading and transfer of data to the processor (called *latency*). Each time the read head must be moved, such as to read data that is stored in a significantly different location on the spinning platters that make up a hard disk, it adds time to the overall transfer of data. Minimizing the movements of the head by keeping sequential data in sequence on the disk reduces this extra time. However, if "disk storage" is being done with solid-state drives, which are more commonly available now than they were in 2007-2009, then this kind of latency really isn't an issue, and the time needed for reading information "from disk" is more on the order of the time needed to read information from memory.

The reading makes the point that data that is held in memory could be accessed much more quickly than data on disk, so keeping the index in memory allows for faster access to it.

Self-help groups and residential treatment centers, as well as community reinforcement are sociocultural treatment options.

Self-help groups and residential treatment centers, as well as community reinforcement are sociocultural treatment options.

We research value attitudes because we believe that they strongly influence social thought and can predict what someone will do. We as humans like for our worlds to be predictable. We want to believe that knowing how someone thinks and feels about something will give us insight into how they process the information they take in, as well as what they do with it. We have seen with previous modules how the way we think influences behavior, and we know attitudes color how we perceive all the information that is funneled in our direction.

Attitudes are important to research because they influence social thought and can predict what someone will do.

Physiological noise is caused by distracting sensations such as hunger, tiredness, and pain. While there are some things a communicator can do to proactively limit such noise (e.g., giving a brief class break at the lunch hour), it is largely out of their hands. In some cases, physiological noise can be accounted for in how communication is set up and delivered. For example, me choosing to embed active learning in an 8am class would be a strategy for overcoming the physiological noise caused by students being tired.

Physiological noise is caused by distracting sensations such as hunger, tiredness, and pain.

2-AG and anandamide

2-AG and anandamide.

F = M x A Force (F) is mass times acceleration

F = M x A. Force is mass times acceleration.

A typical ML approach to sentence segmentation is to classify each character in a span of text to determine whether the character under consideration marks the boundary of a sentence (i.e., "end-of-sentence character?"). One might elect to use the surrounding text as features, as well as the word shapes of surrounding tokens (ex. "She" -> "Xxx") to capture information about variation in case.

Classify each character in a span of text to determine whether the character under consideration marks the boundary of a sentence.

**Acetylcholine antagonist**: mild scopolamine (remember it is also an anticholinergic) like symptoms (dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention) **Histamine antagonist**: sedation and antiemetic effect (prevents nausea and vomiting) **Serotonin antagonist**: weight gain and sedation **Norepinephrine antagonist**: hypotension and sedation (if you notice, these are reverse of sympathomimetic drugs' effects)

Acetylcholine antagonist - mild scopolamine like symptoms (dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention). Histamine antagonist - sedation and antiemetic effect (prevents nausea and vomiting). Serotonin antagonist - weight gain and sedation. Norepinephrine antagonist - hypotension and sedation.

Of those diagnosed with hoarding disorder, about 75% have a comorbid mood or anxiety disorder with major depressive disorder, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder being the most common comorbid conditions. Additionally, nearly 20% also meet the criteria for OCD (APA, 2022).

Of those diagnosed with hoarding disorder, about 75% have a comorbid mood or anxiety disorder with major depressive disorder, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder being the most common comorbid conditions.

VBM or voxel-based morphometry is an analysis technique used for identifying differences in local grey matter density.

VBM or voxel-based morphometry is an analysis technique used for identifying differences in local grey matter density.

cd (change directory) is a command for navigating the directory tree.

cd (change directory) is a command for navigating the directory tree.

Antonymy is a semantic relationship that exists between two or more words that have opposite meanings. A pair of antonyms belongs to the same grammatical category (same part-of-speech), and share all semantic features except one. For example, *woman* and *girl* shares most of semantic features but "age".

Antonymy is a semantic relationship between two or more words with opposite meanings.

Priming occurs when a word or idea used in the present affects the evaluation of new information in the future. Framing is the way in which choices are presented to us. Emotions play a large role in how we make decisions and interpret the world around us. It should be no surprise that they also affect the decisions we make about our future, called affective forecasting. When it comes to the accuracy of our judgments, we have a tendency to overestimate just how good we are, called the overconfidence phenomenon.

Priming occurs when a word or idea used in the present affects the evaluation of new information in the future. Framing is the way in which choices are presented to us. Emotions affect the decisions we make about our future, called affective forecasting. The overconfidence phenomenon is our tendancy to overestimate how good we are.

There are a couple of different ways that sociocultural factors contribute to somatic related disorders. First, there is the social factor of familial influence that likely plays a significant role in the attention to somatic symptoms. Individuals with somatic symptom disorder are more likely to have a family member or close friend who is overly attentive to their somatic symptoms or report high anxiety related to their health.

Sociocultural factors such as familial influence and high anxiety can lead to somatic symptom disorder.

Ionizing radiation is caused by the release of particles and electromagnetic rays from atomic nuclei during the normal process of disintegration. Some naturally occurring elements, such as uranium, emit radiation. The sun is another source of ionizing radiation, in the form of high-frequency ultraviolet rays—those against which the ozone layer protects us. Nonionizing radiation is radiation at the lower end of the electromagnetic spectrum. This radiation moves in relatively long wavelengths and has enough energy to move atoms but not enough to remove electrons or alter molecular structure. Examples of nonionizing radiation are radio waves, TV signals, microwaves, infrared waves, and visible light.

Nonionizing radiation is radiation at the lower end of the electromagnetic spectrum, with enough energy to move atoms but not to remove electrons or alter molecular structure.

`Console.ReadLine()` is used to get user input in C#. Just make sure you store the user input in a variable so that you can access it!

Console.ReadLine() is used to get user input in C#.

The opposite of prosocial behavior is what is called egotistical behavior, or behavior focused on the self.

The opposite of prosocial behavior is what is called egotistical behavior, or behavior focused on the self.

The defining characteristic of the medical model is the assumption that mental disorder is a disease or a disease-like condition that is explained by genetic defects, biochemical imbalances, hormonal dysregulation, and neuronal deficits that can be treated through medical means. Troublesome thoughts, feelings, and actions are seen as signs and symptoms of underlying pathology. The designation of these states as “signs and symptoms” of a discrete disorder is the quintessence of the medical model of psychiatric disorder. From this perspective, the appropriate means of treatment are medical interventions, principally psychopharmacology, ideally coupled with psychotherapy (or “talk therapy”).

The defining characteristic of the medical model is the assumption that mental disorder is a disease or a disease-like condition that is explained by genetic defects, biochemical imbalances, hormonal dysregulation, and neuronal deficits that can be treated through medical means.Troublesome thoughts, feelings, and actions are seen as signs and symptoms of underlying pathology.

Racial, ethnic, and cultural factors are also relevant to understanding the development and course of mental illness. Multicultural psychologists assert that both normal behavior and abnormal behavior need to be understood in the context of the individual’s unique culture and the group’s value system. Racial and ethnic minorities must contend with prejudice, discrimination, racism, economic hardships, etc. as part of their daily life and this can lead to disordered behavior.

Racial and ethnic minorities must contend with prejudice, discrimination, racism, economic hardships, etc. as part of their daily life and this can lead to disordered behavior.

Positive Pointwise Mutual Information (PPMI) converts all negative Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) values to 0. This is useful for NLP problems since a negative value would imply that two terms are less likely to appear together than by chance, which would be unreliable conclusion without an enormous training corpus.

PPMI converts negative PMI values to 0. A negative value would be unreliable without a large training corpus.

Not many people are aware that cognitive impairment is sometimes the first symptom of untreated HIV. While symptoms vary among individuals, slower mental processing, difficulty with complex tasks, and difficulty concentrating and learning new information are among the most common early signs (APA, 2013). When HIV becomes active in the brain, significant alterations of mental processes occur, thus leading to a diagnosis of neurocognitive disorder due to HIV infection. Significant impairment can also occur due to HIV-infection related inflammation throughout the central nervous system.

Cognitive impairment is often the first symptom of untreated HIV, with slower mental processing, difficulty with complex tasks, and difficulty concentrating and learning new information.

Multiple different loop syntaxes exist in JavaScript: - There are **for** loops, such as `for (let i=0; i<arr.length; i++) { }`. - There are **while** loops, such as `while (i < arr.length) { i++; }`. - There are **do-while** loops, such as `do { i++; } while ( i < arr.length )`.

There are for loops. There are while loops. There are do-while loops

As was mentioned previously, different ethnicities report different prevalence rates of PTSD. While this may be due to increased exposure to traumatic events, there is some evidence that cultural groups also interpret traumatic events differently, and therefore, may be more vulnerable to the disorder. Hispanic Americans have routinely been identified as a cultural group that experiences a higher rate of PTSD. Females also report a higher incidence of PTSD symptoms than males.

Different cultural groups may have higher rates of PTSD due to their interpretation of traumatic events. Females report higher indidence of PTSD symptoms than males.

It is an altered physiological state induced by a drug, whereby withdrawal from a drug elicits biological reactions typical of that class of drugs. Experiencing withdrawal symptoms are a clear sign one has develop some degree of physical dependence. The magnitude of withdrawal symptoms depends on the typical dose, the frequency of use, and the duration of the dependence (how long has one been using the drug, how often, and in which quantity). Hopefully, that reminds you of the fact drugs can create a new state of homeostasis to accomodate the presence of the drug. Cessation of the presence of the drug becomes a deviation from normal functioning, which induce withdrawals effects and thus cravings.

It is an altered physiological state induced by a drug, whereby withdrawal from a drug elicits biological reactions typical of that class of drugs.Experiencing withdrawal symptoms are a clear sign one has develop some degree of physical dependence.Drugs can create a new state of homeostasis to accomodate the presence of the drug.

It is a solvent.

It is a solvent.

The extent to which we are able to function optimally in the dace of challenges whether we have mental illness or not. It can be defined positively as the presences of wellness or negatively as the absence of sickness.

Wellness is the ability to function optimally in the face of challenges, regardless of mental illness.

The nAchR triggers the reward systems in 3 ways: 1. It directly increases dopamine release from the VTA to the NAc 2. It increases release of glutamate from the PFC to the VTA, which promote the release of dopamine from VTA to NAc 3. It is a negative allosteric modulators of VTA GABA neurons. By reducing their inhibitory effect on VTA dopamine neurons, the process described in 1. perpetuates. Additionally, nicotine increases the number of nAchR in the VTA, enhancing the processes just described. For more, see textbook: p.191-193

The nAchR triggers reward systems by increasing dopamine release, glutamate release, and GABA modulation, and nicotine increases the number of nAchR in the VTA.

Overfitting and underfitting are terms used to describe problems with a machine learning model occurring while training the model. Overfitting means the model was trained too similarly to the training set and will not generalize as well to new points. Underfitting is the opposite, where the model was trained too generally, and is also too general to new points. Overfitted models generally performs really well against a training set, but less well against a testing set. Underfitted models perform poorly against a training set and poorly against a testing set. An example of underfitting is applying a linear function to fit a curvy dataset. An example of overfitting is applying a logistical function to a linear dataset. Figure A shows a good visualization.

Overfitting means the model was trained too similarly to the training set and will not generalize as well to new points. Overfitted models generally performs really well against a training set, but less well against a testing set. Underfitted models perform poorly against a training set and poorly against a testing set. Underfitting means the model was trained too generally, and is also too general to new points.

1. Increased chance of ‘spontaneous abortion. 2. The child experience may experience withdrawal symptoms once born, including seizures, lethargy, hyperactive reflex, and vomiting…. 3. Babies are born smaller in size and weight, with smaller head circumferences. 4. Those children will have an increased chance of having brain and cardiovascular abnormalities. 5. As teenagers, they have smaller grey matter in brain region related to emotion, reward, EF, and memory (Amazingly, a 1ml decrease = ~75% increase chance of initiating substance use !). For more, see textbook: p.225-226

Increased chance of spontaneous abortion. The child experience may experience withdrawal symptoms once born. Babies are born smaller in size and weight, with smaller head circumferences. Those children will have an increased chance of having brain and cardiovascular abnormalities. As teenagers, they have smaller grey matter in brain region.

How drugs move in the body

How drugs move in the body.

In terms of naturalistic observation, the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment, which could include the home, school, or a forest. The researcher counts, measures, and rates behavior in a systematic way and, at times, uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured. The advantage of this method is that you see behavior as it happens, and the experimenter does not taint the data. The disadvantage is that it could take a long time for the behavior to occur, and if the researcher is detected, then this may influence the behavior of those being observed.

The scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment. The researcher measurs behavior in a systematic way and, at times, uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured.

Reason 1: Men and women vary in terms of SES, family responsibilities, victimization, and psychosocial resources. Reason 2: Men and women vary in terms of their exposure to stress and their perceptions of stressors. Reason 3: Men and women vary in terms of their coping styles and coping strategies. Reason 4: Men and women vary in terms of the types of social relationships they have. Reason 5: Men and women vary in terms of their personal and psychosocial resources, such as self-esteem and mastery. Reason 6: Statistical Bias: response-bias and gendered-response

Men and women vary in terms of SES, family responsibilities, victimization, and psychosocial resources. Men and women vary in terms of their exposure to stress and their perceptions of stressors. Men and women vary in terms of their coping styles and coping strategies. Men and women vary in terms of the types of social relationships they have. Men and women vary in terms of their personal and psychosocial resources, such as self-esteem and mastery. Statistical Bias: response-bias and gendered-response.

Hyperparameter tuning is a about tuning the parameters of our learning algorithm in order to find the best ones that would give us the best model in the end.

Hyperparameter tuning is about tuning the parameters of our learning algorithm in order to find the best ones that would give us the best model in the end.

Word vectors are one way of representing the identities of words so that they can be grouped and compared to each other for semantic similarity. They do not directly represent the meanings or syntactic identities of words but give very good results for semantic similarity. One creates word vectors by counting how many times words co-occur near to or next to each other, in sentences. There are many different ways of doing this depending on how many neighbors of each word are counted--how large a window around each word contributes to its vector--and whether the distances, to the right or left, make a difference. Then one creates a vector for each word; its dimensions are all the words that could co-occur with it, the values of each dimension being the frequencies of co-occurence. In other words, a word vector is a long list of numbers—one for each word that might co-occur with word so defined. Once word vectors are created it is possible to perform mathematical operations on them and deep learning with them very easily in order to find groups of related words or to judge the semantic similarity between groups of words, such as for topic modeling.

Word vectors are a way of representing the identities of words for semantic similarity. They are created by counting how many times words co-occur near to or next to each other in sentences. They can be used to perform mathematical operations and deep learning to find groups of related words or judge semantic similarity between groups of words.

The IntendedFor field is a key:value pair that can optionally be added to the JSON sidecar of an image to specify which target image to correct.

IntendedFor field can be added to JSON sidecar to specify target image.

A fork is a complete copy of someone else's repository, but owned by your GitHub account. A branch is a parallel history of commits within a repository.

A fork is a complete copy of someone else's repository, but owned by your GitHub account. A branch is a parallel history of commits within a repository.

Linux is an open source Unix operating system created by Linus Torvalds in 1991. There are many version of Linux, and 96% of public servers on the internet run Linux. All 500 top (known) supercomputers run Linux, and the U of A HPC (High Performance Computing) runs Linux.

Linux is an open source Unix operating system.

Method Resolution Order is the search order of classes in the ancestry of a class that Python searches through when an attribute of a class is accessed. Consider the following code: ```python3 class A: def get_description(self): return "A" class B: def get_description(self): return "B" class C(A, B): pass obj = C() print(obj.get_description()) # A ``` Why does Python decide to print the string `"A"`, instead of `"B"`? `C` does not have its own `get_description(self)` method, but it inherits one from both `A` and `B`. This is where MRO comes into play! Since `C` inherits `A` before `B` (i.e., in `class C(A, B)`, `A` is inherited before `B`), Python prioritizes `A` over `B` via MRO. If we want to ensure that calling `get_description()` from an instance of `C` uses the method definition from `B`, we can use our `super()` function with two arguments, `A` and `self` (which tells Python to start searching the MRO of the `self` object starting after class `A`): ```python3 class A: def get_description(self): return "A" class B: def get_description(self): return "B" class C(A, B): def get_description(self): return super(A, self).get_description() obj = C() print(obj.get_description()) # B ``` MRO takes a bottom-to-top, left-to-right approach. Consider the following code: ```python3 class A: pass class B(A): pass class C(B): pass class D: pass class E(C, D): pass ``` The MRO for `E` is first `E` (an object will prioritize its own attributes first -- hence, how we can override attributes), then `C`, then `B`, then `A`, then `D`, then `object` (the base class that all custom classes inherit from automatically in Python).

Method Resolution Order is the search order of classes in the ancestry of a class that Python searches through when an attribute of a class is accessed.

The intuitions behind the architectures are essentially the opposite: The intuition behind CBOW is to use the context to predict the target, while the intuition behind skip-gram is to use the target to predict the context. CBOW is faster to train, while skip-gram tends to work better for large corpora and rare words.

CBOW is faster to train. Skip-gram is better for large corpora and rare words.

An inference system based on chaining would need to use backwards chaining to answer this question. Backwards chaining is the process of finding the premises (antecedents) of a conclusion, and then the premises of those premises, and so on . . . or to put it another way, one needs to find out what leads to the conclusion that my mother will be happy, and then what leads to that. For example, “if she believes you are successful, your mother will be happy.” Therefore, backwards chaining tells us that we need to find out how to make our mothers believe we are successful. Then we might find, “if you tell your mother something, she will believe it,” so we get the answer: “Tell your mother you are successful.” In practice, the knowledge base would likely consist of implications more basic and general than these, such as "if you tell somebody something, they may think it is true."

Backwards chaining is the process of finding the premises (antecedents) of a conclusion, and then the premises of those premises.

Sanctioned torture refers to practices against persons with mental illnesses that are authorized or approved in prisons or jails.

Sanctioned torture refers to practices against persons with mental illnesses that are authorized or approved in prisons or jails.

A unix command that applies to nested directories and files, rather than just the top-level is recursive. Many unix commands have a recursive option, e.g., `ls`, `cp`, `chmod`. Typically, the uppercase R is the recursive flag: `-R`.

A recursive command is a unix command that applies to nested directories and files, rather than just the top-level.

The `git status `command displays the state of the working directory and the staging area. It lets you see which changes have been staged, which haven't, and which files aren't being tracked by Git. See [Git Status](https://www.atlassian.com/git/tutorials/inspecting-a-repository#:~:text=The%20git%20status%20command%20displays,regarding%20the%20committed%20project%20history)

The git status command displays the state of the working directory and the staging area.

Both of these levels of measurement are for quantitative data, so it makes sense to subtract data values and find differences between both. However, ratio data is the only one that it makes sense to divide.

Both of these levels of measurement are for quantitative data. It makes sense to subtract data values and find differences between both. Ratio data is the only one that it makes sense to divide.

he ultimate treatment goal for dissociative identity disorder is the integration of subpersonalities to the point of final fusion (Chu et al., 2011). Integration refers to the ongoing process of merging subpersonalities into one personality. Psychoeducation is paramount for integration, as the individual must understand their disorder, as well as acknowledge their subpersonalities. As mentioned above, many individuals have a one-way amnesic relationship with the subpersonalities, meaning they are not aware of one another. Therefore, the clinician must first make the individual aware of the various subpersonalities that present across different situations.

Psychoeducation is essential for integration of subpersonalities to the point of final fusion.

A **predicate** is a sentence that contains variables.

A predicate is a sentence that contains variables.

In 1996, Martin Seligman became the president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and called for a positive psychology or one that had a more positive conception of human potential and nature. Building on Maslow and Roger’s work, he ushered in the scientific study of such topics as happiness, love, hope, optimism, life satisfaction, goal setting, leisure, and subjective well-being. Though positive and humanistic psychology have similarities, their methodology was much different. While humanistic psychology generally relied on qualitative methods, positive psychology utilizes a quantitative approach and aims to help people make the most out of life’s setbacks, relate well to others, find fulfillment in creativity, and find lasting meaning and satisfaction.

Positive psychology utilizes a quantitative approach and aims to help people make the most out of life’s setbacks, relate well to others, find fulfillment in creativity, and find lasting meaning and satisfaction.

Kleptomania is an inability or great difficulty in resisting impulses of stealing. People with this disorder are compelled to steal things, generally things of little or no value, such as pens, paper clips, small toys, or packets of sugar. Some may not be aware that they have committed the theft until later. A person with kleptomania is not someone who shoplifts on occasion or who steals because they are in need. Kleptomania is defined as the repeated failure to resist the impulse to steal, even when the item is not taken for personal use or for its monetary value (Bayer, 2000). It involves the desire to steal more than the need for the item (Bayer, 2000). A person with kleptomania feels gratification and relief while he or she steals. After stealing, the person is likely to give away, throw away, hoard, or return the items he or she took (Bayer, 2000). People with this impulse-control disorder realize that stealing is wrong and may feel guilty about their behavior, but they are unable to stop themselves from performing the act. Kleptomania is not an expression of an emotion, an act of rebellion, or an antisocial gesture (Bayer, 2000). Furthermore, it is not a part of a delusional or hallucinogenic experience (Bayer, 2000). Kleptomaniacs do not usually plan the theft ahead of time, and they rarely steal with help from other people (Bayer, 2000). Comorbid disorders may include mood disorders, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders (Bayer, 2000). Getting caught in the act can cause serious legal, social, and occupational problems for people with this disorder. However, kleptomania may persist for years, regardless of apprehension and conviction (Bayer, 2000).

Kleptomania is an inability or difficulty in resisting impulses of stealing. It involves the desire to steal more than the need for the item, and is not an expression of emotion, rebellion, or antisocial gesture. It is not a part of a delusional or hallucinogenic experience, and can cause serious legal, social, and occupational problems.

The essential feature of antisocial personality disorder is the persistent pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others. This pattern of behavior begins in late childhood or early adolescence and continues throughout adulthood. While this behavior presents before age 15, the individual cannot be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder until the age of 18. Prior to age 18, the individual would be diagnosed with Conduct Disorder. Although not discussed in this book as it is a disorder of childhood, conduct disorder involves a repetitive and persistent pattern of behaviors that violate the rights of others or major age-appropriate norms). Common behaviors of individuals with conduct disorder that go on to develop antisocial personality disorder are aggression toward people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious violation of rules.

Antisocial personality disorder is a pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in late childhood or early adolescence and continues throughout adulthood. Conduct Disorder is a disorder of childhood that involves repeated and persistent behaviors that violate the rights of others.

Biological causes involve the HPA-axis, which is involved in the fear-producing response, and some speculate that dysfunction within this axis is to blame for the development of trauma symptoms.

Biological causes involve the HPA-axis, which is involved in the fear-producing response, and some speculate that dysfunction within this axis is to blame for the development of trauma symptoms.

*Anyone* can develop publicly available modules for Python. There are no rules on who can develop what tools. As of October 2021, there are over 332,000 public modules available to download through PIP (Python's package manager) ([source](https://pypi.org/)). This is all to say that of course there will be some overlap in some of the modules. As an example, `bottle`, `flask`, and `django` can all be used as Python web frameworks. What makes one better than another? Often, the answer to that question is dependent on you and your project. You may choose one module over a similar one because it has better documentation, a cleaner syntax, a better reputation, or more features.

You may choose one module over a similar one because it has better documentation, a cleaner syntax, a better reputation, or more features.

A **code editor** is used to write source code. It provides syntax highlighting (that is, color-coding) for a variety of languages, with the option to install support for more languages. An **IDE**, or Integrated Development Environment provides a programmer's editor, command line, integrated help, history, and a list of current variables and functions. The IDE can also display figures, graphs and data. The IDE makes it easier to work with and learn a programming language. The line between a really good code editor and a full-fledged IDE is blurry.

A code editor is used to write source code. An IDE or Integrated Development Environment provides a programmer's editor, command line, integrated help, history, and a list of current variables and functions.

Substances are any ingested materials that cause temporary cognitive, behavioral, or physiological symptoms within the individual. Repeated use of these substances or frequent substance intoxication can develop into a long-term problem known as substance abuse.

Substances are any ingested materials that cause temporary cognitive, behavioral, or physiological symptoms within the individual.Repeated use of these substances or frequent substance intoxication can develop into a long-term problem known as substance abuse.

The representativeness heuristic, conjunction error, anchoring and adjustment heuristic, and base-rate fallacy are types of heuristics.

Representativeness heuristic. Conjunction error. Anchoring. Adjustment heuristic. Base-rate fallacy.

Recursive functions are functions that call themselves. Example: ```python3 def recurse(): recurse() ``` The above function calls itself repeatedly until the end of time (or until Python decides to throw an error). The key with writing recursive functions is to make sure to include some type of condition that will end the recursion. Example: ```python3 def recurse(n): if n >= 0: recurse(n-1) else: return # End the recursion when n is negative ```

Recursive functions are functions that call themselves.

Colds are the main reason for missed work and missed school in the United States, with millions of cases each year

Colds are the main reason for missed work and missed school in the United States, with millions of cases each year

Group hysteria, or mass madness, was also seen when large numbers of people displayed similar symptoms and false beliefs. This included the belief that one was possessed by wolves or other animals and imitated their behavior, called lycanthropy, and a mania in which large numbers of people had an uncontrollable desire to dance and jump, called tarantism.

Group hysteria, or mass madness, was also seen when large numbers of people displayed similar symptoms and false beliefs.

Schizophreniform disorder is similar to schizophrenia, except for the length of presentation of symptoms. Schizophreniform disorder is considered an “intermediate” disorder between schizophrenia and brief psychotic disorder as the symptoms are present for at least one month but not longer than six months. Schizophrenia symptoms must be present for at least six months and a brief psychotic disorder is diagnosed when symptoms are present for less than one month.

Schizophreniform disorder is an intermediate disorder between schizophrenia and brief psychotic disorder. Symptoms must be present for at least one month.

Among the most common comorbid diagnoses with a social anxiety disorder are other anxiety-related disorders, major depressive disorder, and substance-related disorders. Generally speaking, social anxiety disorders will precede that of other mental health disorders, except for separation anxiety disorder and specific phobia, seeing as these two disorders are more commonly diagnosed in childhood. The high comorbidity rate among anxiety-related disorders and substance-related disorders is likely connected to the efforts of self-medicating. For example, an individual with social anxiety disorder may consume more alcohol in social settings in efforts to alleviate the anxiety of the social situation.

Among the most common comorbid diagnoses with a social anxiety disorder are other anxiety-related disorders, major depressive disorder, and substance-related disorders.

- length() would be used to determine if the password is at least 8 characters. - indexOf() could check for the presence of upper case letters, lower case letters, numbers, and/or symbols.

length() would be used to determine if the password is at least 8 characters. indexOf() could check for the presence of upper case letters, lower case letters, numbers, and/or symbols.

The assessment strategy for skill development involves the use of a single sample for both pre- and post-intervention assessment. Due to self-report bias on the part of sample participants, pre- and post-observation is ideal - although not always possible. If observation is not possible, self-report may be used. However, the communicator must account for the likelihood of self-report bias when determining how much trust they place in the results.

Pre- and post-observation is ideal for skill development. Self-report may be used if observation is not possible.

Generator functions are special functions in Python that enable lazy iteration (iterating through contents without storing the contents in memory). Generator functions can be especially valuable when working with large datasets to avoid memory errors.

Generator functions are special functions in Python that enable lazy iteration, aka, iterating through contents without storing the contents in memory.

The most widely used classification system in the United States is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Alternatively, the World Health Organization (WHO) publishes the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD).

The most widely used classification system in the United States is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The World Health Organization (WHO) publishes the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD).

The key feature of a manic episode is a specific period of time in which an individual reports abnormal, persistent, or expansive irritable mood for nearly all day, every day, for at least one week. Additionally, the individual will display increased activity or energy during this same time. With regards to mood, an individual in a manic episode will appear excessively happy, often engaging haphazardly in sexual or personal interactions. They also display rapid shifts in mood, also known as mood lability, ranging from happy, neutral, to irritable.

A manic episode is a period of abnormal, persistent, or expansive irritable mood for at least one week, with increased activity or energy.

Since BED is a new diagnosis, research regarding comorbidity with other mental disorders is still developing. Preliminary evidence suggests that BED shares similar comorbidities with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Common comorbidities include but are not limited to bipolar disorder, depressive disorders, and anxiety disorders. Although there is some evidence of comorbid substance abuse disorder, it is not as prevalent as that in bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa.

BED shares similar comorbidities with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, bipolar disorder, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse disorder.

Entrepreneurial ideas often originate through 1) observations of problems or opportunities in one’s personal, civic, and/or professional life, 2) a sense of demand or need for new or expanded value, 3) an ”I could do this better” perspective, and/or 4) the influence of social and professional networks and peer effects.

Entrepreneurial ideas arise from observations, need, perspective, and social/professional networks.

**Main difference 1**: They are synthesized on demand and released by the postsynaptic neuron (as a response to presynaptic signaling). **Main difference 2**: Moved in a retrograde direction; from the post-synaptic neuron to the CB receptors located in the presynaptic.

They are synthesized on demand and released by the postsynaptic neuron. Moved in a retrograde direction; from the post-synaptic neuron to the CB receptors located in the presynaptic.

First, consider the list of side effects given for psychotropic medications. You might make the case that some of the side effects are worse than the condition they are treating. Second, the viewpoint that all human behavior is explainable in biological terms, and therefore when issues arise, they can be treated using biological methods, overlooks factors that are not fundamentally biological.

Psychotropic medications can have side effects that are worse than the condition they are treating. The viewpoint that all human behavior can be treated using biological methods overlooks factors that are not biological.

It pulls (downloads) and runs a Docker container called **godlovedc/lolcow**

It downloads and runs a Docker container.

**Anandamide (AEA)**: it is a partial CB1 agonist and to a lesser extent partial CB2 agonist. It is broken down by FAAH (in the postsynaptic neuron). **2-AG**: full agonist of CB1 and CB2. Broken down by MGL (in the presynaptic neuron).

Anandamide (AEA) is a partial CB1 agonist and to a lesser extent partial CB2 agonist. 2-AG full agonist of CB1 and CB2.

One of the functions of science is to communicate findings. Testing hypotheses, developing sound methodology, accurately analyzing data, and drawing sound conclusions are important, but you must tell others what you have done too. This is accomplished by joining professional societies and submitting articles to peer-reviewed journals.

Science requires communicating findings through professional societies and peer-reviewed journals.

It is a special type of morpheme which doesn't carry any meaning on its own yet one can recognize it as a morpheme.

It is a special type of morpheme which doesn't carry any meaning on its own yet one can recognize it as a morpheme.

Stressors are conditions (real or imagined) of threat, demand, and/or structural constraint. Stress is the body’s physiological response to the experience of stressors. Distress refers to unpleasant emotional states (e.g., depression, anxiety, anger).

Stressors are conditions of threat, demand, and/or structural constraint. Stress is the body’s physiological response to the experience of stressors. Distress refers to unpleasant emotional states (e.g., depression, anxiety, anger).

Science has two forms – basic/pure and applied. Basic science is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of the knowledge and nothing else while applied science desires to find solutions to real-world problems.

Basic science is focused on knowledge acquisition. Applied science seeks to solve real-world problems.

The dark side of love is what is called jealousy, or a negative emotional state arising due to a perceived threat to one’s relationship.

Jealousy negative emotional state arising due to a perceived threat to one’s relationship.

Epidemiology is the scientific study of the frequency and causes of diseases and other health-related states in specific populations such as a school, neighborhood, a city, country, and the world.

Epidemiology is the study of the frequency and causes of diseases and health-related states in specific populations.

There seems to be an inverse relationship between the content of THC and CBD in marijuana plants. As the level of CBD increases, the level of THC decreases. (see graph)

There seems to be an inverse relationship between the content of THC and CBD in marijuana plants. As the level of CBD increases, the level of THC decreases.

Adjustment disorders are relatively common as they describe individuals who are having difficulty adjusting to life after a significant stressor. In psychiatric hospitals, adjustment disorders account for roughly 50% of the admissions, ranking number one for the most common diagnosis. As for the general public, it is estimated that anywhere from 5-20% of outpatient referrals are due to an adjustment disorder.

Adjustment disorders are relatively common as they describe individuals who are having difficulty adjusting to life after a significant stressor.

Field maps, as defined by the BIDS standard, are images used to correct the distortion in other images.

Field maps, as defined by the BIDS standard, are images used to correct the distortion in other images.

Clinical assessment is not just conducted at the beginning of the process of seeking help but throughout the process. First, we need to determine if a treatment is even needed. By having a clear accounting of the person’s symptoms and how they affect daily functioning, we can decide to what extent the individual is adversely affected. Assuming a treatment is needed, our second reason to engage in clinical assessment will be to determine what treatment will work best. Finally, we need to know if the treatment we employed worked.

First, we need to determine if a treatment is even needed. Second, we heed to determine what treatment will work best. Finally, we need to know if the treatment we employed worked.

Modularizing your code means breaking your code down from one large file into multiple smaller files, known as *modules*. This process can make your code easier to read and modify. As an example, if you need to modify a `User` class in your code, you can easily find the relevant code in the `user.py` file.

"Modularizing your code means breaking your code down from one large file into multiple smaller files, known as modules. This process can make your code easier to read and modify.

Psychology worked with the disease model for over 60 years, from about the late 1800s into the middle part of the 19th century. The focus was simple – curing mental disorders – and included such pioneers as Freud, Adler, Klein, Jung, and Erickson. Starting in the 1960s, figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers sought to overcome the limitations of psychoanalysis and behaviorism by establishing a “third force” psychology, also known as humanistic psychology. In 1996, Martin Seligman became the president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and called for a positive psychology or one that had a more positive conception of human potential and nature. Building on Maslow and Roger’s work, he ushered in the scientific study of such topics as happiness, love, hope, optimism, life satisfaction, goal setting, leisure, and subjective well-being.

Psychology worked with the disease model for over 60 years, with the foucs being on curing mental disorders.Starting in the 1960s, figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers sought to overcome the limitations of psychoanalysis and behaviorism by establishing a “third force” psychology, also known as humanistic psychology.In 1996, Martin Seligman called for a positive psychology or one that had a more positive conception of human potential and nature.

Validity is when we make sure the test measures what it says it measures. Examples include concurrent, face, and predictive validity.

Validity is when we make sure the test measures what it says it measures.

An inner join retains only information that exists in both tables, while and outer join retains all of the information from both tables.

An inner join retains only information that exists in both tables. Outer join retains all of the information from both tables.

Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, and Xu (2002) proposed that the content of stereotypes be studied and argued that stereotypes are captured by the dimensions of warmth and competence.

Reserachers proposed stereotypes be studied and argued that stereotypes are captured by the dimensions of warmth and competence.

Similar to GAD, agoraphobia is defined as an intense fear triggered by a wide range of situations; however, unlike GAD, the fears are related to situations in which the individual is in public situations where escape may be difficult. In order to receive a diagnosis of agoraphobia, there must be a presence of fear in at least two of the following circumstances: using public transportation such as planes, trains, ships, buses; being in large, open spaces such as parking lots or on bridges; being in enclosed spaces like stores or movie theaters; being in a large crowd similar to those at a concert; or being outside of the home in general (APA, 2013). When an individual is in one (or more) of these situations, they experience significant fear, often reporting panic-like symptoms (see Panic Disorder). It should be noted that fear and anxiety-related symptoms are present every time the individual encounters these situations. If symptoms only occur occasionally, a diagnosis of agoraphobia is not warranted.

Agoraphobia is an intense fear triggered by public situations where escape may be difficult. To receive a diagnosis, there must be a presence of fear in at least two of the following circumstances: using public transportation, large open spaces, enclosed spaces, large crowds, or outside of the home.

Cognitive theorists often believe that somatic disorders are a result of negative beliefs or exaggerated fears of physiological sensations. Individuals with somatic related disorders may have a heightened sensitivity to bodily sensations. This sensitivity, combined with their maladaptive thought patterns, may lead individuals to overanalyze and interpret their physiological symptoms in a negative light.

Cognitive theorists often believe that somatic disorders are a result of negative beliefs or exaggerated fears of physiological sensations. Individuals with somatic related disorders may have a heightened sensitivity to bodily sensations.

Obsessive compulsive disorder, more commonly known as OCD, requires the presence of both obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are defined as repetitive and persistent thoughts, urges, or images. These obsessions are intrusive, time consuming, and unwanted, often causing significant distress in an individual’s daily functioning. Compulsions are defined as repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual performs in response to an obsession.

OCD is characterized by both obsessions and compulsions, which are repetitive thoughts, urges, or images that cause distress. Obsessions are intrusive, time-consuming, and unwanted, while compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts.

Two takeways for the concept of social construction 1. the definitions, meanings, the reality of things (and what it means and how it is interpreted) are an artifact, or a man-made invention which does not naturally exist in a particular society. Rather, their definitions are constantly changing across different society, groups, contexts, and time periods. - for instance, here is a pigeon and it is a type of bird who existence is a reality. That is, we cannot deny its existence. However, why do we call it as a pigeon, how we might use it for, and what it might symbolize are human-inventions and such inventions is made and constrained to the specific social norms and rules in a given historical and spacial conditions. --- In Western countries, pigeons symbolizes peace and love. They can be raised as pets and was used as messengers in the old times --- In some eastern countries, pigeons can be used as type of medicine, can be still used as messengers nowadays, etc. 2. Not all people have the same defining power. Rather, in almost all the cases, the defining power lies in those power elites, and are used as a tool to control and separate behaviors that are socially disruptive.

The concept of social construction states that definitions, meanings, and reality of things are man-made inventions that are constantly changing across different societies, groups, contexts, and time periods. Power elites have the defining power to control and separate behaviors that are socially disruptive.

Indicators are selected by determining what information must be contained within an answer in order for it to be both insightful and relevant, which ties back to the need to accurately assess performance as defined by the intended outcomes of the program that is being evaluated.

Indicators must be meaningful and relevant to accurately assess performance, based on the intended outcomes of the program being evaluated.

The point prevalence rate for BDD among US adults is 2.4% (APA, 2013). Internationally, this rate drops to 1.7%-1.8% (APA, 2013). Despite the difference between the national and international prevalence rates, the symptoms across races and cultures appear similar. Gender-based prevalence rates indicate that women are more likely to be diagnosed with BDD than males (2.5% females, 2.2% males; APA, 2013). While the diagnosis rates may be different, general symptoms of BDD appear to be the same across genders with one exception: males tend to report genital preoccupations while females are more likely to present with a comorbid eating disorder.

BDD has a point prevalence rate of 2.4% in the US and 1.7%-1.8% internationally, but symptoms are similar across races and cultures. Gender-based prevalence rates indicate women are more likely to be diagnosed.

Speech Recognition is when computers are able to process and identify speech sounds, words and sentences. They can simultaneously recognize acoustic signals through their microphone applications.

Speech Recognition is when computers are able to process and identify speech sounds, words and sentences.

Storytelling is a framing technique that involves conveying an abstract, complex, or difficult idea or message through a relevant, emotional, or symbolic story.

Storytelling is a framing technique that involves conveying an abstract, complex, or difficult idea or message through a relevant, emotional, or symbolic story.

According to Skinner, children acquire language by imitating sounds and making associations. Chomsky argues against this, saying that if the mechanism of language acquisition was dependent solely on language input, children would never acquire the tools needed to understand language. According to him, there exist innate, biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category (Universal Grammar), which make it easier for children to develop language and for adults to process it.

According to Skinner, children acquire language by imitating sounds and making associations. Chomsky argues that if the mechanism of language acquisition was dependent solely on language input, children would never acquire the tools needed to understand language.

As suggestive of its title, delusional disorder requires the presence of at least one delusion that lasts for at least one month in duration. It is important to note that if an individual experiences hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized or catatonic behavior, or negative symptoms—in addition to delusions—they should not be diagnosed with delusional disorder as their symptoms are more aligned with a schizophrenia diagnosis.

Delusional disorder requires at least one delusion lasting at least one month, but not hallucinations, speech, behavior, or negative symptoms.

By understanding the prior knowledge that a target audience is likely drawing on relevant to a particular topic or issue, a communicator is better positioned to convey new information and perspective that is purposefully (and intentionally) aimed at fostering change and the productive resolution of dissonance among individuals.

A communicator can use prior knowledge to effectively convey new information and perspective to foster change and resolution of dissonance among individuals.

CB1 is the most common GPCR in the CNS (central nervous system), with a high concentration in the hippocampus, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and frontal cortex. Very few CB1 receptors in the brainstem (= low potential for dangerous reaction in case of high doses). CB2 is mostly located in the PNS (peripheral nervous sytem), in the immune system (e.g., tonsils and thymus). In inflammatory condition, it can be found in microglia cells in the CNS (microglia are the glia cells that performs immune defense function in the brain).

CB1 is the most common GPCR in the CNS, with few receptors in the brainstem. CB2 is mostly located in the PNS and immune system.

- Transition probability: represents the probability of moving from some state to another state. - Emission probability: the probability of some observation at time \(t\) given a particular hidden label is assigned to that observation. In part-of-speech tagging this would be \(P(w_{i} |t_{i})\)

Transition probability is the probability of moving from one state to another. Emission probability is the probability of an observation given a label.

Crosstalk is a problem caused by signal leakage between wires, such that part of the signal from one wire becomes visible on the other.

Crosstalk is a problem caused by signal leakage between wires, such that part of the signal from one wire becomes visible on the other.

There is a high comorbidity between OCD and other anxiety disorders. Additionally, due to the nature of OCD and its symptoms, nearly 41% of those with OCD will also be diagnosed with a depressive or bipolar disorder. There is a high comorbidity between OCD and tic disorder, particularly in males with an onset of OCD in childhood. Children presenting with early-onset OCD typically have a different presentation of symptoms than traditional OCD. Research has also indicated a strong triad of OCD, tic disorder, and ADHD in children.

Nearly 41% of those with OCD will also be diagnosed with a depressive or bipolar disorder Children presenting with early-onset OCD typically have a different presentation of symptoms than traditional OCD.