Source: http://nomokanon.de/urteile/eughmr081204a.htm
Timestamp: 2018-12-13 20:42:58
Document Index: 616743182

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 78', '§ 30', '§ 93', '§ 29', '§ 65', '§ 111', '§ 92', '§ 159', '§ 32']

1. The case originated in an application (no. 27058/05) against the French Republic lodged with the Court under Article 34 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms ("the Convention") by a French national, Ms Belgin Dogru ("the applicant"), on 22 July 2005.
2. The applicant, who was granted legal aid, was represented by Mr M. Bono, a lawyer practising in La Ferté-Macé. The French Government ("the Government") were represented by their Agent, Mrs E. Belliard, Director of Legal Affairs at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
i) the duty of assiduity (as defined in section 10 of the Education (General Principles) Act - Law no. 89-486 of 10 July 1989; Article 3-5 of Decree no. 85-924 of 30 August 1985 on Local State Schools; and the school's internal rules);
ii) the provisions of the school's internal rules stipulating that pupils must wear clothing that "complies with the health and safety rules" and attend physical education and sports classes in their sports clothes;
iii) a memorandum (no. 94-116 of 9 March 1994) on pupils' safety during school activities, which specified that "rigorous compliance with the rules governing teaching staff's liability shall not eclipse the very broad personal discretion left to the individual teacher when dealing with actual concrete situations" and that "while managing his or her class the teacher must be capable of identifying and putting a stop to any behaviour on the part of pupils - other than sudden or unforeseeable conduct - that may present a danger";
18. Arising out of a long French tradition, the concept of secularism has its origins in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, Article 10 of which provides that "No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law." It also appears in the key Education Acts of 1882 and 1886, which introduced state primary education on a compulsory and secular basis. The real keystone of French secularism, however, is the Act of 9 December 1905, known as the Law on the Separation between Church and State, which marked the end of a long conflict between the republicans, born of the French Revolution, and the Catholic Church. Section 1 provides: "The Republic shall ensure the freedom of conscience. It shall guarantee free participation in religious worship, subject only to the restrictions laid down hereinafter in the interest of public order." The principle of separation is affirmed in section 2 of the Act: "the Republic may not recognise, pay stipends to or subsidise any religious denomination." A number of consequences flow from this "secular pact" both for public services and users. It implies an acknowledgement of religious pluralism and State neutrality towards religions. In return for protection of his or her freedom of religion, the citizen must respect the public arena that is shared by all. The principle was then enshrined in the Preamble to the Constitution of 27 October 1946, which has had constitutional status since a decision of the Constitutional Council of 15 January 1975, which states: "The Nation guarantees equal access for children and adults to instruction, vocational training and culture. The provision of free, public and secular education at all levels is a duty of the State." Lastly, the principle acquired actual constitutional status in Article 1 of the Constitution of 4 October 1958, which provides: "France shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law, without distinction of origin, race or religion. It shall respect all beliefs."
20. The year 1989 saw the first of the "Islamic headscarf" cases. At the beginning of the school year a number of incidents occurred in secondary schools and in particular in Creil Lower Secondary School, in the département of the Oise, when three pupils were suspended for refusing to remove their headscarf despite being requested to do so by the teaching staff and the principal of the school. The case quickly became a highly topical issue. As there was no clear legal answer, and in accordance with a request from the Minister for Education, the Conseil d'Etat, in an advisory opinion of 27 November 1989 (see paragraph 26 below), stated the position that should be adopted when pupils manifested their religion.
21. Some ten years later more and more issues relating to the headscarf had arisen and the advisory opinion does not appear to have provided a lasting solution to the difficulties. According to a report prepared for the Minister for Education in July 2005, "the matter appears to have taken on considerable proportions because having started with three headscarves in Creil in 1989, the Minister referred to 3,000 such cases when addressing the Senate in 19941." In France, the troubles have given rise to various forms of collective mobilisation regarding the question of the place of Islam in Republican society. It is in this context that, on 1 July 2003, the President of the Republic instructed a commission to study the application of the principle of secularism in the Republic. That commission, known as the "Stasi commission", after the name of its chairman, produced a report for the President of the Republic on 11 December 2003. The picture it presented of the threat to secularism bordered on the alarming. It said
"instances of behaviour and conduct that run counter to the principle of secularism are on in the increase, particularly in public society. ... The reasons for the deterioration in the situation ... [are the] difficulties in integrating experienced by those who have arrived in France during the past decades, the living conditions in many suburbs of our towns, unemployment, the feeling experienced by many people living in France that they are the subject of discrimination, or are even being driven out of the national community; these people explain that they thus lend an ear to those who incite them to fight what we call the values of the Republic. .... In this context it is natural that many of our fellow citizens demand the restoration of Republican authority and especially in schools. It is with these threats in mind and in the light of the values of our Republic that we have formulated the proposals set out in this report. ... [Regarding the headscarf, the report states that] for the school community ... the visibility of a religious sign is perceived by many as contrary to the role of school, which should remain a neutral forum and a place where the development of critical faculties is encouraged. It also infringes the principles and values that schools are there to teach, in particular, equality between men and women".
B. Section 10 of the Education (General Principles) Act (Law no. 89-486 of 10 July 1989 - new Article L. 511-1 and 2 of the Education Code)
"Pupils must comply with the duties inherent in their studies. These include assiduity at school and compliance with the rules and community life of the school.
In keeping with the principle of respect for pluralism and the principle that State education must be neutral, in lower and upper secondary schools pupils shall have freedom of information and freedom of expression. The exercise of these freedoms shall not interfere with teaching activities."
"The duty of assiduity referred to in Article L. 511-1 of the Education Code requires pupils to adhere to the teaching periods determined in the school timetable. This applies to compulsory classes and to any optional classes in which pupils have enrolled. Pupils shall perform the written and oral work requested of them by their teachers, respect the content of the curriculum and sit any tests that are set them. Pupils cannot refuse to undergo health tests or check-ups organised for them. The school's internal rules shall specify the manner in which this Article is implemented."
IV d) All pupils must attend P.E. classes in sports clothes."
3. The disciplinary authorities shall decide, subject to the scrutiny of the administrative courts, whether the wearing by a pupil, on the premises of a state school or other educational establishment, of a sign of religious affiliation in breach of one of the conditions posited in point 1 of this opinion or the school's internal rules constitutes a breach lefting the institution of disciplinary proceedings and the application, after compliance with the safeguards instituted by such proceedings and the rights of the defence, of one of the penalties provided for in the applicable provisions, one of which may be suspension from the school.
27. On 12 December 1989 a circular by the Minister for Education, entitled "Secularism, wearing of religious signs by pupils and compulsory education", was sent to the directors of education, school inspectors and school principals. The relevant parts read as follows:
"Secularism, a constitutional principle of the Republic, is one of the cornerstones of state education. At school, like anywhere else, an individual's religious beliefs are a matter of individual conscience and therefore free choice. At school, however, where young people mix without any discrimination, the exercise of the freedom of conscience, in keeping with the requirement of respect for pluralism and the principle that the public service shall be neutral, requires that the entire educational community be shielded from any ideological or religious pressure.
Anyone who fails to comply with these obligations shall be liable to penalties."
"For a number of years now many incidents have been occurring in schools on the occasion of ostentatious demonstrations of affiliation to a particular religion or community.
I therefore ask you to propose to the boards of governors that, when drafting the internal rules, they impose a ban on such conspicuous signs, while remaining mindful that the presence of more discreet signs that merely denote an attachment to a personal belief cannot be subject to the same restrictions, as has been observed by the Conseil d'Etat and in the case-law of the administrative courts."
30. On 15 March 2004 Parliament enacted Law no. 2004-228, known as the Law "on secularism", regulating, in accordance with the principle of secularism, the wearing of signs or dress manifesting a religious affiliation in State primary and secondary schools. The legislation inserted a new Article L. 141-5-1 in the Education Code which provides:
"In State primary and secondary schools, the wearing of signs or dress by which pupils overtly manifest a religious affiliation is prohibited.
The school rules shall state that the institution of disciplinary proceedings shall be preceded by dialogue with the pupil."
31. As indicated in the circular of 18 May 2004, that Act concerns only "... signs ..., such as the Islamic headscarf, however named, the kippa or a cross that is manifestly oversized, which make the wearer's religious affiliation immediately identifiable."
39. The Government also submitted that the applicant's proposal to wear a hat or balaclava instead of her headscarf did not in itself constitute proof of her willingness to find a compromise solution or enter into dialogue. The school, however, had initiated a dialogue with the pupil before and during the disciplinary proceedings (ban limited to physical education classes alone, repeated explanations by the teachers, time for reflection granted and extended, etc.). By way of example, the director for education had observed during the meeting of the appeal panel on 17 March 1999 that "the teachers having agreed, in the end, that she could wear the headscarf during classes demonstrated a conciliatory approach. They expected a gesture on the part of the pupil in the form of an agreement to abide by the rules commonly accepted in P.E. classes ... the words 'we're going to win' were illustrative of the family's refusal to compromise and their intention to confine themselves to the legal position." Apart from the disruption of physical education and sports classes, the authorities had legitimate grounds to fear that the pupil's behaviour would interfere with order in the school or the normal functioning of the State education service. The Caen Administrative Court had accordingly observed that her attitude had created a general atmosphere of tension in the school.
47. The Court reiterates that, according to its case-law, wearing the headscarf may be regarded as "motivated or inspired by a religion or religious belief" (see Leyla Sahin, cited above, § 78).
48. The Court considers that in the present case the ban on wearing the headscarf during physical education and sports classes and the expulsion of the applicant from the school on grounds of her refusal to remove it constitute a "restriction" on the exercise by the applicant of her right to freedom of religion, as is, moreover, undisputed by the parties. Such interference will infringe the Convention if it does not meet the requirements of paragraph 2 of Article 9. The Court must therefore determine whether it was "prescribed by law", was directed towards one or more of the legitimate aims set out in that paragraph and was "necessary in a democratic society" to achieve the aims concerned.
a) "Prescribed by law"
49. The Court reiterates that the words "prescribed by law" require that the impugned measure should have some basis in domestic law, but also refer to the quality of the law in question. The law should be accessible to the persons concerned and formulated with sufficient precision to enable them to foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action may entail (see, among other authorities, Maestri v. Italy [GC], no.39748/98, § 30, ECHR 2004-I).
52. According to the Court's settled case-law, the concept of "law" must be understood in its "substantive" sense, not its "formal" one. It therefore includes everything that goes to make up the written law, including enactments of lower rank than statutes (see, in particular, De Wilde, Ooms and Versyp v. Belgium, 18 June 1971, § 93, Series A no. 12) and the relevant case-law authority (see, mutatis mutandis, Kruslin v. France, 24 April 1990, § 29 Series A no.176-A).
55. On that point it is observed that such legislative provisions did exist and were contained in particular in section 10 of the Education (General Principles) Act of 10 July 1989 in force at the time (codified as Articles L. 511-1 and L. 511-2 of the Education Code) since that Act states that "in secondary schools, in keeping with the principle of respect for pluralism and the principle that State education shall be neutral, pupils shall have freedom of information and of expression" and that "the exercise of these freedoms shall not interfere with teaching activities". The same section provides that pupils are under a duty to attend classes regularly and to comply with the rules and community life of the school. Article 3-5 of the Decree of 30 August 1985 specifies the terms of the duty of assiduity.
56. Subsequently, and in the light of that provision among others, the Conseil d'Etat gave an opinion on 27 November 1989 specifying the legal framework relating to the wearing of religious signs in schools. In that opinion the Conseil d'Etat laid down the principle that pupils were free to wear such signs on school premises, but specified the conditions in which they should be worn in order to be in conformity with the principle of secularism. The Conseil d'Etat observed that the acknowledged right of pupils to express and manifest their religious beliefs on school premises could not interfere with teaching activities, the content of the curriculum or the duty to attend classes regularly, or jeopardise their health or safety, disrupt teaching activities or the teachers' educational role, or, lastly, interfere with order in the establishment or the normal functioning of the public service. The Conseil d'Etat then left it to schools to determine in their internal rules how the principles thus defined would be applied. It indicated, lastly, that it was for the authority vested with disciplinary power to decide whether the wearing of a religious sign breached those rules and whether the breach justified a disciplinary penalty that could go as far as expulsion. The ministerial circulars of 1989 and 1994 accordingly gave school principals instructions regarding implementation of their disciplinary powers in this regard. The internal rules of Flers Lower Secondary School expressly banned "conspicuous signs which are in themselves of proselytising or discriminatory effect".
57. With regard to the application of these principles in practice by the authorities concerned, a certain difference of treatment can be perceived between pupils according to the school concerned in so far as the principles laid down by the Conseil d'Etat invited the school principals to make their assessment on a case-by-case basis. In that connection the Court reiterates that the scope of the notion of foreseeability depends to a considerable degree on the content of the instrument in question, the field it is designed to cover and the number and status of those to whom it is addressed. It must also be borne in mind that, however clearly drafted a legal provision may be, its application involves an inevitable element of judicial interpretation, since there will always be a need for clarification of doubtful points and for adaptation to particular circumstances. A margin of doubt in relation to borderline facts does not by itself make a legal provision unforeseeable in its application. Nor does the mere fact that a provision is capable of more than one construction mean that it fails to meet the requirement of "foreseeability" for the purposes of the Convention. The role of adjudication vested in the courts is precisely to dissipate such interpretational doubts as remain, taking into account the changes in everyday practice (see Gorzelik and Others v. Poland [GC], no. 44158/98, § 65, ECHR 2004-I).
59. In these circumstances the Court concludes that the interference in question had a sufficient legal basis in domestic law. The relevant rules were accessible since they consisted mainly of provisions that had been duly published and of confirmed case-law of the Conseil d'Etat. The Court also points out that by signing the internal rules when she enrolled at the secondary school, the applicant was made aware of the content of those rules and undertook to comply with them, with her parents' agreement (see Köse and Others v. Turkey (dec.), no. 26625/02, ECHR 2006-...). The Court therefore considers that the applicant could foresee, to a degree that was reasonable, that at the material time the refusal to remove her headscarf during physical education and sports classes was liable to result in her expulsion from the school for failure to attend classes regularly. Accordingly, the interference can be regarded as having been "prescribed by law".
c) "Necessary in a democratic society"
64. The Court also reiterates that the State may limit the freedom to manifest a religion, for example by wearing an Islamic headscarf, if the exercise of that freedom clashes with the aim of protecting the rights and freedoms of others, public order and public safety (see Leyla Sahin, cited above, § 111, and Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey [GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, § 92, ECHR 2003-II). Accordingly, compelling a motorcyclist, who was a practising Sikh wearing a turban, to wear a helmet was a safety measure and any resulting interference with the exercise of his freedom of religion was justified on grounds of the protection of health (see X v. the United Kingdom, no. 7992/77, Commission decision of 12 July 1978, Decisions and Reports (DR) 14, p. 234). Likewise, security checks enforced at airports (see Phull v. France (dec.), no. 35753/03, ECHR 2005-I, 11 January 2005) or at the entrance to consulates (see El Morsli v. France (dec.), no. 15585/06, 4 March 2008, ECHR 2008-...) and consisting in ordering the removal of a turban or a veil in order to submit to such checks do not constitute disproportionate interferences with the exercise of the right to religious freedom. Nor does the regulation of student dress or the refusal to provide administrative services, such as issuing a diploma, constitute a disproportionate interference where the individual concerned fails to comply with the rules (in the case in point requiring a student wearing the Islamic headscarf to appear with her head uncovered on a passport photo), regard being had to the requirements of the secular university system (see Karaduman v. Turkey, 16278/90, Commission decision of 3 May 1993, DR 74, p. 93). In the case of Dahlab (cited above), the Court held that prohibiting a teacher from wearing her headscarf while teaching a class of young children was "necessary in a democratic society", having regard, among other things, to the fact that secularism, which presupposes denominational neutrality in schools, is a principle laid down in the Constitution of the canton of Geneva. The Court stressed the "powerful external symbol" represented by wearing the headscarf and also considered the proselytising effect that it might have seeing that it appeared to be imposed on women by a religious precept which was hard to square with the principle of gender equality.
67. In the case of Köse and Others (cited above), the Court also considered that the principles of secularism and neutrality at school and respect for the principle of pluralism were clear and entirely legitimate grounds lefting refusing pupils wearing the headscarf admission to classes when they refused - despite the relevant rules - to remove the Islamic headscarf while on the school premises.
73. In the present case the Court considers that the conclusion reached by the national authorities that the wearing of a veil, such as the Islamic headscarf, was incompatible with sports classes for reasons of health or safety is not unreasonable. It accepts that the penalty imposed is merely the consequence of the applicant's refusal to comply with the rules applicable on the school premises - of which she had been properly informed - and not of her religious convictions, as she alleged.
74. The Court also notes that the disciplinary proceedings against the applicant fully satisfied the duty to undertake a balancing exercise of the various interests at stake. In the first place, before proceedings were instituted, the applicant refused on seven occasions to remove her headscarf during physical education classes, despite her teacher's requests and explanations for those requests. Subsequently, according to the information provided by the Government, the authorities concerned made many unsuccessful attempts over a long period of time to enter into dialogue with the applicant and a period of reflection was granted her and subsequently extended. Furthermore, the ban was limited to the physical education class, so cannot be regarded as a ban in the strict sense of the term (see Köse and Others, cited above). Moreover, it can be seen from the circumstances of the case that these events had led to a general atmosphere of tension within the school. Lastly, the disciplinary process also appears to have been accompanied by safeguards - the rule requiring conformity with statute and judicial review - that were apt to protect the pupils' interests (see, mutatis mutandis, Leyla Sahin, cited above, § 159).
75. As regards the choice of the most severe penalty, it should be pointed out that, where the ways and means of ensuring respect for internal rules are concerned, it is not within the province of the Court to substitute its own vision for that of the disciplinary authorities which, being in direct and continuous contact with the educational community, are best placed to evaluate local needs and conditions or the requirements of a particular training (see, mutatis mutandis, Valsamis v. Greece, 18 December 1996, § 32, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI). With regard to the applicant's proposal to replace the headscarf by a hat, apart from the fact that it is difficult for the Court to judge whether wearing a hat instead would be compatible with sports classes, the question whether the pupil expressed a willingness to compromise, as she maintains, or whether - on the contrary - she overstepped the limits of the right to express and manifest her religious beliefs on the school premises, as the Government maintain and appears to conflict with the principle of secularism, falls squarely within the margin of appreciation of the State.
"No person shall be denied the right to education ..."
80. The Government considered, firstly, that the applicant had not properly exhausted domestic remedies in so far as she had not raised the complaint before any of the national courts dealing with the case. They pointed out, secondly, that the measure in question had not impaired the very essence of the right to education, since she had been able to continue he schooling despite having been expelled.
1. See the report of the National Education Inspectorate, submitted to the Minister in July 2005: "Application of the Act of 15 March 2004".