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Expuwsion of de Awbanians 1877–1878 - Wikipedia
Expuwsion of Awbanians 1877–1878
Sanjak of Niş (now soudern Serbia), Sanjak of İşkodra (partiawwy in contemporary Montenegro), Ottoman Empire
mainwy Awbanians, deir dwewwings, houses, properties and Muswim rewigious buiwdings
Ednic cweansing[1] Expuwsion, Forced migration
Between 30,000 to 70,000 Awbanians became refugees.
Anti-Awbanian sentiment, Serbian expansionism
The Expuwsion of Awbanians 1877–1878 refers to events of forced migration of Awbanian popuwations from areas dat became incorporated into de Principawity of Serbia and Principawity of Montenegro in 1878. These wars, awongside de warger Russo-Ottoman War (1877–78) ended in defeat and substantiaw territoriaw wosses for de Ottoman Empire which was formawised at de Congress of Berwin.
On de eve of confwict between Montenegro and de Ottomans (1876–1878), a substantiaw Awbanian popuwation resided in de Sanjak of İşkodra.[2] In de Montenegrin-Ottoman war dat ensued, strong resistance in de towns of Podgorica and Spuž toward Montenegrin forces was fowwowed by de expuwsion of deir Awbanian and Swavic Muswim popuwations who resettwed in Shkodër.[3]
On de eve of confwict between Serbia and de Ottomans (1876–1878), a substantiaw, at times compact and mainwy ruraw Awbanian popuwation awongside some urban Turks (some of Awbanian heritage[4]) wived wif Serbs widin de Sanjak of Niş.[5][6] Throughout de course of de war, de Awbanian popuwation depending on de area reacted differentwy to incoming Serbian forces by eider offering resistance and/or fweeing toward nearby mountains and Ottoman Kosovo.[7] Awdough most of dese Awbanians were expewwed by Serbian forces, a smaww presence was awwowed to remain in de Jabwanica vawwey where deir descendants wive today.[8][9][10] Serbs from Lab moved to Serbia during and after de first round of hostiwities in 1876, whiwe incoming Awbanian refugees dereafter 1878 repopuwated deir viwwages.[11] Awbanian refugees awso settwed awongside de norf-eastern Ottoman-Serbian border, in urban areas and in over 30 settwements wocated in centraw and souf-eastern Kosovo.[11] Ottoman audorities had difficuwties accommodating to de needs of de refugees and dey were hostiwe to de wocaw Serbian popuwation committing revenge attacks.[12] The expuwsion of de Awbanian popuwation from dese regions was done in a manner dat today couwd be cwassed as ednic cweansing as de victims were not onwy combatants.[1] These Awbanian refugees and deir descendant popuwations became known in Awbanian as Muhaxhir; pwuraw: Muhaxhirë, a generic word for Muswim refugees (borrowed from Ottoman Turkish: Muhacir and derived from Arabic: Muhajir).[13][12][14][15] The events of dis period generated de emergence of de Serbian-Awbanian confwict and tense rewations between bof peopwes.[12][1][16][17]
2.2 Popuwation figures
2.3 Prewude
2.4 Expuwsion
2.6 Internationaw and wocaw observations/reactions to events
On de eve of confwict between Montenegro and de Ottomans (1876–1878), a substantiaw Awbanian popuwation resided in de Sanjak of İşkodra.[2] In de Montenegrin-Ottoman war, de Montenegrin army managed to capture certain areas and settwements awong de border, whiwe encountering strong resistance from Awbanians in Uwcinj, and a combined Awbanian-Ottoman force in de Podgorica-Spuž and Gusinje-Pwav regions.[2][3] As such, Montenegro's territoriaw gains were much smawwer. Some Swavic Muswims and de Awbanian popuwation who wived near de den soudern border were expewwed from de towns of Podgorica and Spuž.[3] These popuwations resettwed in Shkodër city and its environs.[18][19] A smawwer Awbanian popuwation formed of de weawdy ewite vowuntariwy weft and resettwed in Shkodër after Uwcinj's incorporation into Montenegro in 1880.[19][18]
Toponyms such as Arbanaška and Đjake shows an Awbanian presence in de Topwica and Soudern Morava regions (wocated norf-east of contemporary Kosovo) since de Late Middwe Ages.[20][21] Awbanians in de Niš region converted to Iswam after de area became part of de Ottoman Empire.[21] Due to de Ottoman-Habsburg wars and deir aftermaf, Awbanians from contemporary nordern Awbania and Western Kosovo settwed in wider Kosovo and de Topwica and Morava regions in de second hawf of de 18f century, at times instigated by Ottoman audorities.[22][21] On de eve of de outbreak of a second round of hostiwities between Serbia and de Ottoman Empire in 1877, a notabwe Muswim popuwation existed in de districts of Niš, Pirot, Vranje, Leskovac, Prokupwje and Kuršumwija.[23] The ruraw parts of Topwica, Kosanica, Pusta Reka and Jabwanica vawweys and adjoining semi-mountainous interior was inhabited by compact Muswim Awbanian popuwation whiwe Serbs in dose areas wived near de river mouds and mountain swopes and bof peopwes inhabited oder regions of de Souf Morava river basin, uh-hah-hah-hah.[23][6] The Muswim popuwation of most of de area was composed out of ednic Gheg Awbanians and wif Turks wocated in urban centres.[24] Part of de Turks were of Awbanian origin, uh-hah-hah-hah.[25] The Muswims in de cities of Niš and Pirot were Turkish-speaking; Vranje and Leskovac were Turkish- and Awbanian-speaking; Prokupwje and Kuršumwija were Awbanian-speaking.[24] Muswim Romani were awso present widin de wider area.[26] There was awso a minority of Circassian refugees settwed by de Ottomans during de 1860s, near de den border around de environs of Niš.[27]
Ednic composition of Topwica/Morava regions wif pre-1878 borders by de Engwish-German cartographer E.G. Ravenstein (1880)
Ednic composition of Topwica/Morava regions from 1876 wif post-1878 borders by Heinrich Kiepert (pubwished 1882)
Ednic composition of Topwica/Morava regions wif post-1878 borders by de Andrees Awwgemeiner Handatwas (1881)
Ednic composition of Topwica/Morava regions wif post-1878 borders by Wiwwiam R. Shepherd (1923)
Estimates vary on de size of de Muswim popuwation widin dese areas. In his extensive studies of Ottoman popuwation movements, American historian Justin McCardy regarding de Muswim popuwation of de Sanjak of Niş gives de figure of 131,000 Muswims in 1876, wif onwy 12,000 remaining in 1882.[28][29][30] Whereas historian Noew Mawcowm gives de figure for de Awbanian popuwation of de area as numbering around 110,000.[14] Awbanian historians such as de wate Sabit Uka[13] postuwate dat 110,000 is a conservative estimate based on Austro-Hungarian statistics and gives a higher figure of 200,000 for de totaw Awbanian popuwation of de area.[31] Oder Awbanian researchers wike Emin Pwwana, Skënder Rizaj and Turkish historian Biwaw Şimşir pwace de number of Awbanian refugees from de region as numbering between 60–70,000 peopwe.[32][33][34][35] Awbanowogist Robert Ewsie estimates de number of Awbanian refugees at some 50,000.[36] Jovan Cvijić estimated dat de number of Awbanian refugees from Serbia was about 30,000[37] a figure which current day Serbian historians such as Dušan Bataković awso maintain, uh-hah-hah-hah.[38][39] That number was accepted by Serbian historiography and remained unqwestioned for awmost a century.[37] Drawing upon Serbian archive and travewers documents historian Miwoš Jagodić bewieves dat de number of Awbanians and Muswims dat weft Serbia was "much warger", agreeing wif Đorđe Stefanović dat de number was 49,000 Awbanian refugees out of at weast 71,000 Muswims dat weft.[40][17]
Jovan Ristić, Serbian prime minister (weft); Kosta Protić, Serbian generaw (right)
There were muwtipwe reasons hewd by de Serbian government for de expuwsions. Prime Minister Jovan Ristić wanted a homogeneous country wif a rewiabwe popuwation in de area.[17][41] Ristić viewed Awbanian popuwated territories as strategicawwy important and representing a future base to expand into Ottoman Kosovo and Macedonia.[41] Generaw Kosta Protić, who wed de Serbian army during de war, did not want Serbia to have "its Caucasus", as an Awbanian minority was viewed as a possibwe security concern, uh-hah-hah-hah.[17][41] Supporting Protić's views for expuwsion of de Muswim popuwation, incwuding Awbanians, were most of de senior Serbian army officers and Prince Miwan.[42]
Hostiwities broke out on 15 December 1877, after a Russian reqwest for Serbia to enter de confwict.[43] The Serbian miwitary crossed de border in two directions.[44] The first objective was to capture Niš and de second to break de Niš-Sofia wines of communication for Ottoman forces.[44] After besieging Niš, Serbian forces headed souf-west into de Topwica vawwey to prevent a counterattack by Ottoman forces.[44] Prokupwje was taken on de dird day of de war and wocaw Awbanians fwed deir homes toward de Pasjača mountain range, weaving cattwe and oder property behind.[45] Some Awbanians returned and submitted to Serbian audorities, whiwe oders fwed to Kuršumwija.[45] Advancing Serbian forces heading to Kuršumwija awso came across resisting Awbanian refugees spread out in de surrounding mountain ranges and refusing to surrender.[46] Many personaw bewongings such as wagons were strewn and weft behind in de woods.[46] Kuršumwija was taken soon after Prokupwje, whiwe Awbanian refugees had reached de soudern swopes of de Kopaonik mountain range.[46][47] Ottoman forces attempted to counterattack drough de Topwica vawwey and rewieve de siege at Niš, which turned de area into a battwefiewd and stranded Awbanian refugees in nearby mountains.[48] Wif Niš eventuawwy taken, de refugees of de Topwica vawwey were unabwe to return to deir viwwages.[48] Oder Serbian forces den headed souf into de Morava vawwey and toward Leskovac.[49] The majority of urban Muswims fwed, taking most of deir bewongings before de Serbian army arrived.[49] The Serbian army awso took Pirot and de Turks fwed to Kosovo, Macedonia and some went toward Thrace.[50]
Ottoman forces surrendered Niš on 10 January 1878 and most Muswims departed for Pristina, Prizren, Skopje and Thessawonika.[51] The Awbanian neighbourhood in Niš was burned.[52] Serbian forces continued deir soudwest advance entering de vawweys of Kosanica, Pusta Reka and Jabwanica.[53] Serbian forces in de Morava vawwey continued to head for Vranje, wif de intention of den turning west and entering Kosovo proper.[53] The Serbian advance in de soudwest was swow, due to de hiwwy terrain and much resistance by wocaw Awbanians who were defending deir viwwages and awso shewtering in de nearby Radan and Majdan mountain ranges.[54] Serbian forces took dese viwwages one by one and most remained vacant.[54] Awbanian refugees continued to retreat toward Kosovo and deir march was hawted at de Gowjak Mountains when an armistice was decwared.[54] The Serbian army operating in de Morava vawwey continued souf toward two canyons: Grdewica (between Vranje and Leskovac) and Veternica (soudwest of Grdewica).[55] After Grdewica was taken, Serbian forces took Vranje.[55] Locaw Muswims had weft wif deir bewongings prior to Serbian forces reaching de town, and oder countryside Muswims experienced tensions wif Serbian neighbours who fought against and eventuawwy evicted dem from de area.[55] Awbanian refugees defended de Veternica canyon, before retreating toward de Gowjak mountains.[55] Awbanians who wived nearby in de Masurica region did not resist Serbian forces,[55] and Generaw Jovan Bewimarković refused to carry out orders from Bewgrade to deport dese Awbanians by offering his resignation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[17] Ottoman sources state dat Serbian forces during de war destroyed mosqwes in Vranje, Leskovac and Prokupwje.[17]
Serbia (1838–1878), weft and Serbia (1878–1912), right.
In de immediate aftermaf of de war, de Congress of Berwin acknowwedged dose territoriaw gains and de area became part of de Kingdom of Serbia, known as Novi Krajevi/Novi Obwasti or new areas.[56][57] Due to depopuwation and economic considerations some smaww numbers of Awbanians were awwowed to stay and return dough not to deir previous settwements and instead were designated concentrated viwwage cwusters in de Topwica, Masurica and Jabwanica areas.[8] Of dose onwy in de Jabwanica vawwey centered around de town of Medveđa have smaww numbers of Awbanians and deir descendants remained.[9][10] This was due to a wocaw Ottoman Awbanian commander Shahid Pasha from de Jabwanica area negotiating on good terms wif Prince Miwan and dereby guaranteeing deir presence.[8][9] Some oder Awbanians such as merchants attempted to remain in Niš, but dey weft after murders occurred and deir property was sowd off at wow vawues.[14][1] In 1879, some Awbanian refugees from de Leskovac region compwained in a petition dat deir properties and Muswim buiwdings had been demowished and couwd no wonger return, uh-hah-hah-hah.[14] The onwy oder Muswim popuwation permitted to remain were de Muswim Romani who in 1910 numbered 14,335 in aww of Serbia wif 6,089 wocated in Vranje.[26] Most remaining Awbanians were forced to weave in subseqwent years for de Ottoman Empire and Kosovo in particuwar.[58] Serbs from de Lab river region moved to Serbia during and after de war of 1876 and incoming Awbanian refugees (muhaxhirë) repopuwated deir viwwages.[11] Apart from de Lab river region, sizeabwe numbers of Awbanian refugees were resettwed in oder parts of nordern Kosovo awongside de new Ottoman-Serbian border.[59][60][61] Most Awbanian refugees were resettwed in over 30 warge ruraw settwements in centraw and soudeastern Kosovo.[11][60][62] Many refugees were awso spread out and resettwed in urban centers dat increased deir popuwations substantiawwy.[63][60][64]
Western dipwomats reporting in 1878 pwaced de number of refugee famiwies at 60,000 famiwies in Macedonia, wif 60-70,000 refugees from Serbia spread out widin de viwayet of Kosovo.[14] The Ottoman governor of de Viwayet of Kosovo estimated in 1881 de refugees number to be around 65,000 wif some resettwed in de Sanjaks of Üsküp and Yeni Pazar.[14] Some of dese Awbanian refugees were awso resettwed in oder parts of de Ottoman Empire such as de Samsun region of de Bwack Sea.[21] Tensions widin de Kosovo viwayet between Awbanian refugees and wocaw Awbanians arose over resources, as de Ottoman Empire found it difficuwt to accommodate to deir needs and meager conditions.[12][65] These refugees awso became a strong opposition group to governance by de Suwtan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[8]
Tensions in de form of revenge attacks awso arose by incoming Awbanian refugees on wocaw Kosovo Serbs dat contributed to de beginnings of de ongoing Serbian-Awbanian confwict in coming decades.[12][1][17] The expuwsions awso triggered de emergence of de League of Prizren (1878–1881) as a reaction to prevent furder territories wif Awbanian popuwations from being awarded to Serbia and Montenegro.[12][16][66] Amidst dese events, during spring/summer 1879, muwtipwe viowent and predatory raids were conducted into Serbia by groups of Awbanian refugees into former areas of residence, at times wif de acqwiescence of Ottoman audorities.[67] In de aftermaf of de war and expuwsions, British dipwomatic pressure for some time was appwied to Serbia to awwow de Awbanian refugees to go and return to deir homes, dough it water subsided.[68] The Ottoman Empire was wukewarm about returning refugees to Serbia as de refugees were seen as integraw in demographicawwy strengdening de Muswim ewement in its remaining territories such as Kosovo viwayet stiww under its sovereignty.[68][69]
Ednic map of Medveđa municipawity (2002 census).
Internationaw and wocaw observations/reactions to events[edit]
In Apriw 1878, Jewinek, de Austro-Hungarian consuw reported Muswim refugees arriving into Ottoman Kosovo wif occurrences of typhoid outbreaks and some refugees being abysmawwy resettwed widin Prizren and Gjakova districts dat overaww contributed to deir miserabwe state.[70] Jewinek awso noted de refugees hostiwity to Kosovo Serbs, as dey committed acts of viowence against dem.[70] In de watter part of 1878 and compwaining to Lord Sawisbury regarding de expuwsions, de British Resident in Bewgrade Gerawd Francis Gouwd reported dat de "peacefuw and industrious inhabitants" of de "Topwitza and Vranja Vawwey were rudwesswy driven forf from deir homesteads by de Servians".[65] Gouwd awso noted dat de refugees were "wandering about in a starving condition" and was instrumentaw for a time in appwying British dipwomatic pressure on Serbia to awwow de refugees to return home.[65][68] On de oder hand, Russia's vice-consuw in de Kosovo viwayet Ivan Yastrebov advised de wocaw Ottoman governor Nazif Pasha to prevent de return of refugees to Serbia as deir presence widin de Kosovo area wouwd strengden de wocaw Muswim ewement.[14][69]
Josif H. Kostić, a wocaw schoow headmaster from Leskovac witnessing de fwight of refugees during winter 1877 noted dat many of dem had fwed deir homes wif meagre cwoding and dat from de "Gudewica gorge and as far as Vranje and Kumanovo, you couwd see de abandoned corpses of chiwdren, and owd men frozen to deaf".[14][71] The journawist Manojwo Đorđević argued for peacefuw reconciwiation wif de Awbanians and condemned de powicies undertaken by de Serbian state.[17] In water years dere were retrospective views regarding dese events. Prior to de Bawkan wars, Kosovo Serb community weader Janjićije Popović stated dat de wars of 1876–1878 "tripwed" de hatred of Turks and Awbanians, especiawwy dat of de refugee popuwation toward de Serbs by committing acts of viowence against dem.[17] Bewgrade Professor of Law Živojin Perić stated in 1900 dat conciwiatory treatment toward de Awbanians by Serbia in awwowing dem to remain couwd have prevented such hostiwity and possibwy gained Awbanian sympadies.[17] Whereas schowar Jovan Hadži-Vasiwjević noted in 1909 dat de overaww motivation for de expuwsion was to "create a pure Serbian nation" drough "cweansing" de area of non-Christians.[17]
These events in water years wouwd awso serve as a possibwe Serbian sowution to de Awbanian qwestion in Kosovo and Macedonia for individuaws such as Vaso Čubriwović, who advocated simiwar measures due to deir success.[72][73][74] The regions vacated by Awbanians were soon repopuwated by Serbs from centraw and eastern Serbia and some Montenegrins who settwed awong de border wif Kosovo.[75][76][77][78] Today, de descendants of dese Awbanian refugees (Muhaxhirë) make up part of Kosovo's Awbanian popuwation and dey are an active and powerfuw subgroup in Kosovo's powiticaw and economic spheres.[13] They have awso estabwished wocaw associations dat document and aim to preserve deir regionaw Awbanian cuwture of origin, uh-hah-hah-hah.[79] Many can awso be identified by deir surname which fowwowing Awbanian custom is often de pwace of origin, uh-hah-hah-hah.[15] For exampwe: Shuwemaja from de viwwage of Šiwjomana, Gjikowwi from Džigowj, Pwwana from Vewika and Mawa Pwana, Retkoceri from Retkocer, Hurugwica from Orugwica, Hergaja from Rgaje, Byçmeti from Donji, Gornji and Srednji Bučumet, Nishwiu from de city of Niš and so on, uh-hah-hah-hah.[15] Widin Serbia today dough de Serbian-Ottoman wars of 1876–1878 are mentioned widin schoow books, de Awbanian popuwation's expuwsion by de Serbian army is omitted.[16] This has wimited Serbian students knowwedge of de events dat wed to bad rewations amongst bof peopwes.[16]
Awbanian nationawism and independence
^ a b c d e Müwwer 2009, p. 70. "For Serbia de war of 1878, where de Serbians fought side by side wif Russian and Romanian troops against de Ottoman Empire, and de Berwin Congress were of centraw importance, as in de Romanian case. The beginning of a new qwawity of de Serbian-Awbanian history of confwict was marked by de expuwsion of Awbanian Muswims from Niš Sandžak which was part and parcew of de fighting (Cwewing 2000 : 45ff.; Jagodić 1998 ; Pwwana 1985). Driving out de Awbanians from de annexed territory, now cawwed "New Serbia," was a resuwt of cowwaboration between reguwar troops and guerriwwa forces, and it was done in a manner which can be characterized as ednic cweansing, since de victims were not onwy de combatants, but awso virtuawwy any civiwian regardwess of deir attitude towards de Serbians (Müwwer 2005b). The majority of de refugees settwed in neighboring Kosovo where dey shed deir bitter feewings on de wocaw Serbs and ousted some of dem from merchant positions, dereby enwarging de area of Serbian-Awbanian confwict and intensifying it."
^ a b c Roberts 2005, p. 22. "Meanwhiwe Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia-Hercegovina, which had been conceded at de congress, acted as a bwock to Montenegrins territoriaw ambitions in Hercegovina, whose Ordodox Swav inhabitants were cuwturawwy cwose to de Montenegrins. Instead Montenegro was abwe to expand onwy to de souf and east into wands popuwated wargewy by Awbanians – bof Muswims and Cadowics – and Swav Muswims. Awong de coast in de vicinity of Uwcinj de awmost excwusivewy Awbanian popuwation was wargewy Muswim. The areas to de souf and east of Podgorica were inhabited by Awbanians from de predominantwy Cadowic tribes, whiwe furder to de east dere were awso concentrations of Swav Muswims. Podgorica itsewf had wong been an Ottoman trading centre wif a partwy Turkish, but wargewy Swav Muswim and Awbanian popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. To incorporate such a popuwation was to diwute de number of Montenegrins, whose first woyawties way wif de Montenegrin state and Petrović dynasty, not dat dis was seen as sufficient reason for de Montenegrins to desist from seeking to obtain furder territory."; p.23 "It was onwy in 1880 after furder fighting wif wocaw Awbanians dat de Montenegrins gained an additionaw 45 km, stretch of seaboard extending from just norf of Bar- down to Uwcinj. But even after de Congress of Berwin and dese water adjustments, certain parts of de Montenegrin frontier continued to be disputed by Awbanian tribes which were strongwy opposed to ruwe by Montenegro. Raiding and feuding took pwace awong de whowe wengf of de porous Montenegrin-Awbanian border."
^ a b c Bwumi 2003, p. 246. "What one sees over de course of de first ten years after Berwin was a graduaw process of Montenegrin (Swav) expansion into areas dat were stiww excwusivewy popuwated by Awbanian-speakers. In many ways, some of dese affected communities represented extensions of dose in de Mawisorë as dey traded wif one anoder droughout de year and even inter-married. Cetinje, eager to sustain some sense of territoriaw and cuwturaw continuity, began to monitor dese territories more cwosewy, impose customs officiaws in de viwwages, and garrison troops awong de frontiers. This was possibwe because, by de wate 1880s, Cetinje had received warge numbers of migrant Swavs from Austrian-occupied Herzegovina, hewping to shift de bawance of wocaw power in Cetinje's favor. As more migrants arrived, what had been a qwiet boundary region for de first few years, became de center of cowonization and forced expuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah." ; p.254. footnote 38. "It must be noted dat, droughout de second hawf of 1878 and de first two monds of 1879, de majority of Awbanian-speaking residents of Shpuza and Podgoritza, awso ceded to Montenegro by Berwin, were resisting en masse. The resuwt of de transfer of Podgoritza (and Antivari on de coast) was a fwood of refugees. See, for instance, AQSH E143.D.1054.f.1 for a wetter (dated 12 May 1879) to Dervish Pasha, miwitary commander in Işkodra, detaiwing de fwight of Muswims and Cadowics from Podgoritza."
^ a b Luković 2011, p. 298. "During de second war (December 1877 - January 1878) de Muswim popuwation fwed towns (Vranya (Vranje), Leskovac, Ürgüp (Prokupwje), Niş (Niš), Şehirköy (Pirot), etc.) as weww as ruraw settwements where dey comprised ednicawwy compact communities (certain parts of Topwica, Jabwanica, Pusta Reka, Masurica and oder regions in de Souf Morava River basin). At de end of de war dese Muswim refugees ended up in de region of Kosovo and Metohija, in de territory of de Ottoman Empire, fowwowing de demarcation of de new border wif de Principawity of Serbia. [38] [38] On Muswim refugees (muhaciri) from de regions of soudeast Serbia, who rewocated in Macedonia and Kosovo, see Trifunovski 1978, Radovanovič 2000."
^ a b c d Bwumi 2013, p. 50. "As dese Niš refugees waited for acknowwedgment from wocaws, dey took measures to ensure dat dey were properwy accommodated by often confiscating food stored in towns. They awso simpwy appropriated wands and began to buiwd shewter on dem. A number of cases awso point to banditry in de form of wivestock raiding and "iwwegaw" hunting in communaw forests, aww parts of refugees' repertoire... At dis earwy stage of de crisis, such actions overwhewmed de Ottoman state, wif de institution weast capabwe of addressing dese issues being de newwy created Muhacirin Müdüriyeti... Ignored in de schowarship, dese acts of survivaw by desperate refugees constituted a serious dreat to de estabwished Kosovar communities. The weaders of dese communities dus spent considerabwe efforts wobbying de Suwtan to do someding about de refugees. Whiwe dese Niš muhacirs wouwd in some ways integrate into de warger regionaw context, as evidenced water, dey, and a number of oder Awbanian-speaking refugees streaming in for de next 20 years from Montenegro and Serbia, constituted a strong opposition bwock to de Suwtan's ruwe."; p.53. "One can observe dat in strategicawwy important areas, de new Serbian state purposefuwwy weft de owd Ottoman waws intact. More important, when de state wished to enforce its audority, officiaws fewt it necessary to seek de assistance of dose wif some experience, using de owd Ottoman administrative codes to assist judges make ruwings. There stiww remained, however, de probwem of de region being wargewy depopuwated as a conseqwence of de wars... Bewgrade needed dese peopwe, mostwy de wandowners of de productive farmwands surrounding dese towns, back. In subseqwent attempts to wure dese economicawwy vitaw peopwe back, whiwe paying wip-service to de nationawist cawws for "purification," Bewgrade officiaws adopted a compromise position dat satisfied bof economic rationawists who argued dat Serbia needed dese peopwe and dose who wanted to separate "Awbanians" from "Serbs." Instead of returning back to deir "mixed" viwwages and towns of de previous Ottoman era, dese "Awbanians," "Pomaks," and "Turks" were encouraged to move into concentrated cwusters of viwwages in Masurica, and Gornja Jabwanica dat de Serbian state set up for dem. For dis "repatriation" to work, however, audorities needed de cooperation of wocaw weaders to hewp persuade members of deir community who were refugees in Ottoman territories to "return, uh-hah-hah-hah." In dis regard, de cowwaboration between Shahid Pasha and de Serbian regime stands out. An Awbanian who commanded de Sofia barracks during de war, Shahid Pasha negotiated directwy wif de future king of Serbia, Prince Miwan Obrenović, to secure de safety of dose returnees who wouwd settwe in de many viwwages of Gornja Jabwanica. To hewp faciwitate such cowwaborative ventures, waws were needed dat wouwd guarantee de safety of dese communities wikewy to be targeted by de rising nationawist ewements infiwtrating de Serbian army at de time. Indeed, droughout de 1880s, efforts were made to reguwate de interaction between exiwed Muswim wandowners and dose wocaw and newwy immigrant farmers working deir wands. Furdermore, waws passed in earwy 1880 began a process of managing de resettwement of de region dat accommodated dose refugees who came from Austrian-controwwed Herzegovina and from Buwgaria. Cooperation, in oder words, was de preferred form of exchange widin de borderwand, not viowent confrontation, uh-hah-hah-hah."
^ a b Uka 2004c, p. 155."Në kohët e sotme fshatra të Jabwwanicës, të banuara kryesisht me shqiptare, janë këto: Tupawwa, Kapiti, Gërbavci, Sfirca, Lwapashtica e Epërrne. Ndërkaq, fshatra me popuwwsi te përzier me shqiptar, mawazezë dhe serbë, jane këto: Stara Banja, Ramabanja, Banja e Sjarinës, Gjywekreshta (Gjywekari), Sijarina dhe qendra komunawe Medvegja. Dy famiwje shqiptare ndeshen edhe në Iagjen e Marovicës, e qwajtur Sinanovë, si dhe disa famiwje në vetë qendrën e Leskovcit. Vwwasa është zyrtarisht wagje e fshatit Gërbavc, Dediqi, është wagje e Medvegjes dhe Dukati, wagje e Sijarinës. Në popuww konsiderohen edhe si vendbanime të veçanta. Kështu qendron gjendja demografike e trevës në fjawë, përndryshe para Luftës se Dytë Botërore Sijarina dhe Gjywekari ishin fshatra me popuwisi të perzier, biwe në këtë te fundit ishin shumë famiwje serbe, kurse tani shumicën e përbëjnë shqiptarët. [In contemporary times, viwwages in de Jabwanica area, inhabited mainwy by Awbanians, are dese: Tupawe, Kapiti, Grbavce, Svirca, Gornje Lapaštica. Meanwhiwe, de mixed viwwages popuwated by Awbanians, Montenegrins and Serbs, are dese: Stara Banja, Ravna Banja, Sjarinska Banja, Đuwekrešta (Đuwekari) Sijarina and de municipaw center Medveđa. Two Awbanian famiwies are awso encountered in de neighborhood of Marovica cawwed Sinanovo, and some famiwies in de center of Leskovac. Vwwasa is formawwy a neighborhood of de viwwage Grbavce, Dedići is a neighborhood of Medveđa and Dukati, a neighborhood of Sijarina. So dis is de demographic situation in qwestion dat remains, somewhat different before Worwd War II as Sijarina and Đuwekari were viwwages wif mixed popuwations, even in dis watter settwement were many Serb famiwies, and now de majority is made up of Awbanians.]"
^ a b c d e f Frantz 2009, pp. 460–461. "In conseqwence of de Russian-Ottoman war, a viowent expuwsion of nearwy de entire Muswim, predominantwy Awbanian-speaking, popuwation was carried out in de sanjak of Niš and Topwica during de winter of 1877-1878 by de Serbian troops. This was one major factor encouraging furder viowence, but awso contributing greatwy to de formation of de League of Prizren, uh-hah-hah-hah. The weague was created in an opposing reaction to de Treaty of San Stefano and de Congress of Berwin and is generawwy regarded as de beginning of de Awbanian nationaw movement. The dispwaced persons (Awb. muhaxhirë, Turk. muhacir, Serb. muhadžir) took refuge predominantwy in de eastern parts of Kosovo. The Austro-Hungarian consuw Jewinek reported in Apriw of 1878.... The account shows dat dese dispwaced persons (muhaxhirë) were highwy hostiwe to de wocaw Swav popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. But awso de Awbanian peasant popuwation did not wewcome de refugees, since dey constituted a factor of economic rivawry. As a conseqwence of dese expuwsions, de interrewigious and interednic rewations worsened. Viowent acts of Muswims against Christians, in de first pwace against Ordodox but awso against Cadowics, accewerated. This can he expwained by de fears of de Muswim popuwation in Kosovo dat were stimuwated by expuwsions of warge Muswim popuwation groups in oder parts of de Bawkans in conseqwence of de wars in de nineteenf century in which de Ottoman Empire was defeated and new Bawkan states were founded. The watter pursued a powicy of ednic homogenisation expewwing warge Muswim popuwation groups."; p. 467. "See K. Cwewing, "Der Kosovokonfwikt aws Territoriaw- und Herrschaftskonfwikt", op. cit. , pp. 185 – 186; Konrad Cwewing, "Myden und Fakten zur Ednostruktur in Kosovo-Ein geschichtwicher Über- bwick" (Myds and facts about de ednic structure of Kosovo-a historicaw overview), in Der Kosovo-Konfwikt. Ursachen-Akteure-Verwauf , eds K. Cwewing and J. Reuter, op. cit. , pp. 17 – 63, 45 – 48; Dietmar Müwwer, Staatsbürger auf Widerruf. Juden und Muswime aws Awteritätspartner im rumänischen und serbischen Nationscode. Ednonationawe Staatsbürgerschaftskonzepte (Citizens untiw revoked. Jews and Muswims as partners of awterity in de Rumanian and Serb nation code. Ednonationaw concepts of citizenship), 1878–1941 , Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005, p. 122, pp. 128 – 138. Cwewing (as weww as Müwwer) sees de expuwsions of 1877 – 1878 as a cruciaw reason for de cuwmination of de interednic rewations in Kosovo and 1878 as de epoch year in de Awbanian-Serbian confwict history."
^ a b c Bwumi 2012, p. 79. "Refugees from de Niš region dat became Serbia after 1878, for instance, settwed in warge numbers in de regions of Drenica and Gjakova in Kosova since de wate 1870s. They are known today as muhaxhir (derived from Arabic, via Ottoman, meaning exiwe or sometimes a more neutraw, immigrant). Like simiwar groups droughout de worwd who have informed de nationawist wexicon-Heimatvertriebene, Gawut/Tefutzot, aw-Laj'iyn, Prosfyges, Pengungsi, Wakimbizi, P'akhstakanner-de "Nish muhaxhir" constitute a powerfuw sub-group in present-day Kosova's domestic powitics and economy."; p. 209. "These natives of Niš's primary historian is Sabit Uka, Dëbimi i Shqiptarëve nga Sanxhaku i Nishit dhe vendosja e tyre në Kosovë, 1878–1912, 4 vows. (Prishtine: Verana, 2004)".
^ a b c d e f g h Mawcowm 1998, pp. 228–229. "This period awso saw a deterioration in rewations between de Muswims and Christians of Kosovo. The prime cause of dis was de mass expuwsion of Muswims from de wands taken over by Serbia, Buwgaria and Montenegro in 1877-8. Awmost aww de Muswims (except, as we have seen, some Gypsies) were expewwed from de Morava vawwey region: dere had been hundreds of Awbanian viwwages dere, and significant Awbanian popuwations in towns such as Prokupwje, Leskovac and Vranje. A Serbian schoowmaster in Leskovac water recawwed dat de Muswims had been driven out in December 1877 at a time of intense cowd: 'By de roadside, in de Gudewica gorge and as far as Vranje and Kumanovo, you couwd see de abandoned corpses of chiwdren, and owd men frozen to deaf.' Precise figures are wacking, but one modern study concwudes dat de whowe region contained more dan 110,000 Awbanians. By de end of 1878 Western officiaws were reporting dat dere were 60,000 famiwies of Muswim refugees in Macedonia, 'in a state of extreme destitution', and 60-70,000 Awbanian refugees from Serbia 'scattered' over de viwayet of Kosovo. Awbanian merchants who tried to stay on in Niš were subjected to a campaign of murders, and de property of dose who weft was sowd off at one per cent of its vawue. In a petition of 1879 a group of Awbanian refugees from de Leskovac area compwained dat deir houses, miwws, mosqwes and tekkes had aww been demowished, and dat 'The materiaw arising from dese demowitions, such as masonry and wood, has been sowd, so dat if we go back to our heards we shaww find no shewter.' This was not, it shouwd be said, a matter of spontaneous hostiwity by wocaw Serbs. Even one of de Serbian Army commanders had been rewuctant to expew de Awbanians from Vranje, on de grounds dat dey were a qwiet and peacefuw peopwe. But de orders came from de highest wevews in Bewgrade: it was Serbian state powicy to create an ednicawwy 'cwean' territory. And in an act of breaf-taking cynicism, Ivan Yastrebov, de vice-consuw in Kosovo of Serbia's protector-power, Russia, advised de governor of de viwayet not to awwow de refugees to return to Serbia, on de grounds dat deir presence on Ottoman soiw wouwd usefuwwy strengden de Muswim popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Aww dese new arrivaws were known as muhaxhirs (Trk.: muhacir Srb.: muhadžir), a generaw word for Muswim refugees. The totaw number of dose who settwed in Kosovo is not known wif certainty: estimates ranged from 20,000 to 50,000 for Eastern Kosovo, whiwe de governor of de viwayet gave a totaw of 65,000 in 1881, some of whom were in de sancaks of Skopje and Novi Pazar. At a rough estimate, 50,000 wouwd seem a reasonabwe figure for dose muhaxhirs of 1877-8 who settwed in de territory of Kosovo itsewf. Apart from de Awbanians, smawwer numbers of Muswim Swavs came from Montenegro and Bosnia."
^ a b c Uka 2004d, p. 52. "Pra, këtu në vazhdim, pas dëbimit të tyre me 1877–1878 do të shënohen vetëm disa patronime (mbiemra) të shqiptarëve të Topwicës dhe viseve tjera shqiptare të Sanxhakut të Nishit. Kjo do të dotë se, shqiptaret e dëbuar pas shpërnguwjes, marrin atributin muhaxhirë (refugjatë), në vend që për mbiemër famiwjar të marrin emrin e gjyshit, fisit, ose ndonjë tjetër, ato për mbiemër famiwjar marrin emrin e fshatit të Sanxhakut të Nishit, nga janë dëbuar. [So here next, after deir expuwsion 1877–1878 wiww be noted wif onwy some patronymic (surnames) of de Awbanians of Topwica and oder Awbanian areas of Sanjak of Nis. This means dat de Awbanians expewwed after moving, attained de appewwation muhaxhirë (refugees), which instead for de famiwy surname to take de name of his grandfader, cwan, or any oder, dey for deir famiwy surname take de name of de viwwage of de Sanjak of Nis from where dey were expewwed from.]" ; pp. 53–54.
^ a b c d Janjetović 2000. para. 11. "A simiwar topic couwd be found in textbooks when it comes to deir coverage of de anti-Turkish wars of 1876–1878 which awso triggered off migrations on a warge scawe. The Muswim (predominantwy Awbanian) popuwation fwed or was expewwed from de territories wiberated by Serbian and Montenegrin armies. However, awdough dese wars are reguwarwy mentioned in aww schoowbooks deawing wif de period, absowutewy none of dem makes mention of de expuwsion of de Awbanians. The case was simiwar to de one of de First Serbian Uprising, onwy expuwsions of 1878 had more far-reaching conseqwences: de embittered Awbanians were usuawwy settwed down in Kosovo, terrorizing de wocaw Serbs, instigating dem to fwee to free Serbia and upsetting dus de ednic bawance stiww furder. Widout knowing dese facts, students cannot understand de subseqwent bad rewations between de two peopwes. In dis way Serbian students are wuwwed into bewieving dat deir peopwe awways fought not onwy for de just cause, but awso awways wif just means."; para.12 "Cwosewy connected wif de wars of 1876–1878 is de beginning of de Awbanian nationaw awakening embodied in de League of Prizren which was set up by Awbanian weaders in 1878 in order to prevent carving up of de Awbanian-inhabited territories by victorious Serbia and Montenegro."
^ a b c d e f g h i j k Stefanović 2005, pp. 469–470. "In 1878, fowwowing a series of Christian uprisings against de Ottoman Empire, de Russo-Turkish War, and de Berwin Congress, Serbia gained compwete independence, as weww as new territories in de Topwica and Kosanica regions adjacent to Kosovo. These two regions had a sizabwe Awbanian popuwation which de Serbian government decided to deport. The Serbian Army Commander insisted dat Serbia 'shouwd not have its Caucasus' and de Prime Minister argued dat de Awbanian minority might represent a security concern, uh-hah-hah-hah. In 1909, Serbian intewwectuaw Jovan Hadži-Vasiwjević expwained dat de major motivation for de 1878 deportation was awso to 'create a pure Serbian nation state' by 'cweansing' de wand of de non-Christians, as 'de great Serbian poet Njegoš argued'. Hadži-Vasiwjević was here interpreting Njegoš rader woosewy, as Njegoš work focused on de Swavonic Muswims and not on Awbanian Muswims. The ominous impwication was dat Awbanians, as non-Swavs, were not even capabwe of assimiwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Whiwe de Serbian state audorities repeatedwy attempted to assimiwate de Swavonic Muswims, dey refrained from attempting to 'Serbianize' de Awbanians. Whiwe bof security concerns and de excwusive nationawist ideowogy infwuenced de government's powicies, dere was awso some Serbian resistance to de 'cweansing' of de Awbanians. Generaw Jovan Bewimarkovic opposed de deportation and offered his resignation to de government over dis issue and journawist Manojwo Đjorđjević awso condemned dese powicies and argued dat Serbia shouwd have pursued a powicy of peacefuw reconciwiation towards de Awbanians. In Topwica de Awbanians were encountered, and we had noding more important to do but to expew dese warwike, but hard-working peopwe from deir homes. Instead of making a peace wif dem as de defeated side – dey were widout any good reason pushed across de border – so dat dey'ww settwe on de oder side as de enemies of everyding Serbian, to become de avengers towards dose who pushed dem from deir homes. Despite some voices of dissent, de Serbian regime 'encouraged' about 71,000 Muswims, incwuding 49,000 Awbanians, 'to weave'. The regime den graduawwy settwed Serbs and Montenegrins in dese territories. Prior to 1878, de Serbs comprised not more dan one hawf of de popuwation of Nis, de wargest city in de region; by 1884 de Serbian share rose to 80 per cent. According to Ottoman sources, Serbian forces awso destroyed mosqwes in Leskovac, Prokupwje, and Vranje." ; p.470. "The 'cweansing' of Topwica and Kosanica wouwd have wong-term negative effects on Serbian-Awbanian rewations. The Awbanians expewwed from dese regions moved over de new border to Kosovo, where de Ottoman audorities forced de Serb popuwation out of de border region and settwed de refugees dere. Janjićije Popović, a Kosovo Serb community weader in de period prior to de Bawkan Wars, noted dat after de 1876–8 wars, de hatred of de Turks and Awbanians towards de Serbs 'tripwed'. A number of Awbanian refugees from Topwica region, radicawized by deir experience, engaged in retawiatory viowence against de Serbian minority in Kosovo. In 1900 Živojin Perić, a Bewgrade Professor of Law, noted dat in retrospect, 'dis unbearabwe situation probabwy wouwd not have occurred had de Serbian government awwowed Awbanians to stay in Serbia'. He awso argued dat conciwiatory treatment towards Awbanians in Serbia couwd have hewped de Serbian government to gain de sympadies of Awbanians of de Ottoman Empire. Thus, whiwe bof humanitarian concerns and Serbian powiticaw interests wouwd have dictated conciwiation and moderation, de Serbian government, motivated by excwusive nationawist and anti-Muswim sentiments, chose expuwsion, uh-hah-hah-hah. The 1878 cweansing was a turning point because it was de first gross and warge-scawe injustice committed by Serbian forces against de Awbanians. From dat point onward, bof ednic groups had recent experiences of massive victimization dat couwd be used to justify 'revenge' attacks. Furdermore, Muswim Awbanians had every reason to resist de incorporation into de Serbian state."
^ a b Gruber 2008, pp. 142. "Migration to Shkodra was mostwy from de viwwages to de souf-east of de city and from de cities of Podgorica and Uwcinj in Montenegro. This was connected to de independence of Montenegro from de Ottoman Empire in de year 1878 and de acqwisition of additionaw territories, e.g. Uwcinj in 1881 (Ippen, 1907, p. 3)."
^ a b Tošić 2015, pp. 394–395. "As noted above, de vernacuwar mobiwity term 'Podgoriçani' (witerawwy meaning 'peopwe dat came from Podgoriça', de present-day capitaw of Montenegro) refers to de progeny of Bawkan Muswims, who migrated to Shkodra in four historicaw periods and in highest numbers after de Congress of Berwin 1878. Like de Uwqinak, de Podgoriçani dus personify de mass forced dispwacement of de Muswim popuwation from de Bawkans and de 'unmixing of peopwes' (see e.g. Brubaker 1996, 153) at de time of de retreat of de Ottoman Empire, which has onwy recentwy sparked renewed schowarwy interest (e.g. Bwumi 2013; Chatty 2013)." ; p. 406.
^ Uka 2004b, pp. 244–245. "Eshtë, po ashtu, me peshë historike një shënim i M. Gj Miwiçeviqit, i ciwi bën fjawë përkitazi me Ivan Begun, uh-hah-hah-hah. Ivan Begu, sipas tij ishte pjesëmarrës në Luftën e Kosovës 1389. Në mbështetje të vendbanimit të tij, Ivan Kuwwës, fshati emërtohet Ivan Kuwwa (Kuwwa e Ivanit), që gjendet në mes të Kurshumwisë dhe Prokupwës. M. Gj. Miwiçeviqi dotë: "Shqiptarët e ruajten fshatin Ivan Kuwwë (1877–1878) dhe nuk wejuan që të shkatërrohet ajo". Ata, shqiptaret e Ivan Kuwwës (1877–1878) i danë M. Gj. Miwiçeviqit se janë aty që nga para Luftës se Kosovës (1389). [12] Dhe treguan që trupat e arrave, që ndodhen aty, ata i pat mbjewwë Ivan beu. Atypari, në mawin Gjakë, nodhet kështjewwa që i shërbeu Ivanit (Gjonit) dhe shqiptarëve për t'u mbrojtur. Aty ka pasur gjurma jo vetëm nga shekuwwi XIII dhe XIV, por edhe të shekuwwit XV ku vërehen gjurmat mjaft të shumta toponimike si fshati Arbanashka, wumi Arbanashka, mawi Arbanashka, fshati Gjakë, mawi Gjakë e tjerë. [13] Në shekuwwin XVI përmendet wagja shqiptare Pwwanë jo warg Prokupwës. [14] Ne këtë shekuww përmenden edhe shqiptarët katowike në qytetin Prokupwë, në Nish, në Prishtinë dhe në Buwgari.[15].... [12] M. Đj. Miwičević. Krawevina Srbije, Novi Krajevi. Beograd, 1884: 354. "Kur fwet mbi fshatin Ivankuwwë cekë se banorët shqiptarë ndodheshin aty prej Betejës së Kosovës 1389. Banorët e Ivankuwwës në krye me Ivan Begun jetojnë aty prej shek. XIV dhe janë me origjinë shqiptare. Shqiptarët u takojnë të tri konfesioneve, por shumica e tyre i takojnë atij muswiman, mandej ortodoks dhe një pakicë i përket konfesionit katowik." [13] Obwast Brankovića, Opširni katastarski popis iz 1455 godine, përgatitur nga M. Handžic, H. Hadžibegić i E. Kovačević, Sarajevo, 1972: 216. [14] Skënder Rizaj, T,K "Perparimi" i vitit XIX, Prishtinë 1973: 57.[15] Jovan M. Tomić, O Arnautima u Srbiji, Beograd, 1913: 13. [It is, as such, of historic weight in a footnote of M. Đj. Miwičević, who says a few words regarding Ivan Beg. Ivan Beg, according to him participated in de Battwe of Kosovo in 1389. In support of his residence, Ivan Kuwa, de viwwage was named Ivan Kuwa (Tower of Ivan), wocated in de middwe of Kuršumwija and Prokupwe. M. Đj. Miwičević says: "Awbanians safeguarded de viwwage Ivan Kuwa (1877–1878) and did not permit its destruction, uh-hah-hah-hah." Those Awbanians of Ivan Kuwwa (1877–1878) towd M.Đj. Miwičević dat dey have been dere since before de Kosovo War (1389). And dey showed where de bodies of de wawnut trees were, dat Ivan Bey had pwanted. Then dere to Mount Đjake, is de castwe dat served Ivan (John) and Awbanians used to defend demsewves. There were traces not onwy from de 13f and 14f centuries, but de 15f century where we see fairwy muwtipwe toponymic traces wike de viwwage Arbanaška, river Arbanaška, mountain Arbanaška, viwwage Đjake, mountain Đjake and oders. In de sixteenf century mentioned is de Awbanian neighborhood Pwana not far from Prokupwe. [14] In dis century is mentioned awso Cadowic Awbanians in de town of Prokupwje, Niš, Priština and in Buwgaria.[15].... [12] M. Đj. Miwičević. Krawevina Srbije, Novi Krajevi. Beograd, 1884: 354. When speaking about de viwwage Ivankuwa, its residents state dat Awbanians were dere from de Battwe of Kosovo in 1389. Residents of Ivankuwa headed by Ivan Beg are wiving dere since de 14f century and dey are of Awbanian origin, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awbanians bewong to dree rewigions, but most of dem bewong to de Muswim one, after Ordodoxy and den a minority bewongs to de Cadowic confession, uh-hah-hah-hah. [13] Obwast Brankovića, Opširni katastarski popis iz 1455 godine, përgatitur nga M. Handžic, H. Hadžibegić i E. Kovačević, Sarajevo, 1972: 216. [14] Skënder Rizaj, T,K "Perparimi" i vitit XIX, Prishtinë 1973: 57. [15] Jovan M. Tomić, O Arnautima u Srbiji, Beograd, 1913: 13.]"
^ a b c d Geniş & Maynard 2009, pp. 556–557."Using secondary sources, we estabwish dat dere have been Awbanians wiving in de area of Nish for at weast 500 years, dat de Ottoman Empire controwwed de area from de fourteenf to nineteenf centuries which wed to many Awbanians converting to Iswam, dat de Muswim Awbanians of Nish were forced to weave in 1878, and dat at dat time most of dese Nishan Awbanians migrated souf into Kosovo, awdough some went to Skopje in Macedonia. ; p. 557. It is generawwy bewieved dat de Awbanians in Samsun Province are de descendants of de migrants and refugees from Kosovo who arrived in Turkey during de wars of 1912–13. Based on our research in Samsun Province, we argue dat dis information is partiaw and misweading. The interviews we conducted wif de Awbanian famiwies and community weaders in de region and de review of Ottoman history show dat part of de Awbanian community in Samsun was founded drough dree stages of successive migrations. The first migration invowved de forced removaw of Muswim Awbanians from de Sancak of Nish in 1878; de second migration occurred when dese migrants' chiwdren fwed from de massacres in Kosovo in 1912–13 to Anatowia; and de dird migration took pwace between 1913 and 1924 from de scattered viwwages in Centraw Anatowia where dey were originawwy pwaced to de Samsun area in de Bwack Sea Region, uh-hah-hah-hah. Thus, de Awbanian community founded in de 1920s in Samsun was in many ways a reassembwing of de demowished Muswim Awbanian community of Nish... Our interviews indicate dat Samsun Awbanians descend from Awbanians who had been wiving in de viwwages around de city of Nish… pp. 557–558. In 1690 much of de popuwation of de city and surrounding area was kiwwed or fwed, and dere was an emigration of Awbanians from de Mawësia e Madhe (Norf Centraw Awbania/Eastern Montenegro) and Dukagjin Pwateau (Western Kosovo) into Nish.
^ a b Mawcowm 1998, pp. 208. "Vranje itsewf became a major Gypsy centre, wif a warge popuwation of Serbian-speaking Muswim Gypsies. After de nineteenf- century expuwsions of Muswim Swavs and Muswim Awbanians from de Serbian state, dese Gypsies were virtuawwy de onwy Muswims permitted to remain on Serbian soiw: in 1910 dere were 14,335 Muswims in de whowe kingdom of Serbia (6,089 of dem in Vranje), and roughwy 90 per cent of de urban Muswims were Gypsies. A campaign by de Ordodox Church did succeed in converting more dan 2,000 of dem in de 1890s; but in generaw Serbian attitudes to de Gypsies have combined sociaw contempt (of de sort expressed by aww Bawkan peopwes towards dem) wif an ewement of towerance or even induwgence."
^ McCardy 2000, pp. 35.
^ Beachwer 2011, p. 123. "Justin McCardy has, awong wif oder historians, provided a necessary corrective to much of de history produced by schowars of de Armenian genocide in de United States. McCardy demonstrates dat not aww of de ednic cweansing and ednic kiwwing in de Ottoman Empire in de wate nineteenf and earwy twentief centuries fowwowed de modew often posited in de West, whereby aww de victims were Christian and aww de perpetrators were Muswim. McCardy has shown dat dere were mass kiwwings of Muswims and deportations of miwwions of Muswims from de Bawkans and de Caucasus over de course of de nineteenf and earwy twentief centuries. McCardy, who is wabewed (correctwy in dis audor's estimation) as being pro- Turkish by some writers and is a denier of de Armenian genocide, has estimated dat about 5.5 miwwion Muswims were kiwwed in de hundred years from 1821–1922. Severaw miwwion more refugees poured out of de Bawkans and Russian conqwered areas, forming a warge refugee (muhajir) community in Istanbuw and Anatowia."
^ Mann 2005, p. 112. "In de Bawkans aww statistics of deaf remain contested. Most of de fowwowing figures derive from McCardy (1995: 1, 91, 161–4, 339), who is often viewed as a schowar on de Turkish side of de debate. Yet even if we reduced his figures by as much as 50 percent, dey wouwd stiww horrify. He estimates dat between 1811 and 1912, somewhere around 5 1/2 miwwion Muswims were driven out of Europe and miwwion more were kiwwed or died of disease or starvation whiwe fweeing. Cweansing resuwted from Serbian and Greek independence in de 1820s and 1830s, from Buwgarian independence in 1877, and from de Bawkan wars cuwminating in 1912."
^ Pwwana 1985, pp. 189–190.
^ Daskawovski 2003, p. 19. "The Serbian-Ottoman wars 1877/1878, fowwowed mass and forcefuw movements of Awbanians from deir native territories. By de end of 1878 dere were 60,000 Awbanian refugees in Macedonia and 60,000-70,000 in de viwwayet of Kosova. At de 1878 Congress of Berwin, de Awbanian territories of Niš, Prokupwe, Kuršumwia, Vranje and Leskovac were given to Serbia."
^ Ewsie 2010, pp. XXXII.
^ Anscombe 2006, p. 761. "In de 1980s and 1990s, overtwy nationawist Serbian schowars such as Dušan Bataković received de most generous support for de pubwication of deir work. The focus of much of such nationawist history was Kosovo.[2].... [2] Bataković wrote a series of nationawist works on Kosovo, of which severaw (The Kosovo Chronicwes [Bewgrade, 1992] and Kosovo, wa spirawe de wa haine [Paris, 1993]) have been transwated into oder wanguages. Many simiwar works have not been transwated: e.g., Kosovo i Metohija u srpskoj istoriji, ed. R. Samardžić (Bewgrade, 1989); D. Bogdanović, Knjiga o Kosovu (Bewgrade, 1985); and A. Urošević, Etnički procesi na Kosovu tokom turske vwudavine (Bewgrade, 1987)."
^ Jagodić 2004, pp. 96. "Кнез Милан се у то време налазио у Нишу, окружен својим официрима. Посебно је био близак са генералом Костом Протићем и у конзулским круговима у Београду се сматрало да је владар под његовим утицајем. Генерал Протић је током рата, а и после њега, био главни заговорник политике исељавања муслимана, па и Албанаца, из Србије. Његове ставове делио је и већи део виших официра српске војске. Кнез Милан је током рата био сагласан са протеривањем Албанаца. [Prince Miwan at dat time was wocated in Niš, surrounded by his officers. He was especiawwy cwose wif Generaw Kosta Protić and de consuwate circwes in Bewgrade was dought to be de ruwer under his infwuence. Generaw Protić during de war, and after him, was de chief proponent of de powicy of de eviction of Muswims, incwuding Awbanians, from Serbia. His attitude was shared by most of de senior officers of de Serbian army. Prince Miwan during de war, was in conformity wif de expuwsion of Awbanians.]"
^ Pinson 1996, p. 132. "But when Generaw Josef Freiherr von Phiwipovich wed de Austro-Hungarian troops into Bosnia in de summer of 1878, de time for mosqwe burning and rewigious cweansing was over. Bawkan devewopments awways wagged behind Europe. Muswim Awbanians were obwiged to fwee Kursumwije in 1878 after Serbia expanded into de four soudern districts of Niš, Pirot, Topwica and Vranje. But when de Serbians moved into Kosovo in 1912, dey were no wonger pursuing de goaw of a pure Ordodox Christian state."
^ Judah 2008, p. 35."This was de year dat saw Serbia expanding soudward and taking Nis. The Awbanian qwarter was burned and Awbanians from de surrounding viwwages forced to fwee."
^ Svirčević 2006, p. 111. "The so-cawwed New Areas (Nove obwasti) were given deir finaw wegaw shape under a speciaw waw, in de form of de counties of: Niš, Vranje, Pirot and Topwica."
^ Bwumi 2011, p. 129. "The most readiwy avaiwabwe exampwe of dis bawancing de domestic powiticaw needs of radicaw nationawists wif warger economic demands is de management of de so- cawwed Novi Krajevi (new areas) of Niš recentwy transferred to Serbia."
^ Wawid & Thobie 2003, p. 138.
^ a b c Tanner 2014, p. 84. "The oder powers behaved as if de Awbanians did not exist. At de Congress of Berwin, Disraewi and Bismarck had parcewwed out Awbanian wands bof to Serbia and to Montenegro. Serbia received de Topwica region whiwe Montenegro obtained de town of Podgorica and de port of Bar, to which a second port, Uwcinj, was added in 1880. When de Serbs expewwed dousands of Awbanians from de Topwica and Vranje area in 1878 to make way for cowonists, de British Resident in Serbia, Gerawd Francis Gouwd, compwained to Lord Sawisbury of Serbian brutawity. 'The peacefuw and industrious inhabitants of over 100 Awbanian viwwages in de Topwitza and Vranja Vawwey were rudwesswy driven forf from deir homesteads by de Servians [sic] in de earwy part of dis year. These wretched peopwe have ever since been wandering about in a starving condition,' he wrote. Noding happened to Serbia as a resuwt of dese compwaints, and de Serbs qwickwy and efficientwy resettwed de area."
^ Jagodić 2004, pp. 2–3. "Одлуке Берлинског конгреса о увећању Србије, поразна искуства из недавно завршеног рата и прилив великог броја муслиманских избеглица утицали су на Албанце да у Кнежевини Србији препознају државу која, скупа са Црном Гором и Грчком, наводно угрожава њихове интересе формулисане програмом Призренске лиге. Немири и врења које је албански покрет изазивао у Косовском и другим вилајетима током четири године деловања Лиге (1878–1881), одражавали су и на Србију и то најчешће кроз изазивање инцидената на њеној новој јужној граници. Упади Албанаца из пограничних делова Османског царства у Србију, прецизније у Топлички и Врањски округ, почели су одмах након разграничења 1878. године. Порозна, недовољно насељена и са српске стране неутврђена граница, као и недостатак јаке османске власти у Косовском вилајету омогућавали су инциденте ове врсте. У току пролећа и лета 1879. године упади Албанаца били су најучесталији, готово свакодневни. Њихова непосредна последица биле су немале људске жртве и извесна материјална штета. Ипак, њихов историјски значај није у томе; он лежи у дипломатским последицама чије су импликације далеко превазилазиле важност обичних пограничних чарки и које су задирале дубоко у саму суштину државне и националне политике Кнежевине Србије. [The decisions of de Berwin Congress on maximizing Serbia, devastating experience of de recent war and de infwux of a warge number of Muswim refugees had affected de Awbanians to de Principawity of Serbia recognize de country dat, awong wif Montenegro and Greece, supposedwy dreatens deir interests formuwated program of de League of Prizren, uh-hah-hah-hah. The unrest and turmoiw, which caused de Awbanian movement in Kosovo and oder viwayets during de four years of operation of de League (1878–1881), refwected on Serbia, mostwy drough provoking incidents in her new soudern border. Raids Awbanians from de bordering parts of de Ottoman Empire in Serbia, more precisewy in Topwica and Vranje District, began immediatewy after de 1878 demarcation, uh-hah-hah-hah. The porous, sufficientwy popuwated wif Serbian foreign undetermined borders, and a wack of strong Ottoman ruwe in Kosovo Viwayet awwowed de incidents of dis kind. During de spring and summer of 1879 raids by Awbanians were de most freqwent, awmost daiwy. Their immediate resuwt was no smaww casuawties and some damage. However, deir historicaw significance is not dat; here wies in dipwomatic conseqwences whose impwications far beyond de importance of common border skirmishes and which encroach deepwy into de very essence of de state and nationaw powicy of de Principawity of Serbia.]"
^ a b c Jagodić 2004, pp. 95–96. "Она је, међутим, утицала на Гулда да још више интензивира своја настојања да се питање албанских упада реши репатријацијом мухаџира. Добивши за то одобрење своје владе, Гулд је почетком јуна почео да врши јак притисак на Ристића да српска влада дозволи повратак Албанцима. Истовремено се трудио и да убеди посланике осталих сила у исправност свог гледишта. Српски министар иностраних дела је избегавао да Гулду пружи било какав конкретан одговор, изговарајући се важношћу питања, у чијем решавању коначан одговор припада кнезу. Британски посланик је потом на своју руку, без упутстава од претпостављених, сачинио један званичан меморандум којим се од Србије захтева да дозволи повратак Албанцима. Он је дискретно наговестио Ристићу да ће му исти бити уручен, уколико кнежев одговор не буде био повољан. Сматрајући Гулдов корак превише исхитреним, Солсбери му је наложио да се уздржи од предаје меморандума, но Ристић није имао начина да буде упознат са тим. Дакле, Ристићевом нотом и британским инсистирањем на репатријацији, проблем албанских упада је изашао ван оквира билатералних српско-турских односа. У његово решавање су се умешале силе, или боље речено Велика Британија, чији став није био благонаклон према Србији. Свакако да је српској дипломатији било много лакше да се носи у овом питању само са Портом, него и са Великом Британијом. Да ситуација буде гора, британски став, па и лични став њеног посланика Гулда, морали су да буду утолико пре уважавани, што је Србија била у процесу преговора са овом силом око закључења сталног трговинског уговора, а у контексту сукоба са Аустро-Угарском око истог питања. [It is, however, affected Gouwd to furder intensify deir efforts to resowve de issue of de Awbanian incursions and repatriation of de muhajirs. Having obtained de approvaw of deir governments, Gouwd in earwy June began to exert strong pressure on Ristić to Serbian government awwow de return of Awbanians. At de same time trying to convince deputies and oder forces to share dat point of view. Serbian Minister of Foreign Affairs to Gouwd avoided to provide any concrete response, saying de importance of qwestions, whose resowution definitive answer bewongs to de prince. British envoy was den on his own, widout instructions from superiors, made an officiaw memorandum from de Serbian reqwest to awwow de return of Awbanians. He discreetwy hinted Ristić dat he wouwd be given de same if de prince's response was not favorabwe. Considering Gouwd's step too hasty, Sawisbury ordered him to refrain from handing de memorandum, but Ristić had no way to be famiwiar wif it. So Ristić noted de British insistence on repatriation, probwem of de Awbanian incursions goes beyond de Serbian-Turkish biwateraw rewations. In its resowution had interfered forces, or rader Great Britain, whose attitude was not disposed toward Serbia. Be sure dat de Serbian dipwomacy was much easier to deaw in dis matter onwy wif de Porte, dan wif Great Britain, uh-hah-hah-hah. To make dings worse, de British attitude, and even personaw attitude of its deputies Gouwd, dey had to be aww de more respected, as Serbia was in de process of negotiations wif force around de concwusion of a permanent trade agreement, and in de context of de confwict wif Austria-Hungary, about de same qwestions.]"; p. 97; p. 101.
^ a b Jagodić 2004, p. 104.'"Косовски валија, Назиф-паша, под утицајем руског вицеконзула у Призрену, Ивана Јастребова, стекао је уверење да ће Османско царство моћи да задржи у будућности своје преостале балканске територије само ако у њима буде што више концентрисало верски подобно, те стога лојално, муслиманско становништво. Јастребовљева аргументација је само ојачала већ постојеће валијино убеђење да муслимани не би требало да живе у хришћанским државама и да се покоравају неверничким властима, јер је то у супротности са Кураном. Како је репатријација Албанаца била у директној супротности са овом својеврсном "теоријом концентрације", он их је активно одвраћао од повратка. Важно је истаћи да је ове информације прибавио један француски дипломата у директној комуникацији са Назиф-пашом и то крајем септембра 1879. [Kosovo governor, Nazif Pasha, infwuenced by de Russian vice consuw in Prizren, Ivan Yastrebov, gained confidence dat de Ottoman Empire wiww be abwe in de future to keep its remaining Bawkan territories onwy if in dem is more wike a rewigious is concentrated, and derefore woyaw Muswim popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Jastrebov's argument is onwy strengdened de governor's awready existing conviction dat Muswims shouwd not wive in Christian countries and to obey infidew government, because it is contrary to de Quran, uh-hah-hah-hah. As de repatriation of Awbanians was in direct opposition to dis kind of "deory of de concentration", dey were activewy discouraged dem from returning. It is important to note dat dis information is obtained by a French dipwomat in direct communication wif Nazif Pasha and to de end of September 1879.]"
^ a b Frantz 2009, pp. 460–461. "The dispwaced persons (Awb. muhaxhirë, Turk. muhacir, Serb. muhadžir) took refuge predominantwy in de eastern parts of Kosovo. The Austro-Hungarian consuw Jewinek reported in Apriw of 1878 as fowwows: The continuous arrivaws of Muswim refugees from de Serbian and Russian occupied Turkish territories have indisputabwy contributed not a wittwe to de generaw discontent among de Muswim popuwation, and stiww more to misery among de refugees, aggravated by de typhoid epidemic dat has broken out among dem in many pwaces. In de Prizren district, 5000 refugees, and in Djakova, 2000, have been accommodated, of course in de most appawwing manner. An immediate and highwy regrettabwe conseqwence of de present precarious powiticaw situation, particuwarwy for de Christians, is de generaw insecurity of wife and property, which has been steadiwy worsening in Prizren and its suburbs for some time, in de most awarming ways. At weast eight Greek- ordodox Swavs were treacherouswy murdered on de road between de raiwway stations at Lipwjan and Veressovitz, [...] incwuding Prizren's; and de panic among de Christians concerning de Muswims goes so far dat aww de traffic in de city ceases as soon as de sun goes down, and no one dares, even during de day, to venture awone into de neighbourhood, even for a few minutes. [47]; p. 467. [47] Jewinek to Andrássy, Prizren, 30f Apriw 1878. Printed in: Actenstücke aus den Correspondenzen des kais. und kön, uh-hah-hah-hah. gemeinsamen Ministeriums des Äussern über orientawische Angewegenheiten. (Vom 7. Apriw 1877 bis 3. November 1878.) (Fiwes from de correspondence of de imperiaw and royaw Ministry for Foreign Affairs about orientaw issues), Wien: K.K. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1878, Nr. 148, pp. 95 – 96, 96. Parts of de citation first qwoted by K. Cwewing, "Rewigion und Nation bei den Awbanern", op. cit. , p. 162. Anoder account which refers to about 40,000 refugees in Kosovo is Jewinek to Andrássy, Prizren, 6f August 1878, Nr. 16. HHStA PA XXXVIII / 225."
^ Uka 2004d, pp. 74–75. "nuk po zëmë në gojë, me përjashtim të atyre pak të dhënave që i kishte parë me sy të vet mësuesi i Leskovcit, Josif Kostiq, i ciwi, ndër të tjerash fwet per disa pamje trishtuese e të wwahtarshme, që i kishte parë personawisht me rastin e ikjes së shqiptarëve, gjatë dimrit të ftohtë të vitit 1877–1878, ai dotë: «Pashë fëmijë, gra, pweq dhe pwaka, të ciwët u detyruan t'i wënë dhomat e tyre të ngrohta dhe të marrin ikjen në sy, dhe shumë prej tyre i vërejta se ishin të zbadur dhe të zdeshur».[168]...[168] Josif H. Kostić, Oswobodjenje grada Leskovac, Leskovac, 1907, fq. 1–15. [it won't go widout mention, wif de exception of few sources dat who had seen wif deir own eyes de teacher from Leskovac, Josif Kostić, who, among oder dings discusses some very sad sights of de horribwe events, he had seen personawwy de occasion of de fwight of de Awbanians during de cowd winter of 1877–1878, he says: «I saw chiwdren, women, owd men and owd women, who were forced to weave deir warm dwewwings and take fwight in de bosom of deir eye, and i saw many of dem were barefoot and undressed».[168]… [168] Josif H. Kostić, Oswobodjenje grada Leskovac, Leskovac, 1907, fq. 1–15.]"
^ Cohen & Riesman 1996, pp. 4–5. "In 1937, an officiaw memorandum titwed 'Isewjavanje Arnauta" (The Expuwsion of de Awbanians) emerged from de mainstream Serbian powiticaw estabwishment. It was written by Vasa Cubriwović, a powiticaw adviser to de royaw Yugoswav government and conspirator in de 1914 assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, de event which hewped spark de First Worwd War. "The Expuwsion of de Awbanians" argued dat Hitwer's and Stawin's success in expewwing Jews and oders presaged de success of a pwan to render de wives of Awbanians so intowerabwe and terror-fiwwed dat dey wouwd weave for Awbania and Turkey:"; p. 6. "There is one more medod which Serbia very effectivewy used after 1878, de secret burning of Awbanian viwwages and town qwarters."
^ Čubriwović 1937.
^ Jagodić 2004, p. 2."Српска влада је одмах по склопљеном миру почела да ради на насељавању опсутелог земљишта српским становништвом, а исељени Албанци су остали као избеглице – мухаџири – с друге стране границе, чекајући да им османске власти обезбеде одговарајућа места за насељавање. [Serbian government immediatewy after de concwusion of peace started to work on settwing deserted wand wif a Serbian popuwation, and dispwaced Awbanians had remained as refugees – muhajirs – on de oder side of de border, waiting for deir Ottoman audorities to provide appropriate pwaces for settwement.]"
^ "Nasewja u Pustoj Reci". Kwub Pustorečana-Niš. Retrieved 12 Juwy 2014.
^ Medojević, Swobodan, uh-hah-hah-hah. "Crnogorci, Gornje Jabwanice". Portaw Montenegrina: Kuwturna Kapija Crna Gora. Retrieved 12 Juwy 2014.
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