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Matched Legal Cases: ['Art. 7', 'art7', 'Art. 2', 'art7', 'art7', '§ 8', 'art7', 'art7', 'art7', 'Art. 33', 'art7', 'art7', 'Art. 13', 'art7', 'Arts 101', 'art. 1969', 'art7', 'Art 10', 'Art 13', 'art7', 'art7', 'Art. 7', 'Art. 2010', 'art7', 'Art. 52', 'art7', 'art7', 'Art. 47', 'art7', 'Art.82', 'art7', 'art7', 'Art. 90', 'Art. 10', 'art7', 'art7', 'art7']

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Volume 3, Issue 2 2010 Article 7
S PECIAL I SSUE (2010): N EW VOICES FROM E MERGING
P OWERS - B RAZIL AND I NDIA
Exceptions and Limitations in Indian
Copyright Law for Education: An Assessment
Lawrence Liang∗
Alternative Law Forum, lawrence@altlawforum.org
c The Law and Development Review. All rights reserved. No part of this pub-
lication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
permission of the Law and Development Review.
Copyright Law for Education: An
Assessment∗
This paper examines the nature of exceptions and limitations in copyright law for the purposes
of the use of copyrighted materials for education. It looks at the existing national and international
regime, and argues for why there is a need for greater exceptions and limitations to address the
needs of developing countries. The paper contextualizes the debate by looking at the high costs
of learning materials and the impediment caused to e-learning and distance education by strong
copyright regimes.
KEYWORDS: copyright, education, exceptions and limitations, fair use, Berne Convention, dis-
tance education, India
The author would like to thank Katherine Reisner, Pranesh Prakash, Prianka Rao and Prof. B.S.
Chimni for their assistance. This paper was presented at a seminar on copyright and fair use in
India organized by CUSAT. I would like to thank Prof. N.S. Gopalakrishnan, the best IP teacher I
had and continue to have.
Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education
In his address to the nation on August 15th 2007 commemorating sixty years of
independence, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh pronounced “Education alone is
the foundation on which a progressive, prosperous society can be built…We
should seek not just functional literacy, but good quality education – education
that is affordable, accessible, equitable – and available to every boy and girl who
seeks to study.” 1 The Supreme Court has recognized, and a constitutional
amendment has codified, a constitutional right to education. 2 Yet, despite
recognition that education remains one of the most important ways of attaining
development and redressing inequity, there are still a number of hindrances
towards the achievement of universal education and the establishment of quality
higher education institutions in India. While India is the second largest country in
the world in terms of population, it is ranked a low 128th in the UNDP
development index in terms of education.3 The overall literacy rate in the country,
as per the 2001 census, was 64.8 %.4
The growth rate of educational institutions in India also remains alarmingly
low. Between 2000-01 and 2003-04, the number of primary schools rose from
6.38 lacs to 7.12 lacs (growth rate of 3.87 % p.a), while number of secondary
schools rose from 2.06 lacs to 2.62 lacs (9.06 % p.a.). The Plus 2 level institutions
grew from 1.26 lacs to 1.46 lacs (5.29 % p.a.) during the same period. The
number of Colleges for general education has risen from 7900 to 9400 (6.33 %
p.a.) 5 If these glacial growth rates persist, achieving universal literacy and
creating world class educational institutions will continue to elude India.
Today however, information and communication technologies (ICT),
developing at a pace never before seen, present a wealth of opportunities for
creative interventions to help close the education gap. ICT may be most promising
in helping to transcend geographical limitations in education, enabling wider
dissemination of learning materials as well as allowing for collaborative learning
and production of learning materials. Education policies have begun to reflect
this, acknowledging the centrality of the Internet in the future of education. The
Internet enables self learning in ways once not thought possible, significantly
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of India, The Prime Minister’s Independence Day Speech
(New Delhi, August, 2007) available at: <http://pmindia.nic.in/speech/content.asp?id=570>.
2 See AIR 1992 SC 1858, JT 1992 (4) SC 292, 1992 (2) SCALE 90, (1992) 3 SCC 666.
UNDP, UNDP Human Development Report (2007-2008), available at:
<http: //hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/20.html>.
See Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development), Mission Statement of
National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology, available at:
<www.education.nic.in/dl/MissionDocument.pdf>.
Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2010 198
The Law and Development Review, Vol. 3 [2010], Iss. 2, Art. 7
reduces the costs of learning materials, and allows for interactions to take place
across borders—so-called “distance education”. The government of India has
proposed policies that entail the use of ICT to widen the coverage of education. In
order to realize the full potential of ICT, however, copyright reform will be
necessary: to make the best use of technologies for disseminating educational
materials, India must ensure that the best educational materials are accessible.
However, no examination of the legal issues involved in copyright reform
can be divorced from the broader context and purposes of such reform. It is
necessary first to recall that education is a fundamental constitutional right in
India. Thus, the aspirations inherent in India’s educational policies—affordability,
accessibility and equity—are nothing less than the constitutionally mandated
responsibility of the State. Emerging technologies hold much promise for
attaining these goals, while the costs of educational materials threaten to frustrate
them. Only after considering these issues will it be clear that copyright reform can
help India attain its educational goals and fulfill its constitutional mandate by
increasing the availability of educational materials and thus fully marshaling the
potential of new educational initiatives and technologies.
II. EDUCATION: A FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT
The right to education, envisioned at first as a Directive Principle of State Policy
under the Indian Constitution, has now become a fundamental right, enshrined in
the Constitution. Its implementation under Central and State legislation is still
under way, but its evolution in fact extended over decades, and was initiated by
In Francis Coralie Mullin v. The Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi
and Ors., 6 the Court laid down the foundation for the fundamental right to
education, with its interpretation of the right to life, embedded in Article 21 of the
Indian constitution. It outlined a broad vision of the right to life:
“The right to life enshrined in Article 21…means something much more
than just physical survival. Every limb or faculty through which life is
enjoyed is thus protected by Article 21 and a fortiori, this would include the
faculties of thinking and feeling. The right to life includes the right to live
with human dignity and all that goes along with it, namely, the bare
Francis Coralie Mullin v. The Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi and Ors [1981] AIR 746
1981 SCR (2) 516, 1981 SCC (1) 608 1981 SCALE (1) 79.
http://www.bepress.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 199
000 per annum for students from outside Karnataka. 516. When her father informed the management that he was unable to pay the amount. but quite clearly. 2000 per annum for government seats. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. Rs. a student from Meerut was asked by Sri Siddhartha Medical College. for the states. as the emphasized phrases above suggest. writing and expressing oneself in diverse forms…”7 The Court’s list of rights that attend the right to life do not explicitly include education. 517. This principle applies with greater force in relation to a fundamental right enacted by the Constitution. Article 38 which lays down.. State of Karnataka and Ors. 1992 (2) SCALE 90. in a sweeping judgment Justice Kuldip Singh made the fundamental right implied in the Francis Coralie Mullin case an explicit fundamental right: 7 AIR 746 [1981] SCR (2) 511-518 (emphasis added).000 as tuition fees for the first year and supply a bank guarantee in respect of the fee for the remaining period of the course. and finally. clothing and shelter and facilities for reading. education and public assistance (in commencement of the Constitution to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of fourteen years). implicate the right to adequate education. Article 41 which deals with the right to work. 60.9 Here. She approached the Supreme Court under Article 32. Karnataka to deposit Rs. the Karnataka Government issued a notification on 5 June 1989 under the Karnataka Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act 1984. setting the upper limit on tuition and other fees for private medical colleges as follows: Rs. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education necessaries of life such as adequate nutrition. namely. Mohini Jain. 60. 9 Mohini Jain v. 2010 200 . in its judgment referred to Article 21 which provides the fundamental right to life and personal liberty. and certain Directive Principles of State Policy. 25. the Supreme Court drew on this precedent when it dealt head-on with the issue of whether the right to education was provided under the Constitution as a fundamental right in Mohini Jain v.000 per annum for other students from Karnataka and Rs. The Court also affirmed that such a broad reading of a fundamental right was the necessary way in which all fundamental rights are to be interpreted: “A constitutional provision must be construed… in a wide and liberal manner so as to anticipate and take account of changing conditions and purposes so that the constitutional provision…remain flexible enough to meet the newly emerging problems and challenges. she was denied admission to the college. The Court. the policy of securing social order and minimizing inequalities in order to promote the welfare of the people. Article 39 clauses (a) and (f) which deal with certain cases. Article 45 which provides that the state should endeavour within ten years of the commencement of the Constitution to support the right to livelihood and the right of children to opportunities and facilities for their development in a healthy manner. (1992) 3 SCC 666. 8 Ibid.”8 Just over a decade later. JT 1992 (4) SC 292. In this case. State of Karnataka and Ors AIR [1992] SC 1858.
3 [2010].bepress. J.”12 Justice Kuldip’s unprecedented and unequivocal language was later qualified by the subsequent Supreme Court case Unni Krishnan. 17. 11 Ibid. challenging the constitutionality of state laws restricting capitation fees. The Law and Development Review. 12 Ibid. The State is under a constitutional mandate to provide educational institutions at all levels for the benefit of the citizens. When the State Government grants recognition to the private educational institutions it creates an agency to fulfil its obligation under the Constitution. 13-14. 1992 (2) SCALE 703.. Art. 2. The students are given admission to the educational institutions . The educational institutions must function to the best advantage of the citizens. para.whether State-owned or State recognised in recognition of their 'right to education' under the Constitution. while affirming the fundamental constitutional right to education. [1993] 1 SCR 594.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 201 . which. The "right to education". The Court reaffirmed that citizens have a fundamental right to education flowing from Article 21. In Unni Krishnan’s case the Mohini Jain judgement was called into question by certain private professional educational institutions. 7. para.P. Iss. “The right to free education is available only to http://www. is concomitant to the fundamental rights enshrined under Part III of the Constitution.13 10 AIR [1992] SC 1858. and that its limits should be determined by the content of Articles 41 and 45. whereupon the State’s obligation would be considered in the context of its overall capacity. Here the question before the Supreme Court was whether there existed a fundamental right to education for a professional degree.”11 “We hold that every citizen has a 'right to education' under the Constitution. and others v. paras. therefore. (1993) 1 SCC 645. but that this right was not absolute. The State is under an obligation to establish educational institutions to enable the citizens to enjoy the said right. 13 Unni Krishnan. Opportunity to acquire education cannot be confined to the richer section of the society. JT 1993 (1) SC 474. State of Andhra Pradesh and others AIR [1993] SC 2178. 7 “It is no doubt correct that "right to education" as such has not been guaranteed as fundamental right under Part III of the Constitution but…cumulatively it becomes clear that the framers of the Constitution made it obligatory for the State to provide education for its citizens.”10 “The fundamental rights guaranteed under Part III of the Constitution of India including the right to freedom of speech and expression and other rights under Article 19 cannot be appreciated and fully enjoyed unless a citizen is educated and is conscious of his individualistic dignity. The State may discharge its obligation through State-owned or State-recognised educational institutions.. limited the State’s obligation to provide free education only to children up until the age of 14. Vol.
because of a lack of funds. When the model bill was sent to the states. the right to education as a fundamental right. ward between the age of six and fourteen years. available at: <http://www. 2010 202 . the obligation of the State to provide education is subject to the limits of its economic capacity and development. Thereafter.” A new fundamental duty was also added to Article 51A by this amendment: "(k) Who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or. The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years. incorporating in Article 21A. by law. In July 2006. determine. the Ministry of Human Resource Development circulated another draft bill which was introduced in the Rajya Sabha as the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Bill. when Parliament ended its budget session. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education However trimmed it may have been by the Unni Krishnan case. Bills were drafted in 2003.14 children until they complete the age of 14 years.” 14 Azim Premji Foundation.azimpremjifoundation. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press.htm>. the bill had not been passed.org/html/RtEOverview. The inserted article reads: "21A. the finance committee and planning commission rejected the 2005 Bill drafted by the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) committee. insufficient funding has thwarted the attempts of lawmakers to enable the State to fulfil its new constitutional mandate. With each proposed and ultimately unsuccessful bill. In February 2008. By February 26 2009. they sent it back stating that funds were insufficient. draft bills seeking to implement the right have been formulated and circulated for feedback from members of the public. The Right to Education Bill: a chequered past and an uncertain future. Following the amendment. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may. the right to education attained ultimate protection from any further qualification when in 2002 the 86th Constitutional Amendment was passed. 2004 and 2005." Unfortunately these legal developments－groundbreaking but also decades in the making－leading to the establishment of the fundamental right to education have not been matched by legislation sufficient to enable Indian citizens to realize their newfound rights." The amendment also substituted the following provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years. as the case may be. in the place of article 45 as a Directive Principle of State Policy: "45.
supra note 4. the support of higher education institutions in the interlinking of their knowledge resources.15-19. Both the constraints of time and distance at once become manageable. text. digital literacy for students and teachers and the facilitation of the reduction of resource costs (hardware and software). the setting up of virtual laboratories and lab centers for the benefit of students making use of distance education programmes. pp. multimedia. Vol. Distance education entails the delivery of instruction via one or more analogue or digital telecommunications technologies to learners who are separated from the instructor by distance and/or time.16 15 Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development). Essentially distance education enables students in remote areas to have access to the same instructional materials and training activities as classroom-based students. In order to avoid structural dualism. or any other location physically removed from the originating site on campus. EDUCATION POLICY AND DISTANCE EDUCATION IN INDIA In its efforts to address the challenges of education in India. the National Mission highlights the use of ICT to support distance education. and may be taken for credit as part of a degree or certificate of competency program. the digitization for easy access of tapes containing e-content. It may be interactive. The National Policy on Education similarly embraces the potential of distance education: Modern communication technologies have the potential to bypass several stages and sequences in the process of development encountered in earlier decades. Instruction may be live or asynchronous. The Law and Development Review. the evaluation of the quality of this e-content. The Mission document also envisions the development of an education helpline (‘Sakshat’) to “take care of all the needs of the entire learning community” . library or computer lab on a college or university campus or in a student’s residence. workplace. for a continuing education unit to improve employability. 16 Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development). Iss. modern educational technology must reach out to the most distant areas and the most deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the areas of comparative affluence and ready availability. it may be conducted through video. geographical limitations. or just for a student’s personal enrichment. the National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (National Mission) identifies the use of ICT and creative technological interventions to address some of the problems plaguing education such as infrastructure. National Policy on http://www.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 203 . Instruction can occur in a classroom. an important initiative for developing countries like India where many people have no access to high quality learning infrastructure. and the absence of learning materials. 7 III.15 Specifically. 3 [2010]. 2. or a combination of the above. Art.bepress.
18 Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development).” “Mission also envisage. (f) Making available of e-knowledge contents. The peer group assisted content development would utilize the Wikipedia type of collaborative platform under the supervision of a content advisory committee responsible for vetting the content.in/policy/npe86- mod92. (e) Research in the field of pedagogy for development of efficient learning modules for disparate groups of learners.pdf>. providing facility of performing experiments through virtual laboratories. free of cost to Indians.nic. utilization of available Education Satellite (EduSAT) and Direct to Home (DTH) platforms. available at : <http://www. § 8. more broadly: “The Mission would create high quality e-content for the target groups. available at: <http://education. p. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology: Mission Document.5. National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Synopsis. These goals can sometimes be achieved by educational institutions Education 1986 (as modified in 1992). for promoting research with the objective to develop new and innovative ICT tools for further facilitation of teaching and learning process. 2010 204 .education. on line.education.nic. online testing and certification. It plans to focus on appropriate pedagogy for e-learning.in/dl/SYNOPSIS-NME.pdf>. the Mission has a clear intent to creat digital content. pp 15-19 available at : < www. thus implicating questions of copyright reform.in/dl/MissionDocument. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education The National Mission also seeks to address educational infrastructure inadequacies through the use of technology.10. are: “(c ) development of knowledge modules having the right content to take care of the aspirations of the academic community and to address to the personalized needs of the learners.”17 The objectives of the Mission that address issues of content. training and empowerment of teachers to effectively use the new method of teaching learning etc.”18 As we can see from these objectives. (d) Standardization and quality assurance of e-contents to make them world class.nic. with the ultimate aim of increasing and enhancing distance education. National Programme of Technology enhanced Learning (NPTEL) Phase II and III will be part of the content generation activity. 17 Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development).pdf> (emphasis added).
33% of the http://www. which presents panoply of dissemination challenges. 19 See Eklavya’s (An open source knowledge Initiative) website. a photocopied copy of a book in India costs around $1. THE FUNDAMENTAL HURDLE: THE COST OF LEARNING MATERIALS It is impossible to understand the challenges facing education in India—and the critical importance of copyright law to it—without putting the costs of learning materials into perspective. there are relatively few copyright problems involved and it is just a matter of choosing the appropriate license to enable the greatest reach and to prevent misuse. as well as the absolute cost of one particular good or commodity in these three countries.infochangeindia. 2006). 7 making their own works more accessible. IV.in/ekalavyaHome. Liang & A. including the appropriately named Ekalavya project.iitb. Iss. available at: <http://ekalavya. To begin realizing the goals of India’s educational policies. For example. In that case. Info Change (November.bepress. Reconsidering the Pirate Nation. If GDP per capita of India is $750. see R. Prabhala. 3 [2010]. Art. For an argument about the link between copying and free speech. which seeks to distribute thousands of hours of videotaped classes of IIT Bombay to the general population of students outside the IITs. 20 The Basic Learning Materials Initiative of UNESCO states “In poor countries. and the price of a book is $10.19 However it is more often the case that educational institutions must use preexisting copyrighted materials. Copy This Essay: How Fair Use Doctrine Harms Free Speech and How Copying Serves It.jsp>. particularly for technical education. Tushnet. the Oxford English Dictionary costs $10 in the US. The Law and Development Review. with untrained teachers.it. an initiative of IIT Bombay.org/IPR_ article14. available at: <http://www. Already.” 21 L. a number of legal hurdles are likely to arise unless it can be shown that the use of such materials fall within the Indian Copyright Act’s permitted exceptions. must be made available at affordable prices. Vol. textbooks. 114 Yale Law Journal (2004). certain materials must be digitized. There is a common assumption that the cost of books in India is relatively low.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 205 . India. Clearly then. and $6 in India. We then calculated what the price of this commodity would be in relation to the per capita GDP of the country. and the use of copyrighted materials must not be limited to texts but should also include the use of digital and visual material including films and sound recordings. South Africa).7.20and educators must be able to copy books and articles for students in the course of instruction. and hence affordable. then the cost of purchasing the book would be 1.ac. Particularly for distance learning programs. the textbook becomes the most important. if not the only vehicle for the curriculum.do>. 2. a number of such initiatives in distance education programs are underway. a recent study 21 on prices of books using a comparative purchasing power analysis 22 reveals otherwise. However. 546 22 We begin by taking the per capita income (PCI) for different countries (United States.
pdf>. Third. and it is perhaps only fair to say that our office needs the book more than the publishers need our money. it would cost $79.500. absolute prices of books may often be higher in the global South than in the global North.23 GDP per capita of the country. available at: < http:// www.org/pdf/20061002_Rens_IntellectualProperty. We then extrapolated the PCI percentage paid in India to the US to see what they would be paying if they were paying 1.50 in the United States. Interestingly for anyone interested in doing work on copyright.026% of the PCI in the US. A. if the PCI of the US is $37. paying $6. the results would be ludicrous: $1027.20 for the Oxford English Dictionary. First. Kawooya. and if we applied the same exercise to it. whereas.000 thereby proving that that the logic of pricing and copyright can sometimes lead to piracy. UNCTAD & TRALAC. 13 (ICTSD.50 for Mandela’s Long Walk to Freedom and $941.Rens. by this logic) is not treated with similar outrage. to note that the prospect of paying $440. 2006). 23 See A. Intellectual Property.33 % of their PCI to purchase a book. if consumers in the United States had to pay the same proportion of their income towards these books as their counterparts in South Africa and India. Education and Access to Knowledge in Southern Africa.50 for Roy’s God of Small Things in the United States is manifestly alarming. it is vital to have a copy of Nimmer on Copyright which costs $1500. then the cost of purchasing the book would be 0. Working Paper No.tralac.60 for the book in India (which in Indian terms is exactly the same value as $440. Second. It is instructive then. Similarly. Prabhala and D. consumers in the South have to commit significantly higher proportions of their income to buy these books. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. 2010 206 . Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education This exercise yields several insights.
In the case of market-based textbook publishing. these reasons may include industry consolidation and lack of competition. the Berne Convention. Distributive justice and intellectual property: Intellectual property ‘from below”: copyright and capability for Education. a number of formerly colonized countries identified education as critical to growth but realized that the failure of multinational publishers. Iss. The Law and Development Review.bepress. 2. Chon. http://www. global politics have historically frustrated their amelioration. Johnson. As such. state monopolies. 91.F.C. mostly headquartered in the developed world. Art. so that a student in a developing country may pay a relatively high price for a book as a percentage of per capita GDP compared to a student in a developing country.24 Despite the apparent logic of these explanations. Higher prices may be caused by the failure of multinational publishers to engage in differential pricing.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 207 . Davis Law Review (2007). 25 C. and favoritism. these reasons include inefficient manufacturing methods. 40 U. Vol. 18 Journal of the Copyright Society of the USA (1970). India’s position was that “the high production costs of scientific and technical books standing in the way of their dissemination in developing countries could be substantially reduced if the advanced countries would freely allow their books to be reprinted and translated by underdeveloped countries. these newly independent countries attempted to reexamine and revise the prevailing treatise on international copyright law. Beginning in the 1940s. 3 [2010]. ‘The Origins of the Stockholm Protocol’. to engage in differential pricing represented a severe challenge.”25 24 M. 7 Margaret Chon discusses some of the reasons that the price of textbooks in particular developing countries can be so high relative to their per capita income: In the case of state-owned or assisted publishing. 803.
21. the Stockholm Conference Protocol Regarding Developing Countries was adopted as part of an effort to revise Berne to reflect the needs of these new countries. This was the first time that the newly independent countries were able to come to the table and assert their interests in international copyright laws. Despite its groundbreaking status. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education In 1967. Study Paper 5 Submitted to the Commission on Intellectual Property Rights. but included distance learning. and Copyright. Any use was allowed subject to compensation as long as it was for educational purposes. Education was not limited to the classroom or library. 1-6) which came into force in 1971 after nearly a decade of often heated debate and lengthy drafting and re-drafting sessions.pdf>.26 There was explicit agreement to allow parallel importation. Story. 27 Some of the copyright-related problems which publishers in developing and least developed countries face were supposed to be addressed by the provisions contained in the Appendix to the Berne Convention (Berne Art.iprcommission. The Protocol included several points related to education. the Stockholm Protocol never became part of the Berne Convention due to developed countries’ refusal to sign it. Study on Intellectual Property Rights. 2010 208 .27 Figure 1: Top Book Exporting Countries in the World The persistent failure of the developed world to acquiesce to or initiate proposals such as the Stockholm Protocol has contributed to a pernicious but 26 A. In defining teaching. studying and research for the purposes of delineating permissible exceptions to copyright law no distinction was made between private or non- private study. available at: <http://www. the Internet. adult education and literacy programs as well. Appendix Art.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press.
3 [2010]. piracy will continue apace. Besides the above. Students borrow books from libraries and then get these photocopied from the photocopier kept at the institution where from the books are borrowed. engineering and other professional books. The types of books pirated mostly are medical.29 The link between copyright and learning is indeed an old one. especially in and around educational institutions. in India. available at: <http://www. the importance of copyright law for developing countries is clear. as well as the ability of educational institutions to provide learning materials through distance learning programs without having to pay prohibitively high royalties. piracy in the form of mass photocopying of books is largely prevalent in India. and the free dissemination of knowledge and culture has always informed the normative spirit 28 Government of India (Ministry of Human Resource Development). National Open School and Board(s) of Secondary Education. Study On Copyright Piracy In India. Developing countries must structure their copyright laws in ways that maximize the availability of low cost books. primarily depends on two factors. the incredibly high costs of educational materials in the developing world. 7 unsurprising backlash － book piracy is widespread in the developing world. These two factors positively contribute to piracy.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 209 . the price of the book and its popularity. Piracy is generally confined to foreign and good indigenous books because these books are demanded in large quantities and are also priced high.28 It is clear then that without some means of reducing the costs of books. and education will continue to be hobbled. The piracy is also widespread with respect to books published by National Council of Educational Research & Training (NCERT). THE LINK BETWEEN COPYRIGHT LAW AND EDUCATION Given the recognized need for and promise of distance education.nic. 2. Reforms to India’s Copyright Act may succeed in this respect where global attempts have failed. http://www.asp>. These books even if priced low are having large demand. Art. A recent study conducted by the Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD) details the extent of copyright piracy in India: Book piracy.bepress. Vol. namely. and the prevalence of piracy. V. encyclopedia and popular fictions.in/copyright/mainact. Iss.education. particularly for textbooks. The Law and Development Review.
B.ivir. recounting the public interest 29 For an excellent overview of copyright issues in the south see. 32 P. This has created an imbalanced system. L. Y. (2008). the framing of debates on intellectual property (IP) is vital. J. The Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. and Seeds (March. 14 Florida Journal of International Law (2002). Free as the Air to Common Use: First Amendment Constraints on Enclosure of the Public Domain. Books. 30 A. 2008).K. thus producing a patchwork effect with respect to copyright limitations and exceptions.31 As P. available at: <http://www. Post-TRIPS Developments: The Tension Between Commercial and Social Agendas in the Context of Intellectual Property. The Copy/ South Dossier (2006).nl/publications/hugenholtz/limitations_exceptions_copyright. the concern for the public interest has been recognized by all major international institutions and clearly articulated in all major instruments tasked with the global regulation of copyright.pdf>. Boyle. A. Conceiving an International Instrument on Limitations and Exceptions to Copyright: Final Report (The Open Society Institute. Bernt Hugenholtz and Ruth Okediji put it. the idea of public interest in copyright has tended to focus on one aspect. for framing IP in a human rights context. 804. as Amy Kapczynski.K. 31 See S. The Statute of Anne.30 For the past two decades. Okediji.tacd.doc>.32 As such. 216. This approach which emphasized public interest in the circulation of knowledge was the philosophical basis for granting limited exclusive rights to authors. Drugs.33 For our purposes. Today. S.copysouth. was titled An Act for the Advancement of Learning. 2010 210 .). However. Kapczynski. Sell. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education of copyright law. Benkler. in her insightful survey of the “access to knowledge” (A2K) movement argues. 2006). Access to Knowledge Mobilization and the New Politics of Intellectual Property.Story et al.(eds.org/events/intellectual-property/s_sell. available at: <http://www. 14-15 (unpublished manuscript). it is essential to frame international copyright provisions in a way that redirects copyright back to its historical purpose of securing the public interest. namely the maximum protection of creative enterprise through the grant of exclusive rights to authors. 33 See for example. IP has been framed only from the perspective of private property and the rights of copyright owners. biased towards IP rights owners. [U]fortunately. Hugenholtz and R.org>.J. The first copyright statute. 117 Yale L. 74 New York University Law Review 354 (1999). The access to knowledge and access to medicine movements reflect this growing consensus. pp. Sell. available at: <www. Recently support has grown for such a shift. The other component of public interest － that of ensuring optimal access to creative works and stimulating broad dissemination of knowledge and downstream creativity – has been historically left to the discretion of individual States.
Art. 33. It is clear from the wording of the article that copyright protection is justified insofar as it achieves the goal of social and economic welfare.. in formulating or amending their laws and regulations. These include the recognition.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 211 . http://www."34 More specifically. adopt "measures necessary to protect public health and nutrition.pdf> [hereinafter A2K Treaty]. and to a balance of rights and obligations. Iss. The Law and Development Review. Vol. and to promote the public interest in sectors of vital importance to their socio-economic and technological development. consistent with the provisions of this Agreement" that may be needed to prevent the abuse of intellectual property rights (IPRs) or "practices which unreasonably restrain trade or adversely affect the international transfer of technology.cptech. 2. Articles 7 and 8 point to other factors that member states are to take into account in implementing their TRIPS obligations. such as educational and developmental concerns. In other words. and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare. Even though the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS) is primarily a trade agreement. As a result of lobbying by developing countries.org/a2k/a2k_treaty_may9. 2005). 7 provisions embedded in international IP instruments will help make the case for such reframing IP in this way. provides: The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights should contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology. The “access to knowledge” 35 agenda has also been complemented by an institutional recognition of developmental needs. to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge. 66 Law & Contemporary Problems (Winter/Spring 2003). of "the underlying public policy objectives of national systems for the protection of intellectual property. 3 [2010]. 35 Draft Treaty on Access to Knowledge (May 9." Article 8(2) further allows for "appropriate measures. in the agreement’s preamble. 34 TRIPS. provided that such measures are consistent with the provisions of this Agreement. that when interpreting TRIPS in the light of the agreement’s object and purpose..bepress. available at: <http:// www. Preamble. its provisions cannot be divorced from the larger objectives that the agreement lays out. including developmental and technological objectives. Article 8(1) then provides that member states may. it is necessary to weigh the interests of rights holders against other competing public interests." It is clear from these provisions then. Article 7 titled “Objectives”. it would be mistaken to adopt a maximalist pro-rights view. the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Second Enclosure Movement and the Construction of the Public Domain.
Innovation. The implementation of the Development Agenda by WIPO provides an important opportunity for Member States to collectively discuss limitations and exceptions to IP law.39 Increasing efforts in this area have. especially information and communication technologies are available to all. WIPO. A. 2010 212 . Creativity. Helfer. Furthermore. The exceptions and limitations that should receive priority in these discussions are those which best advance the Development Agenda. the international IP regime must be guided by educational goals. translation. 2005).R. Those who suffer or who benefit least deserve help from those who benefit most. the Declaration affirms a commitment to ensuring that “the benefits of new technologies. 37 Para 20 of Declaration. the key institution responsible for the development of substantive standards of international copyright law. interoperability and access by sensory disabled persons. however. 38 Para 19 of Declaration. Toward a Human Rights Framework for Intellectual Property. Building on these proposals. available at: <http://www. These include exceptions and limitations with respect to education. paragraph 6 of the Declaration states: [G]lobal challenges must be managed in a way that distributes the costs and burdens fairly in accordance with basic principles of equity and social justice. has recently commissioned several studies on limitations and exceptions reflecting some of these efforts. Given that the Millennium Declaration and the MDGs both recognize education as essential to development. Of particular relevance. the recommendations for a Development Agenda adopted in October 2007 contain a number of education-related mandates. 36 The agenda seeks to further the goals of the UN Millennium Declaration (2000) to which it explicitly refers for policy direction. 1013.” 37 The Declaration and related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) point to the centrality of education to development in setting the goal of universal primary education. WIPO is bound to observe the principles of the Millennium Declaration.sitoc.pdf> [hereinafter Adelphi Charter]. Charter. 39 See also. These include: 36 L.38 As a UN agency. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. and Intellectual Property (October. 40 U.C. libraries. Davis Law Review (2007) 971. been directed at the articulation of a core set of explicit limitations and exceptions and its integration into the current multilateral system in order to counteract the ever-expanding panoply of proprietary rights of copyright owners.biz/adelphicharter/pdfs/adelphi_ charter2. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education adopted the Development Agenda which is more receptive to the needs of developing countries.
SCCR/9/7 (Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights. Art.pdf>. Conceiving an International Instrument on Limitations and Exception to Copyright: Final Report (March 06. 5 April 2003). Chile submitted a proposal for considering Exceptions and limitations for education. 41 See for example. Annex para 45).L. These exceptions can either be compensated or uncompensated. B.int/edocs/mdocs/copyright/en/sccr_13/sccr_13_5.. reiterating that utilization for teaching is a matter to be determined by national legislation. WIPO Study on Limitations and Exceptions of Copyright and Related Rights in the Digital Environment. the Millennium Declaration.ivir. though generally within the context of fair dealing provisions. and limitations on. developing countries should adopt 40 WIPO. Annex para 16). 22). • norm-setting that takes account of development flexibilities. Brazil and Nicaragua proposing that the 2004 proposal be implemented. S Ricketson. 42 See P.pdf>. rights granted to copyright holders by international instruments. Okediji. p. or they can be incorporated into fair dealing provisions. 41 Exceptions and limitations can be in the form of statutory or compulsory licenses. available at: <http://www. Hugenholtz and R. • Ensuring a balance of rights and obligations (WIPO 2007. 3 [2010].42 In their final recommendations. 7 • preservation and access to the public domain (WIPO 2007.14. http://www.. Iss. In November 2004.40 This was followed up in March 2008. 2008.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 213 . LEGAL ANALYSIS OF EXCEPTIONS AND LIMITATIONS One of the most important ways of promoting equitable access in the area of education is by ensuring that copyright laws have strong exceptions and limitations that enable the fair use of material for educational purposes.bepress. the UK Commission on IPR recognized this vital link and proposed that: In order to improve access to copyrighted works and achieve their goals for education and knowledge transfer. Proposal by Chile on the Analysis of Exceptions and Limitations (November 22. VI. and include exceptions and limitations (WIPO 2007 paras 17./hugenholtz/limitations_exceptions_copyright. with Chile. Vol. On March 10-12. The Law and Development Review. 2005). a topic which is of vital importance to developing countries. WO/SCCR/13/5. uses are uncompensated.wipo.nl/. 2008) available at: <www. the WIPO’s Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights met in Geneva to begin talking about exceptions to. 2.
sec. available at: <http://cyber.edu/home/>. policymakers interested in examining the relationship between copyright reform and India’s educational needs must consider the following questions: • What is the scope of permissible exceptions and limitations provisions under India’s existing treaty obligations－the Berne Convention and the TRIPS Agreement? This will hinge on determining whether exceptions and limitations permissible under Art. particularly as set out in the National Mission and National Policy on Education? • Do such exceptions and limitations meet. A. The implementation of international copyright standards in the developing world must be undertaken with a proper appreciation of the continuing high level of need for improving the availability of these products. sec.Rens. 52(1)(g). 10 (2) of the Berne Convention must also satisfy the so-called three-step test—as laid down by either Art.harvard. available at: <http://www. research and library uses in their national copyright laws.iprcommission. 44 Commission on Intellectual Property Rights.htm>. Kawooya. 2002). 45 Copyright Act 1957. 2010 214 . • What is the scope of the exceptions and limitations provisions in the Indian Copyright Act. (h). The Digital Learning Challenge: Obstacles to Educational Uses of Copyrighted Material in the Digital Age: A Foundational White Paper (2006).law. (i) and (p).44 Exceptions for educational uses in the Copyright Act of India can be found both in provisions dealing with statutory licenses45 as well as in the fair dealing provisions.43 Developing countries should be allowed to maintain or adopt broad exemptions for educational.W. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. 32 and 32A. Prabhala and D. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education pro-competitive measures under copyright laws. 46 Ibid. 5. exceed. Software and the Internet” in Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy: Report of the Commission on Intellectual Property Right (London. (i) and (p). or fall short of the scope permissible for such provisions under the Berne Convention and the TRIPS Agreement? • What new exceptions and limitations are needed to facilitate greater access to education and to ensure that distance education programs and uses of 43 A. and how effective are they in addressing the educational needs of India. see also W. supra note 23.org/graphic/documents/final_report. 9 of Berne or Art. 13 of TRIPS..46 but for the purpose of this paper we shall focus on the latter. and their crucial importance for social and economic development. sections 52(1)(g). “Copyright. Any revisions to these exceptions must be consistent with India’s relevant international legal obligations—specifically the Berne Convention and TRIPS. Thus. (h). ch. McGeveran. Fisher and W.
828 U.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 215 .S. Article 10(2). 2. However. The sharpest difference between the developed and developing countries occurred. Art. Vol. Samuel Ricketson notes that there were considerable attempts during the Stockholm negotiations to include exceptions for education. was incorporated into the TRIPS Agreement through article 9(1) of TRIPS which provides that:48 It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union. the addition of the words “in all fields of education” was “wide enough to apply to mass literacy and adult education campaigns extending far beyond the confines of the classroom. according to Ricketson. which specifically recognizes an exception for “teaching purposes” 47 in Article 10 (2). 1971).” 49 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works.49 Understanding the scope of this article requires an understanding of the meaning of several key terms as used in the article. The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works: 1886. Iss. and for special agreements existing or to be concluded between them. as opposed to teaching. And even a supposedly final draft. which had removed many of the key earlier proposals of developing countries. 3 [2010]. given that the 47 In his history of Berne convention. The Law and Development Review. 48 Article 9(1) of TRIPS reads. 221 (as last revised July 24. All governments with the possible exception of the United Kingdom. 1987). 52? A.bepress. This article. http://www. and other rights holders in the developed world. over the educational use issue. to the extent justified by the purpose. conference by conference and draft by draft.T.N. India was first a signatory to the Berne Convention. now known as the teaching exception. Exceptions and Limitations under the International Legal Framework We shall analyze the scope of the international framework before determining whether Sec. of literary or artistic works by way of illustration in publications. broadcasts or sound or visual recordings for teaching. Although the term “educational purposes” was strictly defined in the Protocol. 1886. was still not acceptable to authors’ organizations. opened for signature 8 September. 7 technology for dissemination of educational materials are protected under Sec.1986 (London: Centre for Commercial Law Studies. provided that such utilization is compatible with fair practice. to permit the utilization. over the next few years.” See S. 52 of the Copyright Act is in consonance with it. Members shall not have rights or obligations under this Agreement in respect of the rights conferred under Article 6 b is of the Convention or of the rights derived there from. last revised in 1971. known as the Stockholm Protocol of 1967. There was some sympathy among certain organizations in the developed world to the particular needs of developing countries. Ricketson. However. “Members shall comply with Articles 1 through 21 of the Berne Convention (1971) and the Appendix thereto. However the copyright access proposals of the developing world were further restricted and further qualified. publishers. agreed to some concessions.
14 [hereinafter ‘WIPO Study’]. The first term that must be understood. article 31(4).. art. does not preclude use in a digital form. 5 April 2003) at p. the interpretation of what constitutes utilization will be determined by members’ national copyright laws. and likely to also comprises rights to communication and reproduction. see R. which are especially important in the context of distance education and digital education. 1155 UNTS 331...” “teaching.” “to the extent justified by the purpose. art. therefore.. Utilization. 53 If these sources prove inconclusive. Ultimately. SCCR/9/7 (Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights. 32. these rules stipulate that unless the parties to the treaty have assigned a term a special meaning. 57 S Ricketson. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute resolution panel has not heard any disputes related to the teaching exception and thereby providing us with an official interpretation of these terms. the fact of being utilized.”55 To utilize is defined as “to make or render useful. 26 Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts 101 (2003).” Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. but also includes the “right of communication to the public. 51 Ancillary agreements and instruments signed by the parties in relation to the treaty52 as well as subsequent agreements signed by the parties and applicable international law should also be examined. thus easily encompassing digital distance teaching as well as broadcast distance teaching. 51 Ibid. WIPO Study on Limitations and Exceptions of Copyright and Related Rights in the Digital Environment. 1. 31(2) stating that agreements relating to the treaty made by all parties. 53 Ibid. and instruments made “in connection with the conclusion of the treaty and accepted by the other parties as an instrument related to the treaty” are also to be examined. 50 the ordinary meaning of terms in their original context should be applied. 156 arguing that the term utilization. then other materials such as preparatory documents may be used. 31(3). art. 1969. 2010 216 . is conventionally defined very broadly as “the action of utilizing. 50 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties opened for signature May 23.54 We will examine each of the essential terms－“utilization.” 52 Ibid. 55 Oxford English Dictionary. using the interpretive rules outlined in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. 1 56 Oxford English Dictionary.” and “fair practice”—bearing these rules in mind. Briefly. “A treaty shall be interpreted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. art. Copyright and Digital Distance Education: The Use of Pre-Existing Works in Distance Education Through the Internet. 57 Had the signatories intended a narrower meaning they might have employed a word like “reproduction” which has a very specific and limited meaning. Xalabarder. as well as the rights to reproduction and communication.”56 The term. For an argument that utilization includes digital uses. does not only include the right to reproduce a work. 54 Ibid. Utilize. “utilization”. 31(1). we must analyze them as the WTO hypothetically would.
a narrow understanding of “teaching” was advocated and the Committee's Report characterizes their understanding in the following manner: The wish was expressed that it should be made clear in this Report that the word 'teaching' was to include teaching at all levels – in educational institutions and universities. paintings. 60 Oxford English Dictionary. A standard definition of the term “teaching” is: “the imparting of instruction or knowledge. supra note 57. the context will limit the acceptable uses. Ricketson.bepress. 61 Report of Main Committee (I) quoted in S. Teaching." Applying the interpretative rules from the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. 2 (a). but would not exclude the use of the whole of a work in appropriate circumstances. So. should be excluded. we look to the ordinary meaning of the word to define the term “teaching”. Therefore.”60 This definition places no limits on where the imparting of knowledge takes place. In a discussion at the Stockholm Conference. and to face-to-face instructions at a formal institution or through digital distance learning. Education outside these institutions. He states that “the words ‘by way of illustration’ impose some limitations. then the article would be superfluous with another of the treaty’s provisions. 3 [2010]. It must only be to “the extent justified by the purpose. Vol. Article 10(2) does not place any limitation on the amount of the work that can be used. 59 S. Iss. for instance general teaching available to the general public but not included in the above categories. WIPO Study on Limitations and http://www.”59 This reading makes particular sense in the context of the article considering that many works—poems.” If these three requirements are met. n. 7 However. Article 10(2) does place three limitations on the utilization of a work.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 217 . 10(2).61 58 Ibid. Art. As long as the other criteria of the article are satisfied. the term can be read as referring to education at public and private institutions. 58 This contention is also supported by Samuel Ricketson in his analysis of limitations and exceptions. and private schools. the exception for quotation rights provided for in article 10 (1). photographs.” “by way of illustration. particularly if facilitating distance education is a goal. at the primary as well as secondary level. The next important phrase in Art 10(2) to be interpreted. Moreover. is "teaching. if quantitative restrictions are read into Art. for example—require reproduction in full in order to be of any pedagogical value. The Law and Development Review. municipal and State schools.” and “compatible with fair practice. 2. there is no reason why teaching should be defined strictly in terms of actual classroom instruction. vbl. Ricketson. while the ordinary meaning of “utilization” is wide open.
p.62 Margaret Chon also argues for this broad reading stating that. “in developing countries. And in the long run. quoted in D. The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis (London: Sweet & Maxwell 2003). 26 Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts (2003). it may preclude other open forms of education. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. Xalabarder.145. Exceptions of Copyright and Related Rights in the Digital Environment.WIPO SCCR/9/7. do not decrease the market for copyrighted materials because those benefitting from such programs were never potential consumers. particularly for literacy programs. 65 General Report of the Brussels Revision Conference (1948). in the short run. improved education expands the market for copyrighted materials. While this definition could cover some aspects of distance education offered through open universities such as Indira Ghandi National Open University. copyright law exceptions that facilitate both conventional and untraditional educational initiatives make pragmatic sense for copyright holders. 10 (2) itself does not reflect the sentiment of the Stockholm Conference. These provisions may allow for the use of copyrighted materials in non-degree granting contexts such as adult literacy campaigns.64 In addition to the expressly allowed exceptions. 2010 218 . the report from the Brussels Conference states. 63 M. June 23 to 27. It is significant then. That is. Copyright and Digital Distance Education: The Use of Pre-Existing Works in Distance Education through the Internet. 64 Berne Convention. Indeed. the definition of teaching is further augmented by the special provisions allotted to developing countries in the Appendix to the Berne Convention. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education This reading is much narrower than the dictionary definition. Chon.”65 Finally. supra note 24. Samuel Ricketson submits that there is no reason to exclude distance learning from the scope of the term. of course. 838. by producing more citizens with greater literacy skills and earning potential.”63 Additionally. p. that the text of Art. the problems of education in India require creative solutions which may not necessarily emerge from within the physical confines of traditional universities and colleges. presented at the WIPO SCCR meeting (Geneva. “Your Rapporteur-General has been entrusted with making an express mention of the possibility available to national legislation to make what are commonly called minor reservations…these limited exemptions [are] allowed for … child and adult education. the broader dictionary definition reading of the term “teaching” is supported by experts in the field. 101. a substantive equality principle would suggest the fullest expansion of this Berne-endorsed exception whenever possible. 2003). Gervais. Appendix. including the 10(2) teaching exception. 62 R. As we have seen before. copyright exceptions for educational purposes.
However. It is by now fairly accepted that new uncompensated exceptions created by a TRIPS signatory country must satisfy the three-step test as laid down in TRIPS. there is a 66 See S. Copyright maximalists claim that the three-step test applies to any and all new exceptions and limitations. The report states that. supra note 32. educational exceptions in national copyright laws must also satisfy what is now referred to as the Three Step Test. the test is a general formula for determining the legality of countries’ exceptions and limitations to copyright: It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to permit the reproduction of such works in certain special cases. as Gwen Hinze points out. Teaching Exceptions and the Three Step Test It is a matter of some debate whether. There are however. some ambiguities about whether new exceptions created under article 10(2) of the Berne Convention must also satisfy the three-step test in article 13 of the TRIPS agreement or if article 10(2) is independent of the three- step test. Ricketson.bepress. available at: <http://www. 2. Okediji.pdf>. Iss.gov/reports/de_rprt. L. http://www.67 However. B. in addition to the specific terms of article 10 (2). supra note 57. Hugenholtz & R. even if article 13 extends the limits of the three-step test. Art. “any new or amended exemption for distance education should be drafted to be compatible with the standards of TRIPs article 13 and Berne article 9(2).copyright. 3 [2010]. Art 13 of the TRIPS agreement replaces the word “reproduction” with “exclusive rights” and replaces “the interests of the author’ with ‘the interests of the right holder”. any exceptions or limitations in relation to these rights will need to be consistent with what is already allowed under articles 1-21 of Berne. provided that such reproduction does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author. The Law and Development Review. This test was incorporated with slight differences in the TRIPS agreement in article 13: Members shall confine limitations or exceptions to exclusive rights to certain special cases which do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder. 7 B. P. pp. it cannot do so in a way that violates the non-derogation clause in article 2(2) of TRIPS and article 20 of Berne. 67 The United States’ Report on Copyright and Digital Distance Education supports this contention. 51-52. Report on Copyright and Digital Distance Education. Originally laid down in Article 9(2) of the Berne Convention. Vol.66 Therefore.” The United States.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 219 .
a WTO panel has invoked this principle. 21. 2010 220 . Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. it was considered superfluous to insert in Article 9. the principle lex specialis legi generali derogat: special texts are applicable. 70 S. exclusive of texts that are universal in scope. the more specific provision takes precedence over the more general provision. by signs. the broadcast of a work. “Regarding the relationship between Articles 11 and 11bis. in their restricted domain."70 This reading is borne out by the general comments on interpretation in the Report of Main Committee I. distinguishing between general and specific rules. Therefore. 2000).” The relationship between the three-step test and article 10(2) is analogous to the difference between article 11(1) (ii) and 11bis (1) (iii). “The history of the negotiation of the Stockholm Conference of the Berne Convention supports the interpretation [of other legal scholars] that the three-step test does not apply to those areas where discretion is given to Member States to create exceptions recognized in the Berne Convention. Making Knowledge Accessible Across Borders: the Case for Mandatory Minimum International Copyright Exceptions and Limitations for Education. article 10(2) trumps the three-step test. we note that the rights conferred in Article 11(1) (ii) concern the communication to the public of performances of works in general. The WIPO Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights also affirms this principle. Indeed. and that the uses allowed under them are therefore excluded from its scope. Article 11bis(1)(iii) is a specific rule conferring exclusive rights concerning the public communication by loudspeaker or any other analogous instrument transmitting. Panel Report. such as Articles 10 (1) and (2). October 2008). That view is also supported by the standard principles of interpretation in international law.69 The three-step test concerns general guidelines for determining whether an exception is allowed or not whereas article 10 (2) lays out specific terms for a specific domain. United States － Section 110(5) of US Copyright Act. in which exceptions are allowed. Capacity Building and Development (EFF. Ricketson. dealing with 68 G. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education good reason to believe that exceptions made under article 10(2) of the Berne Convention need not satisfy the general test. For instance. The committee writes that the "operation of [the educational exception] provisions within their specific sphere is unaffected by the more general provision in article 9(2). with respect to copyright law. supra note 57.”68 For our purposes. Hinze. p. teaching. 69 The WTO panel in US-Section 110(5) Copyright Act discusses the difference between a general versus a specific rule. paragraph 14: “The Drafting Committee was unanimous in adopting the drafting of new texts as well as in the revision of the wording of certain provisions. sounds or images. WT/DS160/1 (June 15. following the principle that specific trumps general. paramount among these standard principles is lex specialis legi generali which states that when faced with two provisions on the same topic. The panel states.
During the negotiation of the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty. and d. Member states therefore adopted an Agreed Statement which shields the Berne Convention exceptions from the TRIPS agreement and the WCT.bepress. Similarly. Vol. of course. b. compatible with fair practice. express references to Articles 10. 72 The special protection accorded to the Berne Convention’s exception for education was further emphasized in the Preamble which reads: “Recognizing the need to maintain a balance between the interests of authors and the larger public interest. p. stating: It is understood that the provisions of Article 10 permit Contracting Parties to carry forward and appropriately extend into the digital environment limitations and exceptions in their national laws which have been considered acceptable under the Berne Convention. New exceptions for educational purposes will.”71 International treaties consistently shield educational exceptions from the bearing of the three-step test. it is likely that those considering amending India’s copyright law to better accommodate distance education and other innovative educational initiatives under the purview of Art. including distance education. 11bis and 13 establishing special exceptions. particularly education.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 221 . both of which ultimately incorporated the three-step test. 72 Quoted in Ibid. to the extent justified by the purpose. p. Iss. as reflected in the Berne Convention. supra note 57. developing countries raised concerns that the provisions would diminish their ability to introduce new exceptions for the purposes of education. 71 Report of Main Committee (I) quoted in S. 21. which to reiterate are: a. Art. these provisions should be understood to permit Contracting Parties to devise new exceptions and limitations that are appropriate in the digital network environment. still be subject to the conditions of Art. 7 some general exceptions affecting authors’ rights. http://www.. Ricketson. research. 10bis. 3 [2010]. 2. The Law and Development Review. by way of illustration c. 10(2) of the Berne Convention will not need to take the three-step test into account. n. for teaching. utilization.” Thus. 10(2) of the Berne Convention. 3. and access to information. 48. It is also understood that Article 10(2) [of the WCT] neither reduces nor expands the scope of applicability of the limitations and exceptions permitted by the Berne Convention.
policymakers in India who are interested in ensuring the greatest possible exceptions for educational access should assess whether sections 52(1)(g). between the student and the teacher. Thus. The fair dealings exception for education should be both amply flexible to cover digital and distance education by minimizing the restrictions posed by those four kinds of constraints. 2. There are generally four kinds of constraints put on copyright exceptions: actor. a strategy of creating provisions in the section on statutory and compulsory licenses may help India remain within its international treaty obligations. and between teachers. 3. As it will be shown. Sections 52(1) (g). Today. 10(2). but also certain derivative rights such as that of creating an audio recording Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. (h). 5. It is a process involving communication between students. Provisions must not only cover reproduction of copyrighted material. VII. Subsection (1) of section 52 of the Act enumerates certain acts which do not constitute an infringement of copyright. some of these provisions were tailored to the requirements of education in an offline world. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education In the event that any new exception is considered that is wider than the ambit of Art. 2010 222 . DISTANCE EDUCATION. new legal provisions must be introduced. (h) and (i) deal with education in particular and as such. purpose. Education need not happen within a single classroom or even necessarily within institutional boundaries. An exception for educational purposes should reflect the following: 1. 4. to fully realize the potential of distance education and digital access. Technological innovations render the notions of "teacher" and "student" increasingly fluid. copyright exceptions defined in terms of purposes rather than in terms of actors are better suited to the digital environment. New copyright exceptions must cover all media and forms of copyright. while at the same time. DIGITAL EDUCATION AND INDIAN COPYRIGHT LAW Indian copyright law is laid down primarily in the Copyright Act 1957. context. well-defined and restricted to education alone. thus enabling it to satisfy the conditions of article 10(2) of the Berne Convention. and action. are adequate for supporting the country’s educational policy goals. Distance education and digital education must be adequately covered by any new copyright exceptions. Education is not a simple relationship in a classroom between one teacher and multiple students. (i) and (p) as they stand at the moment.
. The section seems to make no exception for the cases where the publication has been sought for the purposes of a course or has been selected by a body such as the National Council of Education Research and Training. This restriction placed on a publisher of a work for purely educational purposes seems arbitrary. Section 52(1)(h). it would hinder distance education and might complicate the preparation of "coursepacks".bepress. It is with the above points in mind that we must assess the adequacy of Indian copyright law and exceptions. section 52(1)(g) allows for: The publication in a collection. Usage of a particular work for the purposes of education should depend foremost on its suitability. on behalf of a distance education university. as it does little to further India’s obligations under Article 10(2). and so described in the title and in any advertisement issued by or on behalf of the publisher. of short passages from published literary or dramatic works. as a form of fair dealing. Art. The Law and Development Review. While this provision does not seem to affect digital education (where reproduction or communication to the public would not seem to be "publication"). One of the aims of the National Mission is the "development of knowledge modules having the right content to . A second exception for educational purposes written into Indian law. not on the ability to hunt down the licensor and the licensing terms. Such exceptions. 7 of a text for educational purposes. allows for: http://www. Iss. 2. The first relevant law. or for the purposes of a course. and other uses which might facilitate education under adverse circumstances such as low literacy. The exception could be further widened by removing the final proviso for educational contexts. bona fide intended for the use of educational institutions. Exceptions should be made for publication of the same. could be drafted to fall well within the scope of article 10(2). translation specifically for educational purposes. Fulfillment of that aim would require customized course packs and collections of copyrighted materials. moreover. 3 [2010]. adaptation into a play. mainly composed of non-copyright matter. The requirements under article10(2) are that the utilization be to the extent justified by the purpose and in consonance with fair practice.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 223 . not themselves published for the use of educational institutions. with respect to distance education and other goals of India’s educational policies. . address to the personalized needs of the learners". in which copyright subsists: Provided that not more than two such passages from works by the same author are published by the same publisher during any period of five years. Vol.
Story. For it to apply to distance education. 2010 224 . such as remuneration for such uses under a compulsory license.” (Reference) The alternative is to provide for a defensive measure. public health. Replacing the word “reproduction” with “utilization” would 73 While this may sound radical. a classroom. the sub- section covers only "reproduction". and other public interest related activities. distance learning. supra note 26. dramatic. it does not lay down any quantitative restrictions. the ambit of Section 52(1)(h) is quite wide in that. and make the provision more open-ended. of copyright-protected hard copy materials for all non-profit educational. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. First. the background paper to the Royal Commission proposed: The UK government should work with British publishers (and other rights holders) and with the governments of least development countries to establish a new system under which the latter (and local non-profit institutions) are allowed free use. while broad with respect to traditional educational settings. However. individual user—should similarly be exempted from all copyright restrictions and receive free access. For example. or (ii) as part of the questions to be answered in an examination. by stating: “These references to purpose and fair practice [in Article 10 (2)] are similar to those in Article 10(1). A. which may make such excepted uses more "compatible with fair practice. implying no necessary quantitative limitations. even the WIPO SCCR (in full) study rejected this. local resource centre. musical or artistic work- (i) by a teacher or a pupil in the course of instruction. for an initial trial period of 20 years. other countries’ policies on educational exceptions to copyright have similarly broad scopes. or (iii) in answers to such questions In one respect. 10(2). All literacy programmes and illiterate persons in whatever setting or situation—a library." It may also be worthwhile including a statutory licensing provision which allows for large numbers of copies to be made for individual classroom use by students. research. 73 It is worth considering whether the scope of Sec. apart from "reproduction" the educator should also have the right to communicate the work to the learners. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education (h) the reproduction of a literary. like Article 10(2) of the Berne Convention. this exception raises many concerns with respect to distance education. Copyright maximalists could argue that the Sec 52(h) by not laying down any restriction such as ‘extent justified’ or ‘compatible with fair practice’ exceeds the scope of Art. 52 (1)(h) is so broad as to take it out of the ambit of article 10(2). However.
the concept of "teacher" is less straightforward. given that such materials are used for film classes and to augment regular classes taught by distance education. It should also cover sound recordings and cinematograph films. in the course of the activities of an educational institution. Additionally. it assumes a territorial understanding of the use of cinematograph films and sound recordings. The Law and Development Review. This should be expanded to cover the possibility that such media may be used in distance education programs. dramatic or musical work by the staff and students of the institution. and would still enable the exception to within the ambit of the Berne Convention.bepress. musical or artistic works. it would be better if exceptions for educational purposes referred to educational purposes rather than actors. Iss. Second. the use of the phrase “directly connected” with the activities of the audience could cause some confusion about part-time courses. we see a debilitating mismatch between our official education policy and our copyright laws. as multiple educators may put a course together and non-teaching staff may conduct the actual act of reproduction. The clause impedes distance education in two major ways. in distance education. The next educational exception. the sub-section covers only literary. Vol. the parents and guardians of the students and persons directly connected with the activities of the institution or the communication to such an audience of a cinematograph film or sound recording. dramatic. section 52(1) (i). the phrase "in the course of instruction" is too ambiguous for the purposes of distance education and digital education. It is not clear whether the asynchronous nature of the teaching and learning will still enable such use to come within the meaning of the phrase "in the course of instruction". 3 [2010]. This despite the fact that such use is exactly the reason why the NPTEL was created! Thus. Art. Second. Therefore. For instance. the lack of enrollment might prove to be a hindrance to considering the lecture as being "in the course of instruction". adult education programs or incidental courses offered. This language also complicates the use of such materials in film festivals and other educational outlets which may be open to the http://www.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 225 . dramatic or musical work. Third. of a literary. a lecture produced by the National Program on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) may be stored on a server and accessed at a later date by a person who is not enrolled with the institution that produced the lecture. 2. and communication of a cinematograph film or a sound recording to the limited audience described therein. Finally. This sub-section deals with performance of literary. 7 cover communication through digital media as well as reproduction. allows for: (i) the performance. First. or of a cinematograph film or a sound recording if the audience is limited to such staff and students.
This is an exceedingly narrow exception. these laws will continue to stymie initiatives such as distance and digital education that bear the most promise for closing India’s debilitating educational gaps and ushering the country into new stages of development. VIII. in the case of a work of joint authorship. Moreover these exceptions could likely be significantly broadened without running afoul of international law. As such. and perhaps historians most of all. if the identity of more authors than one is known from the death of such of those authors who dies last. museum or other institution. as the case may be. will only come into effect sixty years from the death of the author. of an unpublished literary. this section should be expanded to allow for greater flexibility in the use of such materials. it will be important to expand the ways in which cinematograph films and sound recordings can be used in education. museum or other institution to which the public has access: Provided that where the identity of the author of any such work or. If allowed to remain in place. 2010 226 . from the death of the author whose identity is known or. COMPARISON WITH OTHER JURISDICTIONS One way of testing the adequacy of the existing exceptions for education is to examine some of the access provisions of other jurisdictions. of any of the authors is known to the library. from both developed Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. Academics of all disciplines. section 52(1) (p) allows for: the reproduction. simply cannot work without the use of archival material and materials stored in public libraries. This survey of India’s exceptions for educational purposes reveals that indeed. for the purpose of research or private study or with a view to publication. The final relevant section of Indian copyright law. The extent to which this meager provision frustrates research cannot be overstated. in cases of non-anonymous authorship. or to students from other institutions. the provisions of this clause shall apply only if such reproduction is made at a time more than sixty years from the date of the death of the author or. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education public. in the case of a work of joint authorship. which. these provisions are in many ways too narrow and inflexible to support India’s important and laudable educational goals. India need not choose between fulfilling a moral and constitutional obligation to its people and upholding its legal obligations to the international community. dramatic or musical work kept in a library. Given the dramatic increase in media institutions across the country.
quotation rights.C. under certain highly detailed conditions. 2d Sess. including on websites and by other digital means.S. and Copyright Harmonization (TEACH) Act. contained in H. REP. Similar standards were agreed upon with respect to music in the Guidelines for Educational Uses of Music. Education. 2d Sess.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 227 . though usually only in portions or 74 12 U. reached between authors and publishers on the one hand.75 The boundaries of the fair use doctrine in the field of education were clarified in an Agreement on Guidelines for Classroom Copying in Not-For-Profit Educational Institutions. http://www. but place many specific quantitative restrictions on such uses. NO. United States Education exceptions in U. that the “purpose of the . reprinted in 1976 U. Iss. . . The Law and Development Review.74 but subsumes reproduction of works for educational purposes under a more general fair use doctrine. Id.C. 76 The parties to the Guidelines affirmed. Faculty will be able to include copyrighted materials. REP.S. 5684-85 77 Ibid. 1476.C. 7 and developing countries.A.N. 107.C. single copying for a teacher's use and multiple copies of copyrighted material for classroom use. Agreement on Guidelines for Classroom Copying in Not-for-Profit Educational Institutions. reprinted in 1976 U.. . A. 47 (1976) at 68-74. While permitted performances and displays for educational purposes were previously limited to the physical classroom. Vol. 1476. copyright law are very circumscribed. . The Copyright Act allows for “performances” and “displays” in the face-to-face classroom setting.” The United States House of Representatives. without permission from the copyright owner and without payment of royalties. 94th Cong.R.C. Three main aspects of foreign copyright exceptions will be examined: reproduction.S. and educators on the other.. They allow.S. Art. 47 (1976) at 70-71.A. 3 [2010]. 94th Cong. and quantitative restrictions. may nonetheless be permitted under the criteria of fair use.R. contained in H.C. Guidelines for Educational Use of Music. NO.bepress. 76 these Guidelines provide specific examples of what constitutes fair use of published works..S. subject to some quantitative restrictions. the TEACH Act permits the transmission of a broad range of works to any location. 110 (1).77 The United States attempted to better accommodate distance education with the 2002 Technology. The TEACH Act also redefines the terms and conditions on which educational institutions may use copyright protected materials in distance education. a four-factor test for determining whether a use of a copyrighted work is a fair use. 5681-88. Though not the final word on educational fair use. guidelines is to state the minimum and not the maximum standards of educational fair use” and that the agreement acknowledges “there may be instances in which copying which does not fall within the guidelines . 75 17 U..N. 2.
the court was not swayed by the plaintiffs’ argument that it suffered harm from the loss of licensing fees. Although full articles were copied.81 the National Institute of Health and the National Library of Medicine were charged with copyright infringement. 80 See G.2d (1345). including the fair use doctrine. no inflexible rule excluding an entire copyrighted work from the area of fair use.” The court found that the nonprofit nature of the library and the absence of any intent to reduplicate for sale or general distribution weighed in the libraries’ favor. 79 See The American Library Association.D.org/ala/aboutala/offices/wo/woissues/copyrightb/federallegislation/distanceed/dista nceeducation. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education under conditions that are analogous to those regulating uses in conventional teaching and lecture formats. in short. that plaintiff had the right to license. Crews.S. New Copyright Law for Distance Education: The Meaning and Importance of the TEACH Act. The TEACH Act Finally Becomes Law (2002). copyright law. 81 Williams & Wilkins Co. In Williams & Wilkins Co.”78 Moreover. 2002).utsystem. even in distance education contexts. It rejected the plaintiffs’ desire to measure detriment in terms of presumed loss of royalty income because that standard necessarily assumes that plaintiff had a right to issue licenses in the first place. United States. As Kenneth Crews puts it. That conclusion results only if it is first determined that the photocopying is “unfair. available at:< http://www.. and the Supreme Court affirmed that the libraries’ photocopying was within fair use. v. 487 F.K. for students to access throughout the semester.” one cannot assume at the start the merit of the plaintiff’s position.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/teachact. even for private study in connection with a formal course. i.cfm>.” 78 K. this law is not intended to permit scanning and uploading of full or lengthy works. The Williams court held. the United States remains one of the very few places where judicial pronouncements exist.ala. Harper.pdf>. “In other words. The institutions made photocopies of medical journals for staff members. The court stated. United States. the nonprofit nature of medical research outweighed any potential harm. prepared for the American Library Association (September 30. v.htm>. available at: <http://www. Additionally. some commentators suggest relying first and foremost on the fair use doctrine.e. “[t]here is.org/ala/aboutala/offices/wo/woissues/copyrightb/federallegislation/distanceed/tea chsummary.80 Although globally there are very few court cases addressing fair use and education. Distance Education and the Teach Act.79 Given the rigorous requirements and limitations of the TEACH Act. stored on a website. available at: <http://www. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. The court asserted that in determining whether the company had been sufficiently hurt to cause these practices to become “unfair.ala. educators must continue to comply with all other relevant U. 2010 228 .
The educational setting also reduced the importance of any non-transformative nature of the copying. Additionally. 99 F. 74 Southern California Law Review (2001). Michigan Document Services 83 . However Judge Ryan offered a provocative dissent. Educational institutions are comprehensively defined in the Act. Australia Australia‘s extensive set of exceptions for education. 2. 617. and allow for the electronic or print reproduction and communication of such works.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 229 . focusing instead on the educational nature of the photocopies and their importance for educational institutions. Michigan Document Services (MDS) photocopied packets of course materials (“course packs”) for professors and then sold them to students without obtaining the necessary copyright permissions. Princeton University Press v. and hence the use was noncommercial. case addressing reproduction for educational use. secondary and advanced studies. see C. and including institutions which provide instruction by correspondence or otherwise on an external study basis.bepress. Preserving Educational Fair Use in the Twenty-First Century. Art.82 In the most recent U. 3 [2010]. embedded in its Copyright Act of 1968. so long as they are utilized for an "educational purpose".M. Judge Ryan’s dissent suggests that when photocopying course packs. The Act also makes an exception for web caching due to use proxy servers by educational institutions which better facilitates online dissemination of educational materials.S. covering all tiers of education － primary. He argued that neither the students nor the professor were attempting to exploit the material for financial gain. Judge Ryan asserted that the practices of always giving great weight to the loss of potential licensing fees would invariably lead to a resolution of the question of fair use in favor of the copyright holder. a presumption of fairness should favour the professor. provide an informative comparison with Indian law. Iss. The Sixth Circuit held that the copies made by MDS were not fair use since MDS did not obtain copyright permission. and it offered lower prices than and obtained a competitive advantage over other copy services that did. Silberberg. not the copyright holder.3d at 1389. The Law and Development Review. http://www. Michigan Document Services. 83 Princeton University Press v. 7 The decision was strongly influenced by the court’s concern that finding infringement would harm medical research. The exceptions cover all forms of copyrighted works. A professor has no incentive to use more than what is fair and society benefits from professors exposing students to a broader range of information. B. Vol. In determining whether a 82 For survey of cases dealing with educational fair uses.
by way of illustration in any publication.84 C.pdf/dz_copyr ight_2002_en. as the Act does not foreclose reproduction of a work in full. However.org/culture/en/files/30224/11416532713dz_copyright_2002_en. 2010 230 .unesco.” Here. By broadly defining “educational institutions” and providing an exception for the electronic reproduction and communication of all types of copyrighted material. available at: <http://www. this exception does not support distance 84 Australian Copyright Act of 1968. accessed 17 April 2009. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. impeding such initiatives. whereas the right to reproduce a work in full is protected.pdf>. available at: <http://portal.nsf/0/20470F1CF0D331BDC A25750F000D54FC/$file/Copyright1968.” 85 Hewing closely to the text of Berne is one strategy available to India for ensuring compliance with its international treaty obligations. China China’s copyright law features two exceptions for educational purposes—one that requires compensation paid to the copyright holder and one that does not. or reproduction in a small quantity of copies of a published work…for use in classroom teaching or scientific research. Notable also is the absence of any quantitative restriction on reproduction. D. the number of copies is restricted but not specified. whereas its Indian counterpart does neither.au/ComLaw/Legislation/ActCompilation1. 85 Copyright Act 98 of 1978 of South Africa (as amended on 2002). accessed 17 April 2009.comlaw. and reliance instead on qualitative conditions. as well as the name of the author if it appears on the work. South Africa The education exception in South African copyright law is notable for its close parallel to the language of the teaching exception in the Berne Convention itself. broadcast or sound or visual record for teaching: Provided that such use shall be compatible with fair practice and that the source shall be mentioned. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education use is a fair dealing for educational purposes. Article 22(6) provides that “teachers or scientific researchers” need not seek the permission of nor pay remuneration to copyright holders for the “translation. the Act does state that the amount of the original work reproduced should be taken into account.pdf>. Section 12(4) reads: “The copyright in a literary or musical work shall not be infringed by using such work. this is not a formal quantitative restriction as such.gov. to the extent justified by the purpose. article 10(2). Similar to certain of India’s provisions. Australian copyright law supports both digital and distance education.
unesco.87 An explicit provision for digital and distance education surely improves upon educational exceptions that make reference only to classroom settings. a single work of fine art. or photographic works to produce courseware. however. accessed 17 April 2009. the owner’s permission may be absent in providing fragments of works. 2. Vol. Article 8 of the Regulation on the Protection of the Right to Network Dissemination states: Where the nine-year compulsory education or state education planning is implemented through the information network. http://www. a musical work. special care must be taken to 86 Copyright Law of the People’s Republic of China (as amended on October 27. Should India consider such a provision. 7 education initiatives because of its traditional classroom-based conception of teaching. 2001).com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 231 .pdf/cn_cop yright_2001_en%2B.bepress. The Law and Development Review.org/?p1=print&p2=060717003346>. Art. This exception covers passages from a work. These exemptions are also applicable to sound and video recordings.org/culture/en/files/30384/11424207963cn_copyright_2001_en_. a short written work.chinaitlaw. and the works of radio and television stations. 87 Regulation on the Protection of the Right to Network Dissemination of Information (China).pdf>. Article 23’s stated purpose of textbook creation and failure to mention communication rights in addition to reproduction rights—some of these shortcomings are addressed in other laws. 3 [2010].86 No reference is made to quantitative restrictions. Article 23 permits the compilation and reproduction of study material for the purpose of creating textbooks in accordance with the national policy of nine years of compulsory education. as long as the said works are provided by the long-distance education institutions that have produced the courseware or acquired courseware according to law to the registered students through information networks and for which remunerations shall be paid to the copyright owner. prevent the use of his work in advance if he announces that the use of his work is not permitted. available at: <http://portal. Iss. short written works or musical works. accessed 17 April 2009. The second of China’s education exceptions is interesting because it is directly integrated into China’s educational policy. either on the number of copies made or the amount of a work reproduced. a single work of the fine arts or a photographic work. provided that the copyright holder is compensated and acknowledged in the reproduction. Though certain features of these exceptions make them ill-suited to distance education—Article 22(6)’s references to classrooms and hard copies. however. The copyright owner may. available at: < http://www. and for “national education planning”.
reproduction in textbooks.cric. 2010 232 . enabling the exceptions to better serve Japan’s educational policy goals. However. this royalty is an official amount.” Article 38 (5) allows for the dissemination of audiovisual materials for educational purposes by non-profit entities so long as the copyright owner is paid a “reasonable amount of compensation.”: Article 35 allows for reproduction in schools and other educational institutions “to the extent deemed necessary for the purpose of use in the course of lessons. by contrast to China’s ambiguous remuneration laws.” Article 34 allows for broadcast.” Article 33 allows for the reproduction of works in school textbooks. provided that such reproduction does not unreasonably prejudice the interests of the copyright owner in the light of the nature and the purpose of the work as well as the number of copies and the form of reproduction. broadcast and electronic transmission for educational purposes. reproduction in schools. Ghana The educational exceptions in Ghana’s copyright law are similar to South Africa’s in that they invoke some of the language of the Berne Convention. and instead provide qualitative conditions. apart from the condition that such reproductions must be “to the extent deemed necessary for the purpose of school education.” Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. wire and electronic transmission of copyrighted materials “to the extent deemed necessary for the purpose of school education.jp/cric_e/clj/clj.89 The qualitative rather than quantitative restriction approach supports a broader range of curricular needs.html>. Japan Japan’s exceptions for educational and research purposes embedded in its copyright law exhibit a balance between flexibility and specificity. available at: < http://www. accessed 17 April 2009. and dissemination of audiovisual materials for educational purposes stipulate no quantitative restrictions on reproduction or communication. though the 88 Copyright Law of Japan. Additionally. set by the Commissioner of the Agency for Cultural Affairs. 88 The provisions for quotation. “provided that their making is compatible with fair practice and their extent does not exceed that justified by purposes such as news reporting. the copyright owner must be informed and paid a royalty. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education ensure that it is broad enough to cover all potential modes of distance education. 89 Article 32 allows for quotations. F. criticism or research. while it behooves India to consider the value of harmonizing copyright law with national educational policy goals. It stipulates no quantitative limitations of any kind. In the case of reproduction of copyrighted materials in textbooks. to educational purposes may be preferable. E.or. reference to specific policies may be overly limiting and reference more broadly.
int/clea/docs_new/en/co/co012en. Vol. broadcasts or sound or visual recordings.bepress. by means of publications. universities and professional training.O.html>. It stipulates that: It shall be permissible to make use. by way of illustration in works intended for teaching. as in South African law. education. the absence of quantitative restrictions and the employment of the word “utilization” import significant degrees of flexibility into the exceptions. The separate provisions protecting communication for teaching purposes and utilization for professional and public education are particularly useful for supporting a broad range of educational policy goals. or (iii) the utilization of the work for professional training or public education. or parts thereof. to the extent justified by the purpose. Article 32. of literary or artistic works. broadcast for use in educational institutions.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 233 . available at: <http://portal. 28 de Enero de 1982 (Colombia). Diario Oficial [D.pdf>. Section 19 (1)(c) allows for: (i) the utilization of the work by way of illustration in publications.org/culture/en/files/30226/11416586343gh_copyright_2005_en. or to communicate. 91 Law on Copyright. 7 Ghanaian law goes further beyond the Berne language.wipo. and it would be beneficial for India to consider similarly building such versatility into its copyright law. Iss.]. 90 Here. available at: <http://www. if the work has been made public. Colombia The educational exception in Colombian law very closely parallels its Ghanaian counterpart with only a few semantic differences. the Colombian educational exception features breadth and flexibility. 2. G. http://www. broadcasts of sound or visual recordings for teaching. or (ii) the communication for teaching purposes of the work. Art. 90 Copyright Act 2005 of Ghana. to the extent justified for the purposes. 3 [2010]. The Law and Development Review.unesco. 91 Similar to the Ghanaian law. subject to the obligation to mention the name of the author and the title of the works thus used. without gainful intent and for teaching purposes works broadcast for use in schools.pdf/gh_copyr ight_2005_en.
pdf>. 1999). dramatic and musical performances in educational establishments on a non-profit basis (Article 46 (VI)). accessed 17 April 2009. and from specific to general. regardless of their nature. Published by The Berkeley Electronic Press. J. such as audiovisual reproduction and broadcasting of copyrighted works for public benefit. criticism or debate” (Article 46 (III)). or of the whole work in the case of a work of three-dimensional art. Liang: Exceptions and Limitations in Indian Copyright Law for Education H.” The law permits reproduction and public communication of parts of copyrighted works “for the public benefit”. 1998. I. Brazil’s copyright law does not feature one primary teaching exception—its provisions are divided amongst several articles. It allows for quotation subject to no quantitative restrictions. It covers copyrighted material for teaching purposes. Mongolia Articles 14 and 16 of the law of Mongolian on copyright92 cover the exceptions provided in the Act for “use for teaching. Many countries choose 92 Law of Mongolia on Copyright (as amended on May 21. While the law specifies no quantitative restrictions. 93 Law No. language which significantly broadens the scope of the legislation. Summary As evidenced by the above analysis. 9610 of February 19. the lack of a provision allowing for the reproduction of a work in full and the absence of a provision allowing for communication both impede innovative educational initiatives such as distance education. available at: < http://www. reproduction for the use of blind people and for research purposes. on Copyright and Neighboring Rights.93 While the absence of quantitative restrictions accords some flexibility to these provisions. Brazil. on condition that the reproduction is not in itself the main subject matter of the new work” (Article 46 (VII)).int/clea/en/text_pdf.unesco. and a very general right to reproduce “in any work of short extracts from existing works.org/culture/en/files/30348/11422623563mn_copyright_1999_en. it does not explicitly allow for the reproduction of entire works. Brazil Unlike most other countries’ copyright laws.wipo. It also includes derivative rights. taking of class notes (Article 46 (IV)). “for the purposes of study. 2010 234 .pdf/mn_copyr ight_1999_en. available at: < http://portal. countries’ educational exceptions range from the narrow to the expansive.jsp?lang=EN&id=514>.
the most important thing for policy makers in India to consider would be to recognize that the current exceptions for education in India are excellent for traditional education. Vol. Colombia) to the narrower and more restrictive (Brazil). CONCLUSION It is clear from this paper that copyright policy. The Law and Development Review. 3 [2010]. Art. 10(2) of The Berne Convention and given that we are not bound by the three step test when it comes to exceptions for education. and policy makers should make the best use of the exception that have been provided to education within the Berne convention. The nature of a country’s copyright policy could have a significant impact on its ability to meets its developmental and educational goals. 7 to invoke the language of the Berne Convention itself. but are inadequate to address the needs of distance education and e-learning. we should aim for the widest possible exceptions that will enable innovative solutions to the problem of unavailability of learning materials in India. which creatively use the exception provided in Art. IX. Iss. In considering the next set of amendments to the Copyright Act. is not only about the provision of incentives to private creators. The most general and important insight yielded from this analysis is that India has a wide range of options at its disposal for revising its educational exceptions while remaining within the ambit of its international treaty obligations. We would therefore need to introduce a set of amendments. It is clear that Education has a very special status as an exception within the imagination of the international copyright framework.com/ldr/vol3/iss2/art7 235 . the United States appears to utilize the narrowest educational exceptions even though other developed countries such as Australia opt for much more expansive exceptions. Of the countries surveyed. 2. There is a very significant public interest in the intersection between copyright and access to educational materials. contrary to popular opinion. Educational exceptions in developing countries too exist on a spectrum from broad and flexible (Ghana.bepress. http://www.
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