Source: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/rus/docs/v2_cou_us_rule100
Timestamp: 2020-08-09 00:26:58
Document Index: 377001628

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 949', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 172', '§ 441', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 948', '§ 949', '§ 948', '§ 949', '§ 9', '§ 9', '§ 949', '§ 949', '§ 949', '§ 949', '§ 179', '§ 948']

David Hicks, an Australian citizen, was captured in Afghanistan in December 2001 and afterwards detained at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba. In March 2007, in the Hicks case, the accused became the first person to be tried and convicted under the US Military Commissions Act of 2006. Following a pre-trial agreement struck with the Convening Authority, the accused pleaded guilty to the charge of “providing material support for terrorism”. In April 2007, Hicks returned to Australia to serve the remaining nine months of a suspended seven-year sentence. In the case’s record of trial for the 26 March 2007 hearing, the military judge stated:
It is also standard practice that an accused will not appear for a trial session wearing prison garb. That would refer to jumpsuits or scrubs or things of that nature.
These rules, as I would expect counsel probably know, are designed to protect the presumption of innocence on the part of the accused. The rule with regard to not appearing in prison attire is for the protection of the accused such that the court or commissioned members or a jury depending on what jurisdiction you are in, the people that are making findings with regard to guilt or innocence, would not be inferring anything adverse on the part of the accused based on them wearing some sort of prison or jail clothing. So again, this rule of court is there to buttress the presumption of innocence that an accused is afforded in these proceedings.
The manual also contains the provisions of Articles 71 and 123 of the 1949 Geneva Convention IV.
The US Air Force Pamphlet (1976) provides, with respect to protected persons arrested for criminal offences: “Among other rights, accused persons are assured the right to be informed promptly of the charges against them.”
The US Air Force Commander’s Handbook (1980) provides: “A prisoner must be given notice of the charges.”
Arraignment shall be conducted in a military commission session and shall consist of reading the charges and specifications to the accused and calling on the accused to plead. The accused may waive the reading.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of Chapter 47A of Title 10, United States Code, as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2009, 10 U.S.C, §§ 948a, et seq., 27 April 2010, Rule 904, p. II-88.
(1) The nature of the offense to which the plea is offered and the maximum possible penalty provided by law.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of Chapter 47A of Title 10, United States Code, as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2009, 10 U.S.C, §§ 948a, et seq., 27 April 2010, Rule 910 (c)(1), p. II-101.
“§ 948q. Charges and specifications
“(a) CHARGES AND SPECIFICATIONS.—Charges and specifications against an accused in a military commission under this chapter shall be signed by a person subject to chapter 47 of this title under oath before a commissioned officer of the armed forces authorized to administer oaths and shall state—
“(1) that the signer has personal knowledge of, or reason to believe, the matters set forth therein; and
“(2) that they are true in fact to the best of the signer’s knowledge and belief.
“(b) NOTICE TO ACCUSED.—Upon the swearing of the charges and specifications in accordance with subsection (a), the accused shall be informed of the charges against him as soon as practicable.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2006, Public Law 109-366, Chapter 47A of Title 10 of the United States Code, 17 October 2006, pp. 120 Stat. 2602, 2606, 2607, §§ 948b(a) and 948q.
The Military Commissions Act also states:
“(f) PROTECTION OF CLASSIFIED INFORMATION.—
“(1) NATIONAL SECURITY PRIVILEGE.—
“(A) Classified information shall be protected and is privileged from disclosure if disclosure would be detrimental to the national security. The rule in the preceding sentence applies to all stages of the proceedings of military commissions under this chapter.
“(B) The privilege referred to in subparagraph (A) may be claimed by the head of the executive or military department or government agency concerned based on a finding by the head of that department or agency that—
(i) the information is properly classified; and
(ii) disclosure of the information would be detrimental to the national security.
“(C) A person who may claim the privilege referred to in subparagraph (A) may authorize a representative, witness, or trial counsel to claim the privilege and make the finding described in subparagraph (B) on behalf of such person. The authority of the representative, witness, or trial counsel to do so is presumed in the absence of evidence to the contrary.
“(2) INTRODUCTION OF CLASSIFIED INFORMATION.—
“(A) ALTERNATIVES TO DISCLOSURE.—To protect classified information from disclosure, the military judge, upon motion of trial counsel, shall authorize, to the extent practicable—
(i) the deletion of specified items of classified information from documents to be introduced as evidence before the military commission;
(ii) the substitution of a portion or summary of the information for such classified documents; or
(iii) the substitution of a statement of relevant facts that the classified information would tend to prove.
“(B) PROTECTION OF SOURCES, METHODS, OR ACTIVITIES.—The military judge, upon motion of trial counsel, shall permit trial counsel to introduce otherwise admissible evidence before the military commission, while protecting from disclosure the sources, methods, or activities by which the United States acquired the evidence if the military judge finds that (i) the sources, methods, or activities by which the United States acquired the evidence are classified, and (ii) the evidence is reliable. The military judge may require trial counsel to present to the military commission and the defense, to the extent practicable and consistent with national security, an unclassified summary of the sources, methods, or activities by which the United States acquired the evidence.
“(C) ASSERTION OF NATIONAL SECURITY PRIVILEGE AT TRIAL.—During the examination of any witness, trial counsel may object to any question, line of inquiry, or motion to admit evidence that would require the disclosure of classified information. Following such an objection, the military judge shall take suitable action to safeguard such classified information. Such action may include the review of trial counsel’s claim of privilege by the military judge in camera and on an ex parte basis, and the delay of proceedings to permit trial counsel to consult with the department or agency concerned as to whether the national security privilege should be asserted.
“(3) CONSIDERATION OF PRIVILEGE AND RELATED MATERIALS.—A claim of privilege under this subsection, and any materials submitted in support thereof, shall, upon request of the Government, be considered by the military judge in camera and shall not be disclosed to the accused.
“(4) ADDITIONAL REGULATIONS.—The Secretary of Defense may prescribe additional regulations, consistent with this subsection, for the use and protection of classified information during proceedings of military commissions under this chapter. A report on any regulations so prescribed, or modified, shall be submitted to the Committees on Armed Services of the Senate and the House of Representatives not later than 60 days before the date on which such regulations or modifications, as the case may be, go into effect.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2006, Public Law 109-366, Chapter 47A of Title 10 of the United States Code, 17 October 2006, pp. 120 Stat. 2612–2613, § 949d(f).
“(b) NOTICE TO ACCUSED.—Upon the swearing of the charges and specifications … the accused shall be informed of the charges and specifications against the accused as soon as practicable.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2009, § 948q(b).
“§ 948s. Service of charges
“The trial counsel assigned to a case before a military commission under this chapter shall cause to be served upon the accused and military defense counsel a copy of the charges upon which trial is to be had in English and, if appropriate, in another language that the accused understands, sufficiently in advance of trial to prepare a defense.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2009, § 948s.
The US Field Manual (1956) reproduces Articles 96, 99 and 105 of the 1949 Geneva Convention III.
United States, Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, US Department of the Army, 18 July 1956, as modified by Change No. 1, 15 July 1976, §§ 172, 175 and 181.
The manual also restates Articles 71 and 72 of the 1949 Geneva Convention IV, concerning situations of occupation, and Article 123 of the 1949 Geneva Convention IV, regarding disciplinary punishment.
United States, Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, US Department of the Army, 18 July 1956, as modified by Change No. 1, 15 July 1976, §§ 441, 442 and 330.
The US Air Force Pamphlet (1976) provides: “In no event may [a prisoner of war] be tried … under procedure which fails to accord the rights of defense set forth in Article 105 [of the 1949 Geneva Convention III].” It adds that Article 105 of the 1949 Geneva Convention III “gives [the accused] the right to counsel of his choice” and that the prisoner of war’s “counsel will have the opportunity to prepare an adequate defense”.
The manual also states: “Among other rights, accused persons are assured the right to … obtain defense counsel”.
The US Air Force Commander’s Handbook (1980) states that prisoners must “be allowed the help of a lawyer”.
The US Naval Handbook (1995) provides: “At a minimum, [procedural] rights must include the assistance of lawyer counsel.”
Counsel in a military commission. Military trial and defense counsel shall be detailed to military commissions by the Chief Prosecutor and Chief Defense Counsel, respectively. Assistant trial and associate or assistant defense counsel may also be detailed. Civilian trial counsel may be detailed by the Chief Prosecutor, with the approval of the convening authority and, if such counsel are employed by another government agency, with the approval of the head of that agency. Should an accused, pursuant to his request, be deemed competent to represent himself, detailed defense counsel shall serve as standby counsel.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of the Military Commissions Act of 2006, 10 U.S.C. §§ 948a, et seq., 18 January 2007, Part II, Rule 501(b), p. II-19.
Prisoners of war prosecuted for war crimes committed prior to capture, or for serious offenses committed after capture, are entitled to be tried by the courts that try the captor’s own forces and are to be accorded the same procedural rights. At a minimum, these rights must include the assistance of lawyer counsel.
(b) Counsel in a Military Commission. Military trial and defense counsel shall be detailed to military commissions by the Chief Prosecutor and Chief Defense Counsel, respectively. Assistant trial and associate or assistant defense counsel may also be detailed. Civilian trial counsel may be detailed by the Chief Prosecutor, with the approval of the convening authority and, if such counsel are employed by another government agency, with the approval of the head of that agency. Should an accused, pursuant to his request, be deemed competent to represent himself, detailed defense counsel shall serve as standby counsel.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of Chapter 47A of Title 10, United States Code, as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2009, 10 U.S.C, §§ 948a, et seq., 27 April 2010, Rule 501(b), p. II-22.
(a) In general. The accused has the right to be represented before a military commission by civilian counsel if provided at no expense to the Government, by military counsel detailed under R.M.C. [Rules for Military Commissions] 503, or by military counsel of the accused’s own selection, if reasonably available. Except as otherwise provided by section (b) of this rule, the accused is not entitled to be represented by more than one military counsel …
(b) Capital Offenses. In any case in which the trial counsel makes a recommendation to the convening authority pursuant to R.M.C. 307(d) that a charge be referred to a capital military commission, or in which the convening authority refers a charge to a capital military commission, the accused has the right to be represented in accordance with section (a) above, and by at least one additional counsel who is learned in applicable law relating to capital cases.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of Chapter 47A of Title 10, United States Code, as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2009, 10 U.S.C, §§ 948a, et seq., 27 April 2010, Rule 506(a) and (b), p. II-32.
(2) If the accused is not represented by counsel, that the accused has the right to be represented by counsel at every stage of the proceedings.
United States, Manual for Military Commissions, published in implementation of Chapter 47A of Title 10, United States Code, as amended by the Military Commissions Act of 2009, 10 U.S.C, §§ 948a, et seq., 27 April 2010, Rule 910(c)(2), pp. II-101 and II-102.
“(a) PROCEDURES AND RULES OF EVIDENCE.—Pretrial, trial, and post-trial procedures, including elements and modes of proof, for cases triable by military commission under this chapter may be prescribed by the Secretary of Defense, in consultation with the Attorney General. Such procedures shall, so far as the Secretary considers practicable or consistent with military or intelligence activities, apply the principles of law and the rules of evidence in trial by general courts-martial. Such procedures and rules of evidence may not be contrary to or inconsistent with this chapter.
“(b) RULES FOR MILITARY COMMISSION.—
“(1) Notwithstanding any departures from the law and the rules of evidence in trial by general courts-martial authorized by subsection (a), the procedures and rules of evidence in trials by military commission under this chapter shall include the following:
“(A) The accused shall be permitted to present evidence in his defense, to cross-examine the witnesses who testify against him, and to examine and respond to evidence admitted against him on the issue of guilt or innocence and for sentencing, as provided for by this chapter.
“(B) The accused shall be present at all sessions of the military commission (other than those for deliberations or voting), except when excluded under section 949d of this title.
“(C) The accused shall receive the assistance of counsel as provided for by section 948k.
“(D) The accused shall be permitted to represent himself, as provided for by paragraph (3).
“(2) In establishing procedures and rules of evidence for military commission proceedings, the Secretary of Defense may prescribe the following provisions:
“(A) Evidence shall be admissible if the military judge determines that the evidence would have probative value to a reasonable person.
“(B) Evidence shall not be excluded from trial by military commission on the grounds that the evidence was not seized pursuant to a search warrant or other authorization.
“(C) A statement of the accused that is otherwise admissible shall not be excluded from trial by military commission on grounds of alleged coercion or compulsory self-incrimination so long as the evidence complies with the provisions of section 948r of this title.
“(D) Evidence shall be admitted as authentic so long as—
(i) the military judge of the military commission determines that there is sufficient basis to find that the evidence is what it is claimed to be; and
“(E)(i) Except as provided in clause (ii), hearsay evidence not otherwise admissible under the rules of evidence applicable in trial by general courts-martial may be admitted in a trial by military commission if the proponent of the evidence makes known to the adverse party, sufficiently in advance to provide the adverse party with a fair opportunity to meet the evidence, the intention of the proponent to offer the evidence, and the particulars of the evidence (including information on the general circumstances under which the evidence was obtained). The disclosure of evidence under the preceding sentence is subject to the requirements and limitations applicable to the disclosure of classified information in section 949j(c) of this title.
(ii) Hearsay evidence not otherwise admissible under the rules of evidence applicable in trial by general courts-martial shall not be admitted in a trial by military commission if the party opposing the admission of the evidence demonstrates that the evidence is unreliable or lacking in probative value.
“(F) The military judge shall exclude any evidence the probative value of which is substantially outweighed—
(i) by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the commission; or
(ii) by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.
“(3)(A) The accused in a military commission under this chapter who exercises the right to self-representation under paragraph (1)(D) shall conform his deportment and the conduct of the defense to the rules of evidence, procedure, and decorum applicable to trials by military commission.
“(B) Failure of the accused to conform to the rules described in subparagraph (A) may result in a partial or total revocation by the military judge of the right of self-representation under paragraph (1)(D). In such case, the detailed defense counsel of the accused or an appropriately authorized civilian counsel shall perform the functions necessary for the defense.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2006, Public Law 109-366, Chapter 47A of Title 10 of the United States Code, 17 October 2006, pp. 120 Stat. 2602, 2608 and 2609, §§ 948b(a) and-949a(a) and (b).
“§ 949c. Duties of trial counsel and defense counsel
“(b) DEFENSE COUNSEL.—
“(1) The accused shall be represented in his defense before a military commission under this chapter as provided in this subsection.
“(2) The accused shall be represented by military counsel detailed under section 948k of this title.
“(3) The accused may be represented by civilian counsel if retained by the accused, but only if such civilian counsel—
“(A) is a United States citizen;
“(B) is admitted to the practice of law in a State, district, or possession of the United States or before a Federal court;
“(C) has not been the subject of any sanction of disciplinary action by any court, bar, or other competent governmental authority for relevant misconduct;
“(D) has been determined to be eligible for access to classified information that is classified at the level Secret or higher; and
“(E) has signed a written agreement to comply with all applicable regulations or instructions for counsel, including any rules of court for conduct during the proceedings.
“(4) Civilian defense counsel shall protect any classified information received during the course of representation of the accused in accordance with all applicable law governing the protection of classified information and may not divulge such information to any person not authorized to receive it.
“(5) If the accused is represented by civilian counsel, detailed military counsel shall act as associate counsel.
“(6) The accused is not entitled to be represented by more than one military counsel. However, the person authorized under regulations prescribed under section 948k of this title to detail counsel, in that person’s sole discretion, may detail additional military counsel to represent the accused.
“(7) Defense counsel may cross-examine each witness for the prosecution who testifies before a military commission under this chapter.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2006, Public Law 109-366, Chapter 47A of Title 10 of the United States Code, 17 October 2006, pp. 120 Stat. 2610-2611, §§ 948b(a) and 948q.
Every accused shall have a qualified military defense counsel detailed to the accused at government expense during every stage of the proceedings. Should the military judge approve the request of an accused to represent himself, detailed military defense counsel shall serve as standby counsel. Should the accused retain civilian counsel, a military defense counsel shall remain detailed to the accused.
Pursuant to 10 U.S.C. § 949c(b) and R.M.C. 502(d)(1), the accused may retain the services of a civilian attorney of the accused’s own choosing and at no expense to the United States Government.
United States, Regulation for Trial by Military Commissions, 27 April 2007, § 9-1, p. 36 and § 9-5.a.1, p. 40.
“(A) To present evidence in the accused’s defense …
“(C)(i) When none of the charges preferred against the accused are capital, to be represented before a military commission by civilian counsel if provided at no expense to the Government, and by either the defense counsel detailed or the military counsel of the accused’s own selection, if reasonably available.
(ii) When any of the charges preferred against the accused are capital, to be represented before a military commission in accordance with clause (i) and, to the greatest extent practicable, by at least one additional counsel who is learned in applicable law relating to capital cases and who, if necessary, may be a civilian and compensated in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Defense.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2009, § 949a(b)(2)(A) and (C).
“(b) DEFENSE COUNSEL.—(1) The accused shall be represented in the accused’s defense before a military commission under this chapter as provided in this subsection.
“(2) The accused may be represented by military counsel detailed under section 948k of this title or by military counsel of the accused’s own selection, if reasonably available.
“(3) The accused may be represented by civilian counsel if retained by the accused, provided that such civilian counsel—
“(B) is admitted to the practice of law in a State, district, or possession of the United States, or before a Federal court;
“(D) has been determined to be eligible for access to information classified at the level Secret or higher; and
“(4) If the accused is represented by civilian counsel, military counsel shall act as associate counsel.
“(5) The accused is not entitled to be represented by more than one military counsel. However, the person authorized under regulations prescribed under section 948k of this title to detail counsel, in such person’s sole discretion, may detail additional military counsel to represent the accused.
“(6) Defense counsel may cross-examine each witness for the prosecution who testifies before a military commission under this chapter.
“(7) Civilian defense counsel shall protect any classified information received during the course of representation of the accused in accordance with all applicable law governing the protection of classified information, and may not divulge such information to any person not authorized to receive it.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2009, § 949c(b).
“§ 949j. Opportunity to obtain witnesses and other evidence
“(a) IN GENERAL.—(1) Defense counsel in a military commission under this chapter shall have a reasonable opportunity to obtain witnesses and other evidence as provided in regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Defense. The opportunity to obtain witnesses and evidence shall be comparable to the opportunity available to a criminal defendant in a court of the United States under article III of the Constitution.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2009, § 949j(a)(1).
This Court has set aside convictions based upon confessions extorted from ignorant persons … who have been unlawfully held incommunicado without advice of friends or counsel, or who have been taken at night to lonely and isolated places for questioning. Any one of these grounds would be sufficient cause for reversal.
Country reports on human rights practices issued by the US Department of State have often noted that defendants must be given an opportunity to present their defence. More specifically, in 1986, the Department of State expressed concern that several indicted political prisoners in Ethiopia had been denied the right to present a defence, to call witnesses or to search for further evidence.
United States, Department of State, Country reports on human rights practices for 1986, Ethiopia, United States Government Printing Office, 1987, p. 144; see also Country reports on human rights practices for 1993, Nicaragua, United States Government Printing Office, 1994, p. 637; Country reports on human rights practices for 1996, Cambodia, United States Government Printing Office, 1997, p. 611.
In August 2003, the US State Department issued a written response to an opinion issued by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR), dated 8 May 2003, that had referred to a UNCHR Working Group Report on Arbitrary Detention, dated 8 January 2003, which was critical of US policy regarding detainees held at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba. In disagreeing with the UNCHR reports, and noting that the competence of the Working Group did not extend to the laws and customs of war, the US response stated:
[U]nder the laws and customs of war, detained enemy combatants have no right of access to counsel or the courts to challenge their detention. Should a detainee be charged with a criminal offense, he would have the right to counsel and applicable fundamental procedural safeguards.
As the President noted in his National Archives speech, lawfully constituted military commissions are also appropriate venues for trying persons for violations of the laws of war. In 2009, with significant input from this Administration, the Military Commissions Act was amended, with important changes to address the defects in the previous Military Commissions Act of 2006 … . The 2009 legislative reforms … require the government to disclose more potentially exculpatory information, restrict hearsay evidence … .
The US Field Manual (1956) reproduces Article 103 of the 1949 Geneva Convention III and Article 71 of the 1949 Geneva Convention IV.
United States, Field Manual 27-10, The Law of Land Warfare, US Department of the Army, 18 July 1956, as modified by Change No. 1, 15 July 1976, §§ 179 and 441.
“(A) Section 810 (article 10 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice), relating to speedy trial, including any rule of courts-martial relating to speedy trial.
United States, Military Commissions Act, 2006, Public Law 109-366, Chapter 47A of Title 10 of the United States Code, 17 October 2006, p. 120 Stat. 2602, § 948b(a)–(d)(A).