Source: http://www.chanlegal.com/
Timestamp: 2015-03-01 19:15:55
Document Index: 189948423

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 37', 'art 13', 'art 10', 'arts 8', 'art 11', 'art 30', 'in fine', 'art 7', 'art 1']

James Chan & Co Solicitors London EC4: Commercial Company Litigation Financial Services Law
No. 1 Fetter Lane, London EC4A 1BR
Commercial, Company, Litigation & Financial Services Law Firm
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Company - Law for Commercial Businesses
The Companies Act 2006 in England was fully implemented on 1 October 2009. It has 1,300 sections and 16 Schedules which cover formation to dissolution of a company. Changes were made to English company law in relation to company constitution, corporate structure, share capital, shareholder rights, duties of directors, directors and corporate management, meetings, company procedures, communications and legal compliance. The Act is organised into 47 Parts and provides model articles of association for private and public companies. Most of the regulations that constituted default articles or regulations in Table A constitution of a company under the Companies Act 1985 are now enacted or modified in the 2006 Act. The Model Articles for a private limited company can be adopted and modified by a company and should be accompanied by a shareholders agreement if there are two or more shareholders. The Act sets out the way a company communicates with its shareholders, including electronic communications in Part 37 and Schedules 4 and 5. Notices, timings, place, meetings, voting in relation to resolutions, meetings and record keeping for a company are found in Part 13 of the Companies Act 2006.
Directors - Company Management
Directors of a company may be held personally liable for breach of the duties imposed on them by common law, statutory law or their director's service agreement or contract. A short summary of the directors statutory duties in relation to his or her conduct and actions is set out below. Directors of a company are subject to the codified statutory duties in Part 10 of the Companies Act 2006. These legal duties replace directors' fiduciary and common law duties previously derived from English case law. The exposure to personal liability for company directors have increased and the scope and extent of each codified statutory duty will be subject to court interpretation and case law decisions. The directors' duties are owed to the company and not to the company shareholders. In a breach, these statutory duties can be enforced by shareholders on behalf of the company in derivative proceedings in court. Directors can remain personally liable during and after company insolvency proceedings under some circumstances and legilsation including provisions in the Insolvency Act 1986 which can result in a court orders for recovery. payment or contribution from the director's personal assets and property.
Shareholders - Company Owners
Shareholders (or Members) of a company may rely on Parts 8 and 9 of the Companies Act 2006 in claims they may have against errand company directors. Derivative actions are claims by shareholders, acting on behalf of their company, against the company directors for wrongs committed against the company. This is possible because an incorporated company is a separate legal person which can sue and be sued in legal proceedings. The circumstances in which shareholders can bring derivative proceedings include the director's negligence, breach of duty or trust. Proceedings can also be brought against third parties who have benefited from the director's default, negligence or breach of trust. Part 11 sets out provisions for derivative claims and proceedings by shareholders. Flexibility has been provided in cases involving shareholders disputes, shareholders rights and directors' corporate mis-management. Derivative claims are subject to a two stage procedural filter by the court. See below for derivative claims, unfair prejudice claims, winding up on just and equitable grounds and shareholder agreement disputes.
Where the shareholders are also the directors of a company, disputes can arise from non-aligned personal and commercial interests. Where the shareholder directors hold equal shares, deadlock situations can occur. Part 30 of the Companies Act 2006 provides shareholder protection against unfair prejudice. In some circumstances, depending on the facts, it may be preferable for a shareholder to bring a derivative claim in connection with a petition to the court for unfair prejudice on grounds that the company's affairs are being or have been conducted in a manner that is unfairly prejudicial to the interests of shareholders generally, or some part of the shareholders of the company (including himself), or an actual proposed act or omission of the company is or would be so prejudicial. Unfair prejudice may also be considered in cases where there is a breakdown in the relationship between shareholders in a shareholders deadlock situation or in a shareholders dispute.
If you are a shareholder or director in a commercial company, you may need to review our company articles of association and the terms in your shareholder agreements to ensure that these comply with the Companies Act 2006. If you need advice on your rights, powers, duties and liabilities or require court litigation representation or help with settlement negotiations, you can contact us at James Chan & Co for legal advice and representation.
Directors - Companies Act 2006
A director is defined as including any person occupying the position of a director, by whatever name called, including a shadow director. The statutory duties apply regardless of the terms in a director's service agreement. With statutory duties come liabilities and directors are exposed to risks from personal liabilities and shareholder claims.
Individuals offered the position of a company director need to consider, apart from personal, commercial benefits and interests, attendant responsibilities and potential legal liabilities and risks which company law imposes. As the scope of these statutory duties are wide, and some personal to the director, it is unlikely indemnity insurance cover will afford the director full protection. The statutory duties will be subject to litigation in the Companies Court for years to come.
Every commercial company must have on its Board of Directors at least one director who is a natural person for the purpose of being held responsible and accountable for the actions or omissions of the company. Section 155 of the Companies Act 2006 abolishes boards of directors that comprise solely of corporate directors or one corporate director Board companies, common in Group company parent and subsidiary structures. A breach will result in a fine on the company and any officer in default. Companies with group and subsidiary structures should review their board constitution and if necessary, an individual person should be appointed to the board of directors with necessary alterations to the company articles of association made.
The duties owed by a director to his company and its members are now codified in sections 171 to 177 of the Companies Act 2006. These place on directors legal duties which require them to act within the powers given in the company articles of association, promote the success of the company, exercise independent judgment and exercise reasonable care, skill and diligence in company business matters, avoid conflicts of interests, not accept benefits from third parties and declare personal interests in transactions or arrangements with the company.
The following is a summary of the directors' statutory duties codified in the Companies Act 2006 which serves as a guide. The law giving rise to these duties and its interpretation is expected to develop through court litigation. You should always seek legal advice from a solicitor as to your specific circumstances since the facts of each individual case is different and personal to your situation.
Directors to act within Company Constitution
This is currently interpreted to mean directors must act within the powers given to them in the company's constitution or articles of association and they can only exercise these powers for the purposes for which these were given. Directors who are not familiar with the provisions of their company constitution run the risks of acting outside their powers and therefore acting in breach of their statutory duty. Directors should review and, if necessary and with the consent of shareholders, amend the company articles of association to ensure they are able to comply with their statutory duties in accordance with company law. We offer an audit, review and advice service to clients. You can contact us with your requirements.
Directors to Promote the Success of the Company
Directors must act in the way they consider, in good faith, would be most likely to promote the success of the company for the benefit of its shareholders. In exercising this statutory duty, the directors must have regard (in addition to other considerations) to the likely consequences of any decision in the long term, the interests of the company's employees, the need to foster relationships with suppliers, customers and others, the impact of the company's operations on the community & the environment, maintaining a reputation for high standards of business conduct and the need to act fairly as between shareholders of the company. This statutory duty under company law is wide and likely to increase litigation involving liability for directors. We can advise board members on the management of such risks.
Directors to exercise Independent Judgment
In addition to acting within the authority of the company's constitution, directors must exercise independent judgment or freedom of thought. A director should not therefore be influenced by the will of others, such as shareholders or other directors. Difficult situations arise if a director were to act in accordance with an agreement, duly entered into by the company with a third party that restricts the future exercise of discretion by its directors or where the terms in a shareholders agreement imposes on a shareholder, who is also a director, to act in a particular way given particular trigger events. What if two director shareholders differ in their independent judgments as to whether their company is to be put into administration or liquidation? If you encounter such situations which are bound to give rise to dispute and potential litigation, we will be pleased to take instructions to advise and, if necessary, represent you in litigation proceedings.
Directors to exercise Reasonable Care, Skill and Diligence
The provision of this statutory duty appears to have been extracted from section 214 of the Insolvency Act 1986 which relates to wrongful trading and liability of directors and other persons to contribute to a company's assets. An objective test and then a subjective test is used and applied in the determination of liability of directors under company law. A director is required to exercise the care, skill and diligence that would be exercised by a reasonably diligent person with the general knowledge, skill and experience that may reasonably be expected of a person carrying out the functions carried out by the director in relation to the company, and the general knowledge, skill and experience that the director has.
Directors to avoid Conflict of Interests
Directors are required by law under Section 175 to avoid situations in which he has or can have or possibly may have a direct or indirect conflict of interests with his company. This includes but is not limited to exploitation of any property (probably including existing or future intellectual property), information or opportunity. This statutory duty is extended to cover the interests of connected persons of directors including spouses, civil partners, children and parents. This duty could cause problems for a majority shareholder appointing a director to the board of a joint venture. There are exceptions to this duty and private companies incorporated on or after 1 October 2008 may have a potential conflict of interest authorised by the board of directors following disclosure. This raises potential legal problems which could open the director concerned or the other board members to claims from shareholders of the company.
Directors not to accept Benefits from Third Parties
This duty applies to all manner of benefits which may be reasonably regarded as giving rise to a conflict of interest. The use of companies for provision of services to directors of a company where one or more of the directors have interests, will be deemed not only a conflict of interest situation but also a benefit conferred on the director or directors involved in breach of Section 176. There may also be issues of constructive trust and unjust enrichment arising from such situations.
Directors to Declare Interest in Transactions or Arrangements with the company
Whilst a director's duty under Section 175 is to avoid a conflict of interests, Section 177 requires a director to actively declare an interest in a proposed transaction or arrangement with the company to the Board. This duty is extended under Section 182 to declare an interest in an existing transaction or arrangement with the company. As with the duty to avoid conflicts of interests, a director must consider the interests of connected persons. There is a declaration regime to be followed. We will be pleased to advise you of the procedure and potential risks arising, particularly in commercial transactions.
Directors can take a proactive approach to management of their commercial business and protection of investors. If you are a director or a shareholder, you may require legal advice on company law and on your commercial business.
We provide legal advice to directors and shareholders of their rights, powers, duties and liabilities under the Companies Act, articles of association, directors service agreements and the contractual terms of their shareholder agreements. We also advise individuals offered directorship of their legal duties and potential personal liabilities. If you need advice and court representation in bringing or defending shareholder claims against a company or its directors, you can contact us at James Chan & Co for legal advice and court representation in litigation.
On the 1 October 2009, the remaining provisions in the Companies Act 2006 came into force. The Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 will be amended to take into account any breach by a director of his statutory duties under the Companies Act 2006 when determining disqualification of a director on the grounds that he or she is unfit to be a director. Under Section 6 of the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, the Court will consider admissible evidence of persistent breach of the Companies Act 2006 (carrying a maximum of 5 years' disqualification), breach of the directors' statutory duties and the conduct of a director which makes him unfit to be concerned with the management of a company.
During litigation, the Court is required to consider any misfeasance or breach of any fiduciary or other duty by a director in relation to the company. Consideration is given to evidence of a director acting within his authority and exercising care, skill and diligence in performing his or her duties and functions. It is not a defence in disqualification proceedings in court for an appointed director to plead that such duties were delegated to another person. Such a person assuming the director's duties could be made the subject of disqualification proceedings if he or she is considered to be a shadow director of the company with whose directions and instructions the directors of the company are accustomed to act.
Disqualification could also result from an investigation by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (formerly DBERR) which finds the director unfit to be concerned in the management of a company (maximum 15 years' disqualification). In cases where there has been fraudulent trading or wrongful trading, a disqualification of a period of 15 years may be ordered. Securing such disqualification orders is particularly effective to prevent directors who rely on the limited liability of the company to run up debts that remain unpaid, cease trading and then start up a new company to carry on the same business.
A disqualified director cannot be concerned with the management of a company directly or indirectly or act as promoter. Breach of a disqualification order is a criminal offence which could result in a fine and imprisonment and the disqualified director is personally liable for the debts of the company during the period when he acted, whilst disqualified.
Shareholder Derivative Claims and Directors' Liability
Under English law, the general rule is that only the company (itself a separate legal person recognised in law), and not the shareholders, can bring legal action against the parties responsible for wrongs done to the company, e.g. unauthorised withdrawal of capital from the company by a director. In practice, if the directors acted in breach of duty or in breach of trust, the majority of shareholders may vote to take legal action against the directors concerned. In the absence of a majority vote being passed, no action can be commenced against the directors.
There are exceptions to the general rule and these relate to fraudulent or illegal acts by directors, for example, where directors secure for themselves benefits from a profitable contract which should have gone to the company. Other exceptions relate to the denial of an individual's shareholder's rights, the implementation of corporate decisions without the required majority votes and where the majority of shareholders commit a fraud on the minority shareholders. The rule and exceptions severely restricts the shareholders' access to remedies via the court. This has however been redressed to some degree in the Companies Act 2006 which provides procedures for a shareholder to pursue legal action in the form of a derivative action. Subject to the provisions in the Companies Act 2006, for a shareholder to bring a legal claim in the name of the company against the parties responsible for wrongs done to the company.
Section 260(3) came into force on 1 October 2007 and provides that a derivative claim may be brought in respect of a cause of action arising from an actual or proposed act or omission involving negligence, default, breach of duty or breach of trust by a director of the company and that such legal action may be brought against the director or another person (or both). Any provision in the company's constitution or in a contract with the company which seeks to exempt the directors or auditors from such liability is generally void except where permitted in law.
Authorised Share Capital and Allotment
There are major changes on company authorised share capital after 1 October 2009. There is no longer a need for the authorised share capital of a company to be stated in its memorandum and to have an authorised share capital. The ability of a company to allot shares are governed by rules and these fall under two separate situations. There are rules which apply to private companies having only one class of shares and rules for all other issues by private or public companies. Directors of private companies with only one class of shares will no longer require the authority from its members to allot shares unless this is specifically provided for in the company's articles of association (section 550 Companies Act 2006). In all other cases, the power of the directors to allot shares is subject to prior authorisation by the company shareholders via ordinary resolution or by the company's articles of association. In cases where there are no provisions in the articles of association restricting the power of the directors to allot in a private company, and in the absence of relevant provisions in a shareholders agreement, the minority shareholder could find his shareholding in the company diluted.
Under the Companies Act 2006, a company may only alter its share capital by an increase of capital by the allotment of new shares; reduction of capital (see below); sub-division or consolidation of shares; reconversion of stock into shares and redomination of shares (e.g. GBP into Euros).
This may be done by a company for a variety of reasons, including repayment of any paid up share capital which is in excess of the company's needs or the cancellation of any paid up shares which are no longer represented by available assets. A special resolution is required for a private limited company but in the case of a public company, an application for court approval is required. Directors of private companies are required to provide a statement that the company will remain solvent after the reduction in capital. This solvency statement is to support the shareholders resolution to the reduction. It must be made no longer than 15 days before the proposed resolution and should state that each of the directors is of the view that there are no grounds on which the company would be unable to pay its debts and that any winding up within the next 12 months would be a solvent liquidation. If a solvency statement is given recklessly without due consideration of the company assets and liabilities, the directors will be commiting a criminal offence. This could lead to imprisonment and/or a fine. The date the reduction takes effect is governed by the date of registration of the special resolution and the solvency statement confirmed by the board of directors that it was properly made and circulated to the shareholders. For companies which have a statement of share capital in their memorandum, an alteration must be filed with Companies House.
Companies must have in all company e-communications, the full name of the company; registration number; place of registration and its registered address. Commercial and e-commerce businesses should include these details in all business correspondence, invoices, emails (footers) and websites used in the course of their businesses including electronic trading platforms. Where the business is a money service provider, transmitter or payment institution registered with HMRC or authorised by the Financial Services Authority (FSA), the registration and authorisation number should also be displayed. Non-compliance could result in fines. For further details, refer to sections 82 and 84 Companies Act 2006 and The Companies (Trading Disclosures) Regulations 2008. For transparency related issues, see section on commercial law.
Company Dividends from Shares and Profit Extraction
Her Majesty's Revenue & Customs has provided guidance on the application of Part 7 (Employment Income: Share Related Income and Exemptions), Chapter 4 (Post-Acquisition Benefits from Shares) of the Income Tax (Earnings and Pensions) Act 2003, Section 447. This provision creates a tax charge on post-acquisition benefits derived from employment related securities including shares. For small owner managed companies which pay dividends out of company distributable profits to its director shareholders by way of profit extraction, HMRC will not apparently apply section 447 if there is no attempt at avoiding income tax or national insurance contributions on remuneration (or any attempt at avoiding IR35 rules). Dividends paid on shares of special purpose vehicles set up to pay employee bonuses, and contractors in place of income subject to PAYE and NIC to avoid the IR35 rules, may be subject to the tax charge under section 447. This may change and advice from your accountants and tax advisors are strongly recommended.
Company Automatic Late Filing Penalties May 2010
Company accounts must be prepared and filed in accordance with the Companies Act 2006. The time for filing accounts for private companies has been reduced to 9 months after the company Accounting Reference Date and 6 months for public companies. With effect from 1 February 2009, accounts for financial years beginning on or after 6 April 2008, the following new penalties will apply:
Length of delay (from the date accounts are due)
These amounts are automatically doubled where:
(1) The company accounts are filed late under the Companies Act 2006; and
(2) The previous year's accounts under the Companies Act 2006 (financial year beginning on or after 6 April 2008) were also late.
Company directors are encouraged to file their accounts and reports on time because they must provide this information for public record. It is in the interest of the company that its accountants and auditors are provided the necessary information for early preparation and filing of company accounts to meet deadlines imposed under the Companies Act 2006 to avoid the automatic late filing penalties which apply to all private companies whether trading or non-trading. See guidance.
Directors and shareholders can contact James Chan & Co for advice on company law, directors' rights, shareholders' rights and all aspects relating to management of their commercial businesses, corporate governance and compliance. If there have been changes in your corporate commercial business or you are about to seek corporate finance or introduce investors, we can help you review and consider the adequacy and suitability of your company articles of association, shareholders agreement and directors' service agreements.
Provisions of Services Regulations 2009 - Duties of Service Providers
The above 2009 Regulations became law on 28 December 2009 and applies to all companies (including firms and advisers) involved in the activities of provision of services to businesses and consumers. The first main aim is to ensure customers of service providers have access to a minimum amount of information and to a complaints procedure to help them make an informed decision when considering the services of providers. Certain businesses are excluded from these regulations. These include providers in financial services, electronic communications, transport, temporary work agencies, healthcare, audio visual, gambling and social services. For a full list of excluded service providers, see Regulation 2(2).
If your company business falls within the scope of these regulations, you must provide your customers with the name of your business, your legal status; geographical address at which you are established, details by which you may be contacted (e,g, telephone, email), details where you are registered with, registration number, name of your trade or other similar public register where you can be identified, the authorisation scheme or regulated professional authority which you are subject to, VAT registration number, general terms and conditions of business which you use, existence of after sales guarantee (if any), price for your services (where pre-determined for a given type of service), main features of your services and name and contact details relating to your professional liability insurance (if required to be held). For a full list of the information required to be disclosed, refer to Regulation 8(1).
The required information may be supplied to customers on your own initiative and/or made easily accessible at the place where the service is provided and/or the contract concluded, made accessible to customers electronically such as a public website and/or included in any information documents that you supply your customers which set out a detailed description of your services such as your terms and conditions of business agreement. For a complete list of ways of supplying the required information, see Regulation 8(2).
Under these regulations, contact details must be provided to customers should they wish to make a complaint and you are obliged to respond quickly, although there is no definition of the time limit for a response since types of complaints vary and different considerations apply (e.g. language issues, information from third parties required and nature of the complaint). Although the aim is for you to do your best to resolve and find satisfactory solutions to complaints, you are however not expected to do so for vexatious or malicious or clearly unsubstantiated complaints. For the full provisions relating to complaints, see Regulations 10 to 12.
Authorisation and Licences
The second main aim of the Provision of Services Regulations 2009 is to comply with EU Services Directive on freedom of service providers businesses to provide services within the EEA. These regulations apply to permanent service providers' businesses which are established and based in premises in the UK and temporary service providers operating in the UK but based in premises in other EEA states, and vice versa. If a service provider, established in another EEA State, wishes to provide services in the UK, it must register and apply for a licence with the UK competent authority. Similarly, a UK established service provider must also register and apply for a licence to the competent authority in another EEA State it wishes to provide services. EEA Member States are required to have Points of Single Contact (PCS) that allow services providers to apply and pay for authorisation online. Requirements may be imposed by competent authorities but these must not be discriminatory and certain requirements are prohibited. If an EEA State is imposing illegal requirements to your provision of services, you may bring this to the government's attention. In the UK, you may contact the UK SOLVIT centre at solvit@bis.gsi.gov.uk and the matter taken up with the European Commission. A complete list of prohibited requirements is set out in Regulation 21.
The Payments Services Directive 2007/64/EC was implemented by the Payment Services Regulations 2009 which came into force on 1 November 2009 ('PSR 2009'). These regulations seek to harmonise standards and the rights and obligations of the service providers and users of payment services in the EU and to provide market transparency and competition. The aim of the Directive is to guarantee fair and open access to payments markets and to increase consumer protection and seeks to ensure electronic payments within the EU, such as credit transfer, direct debit and card payments, become as easy and efficient and secure as domestic payments within a single Member State. Payment service providers include credit institutions, electronic money institutions and payment institutions. For a list of the regulated activities, see Part 1 of Schedule 1 of the PSR.
All PIs are subject to the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) Handbook on Conduct of Business requirements or COBS including the requirement of having customer complaints handling procedures. Payment Institutions must also have in place updated anti money laundering and counter-terrorist financing procedures and policies in place and which they apply to customers and their transactions.
Payment Institutions ('PIs') require registration for authorisation by the Financial Conduct Authority. Initial capital requirements set between Euro 20,000 to Euro 125,000 apply depending on the activities undertaken. In addition, PIs must also comply with ongoing capital or 'own funds' requirements which may be calculated by one of three methods determined by the FSA. The users or consumers of PIs are afforded protection by segregation of customers funds received by the PIs or by the putting in place of an insurance policy or other comparable guarantee. These financial limits and requirements are subject to change.
PIs may conduct regulated activities and services in another EEA State on the basis of authorisation by the FCA as the Home State regulator. Such passporting right may be in the form of establishing a branch in another EEA State or a Host State to provide payment services or by cross border services without the establishment in the Host State. As of June 2010, Greece, Sweden and Poland have yet to implement the provisions of the Payments Service Directive with Romania, Spain and Cyprus yet to have in place secondary legislation required to fully implement the Directive. The EU Commission has on 3 June 2010 acted to ensure implementation. The FCA has provided detailed guidance on the scope of the Payment Service Regulations 2009.
China - 'Template' Commercial Contracts
For commercial agreements with Chinese companies in China for the manufacture, supply and sale of goods, agency agreement, consultancy, distribution and licensing, it is advisable for businesses to avoid the use of standard contract form of wording from similar but unrelated commercial transactions or templates. Although some of these agreements have "standard" templated terms and conditions, there may be provisions that may not be relevant to your commercial business transactions. The agreement should be written in Mandarin and English. Care taken to ensure it is translated accurately to reflect terms agreed.
Chinese Law & Jurisdiction of Courts in China
There are several choices for resolving disputes between contracting parties in a commercial agreement. Generally, disputes with Chinese businesses are resolved and settled amicably through meetings and by discussions to preserve commercial business relations. Forms of dispute resolution include mediation, arbitration and civil court litigation. Joint venture agreements are subject to Chinese law and issues of corporate insolvency or employment are subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese courts. Care should be taken when choosing governing law and jurisdiction for agreements. Foreign judgments may not be recognised or enforceable in China.
Commercial business opportunities could present unexpected legal and commercial challenges. When in doubt, contact us to discuss your commercial requirements, whether to produce standard terms of trade, sale and purchase contracts, review tender documents, preferred supplier agreements, commercial trade letters of credit or for legal advice on the terms in commercial contracts for goods and services, before making an informed decision or signing on the dotted line.
We review, advise and prepare contracts for commercial transactions and assist with advice on the terms of agency agreements, distribution agreements, joint ventures and non-disclosure agreements. You can contact James Chan & Co for legal advice and commercial legal representation.
Civil Procedure Rules (CPR) are the rules and procedures which govern the conduct of commercial litigation in England. The rules are divided into Parts and each Part is supplemented and modified by Practice Directions from the courts from time to time to assist with clarification of the rules and procedures. Claimants, Defendants, Solicitors, Barristers and the Court are bound to follow the CPR in the conduct of commercial court cases.
Reforms to Civil Procedure Rules
New court procedures rules, claim financial limits and costs reforms will come into force on 1 April 2013. The concept of costs budgets which parties to the action are to agreed and costs management conferences presided over by the Court have been introduced and will now apply to the majority of cases with the exception of particular Courts and high value claim cases. The small claims limit for non-personal injury claims has arisen to £10,000. As the successful party in a small claims action is not entitled to costs, the result of changes may be an increase in litigants in persons and small claims cases for Judges in the lower courts who will have to deal with litigants 'having a go" and wanting their day in court without professional legal representation. Claimants, with good and we