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E.M. Meijers and the Recodification of the Dutch Civil Code after World War II: Renewal s Only Victory? Optional Thesis - PDF
E.M. Meijers and the Recodification of the Dutch Civil Code after World War II: Renewal s Only Victory? Optional Thesis
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1 E.M. Meijers and the Recodification of the Dutch Civil Code after World War II: Renewal s Only Victory? Optional Thesis Final Honours School of Modern History Oxford University Trinity Term 19972 Contents Introduction i Chapter One MEIJERS AND THE PRE -WAR DEBATE ON RECODIFICATION 1 Chapter Two THE WAR 6 Chapter Three THE COURSE OF EVENTS 15 Chapter Four THE ANATOMY OF A DECISION : GENERAL FACTORS 18 Chapter Five THE ANATOMY OF A DECISION : S PECIFIC FACTORS 24 Conclusion 29 Bibliography 313 Introduction On 25 April 1947, Professor E.M. Meijers received from the Dutch government the task of drafting a new Civil Code. According to the official announcement, the existing code, introduced in 1838, was too old and no longer sufficiently in tune with developments in jurisprudence, and in society in general. At the conference held in The Hague in 1938 to celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the old code, however, Meijers had been the only speaker to call for a complete recodification. The other speakers had been convinced that such an enormous project could never be completed, and either advocated partial reform or considered the judiciary capable of side-stepping the ambiguities and lacunae of the existing code. Paul Scholten, a colleague of Meijers at the University of Leiden, had said that Ons Burgerlijk Wetboek is een vredig bezit, and that a new code ontstaat alleen uit politieken drang. 1 The Minister of Justice, for his part, pointed out that he had more pressing concerns. Clearly, something had happened between 1938 and 1947 to make a recodification more attractive and to create sufficient politieken drang. The most obvious potential factor is the Second World War and the German occupation of the Netherlands between 1940 and This brought many changes to Dutch society, some more lasting than other, and certainly also to the administration of justice and popular confidence in the judicial process. The experience of occupation, the joy of liberation, and the urge for renewal which this brought with it in most of the recently-liberated countries of Western Europe, would seem, at first sight, to be sufficient cause for the sudden popularity of recodification: it is, after all, a form of renewal. It is thus the main object of this thesis to investigate whether the decision to recodify the Dutch Civil Code was the product of the Sturm und Drang mentality of the liberation era, or whether Meijers appointment in 1947 simply marked the natural culmination of a long-running argument on which the war in fact had little impact. As it turned out, very little came of the hopes for radical changes to Dutch politics and society after the war, and it is tempting to see the recodification as an inexpensive gesture to those, including Queen Wilhelmina herself, who had hoped to see much more. The actual process of recodification and the legal changes which it eventually brought about have been comprehensively and expertly examined in a recently published Ph.D. thesis by Dr Erik Florijn, Ontstaan en ontwikkeling van het nieuwe Burgerlijk Wetboek. 2 In this thesis, I have therefore decided to concentrate entirely on the decision to recodify the civil code, rather than the long and somewhat tortuous process by which the new code was drafted and implemented. This thesis investigates the 1 P. Scholten, De Codificatie-gedachte vóór honderd jaar en thans in P. Scholten & E.M. Meijers (eds.), Gedenkboek Burgerlijk Wetboek, (Zwolle, 1939), pp. 1, Maastricht, For an overview of the most significant changes between the two codes, see M. Whincup, The new Dutch Civil Code, New Law Journal, 1992, pp4 historical context in which the decision of April 1947 was taken and seeks to understand why it was taken after, rather than before, the Second World War, and how, if at all, the experience of war and occupation contributed to its genesis. In this analysis, the personal motives of Meijers and J.H. van Maarseveen, the Minister of Justice who appointed him, will be of paramount importance. To see the decision to recodify the Civil Code as Renewal s only victory would be to imply that the instigators of that decision intended it to effect some sort of renewal. Whether this was indeed the case remains to be seen. This thesis is, in other words, a case study of the wider issue of the post-war renewal of society and politics desired by many people, particularly but in no sense exclusively in the Resistance, during the German occupation of Western Europe, and the degree to which these plans and hopes became reality. It also offers an insight in microcosm into the question of continuity and change, and the relation between them, between pre- and post-war European politics and society. Most of the primary research for this thesis was done at the Ministry of Justice in The Hague, which has extensive archives on the recodification project (which still continues) and the immediate context of Meijers appointment. Further primary material was found in libraries in The Hague, Leiden and Oxford, and obtained from Dr Erik Florijn and Miss Clara C. Meijers. Thanks are due to these individuals and institutions for their help and advice.5 C HAPTER 1 Meijers and the pre-war debate on recodification Eduard M. Meijers is recognised in the Netherlands as one of the greatest legal minds of the twentieth century. During the course of an active career spanning more than fifty years, he made contributions to many areas of law, most notably civil law, legal history, inheritance law and international private law. More than forty years after his death, he is still widely cited; if his analyses of civil and international private law have been superseded, his influence has remained strong in the field of legal history, while his name remains inextricably linked to the new Civil Code which he conceived. Meijers was born in 1880, the son of a Jewish naval health officer. 3 He completed his legal studies at the University of Amsterdam in 1903 with a Ph.D. thesis entitled Dogmatische rechtswetenschap. Between 1903 and 1910 he practised as a lawyer in Amsterdam. In , he was briefly local councillor in Amsterdam for the Vrijzinnigdemocratische Bond, one of the more influential liberal political parties. In 1910, at the exceptionally young age of thirty, Meijers was appointed professor of civil and international private law at the University of Leiden, a position which he was to hold until Throughout his academic career, Meijers published widely on many issues: a bibliography drawn up shortly after his death lists almost 2000 items. From 1912 until his death in 1954, he was a regular contributor to the Weekblad voor Privaatrecht, Notarisambt en Registratie (WPNR), for which he briefly and famously annotated arresten (judgements) of the Hoge Raad (Supreme Court). From 1926 he annotated the court s verdicts for Nederlandse Jurisprudentie, a journal set up for the specific purpose of publishing jurisprudence. It is ironic that the increasing predominance of jurisprudence as a source of law about which Meijers complained was partly due to the widely-read and expert commentaries with which he and Paul Scholten furnished it. Viewed in another way, however, it might be argued that Meijers commentaries which were often sharply critical of the Hoge Raad s interpretation of the civil law were merely one aspect of his much wider criticism of the manner in which civil law was functioning. The former Netherlands Civil Code came into force in 1838, after more than three decades of debate and 16 argument. 4 The addition of Belgium to the Netherlands in 1815 and its reseparation in had contributed significantly to the delay. Nevertheless, the Code that eventually emerged was based, in many cases literally, on the Napoleonic Code civil which it was designed to replace. It had been, according to many critics, somewhat carelessly thrown together: the Code s systematic and linguistic mistakes and ambiguities were indeed only too apparent. However, it was not until the 1870s that widespread calls for a complete revision of the Code began to be heard. In Meijers analysis, this can be attributed to the fact that academics as well as those in legal practice had been insufficiently prepared for the new Code in 1838, and needed a long time to understand it properly. 5 By 1870, two large handbooks, by Diephuis and by Opzoomer, provided all the exegesis of the Code that was required, and legal minds began to envisage more ambitious projects. Meijers provided three principal reasons for the renewed demands for far-reaching reforms to the Code in the half century after 1870: firstly, many provisions were unsuited to an advanced industrial society, with its railways, telephones, telegraph, cars and aeroplanes. Secondly, many perceived the need to combat social evils through legislation in key areas such as juvenile law, rent law and labour contracts. All of these required modifications and additions to the Civil Code. Finally, the Code was still burdened with many technical faults which required revision. The Code, wrote Meijers, was in hoofdzaak een afschrift van den Code civil, en dan een slecht afschrift. Het waren vooral de innerlijke tegenstijdigheden, de slordigheden en de stelloosheid van de getroffen regeling, die men den wetgever verweet. 6 Perhaps inevitably, this very legalistic approach concern above all for form above content gave rise to a reaction at the end of the nineteenth century. Rather than viewing the Code in absolute terms, writers began to see it as merely one part of the legal process: Wet, rechtspraak en wetenschap, in their view, according to Meijers, zijn niet een meester, een dienaar en een tolk, maar zij zijn tot een eenheid vervlochten. 7 As it neared its hundredth birthday, most in the legal profession seemed content to work with the Code. Its faults could be taken into account by the judiciary, its ambiguities were being smoothed out by jurisprudence. In most areas of law, it was more or less clear what the law was. While there was certainly irritation at the extremely slow rate at which modifications to the Code were being drafted and passed through Parliament, the desire to keep the Code and work with it was almost universal. 3 A brief biography of Meijers can be found in Zestig juristen: bijdragen tot een beeld van de geschiedenis der Nederlandse rechtswetenschap (Tjeenk Willink, 1987), pp The best recent overview of the genesis of the 1838 Civil Code can be found in Florijn, Ontstaan, Ch E.M. Meijers, De Honderdjarige burgerlijke wetgeving, Verzamelde Privaatrechtelijke Opstellen (Leiden, ), i This collection is henceforth referred to as VPO. 6 VPO, i VPO, i7 At the conference held in The Hague in 1938 to celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the Civil Code, Meijers was the only speaker to call strongly for complete rather than partial revision. In his address, he discussed previous attempts to modify or improve the Code and indicated why almost all of these failed. He mentioned the timidity of the Commissions appointed to consider more general, systematic structural changes and the reluctance of Ministers and Parliament to spend precious time on all but the most politically pressing points. In many ways, Meijers impatience with the politicians and his wish that the recodification be carried out by civil servants rather than Parliament was typical of the disenchantment with Parliament widely felt in the Netherlands in the 1930s. 8 In any case, the result of this political inaction was that law was being made increasingly by jurisprudence and not legislation: the ideal of codification, enshrined in all Constitutions since 1798, was being lost. In the light of his previous experience with slow-working Commissions and a reluctant legislature, Meijers advice was clear: the task of drawing up a new Civil code should be entrusted to one man or, at most, a small number of experts, and only questions of political importance should be subject to prior advice from Parliament. The failure of the Limburg Commission, set up in 1919 to ascertain how the central section of the Code, dealing with the law of property, contracts and obligations might be systematically improved, had clearly influenced his thinking. As early as 1928, in a highly rhetorical and sarcastic article, he had remarked that the Commission had been extremely productive: Vóór alles heeft immers de commissie de verdienste ons bevrijd te hebben van een gevaarlijken waan, den waan, dat er in ons Burgerlijk Wetboek en in het bijzonder... in het vermogensrecht, leemten of onjuistheden van eenige beteekenis zouden voorkomen. Immers, gedurende haar bijkans negenjarige bestaan heeft de Commissie in het tweede en het derde boek van ons Burgerlijk Wetboek geen enkele leemte of onjuistheid kunnen ontdekken. 9 Meijers suggested that the Commission, having completed its task, should commit the fruits of its labour to paper, and produce a handbook which would demonstrate luce clarius that the law of property contained not a single ambiguity or lacuna which required modification. The costs of such an enterprise need not worry the Ministry of Finance, Meijers argued, for Een volledig handboek voor het vermogensrecht, waarin de lezer niet met allerlei controversen en vermeende wettelijke gebreken vermoeid wordt en dat toch dit gedeelte van het recht volledig weergeeft, is van een debiet verzekerd, zo groot, dat met de opbrengst zelfs gemakkalijk de noodzakelijk uitbreiding van de rechterlijk macht kan betaald worden. 10 Meijers went on to list a hundred points of law which ought to be improved, adding that he would have no difficulty in listing another hundred. The Commission, he argued, was unable to come up with concrete improvements to the law of property because its articles were inter-connected and interdependent to such an extent that solving one problem would only serve to create two others. This led to 8 Cf. M.L. Smith, Neither resistance nor collaboration: Historians and the problem of the Nederlandse Unie, History, 1987, especially pp E.M. Meijers, Het feillooze deel vans ons Burgerlijk Wetboek, VPO, i. 93 ff. 10 VPO i8 the following conclusion: Zou men niet beginnen met de wijze van herziening te herzien? 11 The article ended with Meijers first call for a complete technical revision which, inspired by the Spanish Civil Code, he argued ought to be repeated every ten years. Meijers isolation as the only champion of complete revision was again demonstrated at the 1938 conference. In a Festschrift for the Civil Code published in the same year, Meijers colleague Scholten opened his contribution with the famous words: Ons Burgerlijk Wetboek is een rustig bezit. 12 Opinions might vary as to how and where the Code ought to be revised, but, in his view, not even the most radical proponents of change could argue for an entirely new Code. In the same volume, however, Scholten s co-editor emphasised that a revision could only hope to be successful if it was as allencompassing as possible. 13 After 54 amendment laws, the Code was, Meijers argued, an organisational, linguistic and systematic mess which only complete revision could repair. The current legal uncertainty on many points of law risked alienating the population from the Code. In a key passage in his speech, Meijers emphasised the symbolic importance of the national codification: Een codificatie is een symbool van eenheid van recht, een nationale codificatie een symbool van nationale eenheid... Wil een nationale codificatie een waarachtig symbool der nationale eenheid zijn, dan dient het wetboek... het vetrouwen van het volk te hebben... De grootste ramp, die een volk treffen kan, is niet een economische achteruitgang, het verlies van politieke macht, een niemand sparende epidemie. Het is een splijting van het volk zelf, veroorzaakt door wanvertrouwen in de onpartijdigheid van recht en rechtsbedeeling. 14 Always more of a lawyer than a politician, the final two sentences here are ironic, for economic decline was already an obvious fact in 1938, loss of political power was soon to follow in 1940, while a schism in the population was to be a constant spectre throughout the war years. It should be emphasised, of course, that the 1938 festivities were perhaps not the ideal moment to voice such stringent criticism of the Code; this might perhaps help to explain why Meijers contribution was such an isolated one and why it received relatively little attention at the time. As J.H. Beekhuis, a later collaborator on the recodification project, wrote in 1950, de feestelijke herdenking van onze codificatie was nu eenmaal niet het moment om tegelijk haar begrafenis in te luiden, en had eerder tengevolge, dat men zich ging verdiepen in het goede, dat wij er aan te danken hebben. 15 Nevertheless, Meijers opinions did find some support: in his review of the Festschrift, Van Apeldoorn accused Scholten of defending the ideal of codification in name only, and of opposing the renewal of 11 VPO i P. Scholten, De Codificatie-gedachte vóór honderd jaar en thans in P. Scholten & E.M. Meijers (eds.), Gedenkboek Burgerlijk Wetboek, (Zwolle, 1938), p E.M. Meijers, Wijzigingen en aanvullingen van het Burgerlijk Wetboek na 1838 in ibid., pp Reprinted in VPO, i Meijers, De honderjarige burgerlijke wetgeving, VPO i J.H. Beekhuis, Meijers en de vernieuwing van onze codificatie, Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis, 1950, pp9 what could no longer be called a codification. Van Apeldoorn concluded his review by agreeing with Meijers that the time was ripe for a complete revision, arguing that there was sufficient legislative talent available which should not be left unused. 16 If some writers supported Meijers ideas, however, the majority did not. Certainly the Justice Minister, F. Goseling, felt that, considering developments in Germany, he had more pressing concerns, 17 and without his initiative, nothing could be done. When war broke out in 1940, Meijers, whose belief in the unavoidable necessity of recodification dated back to his student days, had still not been able to win the argument, and showed little sign of doing so. 16 Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis, 1939, p. 84ff.. Cf. Florijn, op. cit., p Eerste Kamer , no. 2, document 64A, p. 9. He was later to die in a German concentration camp. 510 C HAPTER 2 The War This chapter consists of two parts. The first will discuss the experiences of Eduard Meijers during the war, addressing specifically the question of the work he was able to do on the Civil Code during his enforced absence from university affairs and suggesting a number of possible reasons why he was able to survive the Holocaust. The second part of the chapter will give a brief overview of the German occupation of the Netherlands in as far as it related to law and the administration of justice. It can offer only the most basic introduction: L. de Jong s monumental history of the period alone covers almost 18,000 pages, or about ten pages for each day of the occupation. 18 Nevertheless, the legal aspects of the occupation are significant to the developments of the immediate post-war period and the decision to recodify the Civil Code. The best example is provided by the establishment of the Vredegerechten (peace courts), and the response of the Hoge Raad to this and other changes in the administration of justice. On 18 November 1940, all 2500 Jewish civil servants in the Netherlands, including 41 professors and the Chief Justice of the Hoge Raad, were suspended by the Reichskommissar for the Occupied Netherlands, Arthur Seyss-Inquart. Eight days later, Meijers received a letter from the Department of Education, Arts and Sciences, 19 informing him of his suspension, ingevolge opdracht van den Rijkscommissaris voor het bezette Nederlandsche gebied terzake van niet-arisch overheidspersoneel. The same day, at the hour when Meijers was due to give his usual lecture, his colleague and dean of the Law Faculty, Professor R.P. Cleveringa, announced the news to the students. In a speech which immortalised both the speaker and his subject, and which is still commemorated today, Cleveringa expressed his outrage at German oppression and intolerance, and praised Meijers work and his importance for the University and the country. He knew the consequences of such undisguised protest, and had already packed his suitcase; he was arrested the next day, and spent the next eight months in prison. Meijers himself took advantage of his enforced absence from university life by turning all of his attention to his research projects in civil law and legal history. He was, however, sufficiently worried by the measures being taken by the occupying authorities to ask a former pupil, L.M.I.L. van Taalingen-Dols, 18 L. de Jong, Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog (The Hague, ), 14 vols. 19 With the government in exile in London, the ministries were led by the secretaries-general (permanent under-secretaries of state), under the supervision of the Reichskommissariat. On 1 March 1941, the Jewish civil servants were dismissed outright. 611 now a lawyer in Haarlem, to look after his interests. 20 Van Taalingen-Dols had a number of Jewish clients in similar positions and had built up important contacts in the disparate German occupation regime, most importantly with the Generalkommissar für das Sicherheitswesen und SS, Hanns Rauter. 21 We are extremely fortunate to have her memoirs of her efforts on Meijers behalf during the occupation. 22 Although aware that the Germans were certain to take economic measures against the Jews, Meijers consistently underestimated, at least in Van Taalingen-Dols view, the physical dangers to which he and his family might be subjected. 23 His position was made all the more precarious by the wave of student strikes which followed in the wake of Cleveringa s protest, of which the authorities mistakenly, it seems regarded him as the auctor intellectualis. Meijers notoriety among the German officials whose help Van Taalingen-Dols sought on his behalf made her work considerably more complicated. Meijers was finally arrested on 7 August 1942, 24 along with a number of other Leiden professors. Significantly, Meijers was the only one to be sent to the Judendurchgangslager at Westerbork; the rest was sent to St. Michielsgestel, a hostage camp for prominent citizens. His wife and youngest daughter were arrested the same day. They had been instructed to bring food and clothing for three days, which seemed to indicate that they were to be transported to Germany immediately. 25 However, through her contacts and other efforts, Van Taalingen-Dols was able to keep the family in Westerbork. On 17 February 1943, they were among the 650 or so prominent Jews transferred to De Schaffelaar in Barneveld, which was under the supervision of Generalkommissar zur besonderen Wendung Fritz Schmidt, and offered temporary protection from deportation, at least while Schmidt remained in office. Meijers and his family, in other words, moved from the responsibility of the SS to that of its rival, the Reichskommissariat. 26 Soon after Schmidt s mysterious death in France on 26 June 1943, 27 Rauter had 20 According to Meijers daughter Clara, Van Taalingen-Dols s appointment came about by chance. Van Taalingen had an appointment with Meijers, and when she arrived at his house, from which the family had just been evicted by the authorities, she found a notice with the new address. On finding Meijers, she asked him if it would not be a good idea to appoint someone to look after his interests. When asked if she knew anyone suitable, she replied that she would be prepared to take up the task: conversation with Miss Clara C. Meijers, 3 September Rauter was Höhere SS- und Polizeiführer and Reichsführer-SS Himmler s man in the Netherlands, largely independent of Seyss-Inquart. Cf. the important D.Phil thesis by L. van der Meij, The SS in the Netherlands: The Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer Nordwest (Oxford, 1996). 22 Published as De strijd om een mensenleven, (Goes, 1960), hereafter referred to as Van Taalingen-Dols. 23 In fact this tragic attitude of optimism was typical of many Jews in the Netherlands: cf. for example J.C.H. Blom, De vervolging van de joden in Nederland in internationaal vergelijkend perspectief, De Gids 150 (1987), pp , and P. Griffioen & R. Zeller, Jodenvervolging in Nederland en België tijdens de Tweede Wereldoorlog: een vergelijkende analyse in Oorlogsdocumentatie 40-45: Jaarboek van het Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie, vol. 8 (Zutphen, 1997), pp The dates in this paragraph are those given by Meijers himself, in evidence to the post-war parliamentary enquiry into the government-in-exile: Enquêtecommissie Regeringsbeleid , Verslag houdende de uitkomsten van het onderzoek, 8 vols. (The Hague, ), vol. 6c, pp They are corroborated by other authors and documents. 25 Cf. Van Taalingen-Dols, pp Cf. Van Taalingen-Dols, p For a discussion of Schmidt s death and the rivalries between Rauter and Schmidt and their respective organisations, see De SS en Nederland: Documenten uit SS archieven, , ed. N.C.K.A. in t Veld, 2 vols. (The Hague, 1976), pp. 93, 95 ff., 1102ff.. For our purposes, it is sufficient to note that Schmidt s death marked the definitive ascendancy of Rauter and the SS within the occupation regime. 712 the facility closed and the group returned to Westerbork on 29 September. On 4 September 1944, with rumours of imminent liberation abounding, the Barneveld group, including the Meijers family, was among 2087 Jews transported on the last train to leave the Netherlands for Theresienstadt. 28 Theresienstadt was a model camp, and chances of survival were higher than in destruction camps such as Auschwitz and Sobibor, where the vast majority of Dutch Jews were taken. Nevertheless, the Meijers family was extremely fortunate still to be alive when the camp was liberated by the Red Army in May 1945: between 28 September and 28 October, immediately after the visit of the Danish Red Cross to the camp, more than half of the Ghetto s inmates, about 18,500 people in all, were transported to destruction camps. Only a quarter of the approximately 5000 Dutch Jews sent to Theresienstadt survived the war. Two reasons can be given for the Meijers survival. Firstly, a very high percentage of the Barneveld group overall survived the war. Along with the baptised Jews, they were exempted, probably on the direct orders of Seyss-Inquart, 29 from the large-scale evacuations to Auschwitz of September and October 1944; after 28 October, no more inmates were transported from Theresienstadt. Secondly, Meijers became the Dutch representative on the Ältestenrat, the self-government body then led by Dr. Benjamin Murmelstein set up by the SS to maintain the elaborate pretence that the Jews in the Theresienstadt Ghetto governed themselves. 30 This gave him, and his family, a privileged position and considerably improved their chances of survival. It seems that the order to include Meijers on the Ältestenrat had come directly from Berlin, where Van Taalingen-Dols had won the vital assistance of one of Eichmann s assistants at the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA). 31 It seems that Meijers was able to continue working to some extent throughout his internment, although he only had a few books at his disposal, the last of which were taken from him when he was transferred to Theresienstadt. 32 At Westerbork, Meijers received occasional visits from another former pupil, L. Barmat alias De Winter, who was able to obtain the necessary travel and entry permits because of his job at the Joodsche Raad in Amsterdam. On 22 October 1942, he reported to Van Taalingen-Dols that Professor is over zijn bestaan in Westerbork niet ontevreden en zou, als hij zekerheid had niet plotseling op transport te worden gesteld, het liefst in Westerbork blijven. 33 On 3 November, Van Taalingen-Dols herself observed on a visit that Meijers, who had obtained work in the camp s meagre library, had ruim tijd voor eigen wetenschappelijk werk, natuurlijk minder vlot als in Leiden, omdat 28 J. Presser, Ondergang: de vervolging en verdelging van het Nederlandse Jodendom, , 2 vols. (The Hague, 1965), ii The best work on Theresienstadt remains H.G. Adler, Theresienstadt : das Antlitz einer Zwangsgemeinschaft: Geschichte, Soziologie, Psychologie (Tübingen, 1960). 29 Cf. B. de Munnick, Uitverkoren in Uitzondering? Het Verhaal van de Joodse Barneveld-groep, (Barneveld, 1991), p. 64n and Presser, Ondergang, i Not one member of the Barneveld group was sent to a destruction camp. 30 Cf. A. Shek, Ein Theresienstädter Tagebuch, 18. okt mai 1945 in Theresienstädter Studien und Dokumente, vol. 1 (Prague, 1994), pp. 187, 202n. 31 Van Taalingen-Dols, especially pp Cf. Interview with Meijers in Het Parool, 14 May 1947, p Van Taalingen-Dols, p13 hij hier over minder studiemateriaal beschikt. 34 In Theresienstadt, besides his work on the Ältestenrat, Meijers also worked in the accounts department. According to his daughter Clara, who was with him throughout his internment, this enabled him to excuse himself from the tense meetings of the Ältestenrat by referring to his accountancy obligations, and vice versa. He thus created the opportunity to work on De algemene Begrippen van het burgerlijk recht, a work which he wrote without reference material of any kind and which was eventually published in The main question of interest, however, is whether Meijers was able to do any work on a concept for the new Civil Code which he so desired. Certainly, there were strong rumours after the war that he had already completed some parts, if not all, of a new Code in draft form. Most of those who worked on the recodification project after the war assumed that he had at least some sketches, although precious little evidence of such sketches came to light. In an unpublished and undated interview clearly edited during the period shortly after Meijers appointment, Minister Van Maarseveen stated that Gedurende de bezettingstijd en met name tijdens zijn internering heeft Prof. Meijers zijn gedachten laten gaan over de noodzakelijke vernieuwing van ons burgerlijk wetboek en hij heeft daaraan zelfs ten dele concrete vorm aan gegeven. 36 When questioned on the subject by Erik Florijn, three men closely involved in the recodification project, J.H. Beekhuis, W.G. Belinfante and G.E. Langemeijer, all stated that it was common knowledge that Meijers had worked on the project during his internment; indeed, according to Langemeijer, it was bekend dat hij er na zijn onstslag door de Duitsers intens aan gewerkt had, waarschijnlijk een vrij groot gedeelte van het wetboek al klaar had, in ieder geval schetsmatig. 37 Frustratingly for the historian, none offer any concrete proof of exactly what Meijers had done. Jean Schneider, a Frenchman who was in Theresienstadt with Meijers, and later published a book together with him, 38 was also unable to offer any help. R. van den Bergh, a member of parliament, recalled during the first parliamentary debate on Meijers draft code in 1954 that he, too, had unwittingly witnessed Meijers working on the code during their internment at Westerbork. Although he had not known it at the time, they had probably discussed matters directly related to Meijers drafts. 39 Florijn mentions several others who, independently of each other, stated that Meijers had worked on the civil 34 Van Taalingen-Dols, p Conversation with Miss C.C. Meijers, 3 September Interview van de Minister van Justitie naar aanleiding van de opdracht om een nieuw burgerlijk wetboek te ontwerpen, welke opdracht bij Koninklijk besluit is verleend aan Prof. Mr.E.M. Meijers, hoogleraar te Leiden, De Meijere archives, Ministry of Justice, The Hague. The same point was made in a circular, dated 14 May 1947, in which the Justice Minister informed the judiciary, the law faculties and the professional organisations of Meijers appointment. NBW archives, Ministry of Justice. 37 Florijn, interview with G.E. Langemeijer, 30 July J.J. Salverda de Grave, E.M. Meijers & J. Schneider (eds.), Le droit coutumier de la ville de Metz au Moyen Age, vol. 1: Jugements du maître-échevin de Metz au XIVe siècle (Haarlem, 1951). It is unclear from Schneider s letter to the author of 24 September 1996 whether they worked on the Metz project in Theresienstadt. It seems likely, for Meijers was almost constantly occupied with it: cf. Van Taalingen-Dols, for example pp. 73, 226-8, 271-5, C.J. van Zeben (ed.), Parlementaire Geschiedenis van het Nieuwe Burgerlijk Wetboek: Invoeringswet Boek I (Deventer, 1969), p14 code during his internment. Again, none of these knew exactly which parts he worked on. 40 M. Roodde Boer, Meijers secretary from 1949 to 1951, referred in an interview with Florijn to the vergeelde blaadjes which she had to type up, which Meijers told her he had written before the war. These concerned contract law. 41 Van Taalingen-Dols also confirms that Meijers was working on the code during his internment again without specifying which aspect: De Winter telephoned her on 8 September 1944 to ask her what to do with the material which Meijers had been forced to leave in Westerbork: Het werk dat De Winter heeft, handelt over een nieuw B.W. 42 In fact, the only concrete indication of what part of the Civil Code Meijers was working on is provided by very interesting and hitherto unpublished evidence recently discovered by Clara Meijers. It is a collection of correspondence dating from April to August 1944 between Professor W. van Eysinga, a friend and colleague of Meijers who acted as go-between for the distribution and typing of his work, Miss M. Blok, Meijers secretary, and De Winter, concerning a draft on marriage law (part of Book 1 of the Civil Code) on which Meijers was working. In a letter to Van Eysinga dated 2 April 1944, Miss Blok hints that she had found it considerably more stimulating work than some of the other material Meijers had been sending: Het was erg interessant om te tikken, zoo helder en klaar als de artt. zijn. Er worden ook enkele nieuwigheden ingevoerd, als b.v. art. 16 (geneesk[undig] onderzoek voor het huwelijk), art. 32 (kerkelijk huwelijk door geestelijke, als ambt[enaar] B[urgerlijke] S[tand], zonder voorafgaand huwelijk op t Stadhuis), art. 50 en v[o]lg[ende] (over wie de huishoudelijke uitgaven moet betalen enz[ovoorts]) (...) 43 In a letter from Blok to Van Eysinga, dated 4 July 1944, it emerges that Meijers had left articles 1-52 vrijwel ongewijzigd, and had made significant changes to articles On 1 April 1945, Van Eysinga wrote to Van Taalingen-Dols that Blok nog steeds bezig is het mooie werk van onze vriend over te tikken. 44 Although it is not entirely certain that this refers to draft material for the civil code, the reference to it as mooi werk (beautiful work), coupled with Blok s enthusiasm for it cited above, strongly suggests that it does. This would also suggest that Meijers had sent considerably more draft material to Miss Blok than simply the 135 articles on marriage law. Following the departure of German troops on 4 and 5 May 1945, Meijers and the three other member of the Ältestenrat effectively ran Theresienstadt for a number of days. 45 In a letter dated 15 May, Meijers 40 Florijn, Ontstaan, pp Florijn, interview with M. Rood-De Boer, 24 September Van Taalingen-Dols, p The letters are in the archives of Prof. Dr. W. van Eysinga. I am most grateful to Miss Meijers for bringing these letters to my attention. 44 Van Taalingen-Dols, p Z. Lederer, Ghetto Theresienstadt (London, 1953), p15 reported to Van Eysinga that the situation was critical, especially with regard to infections. 46 On 25 June, however, he was finally back in Leiden, bij stralend zonlicht en ongebroken van geest. 47 By the beginning of July, he had set his first exams at the University and was preparing his lectures. In the following months, he helped set up a student housing corporation and a new University Press. By all accounts, he was fully back to work. Although his experiences had aged him considerably, as he admitted to the former resistance newspaper Het Parool, he was nevertheless ongeknakt van geest. 48 The dismissal of Jewish civil servants in November 1940 was, of course, merely one aspect of the changes brought about in Dutch society by the German occupation. 49 It was an important turning point, however, in the administration of law and justice during the occupation, for it made it clear that all hopes of continuing normality in this field were illusory, even in supposedly non-political areas. The Dutch government had always assumed that an occupying power would respect the Land Warfare Convention of 1907, which laid down the extent to which an occupying power might interfere with the institutions and laws of an occupied country. 50 The instructions which were drawn up by the government in 1937 to regulate the conduct of civil servants in the event of enemy occupation were based entirely on this assumption. 51 It instructed civil servants to continue in their duties to maintain peace and order. In the event of a conflict of loyalties, it was left to the individual s conscience to judge between the benefits or damage to the population and the potential advantage to the enemy. In case of a clear disadvantage to the Dutch population, he was ordered to resign his position immediately (article 31). It was clearly assumed, however, that the occupation authorities would only interfere with those areas of law and justice which directly affected their military and political interests. These pious hopes turned out to be thoroughly misplaced and misunderstood the totalitarian aspirations of the Nazi occupation. Although the terms of the Land Warfare Convention could be interpreted broadly, it remained clear that the fundamental point of the convention was that an occupation regime should be conservative. Seyss-Inquart s administration, in the words of De Jong, droeg daarentegen van meet af een diametraal tegenovergesteld karakter: niet op conservatie gericht maar 46 Quoted in Van Taalingen-Dols, p R.P. Cleveringa in Rechtsgeleerd Magazijn Themis (1950), pp Het Parool, 14 May Apart from De Jong s multi-volume history, the two best short overviews of the German occupation of the Netherlands and its effects on Dutch society are, respectively, J.C.H. Blom, Nederland onder Duitse bezetting, 10 mei mei 1945 and idem, De Tweede Wereldoorlog en de Nederlandse samenleving: Continuiteit en Verandering, in Crisis, Bezetting en Herstel. Tien studies over Nederland (Rotterdam, 1989), pp and Article 43 compels the occupying power to respecter les lois en vigeur sauf empêchement absolu. 51 De Aanwijzingen betreffende de houding, aan te nemen door de bestuursorganen van het Rijk, de Provinciën, Gemeenten, Waterschappen, Veenschappen en Veenpolders, alsmede door het daarbij in dienst zijnde personeel en door het personeel in dienst bij spoor- en tramwegen in geval van een vijandelijke inval, 1937, published in Enquêtecommissie Regeringsbeleid, vol. 7A/B, pp. 38ff. 1116 op wijziging wijziging in nationaal-socialistische geest, met als einddoel een genazificeerd Nederland dat op de een of andere wijze in het Derde Rijk zou opgaan. 52 German interference was as far-reaching in the field of of legal administration as it was elsewhere. 53 On 29 May 1940, the day of his inauguration as Reichskommissar, Seyss-Inquart decreed that judicial verdicts should be given In naam van het Recht instead of In naam der Koningin. 54 The dilemmas facing judges, prosecutors, lawyers and the civil servants of the Ministry of Justice were henceforth to be no different from those facing other civil servants, and their conduct would resemble closely that of other elements of the administration. Much like the rest of the state apparatus, moreover, the legal establishment was increasingly infiltrated by new recruits of national-socialist sympathies, be they members of Anton Mussert s Nationaal-Socialistishe Beweging (NSB) or not. Despite the interventionist and often annexationist policies of the Reichskommissariat and particularly the SS, it should be emphasised that there were many areas of legal practice in which they were not materially interested. Although the prosecution of the Final Solution inevitably implied practical changes in family and nationality law and suspension of parts of the Constitution, 55 most areas of commercial law and the law of contracts, obligations and torts were left alone where they did not affect German interests. In these areas of civil law, the judiciary was able to continue its work almost as if nothing had happened. The removal of Queen Wilhelmina s portrait and name from courtrooms and verdicts was a formality, they could tell themselves, only to be expected given that she and her government-in-exile had allied the country firmly to the Allied cause. It was inevitably in the field of criminal and economic criminal law that German interference was most pronounced. The post-war verdict on the conduct of the supposed guardian of fairness and impartiality in the administration of justice, the Hoge Raad, was extremely critical, and few historians have seen reason to disagree. The court pursued a legalistic bunker mentality that may certainly be described as unnecessarily weak, even if it did not amount to collaboration. The first opportunity for the Hoge Raad to state its position came with the requirement that all Jewish civil servants be registered as such. There was a good deal of protest, especially from the universities and the churches. The Hoge Raad was the obvious body to register a strong protest, all the more so as its revered President, L.E. Visser, stood to be one of the most notable victims. The judges decided, however, that there was no legal basis for 52 De Jong, Het Koninkrijk, vi There is no satisfactory general study of law and justice during the occupation. De Jong, Het Koninkrijk, vi. 638ff., provides an introduction. P.E. Mazel, In naam van het Recht. De Hoge Raad en de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Arnhem, 1984) mentions developments relevant to that body. 54 Verordnungsblatt für die besetzten niederländischen Gebiete, Verordnung 1940/3. These decrees are henceforth referred to as VO. 55 Article 5 of the 1938 Constitution, which forbade discrimination on religious or racial grounds in government appointments, was all but abolished by VO 1940/17 protest, since international law did not prevent an occupying power from dismissing troublesome civil servants. According to J.E. van der Meulen, a judge in the Hoge Raad, Tijdens de oorlog hebben wij gewoon door kunnen werken. 56 This is mostly true, but it did not prevent the criminal bench of the court from giving a verdict, on 12 January 1942, known as the Toetsingsarrest, which greatly damaged its reputation. It arose from an important question of principle, namely whether the court had the right to judge whether the Verordnungen of the occupying power met the rules of the Land Warfare Convention of In this particular case, the Hoge Raad was asked to declare void a Verordnung by means of which a fishmonger who had sold fish without the necessary permits and licences had been imprisoned. This the court, in its final verdict, refused to do. It went considerably further than necessary, however, in equating entirely German Verodnungen, however unjust, with ordinary Dutch parliamentary legislation, arguing that: aan het besluit... onder de huidige omstandigheden het karakter van wet in den zin der Nederlandsche wetgeving niet kan worden ontzegd. 57 Another major criticism of the conduct of the Hoge Raad during the German occupation concerns its recognition of the Vredegerecht. Mussert had complained of the attacks and abuse to which his NSB members were being subjected by the general public, and the extreme leniency with which the courts presently dealt with such offences. 58 The result was the establishment, on 16 August 1941, of the Vredegerecht, a court specifically charged with prosecution of all crimes and offences which den politieken vrede binnen de volksgemeenschap in gevaar brengen of de hoogste politieke belangen van de volksgemeenschap raken of uit politieke beweegredenen zijn begaan (...) 59 It was the brainchild of the new germanophile Secretary-General for Justice, J.J. Schrieke who, according to Rauter, was absolut grossgermanisch im Sinne der Reichsidee ausgericht und ein treuer und verlässlicher Anhänger des Führers. 60 It was the fact that the punishment of the frequent expressions of anti- German sentiment could thus be left to the Dutch judiciary which most angered J. Zaaijer, the chief prosecutor at the trial in 1946 of the court s president, J.H. Carp: Wat ik hem kwalijk neem is, dat hij de Nederlandsche Justitie gebruikt heeft als propaganda-instrument 56 Quoted in Mazel, In naam van het Recht, p. 61n. 57 Weekblad van het Recht, 8 April 1942, No Mussert s note to Hitler, written in July 1941, was published in Vijf nota s van Mussert aan Hitler over de samenwerking van Duitsland en Nederland in een Bond van Germaansche Volkeren (The Hague, 1947). The note never reached Hitler: the Reichskommissariat failed to forward it after translation: cf. M. de Geus, Vrederechtspraak in Nederland, in Oorlogsdocumentatie 40-45: Jaarboek van het Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie, vol. 6 (Zutphen, 1995), p. 46n. 59 VO 1941/156, art Five vrederechters were attached to the regular courts in The Hague, s-hertogenbosch, Arnhem, Amsterdam and Leeuwarden. A vredegerechtshof, consisting of three judges, was attached to the Court of Appeal in The Hague. 60 Rauter to Himmler; quoted in De Jong, Het Koninkrijk, vi,18 tegen het Nederlandse volk, om door middel van haar moreel gezag bij dat volk het in nationaalsocialistischen geest op te voeden. Het schandelijke is niet, dat men den vrederechter liet optreden, maar dat men hem als Nederlandschen rechter liet optreden. Zaaijer stopped short of demanding the death penalty for Carp, however, largely because the Hoge Raad had, zonder blikken of blozen, allowed the system to operate. 61 One of the court s goals was to retry, by national-socialist standards, 62 political cases which had already been dealt with, thus abolishing the principle of ne bis in idem. 63 This, according to Schrieke, was an illustration of the fact that een nieuwe wereldbeschouwing met haar onafwijsbare slotsommen bezig is, het tot nog toe heersende stelsel terzijde te schuiven. 64 His courts, the judges of which were chosen without exception from dem kreis der der NSB angehörenden oder ihr gesinnungsmässig besonderes nabestehenden Rechtwahrer, 65 tried several hundred cases until they were abolished by the Reichskommissariat in Although ultimately a failure and short-lived in its application, vrederechtspraak was symbolic of the degree to which the occupation authorities sought to alter the foundations of the legal system and place it on a national-socialist basis, and demonstrated conclusively that justice might be used for partisan ends. Similarly, the weak and legalistic response of the Hoge Raad was symbolic of its reluctance to oppose German measures, however unjust, and showed that judges were no protection againt an aggressive public authority. In the words of one recent historian, the Hoge Raad had niet alleen verzuimd leiding te geen aan wat rechters wel en niet van de bezetter mochten aanvaarden: hij had zelfs herhaalde malen blijkt gegeven voor de bezetter door de knieën te gaan. 66 It is therefore not surprising that the politicians of the liberation era were faced with strong demands for changes in the structure and personnel of the Hoge Raad: it had failed conspicuously to prevent the Nazi occupation from undermining public confidence both in the impatiality and in the effectiveness of the legal system. The subsequent refusal of the court s judges to draw their own conclusions from their inadequate wartime conduct would seem to confirm this conclusion. 61 Proces-Carp, Bijzonder Gerechtshof s-gravenhage, 19 March 1946, quoted in Mazel, In naam van het Recht, p Cf. Mazel, In naam van het Recht, pp Wetboek van Strafrecht, art Quoted in De Geus, Vrederechtspraak in Nederland p Letter written by Generalkommissar Wimmer, 22 December Quoted in De Geus, Vrederechtspraak in Nederland, p A.D. Belinfante, In plaats van bijltjesdag: de geschiedenis van de bijzondere rechtspleging na de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Assen, 1978), p19 C HAPTER 3 The course of events On 5 March 1947, the Liberal senator R. Zegering Hadders put the following question to the Minister of Justice, J.H. van Maarseveen, during the debate on the Justice Ministry Budget, the first since the war: Ik zal vandaag niet in de breede ingaan op den plaats, die de vrouw krachtens ons Burgerlijk Wetboek in het huwelijk inneemt; ik zal niet spreken over het huwelijksgoederenrecht of over de toegezegde wijziging van de wetgeving betreffende de echtscheiding. Ik volsta met te zeggen, dat naar onze mening ons Burgerlijk Wetboek in hoge mate verouderd is. Op tal van gebieden van het civiele recht zijn volkomen nieuwe denkbeelden naar voren gekomen, terwijl de maatschappelijke verhoudingen sedert 1839 een geweldige verandering hebben ondergaan... Zouden wij den Minister bereid mogen vinden... thans aan een rechtsgeleerde van den eersten rang, ik denk aan prof. Meijers, te verzoeken een geheel nieuw Burgerlijk Wetboek samen te stellen, een ontwerp dat, omdat het door één man wordt ontworpen, van één geest kan zijn vervuld en daardoor tevens een logisch sluitend geheel zal vormen? 67 The next day, Minister Van Maarseveen replied that, nu wij het geluk hebben in onze samenleving zoo n voortreffelijk jurist als prof. Meijers te hebben, he would certainly consider the idea. 68 On 19 March, he wrote to Meijers suggesting that they meet to discuss the matter. The date set for the meeting was 15 April On 12 April, Van Maarseveen met with some of his most senior civil servants. One of those present was C.A. de Meijere, raadadviseur (senior adviser) at the Ministry of Justice, and we are fortunate that his notes on both meetings have been preserved in the archives of the Ministry of Justice. At the first, the Minister suggested that the legal establishment the judiciary, law faculties and professional organisations should be asked to give its opinion on the project. Interestingly, the reason for this is teneinde voor deze zaak in de juristenwereld belangstelling te wekken. 69 Furthermore, he made it clear that Meijers was not to be allowed to make any far-reaching changes to matters of family law. Meijers was to follow the Minister s instructions. In de gronden voor echtscheiding moet dus niet of althans niet veel worden gewijzigd. The principle that the man was the head of the marital unit was to be left unchanged, although better protection for women against abuse was desirable, and the grounds for separation might be extended. According to De Meijere s account of the second meeting, with Meijers present, Van Maarseveen announced at the start that Meijers would accept the task. 70 He had clearly already secured Meijers agreement before the meeting, but there is no record of how this was done. He pointed out that de wet te veel een doode letter wordt en de jurisprudentie te los van de wet komt te staan. De Meijere continues: EMM acht BW [Burgerlijk Wetboek] zeer verouderd; het wetboek dreigt slechts leerboek te 67 Eerste Kamer, 5 March 1947, p Ibid., p Minutes of meeting of 12 April 1947, De Meijere archives, Ministry of Justice, The Hague. 1520 worden. The rest of the meeting mostly concerned practical matters: the manner of Meijers appointment, the speed at which he expected to work, the appointment of a second professor of civil law at Leiden University. Van Maarseveen pointed out that voor verruiming van de echtscheidingsgronden in de kamer geen meerderheid te vinden zal zijn, which Meijers considered een vereenvoudiging van zijn taak. The political matters, mostly found in Books 1 and 2, were taken to include divorce, marital authority, the involvement of judges in juvenile matters, juvenile law and marriage law. Importantly, it was decided that Om te voorkomen dat het werk vastloopt op groote verscheidenheid van meeningen moet er de voorkeur aan worden gegeven om niet Boek 1 maar het technische gedeelte van het BW voorop te stellen. Meijers noted that, if the advice of the legal profession was sought, the response could equally well be negative; Van Maarseveen, we are told, wenscht eventueele oppositie te negeren. Consequently, it was decided not to send the letter until after the Queen had signed the Royal Decree. A discussion paper was immediately produced by the Department, intended for the next meeting of the Cabinet. Although it does not actually seem ever to have been discussed by the Cabinet, 71 it gives a clear indication of the official reasons for Meijers appointment: Het burgerlijk wetboek... is behalve oud, ook verouderd. De sporen van ouderdom zijn ondanks de partieele herzieningen, diep in het wetboek gegroefd. De ontwikkeling van het burgerlijk recht, voor zoover dit in het wetboek is neergelegd, is buiten het wetboek getreden, doordat de rechtspaak over het burgerlijk wetboek een ontwikkeling te zien geeft, die buiten het wetboek om gaat en die bovendien tegen beginselen van het wetboek indruischt. Dit dubbele aspect van de ontwikkeling van het burgerlijk recht doet het wettenrecht wijken voor een jurisprudentierecht, welk recht veel minder dan wettenrecht en met name wanneer jurisprudentierecht tot ontwikkeling moet komen naast en tegen een bestaand wetboek in in staat is het gecompliceerde maatschappelijke leven te omvatten. 72 On the matter of political questions, the paper pointed out that Het nieuwe burgerlijk wetboek zal... het midden moeten bewaren tusschen hetgeen bereids gemeen goed van de rechtswetenschap is geworden en de rechtsontwikkeling van de toekomst. Het zal daarom niet te ver mogen vooruitlopen op de resultaten, die de rechtswetenschap heeft bereikt. Het nieuwe burgerlijk wetboek zal daarom geen belangrijke verandering kunnen brengen in onderwerpen, die kort geleden bij wet zijn geregeld en voorts ten aanzien van principieele punten zich conformeren aan het beleid van het oogenblikkelijk Hoofd van het Ministerie van Justitie. 73 On 18 April, Van Maarseveen sent a modified version 74 to the Queen, with the agreement of the Prime Minister, and requested her to sign the Royal Decree, which she did on 25 April. The legal profession 70 All quotations in this paragraph are from the minutes of the meeting of 15 April 1947, De Meijere archives, Ministry of Justice, The Hague. 71 Florijn, Ontstaan, p Nota voor den Raad van Ministers over de bewerking van een nieuw Burgerlijk Wetboek door Prof.Mr.E.M. Meijers, Hoogleraar te Leiden, De Meijere archives, Ministry of Justice, p Ibid., p Apart from a number of changes in vocabulary and syntax, the most interesting change is the claim that a new Civil Code met name voor de jongere generatie een machtige impuls [zou] kunnen zijn, om zich met vernieuwden ijver aan de studie 16 View more
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