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The Death of Islamic Law Haider Ala Hamoudi 1 - PDF
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1 The Death of Islamic Law Haider Ala Hamoudi 1 The entire system of government and administration, together with the necessary laws, lies ready for you.... [I]f laws are needed, Islam has established them all. There is no need for you, after establishing a government, to sit down and draw up laws, or like rulers who worship foreigners and are infatuated with the West, run after others to borrow their laws. Everything is ready and waiting. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 2 [F]inding out what judges say is but the beginning of your task. You will have to take what they say and compare it to what they do. You will have to see if what they say matches with what they do. You will have to be distrustful of whether they themselves know (any better than other men) the ways of their own doing and of whether they describe it accurately, even if they know it.... Karl Llewellyn 3 I. Introduction Of all the mythologies relating to the Muslim state in our times, none is more persistent than that its legitimacy, and the legitimacy of the law it pronounces, depends on the imprimatur of the shari a that vast body of Muslim rules and norms developed from Muslim sacred text. While there is something romantic, and almost touching, in the notion that the Muslim world is somehow different from the rest of the globe in the primacy afforded to the state in the promulgation of law, it has no basis in fact. Rather, precisely the reverse is true the legitimacy of the shari a in the modern Muslim state depends on state authority. When such authority is extended, the shari a may be realized, and when taken away, as it often is, the shari a more often than not withers and dies. It is therefore Mammon who decides when God s Law shall be applied, and when it shall be cast aside for a favored alternative. 1 Assistant Professor of Law, University of Pittsburgh School of Law. J.D., J.S.D., Columbia Law School. The author would like to thank for their generous comments and support. Any errors are mine alone. 2 Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeni, Program for the Establishment of an Islamic Government, in ISLAM AND REVOLUTION: WRITINGS AND DECLARATIONS OF IMAM KHOMEINI (Algar trans.1981) [hereinafter Khomeini ]. 3 KARL LLEWELLYN, THE BRAMBLE BUSH 4 (1930) 12 That lawmaking in the modern nation state is inherently in conflict with the notion of God s Law reigning supreme is a much discussed dilemma, engaged by such giants in the field as Joseph Schacht, 4 Bernard Weiss 5, Ann Elizabeth Mayer 6 and Sherman Jackson. 7 That the Islamist (defined for our purposes as a person who seeks a more prominent role for shari a in the law of the state), who preaches endlessly about the importance of the sovereignty of God over man, is no less eager a participant in this state of affairs than anyone else 8 has been less emphasized. 9 It is nevertheless demonstrated amply by the Islamist obsession with seizing state control and enacting, selectively, shari a as state law, rather than, as would be more logical and in keeping with the notion that God s Law takes precedence, merely empowering a judicial class to apply and enforce shari a in all areas of law. 10 This will not do for the Islamist, for he acknowledges implicitly, through codification, the primacy of the state, and insists that it be the vehicle to bring shari a. The Islamist is therefore as much a state centric legal positivist as nearly all of us in these times, and at the heart of Islamist legal thinking is a corresponding central incoherence, for these theories of law and the state sit 4 JOSEPH SCHACHT, INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC LAW 101 (1966) 5 BERNARD WEISS, THE SPIRIT OF ISLAMIC LAW 189 (1998) 6 Cf. Ann Elizabeth Mayer, The Shari ah: A Methodology or a Body of Substantive Rules in ISLAMIC LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE 182 (Heer ed. 1990) (discussing the paradox of Islamist complicity in the codification phenomenon in the context of Iran). 7 SHERMAN JACKSON, ISLAMIC LAW AND THE STATE: THE CONSTITUTIONAL JURISPRUDENCE OF SHIHAB AL- DIN AL-QARAFI xvii-xviii (1996). 8 Included within this non-islamist category, therefore, would be anyone who held to the notion that law could and should be determined on bases independent of the shari a. It is therefore extremely important to distinguish between the Muslim, an adherent of the religion of Islam, however devout, and the Islamist, who seeks to incorporate more shari a into the state. Thus, for example, the Muslim liberal and avowedly non-islamist Ali Abd al-raziq, in his well known work Islam wa usul ul-hukm, has argued that Islam is a religion and not a state, that the Prophet was never a king or a founder of a political state, and that the Message of the Qur an was a religious Call divorced from politics. See, e.g., CHARLES KURTZMANN, LIBERAL ISLAM (1998) (translating portions of Abd al-raziq s work). More recently, Abdullahi An Naim has produced an admirable and bracing work endorsing the notion of secularism using Islamic arguments, among which are that the God s Will is fundamentally unknowable and therefore cannot sensibly be coerced as a matter of law given the highly political manner in which law is produced. ABDULLAHI AHMED AN NAIM, ISLAM AND THE SECULAR STATE: NEGOTIATING THE FUTURE OF SHARI A (2008). It is dangerous, and inaccurate, to dismiss such secularist ideas as being marginal among believing Muslims. Turkey s ruling party, the Justice and Development Party, whose leadership is composed largely of devout Muslims, has proclaimed repeatedly and unambiguously that the shari a has no role in the affairs of the state, using arguments not dissimilar, if less intellectually rigorous, than those advanced by An Naim. AKP Strives to Shrug off Islamist Image, Turkish Daily News, visited June 30, 2008); Susanna Dokupil, The Separation of Mosque and State: Islam and Democracy in Modern Turkey, 105 W. VA. L. REV. 53, 127 (Fall 2002); AKP Official Website, supra. ( Our Party refuses to take advantage of sacred religious values and ethnicity and to use them for political purposes. ) The conflation of secular, devout Muslims and Islamists seeking to place shari a squarely into the affairs of the state is but another manifestation of the scholarly effort to raise the profile of shari a as supreme Muslim law wherever practicable. See Haider Ala Hamoudi, Book Review: The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State, 2 MID. E. L. & GOV.: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL (forthcoming 2009) (criticizing one such effort). 9 Cf. Mayer, supra note 6 at Id. at3 uncomfortably with the Islamist notion that it is God and not man who is the ultimate legislator. The curious penchant for shari a selectivity on the part of the Islamist, while puzzling to one in search of logic in the law, provides in fact much guidance to the central theme of this article, which is to uncover precisely why the Islamist has chosen this road of incoherence, demanding that the law of man lie subservient to the Will of God on the one hand, and then gleefully adopting a state structure that makes such a notion impossible to achieve on the other. It is not enough to note, as some astute observers have, that seizing state control allows concentration of power that few are willing to relinquish to scholarly authorities. 11 This alone cannot provide sufficient explanation, for in Iran, those who seized control of the state were the scholarly authorities, and they still retained codification as the means of lawmaking. 12 Rather than searching for reasons relating to power dynamics, an altogether simpler answer proves more satisfactory; namely, that by leaving the state as the repository for legal authority, the Islamist may then be limited in his shari a aims, for selective application of God s Law is all he truly seeks. That is, while the Islamist may say that he wishes God s Law to be supreme over that of man, there is nothing in his actions to suggest that this rhetoric, however sincerely held, is an accurate reflection of his actual aims. The Islamist does not want God s Law to reign supreme in areas such as corporate law and the law of business entities, where the economic consequences might be dire. 13 He does not want God s Law to obliterate a general theory of contract. 14 He does not want God s Law to replace transplanted ideas of negligence. 15 On the other end lies the law of the family, where God s Law is deemed a vital necessity, and any development, any evolution, any alteration of the rules established centuries ago when caliphs walked the earth will meet with red-faced Islamist indignation at the suggestion of such outrageous sacrilege. 16 Allowing the state to control law serves the Islamist need for careful selectivity perfectly. Once the law is safely in the hands of the state, the Islamist need only bring shari a where he wishes it (which will depend necessarily on time and place), and leave all other, largely transplanted, law, where it lies, which is to say in as authoritative a position as any shari a derived enactment by the state. Of course, this does create a dilemma for our Islamist, for surely he needs some sort of justification (to himself, if nobody else) as to how a state can be Islamic when God s Will is subject to the idiosyncratic whims of an elected legislature. The recent answer has been the repugnancy clauses in various Muslim state constitutions, which prohibit the enactment of laws that are repugnant to the shari a, or at least its certain rulings, 17 its principles, 18 its provisions, 19 or something broadly equivalent. Under 11 See, e.g., id. at ; Jackson, supra note 7 at xvii-xviii (1996). 12 See Part III.B infra. 13 See Part III.B.1 infra. 14 Id. 15 See Part III.C.1 infra. 16 See Part III.C.3 infra. 17 IRAQ CONST. Art. 2. 34 this theory, the task of the judicial branch will be to ensure that all state law is in broad conformity with shari a, and that God s Law will thus remain generally supreme over man s. God s Law, under such a conception, may then be restored to its proper place in a modern nation state. Certainly our academy has taken this phenomenon of repugnancy quite seriously, devoting a great deal of time and attention to it and describing it with such portentous terms as the Rise of the Islamic State, 20 theocratic constitutionalism, 21 and Islamic constitutionalism. 22 Yet what all of the very interesting scholarship fails to take into account is how fundamentally limited the role of shari a has become under the repugnancy approach. That is, there is something inherently silly about taking two entirely different sets of laws, derived from entirely different sources and containing entirely different substantive rules, and asking whether or not they conflict. Rather than do this, the state (and not any authority responsible for determining the content of shari a) has granted legitimacy to all law pursuant to the legislative authority of the state, including transplanted law, so long as it nowhere conflicts with a certain ruling or some similar standard invented by the state that has no inherent shari a meaning. 23 Moreover, repugnancy functioning through judicial review does nothing to bring the substantive rules of shari a back into operation. The Islamist has accepted the lawmaking systems and operations of the nation state; the same constitution that gives to the courts the power to void legislation on the grounds of repugnancy also sets forth a clear separation of powers into the executive, legislative and judicial branches. 24 As any schoolchild knows, the judicial power cannot itself create legislation, thereby rendering shari a irrelevant except to the extent that it either is brought into relevance by enactment of the state, or as a means to void legislation, but only to the extent that there is some deep conflict with a principle of shari a, whatever that is. For any Islamist movement in a society operating under transplanted law, as nearly all Muslim states are, 25 to rely on a repugnancy clause to give shari a its proper place is to demonstrate acquiescence to the notion that the state will select what of God s Law shall stand, and what shall be tossed into history s proverbial dustbin. Some bright and enterprising scholars, challenging the traditional notion that codification of shari a is problematic, have argued that there is some level of historical legitimacy to the repugnancy approach because law in the Muslim state, properly understood, means not simply the rules derived from sacred text, as I have defined shari a, but rather, in addition, the rules of the state to the extent that such rules conform 18 EGYPT CONST. Art. 2 (amended 1980). 19 AFGHAN CONST. Ch.1, Art NOAH FELDMAN, THE FALL AND RISE OF THE ISLAMIC STATE (2008). 21 Larry Catá Backer, God(s) Over Constitutions: International And Religious Transnational Constitutionalism In The 21st Century, 27 MISS.C. L.R 11 (2007) 22 Intisar Rabb, We the Jurists: Islamic Constitutionalism in Iraq, 10 U. PA. CONST. L. 527, (2008) 23 See notes and accompanying text. 24 See, e.g., IRAQ CONST. art. 45; AFGHAN. CONST. chs BERNARD WEISS, THE SPIRIT OF ISLAMIC LAW 188 (1998). 45 to the shari a and serve the public interest in various respects. 26 A comprehensive and detailed review of classical theory is well beyond the scope of this Article. However, it should be said that the notion that the state can enact legislation that not only supplements, but in fact supplants, the rules derived from sacred text subject to such minimal restrictions, whatever its classical legitimacy, is absolutely not the Islamist position with respect to questions of personal status, where the rules of Revelation are assumed to be the only proper expression of God s Law. 27 More centrally, it would barely affect the thrust of this Article, as it would only signify that not only has shari a, as defined herein, died, but it was never alive to begin with. The rules derived from sacred text in such an approach amount, from a legal perspective, to little more than a fanciful set of academic ideas that a lawmaker could adopt or drop at his whim. To be clear, shari a-fication in a more coherent manner is possible in a modern state; it is just not possible in a manner appealing to the Islamist. All that it would take would be to repeal all law and empower judges simply to apply shari a. Such systems exist, though for the most part (not exclusively), they tend to be in devastated societies where the catastrophic results of a wholesale application of shari a private law, for example, would hardly be felt given more pressing problems. 28 Beyond this, Muslim states, and Islamist movements, are far too invested in their development to call for anything less than a selective application of shari a, with the only real difference between the Islamist, the moderate and the secularist being precisely how much to select. Logic and coherence, in the end, has been forced to give way to the hard realities of our times, which cannot afford to Divinity the primary role in the making of law. Part II of this Article describes various approaches to making shari a reality in modern nation states, emphasizing the primacy of state processes in giving voice to the shari a. Part III set forth the central reasons that Islamists have chosen to continue this state of affairs, which in large part relate to the fact that they enable Islamists then to retain important parts of the transplanted law, even as they Islamize at least in some limited fashion other areas. Part IV focuses on the repugnancy clauses and shows that, far from demonstrating the primacy of shari a in the development of state law, the repugnancy clauses relegate shari a to a largely inferior role and are therefore evidence of Islamist acceptance of the near global consensus that legal authority lies with the state. Part V concludes with broader implications of these considerations, specifically related to the role that shari a is likely to play in Muslim nation states in the years to come, and the role it should be playing in the legal academy as it considers questions of law in contemporary Muslim states. I. Shari a and the Muslim Polities A. On the Nature of the Shari a 26 [M.F., unpublished]. See also Asifa Qureishi, Who Says Shari a Demands the Stoning of Women, 1 BERK. J. M.E. & ISL. L. 163 (2008). 27 See Section III.C.3 infra. 28 See Section II.A infra. 56 Islamist notions concerning the necessity of applying shari a in the state are summarized succinctly and articulately in the following passage, written by Ruud Peters, surveying debates in the field in the middle of the 1980 s: Why must shari a be enforced?... Because the supreme sovereignty belongs to God, man must submit to His will.... Since the shari a is of divine origin, it is naturally superior to any human law. The principles of the shari a are immutable and cannot, for that reason, become tools in the hands of despotic and tyrannical rulers. For they, like all others, have to follow the shari a and cannot amend it at their pleasure as rulers can where there is only man-made law The position requires some elaboration. Certainly, it sounds sensible to insist on the supremacy of God s Law, as set forth in Muslim sacred text (primarily the Qur an, the Revealed Book of God to the Prophet Muhammad, and the Sunna, the actions and utterances of the Prophet Muhammad) 30 the question nevertheless remains as to who is responsible for the determination of God s Law. That is, whose interpretation of this sacred text is deemed to be authoritative and binding? Had this question been answered in Muslim history with reference to an executive authority such as a Caliph, then certainly the notion of codification would be entirely consistent with adherence to God s Law. The caliph could then simply enact a code based on his own understanding of God s Law, and future enactments and re-enactments of codes under the authority of future Caliphs could be, at least in theory, as unproblematic as any authoritative religious institution revisiting portions of its own doctrine. Ann Elizabeth Mayer reports that precisely such a codification was proposed in early Islamic history, and ultimately rejected. 31 Instead, the shari a developed into what the renowned Joseph Schacht called a jurists law. 32 Thus, the basic materials of shari a in the Sunni tradition are the extensive and oft conflicting rules laid out in the manuals of medieval jurists from four schools of thought, 33 whereas within Shi ism, the materials are similarly juristic tomes, but prepared by currently living high jurists operating from Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran. 34 These rules are not in any individual sense Divine Law, as any jurist is capable of misapprehending or misinterpreting God s Will, and even a casual look at the tomes reveals deep and significant differences of opinion between the schools on any number of 29 Rudolph Peters, Divine Law or Man-Made Law? Egypt and the Application of the Shari a, 3 ARAB L.Q. 231, 244 (1988) 30 Cherif Bassiouni &Gamal M. Badr, The Shari ah: Sources, Interpretation and Rule-Making, 1 U.C.L.A. J. Isl. & N.E. L. 135 (2002). 31 Mayer, supra note 10 at Schacht, supra note 4 at CLARK LOMBARDI, STATE LAW AS ISLAMIC LAW IN MODERN EGYPT: THE INCORPORATION OF SHARI A INTO EGYPTIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 16 (2006). 34 Haider Ala Hamoudi, You Say You Want a Revolution: Interpretive Communities and the Origins of Islamic Finance, 48 VA. J. INT. L (2008). 67 matters. 35 Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the compilations of the orthodox schools are understood to be the corpus of the shari a. 36 Importantly, the jurists are not, and never have been, appointed by the state, but rather operate within institutions independent of it, described as guilds by the late George Makdisi in the medieval Sunni context. 37 B. Organizational Necessities Given the rather extensive material, the most direct way for any movement to ensure that the law remains true to the body of shari a in any geographical area would be to create a judicial class and entrust it with the task of applying these volumes of material to all disputes appearing before it. With important qualifications, this was the theoretical basis of the classical system. 38 To take the simplest example, in such a system, were a party to seek compensation from another for harm done to her, she would bring her matter to the judge, and the judge would consult the relevant manuals to see if the harm was compensable based on the interpretations of sacred texts undertaken by the learned men who had developed the extensive juristic manuals. Several opinions may be present, in which case the judge may have to apply one, or perhaps the state makes clear which of the schools of thought has primacy, in which case the matter could at least in theory be more easily resolved. If the defendant were to argue that in fact it was not him, but a company in which he owned stock, that caused the damage and that therefore he could not be held personally responsible, then our judge would again consult the manuals, find nothing therein about limited liability or separate corporate personhood, 39 and dismiss such a defense as inconsistent with shari a. This would not necessarily preclude the state from passing administrative edicts on any number of issues of interest to the executive, from a military draft to taxation to even the criminalization of some activity deleterious to the public interest. It is sensible enough that the executive could supplement the legal order of the state with such rules without offending the central notion that the shari a, as the body of rules developed from Divine Will, is the bedrock of the legal order. However, it would have to be that the edicts of the administrator are meant to supplement, and not to replace, the ordinary reference to shari a undertaken by the judicial class. This must remain a core judicial function if God s Law, as laid out by the jurists, is to retain its centrality to the system. Moreover, the scope of the authority of the caliph to issue such edicts and regulations must necessarily be determined by the jurists themselves. That is, if God s Law is to 35 Lombardi, supra note 33 at Id. at See Jackson, supra note 7 at Weiss, supra note 5 at 187; Mayer, supra note 6 at 185. This broad, traditional notion that the classical system regarded positive legislation by the state as lying in some tension with shari a as jurists law has become under more sustained attack, as Section IV makes clear. In any event, as this Article concerns the relationship of shari a to state law in the modern nation-state, extensive ruminations on classical theory and classical law lie well beyond its purview. My references to classical thought are therefore necessarily cursory and intended for illustrative purposes only. 39 See Timur Kuran, The Absence of the Corporation in Islamic Law: Origins and Persistence, 53 AM. J. COMP. L. 785 (2005) 78 reign supreme, then surely God s Law must determine when man s law is applicable, and to what extent. We could also imagine in such a system, indeed we must imagine, that law might evolve through reconsideration of juristic rules of medieval origin, by judges applying such rules in new and creative ways or by modern jurists reevaluating the conclusions of their forebears. This already occurs, even in the current absence of shari a supremacy over law. In the case of Islamic finance, classical juristic manuals are creatively read to develop theories that bear scant resemblance to anything the classical jurists could have possibly imagined. 40 In the case of slavery, the overwhelming Muslim consensus, on the basis of sacred text, is that the practice is forbidden, notwithstanding extensive juristic rules clearly permitting it. 41 Reinterpretation of sacred text, as opposed to applying juristic rules in a more creative fashion, might be controversial, and in some cases unnecessary, but surely if the jurists are but mortal and fallible, a matter none in the modern world would dispute, then the system may well maintain its coherence and stability through such evolution. Reverting to new and fresh interpretations of sacred text rather than relying solely on classical jurists, often described as the fabled re-opening of the doors of ijtihad, 42 is therefore entirely consonant with the notion of shari a supremacy. Shi ism, in fact, is predicated on the principle that sacred text is supposed to be reevaluated by each generation of scholars. That sect requires individual Shi i to follow exclusively those rules of the single living high jurist who that individual Shi i has determined is the most learned; the opinions of dead men (and they are all men) are of no moment Haider Ala Hamoudi, You Say You Want a Revolution: Interpretive Communities and the Origins of Islamic Finance, 56 AM. J. COMP. L. 423 (2008). 41 Bernard Freamon, Slavery, Freedom and the Doctrine of Consensus in Islamic Jurisprudence, 11 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 1, 53 (1988). 42 The literature on the closing of the doors of ijtihad is extensive and difficult to summarize. Early Islamic studies scholars including Joseph Schacht and Noel Coulson advanced the notion that around the end of the first millennium C.E., a consensus was established that independent judgment to determine the meaning of sacred text was forbidden and that from that point forward, reliance was to be exclusively upon prior juristic determinations as set forth in the rules of the four Sunni schools. This led to an ossification of Islamic doctrine according to these scholars. Schacht, supra note 4 at 71; NOEL COULSON, A HISTORY OF ISLAMIC LAW (1964). This has been challenged by later scholars, most prominently Wael Hallaq, who suggested that jurists continued to draw their own conclusions on the basis of sacred text long after the supposed closing of the doors. Wael Hallaq, Was the Gate of Ijithad Closed?, 16 INT. J. M.E. STUD. 3 (1984). Others, such as Sherman Jackson, accept the notion that ijtihad was far more limited following the first millennium but challenge the Schacht and Coulson position that ossification was a consequence of the closed doors. Instead, creative jurists used an alternative form of authority, medieval rules, in the place of sacred text to move the shari a forward in new and interesting ways. Jackson, supra note 7 at Despite the rich contributions of Jackson and Hallaq to the literature, the notion of the closed doors of ijtihad, and the supposed ossification resulting therefrom, has been a repeated bane of Muslim reformists, who have insisted on reinterpreting Islamic rules from sacred text rather than using the determinations of earlier jurists. See Lombardi, supra note 33 at 84 (describing the efforts of the Egyptian modernist Rashid Rida). The underlying point, however, is that whether or not the gates to ijtihad are open or closed, the same structural issues respecting the role of shari a in the state will persist. 43 Hamoudi, supra note 246 at9 Such a system is not only technically possible, but to some extent exists in the modern world. Saudi Arabia, for example, was formed precisely on such a basis, with administrative authority belonging to the king, and the law of the land being based on the shari a as interpreted by a puritanical strand of one of the four orthodox Sunni schools known as Wahhabism. 44 While over the years there have been important limitations on the model and a rise in edicts issued by the monarchy, 45 certainly judges generally have the ability to pronounce rulings based on shari a, and are not generally constrained from doing so on the basis of administrative edict. 46 Hence, for example, a woman may be convicted of witchcraft under the shari a, on the grounds that witchcraft, at least under the standards of evidence that were available to the court, constitutes a discretionary crime without any statutory basis. 47 More generally, however, models of this sort are prevalent in entirely devastated nations such as present day Somalia 48 or Taliban Afghanistan 49 which have suffered from the absence of civil society for decades. To use the latter example, about which there is considerably more literature, it does seem relatively clear that the Taliban officials responsible for enforcing law did at least conceive of themselves as shari a authorities (however flawed) and did apply that version of shari a liberally (and at times summarily) even in the absence of specific legislative code, though the law included administrative edicts from the Taliban central command as well. 50 Similar substate forms of quasi-law existed in Iraq when Sadrist forces managed to seize control of Basra and areas of Baghdad, and Sunni extremists took control of the Anbar. In areas under Sadrist control, doctors were brought before judges who would often issue allegedly shari a punishments for them, including lashings, ostensibly for such crimes as treating Sunni patients in a hospital. 51 In the Anbar, quasi judges used their own forms of shari a to ban, among other things, the sale of cucumbers and tomatoes together because of their sexual suggestiveness. 52 Edicts were issued requiring the placing of diapers onto goats because of their unusually large genitalia. 53 For obvious reasons, the revert of these regions to Iraqi government control has been broadly welcomed, and the current Prime Minister has sought to take advantage of his success in reasserting control through renaming his own political movement the Alliance for the Nation of Law. 54 His party was tremendously successful in the January, 2009 provincial elections running under this banner ALBERT HOURANI, A HISTORY OF THE ARAB PEOPLES (1991); M.E. YAPP, THE NEAR EAST SINCE THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1991). 45 See, e.g.,frank E. VOGEL, ISLAMIC LAW AND LEGAL SYSTEM: STUDIES OF SAUDI ARABIA xiv-xv (2000) 46 Id. 47 Islamic Law in Our Times, (Feb. 15, 2008). 48 Feldman, supra note 20 at John Burns, Taliban Taboos: Enforcers of Islamic Social Code Create a Minefield for Afghanistan s Women, CHICAGO TRIBUNE (NEW YORK TIMES NEWS SERVICE), Sept. 21, Id. 51 Islamic Law in Our Times, (July 21, 2008). 52 Id. 53 Id. 54 Id. (Jan. 25, 2009). 55 Id. (Feb. 15, 2009). 910 The point of these examples, to be clear, in no way relates to the substantive applications of shari a, it is perfectly obvious that shari a is capable of far more sophistication than these various absurd applications would ever suggest, and any glance at any juristic manual of any respected jurist, Sunni or Shi i, will reveal a depth of thought that far outstrips these imaginative idiocies. The point, rather, was that in each system of state or quasi-state organization, inherent to it was the rigorous quasi judicial application of law understood, one must assume sincerely, to be shari a supplemented by administrative or executive edict that could (in the case of the Taliban penal rules, for example) 56 clarify shari a or that could (as in orders setting terms of regional governors) 57 be ancillary to it but would not contradict it. C. Origins of Codification in the Muslim World The primary means of giving life to shari a in the modern state has been through codification. 58 Yet, as Schacht realized nearly half a century ago, codification effectively renders incoherent any notion of an Islamic state on the basis of shari a because, if the judges no longer refer to the juristic texts but to legislative enactment, then what the legislature may enact by way of shari a, it may also modify, limited only by whatever political constraints may exist. 59 There is a direct connection between this notion, and the process of secularization that took place in the Muslim world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most accounts of the shari a codification phenomenon begin with the description of the Mecelle. 60 At the end of the 19 th century, in the late Ottoman period, a law commission headed by Ahmet Cevdet Pasha promulgated what was intended to be a Muslim Civil Code, 61 covering nearly all areas of private law except family law 62 and acting as the template for any number of nations following the dissolution of the empire. 63 The ultimate effect of the enactment of the Mecelle in weakening the powers of the juristic class is a matter much reported, 64 as was its influence in paving the way for a broader codification phenomenon. 65 In point of fact, however, the Mecelle is not terribly interesting as an exercise in the perils of codification in an Islamic state. Obviously codification can be said to distort the very basis of the shari a as a jurist s law, regardless of the substance of what is 56 Burns, supra note AHMED RASHID, TALIBAN (2001). 58 Jackson, supra note 7 at xvii 59 Schacht, supra note 4 at See, e.g., Mayer, supra note 6 at Seval Yildrim, Aftermath of a Revolution: A Case Study of Turkish Family Law, 17 Pace Int. L. Rev. 347, 353 (2005) 62 See generally THE MEJELLE: A TRANSLATION OF MAJALLAH AL-AHKAM-I-ADLIYA AND A COMPLETE CODE OF ISLAMIC CIVIL LAW (The Other Press 2001)[hereinafter, Mecelle ]. 63 Naim, supra note 8 at See. e.g., Feldman, supra note 20 at See. e.g. Naim, supra note 8 at 17 1011 enacted. 66 However, when the rules that are ultimately enacted are themselves based on juristic thought, at least some justification can be attempted on the theory that the caliph has some discretion to select which of the conflicting rules of juristic opinion shall be followed. 67 It could be argued that the Ottomans have done nothing more than this in their enactment of the Mecelle. 68 More interesting and significant to understanding the consequences of codification to the so-called Islamic state is that the Mecelle is the last of the Ottoman legal reforms known as the Tanzimat, preceded as it was by a penal code, a property code, a commercial code, a commercial procedure code and a maritime code, all modeled almost entirely on Napoleonic law. 69 Which is to say, that contemporaneous with codification, and indeed preceding it, was the phenomenon of secularization of the content of the law. This in fact is inevitable. Codification not only destroys the juristic class, but by leaving the determination of law firmly in the hands of a legislative state power, it effectively renders the Islamic state, at least insofar as it is understood to be based on some form of putative adherence to the substantive rules of the shari a, a virtual impossibility. For how tempting then, once the state and not God may handle the question, when faced with a legal problem that the shari a is not then capable of solving, to simply alter the legislation, to transplant from Europe, to conveniently shunt aside God s Law. Only politics prevents such a move, and political influences are not always firmly on God s side. As a result, divergence from traditional shari a rules more than quickly followed the codification process, it preceded it. Forms of partnership and organization, rules of property and admiralty, and even criminal rules, were introduced without the slightest shari a precedent, transplanted from France (and, in the case of property, Germany) even before the Mecelle had been enacted. 70 It is important to note that these transplants were hardly limited or isolated statutes, but rather Continental European Codes, which do not supplement or build upon existing law but rather pre-empt it entirely as to the matters within their scope. 71 That is to say, when a French penal code is adopted in Ottoman Turkey, it does not alter shari a, it obliterates shari a, removing it entirely from judicial consideration, and requiring a judge to seek an answer to any question before her by reference to the Code itself not to previously existing rules. 72 Unsurprisingly, as the shortcomings of shari a as set forth in the juristic manuals became ever clearer, this process of secular codification only accelerated. The fate of the Mecelle is possibly the most interesting example. Though billed as a civil code, the 66 See Mayer, supra note 6 at See Lombardi, supra note 33 at See [M.F., unpublished]. 69 N.J. COULSON, A HISTORY OF ISLAMIC LAW 151 (1994). 70 Id. 71 Grant Gilmore, Legal Realism: Its Causes and Cure, 70 YALE L. J. 1037, 1043 (1961). 72 See id. 1112 Mecelle is not a Code as any civilian lawyer would understand the term. 73 Most importantly, there is no general theory of obligation. 74 Even a general theory of contract is absent from the Mecelle. 75 The Mecelle instead divides the area of contract into a series of nominate forms, among them sale, hire, partnership and agency, each with its own rules, leaving one to wonder as to whether contracts that do not fall neatly into any given category will be enforceable, and if so, under which set of rules. 76 Tort is likewise divided into categories such as destruction of property and usurpation; a general theory of negligence is absent. 77 This form of atomistic organization effectively obliterated any hope of the Mecelle operating as a code in the manner of a Continental Civil Code, because it neither internally referenced itself, nor were its general provisions applicable in a manner that ensured internal consistency across the entire Code. 78 There are other substantive difficulties with the Mecelle. It lacks any concept of legal personhood. 79 Limited liability companies are not among the forms of business organization that the Mecelle suggests might be formed through contract. 80 The partnerships it does describe dissolve upon the death of any single partner, at least as concerns the share of that partner. 81 It is hard to conceive of any modern society being able to govern itself by such rules, and indeed the Ottomans had already incorporated French law to address some of these shortcomings, including the lack of suitable business organizations to deal in modern commerce. 82 It is important to note that the drafters of the Mecelle had considerable compass in determining its content from the disparate rules of the medieval jurists. While the code purported to draw primarily from one of four Sunni schools of thought, it consciously adopted rules from any one of the three other schools when it found them convenient. 83 At times, when pressed, as in the nearly universal shari a limitations on varying the nominate forms of contract, it adopted the view of a single jurist of a single school, and even then on a highly contentious reading, to the derogation of all other jurists. 84 Yet despite this considerable latitude, in setting down the disparate rules into a single code, the drafters could seem to do no better than this Dan Stigall, Iraqi Civil Law: Its Sources, Substance and Sundering, 16 J. TRANS. L. & POL. 1, 8 (2006) 74 Hamoudi, supra note 34 at Id. 76 Id. at 439 n Mecelle, supra note 62 at Stigall, supra note 73 at See Mecelle, supra note 62 at Id. 81 Id. at Coulson, supra note 69 at Naim, supra note 8 at Hamoudi, supra note 34 at There has been much debate among Islamic Studies scholars as to the extent to which the shari a, as reflected in the juristic manuals, allows for freedom of contract. Schacht and Coulson, for example, have both taken the position that there is not so much a law of contract within Islam as a law of contracts, and that while Islam may well permit freedom within the nominate forms, it cannot be said to permit a freedom to contract beyond this. N. J. COULSON, COMMERCIAL LAW IN THE GULF STATES: THE ISLAMIC LEGAL TRADITION 17, 27-31; Schacht, supra note 4 at 144. Other work has pointed out potential limitations on this. Baber Johansen, for example, has shown through careful studies of one school of thought that while commercial exchange was certainly never discussed as a separate book within any juristic manual, certainly 1213 If a judicial class were responsible for the enforcement of uncodified shari a, then these problems could only be overcome through the process of evolution of thought concerning prohibitions and permissions of the shari a, either by the judges through clever reinterpretation of what the jurists actually meant, or by a living juristic class extending shari a in ever more changing directions. This is obviously always a possibility, as Timur Kuran properly notes in his work on the inhibitive role that Islamic doctrine has played at times in Islamic history in developing commercial institutions and vehicles. 86 But given that codifications had become the norm, and the state had become responsible for the creation of law, an easier route was readily available the code could simply be changed. As a result, the Mecelle was slowly but nearly entirely eclipsed throughout the previous century. 87 In the Arab world, for example, it was largely replaced by a Civil Code drafted by the brilliant and renowned Arab jurist Abdul Razzaq al Sanhuri. 88 While the Islamicity of Sanhuri s Code is and has been a matter of intense debate 89 far too extensive and nuanced to engage here, it is fair to say that the Code is not, as the Mecelle was, an attempt to set down particular rules of the shari a on the basis of the derivations of jurists from the four Sunni schools of thought. It was, at most, an exploration of some of the supposed fundamental principles of these medieval Sunni rules, informed heavily by Roman law and Continental European law and containing some provisions in clear derogation of shari a, at least as understood by modern Muslims. 90 It is moreover a Code in the civilian sense, it is internally consistent, has extensive provisions concerning obligation and contract and preempts the entire area of jurists did distinguish between it and contracts that reflected social arrangements mediated through kinship, such as marriage. B. Johansen, Commercial Exchange and Social Order in Hanafite Law, in LAW IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD: PAST AND PRESENT (C. Toll et al. eds 1995). Jeanette Wakin has done excellent work on the means through which jurists negotiated the divide between theory and practice with respect to one particularly troublesome rule within the juristic manuals, the requirement that a contract be oral and the concomitant denial of a writing as having any legal authority of any kind. JEANNETTE WAKIN, THE FUNCTION OF DOCUMENTS IN ISLAMIC LAW 6, (1972). See also Hussein Hassan, Contracts in Islamic Law: The Principles of Commutative Justice and Liberality, 13 J. ISL. STUD. 257 (2002) (arguing that the nominate form system was not intended to and did not in fact restrict freedom to contract); PAUL POWERS, INTENT IN ISLAMIC LAW 100 (2006) ( Freedom to contract is generally supported in Islamic law, and the various rules governing contracts and commerce function to provide the parameters of this freedom. ) It is not my intention to enter into a very fascinating debate respecting the function and role of shari a in regulating commerce in the classical era or whether it provides for or inhibits freedom of contract as an abstract matter. As one who approaches these texts first and foremost from the point of view of a contemporary commercial law scholar, instead I raise the rules of the juristic manuals for one purpose; to demonstrate that as written, without a general theory of contract or general rules of contract, and without any allowance for a limited liability joint stock vehicle, they cannot reasonably operate as the basis of any contemporary commercial system. Of this conclusion, I am confident. 86 Timur Kuran, The Scale of Entrepeneurship in Middle Eastern History: Inhibitive Roles of Islamic Institutions, ECONOMIC RESEARCH INITIATIVES AT DUKE WORKING PAPER SERIES (2008). 87 Naim, supra note 8 at Id. at ENID HILL, AL-SANHURI AND ISLAMIC LAW (1987) (describing the scholarly debate at length and taking the position that the civil code was in fact more Islamic than is commonly believed). Cf. J.N.D. Anderson, The Shari a and the Civil Code, 1 ISLAMIC Q (1954). For a contemporary contribution, see Amr Shalakany, Between Identity and Redistribution: Sanhuri, Genealogy and the Will to Islamise, ISLAMIC L. & SOC Y. 201 (2001). 90 Lombardi, supra note 33 at14 private law beyond personal status. 91 European codes. 92 Many of its provisions are virtual translations of There is no doubt that some Islamic concepts remain the waqf, which operates in the Civil Code largely as a land trust, is perhaps the most obvious and extensively discussed signal feature of shari a. 93 Nevertheless, the Civil Code is a substantial and significant departure from the Mecelle, and a turn towards Continental Europe in a manner that renders the shari a in large part less relevant than it had been. 94 If this is true with respect to civil codes, it is emphatically more so with respect to company laws throughout the Muslim world, which by and large endorse the notion of joint stock limited liability companies with separate personhood, notwithstanding the fact that the shari a never recognized such a form of commercial organization. 95 Likewise criminal law, constitutional law, and financial law have all been (largely, with notable exceptions discussed below) transplanted from Western sources in a manner that preempts and obliterates previously existing laws. This can be done either through the enactment of a transplanted, comprehensive and preemptive Code, in the civil law context, or, for nations ultimately adopting common law under English influence, through the enactment of statutes and the gradual use of English common law to decide cases in civil courts. 96 Naturally, with codification, other secularization processes the bureaucratization of state function, the extension of central authority and, most importantly, the professionalization of the judiciary quickly followed. 97 Judges as a result in nearly all Muslim states are trained in professional law schools, 98 and their training is in law, of the civilian or common law variety, as the case may be, and not shari a. 99 Certainly in my own experience in various parts of the Middle East, from Qatar to Jordan to Iraq, the interest of aspiring scholars in a foreign law degree far exceeds any interest in shari a. It was therefore only time and distance that made the juristic manuals ever more obsolete, as the Muslim states enacted more and more by way of transplant, and paid less 91 Hamoudi, supra note 34 at Id. 93 See Stigall, supra note 73 at Naim, supra note 8 at Kuran, supra note 86 at See, e.g. Donald Horowitz, The Qur an and the Common Law: Islamic Law Reform and the Theory of Legal Change, 42 AM. J. COMP. L. 233, (1994) (describing the process in Malaysia); Edward R. Leahy and Mark D. Davis, National Banking Laws Governing the Rights and Responsibilities of Non- Resident Depositors, 19 INT L LAWYER 1119, 1144 (1985) ( Under Pakistani law, the fundamental rights and obligations of bank depositors are not very different from those prevailing in the United States. Pakistan inherited its legal system from the British, and its substantive laws still bear the imprint of English common law ). 97 RUDOLPH PETERS, CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN ISLAMIC LAW: THEORY AND PRACTICE FROM THE SIXTEENTH TO THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY 103 (2005). 98 Lama Abu Odeh, The Politics of (Mis)Recognition: Islamic Law Pedagogy in American Academia, 52 AM. J. COMP. L. 789, 791 (2004). 99 Id. 1415 and less attention to shari a. Vast areas of private law, for example, from the laws of partnership and agency to the rules of tort, have been so transformed as to render shari a largely obsolete in them. 100 This is to say nothing of the entire reorganization of criminal law along transplanted lines, 101 with significant exceptions to be discussed below. In fact, the only area of law in which shari a remains both broadly and deeply influential, both in rulemaking and application, is that of personal status law, 102 but, it is important to note, within the context of a system that acknowledges that the state as the sole repository of legal authority. That is, if one asks an Iraqi judge, as American legal advisers have in my presence, why he must order a division of property of a deceased in such a manner that a sister receives half the share of her brother, the judge, being professionally trained and operating in the context of a modern nation state where law is determined by the state, will not say because God wants it that way and point to a shari a source. Rather, he will quote directly from the Personal Status Code, for it is the code, and not the shari a on which it is modeled, that is authoritative. Importantly, even if family law is on its own changed to be governed by uncodified shari a (as proposed in Iraq by Shi i Islamists), 103 given the thoroughness with which the state has assumed control over the lawmaking process, the result will not change. In order for uncodified shari a to be applied, something in a code (or in the constitution) must grant the judge the necessary authority. 104 In a modern state operating on the basis of legal codes, a judge must apply the code that exists, not whatever he happens to think God s Law is. He may only apply uncodified shari a when codified legislation itself entitles him to do it. Were the legislation so authorizing him, as issued by the state, to change, the judge would no longer have the authority to refer to juristic manuals. Were his authority to apply uncodified shari a extended to criminal matters, then he might well feel comfortable amputating the hand of a thief, but not address private law, unless, again, the state gave him such jurisdiction. The point, ultimately, is that the judge s ability to apply shari a, uncodified or codified, in whatever form, in a modern, codified state is necessarily defined and limited entirely on the authority given to him in the law of the state, he has no authority beyond that which is so granted. 105 This phenomenon is most obvious in the context of criminal law, in those states which purport to apply shari a to the criminal law. Some of these states, for example Iran, the Sudan, and several Muslim majority provinces in northern Nigeria, explicitly permit judges to make reference to shari a for any crime not listed within the penal code. 106 In some of those states, judges have taken advantage of the latitude granted to them by the state s laws to apply penalties as severe as death for particular violations of shari a. 107 On the other hand, other states applying shari a, including Libya and 100 Weiss, supra note 5 at Coulson, supra note 69 at Weiss, supra note 5 at Hamoudi, supra note 246 at Schacht, supra note 4 at Id. 106 Peters, supra note 97 at See, e.g., id. at 161 (Iran); 165 (Sudan). 1516 Pakistan, permit no such reference, and judges in these jurisdictions as a result do not, and cannot apply shari a wherever they see fit, but only where the code permits, despite the fact that in important ways, the codes diverge from the shari a. 108 This more than anything demonstrates the extent to which Muslim states have accepted general, positivist notions of law. It is not shari a that governs, except when the state permits, meaning that the law is no more nor no less than what the state, and not God, happens to say that it is. III. Islamist Rule and the Secular Project A. Islamist Acceptance One can imagine why secularist elements within Muslim society might very well welcome broad change along such lines. More perplexing, however, is why Islamist movements have come along for this ride. For while it is apparent that Islamists are quite often unhappy with the state of the law as it exists, and seek something that purports to be based more closely on the substantive rules of the shari a, Islamists do not seek to disturb the central principle that brought about secularization in the first place the notion that the state, and not God, is responsible for the determination of what is or is not law. The Islamist desire, then, to sharia-fy is to change the state law to bring it closer to shari a norms. Yet any Islamist with even the slightest degree of sophistication surely can see that what has changed by rule of the state may easily be changed back, based only on political whim of a majority of the legislature. This does not seem to prevent the Islamist, however, from pursuing the codification course even while insisting that shari a is the only legitimate law because it is God s, and God s judgment is superior to humanity s. This reveals a confounding jumble of rhetoric and reality that at first glance seems difficult to unpack. To take a simple hypothetical example, if an Islamist Member of Parliament insists in defense of a bill on fornication that the shari a rules of adultery are not being sufficiently respected at present, then any rhetoric respecting the Will of God is, the Islamist must know, purely political. The MP is urging passage of a state law, in the absence of which she implicitly acknowledges God s Will is to be ignored by the well trained professional judge. That is, her difficulty is not that the judge has refused to convict anyone of fornication prior to enactment of the necessary laws, because she accepts that the judge has no authority to do any such thing in the absence of state authorization. To the extent that she complains about judicial recalcitrance, it will only be after the law is enacted, at which point quite clearly the sin in her mind is the failure to apply the state law, not shari a, which did not change with enactment. Thus, the notion that God s Law, as derived by from sacred text through Muslim interpretive effort, whether contemporary jurist or medieval, is subject to and limited by the activity of the legislature hardly seems to disturb this Islamist. Yet she will, incoherently, insist in Parliament as part of her political argument that it is not for 108 Id. at17 humanity to judge the Law of God. Yet if that were true, the more logical course would be to repeal the codes, those vehicles through which humanity s law is made superior to God s, and empower judges to apply shari a as it exists in the juristic manuals, or find some other mechanism to ensure shari a supremacy. Modern models do exist for such approaches. Saudi Arabia is perhaps the most notable example of a state granting wide power to a judicial class to apply shari a. 109 Given that Saudi Arabia has proven remarkably adept at exporting much of its Wahhabist ideology through the liberal use of petrodollars, 110 it might come as some surprise that Islamist movements seem barely interested in replicating it, aside from the devastated society examples of Afghanistan and Somalia. 111 One explanation could be the relative weakness of the Islamist movements in some cases for any number of reasons. Thus, for example, while Egypt s Islamist Muslim Brotherhood may well have considerable popular support, the movement itself is technically banned and certainly does not wield power. 112 It could therefore be argued that given this situation, the wholesale reorientation of the state is not an option and therefore the movement is forced to compromise, at least temporarily, on its long term ambitions. The Islamists under this theory field candidates where they can and seek to maximize influence where possible. 113 Yet even this seems rather inconsistent. If an Islamist movement is suppressed, and has no real hope of being able to advance an Islamic agenda under a theory that shari a, and not human law, is supreme, seemingly the more logical approach would be to disentangle from the state rather than associate with it. There is precedent for this. In Iraq, Shi i juristic authorities have sought precisely such disengagement as a historical matter, focusing on guiding the faithful while avoiding, at least in theory, any dealing with the state to the extent possible and merely accepting it as an injustice that must be endured in this world. 114 Shi i jurists in Iraq have certainly taken a very similar position in the recent past as well, though the current Grand Ayatollah Sistani has a more nuanced position on the role of jurist and state. 115 In any event, to the extent that the Shi i example of disaffection is unique to Shi ism because of its historic minority status, 116 Islamist weakness is not a useful explanation for why Islamism has chosen the path of codification. This is because even when Islamist regimes manage to acquire sole power, as in the case of Sunni Sudan or Shi i Iran, or 109 See Section II.B supra. 110 KHALED ABOU EL FADL, THE GREAT THEFT 72 (2005). 111 See Section II.B supra. 112 See, e.g., Jailing 800 Activists Casts Doubt on Elections, US FEDERAL NEWS (March 30, 2008) 113 See id. 114 A. Amanat, From Ijtihad to Wilayai I Faqih: The Evolution of the Shiite Legal Authority to Political Power in SHARI A: ISLAMIC LAW IN THE CONTEMPORARY CONTEXT (Amanat and Griffel, eds. 2007). 115 Hamoudi, supra note 246 at 538 n See, e.g., PATRICK COCKBURN, MUQTADA: MUQTADA AL-SADR, THE SHIA REVIVAL AND THE STRUGGLE FOR IRAQ (2008) 1718 when they have a friend in power, as in the case of Pakistan, 117 the clear trend remains in favor of codification. 118 In fact, aside from the devastated society, neither Islamist nor average Muslim seems rather enthused about the prospect of rule by shari a. 119 All seem to have adopted well the notion that the state determines the law, even as the Islamist insists, however incoherently, that shari a cannot be subverted by human will. Addressing the matter in 1990, well into the period of Islamic resurgence, the renowned Ann Elizabeth Mayer posited an explanation regarding power dynamics; namely, that if an Islamist party were to seize control of a government, that party would then be obviously reluctant to cede considerable levels of the power it had just obtained to a scholarly minded judicial class to which it might not necessarily belong. 120 This continues to be a widely accepted explanation. 121 While I do not dispute that there is some truth to it, the extent to which it can be relied upon to explain the complicity of Islamist movements in the codification phenomenon is fundamentally limited. This is because, as the next section shall show, even when the Islamists taking over the government are themselves the scholarly class, as was the case in Iran, the same trends towards codification are evident. B. Understanding Selectivity: The Case of Iran Unlike Sunnism, where the scholarly classes suffered significant reversals at the dawn of the colonial era, 122 the juristic institutions of Shi ism are alive and thriving. 123 Specifically, and in brief, Shi i doctrine requires each Shi i to select among a certain, small group of high jurists that jurist that she considers the most learned, to follow the rules established by that jurist to the exclusion of all others, and to tithe a significant portion of her income to him. 124 Jurists, who operate primarily from two centers, Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran, then compete for followers, even as they train the next class of jurists beneath them, who then become high jurists in their own right once they publish a 117 Hamoudi, supra note 8 at For specific examples in the area of criminal law, see Peters, supra note 97 at Mayer, supra note 6 at 183. Ironically, the premier voices who insist, when addressing matters of contemporary concern, on reminiscing nostalgically upon the disappearance of the scholars and the assumption of the state over all forms of legal authority lie not in Muslim societies, but within our ivory towers. Khaled Abou El Fadl s criticisms of the colonial era marginalization of the jurists, and the rendering of hallowed seminaries as little more than tourist attractions, are caustic. Abou El Fadl, supra note 110 at 35. Noah Feldman associates the decline of the Muslim world to the loss of the ability of the juristic classes to meaningfully constrain the state. Feldman, supra note 20 at Sherman Jackson points hopefully to the spread of the ideas of legal pluralism to suggest that perhaps the state does not in fact have the exclusive control over the making and enforcement of law that we think it does. Sherman Jackson, Legal Pluralism Between Islam and the Nation State: Romantic Medievalism or Pragmatic Modernity, 30 FORDHAM INT L L. J. 158 (2006). While each of these scholars in one way or another accepts that the world has changed forever, still all of this attention being given to systems of law in which nobody seems terribly interested brings to mind that ever dwindling class of bitter and aging Brooklynites who cannot seem to come to terms with the relocation of the Dodgers half a century ago. 120 Id. at See, e..g, Jackson, supra note 7 at xvii; Feldman, supra note 20 at Lombardi, supra note 33 at Hamoudi, supra note 34 at Id. 1819 multivolume comprehensive work known as the risala containing the substantive rules of shari a as derived by them. 125 Generally these compilations cover all areas of private law, from rules of purchase and sale to family law (and are quite extensive on ritual), but do not engage issues of public law. 126 They are meant to guide the believer to live in accordance with God s Will (which necessarily makes public law considerably less relevant), and until the rise of the Islamist movement, Shi i elements preferred not so much to confront the state as to ignore it, waiting instead, as per Shi i eschatological doctrine, for a lineal male descendant of the Prophet, the Mahdi, to reemerge from hiding, where he has been for over a millennium, and institute just rule. 127 Beginning in the 1960 s, however, two influential clerics, Muhammad Baqir al-sadr and Ruhollah Khomeini, began to assert that such quietism was unwarranted and that the proper Islamic path was for Muslims to seize control of the state pending the reemergence of the Mahdi. 128 Naturally, as scholars, they argued that the most logical protectors of the shari a once control was seized were the jurists themselves. 129 The idea, as coined by Khomeini in his work on the subject (though it must be said that Sadr was responsible for much of the underlying theory), was known as Guardianship of the Jurist. 130 Both Sadr and Khomeini realized that the highly decentralized structure of the seminaries, where each jurist operated independently of the other, required some adjustment, and theorized a central, leading jurist, a Supreme Leader, under whose authority the state would be organized, and other jurists would exist in subsidiary positions, retaining tithing followers and training academies but with less control over law. 131 This would seem to make the notion of codes largely unnecessary. Perhaps for matters such as rules of traffic, some level of legislation or administrative edict is obviously necessary, as the jurists do not spend very much time in their vast compendia dealing with such matters. However, certainly the compendia had extensive rules of private law, and one would think a Civil Code could therefore be repealed. 132 One could simply refer to the compendium already written by the jurist appointed Supreme Leader to find all necessary rules concerning, for example, contract, tort and permissible business organizations. Khomeini himself suggests as much in one of the best known compilations of his writings and speeches, Islam and Revolution. 133 In one notable piece, Khomeini derides the drafters of transplanted law as wasting time and worshiping foreigners because shari a already has the necessary answers as to the entire system of 125 Id. at See also Devin J. Stewart, The Portrayal of an Academic Rivalry: Najaf and Qum in the Writings and Speeches of Khomeini, in THE MOST LEARNED OF THE SHI A: THE INSTITUTION OF MARJA TAQLID 216 (L. Walbridge, ed. 2001) 126 Haider Ala Hamoudi, Baghdad Booksellers, Basra Carpet Merchants and the Law of God and Man: Legal Pluralism in the Contemporary Muslim Experience, 1 BERK. J. M.E. & ISL. L. 83, (2008). 127 Amanat, supra note 114 at CHIBLI MALLAT, THE RENEWAL OF ISLAMIC LAW: MUHAMMAD BAQER AS-SADR, NAJAF, AND THE SHI I INTERNATIONAL (1993). 129 Id. 130 Id. at Id. at Hamoudi, supra note 126 at Khomeini, supra note 2 at20 government and administration. 134 The severe rhetoric should not be gainsaid; Khomeini has liked the enactment of transplants ( worshiping foreigners ) to idolatry, an act described in the Qur an as one for which no forgiveness is possible. 135 One therefore wonders why, when the 1979 Islamic Revolution took place in Iran, and Khomeini became Supreme Leader, a significant role remained for codification. 136 To be sure, the Constitution adopts a series of institutional controls to ensure that all legislation is carefully vetted by the juristic classes to ensure Islamicity, and the juristic classes as well had supervisory authority over the President, suggesting levels of executive juristic control far greater than any court exercising judicial review. 137 However, this did not prevent the continuation of a Civil Code, for example, in largely the same form it had been before the Revolution. 138 Why didn t Khomeini simply repeal the Civil Code and ask the judiciary to apply the rules of private law as established in Khomeini s extensive juristic work (or, for that matter, the work of any living high jurist) on the subject? A Civil Code, even a vetted one, only helps to limit the juristic role. Mayer refers obliquely to the rugged endurance of legal culture and Khomeini s need to compromise in light of this, but the explanation seems limited and somewhat unsatisfactory in an otherwise very thought provoking article. 139 Of all things to compromise, surely worshiping foreigners is hardly the place to begin, if the only objection concerns legal culture. Surely the cataclysmic disruption of the Revolution would have permitted significant steps away from codification. In fact, as the perduring Civil Code shows, no such steps took place. One need look no further than the juristic rules of any high jurist, from Ali Sistani of Iraq to Ayatollah Khomeini himself, 140 to develop a reasonable explanation for why this is so. Much like the Mecelle, juristic rules are compilation and not Code, a collection of atomistic rules rather than an internally referenced and coherent body of sections that are intended to work together to govern an entire area of law. To take the simplest example, in the compendia, contracts are divided into nominate forms with separate rules governing each. 141 For the same reason that the Mecelle was ultimately discarded, this 134 Id. at Qur an 4:48 (Chapter of the Women). ( And God shall not forgive the polytheizing of Him, and He forgives all but that to whom He wills, but he who has worshiped others has committed a mighty sin. ) (translation mine). 136 Mayer, supra note 6 at Mallat, supra note 128 at Compare THE CIVIL CODE OF IRAN (Shahabi trans.2007) [hereinafter Post-Revolution Iran Code ] with THE CIVIL CODE OF IRAN (Sabi trans. 1973) (pre revolution version)[hereinafter Pre-Revolution Iran Code ]. 139 Mayer, supra note 6 at The compendium of Ayatollah Khomeini is available in English translation. AYATOLLAH KHOMEINI, A CLARIFICATION OF QUESTIONS: AN UNABRIDGED TRANSLATION OF THE RISALA TOWZIH AL-MASAEL (J. Borujerdi trans.1984)[hereinafter Khomeini Risala ]. Grand Ayatollah Sistani s compendium is widely sold in Arabic in Iraq. ALI SISTANI, MINHAJ AL-SALIHEEN (13 th printing 2008)[hereinafter Sistani Risala ]. While the two are remarkably similar, I make reference to emphasize that the primary shortcomings of the juristic rules do not vary according to the jurist in question. 141 Sistani Risala at vol (dividing contracts into nominate forms, and analyzing each under separate rules); Khomeini Risala at View more
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