Source: https://www.scribd.com/doc/74385992/MEMO-18-U-S-C-4001-a-to-Military-Detention-of-United-States-Citizens
Timestamp: 2016-02-12 22:58:32
Document Index: 555152673

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§4001', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§4001', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§4001', '§ 1', '§ 2', '§ 2', '§ 4001', '§ 1', '§ 4001', '§ 956', '§ 956', '§ 956', '§ 2', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§ 5003', '§ 4001', '§ 5003', '§ 4001', '§ 4001', '§ 811', '§ 4001', '§ 4001']

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We understand that the question has arisen in briefings before the Senate Judiciary Committee and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence concerning the recent transfer of Jose Padilla, aka Abdullah al Mujahir, from the custody of the Department of Justice to the control of the Department of Defense.Section 4001 of Title 18 states:(a) (b)No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the United States except pursuant to an Act of Congress.(1)	The control and management of Federal penal and correctional institutions, except military and naval institutions, shall be vested in the Attorney General, who shall promulgate rules for the government thereof, and appoint all necessary officers and employees in accordance with the civil-service laws, the Classification Act, as amended and the applicable regulations.(2)	The Attorney General may establish and conduct industries, farms, and other activities and classify the inmates; and provide for their proper government, discipline, treatment, care, rehabilitation, and reformation.18 U.S.C. §4001.June 27, 2002Memorandum for Daniel J. Bryant Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legislative AffairsRe: Applicability of 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a) to Military Detention of United States CitizensYou have asked us whether the detention of United States citizens as enemy belligerents by the U.S. Armed Forces violates 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a) (2000). We understand that the question has arisen in briefings before the Senate Judiciary Committee and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence concerning the recent transfer of Jose Padilla, aka Abdullah al Mujahir, from the custody of the Department of Justice to the control of the Department of Defense.Section 4001 of Title 18 states:(a) (b)No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the United States except pursuant to an Act of Congress.(1)	The control and management of Federal penal and correctional institutions, except military and naval institutions, shall be vested in the Attorney General, who shall promulgate rules for the government thereof, and appoint all necessary officers and employees in accordance with the civil-service laws, the Classification Act, as amended and the applicable regulations.(2)	The Attorney General may establish and conduct industries, farms, and other activities and classify the inmates; and provide for their proper government, discipline, treatment, care, rehabilitation, and reformation.18 U.S.C. §4001.More info:Categories:Types, Research, LawPublished by: A.J. MacDonald, Jr. on Dec 01, 2011Copyright:Attribution Non-commercialAvailability:Read on Scribd mobile: iPhone, iPad and Android.download as PDF, TXT or read online from ScribdFlag for inappropriate content|Add to collectionSee moreSee lesshttps://www.scribd.com/doc/74385992/MEMO-18-U-S-C-4001-a-to-Military-Detention-of-United-States-Citizens05/13/2014pdftextoriginalU.S.Department of Justice Seal
June 27, 2002 Memorandum for Daniel J. Bryant Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legislative Affairs Re: Applicability of 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a) to Military Detention of United States Citizens You have asked us whether the detention of United States citizens as enemy belligerents by the U.S. Armed Forces violates 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a) (2000). We understand that the question has arisen in briefings before the Senate Judiciary Committee and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence concerning the recent transfer of Jose Padilla, aka Abdullah al Mujahir, from the custody of the Department of Justice to the control of the Department of Defense. Section 4001 of Title 18 states: (a) No citizen shall be imprisoned or otherwise detained by the United States except pursuant to an Act of Congress. (1) The control and management of Federal penal and correctional institutions, except military and naval institutions, shall be vested in the Attorney General, who shall promulgate rules for the government thereof, and appoint all necessary officers and employees in accordance with the civil-service laws, the Classification Act, as amended and the applicable regulations. (2) The Attorney General may establish and conduct industries, farms, and other activities and classify the inmates; and provide for their proper government, discipline, treatment, care, rehabilitation, and reformation. 18 U.S.C. §4001. As we explain below, the President's authority to detain enemy combatants, including U.S. citizens, is based on his constitutional authority as Commander in Chief. We conclude that section 4001(a) does not, and constitutionally could not, interfere with that authority. 1 In order to understand the scope of section 4001(a), we first set out the proper context established by the President's authority to detain enemy combatants during war. That authority arises out of the President's constitutional status as Commander in Chief. Under the Commander in Chief Clause, the President is authorized to detain all enemy combatants, including U.S.
Article II of the Constitution vests the entirety of the "executive power" of the United States government "in a President of the United States of America," and expressly provides that "[t]he President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States." U.S. Const, art. II, § 1, cl. 1; id., § 2, cl. 1. Because both "[t]he executive power and the command of the military and naval forces is vested in the President," the Supreme Court has unanimously stated that it is "the President alone [] who is constitutionally invested with the entire charge of hostile operations." Hamilton v. Dillin, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 73, 87 (1874) (emphasis added). As Commander in Chief, the President possesses the full powers necessary to prosecute successfully a military campaign. As the Supreme Court has recognized, "[t]he first of the enumerated powers of the President is that he shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States. And, of course, grant of war power includes all that is necessary and proper for carrying these powers into execution." Johnson v. Eisentrager, 339 U.S. 763, 788 (1950) (citation omitted). By their terms, these provisions vest full control of the military operations of the United States in the President. It has long been the view of this Office that the Commander in Chief Clause is a substantive grant of authority to the President, see. e.g.. Memorandum for Honorable Charles W. Colson, Special Counsel to the President, from William H. Rehnquist, Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, Re: The President and the War Power: South Vietnam and the Cambodian Sanctuaries (May 22, 1970); Memorandum for Timothy E. Flanigan, Deputy Counsel to the President, from John C. Yoo, Deputy Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, Re: The President's Constitutional Authority to Conduct Military Operations Against Terrorists and Nations Supporting Them (Sep. 25, 2001). This authority includes all those powers not expressly delegated by the Constitution to Congress that have traditionally been exercised by commanders in chief of armed forces. See, e.g., Memorandum for William J. Haynes, II, General Counsel, Department of Defense, from Jay S. Bybee, Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, Re: The President's Power as Commander in Chief to Transfer Captured Terrorists to the Control and Custody of Foreign Nations (March 13, 2002). One of the core functions of the Commander in Chief is that of capturing and detaining members of the enemy. See id. at 3 ("the Commander-in-Chief Clause constitutes an independent grant of substantive authority to engage in the detention and transfer of prisoners captured in armed conflicts"). It is well settled that the President may seize and detain enemy combatants, at least for the duration of the conflict. Numerous Presidents, for example, have ordered the capture and detention of enemy combatants during virtually every major conflict in the Nation's history, including recent conflicts such as the Gulf, Vietnam, and Korean wars. The practice of capturing and detaining enemy combatants is as old as war itself. Sec Allan Rosas, The
In Quirin, the Court clarified and restricted the scope of its earlier holding in Milligan. The Court found that Milligan does not apply to enemy belligerents captured within the United States. The status of the saboteurs in Quirin as enemy belligerents, rather than non-belligerent civilians, was easily determined due to their training in the German Reich, their membership in its Marine Infantry, their transportation by German submarine, and their initial dress in German uniforms. The Court expressly distinguished Milligan on the basis that Milligan had been a civilian, and not an enemy belligerent. From the facts of Milligan, "the Court concluded that Milligan, not being a part of or associated with the armed forces of the enemy, was a nonbelligerent, not subject to the law of war save as—in circumstances found not there to be present and not involved here—martial law might be constitutionally established." 317 U.S. at 45 (emphasis added). In some ways, Milligan appeared to be an enemy sympathizer, but he could not really be said to be part of the enemy forces. Because the Nazi saboteurs were belligerents, by contrast, the Quirin Court found that Milligan did not apply. We accordingly conclude that, under Milligan and Quirin, the President's constitutional authority as Commander in Chief to detain enemy combatants extends to U.S. citizens and noncitizens alike. C. Finally, we note that the President's constitutional authority to detain enemy combatants during the present conflict is bolstered by Senate Joint Resolution 23, which went into effect on September 18, 2001. That resolution recognizes that "the President has authority under the Constitution to take action to deter and prevent acts of international terrorism against the United States." Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub. L. No. 107-40, preamble, 115 Stat. 224 (2001). Additionally, the resolution explicitly authorizes "the President... to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations or persons." Id, § 2(a). Thus, Congress has specifically endorsed the use not only of deadly force, but also of the lesserincluded authority to detain enemy combatants to prevent them from furthering hostilities against the United States. II. Section 4001(a) cannot be read to interfere with the President's constitutional authority as Commander in Chief to detain enemy combatants. When examined in the context of section 4001 and of the U.S. Code as a whole, it becomes apparent that subsection (a) does not attempt to reach so .broadly. In fact, the canon of construction that statutes be construed to avoid constitutional defects requires section 4001(a) to be given this reading.
To be sure, section 4001(a) uses broad language. It neither draws a distinction between differing types of detention nor mentions military detention for explicit inclusion or exclusion.3 It is important, however, to examine section 4001 in its entirety to understand the scope of subsection (a). See Kokoszka v. Belford, 417 U.S. 642, 650 (1974) ("When 'interpreting a statute, the court will not look merely to a particular clause in which general words may be used, but will take in connection with it the whole statute . . . and the objects and policy of the law, as indicated by its various provisions, and give to it such a construction as will carry into execution the will of the Legislature.") (quoting Brown v. Duchesne, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 183, 194 (1857)). Nothing in section 4001 indicates that its provisions were meant to reach the President's authority, as Commander in Chief, to detain enemy combatants. To the contrary, section 4001 addresses the Attorney General's authority with respect to the federal civilian prison system, rather than the President's constitutional power as Commander in Chief to detain enemy combatants. Congress specifically added subsection (a) to 18 U.S.C. § 4001 in 1971. Act of Sep. 25, 1971, Pub. L. No. 92-128, § 1, 85 Stat. 347 (adding new language to section 4001 of title 18). Prior to 1971, section 4001 simply gave the Attorney General the power to "control and manage[]" the federal civilian prison system. Act of June 25, 1948, ch. 645, § 4001, 62 Stat 683, 847. The earlier language was identical to subsection (b) as it is now. Then, as now, the plain terms of the provision specifically carve out "military or naval institutions" from the statute's coverage of "Federal penal and correctional institutions." Construing the scope of subsection (a) broadly to cover all types of detention is difficult to reconcile with its coupling with subsection (b). The better reading is that subsections (a) and (b) have the same scope, which is applies exclusively to the federal civilian prison system. As a structural matter, the placement of section 4001(a) in the United States Code signifies that it was not intended to govern the detention of enemy combatants by the U.S. Aimed Forces. Title 18 of the United States Code covers "Crime and Criminal Procedure." Statutes concerning the military and national security, by contrast, are generally found in Title 10 ("Armed Forces") and in Title 50 ("War and National Defense"). Moreover, the particular part of Title 18 in which section 4001 is located contains chapters governing exclusively federal criminal confinement. Part III of Title 18, which contains section 4001, is entitled "Prisons and Prisoners" and contains chapters relating to the Bureau of Prisons, good time allowances, parole, and institutions for women, among other topics. Nothing in those provisions can plausibly be construed to apply to the detention of enemy combatants. Congress's decision to place section 4001(a) in this particular provision of the U.S. Code thus provides further support for our conclusion that subsection (a) does not apply to the President's constitutional power to detain enemy combatants. See Green v. Bock Laundry Mach. Co., 490 U.S. 504, 528 (1989) (Scalia, J. concurring) ("The meaning of terms on the statute books ought to be determined . . . on the basis of which meaning is (1) most in accord with context and ordinary usage, and thus most likely to have been understood by the whole Congress which voted on the words of the statute (not to mention the citizens subject to it), and (2) most compatible with the surrounding body of law into which the provision must be integrated—a compatibility which, by a benign fiction, we assume Congress always has in mind.").
Congress likewise has effectively construed section 4001(a) not to restrict the President's constitutional power as Commander in Chief to detain enemy combatants. In 1984. thirteen years after the enactment of section 4001(a), Congress added section 956 to Title 10 of the U.S. Code, which specifically governs the U.S. Armed Forces. That statute explicitly authorizes the U.S. Armed Forces to use any funds appropriated to the Department of Defense to pay for the detention of prisoners of war and other enemy combatants. Specifically, 10 U.S.C. § 956 (2000) states that: funds appropriated to the Department of Defense may be used for . . . expenses incident to the maintenance, pay, and allowances of prisoners of war, other persons in the custody of the Army, Navy, or Air Force whose status is determined by the Secretary concerned to be similar to prisoners of war, and persons detained in the custody of the Army, Navy, or Air Force pursuant to Presidential proclamation. This provision plainly contemplates that the President has the power to detain prisoners of war and other enemy combatants, presumably as an exercise of his constitutional authority as Commander in Chief, notwithstanding the prior enactment of section 4001(a). The language of 10 U.S.C. § 956 is thus difficult to reconcile with section 4001(a) unless subsection (a) does not interfere with the President's constitutional power to detain enemy combatants. When it enacted 10 U.S.C. § 956, Congress must have understood that the President already had the authority to direct the U.S. Armed Forces to detain prisoners of war, and that the enactment of section 4001(a) had done nothing to undermine that authority. More recently, as discussed in Section I, last September Congress recognized that "the President has authority under the Constitution to take action to deter and prevent acts of international terrorism against the United States," and specifically authorized "the President . . . to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations or persons." Pub. L. No. 107-40, preamble & § 2(a), 115 Stat. 224 (2001). Nothing in that resolution contemplates that the President's authority to detain enemy combatants is limited to non-U.S. citizens, or that section 4001(a) could be read to so limit that authority. If anything, the joint resolution provides further support to the President's existing constitutional authority to detain enemy combatants, even those who enjoy the status of citizens.4 We also note that no court has ever construed section 4001(a) to apply to the detention of enemy belligerents in an armed conflict, or to restrict the President's constitutional authority to Las! October the Congressional Research Service issued a report analyzing the power of the Executive Branch to detain individuals during the current conflict in the interest of national security. See Jennifer Elsea, Congressional Research Service, Race-based Civil Detention for Security Purposes, Order Code RS21039 (2001). That report specifically discusses 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a). It concludes that section 4001(a) was "intended to prevent the President from authorizing civil detention of citizens without an act of Congress." Id. at 3 (emphasis added). Notably, the report makes no mention of military detention of U.S. citizens who are enemy combatants, and does not even hint at the possibility that section 4001 (a) has any application outside of ordinary civilian detention.
detain enemy combatants. See Howe v. Smith, 452 U.S. 473, 479 (1981) (noting "the authority of the Federal Government, in the official person of the Attorney General, to receive and to hold [slate convicts subsequently transferred to] a federal penitentiary," (citing 18 U.S.C. §§ 4001(a) & 5003));5 see also Lono v. Fenton, 581 F.2d 645, 648 (7th Cir. 1978) (section 4001(a) "forbid[s] non-statutory confinement in federal prisons'7); Seller v. Ciccone, 530 F.2d 199, 201 (8th Cir. 1976) (section 4001(b) vests Attorney General with "[t]he administration of the rehabilitative programs for federal prisoners"); Marchesani v. McCune, 531 F.2d 459, 461 (10th Cir. 1974) (section 4001 vests Attorney General with discretion to classify prisoners); Bono v. Saxbe, 462 F. Supp. 146, 148 (E.D. 111. 1978) (section 4001 authorizes Attorney General "to manage and control the federal prison system"). Our conclusion that section 4001(a) does not interfere with the President's constitutional authority as Commander in Chief is compelled by the well established canon of statutory construction that statutes are not to be construed in a manner that presents constitutional difficulties so long as a reasonable alternative construction is available. See, e.g., Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Florida Gulf Coast Bldg. & Constr. Trades Council, 485 U.S. 568, 575 (1988) (citing NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago, 440 U.S. 490, 499-501, 504 (1979)) ("[Where an otherwise acceptable construction of a statute would raise serious constitutional problems, [courts] will construe [a] statute to avoid such problems unless such construction is plainly contrary to the intent of Congress."). This canon of construction applies where an act of Congress could be read to encroach upon powers constitutionally committed to a coordinate branch of government. See, e.g., Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788, 800-1 (1992) (citation omitted) ("Out of respect for the separation of powers and the unique constitutional position of the President, we find that textual silence is not enough to subject the President to the provisions of the [Administrative Procedure Act]. We would require an express statement by Congress before assuming it intended the President's performance of his statutory duties to be reviewed for abuse of discretion."); Public Citizen v. United States Dep't of Justice, 491 U.S. 440, 465-67 (1989) (construing Federal Advisory Committee Act not to apply to advice given by American Bar Association to the President on judicial nominations, to avoid potential constitutional question regarding encroachment on Presidential power to appoint judges). In the area of foreign affairs, and special force. See, e.g., Dep't of Navy v. specifically has provided otherwise, courts authority of the Executive in military and
Under 18 U.S.C. § 5003(a) (2000), "[t]he Attorney G e n e r a l . . . is . . . authorized to contract with the proper officials of a State or Territory for the custody . . . of persons convicted of criminal offenses in the courts of such State or Territory: Provided, That any such contract shall provide for reimbursing the United Stales." Howe, 452 U.S. at 475 n. 1. In Howe, the Court held that section 5003(a) constituted sufficient statutory authority to authorize federal detention of state prisoners under section 4001(a). We note that there is loose language in Howe that might be mistakenly read to apply section 4001(a) to the President's constitutional authority to detain enemy combatants. The Court noted that "the plain language of § 4001(a) proscribes] detention of any kind by the United States, absent a congressional grant of authority to detain. If the petitioner is correct that neither § 5003 nor any other Act of Congress authorizes his detention by federal authorities, his detention would be illegal even though that detention is on behalf, and at the pleasure, of the State of Vermont." Howe, 452 U.S. at 479 n.3. This passage simply states that § 4001(a) applies to the entire federal criminal prison system, regardless of how each federal prisoner was originally taken into custody. It does not address any other form of detention b y the United States, such as detention of enemy combatants pursuant to the President's authority as Commander in Chief
A review of the legislative history of 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a) underscores our conclusion that Congress never intended that provision to restrict the President's constitutional authority as Commander in Chief to detain enemy combatants. While some in Congress questioned the law's scope as potentially infringing on the President's war powers, others assured members that the statute could not extend so far. At best, the legislative history demonstrates that Congress had no fully shared understanding that section 4001 either regulated the President's Commander in
Chief authority or did not. The inconclusive nature of the legislative history, therefore, requires us to rely upon the scope of the President's war power, the structure of section 4001 and its placement in the U.S. Code, and the canon of avoidance. First, the 1971 addition of section 4001(a) was accompanied by, and closely identified with, the repeal of the Emergency Detention Act of 1950, ch. 1024, 64 Stat. 1019, 1019-31, codified at 50 U.S.C §§ 811-826, repealed by Pub. L. No. 92-128, 85 Stat. 347. That Act authorized the federal government exclusively to detain individuals suspected of violating certain criminal statutes. Specifically, it empowered the Attorney General to "to apprehend and by order detain . . . each person as to whom there is [a] reasonable ground to believe that such person . . . will engage in, or probably will conspire with others to engage in, acts of espionage or . . . sabotage." Id. at 1021.6 Espionage and sabotage were expressly defined in relation to particular sections of Title 18 of the United States Code. Id. In other words, the Act authorized detention of individuals based on suspected criminal conduct. Accordingly, we view the repeal of the 1950 Act, and the accompanying codification of section 4001(a), to address similar forms of detention and not the detention of enemy combatants. Second, an earlier version of the legislation enacting section 4001(a) suggests that the provision was not intended to reach the detention of enemy combatants. The original version of the House bill ultimately enacted, H.R. 234, did not include the language "except pursuant to an Act of Congress." 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a). Instead, it more broadly prohibited the detention of any U.S. citizen "except in conformity with the procedures and the provisions of title 18." H.R. Rep. No. 92-116 (1971), reprinted in 1971 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1435, 1437. A Department of Justice witness objected to the language on the ground that the drafters had incorrectly assumed that "all provisions for the detention of convicted persons are contained in title 18." Id. at 1437. The witness went on to list the numerous other federal statutes, outside of title 18, authorizing the confinement of persons convicted of federal crimes. See id. (citing, among others, provisions dealing with crimes involving narcotics in title 21, Internal Revenue violations in title 26, and crimes involving aircraft hijacking, carrying explosives aboard an aircraft and related crimes in title 49). The Committee accepted the witness's objection and recommended an amendment that changed the language to "except pursuant to an Act of Congress." Id. Notably, neither the witness nor any member of the Committee ever mentioned expanding the scope of the prohibition beyond detention related to criminal activity. Thus, the change in the legislation occurred in order to recognize other forms of detention of "convicted persons" under the federal criminal laws, and not the preventive detention of enemy combatants that occurs pursuant to the President's Commander in Chief authority. Third, the House floor debate fails to demonstrate a universal, shared understanding of section 4001(a) as an effort to regulate or interfere with the President's Commander in Chief
authority to detain enemy combatants. Over a two-day period in September, 1971, the House debated two competing bills: H.R. 234, reported out of the Judiciary Committee, which repealed the Emergency Detention Act and added section 4001(a), and H.R. 820, reported out of the Interna! Security Committee, which acted to amend the Emergency Detention Act to prohibit its use "solely on account of race, color, or ancestry." 117 Cong. Rec. at 31754 (1971). The House floor debate reflected the presence of three distinct views of the legislation. In the first camp, there was wide support for eliminating the possibility of any future use or creation of civilian detention camps. The internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II, without regard to their status as non-combatants, was frequently invoked by members of Congress to highlight the need for statutory action. Noting that the Emergency Detention Act was not in place during World War 11, proponents of H.R. 234 argued that a simple repeal of the Emergency Detention Act would not necessarily eliminate the possibility of future creation or use of detention camps. See 117 Cong. Rec. at 31541 (statement of Cong. Kastenmeier) ("It has been suggested that repeal alone would leave us where we were prior to 1950. The committee believes that imprisonment or other detention of citizens should be limited to situations in which a statutory authorization, an act of Congress, exists. This will assure that no detention camps can be established without at least the acquiescence of the Congress."). Such concern was the impetus for the addition of the language now found in 18 U.S.C. § 4001(a). This view was not at odds with our interpretation of section 4001(a), as the Japanese-Americans detained during World War II were not held as enemy combatants, and so any decision to prevent similar forms of detention in the future would not reach the President's Commander in Chief power on that score. Members of the second camp, however, feared that the legislation went too far and violated the principle of separation of powers because it infringed upon the President's constitutional powers and duties. See 117 Cong. Rec. at 31542 (statement of Cong. Ichord) ("[The amendment] would deprive the President of his emergency powers and his most effective means of coping with sabotage and espionage agents in war-related crises. Hence the amendment also has the consequence of doing patent violence to the constitutional principle of separation of powers. . . . Although many Members of this House are committed to the repeal of the Emergency Detention Act of 1950, they have no purpose, I am sure, to confound the President in his exercise of his constitutional duties to defend this Nation, nor would they wish to render this country helpless in the face of its enemies."). These critics of the legislation appear to have suggested that the law's broad language could be read to interfere with the President's power to detain enemy combatants. We would note, however, that they did not offer this reading as an authoritative interpretation of the statute's meaning, but as an effort to narrow its scope. Finally, then Congressman Abner Milva, responding to both groups, stated that, while Congress indeed lacked the authority to interfere with the President's constitutional powers, H.R. 234 should not be interpreted to do so. He argued: If there is any inherent power of the President of the United States, either as the Chief Executive or Commander in Chief, under the Constitution of the United States, to authorize the detention of any citizen of the United States, nothing in