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Matched Legal Cases: ['art 61', 'art 61', 'art 67', 'art 91', 'art 61', 'art 141', 'art\n61', 'art 142', 'art 142', 'art\n61', 'art 61', 'art 61', 'art 91', 'art 91', 'art 135', 'art 61', 'art 91', 'art 91']

Airplane Flying Handbook: FAA-H-8083-3A | Federal Aviation Administration | download
Strona główna Airplane Flying Handbook: FAA-H-8083-3A
Wydawca: Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
ISBN 13: 9781560275572
Pobierz (pdf, 14.19 MB) Czytaj online
airplane1893
pilot902
airspeed568
takeoff520
altitude499
stall409
runway403
propeller399
fuel342
airplanes339
rudder277
qxd248
flaps241
elevator206
touchdown206
jet191
crosswind179
descent175
maneuver153
flap140
aileron139
pilots135
throttle130
indicator120
excessive119
multiengine115
pilot must109
downwind108
correction105
stalls104
brakes102
drift100
instructor97
maneuvers96
roundout88
yaw87
poh86
elevator pressure85
upwind84
landings83
decreases79
nosewheel79
directional control79
cockpit75
are essential for piloting airplanes. It provides information on transition to other airplanes and the operation of
various airplane systems. It is developed by the Flight Standards Service, Airman Testing Standards Branch, in
cooperation with various aviation educators and industry.
This handbook is developed to assist student pilots learning to fly airplanes. It is also beneficial to pilots who wish
to improve their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge, those pilots preparing for additional certificates or
ratings, and flight instructors engaged in the instruction of both student and certificated pilots. It introduces the future
pilot to the realm of flight and provides information and guidance in the performance of procedures and maneuvers
required for pilot certification. Topics such as navigation and communication, meteorology, use of flight information
publications, regulations, and aeronautical decision making are available in other Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) publications.
This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the FAA. There are different ways
of teaching, as well as performing flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations in the explanations of
aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept of flying airplanes. The
discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally the word “must”
or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to
add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).
Performance standards for demonstrating competence required for pilot certification are prescribed in the appropriate airplane practical test standard.
The FAA greatly acknowledges the valuable assistance provided by many individuals and organizations throughout
the aviation community whose expertise contributed to the preparation of this handbook.
This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-3, Airplane Flying Handbook, dated 1999. This handbook also supersedes
AC 61-9B, Pilot Transition Courses for Complex Single-Engine and Light Twin-Engine Airplanes, dated 1974; and
related portions of AC 61-10A, Private and Commercial Pilots Refresher Courses, dated 1972. This revision expands
all technical subject areas from the previous edition, FAA-H-8083-3. It also incorporates new areas of safety concerns and technical information not previously covered. The chapters covering transition to seaplanes and skiplanes
have been removed. They will be incorporated into a new handbook (under development), FAA-H-8083-23,
Seaplane, Skiplane and Float/Ski Equipped Helicopter Operations Handbook.
This handbook is available for download from the Flight Standards Service Web site at http://av-info.faa.gov. This
web site also provides information about availablity of printed copies.
other flight information publications. This checklist is available via the Internet at
Purpose of Flight Training.............................1-1
Role of the FAA ............................................1-1
Role of the Pilot Examiner............................1-2
Role of the Flight Instructor..........................1-3
Sources of Flight Training.............................1-3
Practical Test Standards.................................1-4
Flight Safety Practices...................................1-4
Collision Avoidance..................................1-4
Runway Incursion Avoidance...................1-5
Stall Awareness.........................................1-6
Use of Checklists......................................1-6
Positive Transfer of Controls....................1-6
Visual Inspection ...........................................2-1
Inside the Cockpit.....................................2-2
Outer Wing Surfaces
and Tail Section .......................................2-4
Fuel and Oil ..............................................2-5
Landing Gear, Tires, and Brakes ..............2-6
Engine and Propeller ................................2-6
Cockpit Management.....................................2-7
Ground Operations ........................................2-7
Engine Starting ..............................................2-7
Hand Propping...............................................2-8
Taxiing ...........................................................2-9
Before Takeoff Check..................................2-11
After Landing ..............................................2-11
Clear of Runway..........................................2-11
Parking.........................................................2-11
Engine Shutdown.........................................2-12
Postflight......................................................2-12
Securing and Servicing................................2-12
The Four Fundamentals.................................3-1
Effects and Use of the Controls ....................3-1
Feel of the Airplane .......................................3-2
Attitude Flying...............................................3-2
Integrated Flight Instruction..........................3-3
Straight-and-Level Flight ..............................3-4
Trim Control ..................................................3-6
Level Turns....................................................3-7
Climbs and Climbing Turns ........................3-13
Normal Climb.........................................3-13
Best Rate of Climb .................................3-13
Best Angle of Climb...............................3-13
Descents and Descending Turns..................3-15
Partial Power Descent ............................3-16
Descent at Minimum
Safe Airspeed.........................................3-16
Glides......................................................3-16
Pitch and Power...........................................3-19
Flight at Less than
Cruise Airspeeds......................................4-1
Flight at Minimum
Controllable Airspeed..............................4-1
Use of Ailerons/Rudder
in Stall Recovery .....................................4-5
Stall Characteristics ..................................4-6
Approaches to Stalls (Imminent Stalls)
—Power-On or Power-Off ......................4-6
Spin Procedures ......................................4-13
Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum
Performance Climb.......................................5-8
Maneuvering By Reference
to Ground Objects ........................................6-1
Eights Around Pylons .............................6-11
Airport Traffic Patterns and Operations ........7-1
Normal Approach and Landing .....................8-1
Crosswind Velocities .............................8-16
Short-Field Approach and Landing .............8-17
Soft-Field Approach and Landing ...............8-19
Emergency Approaches and
Landings (Simulated) .................................8-25
Slow Final Approach ..............................8-28
Hydroplaning ...............................................8-34
Chandelle ..................................................9-4
Pilot Equipment ...........................................10-3
Chapter 11—Transition to Complex
and Complex Airplanes ..............................11-1
Ground Boosting vs.
Altitude Turbocharging..........................11-7
Extension Systems...............................11-10
Chapter 12—Transition to Multiengine
Multiengine Flight .......................................12-1
Propellers ................................................12-3
Fuel Crossfeed ........................................12-5
Takeoff and Climb....................................12-12
Normal Approach and Landing .................12-14
Short-Field Approach
and Landing ..............................................12-17
Engine Inoperative Approach
and Landing ..............................................12-22
(Approach and Landing) .....................12-26
(Takeoff and Departure) ......................12-26
Engine Inoperative—Loss of
Directional Control Demonstration ..........12-27
Chapter 13—Transition to Tailwheel
Landing Gear ...............................................13-1
Chapter 14—Transition to Turbopropeller
Reverse Thrust and
Beta Range Operations...............................14-7
Electrical Systems ......................................14-8
Chapter 15—Transition to Jet Powered
Continuous Ignition ................................15-3
Significant Differences .........................15-20
Emergency Situations ..................................16-1
Types of Emergency Landings ...............16-1
Basic Safety Concepts .................................16-2
(Single-Engine)...........................................16-5
Electrical System ..................................16-10
Abnormal Engine
Instrument Indications ..............................16-11
Door Opening In Flight .............................16-12
Turns .....................................................16-15
Index ..............................................................I-1
Ch 01.qxd
The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, as outlined in this handbook, is the acquisition
and honing of basic airmanship skills. Airmanship
A sound acquaintance with the principles of
The ability to operate an airplane with competence and precision both on the ground and in the
The exercise of sound judgment that results in
optimal operational safety and efficiency.
Learning to fly an airplane has often been likened to
learning to drive an automobile. This analogy is
misleading. Since an airplane operates in a different
environment, three dimensional, it requires a type of
motor skill development that is more sensitive to this
situation such as:
Coordination—The ability to use the hands and
feet together subconsciously and in the proper
relationship to produce desired results in the airplane.
Timing—The application of muscular coordination at the proper instant to make flight, and all
maneuvers incident thereto, a constant smooth
Control touch—The ability to sense the action
of the airplane and its probable actions in the
immediate future, with regard to attitude and
speed variations, by the sensing and evaluation of
varying pressures and resistance of the control
surfaces transmitted through the cockpit flight
Speed sense—The ability to sense instantly and
react to any reasonable variation of airspeed.
An airman becomes one with the airplane rather than
a machine operator. An accomplished airman
demonstrates the ability to assess a situation quickly
and accurately and deduce the correct procedure to
be followed under the circumstance; to analyze
accurately the probable results of a given set of circumstances or of a proposed procedure; to exercise
care and due regard for safety; to gauge accurately
the performance of the airplane; and to recognize
personal limitations and limitations of the airplane
and avoid approaching the critical points of each.
The development of airmanship skills requires effort
and dedication on the part of both the student pilot
and the flight instructor, beginning with the very first
training flight where proper habit formation begins
with the student being introduced to good operating
Every airplane has its own particular flight characteristics. The purpose of primary and intermediate flight
training, however, is not to learn how to fly a particular
make and model airplane. The underlying purpose of
flight training is to develop skills and safe habits that
are transferable to any airplane. Basic airmanship skills
serve as a firm foundation for this. The pilot who has
acquired necessary airmanship skills during training,
and demonstrates these skills by flying training-type
airplanes with precision and safe flying habits, will be
able to easily transition to more complex and higher
performance airplanes. It should also be remembered
that the goal of flight training is a safe and competent
pilot, and that passing required practical tests for pilot
certification is only incidental to this goal.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is empowered by the U.S. Congress to promote aviation safety
by prescribing safety standards for civil aviation. This
is accomplished through the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFRs) formerly referred to as Federal
Aviation Regulations (FARs).
part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flight
instructors, and ground instructors. 14 CFR part 61 prescribes the eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, flight
proficiency, and training and testing requirements for
each type of pilot certificate issued.
14 CFR part 67 prescribes the medical standards and
certification procedures for issuing medical certificates
for airmen and for remaining eligible for a medical
14 CFR part 91 contains general operating and flight
rules. The section is broad in scope and provides
general guidance in the areas of general flight rules,
visual flight rules (VFR), instrument flight rules
(IFR), aircraft maintenance, and preventive maintenance and alterations.
Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service sets the
aviation standards for airmen and aircraft operations in
the United States and for American airmen and aircraft
around the world. The FAA Flight Standards Service is
headquartered in Washington, D.C., and is broadly
organized into divisions based on work function (Air
Transportation, Aircraft Maintenance, Technical
Programs, a Regulatory Support Division based in
Oklahoma City, OK, and a General Aviation and
Commercial Division). Regional Flight Standards division managers, one at each of the FAA’s nine regional
offices, coordinate Flight Standards activities within
The interface between the FAA Flight Standards
Service and the aviation community/general public
is the local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
[Figure 1-1] The approximately 90 FSDOs are
strategically located across the United States, each
office having jurisdiction over a specific geographic
area. The individual FSDO is responsible for all air
activity occurring within its geographic boundaries.
In addition to accident investigation and the
enforcement of aviation regulations, the individual
FSDO is responsible for the certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators, flight
schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots
and flight instructors.
Each FSDO is staffed by aviation safety inspectors
whose specialties include operations, maintenance,
and avionics. General aviation operations inspectors are highly qualified and experienced aviators.
Once accepted for the position, an inspector must
satisfactorily complete a course of indoctrination
training conducted at the FAA Academy, which
includes airman evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures. Thereafter, the inspector must
complete recurrent training on a regular basis. Among
other duties, the FSDO inspector is responsible for
administering FAA practical tests for pilot and flight
instructor certificates and associated ratings. All questions concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for
other aviation information or services) should be directed
to the FSDO having jurisdiction in the particular geographic area. FSDO telephone numbers are listed in the
blue pages of the telephone directory under United States
Government offices, Department of Transportation,
Pilot and flight instructor certificates are issued by
the FAA upon satisfactory completion of required
knowledge and practical tests. The administration
of these tests is an FAA responsibility normally
carried out at the FSDO level by FSDO inspectors.
The FAA, however, being a U.S. government
agency, has limited resources and must prioritize
its responsibilities. The agency’s highest priority
is the surveillance of certificated air carriers, with
the certification of airmen (including pilots and
flight instructors) having a lower priority.
In order to satisfy the public need for pilot testing and
certification services, the FAA delegates certain of these
responsibilities, as the need arises, to private individuals who are not FAA employees. A designated pilot
examiner (DPE) is a private citizen who is designated
as a representative of the FAA Administrator to perform
specific (but limited) pilot certification tasks on behalf
of the FAA, and may charge a reasonable fee for doing
so. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting
applications and conducting practical tests leading to
the issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings.
A DPE operates under the direct supervision of the
FSDO that holds the examiner’s designation file. A
FSDO inspector is assigned to monitor the DPE’s certification activities. Normally, the DPE is authorized to
conduct these activities only within the designating
FSDO’s jurisdictional area.
The FAA selects only highly qualified individuals to
be designated pilot examiners. These individuals must
have good industry reputations for professionalism,
high integrity, a demonstrated willingness to serve the
public, and adhere to FAA policies and procedures in
certification matters. A designated pilot examiner is
expected to administer practical tests with the same
degree of professionalism, using the same methods,
procedures, and standards as an FAA aviation safety
inspector. It should be remembered, however, that a
DPE is not an FAA aviation safety inspector. A DPE
cannot initiate enforcement action, investigate accidents, or perform surveillance activities on behalf of
the FAA. However, the majority of FAA practical tests
at the recreational, private, and commercial pilot level
are administered by FAA designated pilot examiners.
The flight instructor is the cornerstone of aviation
safety. The FAA has adopted an operational training
concept that places the full responsibility for student
training on the authorized flight instructor. In this role,
the instructor assumes the total responsibility for training the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and
skills necessary to operate safely and competently as a
certificated pilot in the National Airspace System. This
training will include airmanship skills, pilot judgment
and decision making, and accepted good operating
An FAA certificated flight instructor has to meet
broad flying experience requirements, pass rigid
knowledge and practical tests, and demonstrate the
ability to apply recommended teaching techniques
before being certificated. In addition, the flight
instructor’s certificate must be renewed every 24
months by showing continued success in training
pilots, or by satisfactorily completing a flight instructor’s refresher course or a practical test designed to
upgrade aeronautical knowledge, pilot proficiency,
A pilot training program is dependent on the quality of
the ground and flight instruction the student pilot
receives. A good flight instructor will have a thorough
understanding of the learning process, knowledge of
the fundamentals of teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the student pilot.
observe all regulations and recognized safety practices
during all flight operations.
Generally, the student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training
program is prepared to commit considerable time,
effort, and expense in pursuit of a pilot certificate. The
student may tend to judge the effectiveness of the flight
instructor, and the overall success of the pilot training
program, solely in terms of being able to pass the
requisite FAA practical test. A good flight instructor,
however, will be able to communicate to the student
that evaluation through practical tests is a mere sampling of pilot ability that is compressed into a short
period of time. The flight instructor’s role, however, is
to train the “total” pilot.
The major sources of flight training in the United States
include FAA-approved pilot schools and training centers, non-certificated (14 CFR part 61) flying schools,
and independent flight instructors. FAA “approved”
schools are those flight schools certificated by the FAA
as pilot schools under 14 CFR part 141. [Figure 1-2]
Application for certification is voluntary, and the school
must meet stringent requirements for personnel, equipment, maintenance, and facilities. The school must
operate in accordance with an established curriculum,
which includes a training course outline (TCO)
A good flight instructor will use a syllabus and insist
on correct techniques and procedures from the
beginning of training so that the student will develop
proper habit patterns. The syllabus should embody
the “building block” method of instruction, in which
the student progresses from the known to the
unknown. The course of instruction should be laid
out so that each new maneuver embodies the principles
involved in the performance of those previously
undertaken. Consequently, through each new subject
introduced, the student not only learns a new principle or technique, but broadens his/her application of
those previously learned and has his/her deficiencies
in the previous maneuvers emphasized and made
The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during
flight instruction and as observed by students when
conducting other pilot operations, have a vital effect
on safety. Students consider their flight instructor to be
a paragon of flying proficiency whose flying habits
they, consciously or unconsciously, attempt to imitate.
For this reason, a good flight instructor will meticulously observe the safety practices taught the students.
Additionally, a good flight instructor will carefully
approved by the FAA. The TCO must contain student
enrollment prerequisites, detailed description of each
lesson including standards and objectives, expected
accomplishments and standards for each stage of training, and a description of the checks and tests used to
measure a student’s accomplishments. FAA-approved
pilot school certificates must be renewed every 2 years.
Renewal is contingent upon proof of continued high
quality instruction and a minimum level of instructional
activity. Training at an FAA certificated pilot school is
structured. Because of this structured environment, the
CFRs allow graduates of these pilot schools to meet the
certification experience requirements of 14 CFR part
61 with less flight time. Many FAA certificated pilot
schools have designated pilot examiners (DPEs) on
their staff to administer FAA practical tests. Some
schools have been granted examining authority by the
FAA. A school with examining authority for a particular course or courses has the authority to recommend its
graduates for pilot certificates or ratings without further
testing by the FAA. A list of FAA certificated pilot
schools and their training courses can be found in
Advisory Circular (AC) 140-2, FAA Certificated Pilot
FAA-approved training centers are certificated under
14 CFR part 142. Training centers, like certificated
pilot schools, operate in a structured environment with
approved courses and curricula, and stringent standards
for personnel, equipment, facilities, operating procedures and record keeping. Training centers certificated
under 14 CFR part 142, however, specialize in the use
of flight simulation (flight simulators and flight training devices) in their training courses.
The overwhelming majority of flying schools in the
United States are not certificated by the FAA. These
schools operate under the provisions of 14 CFR part
61. Many of these non-certificated flying schools offer
excellent training, and meet or exceed the standards
required of FAA-approved pilot schools. Flight
instructors employed by non-certificated flying
schools, as well as independent flight instructors, must
meet the same basic 14 CFR part 61 flight instructor
requirements for certification and renewal as those
flight instructors employed by FAA certificated pilot
schools. In the end, any training program is dependent
upon the quality of the ground and flight instruction a
student pilot receives.
Practical tests for FAA pilot certificates and associated
ratings are administered by FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners in accordance with FAA-developed
practical test standards (PTS). [Figure 1-3] 14 CFR
part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which
knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the
applicant. The CFRs provide the flexibility to permit
the FAA to publish practical test standards containing
the areas of operation and specific tasks in which
competence must be demonstrated. The FAA requires
that all practical tests be conducted in accordance with
the appropriate practical test standards and the policies
set forth in the Introduction section of the practical test
standard book.
It must be emphasized that the practical test standards
book is a testing document rather than a teaching document. An appropriately rated flight instructor is
responsible for training a pilot applicant to acceptable
standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and
maneuvers included in the tasks within each area of
operation in the appropriate practical test standard.
The pilot applicant should be familiar with this book
and refer to the standards it contains during training.
However, the practical test standard book is not
intended to be used as a training syllabus. It contains
the standards to which maneuvers/procedures on FAA
practical tests must be performed and the FAA policies
governing the administration of practical tests.
Descriptions of tasks, and information on how to
perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in
reference and teaching documents such as this
handbook. A list of reference documents is contained
in the Introduction section of each practical test standard book.
Practical test standards may be downloaded from the
Regulatory Support Division’s, AFS-600, Web site at
http://afs600.faa.gov. Printed copies of practical test
standards can be purchased from the Superintendent
Washington, DC 20402. The official online bookstore
Web site for the U.S. Government Printing Office is
www.access.gpo.gov.
In the interest of safety and good habit pattern formation, there are certain basic flight safety practices and
procedures that must be emphasized by the flight
instructor, and adhered to by both instructor and student,
beginning with the very first dual instruction flight.
These include, but are not limited to, collision
avoidance procedures including proper scanning
techniques and clearing procedures, runway incursion
avoidance, stall awareness, positive transfer of
controls, and cockpit workload management.
All pilots must be alert to the potential for midair
collision and near midair collisions. The general operating and flight rules in 14 CFR part 91 set forth the
concept of “See and Avoid.” This concept requires
that vigilance shall be maintained at all times, by
each person operating an aircraft regardless of
whether the operation is conducted under instrument
flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Pilots
should also keep in mind their responsibility for continuously maintaining a vigilant lookout regardless of
the type of aircraft being flown and the purpose of the
flight. Most midair collision accidents and reported
near midair collision incidents occur in good VFR
weather conditions and during the hours of daylight.
Most of these accident/incidents occur within 5 miles
of an airport and/or near navigation aids.
The “See and Avoid” concept relies on knowledge
of the limitations of the human eye, and the use of
proper visual scanning techniques to help compensate for these limitations. The importance of, and
the proper techniques for, visual scanning should
be taught to a student pilot at the very beginning of
flight training. The competent flight instructor
should be familiar with the visual scanning and
collision avoidance information contained in
Advisory Circular (AC) 90-48, Pilots’ Role in
Collision Avoidance, and the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM).
There are many different types of clearing procedures.
Most are centered around the use of clearing turns. The
essential idea of the clearing turn is to be certain that
the next maneuver is not going to proceed into another
airplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programs
have hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°
turns in opposite directions before executing any
training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures
may be developed by individual flight instructors.
Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor
should teach the beginning student an effective clearing procedure and insist on its use. The student pilot
should execute the appropriate clearing procedure
before all turns and before executing any training
maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined
with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the
ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a
loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,
or intending to land. The three major areas contributing to runway incursions are:
flight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. This
is especially true during flight training operations.
Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need to
be continually aware of the movement and location of
other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport
movement area. Many flight training activities are
conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The
absence of an operating airport control tower creates a
need for increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating at those airports.
Planning, clear communications, and enhanced
situational awareness during airport surface
operations will reduce the potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished
and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly trained
early on and, throughout his/her flying career,
accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and
practices. This requires the development of the
formalized teaching of safe operating practices during
taxi operations. The flight instructor is the key to this
teaching. The flight instructor should instill in the
student an awareness of the potential for runway
incursion, and should emphasize the runway
incursion avoidance procedures contained in
Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and
Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations and
Part 135 Single-Pilot Operations.
14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and
log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to
solo flight. During this training, the flight instructor
should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is
an excessive angle of attack. The student pilot should
fully understand that there are any number of flight
maneuvers which may produce an increase in the
wing’s angle of attack, but the stall does not occur until
the angle of attack becomes excessive. This “critical”
angle of attack varies from 16 to 20° depending on the
The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is
not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be
brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed.
High pitch attitude is not an absolute indication of
proximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of vertical flight with a corresponding low angle of attack.
Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or
near level pitch attitude.
The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to
visualize the wing’s angle of attack in any particular
circumstance, and thereby be able to estimate his/her
margin of safety above stall. This is a learned skill
that must be acquired early in flight training and
carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. The
pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as
airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind,
power setting, and aircraft configuration in order to
develop a reasonably accurate mental picture of the
wing’s angle of attack at any particular time. It is
essential to flight safety that a pilot take into consideration this visualization of the wing’s angle of
attack prior to entering any flight maneuver.
Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization and cockpit safety for years. The checklist is an
aid to the memory and helps to ensure that critical
items necessary for the safe operation of aircraft are
not overlooked or forgotten. However, checklists are
of no value if the pilot is not committed to its use.
Without discipline and dedication to using the checklist at the appropriate times, the odds are on the side of
error. Pilots who fail to take the checklist seriously
become complacent and the only thing they can rely
on is memory.
The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot
be overstated in pilot training. A major objective in
primary flight training is to establish habit patterns that
will serve pilots well throughout their entire flying
career. The flight instructor must promote a positive
attitude toward the use of checklists, and the student
pilot must realize its importance. At a minimum, prepared checklists should be used for the following
During flight training, there must always be a clear
understanding between the student and flight instructor of who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any
dual training flight, a briefing should be conducted
that includes the procedure for the exchange of flight
controls. The following three-step process for the
exchange of flight controls is highly recommended.
When a flight instructor wishes the student to take
control of the aircraft, he/she should say to the student, “You have the flight controls.” The student
should acknowledge immediately by saying, “I have
the flight controls.” The flight instructor confirms by
again saying, “You have the flight controls.” Part of
the procedure should be a visual check to ensure that
the other person actually has the flight controls. When
returning the controls to the flight instructor, the student should follow the same procedure the instructor
used when giving control to the student. The student
should stay on the controls until the instructor says:
“I have the flight controls.” There should never be
any doubt as to who is flying the airplane at any one
time. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a lack
of communication or misunderstanding as to who
actually had control of the aircraft, particularly
between students and flight instructors. Establishing
the above procedure during initial training will ensure
the formation of a very beneficial habit pattern.
Ch 02.qxd
The accomplishment of a safe flight begins with a careful visual inspection of the airplane. The purpose of the
preflight visual inspection is twofold: to determine that
the airplane is legally airworthy, and that it is in condition for safe flight. The airworthiness of the airplane is
determined, in part, by the following certificates and
documents, which must be on board the airplane when
operated. [Figure 2-1]
records for the airframe and engine are required to be
kept. There may also be additional propeller records.
At a minimum, there should be an annual inspection
within the preceding 12-calendar months. In addition,
the airplane may also be required to have a 100-hour
inspection in accordance with Title14 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, section
91.409(b).
FCC radio station license, if required by the type
Airplane operating limitations, which may be in
the form of an FAA-approved Airplane Flight
Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook
(AFM/POH), placards, instrument markings, or
The emergency locator transmitter (ELT) should also
be checked. The ELT is battery powered, and the
battery replacement or recharge date should not
Airplane logbooks are not required to be kept in the
airplane when it is operated. However, they should be
inspected prior to flight to show that the airplane has
had required tests and inspections. Maintenance
Airworthiness Directives (ADs) have varying
compliance intervals and are usually tracked in a
separate area of the appropriate airframe, engine, or
propeller record.
If a transponder is to be used, it is required to be
inspected within the preceding 24-calendar months. If
the airplane is operated under instrument flight rules
(IFR) in controlled airspace, the pitot-static system is
also required to be inspected within the preceding
24-calendar months.
The determination of whether the airplane is in a condition for safe flight is made by a preflight inspection
of the airplane and its components. [Figure 2-2] The
preflight inspection should be performed in accordance
with a printed checklist provided by the airplane manufacturer for the specific make and model airplane.
However, the following general areas are applicable to
The preflight inspection of the airplane should begin
while approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot
should make note of the general appearance of the
airplane, looking for obvious discrepancies such as a
landing gear out of alignment, structural distortion,
skin damage, and dripping fuel or oil leaks. Upon
reaching the airplane, all tiedowns, control locks, and
chocks should be removed.
The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the
door is hard to open or close, or if the carpeting or
seats are wet from a recent rain, there is a good chance
that the door, fuselage, or both are misaligned. This
may be a sign of structural damage.
The windshield and side windows should be examined
for cracks and/or crazing. Crazing is the first stage of
delamination of the plastic. Crazing decreases
visibility, and a severely crazed window can result in
near zero visibility due to light refraction at certain
angles to the sun.
The pilot should check the seats, seat rails, and seat
belt attach points for wear, cracks, and serviceability.
The seat rail holes where the seat lock pins fit should
also be inspected. The holes should be round and not
oval. The pin and seat rail grips should also be checked
for wear and serviceability.
(1) battery and ignition switches—off, (2) control
column locks—removed, (3) landing gear control—
down and locked. [Figure 2-3]
The fuel selectors should be checked for proper
operation in all positions—including the OFF position. Stiff selectors, or ones where the tank position is
hard to find, are unacceptable. The primer should also
be exercised. The pilot should feel resistance when
the primer is both pulled out and pushed in. The
primer should also lock securely. Faulty primers can
interfere with proper engine operation. [Figure 2-4]
The engine controls should also be manipulated by
slowly moving each through its full range to check
for binding or stiffness.
The airspeed indicator should be properly marked, and
the indicator needle should read zero. If it does not, the
instrument may not be calibrated correctly. Similarly,
the vertical speed indicator (VSI) should also read zero
when the airplane is on the ground. If it does not, a
small screwdriver can be used to zero the instrument.
The VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has
the prerogative to adjust. All others must be adjusted
by an FAA certificated repairman or mechanic.
The magnetic compass is a required instrument for
both VFR and IFR flight. It must be securely mounted,
with a correction card in place. The instrument face
must be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. A
cloudy instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or a
partially filled case renders the instrument unusable.
[Figure 2-5]
The gyro driven attitude indicator should be checked
before being powered. A white haze on the inside of
the glass face may be a sign that the seal has been
breached, allowing moisture and dirt to be sucked into
The altimeter should be checked against the ramp or
field elevation after setting in the barometric pressure.
If the variation between the known field elevation and
the altimeter indication is more than 75 feet, its
accuracy is questionable.
The pilot should turn on the battery master switch and
make note of the fuel quantity gauge indications for
comparison with an actual visual inspection of the fuel
tanks during the exterior inspection.
OUTER WING SURFACES AND TAIL
The pilot should inspect for any signs of deterioration,
distortion, and loose or missing rivets or screws,
especially in the area where the outer skin attaches to
the airplane structure. [Figure 2-6] The pilot should
look along the wing spar rivet line—from the wingtip
to the fuselage—for skin distortion. Any ripples and/or
waves may be an indication of internal damage
Loose or sheared aluminum rivets may be identified by
the presence of black oxide which forms rapidly when
the rivet works free in its hole. Pressure applied to the
skin adjacent to the rivet head will help verify the
loosened condition of the rivet.
When examining the outer wing surface, it should be
remembered that any damage, distortion, or
malformation of the wing leading edge renders the
airplane unairworthy. Serious dents in the leading
edge, and disrepair of items such as stall strips, and
deicer boots can cause the airplane to be
aerodynamically unsound. Also, special care should
be taken when examining the wingtips. Airplane
wingtips are usually fiberglass. They are easily
damaged and subject to cracking. The pilot should
look at stop drilled cracks for evidence of crack
progression, which can, under some circumstances,
lead to in-flight failure of the wingtip.
The pilot should remember that fuel stains anywhere
on the wing warrant further investigation—no matter
how old the stains appear to be. Fuel stains are a sign
of probable fuel leakage. On airplanes equipped with
integral fuel tanks, evidence of fuel leakage can be
found along rivet lines along the underside of
fuel. The pilot should always ensure that the fuel caps
have been securely replaced following each fueling.
Engines certificated for grades 80/87 or 91/96 AVGAS
will run satisfactorily on 100LL. The reverse is not
true. Fuel of a lower grade/octane, if found, should
never be substituted for a required higher grade.
Detonation will severely damage the engine in a very
Automotive gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute
fuel in certain airplanes. Its use is acceptable only
when the particular airplane has been issued a
supplemental type certificate (STC) to both the
airframe and engine allowing its use.
Particular attention should be paid to the fuel quantity,
type and grade, and quality. [Figure 2-7] Many fuel
tanks are very sensitive to airplane attitude when
attempting to fuel for maximum capacity. Nosewheel
strut extension, both high as well as low, can
significantly alter the attitude, and therefore the fuel
capacity. The airplane attitude can also be affected
laterally by a ramp that slopes, leaving one wing
slightly higher than another. Always confirm the fuel
quantity indicated on the fuel gauges by visually
inspecting the level of each tank.
The type, grade, and color of fuel are critical to safe
operation. The only widely available aviation gasoline
(AVGAS) grade in the United States is low-lead
100-octane, or 100LL. AVGAS is dyed for easy
recognition of its grade and has a familiar gasoline
scent. Jet-A, or jet fuel, is a kerosene-based fuel for
turbine powered airplanes. It has disastrous
consequences when inadvertently introduced into
reciprocating airplane engines. The piston engine
operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the
airplane, but will fail because the engine has been
destroyed from detonation.
Jet fuel has a distinctive kerosene scent and is oily to
the touch when rubbed between fingers. Jet fuel is
clear or straw colored, although it may appear dyed
when mixed in a tank containing AVGAS. When a few
drops of AVGAS are placed upon white paper, they
evaporate quickly and leave just a trace of dye. In
comparison, jet fuel is slower to evaporate and leaves
an oily smudge. Jet fuel refueling trucks and
dispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placards
in white letters on a black background. Prudent pilots
will supervise fueling to ensure that the correct tanks
are filled with the right quantity, type, and grade of
Checking for water and other sediment contamination
is a key preflight element. Water tends to accumulate
in fuel tanks from condensation, particularly in
partially filled tanks. Because water is heavier than
fuel, it tends to collect in the low points of the fuel
system. Water can also be introduced into the fuel
system from deteriorated gas cap seals exposed to rain,
or from the supplier’s storage tanks and delivery
vehicles. Sediment contamination can arise from dust
and dirt entering the tanks during refueling, or from
deteriorating rubber fuel tanks or tank sealant.
The best preventive measure is to minimize the
opportunity for water to condense in the tanks. If
possible, the fuel tanks should be completely filled
with the proper grade of fuel after each flight, or at
least filled after the last flight of the day. The more fuel
there is in the tanks, the less opportunity for
condensation to occur. Keeping fuel tanks filled is also
the best way to slow the aging of rubber fuel tanks and
tank sealant.
Sufficient fuel should be drained from the fuel strainer
quick drain and from each fuel tank sump to check for
fuel grade/color, water, dirt, and smell. If water is
present, it will usually be in bead-like droplets,
different in color (usually clear, sometimes muddy), in
the bottom of the sample. In extreme cases, do not
overlook the possibility that the entire sample,
particularly a small sample, is water. If water is found
in the first fuel sample, further samples should be taken
until no water appears. Significant and/or consistent
water or sediment contamination are grounds for
further investigation by qualified maintenance
personnel. Each fuel tank sump should be drained
during preflight and after refueling.
The fuel tank vent is an important part of a preflight
inspection. Unless outside air is able to enter the tank
as fuel is drawn out, the eventual result will be fuel
gauge malfunction and/or fuel starvation. During the
preflight inspection, the pilot should be alert for any
signs of vent tubing damage, as well as vent blockage.
A functional check of the fuel vent system can be done
simply by opening the fuel cap. If there is a rush of air
when the fuel tank cap is cracked, there could be a
serious problem with the vent system.
The oil level should be checked during each preflight
and rechecked with each refueling. Reciprocating
airplane engines can be expected to consume a small
amount of oil during normal operation. If the
consumption grows or suddenly changes, qualified
maintenance personnel should investigate. If line
service personnel add oil to the engine, the pilot should
ensure that the oil cap has been securely replaced.
Tires should be inspected for proper inflation, as well
as cuts, bruises, wear, bulges, imbedded foreign object,
and deterioration. As a general rule, tires with cord
showing, and those with cracked sidewalls are
considered unairworthy.
Brakes and brake systems should be checked for rust
and corrosion, loose nuts/bolts, alignment, brake pad
wear/cracks, signs of hydraulic fluid leakage, and
hydraulic line security/abrasion.
An examination of the nose gear should include the
shimmy damper, which is painted white, and the torque
link, which is painted red, for proper servicing and
general condition. All landing gear shock struts should
also be checked for proper inflation.
The pilot should make note of the condition of the
engine cowling. [Figure 2-8] If the cowling rivet heads
reveal aluminum oxide residue, and chipped paint
surrounding and radiating away from the cowling rivet
heads, it is a sign that the rivets have been rotating until
the holes have been elongated. If allowed to continue,
the cowling may eventually separate from the airplane
Certain engine/propeller combinations require
installation of a prop spinner for proper engine
cooling. In these cases, the engine should not be
operated unless the spinner is present and properly
installed. The pilot should inspect the propeller
spinner and spinner mounting plate for security of
attachment, any signs of chafing of propeller blades,
and defects such as cracking. A cracked spinner is
The propeller should be checked for nicks, cracks,
pitting, corrosion, and security. The propeller hub
should be checked for oil leaks, and the alternator/
generator drive belt should be checked for proper
tension and signs of wear.
When inspecting inside the cowling, the pilot should
look for signs of fuel dye which may indicate a fuel
leak. The pilot should check for oil leaks, deterioration
of oil lines, and to make certain that the oil cap, filter,
oil cooler and drain plug are secure. The exhaust
system should be checked for white stains caused by
exhaust leaks at the cylinder head or cracks in the
stacks. The heat muffs should also be checked for
general condition and signs of cracks or leaks.
The air filter should be checked for condition and
secure fit, as well as hydraulic lines for deterioration
and/or leaks. The pilot should also check for loose or
foreign objects inside the cowling such as bird nests,
shop rags, and/or tools. All visible wires and lines
should be checked for security and condition. And
lastly, when the cowling is closed, the cowling
fasteners should be checked for security.
After entering the airplane, the pilot should first ensure
that all necessary equipment, documents, checklists,
and navigation charts appropriate for the flight are on
board. If a portable intercom, headsets, or a hand-held
global positioning system (GPS) is used, the pilot is
responsible for ensuring that the routing of wires and
cables does not interfere with the motion or the
operation of any control.
Regardless of what materials are to be used, they
should be neatly arranged and organized in a manner
that makes them readily available. The cockpit and
cabin should be checked for articles that might be
tossed about if turbulence is encountered. Loose items
should be properly secured. All pilots should form the
The pilot must be able to see inside and outside
references. If the range of motion of an adjustable seat
is inadequate, cushions should be used to provide the
proper seating position.
When the pilot is comfortably seated, the safety belt
and shoulder harness (if installed) should be fastened
and adjusted to a comfortably snug fit. The shoulder
harness must be worn at least for the takeoff and
landing, unless the pilot cannot reach or operate the
controls with it fastened. The safety belt must be worn
at all times when the pilot is seated at the controls.
If the seats are adjustable, it is important to ensure that
the seat is locked in position. Accidents have occurred
as the result of seat movement during acceleration or
pitch attitude changes during takeoffs or landings.
When the seat suddenly moves too close or too far
away from the controls, the pilot may be unable to
maintain control of the airplane.
14 CFR part 91 requires the pilot to ensure that each
person on board is briefed on how to fasten and
unfasten his/her safety belt and, if installed, shoulder
harness. This should be accomplished before starting
the engine, along with a passenger briefing on the
proper use of safety equipment and exit information.
Airplane manufacturers have printed briefing cards
available, similar to those used by airlines, to
supplement the pilot’s briefing.
It is important that a pilot operates an airplane safely
on the ground. This includes being familiar with
standard hand signals that are used by ramp personnel.
[Figure 2-9]
The specific procedures for engine starting will not be
discussed here since there are as many different
methods as there are different engines, fuel systems,
and starting conditions. The before engine starting and
engine starting checklist procedures should be followed. There are, however, certain precautions that
Some pilots have started the engine with the tail of the
airplane pointed toward an open hangar door, parked
automobiles, or a group of bystanders. This is not only
discourteous, but may result in personal injury and
damage to the property of others. Propeller blast can
be surprisingly powerful.
When ready to start the engine, the pilot should look in
all directions to be sure that nothing is or will be in the
vicinity of the propeller. This includes nearby persons
and aircraft that could be struck by the propeller blast
or the debris it might pick up from the ground. The
anticollision light should be turned on prior to engine
start, even during daytime operations. At night, the
position (navigation) lights should also be on.
The pilot should always call “CLEAR” out of the side
window and wait for a response from persons who may
be nearby before activating the starter.
When activating the starter, one hand should be kept
on the throttle. This allows prompt response if the
engine falters during starting, and allows the pilot to
rapidly retard the throttle if revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.) are excessive after starting. A low r.p.m.
setting (800 to 1,000) is recommended immediately
following engine start. It is highly undesirable to allow
the r.p.m. to race immediately after start, as there will
be insufficient lubrication until the oil pressure rises.
In freezing temperatures, the engine will also be
exposed to potential mechanical distress until it warms
and normal internal operating clearances are assumed.
As soon as the engine is operating smoothly, the oil
pressure should be checked. If it does not rise to the
manufacturer’s specified value, the engine may not be
receiving proper lubrication and should be shut down
immediately to prevent serious damage.
Although quite rare, the starter motor may remain on
and engaged after the engine starts. This can be
detected by a continuous very high current draw on the
ammeter. Some airplanes also have a starter engaged
warning light specifically for this purpose. The engine
should be shut down immediately should this occur.
Starters are small electric motors designed to draw
large amounts of current for short periods of cranking.
Should the engine fail to start readily, avoid
continuous starter operation for periods longer than 30
seconds without a cool down period of at least 30
seconds to a minute (some AFM/POH specify even
longer). Their service life is drastically shortened from
high heat through overuse.
When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface
near the propeller should be stable and free of debris.
Unless a firm footing is available, consider relocating
the airplane. Loose gravel, wet grass, mud, oil, ice, or
snow might cause the person pulling the propeller
through to slip into the rotating blades as the engine
Both participants should discuss the procedure and
agree on voice commands and expected action. To
begin the procedure, the fuel system and engine
controls (tank selector, primer, pump, throttle, and
mixture) are set for a normal start. The ignition/
magneto switch should be checked to be sure that it is
OFF. Then the descending propeller blade should be
rotated so that it assumes a position slightly above the
horizontal. The person doing the hand propping should
face the descending blade squarely and stand slightly
less than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stance
too far away were assumed, it would be necessary to
lean forward in an unbalanced condition to reach the
blade. This may cause the person to fall forward into
the rotating blades when the engine starts.
Person out front says, “GAS ON, SWITCH OFF,
THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”
Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is
ON, mixture is RICH, ignition/magneto switch is
OFF, throttle is CLOSED, and brakes SET, says,
“GAS ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE
CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”
Person out front, after pulling the propeller
through to prime the engine says, “BRAKES
AND CONTACT.”
Pilot seat occupant checks the brakes SET and
turns the ignition switch ON, then says,
“BRAKES AND CONTACT.”
Even though most airplanes are equipped with electric
starters, it is helpful if a pilot is familiar with the procedures and dangers involved in starting an engine by
turning the propeller by hand (hand propping). Due to
the associated hazards, this method of starting should
be used only when absolutely necessary and when
An engine should not be hand propped unless two
people, both familiar with the airplane and hand
propping techniques, are available to perform the
procedure. The person pulling the propeller blades
through directs all activity and is in charge of the
procedure. The other person, thoroughly familiar
with the controls, must be seated in the airplane with
the brakes set. As an additional precaution, chocks
may be placed in front of the main wheels. If this is
not feasible, the airplane’s tail may be securely tied.
Never allow a person unfamiliar with the controls to
occupy the pilot’s seat when hand propping. The
procedure should never be attempted alone.
The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward
rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the
blade is gripped tightly with the fingers, the person’s
body may be drawn into the propeller blades should
the engine misfire and rotate momentarily in the
opposite direction. As the blade is pushed down, the
person should step backward, away from the propeller.
If the engine does not start, the propeller should not be
repositioned for another attempt until it is certain the
ignition/magneto switch is turned OFF.
The words CONTACT (mags ON) and SWITCH OFF
(mags OFF) are used because they are significantly
different from each other. Under noisy conditions or
high winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF
are less likely to be misunderstood than SWITCH ON
When removing the wheel chocks after the engine
starts, it is essential that the pilot remember that the
propeller is almost invisible. Incredible as it may seem,
serious injuries and fatalities occur when people who
have just started an engine walk or reach into the
propeller arc to remove the chocks. Before the chocks
are removed, the throttle should be set to idle and the
chocks approached from the rear of the propeller.
Never approach the chocks from the front or the side.
The procedures for hand propping should always be in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations
and checklist. Special starting procedures are used
when the engine is already warm, very cold, or when
flooded or vapor locked. There will also be a different
starting procedure when an external power source
The following basic taxi information is applicable to
both nosewheel and tailwheel airplanes.
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane
under its own power while on the ground. Since an
airplane is moved under its own power between the
parking area and the runway, the pilot must thoroughly
understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.
An awareness of other aircraft that are taking off,
landing, or taxiing, and consideration for the right-ofway of others is essential to safety. When taxiing, the
pilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane, to
the sides, as well as the front. The pilot must be aware
of the entire area around the airplane to ensure that the
airplane will clear all obstructions and other aircraft. If
at any time there is doubt about the clearance from an
object, the pilot should stop the airplane and have
someone check the clearance. It may be necessary to
have the airplane towed or physically moved by a
It is difficult to set any rule for a single, safe taxiing
speed. What is reasonable and prudent under some
conditions may be imprudent or hazardous under others. The primary requirements for safe taxiing are positive control, the ability to recognize potential hazards
in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn
where and when desired, without undue reliance on the
brakes. Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on
congested or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should
be at the rate where movement of the airplane is
dependent on the throttle. That is, slow enough so
when the throttle is closed, the airplane can be stopped
promptly. When yellow taxiway centerline stripes are
provided, they should be observed unless necessary to
clear airplanes or obstructions.
Use Up Aileron
on LH Wing and
Use Down Aileron
on RH Wing and
When taxiing, it is best to slow down before
attempting a turn. Sharp, high-speed turns place
undesirable side loads on the landing gear and may
result in an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.
This swerve is most likely to occur when turning from
a downwind heading toward an upwind heading. In
moderate to high-wind conditions, pilots will note the
airplane’s tendency to weathervane, or turn into the
wind when the airplane is proceeding crosswind.
When taxiing at appropriate speeds in no-wind
conditions, the aileron and elevator control surfaces
have little or no effect on directional control of the
airplane. The controls should not be considered
steering devices and should be held in a neutral
position. Their proper use while taxiing in windy
conditions will be discussed later. [Figure 2-10]
Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and
brakes. To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot
should apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and
use whatever power or brake that is necessary to
control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be held
in the direction of the turn until just short of the point
where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is then
released or opposite pressure is applied as needed.
More engine power may be required to start the
airplane moving forward, or to start a turn, than is
required to keep it moving in any given direction.
When using additional power, the throttle should
immediately be retarded once the airplane begins
moving, to prevent excessive acceleration.
When first beginning to taxi, the brakes should be
tested for proper operation as soon as the airplane is
put in motion. Applying power to start the airplane
moving forward slowly, then retarding the throttle and
simultaneously applying pressure smoothly to both
brakes does this. If braking action is unsatisfactory, the
The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or
a strong propeller slipstream makes the use of the
elevator necessary to maintain control of the pitch
attitude while taxiing. This becomes apparent when
considering the lifting action that may be created on
the horizontal tail surfaces by either of those two
factors. The elevator control in nosewheel-type
airplanes should be held in the neutral position, while
in tailwheel-type airplanes it should be held in the aft
Downwind taxiing will usually require less engine
power after the initial ground roll is begun, since the
wind will be pushing the airplane forward. [Figure
2-11] To avoid overheating the brakes when taxiing
downwind, keep engine power to a minimum. Rather
than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it
is better to apply brakes only occasionally. Other than
sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be
at idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common
student error to taxi with a power setting that requires
controlling taxi speed with the brakes. This is the
aeronautical equivalent of driving an automobile with
When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on
the upwind side will tend to be lifted by the wind
unless the aileron control is held in that direction
(upwind aileron UP). [Figure 2-12] Moving the aileron
WHEN TAXIING DOWNWIND
Keep engine power
into the UP position reduces the effect of the wind
striking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action.
This control movement will also cause the downwind
aileron to be placed in the DOWN position, thus a
small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing,
further reducing the tendency of the upwind wing
When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator
should be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind
aileron, DOWN. [Figure 2-13] Since the wind is
striking the airplane from behind, these control
positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get under
the tail and the wing and to nose the airplane over.
Upwind Aileron Down
Downwind Aileron Up
The application of these crosswind taxi corrections
helps to minimize the weathervaning tendency and
ultimately results in making the airplane easier to
Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder
pedal to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after
full pedal deflection is reached, the brake may be
applied as needed. When stopping the airplane, it is
advisable to always stop with the nosewheel straight
ahead to relieve any side load on the nosewheel and to
make it easier to start moving ahead.
During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type
airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However,
Do not ride the brakes.
Reduce power and use
brakes intermittently.
Upwind Aileron Up
Downwind Aileron Down
the weathervaning tendency is less than in
tailwheel-type airplanes because the main wheels are
located farther aft, and the nosewheel’s ground friction
helps to resist the tendency. [Figure 2-14] The
nosewheel linkage from the rudder pedals provides
adequate steering control for safe and efficient ground
handling, and normally, only rudder pressure is
The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure
for making a check of the engine, controls, systems,
instruments, and avionics prior to flight. Normally, it is
performed after taxiing to a position near the takeoff
end of the runway. Taxiing to that position usually
allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at
least minimum operating temperatures. This ensures
adequate lubrication and internal engine clearances
before being operated at high power settings. Many
engines require that the oil temperature reach a
minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before high
Air-cooled engines generally are closely cowled and
equipped with pressure baffles that direct the flow of
air to the engine in sufficient quantities for cooling in
flight. On the ground, however, much less air is forced
through the cowling and around the baffling.
Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder
overheating long before there is an indication of rising
oil temperature. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set
Before beginning the before takeoff check, the airplane
should be positioned clear of other aircraft. There
should not be anything behind the airplane that might
be damaged by the prop blast. To minimize
overheating during engine runup, it is recommended
that the airplane be headed as nearly as possible into
the wind. After the airplane is properly positioned for
the runup, it should be allowed to roll forward slightly
so that the nosewheel or tailwheel will be aligned fore
During the engine runup, the surface under the airplane
should be firm (a smooth, paved, or turf surface if
possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the propeller
may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose
objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the
propeller and may damage the tail of the airplane.
Small chips in the leading edge of the propeller form
stress risers, or lines of concentrated high stress. These
are highly undesirable and may lead to cracks and
possible propeller blade failure.
While performing the engine runup, the pilot must
divide attention inside and outside the airplane. If the
parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes
is inadequate for the amount of power applied, the
airplane could move forward unnoticed if attention is
fixed inside the airplane.
Each airplane has different features and equipment,
and the before takeoff checklist provided by the
airplane manufacturer or operator should be used to
During the after-landing roll, the airplane should be
gradually slowed to normal taxi speed before turning
off the landing runway. Any significant degree of turn
at faster speeds could result in ground looping and
subsequent damage to the airplane.
To give full attention to controlling the airplane during
the landing roll, the after-landing check should be
performed only after the airplane is brought to a
complete stop clear of the active runway. There have
been many cases of the pilot mistakenly grasping the
wrong handle and retracting the landing gear, instead
of the flaps, due to improper division of attention while
the airplane was moving. However, this procedure may
be modified if the manufacturer recommends that
specific after-landing items be accomplished during
landing rollout. For example, when performing a
short-field landing, the manufacturer may recommend
retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. In
this situation, the pilot should make a positive
identification of the flap control and retract the flaps.
Because of different features and equipment in various
airplanes, the after-landing checklist provided by the
manufacturer should be used. Some of the items may
Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the
pilot should select a location and heading which will
prevent the propeller or jet blast of other airplanes from
striking the airplane broadside. Whenever possible, the
airplane should be parked headed into the existing or
forecast wind. After stopping on the desired heading,
the airplane should be allowed to roll straight ahead
enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.
Finally, the pilot should always use the procedures in
the manufacturer’s checklist for shutting down the
engine and securing the airplane. Some of the important items include:
Set throttle to IDLE or 1,000 r.p.m. If turbocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spool
Turn ignition switch OFF then ON at idle to
check for proper operation of switch in the OFF
Set propeller control (if equipped) to FULL
A flight is never complete until the engine is shut down
and the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this
an essential part of any flight.
After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the
pilot should accomplish a postflight inspection. This
includes checking the general condition of the aircraft.
For a departure, the oil should be checked and fuel
added if required. If the aircraft is going to be inactive,
it is a good operating practice to fill the tanks to the
top to prevent water condensation from forming.
When the flight is completed for the day, the aircraft
should be hangared or tied down and the flight
controls secured.
Ch 03.qxd
There are four fundamental basic flight maneuvers
upon which all flying tasks are based: straight-andlevel flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All
controlled flight consists of either one, or a combination
or more than one, of these basic maneuvers. If a student
pilot is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the
student’s proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and
control analysis rather than mechanical movements, the
ability to perform any assigned maneuver will only be
a matter of obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must impart a good
knowledge of these basic elements to the student, and
must combine them and plan their practice so that
perfect performance of each is instinctive without
conscious effort. The importance of this to the success
of flight training cannot be overemphasized. As the
student progresses to more complex maneuvers,
discounting any difficulties in visualizing the
maneuvers, most student difficulties will be caused by
a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the
principles of one or more of these fundamentals.
In explaining the functions of the controls, the instructor
should emphasize that the controls never change in the
results produced in relation to the pilot. The pilot should
always be considered the center of movement of the airplane, or the reference point from which the movements
of the airplane are judged and described. The following
will always be true, regardless of the airplane’s attitude
When forward pressure is applied to the elevator
control, the airplane’s nose lowers in relation to the
When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, the airplane’s right wing lowers in relation to
When left pressure is applied to the aileron control,
the airplane’s left wing lowers in relation to the
When pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal,
the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right in
relation to the pilot.
When pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal,
the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in
The preceding explanations should prevent the
beginning pilot from thinking in terms of “up” or
“down” in respect to the Earth, which is only a relative
state to the pilot. It will also make understanding of the
functions of the controls much easier, particularly
when performing steep banked turns and the more
advanced maneuvers. Consequently, the pilot must be
able to properly determine the control application
required to place the airplane in any attitude or flight
condition that is desired.
The flight instructor should explain that the controls
will have a natural “live pressure” while in flight and
that they will remain in neutral position of their own
accord, if the airplane is trimmed properly.
With this in mind, the pilot should be cautioned
never to think of movement of the controls, but of
exerting a force on them against this live pressure or
resistance. Movement of the controls should not be
emphasized; it is the duration and amount of the
force exerted on them that effects the displacement
of the control surfaces and maneuvers the airplane.
The amount of force the airflow exerts on a control
surface is governed by the airspeed and the degree that
the surface is moved out of its neutral or streamlined
position. Since the airspeed will not be the same in all
maneuvers, the actual amount the control surfaces are
moved is of little importance; but it is important that
the pilot maneuver the airplane by applying sufficient
control pressure to obtain a desired result, regardless
of how far the control surfaces are actually moved.
The controls should be held lightly, with the fingers,
not grabbed and squeezed. Pressure should be exerted
on the control yoke with the fingers. A common error
in beginning pilots is a tendency to “choke the stick.”
This tendency should be avoided as it prevents the
development of “feel,” which is an important part of
The pilot’s feet should rest comfortably against the
rudder pedals. Both heels should support the weight
of the feet on the cockpit floor with the ball of each
foot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legs
and feet should not be tense; they must be relaxed
just as when driving an automobile.
When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be
applied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball
of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected,
and act in opposite directions, when pressure is applied
to one pedal, pressure on the other must be relaxed proportionately. When the rudder pedal must be moved
significantly, heavy pressure changes should be made
by applying the pressure with the ball of the foot while
the heels slide along the cockpit floor. Remember, the
ball of each foot must rest comfortably on the rudder
pedals so that even slight pressure changes can be felt.
In summary, during flight, it is the pressure the pilot
exerts on the control yoke and rudder pedals that
causes the airplane to move about its axes. When a
control surface is moved out of its streamlined position
(even slightly), the air flowing past it will exert a force
against it and will try to return it to its streamlined position. It is this force that the pilot feels as pressure on
the control yoke and the rudder pedals.
The ability to sense a flight condition, without relying
on cockpit instrumentation, is often called “feel of the
airplane,” but senses in addition to “feel” are involved.
Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense in
developing “feel.” The air that rushes past the modern light plane cockpit/cabin is often masked by
soundproofing, but it can still be heard. When the
level of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed is
increasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctive
sound patterns in different conditions of flight. The
sound of the engine in cruise flight may be different
from that in a climb, and different again from that in
a dive. When power is used in fixed-pitch propeller
airplanes, the loss of r.p.m. is particularly noticeable. The amount of noise that can be heard will
depend on how much the slipstream masks it out.
But the relationship between slipstream noise and
powerplant noise aids the pilot in estimating not
only the present airspeed but the trend of the airspeed.
There are three sources of actual “feel” that are very
important to the pilot. One is the pilot’s own body as
it responds to forces of acceleration. The “G” loads
imposed on the airframe are also felt by the pilot.
Centripetal accelerations force the pilot down into the
seat or raise the pilot against the seat belt. Radial
accelerations, as they produce slips or skids of the airframe, shift the pilot from side to side in the seat.
These forces need not be strong, only perceptible by
the pilot to be useful. An accomplished pilot who has
excellent “feel” for the airplane will be able to detect
even the minutest change.
The response of the aileron and rudder controls to the
pilot’s touch is another element of “feel,” and is one
that provides direct information concerning airspeed.
As previously stated, control surfaces move in the
airstream and meet resistance proportional to the
speed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, the
controls are stiff and hard to move. When the airstream
is slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflected
a greater distance. The pressure that must be exerted
on the controls to effect a desired result, and the lag
between their movement and the response of the airplane, becomes greater as airspeed decreases.
Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through the
airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example
is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes
Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or
speed of motion, is one of the most important senses a
pilot can develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/or
the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.
The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane are
inherent in every person. However, “feel” must be
developed. The flight instructor should direct the
beginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach
an awareness of their meaning as it relates to various
conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight
instructor must fully understand the difference
between perceiving something and merely noticing it.
It is a well established fact that the pilot who develops
a “feel” for the airplane early in flight training will
have little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.
In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually establishing the airplane’s attitude with reference
to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the
angular difference measured between an airplane’s
axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude
is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank
attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.
Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is
termed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath,
but not relative to the natural horizon.
In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four
components: pitch control, bank control, power control, and trim.
Pitch control is the control of the airplane about
the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and
lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.
Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired
bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.
Power control is used when the flight situation
Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures held after a desired attitude has been
The airplane’s attitude is established and maintained by positioning the airplane in relation to the
natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’s
attention should be devoted to this end, along with
90% of the time, the pilot's attention should
be outside the cockpit.
When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning
pilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or
“Composite” method of flight instruction be used. This
means the use of outside references and flight instruments to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes
and airplane performa