Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/262260144/Consiliul-de-Securitate-al-ONU
Timestamp: 2019-04-21 07:07:49
Document Index: 274932821

Matched Legal Cases: ['ART. 39', 'Art 39', 'Art. 4', 'Art. 10', 'UKHL ', 'Art. 39', 'Art 2', 'Art. 24', 'Art.39', 'Art.\n2930', 'Art 15', 'Art 121', 'Art 15', 'Art. 15', 'Art. 14', 'Art. 82', 'Art. 1149', 'Art. 16', 'Art. 16', 'Art. 99', 'Art. 65', 'Art.104', 'Art. 13', 'Art. 104', 'Art 5', 'Art. 27', 'Art 15', 'Art 13', 'Art. 8', 'Art. 899']

Consiliul de Securitate al ONU | International Criminal Court | United Nations Security Council
Uploaded by MarianaMadan
Rolul Consiliului de Securitate
The Tragedy of South Sudan - The Way Forward
Gktoday Jan Mcq
Subiecte la Dr.Af. 11.12.2014 (2) (1)
Drept Ecologic-Spete
Seminar 030238: The Law of the United Nations
with Sahib Singh, LL.B, LL.M.
Gabriel Maria Lentner
Matr# 0604802
E-Mail: gabriel@lentner.org
1. THE ACT OF AGGRESSION: .....................................................................................3
2. RELATIONSHIP BTW ART. 39 POWERS OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL AND THE ICC:. 4
II. BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CRIME OF
AGGRESSION................................................................................................ 6
1. THE (EXCEPTIONAL) NATURE OF THE CRIME OF AGGRESSION:............................... 6
2. HISTORICAL ABSTRACT ON THE NOTION OF AGGRESSION: ................................... 6
3. THE ROME STATUTE AND THE NEGOTIATIONS REGARDING AGGRESSION:............. 8
III. THE KAMPALA REVIEW CONFERENCE ............................................... 10
1. THE PREPARATORY WORK PRIOR TO THE REVIEW CONFERENCE:......................... 10
3. AT KAMPALA:...................................................................................................... 12
THE KAMPALA OUTCOME................................................................ 14
1. ENTRY INTO FORCE:............................................................................................. 14
2. THE CONDITIONS FOR THE EXERCISE OF JURISDICTION: ...................................... 14
3. THE OPTING-OUT CLAUSE:................................................................................. 15
4. NON-STATE PARTIES:.......................................................................................... 16
5. STATE REFERRAL AND PROPRIO MOTU:................................................................ 16
6. DEFERRAL BY THE SECURITY COUNCIL: ............................................................... 18
7. SECURITY COUNCIL REFERRAL:............................................................................ 19
8. INDEPENDENCE OF THE ICC:............................................................................... 21
9. NON-STATE ACTORS:.......................................................................................... 21
V. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................... 22
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 25
I./Krisch. The negotiated outcome reflects the complex political situation regarding the Permanent Members of the Security Council.”1 In the ‘Definition of Aggression Resolution’2 the General Assembly of the United Nations (GA) adopted Resolution 3314 (XXIX) which was meant as a guide to the Security Council in its determination of acts of aggression. 1. The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary. 722.12. (ed. General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX) of 14 December 1974. to maintain or restore international peace and security. Article 39. individual criminal responsibility for the crime of aggression in the international criminal law realm remained contested. N. As a logical consequence of the prohibition of the use of force recognized as ius cogens.3 1 Emphasis added. J. or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42. The Act of Aggression: Pursuant to Art 39 of the Charter of the United Nations (the Charter) the Security Council (SC) “[…] shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace. Introduction In the first ever Review Conference of the Rome Statute. Uganda to adopt an amendment resolving decades of seemingly hopeless efforts to come up with a compromise laying out the conditions of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression as well as its definition. (2002) para.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/739/16/IMG/NR073916. vol.). 14 at p. B. or an act of aggression and shall make recommendations. 2 3 .. 3 Frowein.2010). breach of the peace. available at http://daccess-ddsny. State Parties of the International Criminal Court (ICC) as well as Observer States and Non-Governmental Organizations convened in Kampala. The present paper seeks to provide a deeper understanding of the underlying historical difficulties in agreeing on what the Security Council’s role should be regarding the prosecution of the crime of aggression to then turn to elaborate on the outcome produced at the conference.pdf?OpenElement (accessed 28. At the time being the delay of the entry into force of the envisaged aggression regime is mirroring the state of the international community that it is not yet ripe to engage in the prosecution of the crime of aggression.un. Simma. I.
General Assembly Resolution 2625 (XXV) of 24 October 1970. E. at paras 19 (Lord Bingham). which leaves open the definition of the crime but not the criminality of aggression as such. 103 of the Charter: Firstly. 99 (Lord Mance). 35 Yale J. 184.”9 And meaning that an Art. 4 . Professeur Invite. 39 in the light of the supremacy provision of Art. D. 145. it is widely established.5 Generally. thus leaving another international organization such as the ICC free to determine the existence or nonexistence of aggression with respect to individual conduct that would trigger criminal liability. Numerous authoritative statements support this conclusion. Glennon8 lays out three principal interpretations of the wording of Art. 10 Schweigman. as the House of Lords stated in the Jones6 case that “waging aggressive war is a crime under existing international law. Jones and others (2006) UKHL 16. 39 Powers of the Security Council and the ICC: M. 185. 4. 7 Paulus. Pantheon-Assas. The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. 11 Ibid..albeit not always very consistent10 . M.” 7 2. Relationship btw Art. 39 determination is a necessary precondition for taking further action under Chapter VII . 6 R v. A.. The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council. 71 (2010) at pp.meaning that without such determination it cannot be considered a binding decision under Chapter VII of the Charter. The Blank-Prose Crime of Aggression. 104-105. 20 European J. Tufts University. University of Paris II. Oxford 2004. from General Assembly and Security Council resolutions to statements of the International Law Commission and the Rome Statute itself.I. (2001) at p.146. 1118. the concurrent power of the Security Council meaning that a determination of aggression with respect to state conduct is only for the “purpose of imposing sanctions under Article 41 or authorizing the use of force under Article 42. in public international law.. Second Thoughts on the Crime of Aggression. (2006) All ER 741. 59 (Lord Hoffmann). (2009) at p.L.It is widely acknowledged that an Act of Aggression is limited to the use of armed force (applying a teleological interpretation of Art 2(4) of the Charter) and therefore not including economic and/or political coercion. 5 De Wet. The authority of the Security Council under chapter VII of the UN Charter: legal limits and the role of the International Court of Justice. a notion that is confirmed by the Friendly Relations Declaration (FRD)4.. at p. 8 Professor of International Law.11 4 Declaration on the Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. Int'l L.. 9 Glennon.
e. can carry out one set of obligations without undermining the other. arrest. the argument would go. 39 could be construed as conferring authority upon the Security Council that silence on its part would constitute acquiescence and conflicting findings would not be permitted. The Blank-Prose Crime of Aggression. 14 Ibid.13 Secondly. Art. “A state. 15 Ibid. Ibid. and Article 103 would therefore be inapposite.”16 12 Glennon. the two sets of duties will not in fact be seen as conflicting with each other.15 The author is supporting the concurrent power because of the rationale that the obligations that flow from the different determinations (by either the ICC or the Security Council) are in fact different obligations for different purposes (investigation. 71 (2010) at p. 35 Yale J. 16 Ibid. conflicting or not. judicial purposes. M. the Security Council’s authority to determine existence or nonexistence of an act of aggression is without prejudice to other international organizations for their own. Int'l L. detention of individuals regarding the ICC and on the other hand enforcement of sanctions against noncompliant states by the Security Council concerned with the maintenance of international peace and security). 105.12 Differing findings would therefore be permitted. could be made by another international organization under this interpretation..14 Thirdly. viewed correctly. the plenary power of the Security Council essentially meaning that no findings concerning aggression.Following this interpretation.g. 13 5 . trial.
W. the rapine. United States of America. Politi. UN Doc. 19 Art. Background and Development of the Crime of Aggression 1.17 Because of its direct link to jus ad bellum it is deeply (more than in the other crimes of the Rome Statute18) 19 embedded in peace maintenance. 6 ... The ‘End’.20 Furthermore.1. Nicaragua Case (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua. 392 of June 27 1986). there is no element of immediacy or directness involved21 and that only when State aggression exists can the individual commit the crime of aggression. 23 Yengejeh. Reflections on the role of the Security Council in determining an act of aggression. Leiden J. the ravages. the conflagrations. The Rome Statute and the Crime of Aggression: A Gordian Knot in Search of a Sword. at pp. 36. S. Nicaragua v. Emmerich de Vattel wrote. at p.. PCNICC/2002/L. Göring et al. at p.g.L. 23. 76. crime of aggression. are his works and his crimes./Nesi G. (eds. 109. at p. at Its Ninth Session (8–19 April 2002).I. 1984 ICJ REP.183/9. See also. however. Historical Abstract on the Notion of Aggression: As early as 1758. cited in Schabas. In: The International Criminal Court and the crime of aggression. M. 1947. all the horrors of the war: all the effusion of blood. C.: Uniting for Peace Resolution (United Nations General Assembly Resolution A-RES-377(V) on 3 November 1950).. 186 . 23 (2010).1/Rev. M. the ‘Beginning of the End’ or the ‘End of the Beginning’? Introducing Debates and Voices on the Definition of ‘Aggression’. 20 Stahn.) (2004). UN Doc.. 875-876.II.24 2.. 5 of the Statute. 18 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. He is guilty of a crime against the enemy […] he is guilty of a crime 17 France et al. as opposed to the other core crimes contained in Art. 24 See e. Proceedings of the Preparatory Commission. Jurisdiction and Admissibility. 22 The Security Council’s primary responsibility regarding the maintenance of international peace and security is. The (exceptional) nature of the Crime of Aggression: The nature of the crime of aggression was famously described in the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in Nuremberg termed ‘crimes against peace’ the “supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole”. at p.. Criminal Law Forum 14 (2003). 21 Schuster. 5 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (the Statute) lists the crime of genocide. not exclusive. in his Law of Nations.. v. 41 AJIL 172. crimes against humanity. the acts of violence. war crimes. A/CONF. that the sovereign who takes up arms without a lawful cause is ‘chargeable with all the evils.23. “the Swiss jurist. 22 22 Ibid.The International Criminal Court: a commentary on the Rome Statute (2010) at p. the desolation of families.
1998. (1948). London: His Majesty's Stationary Office. at para. 167. appeared in: Yearbook of the International Law Commission.un. 28 Ferencz. Leiden J.. D. D. 906. 25 Ferencz.I.. 906. Leiden J. O.”28 At Nuremberg the International Military Tribunal intended to “establish a binding precedent that aggression is a punishable crime. GA Official Records 50th Session.against his people […] finally. D.31 Then in the 1950’s the International Law Commission’s (ILC) proposal for the establishment of an International Criminal Code32 failed because of disagreement for regarding the definition of aggression. 30 See e.2010). enforceable as a matter of international law” 29 The UN General Assembly resolved to adopt the Nuremberg Principles30 in its first session that same year. 906. ZaöRV 58.. at p. The Crime of Aggression: Some Personal Reflections on Kampala.. 34 See Bruer-Schäfer. 97. Defining the Crime of Aggression (2007) at p. D.I.I. 1950.”25 In 1919 the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on the Enforcement of Penalties26 argued that because there is no competent compulsory jurisdiction to determine the legality of a war. see United Nations War Crimes Commission. and unanimous resolutions of both the Eighth Assembly of the League of Nations in 1927 and the Sixth Pan-American Conference of 1928). 32 Draft Code of Offences against Peace and Security of Mankind of 1954.g. vol. Die Schaffung eines ständigen Internationalen Strafgerichtshofes. 73. History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War. Sicherheitsrat und Internationaler Strafgerichtshof : zur Abgrenzung ihrer Kompetenzen nach der Charta der Vereinten Nationen und dem Römischen Statut (2008) at pp.L.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft%20articles/7_3_1954. The Crime of Aggression: Some Personal Reflections on Kampala. The Crime of Aggression: Some Personal Reflections on Kampala. ed. 23 (2010). 23 (2010) at p. II.L.27 However.33 Another issue considered a problem during negotiations was the lack of national law penalizing aggression34. Crimes Against Peace. but they lacked meaningful enforcement or sanctions.I. see Principle VI (a) of the Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal 1950... 7 . 26 established by the preliminary peace conference of Paris in January 1919. (2001) at p. 27 Solera. at p. The Crime of Aggression: Some Personal Reflections on Kampala. A. following the havoc of World War I.L. he is guilty of a crime against mankind in general.L.12. Leiden J. D. see also Report of the Ad Hoc Commitee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. Leiden J. 3-4. the 1920s “saw various resolutions and protocols providing that a war of aggression is an international crime (among them the Geneva Protocol of 1924 for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes. 906. see also Zimmermann. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof: die internationale Strafgerichtsbarkeit im Spannungsfeld von Recht und Politik.pdf (accessed 27.. 33 Stagel. 22 (A/50/22) 1995. and to whom he sets a pernicious example. No. 23 (2010) at p.. Suppl. 31 Ferencz. 29 Ferencz. whose peace he disturbs. 23 (2010) at p. available at http://untreaty. 18. aggression is not a part of international law.
R. was delayed until an amendment to the Statute is adopted by the Assembly of States Parties pursuant to Art. the United States and China largely oppose the Court. 112. 93 American J.. 23. at p. W. war crimes.I. M. if included. until “a provision is adopted in accordance with articles 121 and 123 defining the crime and setting out the conditions under which the Court shall exercise jurisdiction with respect to this crime.44 The issue of the role of the Security Council in determining aggression proved to be the most controversial. were frustrated by the major power’s opposition to the establishment of the ICC. 43 Schabas. M. 37 Schabas. 21 abstentions. to the success of the Rome Conference and the creation of the court”. The Labour Party’s victory in the British elections of 1997 proved to be a positive impulse towards a successful adoption of the Rome Statute. The Rome Statute and the Negotiations regarding Aggression: When the Rome Statute establishing the International Criminal Court (ICC) was adopted in Rome in 1998. as a group...43.40 The ‘like-minded states'41. 55. see Politi. at p. 38 i. 41 A handful of Western European and Latin American states (later joined by a number of states from different regions) albeit they “did not agree on every issue. W. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Secondly.45 The P-5 indicated that they would only agree on the inclusion of the crime provided that the court would exercise 35 Weiss. Ibid. at pp.38 In general three considerations produced this result: Firstly the question to even include the crime of aggression into the statute was contested. see Arsanjani..37 The exercise of jurisdiction. negotiations. and thirdly the definition of the crime. the crime of aggression.. S.... 128-129. 40 Schabas. Russia. The International Criminal Court: a commentary on the Rome Statute (2010) at p. M. results (1999) at p. many of the Permanent Members of the Security Council (P5) demurred.. 42 The compromise now contained in the Statute was adopted during the last day of the conference. however. M. 112. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 42 Arsanjani. 44 120 votes in favour. 5 (2).I. the question of the role of the Security Council. 82.L. The international criminal court and the crime of aggression (2004) ref 2 at p.e.3. The international criminal court and the crime of aggression (2004) at p. 36 8 . 22 (1999). 35 While the United Kingdom and France have become Members to the ICC.. 7 against.” Art.39 The United States and the United Kingdom opposed including it in the Statute although another permanent member. France did not. issues. 5 (d) of the Statute after the crime of genocide. The International Criminal Court: a commentary on the Rome Statute (2010) at p. 45 Politi. The International Criminal Court: a commentary on the Rome Statute (2010) at p. W. they were committed. 5 (2). 39 Lee. The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations (2008). 111. 23. crimes against humanity. The International Criminal Court: the making of the Rome Statute.L. 22 (1999). 93 American J. 55.. T/Daws.36 In a compromise the crime of aggression was included in Art.
2930. then either Pre-Trial Chamber. R. thirdly. 39. 52 Ibid. ICJ or GA gives green light as a prerequisite to prosecution. State Parties submitted sovereignty issues and the lack of domestic criminalization of aggression to make its arguments as well as the stance that whether or not use of force is considered an act of aggression is a mere political question and therefore falls solely into the competence of the Security Council as essentially a political organ. at p.”51 The Draft Articles prepared by the International Law Commission gave the Council initially wide ‘veto’ powers i.g. issues. 22 (1999).. at p. the P-5 would never be subject to prosecution for aggression without their consent).. results (1999) at p.50 On the other hand. The International Criminal Court: the making of the Rome Statute. negotiations.46 On the other hand this was fiercely opposed by the Nonaligned Movement. at p.. that the court would only have jurisdiction when the council agreed. a decisive role of the Council was engaged with concerns over the independence of the Court (e. 114-115.”53 46 Arsanjani.e.. And that “a central factual issue in a judicial debate would be left to what is essentially a political body. 82.I. 49 Ibid. 93 American J.52 It contained “[t]wo Categories of options (both imposing a jurisdictional filter upon the court) 1= redlight approach = requires the Security Council to recognize the commission of an act of aggression.. 48 Ibid.jurisdiction only after the Council determined that an act of aggression had occurred. 82. M.. containing general criteria for the crime.48 The new approach which is now contained in the Statute is based on a submission by the Nonaligned Movement.. at p.. 50 Politi. no definition and simply leaving it to the Council’s discretion. 51 Ibid. or only a situation is referred to the court without a position 2= green light approach = operational after SC has not acted for 6 months. second a general definition with a list of acts that might or should be considered as an Act of Aggression (based on the GA Res 3314 (XXIX) of Dec 1974). The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 40. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: a challenge to impunity (2002) at p.L. at pp. 53 Ibid. 85. M. 9 .47 Regarding the definition there were three basic approaches considered: First a general definition. 47 Lee.49 On the one hand.
European Journal of International Law.e.L.54 However. 41 Case W. Int'l L. 1104. 883-884. The SWGCA was comprised of member-states as well as non-members of the ICC. and therefore used the formula ‘Definition Plus’ as the goal for an outcome. 397 (2009) at p. Working Group) was established by the Assembly of States Parties (ASP) of the ICC to address the questions regarding a definition and issues of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression. and whether that role should reflect the reality of how the Council actually operates. Making Kampala Count Advancing the Global Fight against Impunity at the ICC Review Conference. 55 Glennon. The International Criminal Court and the Crime of Aggression: A Pragmatic Approach to Jurisdictional and Definitional Requirements for the Crime of Aggression in the Rome Statute. The Blank-Prose Crime of Aggression. Oxford:Nov 2009. its Elements and the Conditions for ICC Exercise of Jurisdiction Over It. which is a rather political question58 for governments i. J. it did not participate in the discussions of the SWGCA either. 23 (2010).”59 54 Clark. could not be solved in the preparatory work. 4. the Special Working Group on the Crime of Aggression (SWGCA. i. (2010) at para. M.. Vol. 35 Yale J. the issue of the jurisdictional filter. at p. February 2009.. 401.e. 20. 97. 2002. 57 Wenaweser. The Preparatory Work prior to the Review Conference: In 2002. 112. 59 Scheffer. 10 .L. 58 Human Rights Watch..55 Its preparatory work was rewarded with adopting a definition of the crime of aggression in February 200956. The Kampala Review Conference 1. This rooted in controversy over the role of the SC. Reaching the Kampala Compromise on Aggression: The Chair’s Perspective. Roger S. after the United States ‘unsigned’ the Rome Statute on May 6.III. 71 (2010) at p.1. C.I..I. D. Leiden J. whether there “should be a continued role for the Security Council in the jurisdictional framework in the absence of an explicit decision by the Council on aggression. at pp. Res. 56 Report of the SpecialWorking Group on the Crime of Aggression. ICC-ASP/7/20/Add. making the Working Group confident that “[they] would be able to adopt the definition by consensus. Negotiating Provisions Defining the Crime of Aggression. Iss..”57 The fundamental difficulty.
L. 61 11 . ICJ). Leiden J.61 60 Report of the Working Group on the Review Conference. . Reaching the Kampala Compromise on Aggression: The Chair’s Perspective. Combination 4: Acceptance by aggressor State not required + non-SC or no filter Step 1: Prosecutor may investigate any situation in which the victim State has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression and present that case to the Security Council. Step 2: Prosecutor may proceed in the absence of a SC determination. either without any external filter2 or on the basis of a “broader” filter (GA. Annex II . 884. C.I. Step 2: Prosecutor may only proceed with the Security Council’s agreement. The ‘non filter’ option as well as the ‘GA and ICJ option’ in case of inaction by the SC was deleted in the first revision of the text. 23 (2010).. ICJ).An illustrative chart contained in the Report of the Working Group on the Review Conference (WGRC)60 gives 4 possible solutions: Combination 1: Acceptance by aggressor State required + SC filter Step 1: Prosecutor may only investigate situations where the aggressor State has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression and present that case to the Security Council. Combination 3: Acceptance by aggressor State required + non-SC or no filter Step 1: Prosecutor may only investigate situations where the aggressor State has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression and present that case to the Security Council. Combination 2: Acceptance by aggressor State not required + SC filter Step 1: Prosecutor may investigate any situation in which the victim State has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression and present that case to the Security Council.56.1. either without any external filter or on the basis of a “broader” filter (GA. ICC-ASP/8/20/Add. Step 2: Prosecutor may proceed in the absence of a SC determination. at p. Step 2: Prosecutor may only proceed with the Security Council’s agreement. Wenaweser.
2. RC/WGCA/2 of 25 May 2010. at para. This was added in the outcome to the understandings. formed the basis for the consultations at the Review Conference: • Conference Room Paper on the Crime of Aggression63 • Non-Paper by the Chair64 • Draft Report of the Working Group on the Crime of Aggression65 The Draft Report points out . the Conference Room Paper72 offers then only two alternatives on the issue of the role of the SC. one being that without a prior determination of an act of aggression the prosecutor may not proceed with the investigation. and the question how the Court should proceed when the Security Council did not make a determination of an act of aggression.g. the definition of aggression envisaged in the conference room paper contained no brackets. RC/WGCA/3 of 6 June 2010. Prince Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein (Jordan).” Art 15 bis (2). 63 12 . The Non-Paper proposed adding a paragraph to expressly exclude any consequences to domestic jurisdiction. 2.R. 5 of the Annex III.H.2. 70 Which reads: “The Court may exercise jurisdiction only with respect to crimes of aggression committed one year after the ratification or acceptance of the amendments by thirty States Parties. At Kampala: Three documents submitted by the Chair62 of the Working Group on the Crime of Aggression. Domestic jurisdiction over the crime of aggression addressed the concerns that have been raised regarding the consequences of the amendments for the domestic jurisdiction over this crime. RC/WGCA/3 of 6 June 2010.H. 72 Conference Room Paper on the Crime of Aggression. see at para.3. the other one 62 H. RC/10/Add. 64 Further elements for a solution on the Crime of Aggression. June 7 2010.67 The Non-Paper68 by the Chair69 addressed certain issues such as the timing of the entry into force under Art 121 (5) which was considered early. Mr.2. RC/WGCA/1/Rev. Understandings regarding the amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the Crime of Aggression. 71 See para. Zeid Ra’ad Zeid Al-Hussein (Jordan).that still two divergent views on the requirement of an alleged aggressor state to have accepted the courts active jurisdiction on the one hand. 66 e.while acknowledging the agreement on most issues66 . 69 Chairman H. 67 Draft Report of the Working Group on the Crime of Aggression. including ideas to reach a compromise with the proposal to delay the entry into force of the amendment. 4. 65 The Draft Report of the Working Group on the Crime of Aggression. 4. A proposed review clause was not adopted. RC/WGCA/1/Rev.R. 68 Non-Paper by the Chair : Further elements for a solution on the Crime of Aggression RC/WGCA/2.71 At Kampala. and proposed a provision specifying that the Court should begin exercising jurisdiction at a later stage only not affecting the entry into force of the amendments (which was adopted in Art 15 bis (2) 70).1.
. 78 Clark.” 74 The UK and France (both State Parties to the ICC and Permanent Members of the Security Council) appeared to accept only the red light approach (see above) regarding the court’s jurisdiction over the crime until the last day of the conference. 79 Ibid. at p. at p. 746. 12 of the Rules of Procedure of the Review Conference in conjunction with Art.. 77 Schmalenbach.I. 746. C.. 80 Ibid. at p. provided that the Pre-Trial-Chamber has authorized the commencement of the investigation. Leiden Journal of International Law.77 Arguing that Art. China. 112 (1) of the Rome Statute.79 A uniform position of the European Union was not formed because of the adamant position of UK and France. 65 Juristen Zeitung 15/16 (2010). 1113. attended the conference as observers. this approach was fiercely opposed by African and LatinAmerican States.. 4. paved the way for eventually adopting the proposed amendment by consensus in the 11th hour of the conference. 75 Schmalenbach. pointing out that Article 24 of the Charter confers primary but not exclusive power on the Council in respect of the maintenance of international peace and security..76 with the intention to prevent any agreement between State Parties turning then . Russia). 39 of the UN-Charter bestows on them the ‘exclusive’ power to make determinations of the existence of an act of aggression. 746. not party to the ICC. 74 Ibid. K. Reaching the Kampala Compromise on Aggression: The Chair’s Perspective.. 884. 76 Pursuant to Art. (2009) at p. Das Verbrechen der Aggression vor dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof: Ein politischer Erfolg mit rechtlichen Untiefen. at p. 78 On the other hand. 81 Schmalenbach.to support for the red light approach. Negotiating Provisions Defining the Crime of Aggression. R. Chairman Christian Wenaweser admitted in “The Chair’s Perspective” 73 that “[t]he work done before Kampala had not led to an apparent narrowing of positions in this area. K. 13 . 81 73 Wenaweser. K. 23 (2010). 20 European J. its Elements and the Conditions for ICC Exercise of Jurisdiction Over It. waiting [6] months after the notification of the Secretary-General of the UN.L.allowing the prosecutor to proceed with investigation where no such determination was made. and thus a Security Council pre-determination of aggression is an essential precondition to exercise of the ICC’s jurisdiction. 75 The other P-5 members (US.80 The mostly bilateral negotiations between the Assembly of State Parties President Christian Wenerweser..for tactical reasons .
and • a decision is taken by two–thirds of States Parties to activate the jurisdiction at any time after 1 January 2017. 15 bis (2). cit. 15 bis (3). 121(5) in conjunction with Art. 15 bis and ter paras. (2) and (3) respectively. Art. 14 of the Statute prescribes a state referral. Article 15 bis Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (State referral.82 • only with respect to crimes of aggression committed one year after the ratification or acceptance of the amendments by thirty States Parties. 14 . 13 (a) leg.83 2. paragraphs (a) and (c). in conjunction with Art. Entry into Force: The amendments were adopted by consensus in accordance with Art. The Court may exercise jurisdiction over the crime of aggression in accordance with article 13. 5(2) of the Statute and will enter into force pursuant to Art. The Conditions for the Exercise of Jurisdiction: The text of articles 15 bis and 15 ter set out the conditions for the Court’s exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression. These provisions provide that the Court will not be able to exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression until: • at least 30 States Parties have ratified or accepted the amendments.III. these articles establish a unique jurisdictional regime outlining when the ICC Prosecutor can initiate an investigation into a crime of aggression. subject to the provisions of this article. Paragraph (c) refers to the prosecutor proceeding with an investigation proprio motu. 15 bis reads as follows: 1. allowing the prosecutor to proceed with an investigation when requested by the state concerned. Art. 82 83 Art. proprio motu) Art. In contrast to the other crimes in the Statute. The Kampala Outcome 1.
L. 89 See below. Barring the ICC from investigation and prosecution requires an express declaration and therefore the need for political justification. Leiden Journal of International Law. The Court may. The Sadly Neutered Crime of Aggression.2010) 85 Stahn.I. S. 87 That said. This paragraph has been called hypocritical84 and compared to the other crimes included in Art. 1149.. arising from an act of aggression committed by a State Party. 1. Such a declaration can be made at any time (including before the amendments enter into force) and shall be reviewed by the State Party within three years. C. 23 (2010). one must bear in mind however. 87 Murphy.. RC/10/Add. unless that State Party has previously declared that it does not accept such jurisdiction by lodging a declaration with the Registrar.. 20 European J. Aggression. by lodging such an opt-out declaration. an optingin model would be worse. K.1.86 Consequently. in accordance with article 12. 85 Admittedly. 15 . The ‘End’. 4 (2009) at p. The Opting-Out Clause: 4. the ‘Beginning of the End’ or the ‘End of the Beginning’? Introducing Debates and Voices on the Definition of ‘Aggression’. State Parties including those most likely to use military force abroad may avoid prosecution regarding acts of aggression committed by its nationals or on its territory. 86 Ibid.3.10. 88 Understandings regarding the amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the Crime of Aggression. at p 878. The withdrawal of such a declaration may be effected at any time and shall be considered by the State Party within three years. Legitimacy and the International Criminal Court. at p. 5 of the Statute it creates an asymmetry insofar as nationals of State Parties which have opted out under this provision are excluded from investigation and prosecution in a crime of aggression committed against another state party but protected from the same state party which has not opted out.89 84 See Heller. exercise jurisdiction over a crime of aggression. The so-called opt-out clause provides that States Parties may opt-out of the Court’s jurisdiction under the article by lodging a declaration of non-acceptance of jurisdiction with the Court’s Registrar.org/2010/06/13/thesadly-neutered-crime-of-aggression/ (accessed 30. that the Security Council irrespective of the acceptance of jurisdiction may refer a situation with respect to an act of aggression committed by Non-Member State’s nationals or on its territory. available at http://opiniojuris. Annex III.88.
This only after first ascertaining whether the Security Council (the Prosecutor shall notify the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations of the situation before the Court. 511 (2010) at p. Non-State Parties: 5.S. including U. The Prosecutor shall notify the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the situation before the Court. see Crook. The prosecutor may only proceed proprio motu with an investigation where he or she concludes that there is a reasonable basis to do so. R. including any relevant information and documents. 4 (2009) at p. he or she shall first ascertain whether the Security Council has made a determination of an act of aggression committed by the State concerned. regarding the crime of aggression Art. the Court has jurisdiction.I. This result is viewed as a concession to military powers not members to the ICC.S.L. its Elements and the Conditions for ICC Exercise of Jurisdiction Over It. 15 bis (4) expressly excludes jurisdiction over Non-Party States when committed by that State’s nationals or on its territory.S. Delegation Active in ICC Negotiations to Define Crime of Aggression. national can be prosecuted for aggression so long as the U. crimes against humanity or war crimes on the territory of a State Party. And if we were to become a state party. Contemporary Practice of the United States relation to International Law: International Criminal Law: U. In respect of a State that is not a party to this Statute. 513. 1107. remains a non-state party. 16 . J.J. most importantly the United States which then presented the outcome as rather positive noting that the “prosecutor cannot charge nationals of non-state parties. While it is generally agreed that in case a national of a Non-Party State commits genocide.S. Where the Prosecutor concludes that there is a reasonable basis to proceed with an investigation in respect of a crime of aggression. nationals going forward.4. 20 European J. No U. 90 However. 91 Remarks by the head of the US Delegation Koh in a press briefing following the Kampala Conference.L. with a crime of aggression. including any relevant information and documents) has made a determination of the existence of an act of 90 Clark. So we ensure total protection for our Armed Forces and other U..”91 5. Negotiating Provisions Defining the Crime of Aggression. State Referral and proprio motu: 6.I. 104 A.S. we'd still have the option to opt out from having our nationals prosecuted for aggression. nationals. the Court shall not exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression when committed by that State’s nationals or on its territory..
96 Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations. cited in Anderson.95 In the opinion of the author such attempts at giving clear wording a very broad interpretation is reminiscent of the Second Admission Opinion96 in which the wording of ‘recommendation’ was argued to also including a negative vote by the Security Council. 2007) ("Under such an approach a Council decision might be interpreted as [a] de facto determination of an act of aggression. Informal Inter-Sessional Meeting of the Special Working Group on the Crime of Aggression. It could be understood that in cases of a determination of the situation concerned as a threat to the peace or a breach of the peace (interpreting it as implying an act of aggression) or in cases in which the SC makes a determination of an act of aggression in a present situation for strictly political reasons without referring it to the ICC. Reconceptualizing Aggression.1 (July 25. 60 Duke L. Reconceptualizing Aggression. advisory opinion. It provides a means to initiate an investigation if the Security Council remains deadlocked and does not adopt a relevant resolution. An Introduction to International Institutional Law (2002) at p. (2010) at pp. ICC Doc. 440-441..J. (1950) ICJ Reports 4. 440-441. M. J. it is not quiet clear what the consequences of a negative determination93 are. as having coverage in the present wording of the amendment. M. 440-441. however. (2010) at pp. ignore the established practice of the Security Council of carefully choosing the wording of a resolution. A resolution deciding whether or not referring to the ICC.. 94 Anderson. (2010) at pp. and would thus constitute interpretation against otherwise clear intentions.. 60 Duke L. 97 Klabbers. and determining that no act of aggression took place. 93 17 . 60 Duke L. after the Pre-Trial Division of the Court has authorized the commencement of the investigation start its proceedings. P 30. M. 95 ICC. It may then.97 92 Anderson. or breach of the peace be interpreted as implying an act of aggression and therefore giving green light for the commencement of the investigation into a crime of aggression? The purpose of this provision is clear. 109.J."). a notion that was rejected by the ICJ with good reasons.. The question arises what is to be understood by the wording ‘determination of the existence of an act of aggression’? Could a determination of a threat to the peace.aggression (acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter) and waiting for a period of 6 months for the Council to react. irrespective of the Council's intention. ICC-ASP/6/SWGCA/INF.J. Assembly of States Parties. 92 However.94 Accepting this as green light for the ICC to investigate would. Reconceptualizing Aggression.
D. 100 Scheffer. the Prosecutor may proceed with the investigation in respect of a crime of aggression. 1593.N. only makes sense when interpreting the wording ‘determination’ as a positive determination of an act of aggression by the Security Council acting under Chapter VII of the Charter. at p. 15 bis (8) .99 Accordingly. provided that the Pre-Trial Division has authorized the commencement of the investigation in respect of a crime of aggression in accordance with the procedure contained in article 15.98 but it did not specifically allege a crime of aggression. 101 See above. Where no such determination is made within six months after the date of notification. and the Security Council has not decided otherwise in accordance with article 16. S/RES/1593 of March 31 2005. for example. Leiden J.C.decide otherwise and halt any investigation. Res. The Complex Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute. 15 bis (7). as pointed out above. 23 (2010). U.L. following the procedure laid down in Art. Doc. In the (rather unlikely) case the Security Council has made a determination of an act of aggression (acting under Chapter VII of the Charter) the Prosecutor simply proceeds with the investigation into the crime of aggression with respect of the situation concerned.The Council. Where the Security Council has made such a determination. Art. 16 in conjunction with Art. 16 has the effect that “[n]o investigation or prosecution may 98 Because Sudan has not ratified the Rome Statute.. the Prosecutor may proceed with the investigation in respect of a crime of aggression. 901. referred the situation in Darfur. Such a deferral by the Council pursuant to Art. 99 18 .e. Deciding "to refer the situation in Darfur since 1 July 2002 to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court" without alleging any specific crime.in accordance with Art. Deferral by the Security Council: The Security Council may however .100 7.I. no resolution adopted by the Security Council determining an act of aggression or a resolution which refers to the situation concerned ‘merely’ as a breach of the peace or a threat to the peace)101 within six months after the date of notification of the Secretary-General of the UN the Prosecutor may proceed with the investigation in respect of a crime of aggression after the authorization of the Pre-Trial Division. 8. S. 6. 15 of the Rome Statute. When there is no ‘such’ determination (i.
K. 65 Juristen Zeitung 15/16/2010 (2010). The Court may exercise jurisdiction over the crime of aggression in accordance with article 13.. 15 ter in conjunction with Art. 65 Juristen Zeitung 15/16/2010 (2010). 1487 (2003) and 1479 (2003).be commenced or proceeded with under this Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security Council.105 That means that a Veto-Power with a vital interest in impeding an investigation in an act of aggression would find itself soon in political isolation. 106 Ibid. in a resolution adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations. a veto by a P-5 member may impede such a deferral but cannot compel one.. at p. which is subject to the veto-right. Security Council Referral: Article 15 ter Exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression (Security Council referral) 1. Scheffer. pp. The Complex Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute. strongly pushed by the US to assure Soldiers under the command of the UN or within the framework of a UN-authorized mission being exempt from any ICC jurisdiction. 103 19 . Das Verbrechen der Aggression vor dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof: Ein politischer Erfolg mit rechtlichen Untiefen. K. that request may be renewed by the Council under the same conditions. Accordingly.”102 The Security Council members “could believe that in fact aggression is occurring between two states but still want the ICC to back down for at least 12 months in order to give negotiators a (perhaps) better chance to stop the fighting.g. 105 Schmalenbach. further such ‚Immunity-Resolutions’ were blocked by the other Council Members. 751. subject to the provisions of this article. 13 (b) at the end.” 103 Theoretically such a request may be renewed for 12 months indefinitely and resulting eventually in a total prevention of the situation concerned from being investigated. considering the history of the decision making process in the Security Council. D. Das Verbrechen der Aggression vor dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof: Ein politischer Erfolg mit rechtlichen Untiefen. However. Art.104 such a decision. 901–902. has requested the Court to that effect. 107 Art. 13 (b) envisages the following: The Security Council (acting under Chapter VII of the Charter107) may refer “a situation in which one or more of such crimes appears to have been committed […] to the 102 Art. 104 See e. 751. Accordingly. 23 (2010).: Security Council Resolution 1422 (2002). at p. See Schmalenbach.. 16 of the Rome Statute. paragraph (b).106 7. Leiden Journal of International Law.
must be answered in the negative: As an international court set up by a treaty outside the UN system. Contag. March 24.110 In the event of a situation of aggression referred by the Security Council. 111 Meaning that whatever the SC refers is automatically eligible for consideration by the prosecutor and judges. D. 23 (2010) at p. the Prosecutor may investigate into any crimes of Art 5 (then including the crime of aggression) without any prior determination under Chapter VII of the Charter.2010)..: Contag.. 751.”113 The Council can therefore (pursuant to its powers arising from Chapter VII) refer situations of aggression involving non-state or non-consenting114 parties to the ICC115. para. to Refer Darfur to International Court. 119 Hoge.elac.uk/downloads/dapo%20akande%20working%20paper%20may%202010. Das Verbrechen der Aggression vor dem Internationalen Strafgerichtshof: Ein politischer Erfolg mit rechtlichen Untiefen. because in the case of a referral of a situation by the SC.. M. C. W.1. See Scheffer.N. Oxford Institute for Ethics. Leiden J. 114 Concerning general international law. D. The Rome Statute of the ICC.L.117 Remarkable as it seems. France Asking U. the monetary gold consent principle is considered not applicable in the case of an authoritative decision taken by the Security Council: see Akande. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof im System kollektiver Sicherheit (2009) at p.120 108 Art. 27. The wording ‘situation’ means that the Security Council shall not refer isolated cases and neglect other crimes (due to political considerations) committed in the same context. 23 (2010). 116 The theoretical question whether the SC could do so without such a provision in the Statute. 13 (b). available at: http://www. the ‘Beginning of the End’ or the ‘End of the Beginning’? Introducing Debates and Voices on the Definition of ‘Aggression’.12. the Prosecutor may commence with his or her own investigation. K. 110. 22 at p. The New York Times.. 111 Moreover paragraph 2 of the Understandings 112 explicitly states that “it is understood that the Court shall exercise jurisdiction over the crime […] irrespective of whether the State concerned has accepted the Court’s jurisdiction in this regard. C. 109 20 . 110 Arsajani. American J. 118 Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005).116 Notable is the outcome regarding Art 15 ter in conjunction with Art 13 (b) of the Rome Statute. 117 Schmalenbach.I. 115 Stahn. The Complex Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute. and Armed Conflict. 899.. bearing in mind that since the ICC’s inception. Leiden Journal of International Law. 1. 3.. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof im System kollektiver Sicherheit (2009) at p. 2005. at p 878. 93 (1999). 112 Understandings regarding the amendments to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court on the Crime of Aggression. The ‘End’. 65 Juristen Zeitung 15/16/2010 (2010).L. There is no magnitude test to be applied. 109 Another intention was to minimize politicization of the court by abstaining from the naming of individuals involved.ac. the SC referred only twice a situation (that of Darfur in 2005) 118 to the ICC after struggling for US support in the Council119.g. Prosecuting Aggression: The Consent Problem and the role of the Security Council. RC/10/Add. one should not overestimate its impact. 113 Ibid. at p. 110. Law.Prosecutor”108 of the International Criminal Court. see further e.ox.. Annex III... Working Paper May 2010. C. at p.I.pdf (accessed 23. the SC has no such power.
i. 124 Schuster. Independence of the ICC: The independence of the ICC is assured by the identical provisions regarding state referral. 751. R. pursuant to Art. 8.. [that] has not kept pace” 125 with the realities on the ground.124 Thus. 23 (2010). C. the Security Council). proprio motu. The Rise of the Mezzanine Rulers. 123 Stahn.I. Non-State Actors: Furthermore it should be noted that this approach is completely exclusive of non-State entities (the adopted definition as well as the conditions of jurisdiction refer only to actions which can be linked to a state).. D. 22 125 Crawford M. at p. at p. at p 877. “[…] based on the Westphalian model of nation-states.L.L. 15 ter (4) prescribing that “[a] determination of an act of aggression by an organ outside the Court shall be without prejudice to the Court’s own findings under this Statute.. the ‘Beginning of the End’ or the ‘End of the Beginning’? Introducing Debates and Voices on the Definition of ‘Aggression’.I. J. The Complex Crime of Aggression under the Rome Statute. The Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind: Eating Disorders at the International Law Commission. no need for a prior determination by the General Assembly of the UN (as a political filter) or the International Court of Justice. The Rome Statute and the Crime of Aggression: A Gordian Knot in Search of a Sword. at p.. The state-centric concept of what constitutes international peace and security is arguably outdated126 (Excluding actors such as terrorist organisations.e.121 It therefore provides for “fair and effective investigations and prosecution”122 and this is further strengthened by the fact that there is no external filter envisaged. 60.. at p. 4 of the preamble and Art. 899. M./Miscik. 54(1)(b) of the Rome Statute. The ‘End’. 121 21 .. K.e. 126 Rayfuse. 122 Para. 8 Criminal Law Forum 43 (1997) at p. Foreign Affairs November/December 2010.. 123 9. Scheffer. Leiden J. is not limiting the Court in its own findings.” That means that a determination of an organ outside the Court (i. 15 bis (9) and in the case of a Security Council referral in Art.Accordingly. 23 (2010). this is reflecting a concept of international law. revolutionary groups or rival “breakaway” factions 120 Schmalenbach.. Leiden J. 14 Criminal Law Forum 1 (2003). without the possibility for the Security Council to politically influence the investigation the Council will be rather reluctant to make use of the possibility to refer a situation to the Prosecutor. 123.
within a State’s army).. M. “the ICC’s pursuit of an aggression case against a head of state or other senior government official could complicate the Security Council’s efforts to address an ongoing threat to peace and security. 131 Ibid. 411 (2010) at 421-422. 2nd Session. 10.g.J. would render authority to the ICC to investigate and prosecute cases of aggression without the approval of the Security Council. Second Thoughts on the Crime of Aggression. ed.L. this is certainly not true of the Court.127 While it could be argued that “international law traditionally deals only with the relations between States. individual and state responsibility) there may be situations “where one of those bodies does not consider that aggression has materialized. Conclusion The aggression regime adopted by the Conference. 4 (2010) at p. (i.e. Accordingly. 79. 128 Ibid. by US Representative Koh that in particular cases. at p. 105. H/Robinson D. Lee. 20 European J. Reconceptualizing Aggression. which is a forum within which individuals are tried. R. (1999) at p.”128 The Assembly of State Parties of the ICC therefore failed to provide progress regarding the contemporary challenges to present international law conceptualizing the ever growing role of non-state actors in the international peace and security realm. concerns were raised e.”131 Furthermore the above mentioned loopholes in the ICC’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression would “entail a (further) devaluation of the prohibition on the use of force. 22 . 60 Duke L. in The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute.129 V. 129 Anderson. ICC jurisdiction could thus hamper the Security Council in the exercise of its primary responsibility to maintain international peace and security.. United States Senate 111th Congress. and thus be detrimental to the cause of fighting aggression.” 132 Moreover.130 In that regard. A Joint Committee Staff Trip Report prepared for the use of the Committee on Foreign Relations. whilst a national or international court may 127 Hebel. Crimes Within the Jurisdiction of the Court. September 2 2010. A. Worse: the Security Council may become even more reluctant to designate aggressions as such under Chapter VII.I. 132 Paulus.. 1125. 130 International Criminal Court Review Conference Kampala Uganda. noting the different regimes of responsibility. there is some potential that the proposed aggression regime could reduce the effectiveness of the Council’s mechanisms for addressing situations that may be of concern to the United States..
S. 10. 33 Suffolk Transnational Law Review 257 (2010) at p. resulting in politically motivated victor’s justice.138 “They also suggest that the ICC may not be the right forum to punish the crime of aggression. The New York Times. Security Council Calls for War Crimes Inquiry in Libya... On Some Problematical Aspects of the Crime of Aggression. February 27. Contag. 2nd Session. 138 Kacker. 137 See e. C. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof im System kollektiver Sicherheit (2009) at p. Ibid. judging from the recent unanimous decision 141 (including the concurring votes of China. allies more hesitant to join with the United States in uses of force without clear U. 141 See e. 2011. A.N. D. Wyatt. 846. are parties to the ICC. This would not only hurt the Court’s reputation but also undermine its assertiveness.S. These concerns are in fact very serious and deserve attention. 136 Ibid. Russia and USA) taken by the Security Council to refer the 133 Cassese.L.. political bodies such as the Security Council should duly take into consideration such judicial findings on the respective matters for its own actions. Der Internationale Strafgerichtshof im System kollektiver Sicherheit (2009) at p. at p. 20 (2007) at p. Security Council approval. 134 In the US Senate Address by the Head of the US Delegation Mr. Leiden J. as was the case with the 1999 NATO military actions in Kosovo and the 2003 military action in Iraq.” 133 But on the other hand.while acknowledging the achievement to have been able to reach consensus at Kampala .have argued that it should not be included in the Rome Statute. The Rome Statute and the Crime of Aggression.”139 In the opinion of the author these concerns are pointing out that the ICC would face serious challenges to its credibility if the crime of aggression remained a dead letter.140 However. 135 International Criminal Court Review Conference Kampala Uganda.. they would be potentially subject to the ICC’s aggression jurisdiction once it is brought into effect. E.I. 286 139 Ibid.g. 212.. 140 Contag. allies. Koh reports regarding potential impact on coalition activities that “[b]ecause many U. A Joint Committee Staff Trip Report prepared for the use of the Committee on Foreign Relations.take a contrary position and consequently find individuals criminally responsible for aggression.g. C.”135 In that regard the opt-out clause was considered as mitigating such risks. This could make some U. 134 23 . September 2 2010.136 Due to the complications elaborated on above and the politicized nature of the crime of aggression.. some authors137 . including all NATO members except Turkey. and that it is too early to burden this nascent institution. United States Senate 111th Congress. 212.
situation in Libya142 to the ICC143 on February 26th 2011. China. 24 . In that light.is now in place and it will be up to the Security Council and the State-Parties to duly take up its responsibility to end immunity for the gravest of crimes. 142 143 Not a Member State of the International Criminal Court. the author deems the future of the court not that bleak. Although not members of the ICC. the institutional framework .political will provided . Albeit apparent loopholes in the Courts jurisdiction over the crime. the Security Council’s readiness to take action with regards to the Crime of Aggression is likely to be crucial for the future relevance of the adopted amendments. Russia and the United States supported this referral. Security Council Resolution 1970 (2011). indicating that they acknowledge and recognize the court’s role in the international security realm.
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