Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/4121292/
Timestamp: 2017-01-17 18:35:49
Document Index: 15022044

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 201', '§ 101', '§ 101', '§ 101', '§ 114', '§ 101', '§ 106', '§106', '§ 101', '§106', '§106', '§ 106', '§ 106', '§110', '§108', '§108', '§108', '§ 108', '§108', '§108', '§ 108', '§ 109', '§109', '§ 602', '§ 1201', '§1203', '§1201', '§1202', '§1204']

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LIS654 lecture copyright 2 Thomas Krichel 2011-11-17.
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LIS654 lecture copyright 2 Thomas Krichel 2
structure who is the copyright owner [how copyright is transferred – missing ] what rights does the copyright holder enjoy [right to access of DMCA – missing] 3
who owns copyright? 17 U.S.C. § 201(a) says that the owner of the copyright is the “author”. Case law (CCNV v. Reid) says that the author is “the person who translates an idea into a fixed, tangible expression entitled to copyright protection”. In the case of sound recordings, this can become quite complicated. 4
examples Celebrity “writes” an autobiography. The ghostwriter, rather than the celebrity. A recorded history by interview. Usually it would be the interviewee who holds the copyright. Transcribing the interview does not create an original input. 5
joint authorship A joint work “is a work prepared by two or more authors with the intention that their contributions be merged into inseparable or interdependent parts of a unitary whole” [17 U.S.C. § 101]. A joint work is different from a collective work, which is a specific kind of compilation. 6
consequence of joint authorship The copyright in a work of joint authorship is co-owned by the authors of that work as tenants in common. Each author can exercise in full any of the rights granted to a copyright owner. Each has no obligation to seek the consent of the other copyright owners. The only requirement is that the copyright owner must share with the other co-owners any profits derived from the use of the work. 7
work for hire If the work in created by it’s creator on behalf of somebody else, that somebody else may hold the copyright. In such a case, it is labeled as a “work for hire”. 8
works for hire via employment If a work is made by an employee of an institution as part of her duties, it is many times considered a work made for hire. Then the institution is the copyright holder. Employment contracts may alter that default. 9
contractual work for hire The case for contractual work for hire is limited. The work has to fall into one of the following |+2| categories. In addition, the creator of the work has to agree in writing that the work was made for hire. Here are the cageries: 10
work for hire candidates A contribution to a collective work A part of a motion picture A translation A compilation A test or answer material for a test An atlas An instructional text “prepared … with the purpose of use in systematic instructional activities” [17 U.S.C. § 101] 11
last category for hire A supplementary work. This is “a work prepared for publication as a secondary adjunct to a work by another author for the purpose of introducing, concluding, illustrating, explaining, revising, commenting upon, or assisting in the use of the other work, such as forewords, afterwords, pictorial illustrations, maps, charts, tables, editorial notes, musical arrangements, answer material for tests, bibliographies, appendixes, and indexes” [17 U.S.C. § 101] 12
pre-1978 The operative presumption was that copyright belonged to the person at whose initiative and expense the work was done. In other words, it was assumed that copyright in work produced by independent contractors belonged to the person or organization that hired them. 13
exclusive right The copyright holder has the exclusive rights to do, or authorize others to do: – Reproduction – Preparation of derivative works (e.g. adaptations) – Distribution (certain types) – Public performance (certain types) – Public display (certain types) Anyone doing this without permission infringes. It’s absurd. 14
right to reproduce Section 106(1) gives the owner of copyright the exclusive right to “reproduce the copyrighted work in copies or phonocopies.” |+1 Example: Rogers vs Koons found infringement in building a sculpture based on a photograph. 15
1976 house report statement The right to reproduce is “the right to produce a material object in which the work is duplicated, transcribed, imitated, or simulated in a fixed form from which it can be ‘perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.’” This is rather broad. 16
reproduction right of sound recording The owner of the sound recording copyright only has the exclusive right to reproduce the actual sounds fixed on that particular sound recording [17 U.S.C. § 114(b)]. Anyone else can record a “sound alike” performance intended to duplicate the sound on a sound recording without infringing on the rights of the copyright owner of that recording. 17
right to produce derivative works 17 U.S.C. § 101 lists the following examples – Translations – Musical arrangements – Dramatizations – Fictionalizations – Motion picture versions – Sound recordings – Art reproductions – Abridgments – Condensations 18
right to distribution The right of distribution gives copyright owners the exclusive right to distribute copies of copyrighted works to the public “by sale or other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending” [17 U.S.C. § 106(3)]. 19
right of first publication This is an extension to the distribution right by case law. Under this extension – the copyright owner has the right to determine whether and when a work will be distributed. – copyright owner has, the right to control the first public appearance of her undisseminated expression (Harper & Row v. Nation). 20
limit to distribution right: first sale First sale doctrine is in section 109. Some of the copyright owners rights over a specific copy of a work end once their ownership of that copy ends. The copyright owner cannot – stop a library from lending a copy of a work – stop someone from selling a copy – prevent a purchaser from displaying the work in public 21
right to public performance §106(4) grants a right to public performance to copyright owners of literary, musical, dramatic, and choreographic works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audiovisual works. “public” means “substantial number of persons outside of a normal circle of a family and its social acquaintances is gathered” [17 U.S.C. § 101]. Transmitting the performance or display to a public place also makes it public. 22
right to public display §106(5) grants a right of public display of works to copyright owners. For sound recordings |+1 This is includes the individual images of an audiovisual work. However the first sale doctrine limits this right. 23
Public performance of sound recordings §106(6) gives the copyright owner has the exclusive right to perform sound recordings via digital (but not analog) transmissions. Some digital public performances are subject to a compulsory license. Others must be negotiated in advance. Most digitization projects of cultural heritage institutions would fall into this later grouping. 24
Moral rights These are inalienable rights that come with the creation. In the European tradition that inspires the Berne convention, they are included in copyright law. In the Anglo-Saxon tradition, they are dealt with under laws dealing with slander, libel, and misappropriation. 25
Visual Artist Rights Act (VARA) of 1990 This act added § 106A to title 17. It gives moral right to creators of a limited range of work types – paintings – drawings – prints – sculptures – still photographs. 26
moral right in copyright law § 106A(a) gives artists the right – to be identified as creator of a work he or she has created – not to be identified as the creator of a work that he or she did not create – not to be identified as the creator of a work he or she has created when distortion, mutilation, or other modification of the work would be prejudicial to his or her reputation 27
important limitations in VARA To be subject to the moral rights in VARA, the work must, generally – exist in one single copy or – in signed copies of no fewer than 200 copies Moral rights do not apply to reproductions. This protects digitizations from moral rights. 28
limitations to copyright owners rights Limitations on the exclusive rights of copyright owners are found primarily in 107 to 122 of the Copyright Act. These exemptions cover a range of conduct. Most only operate in only limited circumstances. 29
why are there limitations? The exemptions and limitations are supposed to ensure that the monopoly granted to copyright owners is not so complete that individuals cannot use existing works nor are unduly hampered in creating new ones. In this way, exemptions are supposed to advance the constitutional purpose of copyright: “the progress of science and useful arts.” 30
copyright exemptions: fair use “fair use” comes from a mishmash of legislative sources. Use that is deemed fair can be conducted – without obtaining the permission of the copyright owner – without the payment of any license fee “fair use” is a statutory exemption to copyright. 31
fair use is open ended Case law is an important source of fair use legislation. It is very difficult to predict how a court will apply the doctrine in any particular case. Only five individuals in the United States can say with certainty whether any particular use is fair. Only a few actions are certain to be fair use. 32
basic purposes fair use Purposes of fair use include – criticism, – comment – news reporting – teaching (incl. multiple copies for classroom use) – scholarship – or research But other purposes may be fair. 33
actual text Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified in that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright. 34
In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include— – The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes – The nature of the copyrighted work – The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole, and – The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. 35
fair use analysis The four factors have to be considered in conjunction, but not as a mechanical addition. Other factors may also come into play when considering fair use. The four statutory factors should not “be treated in isolation, one from another. All are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright” 36
character of use Acts that have a commercial or “for-profit” basis are more likely to be unfair. But commercial purpose can be fair (Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music). Acts that have a “transformative” effect, in that they add value or create something different, are more likely to be fair than those that do not (Blanch v. Koons). 37
nature of the work The use of factual works and scholarly works is more likely to be fair than the use of highly creative or original works, since copyright protects original expression and not facts (Harper & Row Publishers v. Nation Enterprises). The use of published works (as opposed to unpublished works) is more likely to be fair. 38
amount of use The greater the amount taken, the less likely the use is fair. But if the most important part is taken the likely use is unfair. (Harper & Row Publishers v. Nation Enterprises). 39
market impact A use is less likely to be fair when it serves as substitute for the original or supplants the work’s “traditional, reasonable, or likely to be developed markets.” Offering a version of the work that can substitute for the purchase of the original is unlikely to be a fair use. An easy method of licensing the use of the work may weigh against a finding of fair use (American Geophysical v. Texaco). 40
Guidelines “Guidelines for Classroom Copying in Not-For- Profit Educational Institutions with Respect to Books and Periodicals,” reprinted in Library of Congress Copyright Office, Reproduction of Copyrighted Works by Educators and Librarians: Circular 21 (Washington, DC: Copyright Office, 1995): 7–8, To be covered in a future edition. 41
Conference on Fair Use The Conference on Fair use was a 90s effort to come up with fair use guidelines. Draft guidelines where developed for – Digital Images – Electronic Reserves – Distance Learning – Multimedia Development It collapsed. 42
ConFU ConFU says the following is fair use copying for classroom use – (a) Either a complete article, story, or essay of less than 2,500 words, or – (b) an excerpt from any prose work of not more than 1,000 words or 10 percent of the work, whichever is less, but in any event a minimum of 500 words. – Each of the numerical limits stated in “a” and “b” above may be expanded to permit the completion of an unfinished line of a poem or of an unfinished prose paragraph.] Many institutions have adopted these guidelines as the maximum. 43
use of fair use The House of Representatives said in a report “the making of duplicate copies for purposes of archival preservation certainly falls within the scope of ‘fair use.’” A visual catalog or textual index of material, for example, may be an acceptable fair use. Supplanting the market for the original by making a full copy available may be a fair use if the copyright owner cannot be found. Fair use use should be documented. 44
classroom teaching exemption §110 contained an exemption that allowed educators to display and perform any copyrighted work during the course of face-to- face teaching in a classroom in a nonprofit educational institution. The Technology, Education, and Copyright Harmonization TEACH Act in 2002 expanded the ability of educators at nonprofit institutions and at government agencies to display and perform copyrighted digital works in their teaching. 45
TEACH act of 2002 It permits the use of digital technology for the transmission. It remove the requirement that the use of the material had to be concurrent with a classroom lecture. It restricts the use to mediated instructional activities. It requires that downstream reproduction must be prevented. It limits access for class-enrolled students only. Institution must have a copyright education program. 46
works and uses allowed by TEACH The performance of an entire nondramatic literary or musical work. The performance of a limited and reasonable portion of any other work. The display of any work in an amount comparable to what would be used during the course of a live classroom session 47
sovereign immunity The Supreme Court has ruled that state and tribal governments and their component units such as a state university are immune from intellectual property suits (Marketing Information Masters Inc. v. The Board of Trustees of the California State University). The ruling is based on the 11 th amendment. 48
here is the catch State entities cannot be sued for monetary damages, but they are subject to injunctive relief. Some case law that suggests that government employees can be sued in their private capacity. Most state liability regulations will not allow the state to defend an employee who engages in illegal acts. 49
libraries and archives exemption The ones that are available to all libraries and archives (l/a) are in §108. There are some exceptions for LoC and NARA that we don’t need to talk about here. 50
l/a eligibility There are two constraints on the l/a The main constraint il/a must be either: – (1) open to the public; – (2) accessible to nonaffiliated researchers working in a specialized field There may be the additional requirement that the l/a actually have a physical presence. Museums don’t qualify. 51
limitations, of course Only a single copy may be made. Any copying done under 108 must be isolated and unrelated. The copy must be made “without any purpose of direct or indirect commercial advantage”. Any copy must include either the copyright notice found on the original item or, if there is no copyright notice on the item, then a general legend stating that the work might be protected by copyright. 52
preservation copying of unpublished works A library or archives can make up to three copies of any unpublished work found in its collections for either of two purposes: – Preservation and security – Deposit in another eligible l/a for research use There is no limitation on what format the reproduction may take. The three-copy restriction, comes from microfilming, the camera negative, the print master, and a service copy. 53
replacement copying of published works A library can make three replacement copies for an item that is – Damaged – Deteriorating – Lost – Stolen – In an obsolete format The l/a must also determine that “an unused replacement cannot be obtained at a fair price.” 54
digital preservation & replacement copies There are two restrictions on the uses that can be made of the digital copies They are: – There can be no subsequent distribution of the digital format. – The digital copy cannot be used “outside the premises of the library or archives”. The l/a is held back in the analog era. 55
reproductions for patrons Basically this is for text only. Musical works, pictorial, graphic, or sculptural works, and audiovisual works are excluded. Illustrations as part of textual works are eligible. Sound recording are eligible if the musical work is in the public domain or no such work exist. News television programs are eligible. 56
restrictions The copyrighted work must be in the collection of the l/a. The copy must become the property of the patron. The l/a must have had no notice that the copy will be used for any purpose other than “private study, scholarship, or research.” Warning notices |+1| must be displayed on the order form and at the place where the order is accepted. The copying done by the l/a must not be systematic. 57
The copyright law of the United States (title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specific conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be “used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excess of “fair use,” that user may be liable for copyright infringement. This institution reserves the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgment, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of copyright law. 58
amount restrictions §108(d) authorizes the making of a reproduction of a small portion of a copyrighted work – an article from a journal – a chapter from a collection of essays – or a similar small portion of any other work. 59
amount restrictions §108(e) authorizes the making of a reproduction of a substantial portion or all of a work if a copy (used or unused!) of the work cannot be obtained at a fair price. Unpublished items should not have any risk. 60
interlibrary loan (ILL) § 108(g)(2) specifically allows ILL activities are permitted. ILL must not substitute for the subscription to or purchase of a work. The National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (CONTU) created ILL guidelines. It has a “rule of 5”: in any calendar year, a library may request up to 5 articles from the previous 5 years of any journal. 61
news programs §108(f)(3) permits libraries and archives to record audiovisual news programs. This exclude documentaries, magazine-format broadcasts, or other public affairs broadcasts. Copies could use a digital format. Copies of news recordings can only be lent to users. Performance of the broadcasts is prohibited. Sale of copies of the broadcasts is prohibited. If copies of audiovisual news programs have been acquired legally by means other than recording by the l/a itself, then those copies can be treated the same as any textual item. 62
unsupervised equipment §108(f)(1) says that a patron who conducts illegal action using a reproduction equipment in an l/a does not put the l/a at risk if the equipment has a warning that is prominently displayed. 63
end of term copying § 108(h) allows l/a to reproduce, (including in digital form), distribute, and perform copyrighted works of any type if – The work is published. – It is in its last 20 years of copyright term. – The work is not subject to normal commercial exploitation. – A copy can not be obtained at a fair price. – The copyright owner has not informed the copyright office that the work is being exploited and/or a copy can be obtained. 64
phonorecord exemption § 109(b)(1)(a) contains an exemption specific to libraries and nonprofit educational institutions that allows them to rent or lend copies of “phonorecords” (meaning any physical object on which sounds are recorded). Such action is otherwise prohibited by law. 65
computer program lending §109(b)(2)(a) allows nonprofit libraries to lend computer programs if a warning label is attached to the packaging containing the program. 66
import exemption § 602(a)(3) grants an exemption to the general prohibition forbidding the unauthorized importation into the US of copyrighted works acquired abroad. Nonprofit organizations operated for scholarly, educational, or religious purposes, are allowed to import one copy of an audiovisual work such as a movie “solely for its archival purposes.” They can also import no more than five copies or phonorecords of any work other than a movie for its library lending or archival purposes. 67
DMCA exemptions 1 § 1201(d) permits nonprofit libraries, archives, and educational institutions to circumvent access-control measures on a work for the sole purpose of determining whether it wants to acquire a copy of that work. 68
DMCA exemptions 2 §1203(c)(5)(b) requires that courts waive the penalties for anticircumvention when it finds that a nonprofit library, archives, educational institution, or public broadcasting entity unknowingly violated the anticircumvention provisions §1201 or the requirements to maintain copyright management information found in §1202. §1204(b) removes all criminal liability for these actions. 69
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