Source: https://ja.scribd.com/document/404787956/Minerva-Dairy-v-Pfaff
Timestamp: 2019-06-26 22:07:40
Document Index: 174689416

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 85', '§ 85', '§97', '§97', '§ 97', '§ 97', '§ 85', '§ 85', '§ 85', '§ 85']

Minerva Dairy v. Pfaff | Licensure | Fourteenth Amendment To The United States Constitution
Minerva Dairy, based in Ohio, is America’s oldest family-owned cheese and butter dairy. It has been producing artisanal, slow-churned butter in small batches since 1935. It has sustained its business through their website and by selling to regional distributers in several states. This model has worked well everywhere except Wisconsin, which requires butter manufacturers to jump through a series of cumbersome and expensive hoops to sell their product. Of course, Wisconsin is America’s Dairyland, with many large producers who (big surprise) have an interest in limiting competition. At the behest of these companies, the state requires every batch of butter to be “graded” by a specifically state-licensed grader—all of whom live in Wisconsin, except for a half-dozen in neighboring Illinois and a handful around the country that have been licensed only in the last year—who must taste-test every single batch. Because Minerva’s butter is produced in multiple small batches over the course of each day, the law would effectively require the dairy to keep a licensed tester on-site at all times, which is cost-prohibitive. The state admits that the grading scheme has nothing to do with public health or nutrition, but claims that its grades, based largely on taste, inform consumers. The fact that Wisconsin is trying to shape the taste of butter isn’t even the most absurd part of this story. The criteria used to grade the butter are a ludicrous mad-lib of meaningless jargon not even the state’s experts understand. The law purports to identify such flavor characteristics as “flat,” “ragged-boring,” and “utensil.” (All commonplace terms spoken by consumers in dairy aisles across the nation, no doubt.) The terminology hearkens to a freshmanic—not even sophomoric—term paper on the semiotics of postmodern agrarian literature. To claim that a grade calculated with reference to udder nonsense serves the purpose of informing anyone illustrates the danger inherent in judges’ deferring to government rationales for silly laws that burden people who are just trying to make an honest living. Our friends at the Pacific Legal Foundation represent Minerva in a lawsuit that challenges the butter-grading law the on grounds that it burdens interstate commerce in violation of the Commerce Clause, and also hurts small dairies’ Fourteenth Amendment rights to due process and equal protection of law. Minerva lost at the district court when the judge applied a toothless, cheesy “rational basis” test to the law in question, giving little weight to the serious concerns described above, then again in the Seventh Circuit (where Cato filed an amicus brief). Tireless in its pursuit of reasonable review of this silly law, Minerva has asked the Supreme Court to take its case. Because laws that abrogate constitutional rights warrant meaningful judicial oversight, Cato has again filed an amicus brief supporting Minerva’s petition. Wisconsin’s law directly burdens the right to participate in the state’s butter market, and thus their economic liberty, for no sane or “rational” reason. There are simply no benefits to consumers that come from forcing producers to pay considerable sums to have an arbitrary process deposit a random letter on product packaging. It curdles the mind to argue otherwise.
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Gary Allen, Individually and on Behalf of All Others Similarly Situated v. James B. Ellisor, Individually and as Executive Director of the South Carolinaelection Commission, and Joan B. Blackwell, Norma D. Myers, Marie H. Walker, Jane Crayton Davis, Individually and as Members of the Board of Registration of Aiken County, Southcarolina and on Behalf of All Others Similarly Situated, 664 F.2d 391, 4th Cir. (1981)
AJCCN Roadmap Philippines 14th AJCCN
09 Smith, Bell & Co v Natividad, 40 Phil 136 (1919)
MINERVA DAIRY, INC., ET AL.,
BRAD PFAFF, IN HIS OFFICIAL CAPACITY AS SECRE-
TARY-DESIGNEE OF THE WISCONSIN DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE, ET AL.,
BRIEF OF THE CATO INSTITUTE AS AMICUS
CURIAE SUPPORTING PETITIONERS
May the state impose “quality” standards on a
product based exclusively on the subjective tastes of
government inspectors and to the detriment or
exclusion of out-of-state producers, consistent with
both Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137 (1970)
and the rational basis test?
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ..................................... iii
I. WISCONSIN’S IRRATIONAL BUTTER
GRADING SCHEME VIOLATES
DUE PROCESS AND EQUAL PROTECTION ... 4
A. The Law Requires Butter to Be Graded on
Arbitrary, Meaningless Criteria ..................... 4
B. The People Wisconsin Deems Most
Knowledgeable Don’t Even Know What the
Grades Mean.................................................... 6
II. FAR FROM INFORMING CUSTOMERS,
THE BUTTER GRADING SCHEME
INSULATES LARGE WISCONSIN
BUSINESSES FROM COMPETITION ............... 8
A. The Law Protects Large Local Industry at
the Expense of Small Business ....................... 8
B. The “Putative Local Benefits,” If Any, Are
Discriminatory and Do Not Outweigh the
Strain on Interstate Commerce ...................... 9
CONCLUSION ......................................................... 12
Allegheny Pittsburgh Coal Co. v. County Comm’n,
488 U.S. 336 (1989) ................................................ 2
Barsky v. Bd. of Regents, 347 U.S. 442 (1954) ...... 1-2
Block v. Rutherford, 468 U.S. 576 (1984) .................. 3
473 U.S. 43 (1985) ................................... 2, 4, 11-12
Clayton v. Steinagel,
885 F.Supp.2d 1212 (D. Utah 2012) .................... 11
312 F.3d 220 (6th Cir. 2002) .............................. 3, 4
FTC v. Phoebe Putney Health Sys.,
568 U.S. 216 (2013) .............................................. 11
421 U. S. 773 (1975) ............................................. 11
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905) .................. 8
547 F.3d 978 (9th Cir. 2008) .................................. 9
N.C. State Bd. Of Dental Exam’rs v. FTC,
135 S.Ct. 1101 (2015) ...................................... 10-11
N.Y. State Bd. of Elections v. Lopez Torres,
552 U.S. 196 (2008) ................................................ 1
Patel v. Tex Dep’t of Licensing & Regulation,
469 S.W.3d 69 (TX 2015) ...................................... 11
Pike v. Bruce Church, 397 U.S. 137 (1970) ............. 10
Powers v. Harris, 379 F.3d 1208 (10th Cir. 2004) .... 8
Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 635 (1996) ................ 2
Quinn v. Millsap, 491 U.S. 95 (1989) ........................ 2
Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996) ........................ 2
700 F.4d 154 (5th Cir. 2012) .................................. 9
712 F.3d 215 (5th Cir. 2013) .............................. 3, 7
Williams v. Vermont, 472 U.S. 14 (1985) ............... 2-3
Wis. Admin. Code ATCP § 85.02 ........................... 5, 6
Wis. Admin. Code ATCP § 85.04 ............................ 5-6
Wis. Stat. §97.175 ...................................................... 5
Wis. Stat. §97.176 ...................................................... 5
Brendan Coffey, “Americans Eating More Butter
Made Dallas Wuethrich a Billionaire,”
Bloomberg.com, Oct. 5, 2017,
https://bloom.bg/2xTvrFh. ...................................... 9
“Butter Grader License Holders,” State of Wis.
Dep’t of Agric., Trade & Consumer Protection,
https://bit.ly/2FLqjES ........................................... 10
“Butter Grading & Labeling,” State of Wis.
https://bit.ly/2EDFihX ......................................... 4-5
Capitalism & Freedom 140 (1962) ......................... 8
Morris M. Kleiner & Alan B. Krueger,
The Prevalence & Effects of Occupational
Licensing, 48 Brit. J. Indus. Rel., No.4 (2010) .... 10
Sam Peltzman, Toward a More General Theory of
Regulation, 19 J.L. & Econ. 211 (1976) ................. 9
“Wisconsin Dairy Plant Directory 2018-2019,”
State of Wis. Dep’t of Agric., Trade & Consumer
Protection, https://bit.ly/2F0DEGZ ........................ 8
lished in 1989 to promote the principles of limited con-
stitutional government that are the foundation of lib-
erty. Toward those ends, Cato conducts conferences,
publishes books, studies, and the annual Cato Su-
preme Court Review, and files amicus briefs.
This case concerns Cato because the free flow of
goods between states is an essential virtue of our Con-
stitution. Wisconsin’s butter grading law is an irra-
tional restraint on interstate commerce that serves
only to insulate large businesses from competition.
State codes are chock full of inane laws, many of
which foster laughter on first reading. Although “[t]he
Constitution does not prohibit legislatures from en-
acting stupid laws[,]” N.Y. State Bd. of Elections v.
Lopez Torres, 552 U.S. 196, 209 (2008) (Stevens, J.,
concurring), the judiciary must not simply rubber-
stamp the irrational products of state legislatures.
Courts must consider seriously challenges to laws
that abrogate constitutional rights. The law here di-
rectly affects the right to earn a living—“the most pre-
1 Rule 37 statement: Both parties were notified of and consented
to the filing of this brief. No party’s counsel authored any of this
brief, and amicus alone funded its preparation and submission.
cious liberty that man possesses,” Barsky v. Bd. of Re-
gents, 347 U.S. 442, 472 (1954) (Douglas, J., dissent-
ing)—which has deep roots in this nation’s history
and thus merits meaningful judicial protection.
Wisconsin asserts that requiring the grading of all
butter sold in-state is done as a mechanism of inform-
ing consumers. But the law does not provide infor-
mation without cost; it makes it more expensive—in
some cases prohibitively expensive—to sell butter in
the Wisconsin. Because the law burdens the right of
Minerva Dairy, and others, to engage in their trade,
it must bear a rational relationship to a legitimate
state interest. See, e.g., Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620,
635 (1996) (“[While a] law enacted for broad and am-
bitious purposes often can be explained by reference
to legitimate public policies which justify the…disad-
vantages they impose on certain persons” it must
nonetheless “bear a rational relationship to a legiti-
mate government purpose”).
While Wisconsin seeks to convince the Court that
bearing a rational relationship is no test at all, that
idea has long gone sour. Courts invalidate statutes
under rational-basis review in two circumstances: (1)
when there is no logical connection between the chal-
lenged law and any legitimate government interest;
See Quinn v. Millsap, 491 U.S. 95, 108 (1989) (ability
to grasp politics not logically connected to land own-
ership); Allegheny Pittsburgh Coal Co. v. County
Comm’n, 488 U.S. 336, 345 (1989) (disparities in tax
rates so large as to be illogical); City of Cleburne v.
Cleburne Living Ctr., 473 U.S. 432, 449-50 (1985)
(home size not logical basis for permit-denial when
identical homes received permits); Williams v. Ver-
mont, 472 U.S. 14, 24-25 (1985) (encouraging Ver-
mont residents to make in-state car purchases not log-
ical basis for tax on car previously purchased out-of-
state) and (2) when the proffered justifications for a
law are a pretext and the government is in actuality
attempting to advance an illegitimate interest. See,
e.g., St. Joseph Abbey v. Castille, 712 F.3d 215 (5th
Cir. 2013) (rejecting stated public health and con-
sumer protection rationales in a casket-making regu-
lation); Craigmiles v. Giles, 312 F.3d 220, 225-28 (6th
Cir. 2002) (rejecting six purported state rationales).
Wisconsin’s requirement that all butter sold in-
state bear a state-specific grade is not simply a stupid
law, but an arbitrary and discriminatory interference
with interstate commerce that runs afoul of multiple
cornerstones of our Constitution. It irrationally dis-
criminates among butter producers and products in
violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Pro-
tection Clause and constitutes an unintelligible mad
lib of meaningless jargon in contravention of the Due
The Court should grant this petition and direct the
lower court to fulfill its duty and not “substitute the
rhetoric of judicial deference for meaningful scrutiny
of constitutional claims” Block v. Rutherford, 468 U.S.
576, 593 (1984) (Blackmun, J., concurring) so it can
finally clean up the horrible mess Wisconsin has
made of the dairy aisle.
Wisconsin’s scheme is both irrational and based on
a pretextual purpose of “consumer information” that
hides base protectionism.
In analyzing a statute’s rationality, courts com-
monly refer to record evidence in concluding that a
purported justification for law is too implausible to
credit. City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Ctr., 473
U.S. 432, 449 (1985) (citing evidence that a middle
school had 30 mentally disabled students to refute the
government’s assertion that students might cross the
street to tease the mentally disabled); Craigmiles, 312
F.3d 225 (public-health justification for restrictions
on who may sell a casket refuted by evidence that re-
tailers do not handle remains). Here, the Court need
not endeavor to milk the record for such evidence, as
it is swelling with evidence that any “information”
produced by the grading scheme is pure noise.
A. The Law Requires Butter to Be Graded
on Arbitrary, Meaningless Criteria
Wisconsin has conceded that butter grading has
nothing to do with public health or safety. It instead
contends that its scheme informs consumers about
the butter available for purchase in the state. This
would be rational had Wisconsin bothered to provide
consumers any information whatsoever as part of its
grading requirement. Instead, the grades are a prod-
uct of udder nonsense. The Wisconsin Department of
Agriculture disclaims knowing whether consumers
understand, much less rely on in their purchasing de-
cisions. 7th Cir. App. 066-067; 073-74. On the Depart-
ment’s website, the grade is said to “allow[] the buyer
and seller of that butter to have a mutual understand-
ing of its properties and thereby avoid conflict.” “But-
ter Grading & Labeling,” State of Wis. Dep’t of Agric.,
Trade & Consumer Protection, https://bit.ly/2ED-
FihX. But if butter is graded on a morass of qualities
nobody understands, what mutual understanding is
there? The impressive irrationality of the grading
scheme necessitates an exploration of its criteria.
The law makes it illegal to sell non-graded butter,
and the grades range from “undergrade” to “AA.” Wis.
Stat. § 97.176. Butters must be graded by a licensed
butter grader who has been tested in Wisconsin to
“demonstrate his or her competence to act as a butter
grader . . . in a manner determined by the depart-
ment.” Wis. Stat. § 97.175. The grade is determined
from testing a sample batch based on “the flavor clas-
sification, subject to disratings for body, color, and
salt characteristics.” Wis. Admin. Code ATCP § 85.02.
The grading process starts with identification of
flavor characteristics deemed not very tasty by the de-
partment. The core of the grade, then, is the govern-
ment’s idea of how butter is supposed to taste. How
mandating taste is relevant to informing consumers
is anyone’s guess, but even if ensuring that all butter
tasted the same were a legitimate interest, the law
would not be rationally related to that end, because
the criteria for discerning taste are arbitrary.
The statute lays out flavor profiles like “cooked” (a
“smooth, nutty-like character resembling a custard”),
“flat” (“the absence or lack of a natural butter flavor”),
“neutralizer” (a flavor “suggestive of bicarbonate of
soda or the flavor of similar alkaline compounds”),
and “smothered” (“a bland flavor suggestive of im-
properly cooling the cream prior to churning”). Wis.
Admin. Code ATCP § 85.04. The statute lists 18 such
flavor characteristics, but the grading scheme is only
capable of taking a single characteristic into account.
Wis. Admin. Code ATCP § 85.02(1) (“When more than
one flavor characteristic is discernible in a sample of
butter, the flavor classification of the sample shall be
established on the basis of the flavor that carries the
lowest grade”). This means that 17 of the 18 charac-
teristics Wisconsin allegedly measures are meaning-
less with respect to any given grade.
After determining the flavor profile, a chosen char-
acteristic determines the base grade, which is subject
to subtractions based on “body, color and salt charac-
teristics.” Id. These characteristics are a similar mad
lib of meaningless jargon. The body characteristics in-
clude butter which is “leaky,” “weak,” and “ragged-
boring” (“a sticky-crumbly condition”). Wis. Admin.
Code ATCP § 85.04(b). After being dinged for its body,
the butter is subject to additional disrating for its
color. Butter which appears “mottled,” “speckled,”
“streaked,” or “wavy” is inferior, in the state’s opinion.
Finally, we have the “salt characteristics”: whether
the butter is “sharp” or “gritty”, as far as saltiness
goes, presents a final opportunity to reduce its grade.
Knowledgeable Don’t Even Know What
the Grades Mean
It is hard to imagine consumers protesting that
their butter tastes “smothered,” and absurd to think
Wisconsin believes boiling an incoherent mess of jar-
gon nobody understands down to a letter grade could
possibly provide consumers with more information.
As previously stated, the Department has explicitly
disclaimed consumer understanding of or reliance on
the grading process at all. 7th Cir. App 073-074; 107.
Moreover, Steve Ingham, the person deemed most
knowledgeable about the butter grading scheme,
seemed unable to articulate what the grades stand
for—and admitted that consumers are likely no better
informed. Id. (“[T]he Department is ignorant of
whether consumers know that.”). The administrator
of the Department’s Division of Food and Recreational
Safety was likewise unable to describe the meaning of
the characteristics “stale,” “smothered,” “ragged bor-
ing,” or “utensil.” And the director of the Bureau of
Food and Recreational Businesses was unable to de-
scribe the meaning of “ragged boring” and “flat.” Id.
Where the people designated most knowledgeable
by the state have no idea what the factors are in the
butter grading process—a process in which they have
years of experience—it is certainly suspect to call the
product of such a scheme “information.” It is certainly
no great leap of mind to determine that, if those
deemed most knowledgeable cannot articulate what
goes into a butter’s grade, then the system’s ultimate
grade is utterly meaningless. An arbitrary grade
stamped on a package is not “information,” as it car-
ries with it nothing meaningful to a consumer. “The
great deference due state economic regulation . . . does
not require courts to accept nonsensical explanations
for regulations.” St. Joseph Abbey, 712 F.3d at 226.
Wisconsin seeks to justify its interference with the
interstate dairy trade by invoking consumer infor-
mation. That explanation is “udder” nonsense.
BUSINESSES FROM COMPETITION
Either informing consumers is a pretextual justi-
fication here, or the law is not rationally related to a
legitimate government interest. While Wisconsin as-
serts information as its interest, the actual purpose of
the law is something else. This plays on the subtext
underlying Lochner, and many others other cases,
that “[i]t is impossible for us to shut our eyes to the
fact that many of the laws of this character, while
passed under what is claimed to be the police power
for the purpose of protecting the public health or wel-
fare, are, in reality, passed from other motives.” Loch-
ner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 64 (1905). Here, it seems
that Wisconsin, “America’s Dairyland,” is engaged in
“the favored pastime of state and local government[,]”
simple economic protectionism. Powers v. Harris, 379
F.3d 1208, 1221 (10th Cir. 2004).
A. The Law Protects Large Local Industry
at the Expense of Small Business
“[T]he pressure for [restrictive licensing] invaria-
bly comes from members of the occupation itself and
not consumers or the public.” Milton Friedman, Cap-
italism & Freedom 140 (1962). Wisconsin’s butter
grading law can be said to do no good for the consum-
ers, but there is a clear class it does benefit: Wiscon-
sin’s massive in-state butter churners. “Wisconsin
Dairy Plant Directory 2018-2019”, State of Wis. Dep’t
of Agric., Trade & Consumer Protection,
https://bit.ly/2F0DEGZ. A single firm in Wisconsin,
Grassland Dairy Products, Inc., produces one-third of
the nation’s butter. Brendan Coffey, “Americans Eat-
ing More Butter Made Dallas Wuethrich a Billion-
aire,” Bloomberg.com, Oct. 5, 2017,
https://bloom.bg/2xTvrFh. The butter grading re-
quirement functions as a substantial barrier to entry
to Wisconsin’s butter market, insulating large, state-
owned business from competition who cannot afford
to submit to Wisconsin’s expensive, arbitrary scheme.
“[A]s between the two main contending interests in
regulatory processes, the producer interest tends to
prevail over the consumer interest.” Sam Peltzman,
Toward a More General Theory of Regulation, 19 J.L.
& Econ. 211, 212 (1976).
Yes, Wisconsin has an interest in protecting its lo-
cal business from competition, but this is not a legiti-
mate purpose as far as establishing a regulation’s con-
stitutionality. See e.g., St. Joseph Abbey v. Castille,
700 F.4d 154, 161 (5th Cir. 2012) (“As we see it, nei-
ther precedent nor broader principles suggest that
mere economic protection of a pet industry is a legiti-
mate governmental purpose”); Merrifield v. Lockyer,
547 F.3d 978, 991 n.15 (9th Cir. 2008) (“[E]conomic
protectionism for its own sake, regardless of its rela-
tion to the common good, cannot be said to be in fur-
therance of a legitimate governmental interest.”).
Strain on Interstate Commerce
Every batch of butter must be graded to comply
with Wisconsin’s law, which poses significant costs on
out-of-state businesses completely unlike those borne
in-state. As of April 2019, there were a grand total of
67 licensed Wisconsin butter graders, and all but 15
are located within the state of Wisconsin (six in neigh-
boring Illinois). “Butter Grader License Holders,”
State of Wis. Dep’t of Agric., Trade & Consumer Pro-
tection, https://bit.ly/2FLqjES (accessed Apr. 1,
2019).2 Petitioner makes clear the extent to which in-
terstate businesses are burdened by the grading re-
quirement, but what needs highlighting is the fact
that, under Pike balancing, these substantial costs
are to be weighed as against the “putative local bene-
fits” of the regulation. Pike v. Bruce Church, 397 U.S.
137, 142 (1970). What makes such analysis difficult
here is that the numerator is completely missing from
the equation: there simply are no benefits to Wiscon-
sin consumers flowing from forcing butter producers
to pay considerable sums to have an irrational process
deposit a meaningless letter on product packaging.
The butter grading requirement is not unlike oc-
cupational licensure rules that protect industry in-
cumbents from competition. “[P]olitical institutions
such as state legislatures or city councils . . . control
initial entry and in-migration, thereby restricting
supply and raising the wages of licensed practition-
ers.” Morris M. Kleiner & Alan B. Krueger, The Prev-
alence & Effects of Occupational Licensing, 48 Brit. J.
Indus. Rel., No.4, 10 (2010). This Court, and others,
have struck down many of these laws, recognizing
2 Nine of the 15 out-of-state licensees were added in the last year.
their anticompetitive effects and often irrational
mechanisms. See N.C. State Bd. of Dental Exam’rs v.
FTC, 135 S.Ct. 1101, 1109 (2015) (siding with the
FTC who alleged “the Board’s concerted action to ex-
clude nondentists from the market for teeth whiten-
ing services in North Carolina constituted an anti-
competitive and unfair method of competition.”);
Goldfarb v. Va. State Bar, 421 U. S. 773, 791 (1975)
(“The fact that the State Bar is a state agency for some
limited purposes does not create an antitrust shield
that allows it to foster anticompetitive practices for
the benefit of its members”); Clayton v. Steinagel, 885
F.Supp.2d 1212, 1215 (D. Utah 2012) (invalidating
Utah’s protectionist hair-braiding regulations which
“irrationally squeezed ‘two professions into a single,
identical mold’”); Patel v. Tex Dep’t of Licensing &
Regulation, 469 S.W.3d 69, 93-94 (Tex. 2015) (invali-
dating eyebrow-threading licensure, because “simply
stated: Laws that impinge your constitutionally pro-
tected right to earn an honest living must not be pre-
posterous.”); see also FTC v. Phoebe Putney Health
Sys., 568 U.S. 216, 229 (2013) (“where the displace-
ment of competition [is] the inherent, logical, or ordi-
nary result of the exercise of authority delegated by
the state legislature. In that scenario, the State must
have foreseen and implicitly endorsed the anticom-
petitive effects as consistent with its policy goals.”).
The exclusive beneficiaries of the butter grading
requirement are Wisconsin-based producers of bland
and uninspired butters that taste vaguely how the
state thinks butter ought to. This irrational discrimi-
nation among butter producers indefensibly violates
equal protection. In City of Cleburne, the city man-
dated that that homes for the mentally handicapped
must have a special permit, but not other group
homes. 437 U.S. at 440. Although homes for the men-
tally disabled were, in some ways, different from
apartments, they were not different in a sense that
justified their disparate treatment. Id. at 442, 48.
Like the City of Cleburne, Wisconsin exempts other
dairy products from mandatory grading. Cheese,
milk, and yogurt are all subject to a voluntary grading
scheme, but only butter must be graded. Yet there is
nothing about butter that mandates such differential
treatment, especially where the only thing Wisconsin
could possibly be protecting the public from diverse or
interesting tasting butters.
Because judicial deference does not require judi-
cial abdication, and because it is the judiciary’s duty
to invalidate arbitrary and irrational laws like the one
Wisconsin churned out here, this Court should grant
April 4, 2019 ishapiro@cato.org
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