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Matched Legal Cases: ['art. 107', '§ 11', '§ 11', 'art. 140', 'art. 143', 'Art 23', 'art.158']

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Disengaged Occupiers
And in the framework of Gisha’s Public Advocacy Program, generously funded by the
Sari Bashi. Noam Peleg. Table of contents . the Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School. Aeyal Gross. Nili Gorin Photographs Getty Images Maps UN-OCHA Design Eva Mousa Thanks to Dr. The Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic at Yale Law School. Prof. Eva Mousa. David Kretzmer for their comments.Copyright 2007 by Gisha: Legal Center for Freedom of Movement ISBN 978-965-91069-0-5 Written by Sari Bashi and Kenneth Mann Research Nicole Herther-Spiro.
Israel Exercises Control over Gaza’s Tax System and Fiscal Policy [54] F. Control over Movement of Goods [32] [41] B. Israel Exercises Control over the Palestinian Authority and Its Ability to Provide Services to Gaza Residents [56] CHAPTER 4: ISRAEL CONTINUES TO OWE OBLIGATIONS TO GAZA RESIDENTS UNDER THE LAW OF OCCUPATION [63] A. Israel Controls the Palestinian Population Registry [50] E.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION [7] [17] CHAPTER 2: ISRAEL CLAIMS IT OWES NO OBLIGATIONS TO GAZA RESIDENTS [21] CHAPTER 3: ISRAEL CONTINUES TO EXERCISE EFFECTIVE CONTROL OVER GAZA [29] A. Control over Movement of People 2. Israel Continues to Bear Responsibility Even if the Occupation of Gaza Is Effected through Nontraditional Means [66] . Israel Controls Movement to and from Gaza via Land Crossings [32] 1. Israel Controls Movement Within Gaza through Periodic Incursions and a “No-Go Zone” [49] D. The Deﬁnition of Occupation [64] B. Israel Exercises Complete Control of Gaza’s Airspace and Territorial Waters [47] C.
Israeli Control of Gaza Meets the Criteria for Applying the Hague Regulations and Fourth Geneva Convention Regarding Occupation [75] 1. Occupation for Purposes of Humanitarian Law Is Determined By Effective Control and Does Not Require the Continuous Presence of Ground Troops [75] 2. Under the Martens Clause and Israeli Law. Ending Occupation Requires Transfer Of Sovereign Authority – Or At Least Refraining from Interfering with Exercise of Governmental Authority [82] D. Israel Would Owe Post-Occupation Obligations to Palestinians in Gaza [89] E. Technological Advances Have Reduced the Dependence on Ground Troops [69] 3.1. Humanitarian Obligations Should be Interpreted Expansively and Purposively [66] 2. Israel Owes Obligations to Gaza Residents under Human Rights Law and Israeli Law [92] 1. Interpreting Humanitarian Law Requires a Contextual Analysis [72] C. Obligations under International Human Rights Law 2. Obligations under Israeli Law [94] [92] CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION [97] APPENDIX: DEFENSE MINISTRY LETTER RE: RAFAH CROSSING [102] .
Far from improving the economy and welfare of Gaza residents. Upon that completion. thus leaving the running of Gaza and the fulﬁllment of obligations vis à vis Gaza residents – to the sole responsibility of the Palestinian Authority. Israel completed its disengagement plan by removing Israeli settlements and evacuating permanent military installations from Gaza. 2005. 8 Israel’s position is based on deﬁning “effective control”. Israeli actions since September 2005 – including severe restrictions on the movement of people and goods in and out of Gaza and an economic stronghold on the funding of civil services – have contributed to an economic and humanitarian crisis in Gaza not seen in the 38 years of Israeli control that preceded the withdrawal of permanent ground troops. This paper shows that in contrast to the rhetoric used to describe the disengagement plan. in a series of statements made in Hebrew before Israel’s Supreme Court.” While at the time. Three days later. since then. completion of the disengagement plan has not absolved Israel of its obligations to permit and to facilitate the proper functioning of civilian life in the Gaza Strip. Israel continues to owe legal obligations to residents of Gaza in the signiﬁcant areas in which their lives are subject to . as dependent on a permanent ground troop presence in the territory. Israel has not relinquished control over Gaza but rather removed some elements of control while tightening other signiﬁcant controls. Israel refrained from declaring an end to the occupation. Israel declared an end to the military government that had administered the Gaza Strip since Israel’s capture of the territory in 1967. the Government of Israel has expressed the position that “disengagement” extinguished its legal obligations towards Gaza.Executive Summary ISRAEL CLAIMS IT OWES NO OBLIGATIONS TO GAZA RESIDENTS On September 12. in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly. the legal test for occupation in the international law. As will be explained. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon declared “the end of Israeli control over and responsibility for the Gaza Strip.
2. but it is also imposed by international human rights law and Israeli constitutional and administrative law. or to have the garbage collected depends on decisions made by Israel. airspace. territorial waters. 3. Gaza residents know that their ability to use electric lights. To make the international community aware of Israel’s position that Gaza is no longer occupied and that Israel no longer considers itself bound by the provisions of the Geneva Conventions and Hague Regulations concerning occupied territory in its treatment of Gaza residents. but even after they leave. supply of goods. as we will show. To provide a resource for scholars. population registry. population registry. 9 ISRAEL CONTINUES TO EXERCISE EFFECTIVE CONTROL OVER THE GAZA STRIP Israel’s withdrawal of settlements and its permanent military ground installations from the Gaza Strip did not end Israeli control of Gaza but rather . and others. the tax system. pursuant to international humanitarian law. That responsibility exists under the international law of belligerent occupation.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza and affected by Israeli control. to buy milk. To describe the ways in which Israel continues to control Gaza and therefore continues to owes legal obligations to Gaza residents. and other areas. At times. humanitarian aid workers. Israel is bound to respect the rights of Gaza residents in its control of Gaza’s borders. and it also owes positive duties to permit and to facilitate the proper functioning of civilian institutions in Gaza. Gisha pursues three goals in issuing this paper: 1. and policy-makers concerned about the humanitarian situation in Gaza and the rights of Gaza residents whose lives are inﬂuenced by Israeli control. lawyers. Israeli control over the lives of Gaza residents remains constant. Israel continues to control Gaza through an “invisible hand”: control over borders. soldiers operate in the streets of Gaza. tax system. obligations which must be fulﬁlled in order for civilian life in Gaza to be sustained and developed.
Control over Movement of People Under the terms of the Nov. Israel retains control over Gaza’s land crossings. Therefore. foreigners may . • Complete control of Gaza’s territorial waters. entered into by Israel and the Palestinian Authority. the Palestinian Authority operates Rafah Crossing under the supervision of European Union monitors present at the crossing and Israeli security ofﬁcials who monitor the operations via live video footage and supervision of passenger lists. including complete control over the entrance of foreigners and imports as well as ultimate control over the entrance and exit of all persons and goods by virtue of the ability to close all crossings into Gaza. • Control on the ground through incursions and sporadic ground troop presence (“no-go zone”).Executive Summary changed the way in which such control is effectuated. • Control of the West Bank. Israel continues to control Gaza through: • Substantial control of Gaza’s land crossings. • Control of the Palestinian population registry (including who is a “resident” of Gaza). Israel Controls Movement to and from Gaza via Land Crossings Despite disengagement. • Control of the ability of the Palestinian Authority to exercise governmental functions. which together with Gaza. 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access. Travel into Gaza from Egypt via Rafah is restricted to Palestinians registered in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian population registry. 15. 10 A. constitute a single territorial unit. • Complete control of Gaza’s airspace. • Control of tax policy and transfer of tax revenues. These forms of control have contributed to an unprecedented deterioration in the economic and social welfare of Gaza residents.
November 2006 11 . UN-OCHA.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza Map of the Gaza Strip.
B. Israel kept Rafah Crossing closed for 148 days. Reports and internal military documents suggest that Israel has used the closure of the crossing to exercise pressure on Gaza residents. Israel also exercises ultimate control over the entrance into and exit from Gaza of all persons. Palestinian. Control over Movement of Goods 12 Israel completely controls the import of goods into Gaza and exercises substantial control over exports from Gaza to third countries and to the West Bank. and European Union ofﬁcials. in order to bring about the return of the Israeli soldier captured on June 25. caused shortages of basic goods that threatened the health and welfare of Gaza residents. Israel also controls whether EU monitors will reach Rafah by issuing security warnings. Israel has imposed severe restrictions on imports which have. meaning that Gaza was cut off from the outside world 42% of the time. Indeed. in the ﬁrst year following the completion of its disengagement program.Executive Summary enter Gaza only via Israeli-controlled crossings in the north. including Palestinian ID card holders. and has used that control periodically to close Gaza to the outside world. 2006. Israel Controls Movement Within Gaza through Periodic Incursions and a “No-Go Zone” Israel controls movement within the Gaza Strip through sporadic troop . Israel Exercises Complete Control of Gaza’s Airspace and Territorial Waters Since occupying Gaza in 1967. C. Israel has exercised complete and exclusive control of Gaza’s air space and territorial waters. at various points. Israeli consent and cooperation are required for Rafah Crossing to open. There is no airport or sea port in Gaza and no passage for people or goods into Gaza via the sea or air. telling the EU monitors whether Rafah may open. because the agreement for opening the crossing requires the participation of Israeli.
only holders of Palestinian ID cards can enter Gaza through the crossing. Israel Exercises Control over Gaza’s Tax System and Fiscal Policy Israel controls the tax system in the territories of the Palestinian Authority. As a result. F. Israel has not permitted additions to the Palestinian Population Registry.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza presence and artillery ﬁre from positions along its borders with Gaza. Even when Rafah Crossing is open. Thus. Israel Exercises Control over the Palestinian Authority and Its Ability to Provide Services to Gaza Residents Israel exercises control over the ability of the PA to provide services to Gaza and West Bank residents and the functioning of its governmental institutions. tens of thousands of Gaza residents. in December 2005. including by control over the transfer of tax revenues which amount 13 . a “no-go” zone by warning residents that they will be shot if found in that area. with the exception of direct taxes such as income tax and some kinds of value-added (“VAT”) and customs taxation. E. including along Gaza’s border with Egypt. with few exceptions. including the the ability of nonproﬁt organizations to receive taxexempt donations of equipment or materials. they are trapped in Gaza – if they leave they will not be permitted to return. This system affects civilian life in Gaza. D. Israel Controls the Palestinian Population Registry The deﬁnition of who is “Palestinian” and who is a resident of Gaza and the West Bank is controlled by the Israeli military. Israel controls a northern section of the Gaza Strip where it declared. Additional no-go zones within the Gaza Strip are occasionally declared by Israel. therefore control over the Palestinian Population Registry is also control over who may enter and leave Gaza. are living in Gaza but cannot receive Palestinian ID cards. including women who entered Gaza on visitors’ permits and married Gaza residents. Israeli troops have operated continuously in Gaza. Since 2000. Since June 2006.
Occupation. with a uniﬁed and undifferentiated system of civilian institutions spread throughout Gaza and the West Bank. But on a caseby-case basis. but not entirely dependent upon. we can identify where control by a foreign government over a territory not part of its sovereign land rises to the level of occupation. Such responsibility will continue until Israel cedes effective control. in the areas in which it exercises such control. that is. Israel’s continued direct control over the West Bank is a form of indirect control over Gaza. has long been understood in terms of the ability to exercise effective control over a territory. There are probably no bright lines to deal with this question. Therefore. The critical question is “how much” actual control yields a situation of occupation – a situation in which the foreign power exercises sufﬁcient control as to incur obligations to residents of the territory subject to its authority. 14 . a concept that is intimately linked with. in fact. Gaza and the West Bank constitute two parts of a single territorial unit. The level of control over Gaza. is quite clearly a factual instance of occupation. Gisha takes the position that the essence of the term occupation lies in the notion of control. and thus. military control of the occupied territory by a foreign power. Moreover. Israel owes obligations to Gaza residents under the international humanitarian law of occupation. military ground presence in the territory. funded from the same central budget and run by the same undifferentiated central authority.Executive Summary to 50% of the PA’s operating income. ISRAEL CONTINUES TO OWE OBLIGATIONS TO GAZA RESIDENTS UNDER THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF OCCUPATION Israel’s contention that withdrawal marks the end of its obligations vis-à-vis residents of Gaza is founded upon an overly narrow understanding of occupation in the terms of international law as being deﬁned exclusively by the continuous presence of troops in a given territory. The situation in Gaza indicates that Israel does exercise effective control over signiﬁcant aspects of life in Gaza. as this Paper argues.
The framework for interpreting Israel’s obligations vis à vis Gaza residents must take into account the purpose of humanitarian law – to protect civilians – a purpose which tips the balance. without the kind of renunciation of control that would actually end Israel’s obligations under international humanitarian law. in favor of applying protections for civilians. 15 . Moreover. The development of technology has made it possible for Israel to assert effective control over signiﬁcant aspects of civilian life in the Gaza Strip without a continuous military ground presence. all-or-nothing approach to imposing humanitarian law duties and instead requires a careful look at the context in which control is exercised. the purpose of humanitarian law argues against a binary. in evaluating Israeli control over Gaza. control which is nuanced but nonetheless tangible and signiﬁcant. That purposive approach to questions of applicability of humanitarian protections is well-grounded in international humanitarian law and in Israeli law. Gisha’s argument is that the withdrawal of settlers and permanent military installations from the Gaza Strip was a change in degree but not of kind: in some areas. Furthermore. one should look not just at the military force. but also the administrative control created over the course of four decades of occupation. These legal and factual issues are explored in detail in the paper that follows. This administrative control of civilian life has intensiﬁed since the completion of Israel’s disengagement plan. commensurate with the scope of control. The fact that control may not be exercised in one area does not exempt the occupying power from responsibility in the area in which it does exercise control.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza A secondary question is to what extent the obligations owed by the occupier are affected by the level of control exercised. Different levels of responsibility apply in various areas. the degree of Israeli control over life in Gaza diminished. in cases of doubt.
Far from improving the economy and welfare of Gaza residents. Israel continues to control Gaza through an “invisible hand”: control over borders. the tax system. supply of goods. or to have the garbage collected depends on decisions made by Israel. At times. 1. in which it withdrew settlements. In ofﬁcial government documents and in statements to the public. Israel said that its goal in carrying out the plan was to end the friction. Gaza residents know that their ability to use electric lights.pmo. army bases. and loss of life resulting from conﬂicts between Israeli occupying troops and Palestinian residents of Gaza.mfa. 1 O 18 .il (follow "Addendum A -. airspace.Introduction n September 12. to buy milk. violence. Israel completed what it called its “disengagement plan”. 2005. but even after they leave. para. where it had maintained a permanent military presence since capturing Gaza from Egypt in the 1967 Mideast War.1 Israel also expressed the position that disengagement would “serve to dispel the claims regarding Israel’s responsibility for the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip. Israel has not relinquished control over Gaza but rather removed some elements of control while tightening other signiﬁcant controls.”2 This paper shows that in contrast to the rhetoric used to describe the disengagement plan. Israeli control over the lives of Gaza residents remains constant.il or www. and others. territorial waters. Israel described the disengagement plan as a means of improving the economic and social welfare of Gaza residents by giving them an opportunity to run their own affairs.gov. PRIME MINISTER’S OFFICE.Revised Disengagement Plan – Main Principles"). 2 Id. Israeli actions since September 2005 – including severe restrictions on the movement of people and goods in and out of Gaza and a stronghold on the funding of civil services – have contributed to an economic and humanitarian crisis in Gaza not seen in the 38 years of Israeli control that preceded the withdrawal of permanent ground troops. and ground troops from the Gaza Strip. ADDENDUM A – REVISED DISENGAGEMENT PLAN – MAIN PRINCIPLES 2 (June 6. population registry. 2004).gov. available at http://www. soldiers operate in the streets of Gaza.
Gisha pursues three goals in issuing this paper: 1. and other areas. Chapter 3 will challenge the factual basis for Israel’s position by showing that Israel continues to control signiﬁcant aspects of life in Gaza. 3 19 . lawyers. population registry.3 Israel continues to owe legal obligations to residents of Gaza in the signiﬁcant areas in which their lives are subject to and affected by Israeli control. To describe the ways in which Israel continues to control Gaza and therefore continues to owes legal obligations to Gaza residents. humanitarian aid workers. Israel is bound to respect the rights of Gaza residents in its control of Gaza’s borders. but it is also imposed by international human rights law and Israeli constitutional and administrative law. 3. such areas are far more limited than Israel claims. To make the international community aware of Israel’s position that Gaza is no longer occupied and that Israel no longer considers itself bound by the provisions of the Geneva Conventions and Hague Regulations concerning occupied territory in its treatment of Gaza residents. and policy-makers concerned about the humanitarian situation in Gaza and the rights of Gaza residents whose lives are inﬂuenced by Israeli control. 2. That responsibility exists under the international law of belligerent occupation. Chapter 2 will outline Israel’s position. As will be discussed in this paper.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza As will be explained. that it no longer occupies Gaza and owes no legal obligations to Gaza residents. completion of the disengagement plan has not absolved Israel of its obligations to permit and to facilitate the proper functioning of civilian life in the Gaza Strip. and it also owes positive duties to permit and to facilitate the proper functioning of civilian institutions in Gaza. obligations which must be fulﬁlled in order for civilian life in Gaza to be sustained and developed. tax system. Chapter Disengagement has changed the nature of Israeli obligations in areas in which competencies have been genuinely transferred to the Palestinian Authority and the Palestinian Authority actually exercises those competencies. despite the lack of a continuous troop presence. To provide a resource for scholars. pursuant to international humanitarian law. as articulated in submissions to Israel’s Supreme Court.
Chapter 4 is somewhat technical and will be most useful to jurists and to scholars interested in the legal grounding for the claim that Gisha makes in this paper: where control is exercised. Chapter 5 will suggest a road map for addressing the legal status of Gaza. arguing that binary judgments concerning the question of the occupation of Gaza would be premature. the West Bank. arguing that Israel exercises effective control over Gaza in ways that trigger obligations under international humanitarian law. its exercise of control is bounded by laws whose purpose is to protect residents of a territory subject to foreign control. This claim is grounded in speciﬁc international conventions and domestic Israeli law. and the Gaza Strip. responsibility attaches. and unhelpful to efforts to understand and regulate the complex relationship between Israel.Introduction 4 will describe Israel’s obligations to Gaza residents under the international humanitarian law of occupation. 20 . So long as Israel controls life in Gaza. inappropriately simplistic. accepted as a matter of international custom and policy. but it is also an intuitive principle. Readers without a legal background may prefer to read chapters 2-3 and rely on the summary of the legal argument laid out in the preceding Executive Summary. namely the Hague Regulations and the Fourth Geneva Convention.
Chapter 2 Israel Claims It Owes No Obligations to Gaza Residents .
A.N. Doc. 27. G. 12.N. J. ES-10/15. translated in 43 I. however. Indeed. claiming that control over Gaza had been transferred to the Palestinian Council..M. 2003). 7 See G. U. 12..Israel's Position ince capturing Gaza from Egypt in 1967.8 While the applicability of the laws of occupation does not depend on the existence of a military administration. GAOR. three days later.T. 2277. it has declared that. Israel declared an end to the military government that had administered the Gaza Strip since Israel's capture of the territory in 1967. ES-10/2. U. Oct. order to protect and provide for the occupied population. These rules. Israel has never conceded that it is legally bound by the Fourth Geneva Convention with respect to its actions in the Palestinian Territories. 6 See HCJ 2056/05. 75 U. Israel adopted the position that it was no longer bound by these rules. As a ﬁrst matter.Doc. Instead. 1949. 2005.A. GAOR. ES-10/13. 1907. Order Regarding End of Military Government. 2. 10th Emergency Special Sess. 287 [hereinafter: Geneva IV].A. the laws of belligerent occupation have applied to Israeli actions in Gaza. 8 Israel Defense Force. 1997).7 Immediately upon completing its disengagement plan on September 12. 23 (Barak. 2004). Sept. U. 10th Emergency Special Sess. Res. it would honor the “humanitarian” provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention with respect to these territories. 4 .L. Res.N. 6 U. para. in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly. 1 Bevans 631 [hereinafter: Hague IV]. Doc.5 grant powers to and impose duties on a foreign power that exercises effective control over a territory. Aug. 5 Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land. 36 Stat. 3516. laid out in the Fourth Geneva Convention4 and the Hague Regulations. the Israeli Supreme Court has held that Israel is a belligerent occupant in both Gaza and the West Bank and has applied the Fourth Geneva Convention and the Hague Regulations to evaluate Israel’s conduct there6—a position that the international community almost uniformly shared.N.. A/RES/ES-10/15 (Aug.). 1099 (2004) [hereinafter: Beit Sourik].S. Israel [2004].T. Res. Beit Sourik Village Council v. as a matter of practice. G. A/ RES/ES-10/13 (Oct. 10th Emergency Special Sess. 18. A/RES/ES-10/2 (May 5. GAOR.S. Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon declared "the end of Israeli control over and responsibility for S 22 Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. 2005 (on ﬁle).
2005 Speech by Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon before the United Nations General Assembly. According to the Government of Israel. State's Response of Jan. 11 HCJ 10265/05 Physicians for Human Rights v. Defense Minister. protect civilians. HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. 15. 2006 (on ﬁle) (petition brought by Physicians for Human Rights and the Gaza Community Mental Health Programme. according to which an occupying power owes legal duties to protected persons living in occupied territory."9 While the Israeli government has refrained from declaring an end to the occupation of Gaza in public international fora. Our Home for Community Development. 5 (brought by the Public Committee Against Torture in Israel and LAW. Text available at www. HCJ 10265/05 Physicians for Human Rights v. apply when the territory is under the authority of the enemy and such authority is "established and capable of being exercised.org. challenging the closure of Karni commercial crossing to imports and exports) [2006]. State's Submission of Dec. 2006 (brought by ten occupational therapy students. which determines whether belligerent occupation exists. Southern Military Commander and related cases. State's Submission of July 11.10 The State's argument. para. 2005. and ﬁll the vacuum left by the former government which has been displaced by the occupier. 5. State's submission of 9 23 . 10 See e. Defense Minister. Gaza Community Mental Health Programme.g. challenging the practice of targeted assassinations) (on ﬁle). in order to restore public order. HCJ 769/02 Public Committee against Torture in Israel v. in Hebrew language submissions before the Israeli High Court. 19.gisha. HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v. and Gisha. available at www. challenging the ban on Gaza students studying in the West Bank) available at www. Government of Israel.mfa. as set forth in detail before the High Court in a case challenging the practice of ﬂying sonic booms over Gaza.gov. is that the laws of occupation.il. once it removed its settlers and Sept."11 These two conditions establish the test for effective control. the Government of Israel has taken the position that it no longer holds Gaza through belligerent occupation and that international humanitarian law governing occupied territory therefore no longer applies to its actions vis à vis Gaza residents. gisha. Southern Military Commander (brought by Mezan and Gisha. challenging the practice of creating sonic booms over the skies of Gaza) (on ﬁle). Bituna. Effective control is the ability to exercise the powers that international law requires the occupier to exercise in the occupied territory.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza the Gaza Strip.org .
Isr. 2006 (on ﬁle) (all translations of court documents into English are by Gisha). While the State of Israel admits to continuing ground troop activity in Gaza.14 24 The thrust of the State’s argument is that it no longer has the capability to exercise the powers – and thus to fulﬁll the obligations – imposed by the international law of occupation. The state argues that the restrictions on passage of people and goods through Rafah Crossing are not imposed by military might but rather determined consensually by the Nov. In any event. where its troops are not physically present. and the United States. 13 Agreement on Movement and Access. 14 Id at para. As stated in the State of Israel's submission before the High Court: “The restrictions on the passage of certain travelers and on importing goods through Rafah Crossing were not imposed by Israel but rather determined by agreement between Israel.The brief contains a detailed position by the state on the legal status of Gaza. .-P. Nov.A. the Palestinians.12 The state also claims that control of the airspace or territorial waters do not meet the criteria for imposing the laws of occupation. This claim is based on deﬁning “effective July 11. 2005. 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access. with the opening of Rafah Crossing (with the agreement of Israel.mfa. runs as a crossing without control by Israel. Para. il. State Submission of July 11. limited to entering speciﬁc areas of Gaza in order to thwart attacks or stop the ﬁring of Qassam rockets toward Israel. on the part of the border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt..13 entered into by Israel and the Palestinian Authority (hereinafter also: PA).Israel's Position permanent military installations from the ground in Gaza. 12 HCJ 10265/05. it characterizes its military presence in Gaza as sporadic. currently. without any Israeli control”. available at www. by virtue of its sovereign power to control its border and entrance to its territory. one can no longer claim that Israel “controls the perimeter” of the Gaza Strip. both because the Gaza Strip’s southern border. but not under its control). 15. and that it does not control the Rafah Crossing between Gaza and Egypt. 15. 2006. its occupation of Gaza ended.gov. 34. Israel of course (like any state) continues to control the crossings between the Gaza Strip and the State of Israel. 27. and also because the entire length of this [southern-ed] border of the Strip is under full Palestinian control. Israel's position is that its control of the crossings between Gaza and Israel does not constitute belligerent occupation.
In response to a series of legal claims brought by Palestinians seeking remedies that are under Israeli control – opening Gaza’s crossings to imports and exports18.gisha. Entrance to Israel Order (Border Stations) (Amendment). 2006. State Response of July 12. For more on this issue. Israel has issued temporary orders exempting Gaza residents from the requirement of receiving a visa in order to enter Israel. The State of Israel has issued administrative orders deﬁning the Erez.T. 18 HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. as dependent on a permanent ground troop presence in the territory: “The existence of belligerent occupation depends on the ability of the occupier effectively to exercise governmental powers in the territory. 1010. K. With the absence of forces. including in order to cross to the West Bank. permitting Gaza residents to enter the West Bank19. Defense Minister (pending). 6499. separated from the West Bank and subject neither to Israeli control nor Israeli duties.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza control”.16 It has compared Gaza to Syria. Defense Minister (unpublished). available at www. 25 (emphasis in original). claiming that it bears no obligation to permit the provision of humanitarian aid in Gaza and no obligation to permit people and goods to cross between Gaza and the West Bank. 992. 17 HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v.org . and Karni crossings between Gaza and Israel as international border crossings. 6425. in any event.gisha.org. State Response of April 26. 2006. 19 HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v. permitting patients from Gaza to enter 25 Id. Sufa. the occupier of the territory cannot exercise any governmental authorities whatsoever. (February 2006). see Gisha. See Entrance to Israel Order (Exemption for Residents of the Gaza Strip) (Interim Order).17 The implications of this position are far-reaching. available at www. Kerem Shalom.org. 19. and thus.gisha. 2006.T. 15 16 . Southern Military Commander and related cases (pending). K. At para. 2005.T. 6425. 19. 2006. 1011. State's Response of Jan. the legal basis for the existence of belligerent occupation is extinguished”. Disengagement Danger: Israeli Efforts to Separate Gaza from the West Bank. 2006 K. the legal test for occupation.15 Accordingly. available at www. Southern Military Commander and related cases (pending). 2005. HCJ 5841/06 Association for Civil Rights in Israel v. Israel has made changes in its domestic law treating Gaza as a foreign territory. Entrance to Israel Order (Exemption for Residents of the Gaza Strip) (Interim Order) (Amendment). State's Response of Jan.
As we shall see in the next section. Israel has kept Gaza’s crossings mostly closed in the year following the completion of its disengagement plan. at 24:00.Israel's Position the West Bank and Israel for medical treatment not available in Gaza20 – the State of Israel’s response has been that it owes no obligations to Gaza residents and that any relief it provides in terms of opening crossings or permitting passage. Commander of Military Forces in Gaza and Southern Military Commander (unpublished). which. the state repudiated any obligation to do so but said it would voluntarily attempt to avoid a humanitarian crisis in Gaza: “Beginning September 12th. This includes authority pursuant to military legislation. For example.”21 26 Israel’s position is that responsibility for the civilian population of Gaza. 12. and has severely restricted movement of people between Gaza and the West Bank. paras. 20 . along with the international community. no longer bind Israel in Gaza following the completion of the disengagement. continues to examine the possibilities of preventing a humanitarian crisis in the Gaza Strip. in response to a court petition asking that Israel permit the Karni Crossing to open for import and export. with all the accompanying political. the military administration of the Gaza Strip by the IDF ended. the State of Israel. including the functioning of Gaza’s economy. Gaza and Israel. HCJ 8840/06 Physicians for Human Rights v. 20-21. e. has withheld monies needed to pay the salaries of civil servants and to run civilian institutions in Gaza. is the sole responsibility of the Palestinian Authority.g. as aforementioned.. 21 HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. it provides as a policy choice. Despite all of the above. and between Gaza and third See. the IDF no longer exercises military administrative authority in the Gaza Strip. Defense Minister. security and legal ramiﬁcations. supra note 18. Since the end of the military administration of the Gaza Strip. and without being bound by the laws of belligerent occupation. with no obligation to permit more freedom of movement than it chooses to provide. and with it ended the belligerent occupation of the Gaza Strip by the IDF.
27 .Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza countries via the Egypt-Gaza border. It creates a framework in which the civilian population of Gaza is vulnerable to denial of basic humanitarian protections. The results of these controls have been devastating and have helped plunge Gaza into an economic and humanitarian crisis unprecedented in nearly four decades of occupation. Israel’s position that it owes no legal obligations to Gaza residents. withhold tax money including the revenues needed to maintain schools and hospitals – without violating any duties owed under humanitarian law. if accepted. Israel could prevent all persons from entering and leaving Gaza. block all trade in and out of Gaza including the ability to export goods. could lead to the conclusion that should it desire. That conclusion would not only be dangerous as a policy matter – it is incorrect as a statement of law.
Chapter 3 Israel Continues To Exercise Effective Control Over Gaza .
on the ground in Gaza. A Gaza university cannot receive visits from a foreign lecturer unless Israel issues a visitor’s permit. • Complete control of Gaza's territorial waters. in Gaza's skies. In the year following Israel's withdrawal. A Gaza student cannot study abroad without Israeli approval to open the Gaza-Egypt crossing. • Control of tax policy and transfer of tax revenues. • Complete control of Gaza's airspace. A Gaza farmer cannot get his carnations and cherry tomatoes to market unless Israel permits the goods to exit Gaza. This Chapter will review the ways in which Israel continues to control Gaza. including: • Substantial control of Gaza's land crossings. did not end Israeli control of Gaza but rather changed the way in which such control is effectuated. A Gaza mother cannot register her child in the Palestinian population registry without Israeli approval. and increasing its military activities along Gaza's shores. A Gaza teacher cannot receive her salary unless Israel agrees to transfer tax revenues to the Palestinian Ministry of Education. I 30 . and at various periods. A Gaza ﬁsherman cannot ﬁsh off the coast of Gaza without permission from Israel. closing Gaza's crossings to passage of people and goods. • Control on the ground through incursions and sporadic ground troop presence. while important steps in reducing friction between Gaza residents and Israeli soldiers and settlers. restricting even further use of Gaza's coastline for ﬁshing.Israel Still Controls Gaza srael's withdrawal of settlements and its permanent military ground installations from the Gaza Strip. Gaza residents may not bring a crate of milk into the Gaza Strip without Israeli permission. A Gaza nonproﬁt organization cannot receive a tax-exempt donation of goods without Israeli approval. • Control of the Palestinian Population Registry (including who is a "resident" of Gaza). Israel has tightened external controls on Gaza.
. Israeli control of Gaza which will be described below takes place against the backdrop of a complex set of relations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. 22 . whose status was not to be changed during the interim period: "Israel shall transfer powers and responsibilities as speciﬁed in this Agreement from the Israeli military government and its Civil Administration to the Council in accordance with this Agreement. Israel's withdrawal of settlements and permanent military ground installations from the Gaza Strip changed the nature of its obligations toward Gaza residents. particularly in areas in which Gaza residents continue to be subject to signiﬁcant Israeli-imposed restrictions.-P. The principle is simple and 31 Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Similarly. Sept. as concerning those areas in which power was genuinely transferred. which together with Gaza. art. Israel transferred to the Palestinian Authority certain powers that it held through its belligerent occupation of Gaza and the West Bank.L.M. without absolving Israel of its obligations under international and Israeli law.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza • Control of the ability of the Palestinian Authority to exercise governmental functions.23 The transfer of certain enumerated powers to the Palestinian Authority changed the nature of Israel's responsibility to the civilian population in Gaza and the West Bank. Israel retained all powers not explicitly transferred to the Palestinian Authority and retained overall responsibility in the occupied territories. However. 1995. 36 I.L.O. 28. constitute a single territorial unit. particularly in the areas in which it continued to exercise direct control. Isr. 551 (1997) [hereinafter: Interim Agreement]. the limited changes in control stemming from the completion of Israel’s disengagement plan did not end Israeli responsibility toward Gaza residents. whose roots are in the Oslo Peace Process and the Interim Accords signed in 1995. 23 Id.22 As part of this process. Article 1. • Control of the West Bank. 28. Israel shall continue to exercise powers and responsibilities not so transferred".
32 1. A. Control over Movement of People The Gaza Strip has land crossings into two countries: Israel and Egypt. • Complete control over import of goods.In principle.24 In the two months following completion of Israel's disengagement plan. but that crossing has yet to open to passengers. and Gaza. the only operational Egypt-Gaza Crossing. Egypt. • Substantial control over export of goods. including: • Complete control over the entrance of foreigners.Israel Still Controls Gaza well-recognized in international and Israeli law: where there is control. • Limited control over the entrance of Palestinian residents listed in the Israeli-controlled population registry (Palestinian ID-card holders). Israel controls movement into Israel from Gaza.S. Israel also controls the movement of people between Gaza and Egypt via Rafah Crossing. Israel also controls movement of people via the Kerem Shalom Crossing located near the border between Israel. However. the Rafah Crossing between Gaza and Egypt remained closed pending a U. Israel retains control over Gaza's land crossings. Israel Controls Movement to and from Gaza via Land Crossings Despite disengagement. As would be expected. • Complete control over the entrance of Palestinians not listed in the Israelicontrolled population registry. • Ultimate control over the entrance and exit of all persons and goods by virtue of the ability to close all crossings into and out of Gaza. there is responsibility. 24 .
28 Agreed Principles.27 Israeli security ofﬁcials monitor the crossing at Rafah via cameras which receive real-time video and data feed of operations. Also. supra note 25. foreign representatives of recognized international organizations and humanitarian cases – the ability of a foreigner to cross is subject to veto by Israel. Foreign Investors C. With few exceptions. IDF Spokesman to Sari Bashi. there is no prohibition on passage by holders of Palestinian ID cards. Humanitarian Cases.A. at 5. Israel reserves the right to block the entrance of holders of Palestinian ID cards whom it considers to be "terrorist activists".mfa. 2006 (on ﬁle).gov. at Rafah Crossing. 2005. 15. 26 Letter from Ron Roman. According to the letter: "The Crossing is intended for movement by holders of Palestinian ID cards only. from Jan. 29.25 Under the terms of that agreement." See also Agreement on Movement and Access: “Use of the Rafah crossing will be restricted to Palestinian ID card holders and others by exception in agreed categories with prior notiﬁcation to [Israel]". Foreign Representatives of Recognized International Organizations D. Isr.-P. supra note 25. in a number of exceptional categories: A. at 4.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza brokered agreement providing for the opening of Gaza's crossings to Egypt and the West Bank. foreign investors. according to the agreement. Diplomats B. travel via Rafah is restricted to Palestinians registered in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian Population Registry.26 In the excepted categories – diplomats.il [hereinafter: Agreement on Movement and Access and Agreed Principles]. 25 . with the exception of terrorist activists. Nov. the Palestinian Authority operates Rafah Crossing under the supervision of European Union monitors present at the crossing and Israeli security ofﬁcials who monitor the operations via video footage and supervision of passenger lists. available at www. As a general matter.28 An objection by Israel to the entrance of a foreigner in one of the exceptional categories triggers a 33 Agreement on Movement and Access – Agreed Principles for Rafah Crossing. Passage through the Crossing by those who are not holders of Palestinian ID cards is permitted. detailing categories of persons permitted to cross via Rafah Crossing.. 27 Agreed Principles. which has 48 hours to register its objection.
Diplomats. Defense Ministry.30 According to the Israeli Defense Ministry: "In accordance with the Interim Agreements [Oslo Accord-ed]. according to the APRC …"31 34 Indeed. requests for the passage of foreigners who do not hold Palestinian documentation are brought to the Israeli side for approval after they have been approved by the Palestinian side … We do not know of cases in which residents who do not hold Palestinian documentation requested to cross.org. Sari Bashi. The agreement states that after an objection is registered by Israel. a U.Israel Still Controls Gaza process of consultation between Israeli. Coordinator for Government Activities in the Territories. to enter Gaza via Rafah in order to offer health care aid. According to the APRC [Agreed Principles for Rafah Crossing-ed] there are four exceptional categories of foreigners (non-holders of Palestinian documentation) who can cross through Rafah Crossing. 4. Oct. Exceptional humanitarian cases. to Adv. despite the fact that the language of the agreement suggests that Israel's role is advisory. and the PA wrote. and crossed.29 Israel makes the ﬁnal decision whether a foreigner may enter Gaza. citizen of Palestinian origin.32 Id. available at www. These are: 1. were refused. and EU representatives. 2. 2006 [emphasis added]. Israel refused. in a 29 30 .gisha. 32 For example. Id. 31 Letter from Eyal Freiman. during which time the person may not enter Gaza. Employees of international organizations. if Israel refuses to permit a foreigner to enter Gaza through the excepted categories. Public Affairs. 9. Palestinian.S. Foreign investors. 3. that person may not enter. "The PA will notify the GOI [Government of Israel] of their decision within 24 hours and will include the reasons for their decision". the Palestinian Authority requested permission from Israel to permit a physician from an international humanitarian organization. Those who are not included in these populations may not cross through Rafah Crossing.
Deputy Ofﬁcial. professionals. 33 After receiving a visa to enter Israel. the Palestinian Authority may request that a visitors permit be granted to those wishing to enter Gaza and the West Bank. Gazans may only receive foreigners via Israeli-controlled crossings. See Center for the Legal Defence of the Individual & Btselem. visitors must go to the ofﬁces of Israeli military ofﬁcials at the Erez checkpoint and request a permit to enter Gaza. businesspersons. are not allowed to enter Gaza through the Rafah Crossing unless they have a local identity card proving that they are residents of the Gaza Strip. Interior Minister the petitioner. currently the Erez Crossing between Gaza and Israel. For example. denied permission to enter Gaza through Rafah Crossing.”34 35 letter sent to the physician's attorney.33 The ability of Gaza residents to receive family members. Interior Minister (unpublished). especially because of the requirement that foreigners be granted a visa to visit Israel. Israel has refused to grant visitors permits or to add people (with the exception of minor children of ID card holders) to the Palestinian Population Registry. but since September 2000.btselem. even those of Palestinian origin. I have been told that American citizens. that "According to the accepted and agreed upon procedures. Palestinian Authority. visiting lecturers. In the words of Dr. and the Israeli side refused. however. with the explanation that the refusal is due to security reasons. Marayati: “In response to my efforts to enter Gaza. necessary to enter Gaza through Erez Crossing. a request was submitted to the Israeli Civil Affairs Ofﬁce in order to permit [name redacted] to enter via Rafah Crossing. 34 A. in A. from May 20. 829/05 (Jerusalem) Marayati v. It is noted that under the Oslo Accords. 2006 (on ﬁle). meaning that all visitors must not only receive a visa to enter Israel. they must also be granted a permit to enter Gaza. 829/05 (Jerusalem) Marayati v. and medical care workers is severely restricted. . page 17-26.P. a physician seeking to provide medical care to the population of Gaza." See Letter from Amin Siam. "Perpetual limbo – Israel freeze on uniﬁcation of Palestinian Families in the Occupied Territories" (July 2006) (hereinafter: Freeze on Family Uniﬁcation). Civil Affairs. which may or may not be granted. was denied a visa to Israel.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza The exercise of this control over Rafah has signiﬁcant consequences for Gaza residents.org.P. because of the twin requirement that Israel approve the entrance of non-Palestinian ID-card holders and that Israel control who is a PalestinianID card holder. available at www. She was also. The physician was not permitted to cross.
" E-mail from Maria Telleria to Adv. 14. 2006. must be take their positions in order for Rafah to open: "When Israel says Rafah Crossing Point (RCP) would be not open because of security reasons we should accept this position. instead of the 12 hours regularly scheduled. Marayati has not been permitted to enter Gaza in order to provide medical care to Gaza residents. Rafah Crossing was open for just 21 days. all three parties. Peleg on Nov. our mandate is to monitor. 2006 (on ﬁle) and interview with Maria Telleria and EU monitors. Israeli.35 Between June 25. These security warnings prevent Rafah from opening. and on each day. 6. Israel exercises ultimate control over the opening of Rafah Crossing and has used that control periodically to close Gaza to the outside world. Israel also issues security warnings to EU monitors. 2006.org. Israeli consent and cooperation are required for Rafah Crossing to open. Palestinian. informing them that Rafah Crossing may not open due to security concerns and that Israeli security ofﬁcials will therefore not staff the "situation room". EU monitors must cross through the Israeli-operated Kerem Shalom crossing. and European ofﬁcials and because Israel controls whether EU monitors will reach Rafah by issuing security warnings.Israel Still Controls Gaza Dr. and EUBAM has not any executive power which allows us to open the border if the other parts are not present. In order for Rafah Crossing to open. conducted by Adv. Nov. because the agreement for opening the crossing requires the participation of Israeli. following an in-person interview. Remember that as we told you during our interview. 21. 36 United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. and it has noted incidents in which ﬁghting broke 36 In order to reach the Rafah Crossing. 2006 and Nov. which has been closed almost continuously since June 25. As Ms. because the presence of the EU monitors is a condition for the operation of Rafah Crossing. Noam Peleg of Gisha. and EU.36 Israel says that it decides whether to permit Rafah Crossing to open based on security considerations. Telleria wrote in an e-mail to Attorney Noam Peleg of Gisha. for an average of less than two hours. The Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On available at www. verify and evaluate PA performance with regard to the implementation of the Agreed Principles for RCP. and Israeli security ofﬁcials must staff the situation room which monitors the crossing through cameras. 35 . 2006. EU monitors and PA ofﬁcials must be present at the crossing. Palestinian.ochaopt. telling the EU monitors whether or not they may staff their positions at Rafah on a given day. The spokeswoman for the EU Monitors in charge of Rafah (EU Border Assistance Mission or EUBAM) conﬁrmed this in an interview with Gisha and subsequent e-mail correspondence.
Rafah Crossing.Weekly Operation Hours. 26. Nov. 2006 (UN-OCHA) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Weekly operating hours 10 0 Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza 26 Nov 24 Dec 21 Jan 18 Feb 18 Mar 15 Apr 13 May 10 Jun 8 Jul 5 Aug 2 Sep 30 Sep 28 Oct 37 . 4. 2006 .Nov.
(Getty Images) 38 . 2006. December 6. which has been closed for weeks. Palestinians wait to cross the border into Egypt at the Rafah crossing. Gaza Strip.Israel Still Controls Gaza RAFAH. in the southern Gaza Strip.
Israel Using Rafah Crossing to Pressure PA on Shalit Release. 2006 and the writing of these lines. has been keeping Rafah closed until progress is made in arranging the return of the captured soldier. 2005 to September 11. September 25. Aug. See Avi Issacharof. in order to bring about the return of the Israeli soldier captured on June 25. 31. supra note 31. Ofﬁce for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. and it has been opening Rafah occasionally to relieve some of the pressure. the Government of Israel. 39 Figures taken from U. suggest that Israel has used the closure of the crossing to exercise pressure on Gaza residents. Year following disengagement is measured from September 12.37 Reports and internal military documents. on page 102. meaning that Gaza was cut off from the outside world 42% of the time. available at www. Occupied Palestinian Territories.com. however. disengagement has actually led to greater restrictions on the ability of most residents of Gaza to enter and leave the Strip. in the ﬁrst year following the completion of its disengagement program. In this sense.org. including to allow patients to travel back and forth for medical care not available in Gaza.N. 39 See letter from Eyal Freiman to Sari Bashi.ochaopt. 2006. on the advice of security ofﬁcials.39 Between June 25. According to an internal military document. except for sporadic days in which movement in one or both directions was permitted. 2006.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza out near Rafah Crossing. available at Haaretz archives: http://www. 2006. 2006. HAARETZ.38 Indeed. 37 38 . The Defense Ministry’s response to Gisha’s inquiries concerning its closure of Rafah Crossing was received just prior to printing and is reproduced as an attachment. The internal protocol on which the Haaretz article is based is translated and reproduced at the end of this chapter. Israel kept Rafah Crossing closed for 148 days. Rafah has been closed.haaretz. The Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On and additional reports.
2005 .Israel Still Controls Gaza Weekly Operation Hours. Karni Crossing. 2006 (UN-OCHA) 40 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 Weekly operating hours 20 10 0 26 Nov 24 Dec 21 Jan 18 Feb 18 Mar 15 Apr 13 May 10 Jun 8 Jul 5 Aug 2 Sep 30 Sep 28 Oct . Nov. 4.Nov. 26.
Control over Movement of Goods Israel completely controls the import of goods into Gaza and exercises substantial control over exports from Gaza to third countries and to the West Bank. and for 166 of the days in which it was open. 42 Data provided by United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. During the ﬁrst year following the signing of the Agreement on Movement and Access. supra note 25. 40 41 . imports from Egypt have been limited to sporadic shipments of humanitarian supplies. 43 See Paltrade.pdf]. are not permitted.43 In the course of those operations. the only crossing into Gaza not directly controlled by Israel.org/Publications/World_Bank_Monthly_Report_August_2006.40 Israel has said it will allow imports to Gaza from Egypt through the Israeli-controlled Kerem Shalom Crossing. on ﬁle. it was open partially. Agreed Principles. Karni was open for just 222 days. sea.42 The restrictions on imports via Karni Crossing have. Because imports to Gaza are not permitted via air. at various points. imports through Rafah. supra note 26.paltrade.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza 2. Imports With the exception of personal effects brought by travelers. and Gaza.41 Thus far. caused severe shortages of basic goods that threatened the health and welfare of Gaza residents. 2006 Letter from IDF Spokesman. The Karni Crossing between Israel and Gaza is the lifeline through which commercial goods enter the Gaza Strip. Israel destroyed Gaza's only power Jan. only goods arriving ﬁrst in Israel and inspected there can be brought into Gaza. Rule 1(E) of Heading 7 of the Annex of the Israeli Customs Tariff. especially in March 2006 and during the military operations that ensued following the capture of an Israeli soldier on June 25. supra note 40. Egypt. for limited hours and using only a small number of available commercial lanes. 41 IDF letter. 29. located near the meeting point of Israel. 2006. or Rafah Crossing. "Karni Terminal Movement Monitoring – August 2006" [http://www.
Israel Still Controls Gaza 42 .
2006. July 2. A security ofﬁcer walks past waiting lorries at the Karni crossing which leads out of the Gaza Strip into Israel (Getty Images) 43 . Gaza Strip.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza KARNI.
Israel Still Controls Gaza plant by bombing six transformers that provided 43% of the electricity to Gaza. on ﬁle and submitted to the Israeli High Court in HCJ 5841/06 Association for Civil Rights v. There is not enough fuel in the local market to provide for our needs . we will be facing a catastrophe. Export from Gaza takes place through Karni Crossing. the sewage and water systems broke down because of the lack of electricity and the shortages of fuel and spare parts needed to operate generators and repair pipes. 44 . We are waiting to hear whether the Israeli side has let them in … If we do not get more fuel in the next few days. Gaza was plunged into darkness. The remainder of the electricity is purchased from Israel. explains how water supply and the functioning of Gaza's sanitation system depend on Israel's willingness to permit goods and supplies to enter Gaza: "We do not have enough spare parts to repair pipes and other equipment.. crucial for industries in Gaza seeking access to external consumer markets and to the Palestinian market in the West Bank. We were trying to get spare parts to repair pipes through Karni Crossing. 2006. Afﬁdavit of Maher Najjar of July 9. Among other things. The director of the Gaza Coastal Municipal Water Utility. through which goods are trucked and then shipped abroad via Israel's airport or seaport. but we have yet to receive them."44 44 Exports Israel exercises substantial control over the ability to export from the Gaza Strip. available at www. which was closed by the Israeli military in late June and early July 2006. and their absence endangers the life of the population.. Defense Minister.gisha. The chlorine and chemicals for water wells and desalination have not entered Gaza. and the functioning of critical institutions such as the medical and water systems was crippled by the lack of electricity and restrictions on the supply of fuel and spare parts through Karni Crossing and the fuel crossing at Nahal Oz. We are awaiting the approval of Israeli side.org. Maher Najjar.
45 .May 2. cherry tomatoes. March 29. Defense Minister.45 although there are also details which await resolution between Egypt and the Palestinian Authority in establishing an export route.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza Israel. 2006 in HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. The control that Israel exercises over Rafah Crossing. Negotiations were held to come to an agreement in which Egyptian trucks could enter Rafah to load cargo and take it to Egypt. Gisha's position. Gaza Strip: Situation Report. in which Gaza farmers were to export strawberries. and other high end produce to Israel. available at www. a Palestinian truck laden with exports could leave Gaza via Rafah but could not return to Gaza. donated them. plays a role in hindering the development of an export route through Rafah. farmers destroyed their crops. 46 United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.46 The closures caused an estimated $30 million in losses in the ﬁrst quarter of 2006 alone. During the 2006 winter agricultural season (Jan. the Agreement on Movement and Access provided for the possibility of export taking place through Rafah Crossing to Egypt. especially in the form of blocking imports. only when security conditions do not permit the crossing to open. or left them to rot in the ﬁelds. available at www.gisha. but arrangements have yet to be made.org. the West Bank. Defense Minister (unpublished). including the obligation to permit export via Israeli ports. ﬂowers. 2006. Access and Trade in the West Bank and Gaza" (August 2006) page 8-9. is that Israel is legally obligated to keep Gaza's crossings open in order to maintain a properly functioning economy in Gaza. 48 Israel's position is that it has no obligation to keep Karni open but that it chooses to do so as a matter of policy and that it closes Karni.org. because they could not get them out of Gaza and to export markets. does not permit export directly from Gaza via sea or air. See petition of April 4.47 During that time. Citing security warnings. See "An Update of Palestinian movement. which has been attacked in the past by militants. particularly in light of Israeli prohibitions on exports via air or sea. causing severe damage to Gaza's economy and rendering export crops virtually worthless. Karni Crossing was closed 47% of the time. but an export route via Egypt has not been established. 1. as will be elaborated below. and Europe.48 45 For example. because imports are not permitted via Rafah. 2006 in HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. 47 The Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On 2. Israel has closed Karni Crossing to exports for most of 2006. supra note 36. which controls Gaza's airspace and territorial waters. 2006). See State's Response of April 26.ochaopt. In principle. The current closure of Rafah (since June 2006) makes the development of an export route impossible.
4. 2006 (UN-OCHA) 46 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 Total truckloads per week 50 18 Mar 15 Apr 13 May 10 Jun 8 Jul 5 Aug 2 Sep 30 Sep 28 Oct 0 26 Nov 24 Dec 21 Jan 18 Feb .Nov. 2005 .Israel Still Controls Gaza Truckloads Exiting Gaza via Karni Crosing. Nov. 26.
In addition. Right now. 52 Agreement on Movement and Access. 2006. Agreement on Movement and Access. on ﬁle and submitted to the Israeli High Court under HCJ 2906/06 Mezan Center v. 50 The Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On 2. rather than the 400 trucks daily called for in the agreement. In the ﬁrst year following the signing of the Agreement on Movement and Access. it has been open for limited hours using limited lanes. Therefore.51 There is no passage for people or goods into Gaza via the sea or air. Yunis Abu Shabana. and accompanying chart. they cannot wait long for market. 51 The Interim Agreement preserved that control.. Israel has exercised complete and exclusive control of Gaza's air space and territorial waters. who exports cherry tomatoes and sweet peppers to Europe from Gaza. describes the impact of Israel's closing of Karni on his business and on the 370 workers he employs: "Last January.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza One such farmer. supra note 36. I had 40 tons of produce waiting to be transported at Karni Crossing.5. Although the November 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access anticipated negotiations over building ports in Gaza. See Articles 13 and 14 of the Interim Agreement.. the average number of trucks leaving Gaza daily was 18. Every delay in export means the produce rots and must be destroyed.52 Israel has not provided assurances to donors that it would not interfere in seaport operations and no negotiations have begun over transAfﬁdavit of Younis Abu Shabana from March 15. necessary for Gaza to engage in the level of commerce required to support its 1. the produce was destroyed . the latter of which operated brieﬂy between 1999 and 2000.4 million residents. although it and subsequently signed agreements foresaw the construction of a seaport and airport. after 20 days of waiting. Defense Minister. 49 47 ."49 Even when Karni has been open. there were more than 100 tons waiting for export in the factory and an additional estimated 220 tons still in the greenhouses … Once the vegetables are sorted and packed in cartons. my workers are not working. and I am supposed to destroy the produce that remains in the factories and greenhouses.50 B. supra note 25. Israel Exercises Complete Control of Gaza's Airspace and Territorial Waters Since occupying Gaza in 1967.
Israel Still Controls Gaza 48 GAZA CITY. January 30. Gaza Strip. 2006. (Getty Images) . Palestinian farmers destroy vegetables and ﬂowers grown in the Gaza Strip to protest Israel's closure of the Karni crossing. which prevents the export of their products.
interdicting sea vessels attempting to land and conﬁscating contraband such as weapons or narcotics. using cameras to observe activity and periodically ﬁring missiles aimed at assassinating militants but often hitting civilians.ochaopt.ochaopt.g. p. supra note 22. C. Israel's navy permits ﬁshing only up to six or ten nautical miles from the coast. as a matter of practice. 53 54 49 . Palestinian ﬁsherman must request and receive licenses to ﬁsh off Gaza's coast. 55 See UN OCHA Humanitarian Update (June/July 2006). 56 Interim Agreement. for the period Feb. 2006.56 Israeli warplanes and drones regularly patrol the skies of Gaza. with the exception of certain "no-go zones". Weekly Brieﬁng Notes. However.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza ferring Israel's exclusive control over Gaza’s airspace and territorial waters.10. Israel Controls Movement within Gaza through Periodic Incursions and a "No-Go Zone" Israel controls movement within the Gaza Strip through sporadic troop presence and artillery ﬁre from positions along its borders with Gaza. especially near the fence that bounds the Gaza Strip. United Nations Ofﬁce of Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs.org. supra note 22. Israel controls a northern section of the Gaza Strip where it declared. available at www. 21. According to the Interim Agreement. a "no-go" zone by warning residents that they will be shot if found in that area. e. Annex 1 Art XIV (1)(b). 2. Additional no-go zones.55 Israeli naval vessels patrol Gaza's coast. Israel has mostly banned ﬁshing boats. too. Protection of Civilians. 2006 to Feb. available at www.57 Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On. in December 2005. are declared by Israel and communicated to residents via instructions given by Israel to Palestinian security ofﬁcials. 2006. ﬁshing is to be permitted up to 20 nautical miles off Gaza's coast. The restrictions on movement in the no-go zone are enforced by artillery positions stacked along Israel's borders with Gaza. effectively decimating Gaza's ﬁshing industry and removing an important source of protein from Gaza markets. supra note 36.54 Since June 25. 57 See. Article 14 of the Interim Agreement. org.53 Israeli control of Gaza's territorial waters limits Gaza's ﬁshing industry and more recently has brought it to a halt.
Israeli ground troops have conducted extensive military operations in Gaza. 2006). and they report having found and destroyed tunnels along the Gaza-Egypt border. especially in the Beit Hanoun (north) and Rafah (south) areas of Gaza. Ten days later.idf.idf. closing areas to travel. which provided 43% of the electricity used by residents. 59 See IDF announcement at: http://www1. Israeli ﬁghter planes destroyed Gaza's electricity transformers.Israel Still Controls Gaza Since June 28. and infantry divisions of the Israeli military entered the Gaza Strip. through the Karni commercial crossing. engineering. and set up camp near the residential neighborhoods of Sajia and Zaitoon. Since that time.il/dover/site/mainpage.58 These forces have also at various points taken control of the Philadelphi corridor. and bombed a number of bridges and roads. and by morning they reached seven kilometers inside Gaza. 58 . tanks and engineering forces entered the central part of the Gaza Strip.asp?sl=HE&id=7&docid=53616. along the border between Gaza and Egypt.59 50 D. 2006. For example: In the early morning hours of June 28. and issuing orders to the civilian population to stay away from areas of ﬁghting. Israeli tanks entered Gaza. destroying weapons and rocket launchers. for purposes of entering and leaving Gaza and the West Bank Details of Israeli military activities in Gaza can be found at the IDF web site (in Hebrew): http://www1. cutting electricity lines to afford cover of darkness. in the area of the former settlements and existing towns in Beit Lahiya. Israel Controls the Palestinian Population Registry The deﬁnition of who is "Palestinian" and who is a resident of Gaza and the West Bank.asp?sl=HE&id=7& docid=58116&Pos=15&last=1&bScope=True (last visited 30 Oct. ground forces have been operating throughout Gaza.il/DOVER/site/mainpage. On July 8.HE (last visited 11 October 2006). Artillery. 2006. forcing families out of their homes.
which provided 43% of the electricity used by residents”. July 5. Israeli ﬁghter planes destroyed Gaza's electricity transformers. (Getty Images) . Palestinian families walk down the pitch black streets of the southern Gaza Strip town of Rafah. as citizens struggle for the ninth day running with barely any electricity following the destruction of Gaza's main power station during an Israeli military strike. 2006. RAFAH.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza 51 “In the early morning hours of June 28. 2006. Gaza Strip.
61 Indeed.btselem. they cannot leave Gaza – because they will not be permitted to return. In Mirvat's words: "Since I came to Gaza. so control over the Palestinian Population Registry is also control over who may enter and leave Gaza. page 17-26. 60 61 . are trapped in Gaza because of Israel's control over the borders and the Population Registry. because she has no identiﬁcation.org. are living in Gaza but cannot receive Palestinian ID cards. that Israel had already approved. 62 Id. Israel has not permitted additions to the Palestinian Population Registry. She cannot leave Gaza. She cannot open a bank account in her own name. I cannot leave. with the exception of minor children of Palestinian ID-card holders. entered Gaza on a visitor's permit in 1994. a 31-year old lawyer and mother of three. common to the West Bank and Gaza. including women who entered Gaza on visitor permits and married Gaza residents. Mirvat does not exist. for fear that I won't be allowed to return … Interim Agreement. 52 For example. she would not be allowed through Rafah to return to her family. is controlled by the Israeli military. Estimated tens of thousands of residents. Mirvat Alnahal. See Freeze on Family Uniﬁcation. only holders of Palestinian ID cards can enter Gaza through the crossing. supra note 33. Her requests to extend the permit and/or to receive a Palestinian ID card were refused because of an Israeli policy not to permit additions to the Palestinian Population Registry. While the Interim Agreement was to have given the Palestinian Authority "the power to keep and administer registers and records of the population."60 such power was limited to printing changes in the Palestinian Population Registry. and her place of work. because without an ID card.62 Ofﬁcially. Even when Rafah is open. Her ability to receive international food and cash aid is limited by the fact that she does not have ofﬁcial identiﬁcation. supra note 22.Israel Still Controls Gaza and for every other purpose. Since 2000. As a result. some Gaza residents who have lived in Gaza for years and who have no other home but Gaza. available at www. I am trapped here. her home.
I have failed in my attempts to receive a Palestinian ID card as part of the Palestinian Population Registry administered by Israel. I don’t want to be an empty box on my husband’s ID card. I cannot leave. for fear that I won’t be allowed to return. My father is a Palestinian refugee who left the Gaza Strip in 1966 and could not return until 1994. I cannot participate in conferences and workshops. I had an Egyptian document that constituted a kind of passport. a 31-year old lawyer and mother of three. As a result. the clerks asked me to bring two witnesses who could attest to my identity … My husband’s ID card says he is married. but the box for ‘spouse’s name’ is blank. entered Gaza in 1994 on a visitor’s permit. I have not been able to renew the document because I have been in Gaza. the fact that I cannot leave Gaza prevents me from developing professionally and advancing the career that I dreamed of. ofﬁcially. and I cannot travel abroad. but has not received a Palestinian ID card due to an Israeli policy not to permit additions to the Palestinian Population Registry. I am a lawyer by profession. Until 1994. in order to develop professionally. but unfortunately. I cannot participate in trainings outside of Gaza.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza Mirvat Alnahal. she would not be allowed to return. I want to open my own bank account. Ofﬁcially. I want to exist in the eyes of the authorities. Since then. since I came to Gaza. I came to Gaza with my family in 1994. … The things that are considered easy for others – for me are very difﬁcult. when I tried to open a bank account to deposit my salary. She cannot leave Gaza. I am trapped here. I am without an ID card and without a passport. My children were born in Gaza to a mother who. In Mirvat’s words: “I was born in Libya. Since then. does not exist. but since the age of 19. For example. because without an ID card. I want to be able to travel abroad.” 53 . Mirvat does not exist.
including Gaza and the West Bank. including the delivery of humanitarian services. supra note 22. the Palestinian Authority prints and issues ID cards. making it impossible for them to receive the donations. If such approval is not forthcoming. it does not print ID cards that contradict the registration in the Israeli computers. explains the meaning of Israel's control over import policies: 54 63 See Interim Agreement. Annex 5. a nonproﬁt rehabilitation center in Gaza. with the exception of direct taxes such as income tax and some kinds of value-added ("VAT") and customs taxation. My children were born in Gaza to a mother who. 63 Israel. which controls all imports into Gaza and the West Bank." While as a technical matter. Israeli control over tax policies affects civilian life in Gaza. The director of the National Center for Community Rehabilitation ("NCCR"). the Israeli population records determine who is Palestinian and who may enter and leave Gaza. for purposes of crossing through checkpoints and crossings. collects VAT and customs duties imposed on imports on behalf of the Palestinian Authority and is to transfer them to the PA each month. groups in Gaza must pay taxes that can be as high as 100%. Israel controls the tax system in the territories of the Palestinian Authority. but it also gives Israel control over the Palestinian Authority. particularly its civil services. Israel Exercises Control over Gaza's Tax System and Fiscal Policy According to the Paris Protocol of 1994. but the box for "spouse’s name" is blank. For example. E. ofﬁcially. because of Israeli control of the borders of Gaza and the West Bank. This system gives Israel control not just over tax policy and the provision of humanitarian goods to Gaza. does not exist. .Israel Still Controls Gaza My husband's ID card says he is married. funded by tax revenues. the ability of nonproﬁt organizations to receive tax-exempt donations of equipment or materials is dependent on approval from the Israeli authorities.
Isr. on behalf of the Palestinian Authority. when the Israeli authorities have refused to issue the customs exemption. Development and State Formation 17. 2004. Apr. Regional Authority of Judea and Samaria."64 Israel retains full control over Gaza’s “customs envelope.O.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza "NCCR needs Israeli approval in order to receive exemptions from taxes on donated goods … In the past. UNCTAD/GDS/APP/2006/1 (2006).-P. 67 HCJ 69/81 Abu Ita v. since the largest part of public revenue is determined by Israeli rates . based on Israel’s rates.L.L. 33 I. 228. 65 See Protocol on Economic Relations. . 64 . 29. because NCCR does not have the money to pay the customs duties.65 These elements of control give Israel substantial power over economic and ﬁscal policy in Gaza: "Palestinian policy makers do not have any instruments for monetary.67 Afﬁdavit of Khaled Abu Zaid. . noting that an occupier's duty to restore public order includes providing for a working economy. NCCR has had to return equipment to the European donors who sent it.. exchange rate and trade policies or even a complete set of ﬁscal policy instruments. . Isr. on ﬁle with Gisha. 66 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. of February 2. 1994 The Protocol appears as Annex IV in Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area."66 55 The Israeli Supreme Court has also recognized the importance of tax policy in controlling the economy in Gaza and the West Bank..-P.M. The Palestinian War-Torn Economy: Aid.O.” Israel controls and monitors what goods are allowed into and out of Gaza and collects duties and VAT. 2006. 622 (1994) [hereinafter: Gaza-Jericho Agreement]. director of National Center for Community Rehabilitation. [T]he clearance of such revenue from the Israeli side to the PA is subject to Israeli political decisions. May 4.L. PD 36(2) 197. The PA retains only limited control over tax and budgetary management.
United Nations Ofﬁce of Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. municipal services. periodically shutting down schools.Israel Still Controls Gaza F. however. In 2005. and that any claims regarding conditions or services in the Gaza Strip should be directed to the PA. Israel Exercises Control over the Palestinian Authority and Its Ability to Provide Services to Gaza Residents The State of Israel claims that it has (unilaterally) transferred control over Gaza to the Palestinian Authority. “The Palestinian Fiscal Crisis. including its ability to provide services to Gaza and West Bank residents. As a result of these twin policies.org/opt/docs/UN/OCHA. Israel stopped transferring these tax revenues to the PA. 70 Id. State’s Submission of Jan. 2006.000 civil servants in Gaza and the West Bank and the one million residents who are dependent on these salaries for their basic needs. 73 See e. Assessment of the Future Humanitarian Risks in the Occupied Palestinian Territory 1 (2006). Palestinian teachers and health care workers throughout Gaza and the West Bank have struck. and as of March 2006.” May 7. 2006. 2006. 19.72 Beginning September 2.13 on pp 3-4. disregards the control that Israel exercises over the Palestinian Authority.ochaopt.68 That claim.org. 72 Numbers of civil servants according to World Bank Report. available at www. 28.70 The PA also stopped receiving money from most donor countries as a response to the Hamas election victory. http://www. n.71 56 The nonpayment affects an estimated 172.g. 71 Id. para. 13-19 September 2006. United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. humanitarianinfo. 68 69 .73 Control over the ﬁnances that are the lifeblood of the Palestinian Authority HCJ 11120/05. and government ofﬁces in protest of nonpayment of salaries. Protection of Civilians – Weekly Brieﬁng Notes. tax revenues collected by Israel on behalf of the PA amounted to roughly 50% of the PA’s operating income.69 Following the Hamas victory in the January 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council elections. most PA employees have not received their salaries since February 2006.
”75 Israel controls even the make-up of the Palestinian Authority. including health care and education. 75 See HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v. Appendix P-10 (on ﬁle). Afﬁdavit of Mohammed Abu Riala. by virtue of its control over Palestinian elections and the functioning of Palestinian institutions of government. 57 Since March 2006. failure to transfer the tax revenues endangers the ability of civil servants to provide health services to Gaza residents: “My father’s salary is paid by the Palestinian Authority. Palestinian civil servants.74 In the words of a resident of Gaza. including teachers. Israel determines who may vote in Palestinian elections through its control over the Palestinian Population Registry and its power to permit or disallow residents of east Jerusalem to participate in elections. In addition to control over ﬁnances. Israel controls movement between Gaza and the West Bank and has recently prevented ofﬁcials in the Hamas government from crossing between Gaza and the West Bank in order to participate in legislative and governmental meetings.ochaopt. health supervisors have not been able to travel to inspection sites for lack of funding to pay fuel costs. Petitioners’ Response of March 5. Responsibility for these services may have formally been transferred to the authority of the PA. shutting down schools and interrupting the provision of basic services. Israel also controls the identity of the candidates for Palestinian ofﬁces. garbage collectors. for example. 74 . but my family needs a source of income. Southern Military Commander. 2006.org for reports outlining interruptions in the provision of civil services in Gaza and the West Bank. Israel hinders the provision of those services. and others have struck intermittently to protest nonpayment of salaries. but also control over the livelihoods of Gaza residents and the provision of civilian services. See generally www. but by withholding the budget needed by the PA to exercise that responsibility. Israel also controls the ability of Palestinian governmental ofﬁces to function properly. through its control over the entrance of non-Palestinian ID-card holders into Gaza and the West Bank. whose father is employed as a health supervisor by the Palestinian Ministry of Health. which is funded by donation and revenues. In late June 2006.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza is not just control over the Palestinian Authority as an entity. including taxes and customs duties which Israel collects on behalf of the Palestinian Authority … My father believes in his work protecting the health and well-being of Gaza residents. Other workers have been unable to carry out their jobs for lack of funding.
meets the conditions for applying international humanitarian law protections. While each of these elements of control might not be enough. the cumulative effect. Preventing Gaza residents from entering the West Bank to attend university. the identity of its ofﬁcials and its ability to operate schools) is a signiﬁcant form of control over the Palestinian educational system in both Gaza and the West Bank. Israel continues to hold these PA ministers. as Israel has done since 2000. to constitute effective control. supra note 22. strains the Palestinian higher educational system in both Gaza and the West Bank by requiring duplication of resources and academic faculties throughout the system. the Palestinian educational system operates schools and universities in Gaza and the West Bank. as will be described in the next chapter. because Gaza and the West Bank constitute two parts of a single territorial unit. Indeed. Israeli control over West Bank institutions (exclusive control over entrance into the West Bank and access to West Bank universities.Israel Still Controls Gaza Israel conducted a round-up in which it arrested senior government ofﬁcials in the Palestinian Authority on charges of terrorism. For example. . limiting their ability to govern. Article 11. 58 76 Interim Agreement.76 with a uniﬁed and undifferentiated system of civilian institutions spread throughout Gaza and the West Bank. funded from the same central budget and run by the same undifferentiated central authority. continued direct Israeli control over the West Bank is a form of indirect control over Gaza. control over the budget of the Palestinian Education Ministry. by itself.
The Defense Ministry’s response to Gisha’s inquiries concerning the protocal was received just prior to printing and is reproduced as an attachment. headed by the undersigned. transportation of explosive material. movement of Hamas activists. Reserved Adviser to the Defense Minister Tel: [redacted] Fax: [redacted] 24 August 2006 Reference: Minister General – 386-220806 Distribution List Subject: Rafah Crossing Status – Summary of Discussion Background 1.] . there is no change in status.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza Translation of protocol from a meeting among Israeli security authorities regarding whether to open Rafah Crossing. A discussion of the subject took place on August 22.. and that is in addition to the decision of the Defense Minister to open the crossing... The question of Rafah Crossing is familiar and known. while in the background are various issues including: customs. 2. 2006.. etc. 59 [. Please turn to page 102 to read the Defense Ministry’s response. smuggling. 3. . and the crossing is closed. which was closed shortly thereafter.
to release the pressure. [. 8. Foreign Ministry: • The Europeans are pressing to open the crossing and therefore it should be opened even “immediately” for a number of days. International Law Department: [. [. Issues for discussion are: • Opening the Crossing – in the short and long term..Israel Still Controls Gaza Issues for Discussion 6..... with European assistance. Positions of the participants: Planning Department: 60 • To permit the opening of the crossing from time to time only after the return of the captured soldier and cessation of the ﬁring from the Strip (the crossing as a means of pressure). • Continuation of the mandate – its meaning and positions. its extension and upgrade. Egyptian agreement. Legal Issues 7.] General Security Services: .] • Israel does not have a mandate to close the crossing which is operated through a Palestinian..] • Requires a discussion of the overall perspective regarding the crossings – policy and implementation. The positions of the various entities regarding the status of the mandate. • Categories of exceptions at the crossing. • Security and customs arrangements.
• Assembling data to determine position regarding the long-term.] 16.] Adviser to Minister of Defense [name redacted] • The crossing is not a means for pressure.. 9. • In the medium term there is opposition to opening until the captured soldier is released.] Coordinator for Government Activities in the Territories: • In the immediate term to permit movement through the crossing against the background of summer visitors to the area. there is a need to open the crossing and release the existing pressure (25 buses at the crossing).. [.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza • Oppose opening the crossing even for a few hours (so long as the issue of the captured soldier remains unchanged and the pressure should be continued at this point). Regards. medium. and long term.. [. [.] • In the evaluation of the entirety of considerations.. Summary 10.. for the short.. the crossing should be opened and it should be closed only subject to direct and pinpointed warnings. Recommend to continue work at the staff level vis a vis the Europeans/ Americans and the Palestinians to evaluate the status of the crossing and its continued operation. 17. and the issue will be brought for approval by the Defense Minister.. [.. In the short term. 61 [name redacted] Advisor to the Defense Minister .
Chapter 4 Israel Continues To Owe Obligations To Gaza Residents under the law of Occupation .
Gisha takes the position that the latter view is incorrect and in fact incorrectly characterizes the conventions themselves and the essence of the concept of occupation as it has developed in international law. Israel owes obligations to Gaza residents under the international humanitarian law of occupation. the essence of the term occupation lays in the notion of control. It is not at all clear from this literature that the occupant's troops must be on the ground in the occupied territory at all times in order to exercise military control from within that territory. a notion known in the literature as "effective control". but not entirely dependent upon. occupation terminates. a permanent military ground presence in the territory. in fact.Israel's Obligations srael’s contention that withdrawal marks the end of its obligations visà-vis residents of Gaza is founded upon an overly narrow understanding of occupation as being deﬁned exclusively by the continuous presence of troops in a given territory. and thus. in the areas in which it exercises such control. In Gisha's view. some commentators on the subject have singled out this factor – permanent ground presence of the occupant's military in the occupied territory – as a sine qua non of the status known as occupation. that is. What is meant by control? Control means the use of power to affect peo- I 64 . Troops in. A. a concept that is intimately linked with. Israel exercises effective control over signiﬁcant aspects of life in Gaza. troops out. As we have shown. The Deﬁnition of Occupation The literature on occupation law discusses the deﬁnitional question. Occupation. Nevertheless. This shifts the discussion away from physical military ground presence to the deﬁnition of control. when does a state of occupation exist? Article 42 of the Hague Regulations deﬁnes occupation as beginning when territory “is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army”. military control of the occupied territory by a foreign power. which is supported by the case law and commentary on the subject. Such responsibility will continue until Israel cedes effective control. occupation. has long been understood in terms of the ability to exercise effective control over a territory.
Power can be exercised by the actual use of coercive force. This secondary question should be considered in the context of speciﬁc disputes about the scope of Israel's obligations in Gaza.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza ple's lives. A secondary question is to what extent the obligations owed by the occupier are affected by the level of control exercised. as when the commanders of a military say that they will send in troops to close a border crossing or will ﬁre artillery at anyone found in designated "no go" zones throughout Gaza – and can do so. There are probably no bright lines to deal with this question. It can be exercised through the threat of force. but Israel did not release control and did not extinguish its obligations under the international law of occupation. is clearly a factual instance of occupation. the degree of Israeli control over life in Gaza diminished. sweeping the streets and buildings for weapons and destroying homes. when military commanders set up zones along the coast in which ﬁshermen can ﬁsh and then use gunships to ﬁre on those who stray from the designated zones. using cameras to observe activity and ﬁring missiles at suspected militants. were transferred to the Palestinian Authority. at will. through which some competencies and responsibilities. as when jet planes patrol the skies. 65 . The level of control over Gaza. formerly held by Israel. as will be argued below. we can identify where control by a foreign government over a territory not part of its sovereign land rises to the level of occupation. or when ground troops enter a neighborhood. The critical question is "how much" actual control yields a situation of occupation – a situation in which the foreign power exercises sufﬁcient control as to incur obligations to residents of the territory subject to its authority. But on a caseby-case basis. This important question has been asked since the beginning of the Oslo Peace process. Gisha's argument is that the withdrawal of settlers and permanent military installations from the Gaza Strip was a change in degree but not of kind: in some areas. with Israel retaining overall responsibility in the territories.
44 COLUM. as they result from the usages established between civilized nations. populations and belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles of international law. 390. TRANSNAT'L L.77 The Martens Clause has developed into a background rule of international humanitarian law. and Dictates of Public Conscience. 1.78 The original wording of the clause in the 1899 Hague Convention is as follows: "Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued. 79 (2000). in favor of applying protections for civilians. Humanitarian Obligations Should be Interpreted Expansively and Purposively The framework for interpreting Israel’s obligations vis à vis Gaza residents must take into account the purpose of international law – to protect civilians – a purpose which tips the balance. in cases of doubt. That purposive approach to questions of applicability of humanitarian protections is well-grounded in international humanitarian law and in Israeli law. Under the Martens Clause and Israeli Law. Judicial Policy-Making at the International Criminal Court: An Institutional Guide to Analyzing International Adjudication. according to the principle that humanitarian law protects civilians and belligerents. J. The Martens Clause. INT'L L. which adds a residual clause of applicability to the enumerated tests in the Convention. J. 78. 78 Jared Wessel. 77 . ﬁlling in the gaps between enumerated protections. The Hague Convention of 1899 includes a provision commonly called the Martens Clause. 94 AM. Israel Continues to Bear Responsibility under the International Law of Occupation Even If the Occupation of Gaza is Effected through Nontraditional Means. Principles of Humanity.Israel's Obligations B. from the laws of humanity and 66 Theodor Meron. 377. even in situations arising from armed conﬂict that were not or could not have been anticipated by the drafters of humanitarian treaties. the High Contracting Parties think it right to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them.
supra note 77. It is a general clause."82 In the Nuremburg Trials. 317 INT'L REV. 620.83 Hague Convention with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land art. making the usages established among civilized nations. has appeared in every major humanitarian treaty since 1899. the Martens Clause has been used to apply the principles of humanitarian law to situations and practices not mentioned or anticipated by speciﬁc treaty provisions. July 29.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza the requirements of the public conscience. as article 63/62/142/158). at 78. 15 Ann. 1948)). [ ] the laws of humanity and the dictates of the public conscience. 32 Stat.80 The Martens Clause. OF THE RED CROSS 125 (1997). art. the laws of humanity and the dictates of public conscience into the legal yardstick to be applied if and when the speciﬁc provisions of the Conventions and the Regulations annexed to it do not cover speciﬁc cases occurring in warfare. the 1949 Geneva Conventions also afﬁrm the Martens Clause and the obligations of states to honor "the usages established among civilized peoples. 83 Meron. 79 . supra note 4. in one form or another. 82 Geneva IV. In the context of denunciations. the Martens Clause was deﬁned as the "legal yardstick" by which to judge any military acts not governed by speciﬁc provisions of the Conventions: 67 "The Preamble is much more than a pious declaration. Mil. 158 (This article is common to all four Geneva Conventions of 1949. Trib. or concomitant to warfare".S. 1803 [hereinafter: Hague II of 1899]. The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conﬂict. supra note 77. in almost identical form to the clause in the 1899 Convention. 622 (U. 80 Rupert Ticehurst. 1899."79 While originally proposed to solve a dispute over the status of civilians who take up arms in defense of their country.81 It was included in the 1907 Hague Convention. Dig. 81 Meron. 23(e). at 80 (quoting In re Krupp.
J. 87. 301."85 The principles of international humanitarian law listed in the clause continue to bind nations even in situations arising from armed conﬂict that were not anticipated by speciﬁc treaty provisions.C.J. 226. 84 85 68 . 1996 I. 89 Neil McDonald & Scott Sullivan. Advisory Opinion. the prohibition against "cause[ing] unnecessary suffering to combatants. consistently with the principles of humanity and the dictates of public conscience. the Martens Clause establishes an interpretive presumption in favor of applying the protections of humanitarian law: "It [The Martens Clause] argues for interpreting international humanitarian law. supra note 80. INT'L L. the Martens Clause supports the idea "that the laws of armed conﬂict do not simply provide a positive legal code. para.90 Id. 90 Ticehurst. the "protection of the civilian population and civilian objects" and second. Meron. supra note 77."88 The Martens Clause protects these two aims. Rational Interpretation in Irrational Times: The Third Geneva Convention and the "War on Terror".86 In its Advisory Opinion on the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons87. they also provide a moral code" which is established by the opinion of the world community. insisting on "the continuing relevance of humanitarian law regardless of subsequent developments of types of situation or technology."89 Furthermore. It stated that the two main principles of humanitarian law are. ﬁrst.Israel's Obligations The Nuremberg Court also noted that the Martens Clause originally was meant to give additional protections speciﬁcally to "belligerently occupied territory.88. para. 78 (July 8) [hereinafter: Nuclear Weapons Opinion]. 86 Id. 306 (2003) (internal citations omitted). in case of doubt. 88 Nuclear Weapons Opinion. 87 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. 44 HARV. 78. the International Court of Justice (hereinafter: ICJ) addressed the Martens Clause in the context of the purpose of humanitarian law."84 According to former ICTY President Theodor Meron.
This approach to understanding humanitarian obligations is well-grounded in Israeli law, which adopts a purposive approach to legal interpretation, especially interpreting older documents in light of their objective purpose – the principles and values they were designed to promote.92 2. Technological Advances Have Reduced the Dependence on Ground Troops In particular, the humanitarian law of occupation should be interpreted in light of changes in technology and in the use of force.93
This was the holding of the ICJ in the Nuclear Weapons Case, which afﬁrmed that the principles of humanitarian law must apply to new methods of exercising force, made possible by advancements in military technology.94 To leave these situations outside the realm of humanitarian law would be, in the Court's words:
"[I]ncompatible with the intrinsically humanitarian character of the legal principles in question which permeates the entire law of armed conﬂict and applies to all forms of warfare and to all kinds of weapons, those of the past, those of the present and those of the future."95
On this doctrine, the relevant subject of analysis is not the means by which military control is exercised but rather the extent of the control and the effects it has on the civilian population. In other words, so long as Israel maintains effective control over Gaza, humanitarian law protections continue to apply, even if that control is facilitated by means not contemplated by the Geneva Conventions and Hague Regulations, using technology not in existence at the time they were drafted and through agreements delegating certain responsibilities to representatives of the local population. Technological developments have made it possible for Israel to assert effective control over signiﬁcant aspects of civilian life in the Gaza Strip without a permanent ground troop presence. While in the past, scholars had discussed
the control element of occupation as likely being effected by a continuous presence of ground troops,97 the substantive test was and remains effective control and the ability to exercise authority. This test is consistent with the purpose of humanitarian law: to protect civilians who are under the control of a foreign military power, irrespective of how such control is exercised. For example, in the Gaza Strip, Israel exercises "police functions" through the use of image technology and drone planes which allow it to identify a suspected militant from the air and to kill that person using missiles ﬁred from the air—without sending ground troops to attack or arrest that person. The ability to ﬁre artillery from the Israeli-Gaza border and to ﬁre from gun boats along Gaza's coast permits Israel to maintain a "no go" buffer zone in northern Gaza without keeping ground troops there on a permanent basis. The use of closed circuit cameras at Rafah Crossing, together with the agreements concerning EU monitors, allows Israel to monitor those entering and exiting Rafah and to ensure that only those individuals ﬁtting into the speciﬁc categories of approved persons enter the Gaza Strip and that no goods (other than personal items) pass through that crossing. Israel can ensure compliance with these agreements without the need to be physically present at the crossing. And of course, Israel exercises its ability to restore its physical ground presence in Gaza at will. To be clear: the basis for this control is military superiority, whether exercised in fact, as when compliance is assured by the use of force, for example by Israeli ground troops operating along the Philadelphi route between Gaza and Egypt,98 or whether control is exercised by the threat of use of force, as when Israeli security ofﬁcials communicate to EU monitors and the Palestinian Authority when Rafah Crossing may or may not open, and those instructions are followed, where all concerned know that Israel has the ability to enforce those instructions through its military superiority. Gaza residents know that signiﬁcant aspects of their lives – the ability to
and other basic goods. Israel does not need to maintain ground troops to exercise this form of control.L. 210. Beginning in 1995. Interpreting Humanitarian Law Requires a Contextual Analysis In evaluating Israeli control over Gaza. 112. Advisory Opinion para. the ability to use electric lights and refrigerated goods – depend on decisions made by Israel’s military. Customs Tax Ofﬁcial. Beit Sourik. but also the administrative control created during four decades of occupation and maintained by force and threat of force. sporadically placed in various locations. and sea borders. fuel. one should look not just at the military force. 43 I. In the ﬁrst 28 years of the occupation. during a long term occupation. the Israel effectuated its control through a coordination process with the Palestinian Authority.99 The Israeli Supreme Court has also noted the extent to which. Israeli control has also been exercised by a direct ground troop presence in Gaza. land. July 9. 3. 100 HCJ 69/81 Abu Ita v. In its advisory opinion ﬁnding Israel responsible to the Palestinian population for obligations under the International Covenant on Economic. the Israeli military directly ruled Gaza and the West Bank. and tax system. Beginning in June 2006. 2004. Gaza Strip Command. control is exercised not just in troops patrolling the streets but also in the dependence of the occupied territory on the policies of the occupier. Social and Cultural Rights.M. In the ﬁrst nine months following completion of the disengagement plan. supra note 6. 99 . as well as its veto power over the Palestinian Authority's exercise of governmental powers. The means by which the control is exercised may shift. the ICJ recognized the extent to which decades of occupation have extended Israeli control to broad swaths of civilian life. Israel's control over Gaza was primarily effectuated through its control of Gaza's air. 37(2) PD 197.100 72 Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. the supply of medicine.Israel's Obligations exit or enter Gaza. West Bank Military Commander. but the ability to exercise control – and the exercise of it as a matter of fact – have remained constant. 1009 [hereinafter: Wall Opinion]. population registry. HCJ 493/81 Kanzil v. the possibility to transport crops to export markets.
RAFAH, Gaza Strip, June 30, 2006. A Palestinian ﬁlls jerrycans of petrol at a gas station in the center of the southern Gaza Strip city of Rafah. Gaza is facing a gas shortage due to Israel's decision to cut off fuel exports to the Gaza Strip in the aftermath of the capture of an Israeli soldier. (Getty Images)
Consistent with the principles of the Martens Clause and as reﬂected by the practical experience in the Palestinian territories in the wake of the Oslo process, the application of humanitarian law is not an all-or-nothing proposition. Different levels of responsibility apply in various areas, commensurate with scope of control. The fact that control in one area of life may have been delegated to representatives of the local population does not exempt the occupying power from overall responsibility for the territory and from direct responsibility in the areas in which it does exercise control. In the words of Adam Roberts:
"One might hazard as a fair rule of thumb that every time the armed forces of a country are in control of foreign territory, and ﬁnd themselves face to face with the inhabitants, some or all of the provisions of the law on occupations are applicable ... Courts, too, have sometimes been guided by aspects of the laws of war, includinf the law on occupations, even in cases where the de jure applicability of the relevant convention was in doubt". 101
A rigid, binary interpretation of legal obligations would be inconsistent with the spirit and purpose of humanitarian law. Humanitarian law is intended to protect civilians, and where civilians are subject to the authority of a foreign power, at least some elements of humanitarian law apply. In addressing Israel's ofﬁcial position that the Fourth Geneva Convention does not apply to the West Bank and Gaza Strip, as articulated by then-Attorney General Meir Shamgar, Roberts rejects formalism as the relevant approach to determining the applicability of the law of occupation:
Court has set aside the question of whether the Fourth Geneva Convention applies to the West Bank and Gaza Strip de jure, consistent with Israel's commitment to abide by the humanitarian provisions of the Convention.103 The State of Israel made this commitment out of recognition that in asking whether the Fourth Geneva Convention applies, the dominant consideration is how to actualize the purpose of the Convention: to protect civilians for whom signiﬁcant aspects of their lives are controlled by a foreign power. The alternative – that Israel could prevent all persons and goods104 from entering or leaving Gaza, that it could withhold supplies of electricity and water, that it could withhold all tax moneys needed to fund critical civilian services and not provide those services itself – without violating any legal obligation – is a conclusion intolerable to the spirit and the letter of international humanitarian law. C. Israeli Control of Gaza Meets the Criteria for Applying the Hague Regulations and Fourth Geneva Convention Regarding Occupation 1. Occupation for Purposes of Humanitarian Law Is Determined By Effective Control and Does Not Require the Continuous Presence of Ground Troops How then to interpret the absence of permanent ground troops in Gaza? And why do some scholars consider a permanent ground presence to be determinative of the question of occupation? Any discussion of legal obligations in Gaza must consider the traditional approach of commentators, who have looked to the existence of a foreign military ground presence in determining whether effective control over a
. Military Tribunal at Nurem- 76 See JEAN S. 250 (Emma Playfair ed. art. 107 Id.105 However.108 it is not the continuous physical presence of armed forces in all parts of the territory but rather the ability to exercise authority that determines when a territory is occupied. the U. 105 . The reason is clear. 42 (emphasis added). in INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF OCCUPIED TERRITORIES 241. commentators have considered ground troops as an evidentiary test only. international law seeks to impose duties on those who have the capacity to fulﬁll them. but from the successful exercise of military power. COMMENTARY: IV GENEVA CONVENTION: RELATIVE TO THE PROTECTION OF CIVILIAN PERSONS IN TIME OF WAR 60 (International Committee of the Red Cross. as far as possible.S. public order and safety …. 43. 108 See Christopher Greenwood. United States v. supra note 5.109 In Wilhelm List.”106 In discussing an occupying power’s obligations. rather than permanent military ground presence: “The authority of the legitimate power having in fact passed into the hands of the occupant. the latter shall take all measures in his power to restore. 1958). and ensure. PICTET. 1992) (“Unlike the administering authority in a mandated or trust territory. Wilhelm List. This statement of the responsibilities of the occupant has been broadly construed by the Israeli Supreme Court. 106 Hague IV. because ground troops have historically been the means by which occupiers exercised effective control and an indicator of whether the military power is in a position to execute the duties imposed on an occupying power. The legal test for occupation has always been the fact of control – not the means by which it is exercised. the belligerent occupant derives its authority not from international law. The Administration of Occupied Territory in International Law.Israel's Obligations territory is established. This understanding of the Hague Convention predates the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and was clearly articulated in the Nuremberg case. Article 42 of the Hague Convention of 1907 states that “[t]erritory is occupied when it has actually been placed under the authority of the hostile army. art.”). The occupation only extends to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised. Article 43 emphasizes the transfer or taking of authority by the occupying power.”107 Although the source of the occupying power’s authority is military superiority.
"international law does not contain a rule prescribing the military arm through which an effective belligerent occupation is to be exercised. 116 (Dec. The Court focused on control. A COMMENTARY ON THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION 28 (1957). “While it is true that the partisans were able to control sections of these countries at various times. 110 Id. reprinted in 3 LAW REPORTS OF TRIALS OF WAR CRIMHNALS 56 (1949). . Congo v. . Wilhelm List [The Hostages Case]. Rep. . In Democratic Republic of the Congo v. in determining whether the law of occupation applied.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza burg deﬁned the beginning of German occupation as that moment when control over territory passed from the Yugoslav or Greek government to Germany: “The evidence shows that the invasion of Yugoslavia was commenced on 6th April. 1941. The ICJ held that what determined whether Uganda could be considered a belligerent occupant was the establishment and exercise of authority. Nine days later the Yugoslav government capitulated . 111 Id. it is established that the Germans could at any time they desired assume physical control of the country. rather than a particular troop conﬁguration. THE OCCUPATION OF ENEMY TERRITORY . 19) [hereinafter: Armed Activities Case]."112 The International Court of Justice has recently reiterated the Nuremberg Tribunal’s understanding of occupation as dependent on the ability to assert authority over territory. writing contemporaneously with the drafting of the Geneva Conventions. .C. Uganda.”111 Commentators. also noted that the way in which effective control is exercised is not determinative of whether occupation exists.113 the parties argued whether the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was an occupying power in the areas of Uganda in which it maintained a ground troop presence. . The control of the resistance forces was temporary only and not such as would deprive the German armed forces of its status of an occupant. Uganda) 2005 I. 109 77 . 112 GERHARD VON GLAHN. 113 Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Dem.”110 The court continued.J. noting that the “territorial limits of any zone of occupation by Uganda in the DRC cannot USA v. As Gerhard von Glahn noted. The powers of government passed into the hands of the German armed forces and Yugoslavia became an occupied country.
”115 The trigger for the application of the law of occupation is effective control. 140 (1990). 173 (emphasis added). simply because Israel continued to control the area. the Israeli High Court held: “[A]s long as the military force effectively exercises control in the territory. remain in effect. The necessary and sufﬁcient condition for that law’s applicability. According to Eyal Benvenisti. translated in 29 I.”117 Id. para. Israeli jurisprudence has also recognized that occupation and the duties derived therefrom are premised upon control. 114 115 .Israel's Obligations be determined by simply drawing a line connecting the geographical locations where Ugandan troops were present. Commander of the IDF Forces in the West Bank.”116 78 In the Affo case. They argued that Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention prohibited deportation of residents of an occupied territory. ﬁnding that they depend on the exercise of effective control by a foreign military. was effective control over the territory. challenged a deportation order issued against them by the Israeli military. In Affo v. 116 HJC 785/87 Affo v. 174. and while that control is generally obtained by use of permanent ground troop presence." but it speciﬁcally addresses the applicability of the laws of occupation to the West Bank and Gaza. three Palestinian residents. Id. 49-50. para. two living in the West Bank and one in Gaza. the powers granted it and the limitations imposed upon it by virtue of the laws of war. according to the holding written by Justice Shamgar. Commander of the IDF Forces in the West Bank [1988] PD 42(2) 4. the holding in Affo established that “the law of occupation did apply to the Gaza Strip. In the above passage.L. the court uses the term "laws of war.M. the legal test remains the fact of control and not how it is exercised.”114 Rather the court looked to whether “the Ugandan armed forces in the DRC were not only stationed in particular locations but also that they had substituted their own authority for that of the Congolese Government.
g. 117 . supra note 118 at 369.119 Quoting the British Military Manual from 1958. See also pp. State Submission of July 11. Lebanese citizens arrested in Lebanon and detained in the custody of the Israeli military. 120 HCJ 102/82. e. Defense Minister [1982] PD 37(3) 365. 119 See.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza The Israeli High Court reached a similar conclusion in Tsemel v.3 (2004). para. THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF OCCUPATION 111 (1993). the Tsemel Court held that the test for occupation is whether the legitimate government has been prevented from exercising its authority and whether the foreign power is in a position to substitute its authority for that of the legitimate government. UK MINISTRY OF DEFENSE. the court was asked to order the Israeli military to permit meetings between attorneys and their clients. 2006 in HCJ 10265/05.120 Finally."118 This point is noteworthy in light of the Government of Israel's position that dissolving the military government in Gaza has absolved the military of its responsibility. 374 and 380 of the decision. irrespective of whether a military administration has been established. THE MANUAL OF THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT § 11. the trial chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (hereinafter: ICTY). In the Tsemel case. 373. Naletilic. Defense Minister. 118 HCJ 102/82 Tsemel v. The court held that the laws of occupation apply to an area in which Israeli troops had entered but over which they had not established a military government: "[T]he application of the Third Part of the Hague Regulations and the parallel provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention are not dependent on the establishment of any special organizational system which takes the form of a military government. 30. where it held that the laws of occupation apply wherever effective control is exercised. in Prosecutor v. set out guidelines for determining “whether the authority of the occupying power has been actually established”: 79 EYAL BENVENISTI.
However.the occupying power has a sufﬁcient force present.). maintenance of law and order. even successful. strong evidence of effective control. GENOCIDE."121 80 These requisite conditions for determining that a particular territory is occupied – taken directly from the language of Article 42 of the Hague Regulations – can be satisﬁed without ground troops being continuously present in all parts of the territory. Israel is not capable of exercising its obligations under the law of occupation. A continuous presence of troops on the ground is. .a temporary administration has been established over the territory. see also HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH. sporadic local resistance. As Dr. of course. 2003) (emphasis added). battle areas may not be considered as occupied territory. Some legal scholars have argued that without a permanent ground presence in Gaza. Judgment in Trial Chamber. Naletilic. but it is not the only way in which such control can be established. does not affect the reality of occupation. 31. Case No. AND CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY: TOPICAL DIGESTS OF THE CASE LAW OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR RWANDA AND THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA 137 (2004). [and] . which must have been rendered incapable of functioning publicly. P 217 (Mar.Israel's Obligations . .e. Yuval Shani has argued: "[I]t is hard to conceive of the manner in which an occupier with no ground presence could realistically be expected to execute its obligations under jus in bello (i. 121 ."the occupying power must be in a position to substitute its own authority for that of the occupied authorities. Prosecutor v. In this respect. prevents the legitimate government from exercising authority. IT-98-34-T. .the occupying power has issued and enforced directions to the civilian population. etc. It is enough that the occupying power exercises authority over the local population. provision of basic services. been defeated or withdrawn. and has the capacity to bring its military forces to bear in a manner that makes its authority felt by population of the territory. WAR CRIMES.the enemy’s forces have surrendered. That is particularly true in light of the cumulative effect of the elements of control outlined in Chapter Three. or the capacity to send troops within a reasonable time to make the authority of the occupying power felt.
Aug. and the Palestinian Authority is exercising those competencies. supra note 99.123 Indeed. available at www. In areas in which competencies have genuinely been transferred to the Palestinian Authority. 58(3) PD 443. 460. 123 For example. after signing the Interim Agreement but prior to executing the disengagement plan. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. in the areas in which it continues to exercise control. despite Israel's power to inﬂuence to some degree events in Gaza. its ability to enforce day-to-day law and order in Gaza is minimal to non-existent (e. education. the High Court has continued to impose duties under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations to assure that protected persons are provided with health. some legal scholars argued that the signing of the Interim AgreeYuval Shani. in areas which competencies were transferred to the Palestinian Authority. Israel continued to be bound by the laws of occupation in the ﬁelds in which it continued to exercise control. West Bank Military Commander.com/abstract=923151. 12-06. after it transferred some powers to the Palestinian Authority. para. 122 81 . Israeli duties are limited. commensurate with changes in the extent of control. for example the running of schools and hospitals." Wall Opinion. the ICJ recognized that Israeli responsibility for human rights in areas that had been transferred to Palestinian competence was limited to the obligation "not to raise any obstacle to the exercise of such rights. so too does Israel continue to be bound by the laws of occupation now. Research Paper No. including responsibility for internal security. 6. 2006.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza Thus. such that the level of obligation is determined commensurate with the level of control. Israel's High Court has drawn distinctions between areas in which Israel continues to owe direct responsibilities to the population living under occupation and areas in which the degree of Israeli responsibility is modiﬁed. In the speciﬁc context of humanitarian law duties. Israeli soldiers have not patrolled the streets of Gaza City since the mid 1990s). any more than Israel was responsible for patrolling the streets of Gaza between 1995 and 2005. See HCJ 10356/02 Hess v. Far Away. For example. commensurate with the transfer of certain competencies to the Palestinian Authority.. International Law Forum.g. However. So Close: The Legal Status of Gaza After Israel's Disengagement.ssrn. 112. Just as after the signing of the Interim Agreement. the High Court has held that the nature of Israeli duties changed."122 This position paper does not seek to hold Israel responsible for patrolling the streets of Gaza. and welfare services and are permitted to engage in economic and human development.
126 which continued to apply the law of occupation in considering Israeli responsibility for activities in the Palestinian areas. L. Throughout the course of an occupation. 312 (1995). Rev. 827-829. 82 Eyal Benvenisti. at least in areas where security control had been transferred to the Palestinian Authority. speciﬁc controls may shift. and powers may be delegated.124 That view was not accepted by Israeli125 or international courts. Ending Occupation Requires Transfer Of Sovereign Authority – Or At Least Refraining from Interfering with Exercise of Governmental Authority While occupation is a state whose existence depends on the facts on the ground at a given time. supra note 6. supra. including demanding that Israel permit exports and imports into Gaza. for a partial list of High Court petitions seeking to apply the law of occupation to Israel's actions vis a vis Gaza residents in areas that remain under its control. must take into account whether the control that has been exercised since 1967 has actually been relinquished. even if the nature of that responsibility changed with the transfer of some competencies to the Palestinian Authority. 297. allow the provision of humanitarian services. para. Responsibility for the Protection of Human Rights under the Israeli-Palestinian Agreement 28 Isr. these were therefore occupied territories in which Israel had the status of occupying Power. 124 . 125 Beit Sourik. and allow Gaza residents who need medical treatment not available in Gaza to enter Israel to receive medical care. 78: "The territories situated between the Green Line (see paragraph 72 above) and the former eastern boundary of Palestine under the Mandate were occupied by Israel in 1967 during the armed conﬂict between Israel and Jordan. 126 Wall Opinion. without ending the effective control that triggers the application of the laws of occupation. The inquiry as to whether Gaza is occupied. 127 2. All these territories (including East Jerusalem) remain occupied territories and Israel has continued to have the status of occupying Power". cease ﬂying sonic booms over the skies of Gaza. particularly an occupation spanning four decades and including the changes inaugurated by the Oslo Peace Process. Subsequent events in these territories … have done nothing to alter this situation. 127 See note 10.Israel's Obligations ment put an end to Israel's responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza under the law of occupation. understanding those facts cannot take place in a vacuum. in the year 2007. Under customary international law.
Even when it can be answered with conﬁdence. 130 Id. 128 129 . Roberts. notes that even if the foreign power continues to exercise some control."130 Indeed. supra note 101. and the occupant has not necessarily withdrawn at the end of all occupations. 257. 54 INT'L & COMP. the occupation might continue if sovereignty has not been transferred: "The withdrawal of occupying forces is not the sole criterion of the ending of an occupation. Ending an occupation requires that the occupier transfer the sovereign authority that it has been exercising in the place of Roberts. 131 Id. 132 Adam Roberts.Q. The End of Occupation: Iraq 2004. the relevant inquiry is not only the extent of control exercised by the foreign power but also the extent of the lack of control exercised by someone else. though not always. Id. the occupation could end if there has been a "legitimate transfer of sovereignty. End of Occupation]. 28 (2005) [hereinafter: Roberts. most obviously the representatives of the occupied population.129 As Roberts notes: "[T]he question of when an occupation can be said to have begun. L."131 Conversely. Occupation. in the absence of such clear signs. The essential feature of the ending of an occupation is often. at 259. 27. is sometimes easy to answer but is by no means always so.128 However. and whether such control and authority have been transferred to another sovereign. under humanitarian law. for example. an act of self-determination involving the inhabitants of the occupied territory" (emphasis added). the question of whether an occupation has ended requires an evaluation of whether the occupying power has lost its ability to exercise control and authority in the area.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza The most obvious way in which an occupation can end is when the occupying force is defeated and evicted from the territory or when control over the territory is transferred from the occupying power to another sovereign by virtue of a peace agreement.132 83 The de facto locus of sovereignty is central to the question of whether occupation has terminated. at 257. even if an occupying force has withdrawn. at 259. there may still be many gradations between direct foreign military control on the one hand and complete independence and freedom from foreign military forces on the other. or ended.
see also Roberts. at 27. 84 Gerhard von Glahn. in which the International Court of Arbitration held: "Independence in regard to a portion of the globe is the right to exercise therein. a sovereign power makes law with the assertion that this law is supreme and ultimate. Occupation requires: “[f]irst that the former government has been rendered incapable of publicly exercising its authority in that area. Neth. Ct. that it its validity does not depend on the will of any other.3 (2004).."136 The court elaborated that sovereignty involves two elements: First. End of Occupation.S. 135 UK MINISTRY OF DEFENSE. Arb. secondly. that the occupying power is in a position to substitute its own authority for that of the former government.. occupation by the previous power would be terminated. 134 Roberts. 133 . e]xternally. End of Occupation. the functions of a state. J. and. it can be set free by a successful uprising of its own inhabitants. THE OCCUPATION OF ENEMY TERRITORY … A COMMENTARY ON THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF BELLIGERENT OCCUPATION 257 (1957). Gerhard von Glahn links the end of occupation with a restoration of sovereignty: "The belligerent occupation of enemy territory may come to an end in a number of different ways: the area can be reconquered by forces of the legitimate sovereign or of his allies. it can be liberated under the terms of a treaty of peace. . "within a State. v. supra note 132. Writing contemporaneously with Pictet's authoritative commentary on the Fourth Geneva Convention.e.Israel's Obligations the local or legitimate government or at least genuinely relinquish it and allow others to take up the mantle. 28. 1928). THE MANUAL OF THE LAW OF ARMED CONFLICT § 11.”135 The classical and authoritative deﬁnition of sovereignty (coterminous with independence) is found in the Isle of Palmas decision. In all cases mentioned. supra note 132. it can be assumed that the legitimate sovereign will be in control of the territory in question as soon as the occupation ends.[Second. or 'higher'. at 39. INT'L L. to the exclusion of any other state.134 The deﬁnition of occupation found in the British Military Manual reﬂects the importance of the inability to exercise authority by the former or legitimate government. 136 The Isle of Palmas (U. if another foreign power captures the territory."133 Of course. 22 AM.). 875 (Perm. i. 867. authority.
”139 85 The principle that occupation comes to an end with the transfer of obligations from one competent authority to another is also reﬂected in the Oslo Accords. As noted by ICRC Member Daniel Thürer. 139 Id. 137 138 . despite any labeling . End of Occupation. though. the occupying power maintains de facto – albeit indirectly – full control over the territory."137 For an occupation to end. Situations must be avoided where the protections to be granted to persons and property under the law of occupation are circumvented. . ICRC ofﬁcials evaluated the ability of the local administration actually to control sovereign functions as a determinant of whether the occupation had ended. Daniel Thürer. Speech at Sixth Bruges Colloquium: Current Challenges to the Law of Occupation (Oct. an occupying power cannot escape its obligations by setting up local administrative structures in occupied territory. 20-21. a formal proclamation of the end of occupation would be of limited importance if the facts on the ground indicate otherwise. . whether the United States and the United Kingdom remain occupying powers in Iraq. at 40.nsf/html/occupationstatement-211105?opendocument [hereinafter: Thürer Speech]. supra note 132. despite the formal transfer of sovereignty. "[I]t is the reality and not the label that matters. The occupying power cannot discard its obligations by installing a puppet government or by pressuring an existing one to act on its behalf. As a matter of law. and the transfer of control must be real. In all these cases. 22 (emphasis added).icrc. unless those structures are in fact truly independent and in control of the territory: "The devolution of the governmental authority to a national government must be sufﬁciently effective. . the occupying power must transfer sovereignty to an independent entity.org/web/eng/siteeng0. a territory or part of a territory is “actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. . http://www. which outline a process whereby the increased exercise of authority Roberts. 2005). . The test remains whether. not subject to the authority of the occupying power. for example."138 In considering.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza a sovereign power obeys no other authority.
although Israel has been using the customs revenues that See Interim Agreement. Article 7 of the Fourth Geneva Convention notes that "no special agreement shall adversely affect the situation of protected persons. The Interim Agreement was meant to cover a ﬁve-year transitional period pending a ﬁnal status arrangement – which has not been reached. art.Israel's Obligations by the Palestinians over a given sector entails a proportionate reduction in Israel’s obligations in that sector. 31 (7).140 The accords also note that the status of the Gaza Strip and West Bank will not be changed in the interim period. in any case or in any manner whatsoever. into the institutions or government of the said territory. supra note 4. nor restrict the rights which it confers upon them. In controlling (and withholding) so signiﬁcant a portion of the PA’s operating income. Israeli refusal to transfer tax revenues. with Israel retaining overall responsibility as the occupying power in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. combined with a halt in international aid."143 Indeed. 142 Geneva IV. electricity and water.."142 86 Similarly. art. 140 141 . 1. at art. 143 Id. See Id. as deﬁned by the present Convention. health. has undermined PA operations in the security. events that have taken place in the year since completion of the disengagement plan suggest that in many areas. supra note 22. art. and education sectors. It has also meant that the PA is unable to pay for basic necessities such as fuel. 7. rather than reduced.141 The transfer of certain powers to the Palestinian Authority did not and does not deprive Gaza residents of the protections of international humanitarian law. Israel controls the PA’s ability to function effectively. Israel's responsibility to the civilian population in Gaza has been heightened. 47. of the beneﬁts of the present Convention by any change introduced. as the result of the occupation of a territory. nor by any agreement concluded between the authorities of the occupied territory and the Occupying Power. as determined by Article 47 of the Fourth Geneva Convention: "Protected persons who are in occupied territory shall not be deprived.
however. To illustrate this point: The Palestinian Authority can decide that it wishes to issue a 'visa" or permit to a visiting foreigner. Id. inspecting its imports. has been directly hindered by Israel. which controls the entrance of foreigners into Gaza. the PA may allow entrance through Rafah for four categories of non-Palestinian individuals: diplomats.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza it collects to pay some of the Israeli companies directly for these resources. the ability of the Palestinian Authority to exercise the functions delegated to it is subject to Israeli approval or disapproval. After giving 48 hours prior notice to Israel. and the continuing shortages of electricity it has caused create greater obligations on Israel to provide for the needs of Gaza's civilian population.145 The PA can hold elections to determine who will represent the Palestinian people. On the other hand. 28 (12). whose ability to provide for its own needs. approving ﬁshing licenses. supra note 22. for example its own electrical needs. Israel's destruction of Gaza's power station. issuing permits for foreigners to enter. The PA's ability to allow these foreigners to enter.146 While in principle. but adding someone to the Palestinian Population Registry requires Israeli approval. but the voter registration list is controlled by Israel through its control of the population registry and its ability to decide whether east Jerusalem residents will be permitted to vote. and sovereign powers have still not been transferred to the PA following the completion of Israel's disengagement plan from Gaza.144 The Palestinian Authority can decide that it wishes to grant residency rights to a Palestinian refugee. foreign representatives of recognized international organizations and humanitarian cases. at 4. 145 Interim Agreement. All other foreigners may enter through Israeli-controlled crossings only. 144 . foreign investors. supra note 25. whether they do so by way of the Israel-Gaza crossing at Erez or by the Egypt-Gaza border at Rafah. the 87 Agreement on Movement and Access. is limited by Israeli security objections. but that foreigner's ability to enter Gaza is subject to approval by Israel. deciding when the Egypt-Gaza border will open and under what conditions. art. Annex 3. The transfer of certain competencies to the PA through the Oslo Process did not constitute a transfer of sovereign powers. Israel exercises sovereign functions such as policing Gaza's airspace and territorial waters. Id. and other governmental functions. setting its tax rates and collecting its taxes.
Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements.g.149 The Palestinian Authority is also limited in its ability to conduct foreign relations. Annex 2. 1993. United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 1.org. which is a criterion noted by the ICTY in evaluating whether a local government is independent. but its ability to export goods is dependent on Israeli approval to open the Rafah border crossing and the restrictions placed on travel through it. See Executive Summary. 2006) (on ﬁle). The State of Israel continues to insist. 150 See e. and Israel has the power to decide whether or not to transfer them to the PA. Israel notiﬁes the PA when crossings may be opened and uses the PA to inform Gaza residents that certain areas are off-limits to civilian movement. that the PA is not a sovereign body. Protection of Civilians – Weekly Brieﬁng Notes. Case No.g. 151 The difference between the power exercised by the PA and sovereign power 88 Id. Annex II. 3(b). because of Israeli control of the functions necessary to conduct those relations.ochaopt.Israel's Obligations PA can decide how to spend its customs duties. IT-98-34-T. 13. Revised Emergency Appeal. 2006. Art 23. at Annex 3. 146 147 . 73. Sept. Naletilic. 148 For example. those monies are collected by Israel. P 217 (Mar.org (Israeli orders.ochaopt. 149 See e. issued to Palestinian security ofﬁcials. along its perimeter fence. Israel also issues orders to the PA. Art VI. 31. 2003). available at www. are off-limits). May 31. as part of directives issued to the civilian population in Gaza. neither of the sides views the Palestinian Authority as a sovereign body. warning civilians that areas inside Gaza. 13-19 September 2006. for example traveling abroad or entering into and enforcing commercial and other agreements.147 The PA can establish a trade route via Egypt. United Nations Ofﬁce of Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. in representations before international bodies and internally. Judgment in Trial Chamber. Art. whose authority in Gaza and the West Bank does not give those territories the status of statehood. available at www. Indeed. by international agreement150 and as a matter of fact. Minister of Interior (Feb. in its submissions to the Israeli High Court. but rather as an interim authority that does not have sovereign status. 151 Brief of Respondent at para. 148 Prosecutor v. 7. HCJ 7052/03 Adalah-the Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel v.
the obligations placed on an occupying power end with the cessation of occupation. According to one legal scholar: "Any state having chosen to intervene forcibly in another country and occupy its territory. there is a further question of whether an end to occupation would immediately extinguish all responsibilities to the population in the formerly occupied areas. 45 (2004). Intervention. Israel Would Owe Post-Occupation Obligations to Palestinians in Gaza In addition to the question of what ends an occupation. DAVIS J. & POL'Y 23. Brown. de facto sovereign authorities exercised by Israel. based on the principle of state responsibility. While as a general matter.153 A state that commits an internationally wrongful act is re- Bartram S. an occupier that failed to discharge its obligations as occupying power under international law while occupying another state's sovereign territory may have continuing obligations even after the end of occupation. some scholars have argued that responsibility for protected persons who had been living under occupation may terminate gradually. Democracy and the Residual Responsibilities of the Occupying Power in Iraq. A continuing post-war burden of legal responsibilities for the intervening state is both necessary and appropriate to discourage destabilizing acts of intervention. Self-Determination. by the very fact of the occupation. Signiﬁcant power is located in the interstices between the authorities exercised by the Palestinian Authority and the residual. The exercise of these government powers must be bounded by law – the law of occupation. However the legal responsibility so assumed may not end abruptly when the occupying forces leave. such that the end of occupation may not immediately relieve the former occupier of all responsibility vis-à-vis the formerly occupied areas.C. assumes interim responsibility for maintaining order and stability. D. INT'L L. 152 . 11 U.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza is not academic or inconsequential. Furthermore."152 89 The imposition of residual responsibilities on a former occupying power may be required in some cases by the international law principle of state responsibility.
A/56/10 (Dec. Marco Sassoli. An internationally wrongful act is deﬁned in the draft rules on State Responsibility.org. 160 Id.A." Id. 56/83. supra note 153.155 A breach of an international obligation also "has often been equated with conduct contrary to the rights of others."154 90 International obligations include both treaty and non-treaty obligations. State Responsibility for Violations of International Humanitarian Law. 154 Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. at 418. 157 Draft Rules. members of the armed forces never act as purely private persons. art.158 Insofar as an occupying power does not fulﬁll its obligations under international humanitarian and human rights law. whether material or moral. at 418-33. In wartime. it is responsible to "make full reparation for the injury.160 That is particularly true where such persons are not represented by a state that has standing and can represent their rights in international fora. 2001) [hereinafter: Draft Rules]. at 406. OF THE RED CROSS 401. Res. 155 Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts with Commentaries. "Injury includes any damage. available at http://untreaty.N. in this case the protected persons to whom duties were owed.un. 156 Id. 159 See Id. caused by the internationally wrongful act of a state."157 A state is responsible for all acts by its armed forces. adopted by the International Law Commission and the General Assembly. at Annex art. at Art. at 72. G. 2. 153 ."156 Where a state has committed an internationally wrongful act. 12. 158 Sassoli.159 The beneﬁciary of the reparation may be not simply the state that is occupied but also private persons. supra note 154. they would never have entered into contact with enemy nationals or acted on enemy territory. as follows: "There is an internationally wrongful act of a State when conduct consisting of an action or omission: a) Is attributable to the State under international law. 404 (June 2002). U." Id. "As private person. 31 (2). at 405-407. as well as for all acts in territories under its effective control. it should be held responsible for making reparations for the breach of its obligations to the occupied population. International Law Commission 71. Doc. 846 INT'L REV.Israel's Obligations quired to give reparation for the injury caused. and thus every action is attributable to the state. 31 (1). and b) Constitutes a breach of an international obligation of the State.
because Israel is preventing Gaza from creating its own ports for commerce and travel. even after control over such infrastructure is genuinely ceded. Israel was obligated to ensure "la vie publique" as well as to ensure that the population was adequately supplied. 42. even if and when the occupation of Gaza comes to an end. until such time as a seaport and airport can be built. As an occupying power beginning in 1967. so long as Israel continues to prevent Gaza from constructing and operating an airport and seaport. For example. 55. see the Petition and state response submitted in HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v. takes time to construct. Israel would likely continue to owe certain duties to the occupied population. even after it relinquishes control. available at www. seaport.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza This principle is particularly relevant where the reparations sought relate directly to the harm inﬂicted by the breach of international obligations. supra note 5. Southern Military Commander [2006]. gisha. supra note 4. the obligation to permit access to Israeli ports arises directly from humanitarian law and not as a post-occupation obligation. Geneva IV. even if it did relinquish control of the air space and territorial waters. 161 . if Israel breaches its obligation under Article 43 of the Hague Regulations to permit and ensure "la vie publique" or public order in Gaza by forbidding the construction of an airport. Because Israel has not fulﬁlled its duties as belligerent occupier under international humanitarian law. which had been the responsibility of the occupying power. Israel would continue to owe duties to the population of Gaza for a transitional period that would allow Gaza residents to rehabilitate their society. 91 Of course. 162 Hague IV. art. art.org. For more on Israel's continued control over Gaza's imports/exports.161 That obligation comes in light of the fact that infrastructure. until such reasonable time as Gaza residents can build the structures and systems that should have been provided by the occupying power. and land-based trade routes through Egypt. it may be required to facilitate the movement of people and goods to and from Gaza via Israeli ports.162 If Gaza is inadequately supplied and public order has not been adequately established.
226. The state is still bound by human rights law where it exercises control over persons or where its actions have effects on persons in a foreign territory. For Israeli case law. In other See e. human rights law applies parallel to humanitarian law163. supra note 99 at 106. and it also applies independently of humanitarian law.J. at para. 37 ISR. 24 (2003-2004). 2005). 163 92 . L. OEA/ser.951. 164 Wall Opinion. Living in Denial: The Application of Human Rights in the Occupied Territories. 57(4) PD 193. Commander of Military Forces in Gaza. reported Oct. but we note that the inseparable link between control and responsibility exists not only under humanitarian law but also under human rights law. Case 10. Inter-Am.g. Advisory Opinion. including when an action has an effect on persons beyond a state's territorial jurisdiction. REV.106. supra note 99. 58(5) PD 385. United States. responsibility under human rights law is linked to control. The Applicability of International Human Rights Law to the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) and Foreign Military Presence in Iraq. at para 110-113. supra note 113. 11 ILSA J. Report No. 109/99. Wall Opinion.R. see HCJ 8990/02 Physicians for Human Rights v. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons. 17. As a general matter. wherever they may be. HCJ 4764/04 Physicians for Human Rights v. Israeli actions vis a vis Gaza residents are bound by international commitments to respect human rights. Coard v. A full discussion of the extraterritorial jurisdiction of human rights conventions is beyond the scope of this paper. L/V/II. although responsibility under human rights law can attach not just because of territorial control164 but also because of control over persons. 1996 I. Obligations under International Human Rights Law In addition to and irrespective of the speciﬁc obligations owed under humanitarian law. HJC 3799/02 Adalah v. Armed Activities Case. INT'L & COMP. it is always responsible for the human rights of individuals who are subject to its control and authority. Israel Owes Obligations to Gaza Residents under Human Rights Law and Israeli Law 1. 490 (2005). 6. Central Military Commander (unpublished. Irrespective of the question of whether a state exercises effective control over a territory. 3 rev. Southern Military Commander.Israel's Obligations E.C. Orna Ben-Naftali and Yuval Shany. As is the case under humanitarian law. doc.H. L 485. 25 (July 8). C. Ralph Wilde. 39 (1999).
available at www.org. 167 HCJ 2906/06 Mezan Center v.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza words.166 Where Israel exercises control over the economic well-being of Gaza residents through control over the passage of goods in and out of Gaza. In some important areas. even if Israel did not exercise effective control over the territory of Gaza. if Israel genuinely does not exercise control over family law courts in Gaza. Defense Minister. especially their movement to the West Bank. 168 Freeze on Family Uniﬁcation. it would still be bound by human rights law in the actions of its ofﬁcials vis a vis Gaza residents. HCJ 5841/06 Association for Civil Rights in Israel v. 165 166 . available at www. Social. in ﬁelds in which competencies genuinely have been transferred to the Palestinian Authority. Where Israel exercises control over the ability of a non-Palestinian ID-holder to rejoin her family in Gaza168 or controls the tax revenues needed to pay teacher salaries. State of Israel (unpublished). 134. and Cultural Rights. 15 (applying the protection of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights for freedom of movement to Israeli obligations in the West Bank). para. para. Defense Minister. HCJ 1890/03 Bethlehem Municipality v. then Israel would not be responsible.org. So. On the other hand.btselem. supra note 33. Wall Opinion. and those courts genuinely act independently of Israel.167 that control is subject to the requirements of the International Covenant on Economic.gisha. Israel and the Palestinian Authority share responsibility for human rights protections in both Gaza and the West Bank. page 17-26. it is bound by the obligations of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of the Child. 93 See HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v.165 it is bound by protections for freedom of movement delineated in the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights. for example. where Israel exercises control over the movement of Gaza residents. for guaranteeing the rights of women in family court proceedings in Gaza. These human rights protections apply in addition to – and irrespective of – Israeli obligations under the international humanitarian law of occupation. Southern Military Commander.
cumulative obligation. PD 58(5) 70. There is no normative vacuum. This is the law when the authority – including the military commander of territory held through military occupation – acts outside the borders of Israel. See also HCJ 1661/05 Gaza Regional Council v. as Israel's Supreme Court has afﬁrmed: "The rules of administrative law obligate the state authorities in all their governmental actions. This imposes an additional. because the obligation to act according the norms of Israeli HCJ 5627/02 Saif v.Israel's Obligations 2. too. Knesset of Israel. Indeed. due to the fact that he is an Israeli ofﬁcial. irrespective of where they exercise authority: "An Israeli working in the territory carries with him the obligation to behave according to the additional standards which obligate him based on his position as an Israeli authority. duties imposed by the code and values of Israeli law: "While performing his job. The role of law in a democratic system is to rein in and limit the use of force. irrespective of where he takes action. regardless of where his activities take place. even when his or her activities take place beyond the borders of the state of Israel. an Israeli ofﬁcial carries with him the duty to act according to additional standards. PD 36(2) 197. where ever they operate. the Israeli Supreme Court has repeatedly emphasized that domestic human rights protections and administrative law apply to the activities of agents of the state. Obligations under Israeli Law This linkage – of power with responsibility – has been recognized in Israeli law. Regional Authority of Judea and Samaria. Government Press Agency. No Israeli agent is above the law. 169 170 . as a fundamental principle of democracy and rule of law. No Israeli state actor is beyond the limits of Israeli law. 75. 228. regarding both Israelis and foreigners. HCJ 69/81 Abu Ita v."170 94 Israel’s Supreme Court has also noted that Israeli soldiers carry with them."169 When Israel's military exercises power over a foreign population. there are no legal black holes.
Central Commander. .is a possibility intolerable to Israeli law and Israeli democracy. devoid of any normative framework and without concern for the people so affected by their exercise of power . 95 171 HCJ 358/88 Association of Civil Rights v. PD 43(2) 529.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza administrative law does not exempt him from the obligation to act according the laws of war.”171 The alternative – that Israeli security powers can wield power and authority at will. 537.
to receive visitors. 172 M 98 .8%. so long as Israel exercises control over civilian life in Gaza. medicines. United Nations Ofﬁce for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. especially over the movement of people and goods. and building materials. to travel to the West Bank and abroad. whose goal is to mitigate the harsh effects of armed conﬂict. as well as its withholding of the majority of the Palestinian Authority's operating budget. The occupation of the Palestinian territories has many exceptional aspects. and to receive humanitarian goods – has tightened in ways that have crippled civilian life. Israeli restrictions on the passage of people and goods in and out of Gaza. especially on civilians. The Agreement on Movement and Access One Year On 1 (Nov. have contributed signiﬁcantly to this dismal state of affairs. Humanitarian law. Should Israel wish to be released from responsibility for life in Gaza – it must genuinely relinquish control. periodic shortages of basic goods such as foodstuffs. Between 2005 and 2006. and Gazans have experienced a drastic deterioration in their ability to lead normal lives. and in that time. However. it will continue to owe obligations to those civilians whose lives depend on the decisions of a foreign military power.Conclusion ore than a year has passed since Israel withdrew settlers and permanent military installations from the Gaza Strip. and on the other hand. 2006). including its length (nearly 40 years).1% to 41. unemployment has risen from 33.172 Gross Domestic Product has declined by an estimated 30%. Rather than bring about an improvement in the welfare of Gaza residents. its control over the ability of Gaza residents to engage in commerce. links control with responsibility. which has increased Israeli obligations under Article 43 to permit the development and proper functioning of civilian life. and frequent inability to export or engage in commerce. disengagement – and the choking restrictions on passage of people and goods that have followed in its wake – have contributed to an unprecedented deterioration in the economic and social well-being of Gaza residents. including severe electricity shortages. Those responsibilities are nuanced.
That very acceptance of practice has a binding effect on attempts to claim an all-or-nothing approach to responsibility under humanitarian law. to receive training in health professions and to use their training to provide those services to Gaza residents. have continued to accept the framework of the laws of occupation.org. binary approaches to the question of who is responsible for the Palestinian territories. It includes a duty to allow Gaza residents to travel to the West Bank. including electricity. sea.176 Only Israel can fulﬁll these duties – because Israel controls these crucial aspects of life in Gaza.173 In Gaza. Defense Minister. medicines. Israeli responsibility includes a duty to allow adequate supplies of humanitarian and economic goods. Southern Military Commander. Israel's High Court. Ger. gisha. available at www. including Gaza residents. and air borders. the International Committee of the Red Cross – have eschewed rigid. Southern Military Commander.174 It includes a duty to allow Gaza residents to export crops and ﬁnished industrial and other goods. Ger.). according to the principle that international law can evolve quickly). 3. available at www. the relevant legal actors: the ICJ. building equipment.gisha.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza the transfer of certain competencies to the Palestinian Authority.C. 1969 I. It would be a mistake to ignore this exceptional context in considering whether to impose duties under humanitarian law. they have imposed responsibility commensurate with control – and both parties. available at www. 99 North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (W./Neth./Den. and the raw materials needed for industry. which has changed the nature of Israeli obligations in areas in which the PA is genuinely exercising authority. Since the transfer of some competencies to the Palestinian Authority in the mid-1990s. including Gazans. 231 (Feb. 20) (holding that even recently-adhered to rules of conduct may become binding.org. for use by the Palestinian civilian population. Rather. Israel and the Palestinians.org.J. It includes a duty to transfer tax monies collected from Palestinian residents. 174 HCJ 5841/06 Association for Civil Rights in Israel v.175 It includes a duty to allow people to enter and leave Gaza through its land. 175 HCJ 2990/06 Mezan Center for Human Rights v.. 176 HCJ 11120/05 Hamdan v. W. 173 .gisha.
To permit adequate supply of goods – humanitarian and commercial – to Gaza. under the Fourth Geneva Convention and Article 43 of the Hague Regulations. to allow the people of Gaza to conduct normal lives. To transfer the tax money it collects on behalf of the Palestinian Authority to the use and beneﬁt of Palestinian civil society. fuel.Conclusion Gisha calls upon Israel to fulﬁll its obligations toward the people of Gaza under the Fourth Geneva Convention. in allowing civilian life in Gaza to function and succeed. which constitute a single territorial unit under internationally-recognized agreements. and transportation. 100 Fulﬁlling these duties is not only required by international law – it promotes the common interest of Israelis and Palestinians. electricity. namely: To open Gaza's borders to the free passage of people and goods. including the ability to engage in commerce. to travel abroad. To allow the free movement of people and goods between Gaza and the West Bank. To uphold its responsibilities. the Hague Regulations. including sources of water. To refrain from inﬂicting damage on Gaza’s infrastructure. To permit Gaza to build an airport and seaport for the passage of people and goods. and Israeli and international human rights law. . and to access humanitarian goods and supplies.
we witness attempts by terror elements to use the Crossing in order to exit Gaza for Sinai and from there to inﬁltrate into Israel with the aim of attacking Israelis. 102 1. tens of millions of dollars were smuggled through the Rafah Crossing in order to ﬁnance terrorists. Unfortunately. 2.12. These are the conditions that the international community. I shall reply as follows: Since the kidnapping of the IDF soldier Gilad Shalit in that area.Appendix Ministry of Defense Ofﬁce of the Minister of Defense Hakirya 14 January 2007 To: Attorney Sari Bashi “Gisha”– Legal Center for Freedom of Movement Shaul Hamelech 8 TA 64733 Subject: The closure of Rafah Crossing and avoiding collective punishment of Gaza residents Your reference from 20. the UN and the EU. the Rafah Crossing has been open for 30 days. In addition. the incumbent government in the [Palestinian] Authority does not honor previous signed agreements and is not willing to give up the armed struggle. accepted . to this day. headed by the US. the Rafah Crossing constitutes a passageway in and out of Gaza for those instigating terror in the Gaza strip. The Crossing is exploited by terror elements for transferring knowledge and technology that enable terrorists. In addition. to ﬁre curved trajectory weapons at towns near the border with Gaza. 3.06 In your letter you state that the frequent closure of the Rafah Crossing between Gaza and Egypt constitutes collective punishment of Gaza residents.
who destroyed a lot of property. Sincerely. the terror elements spare no effort to exploit the humanitarian platform in order to carry out terror attacks against Israel and its citizens.000 passengers passed through the crossing. 5. we emphasize the issue of money trafﬁcking into Gaza by senior Hamas ofﬁcials. 4.12.Disengaged Occupiers: The Legal Status of Gaza as basic preconditions for normalization in the area and of the international community’s relations with the PA. In addition. Israel is acting according to humanitarian standards and allows the opening of the Rafah Crossing periodically in order to provide a response to the humanitarian needs of the population.06. during which Rafah Crossing was closed. 6. Notwithstanding. we offered to open the Kerem Shalom Crossing to allow humanitarian cases to cross. Ruth Bar Assistant for the Minister of Defense 103 . Furthermore. According to these data one can clearly see that Israel acts in order to respond to the needs of the population in cooperation with the European and Palestinian delegations. but we were met with opposition. on more than one occasion. the movement of pilgrims out to Mecca was made possible during Id El-Fitter as well as today in advance of Id El-Adha. Nevertheless. Furthermore. which is contrary to the protocol. It should be noted the unbridled and wild behavior of Hamas persons in the Crossing on 14. It is worth noting that since June of this year [sic] more than 65.
org . including the right to life. The restrictions violate the fundamental right of Palestinians to freedom of movement.gisha. the right to education. the right to livelihood. Since Israel’s 1967 occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. whose name means both “access” and “approach. the right to access medical care. Gisha’s work has a multiplier effect in helping residents of the occupied territories access education.: 972-3-6244130 www. : 972-3-6244120 Fax. As a result.Legal Center for Freedom of Movement POB 20111 Tel-Aviv 61200 Israel Tel. especially Gaza residents. Gisha . Gisha. Gisha promotes rights guaranteed by international and Israeli law. founded in 2005.org info@gisha. its military has developed a complex system of rules and sanctions to control the movement of the 3. jobs. family members. and the right to family unity. additional basic rights are violated.” uses legal assistance and public advocacy to protect the rights of Palestinian residents. and medical care.Gisha Legal Center for Freedom of Movement Gisha is an Israeli not-for-proﬁt organization. whose goal is to protect the freedom of movement of Palestinians. Because freedom of movement is a precondition for exercising other basic rights.4 million Palestinians who live there.
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