Source: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/95464528/Residential-and-Commercial-Air-Conditioning-and-Heating
Timestamp: 2014-12-29 16:55:42
Document Index: 744822417

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 2', 'ARTI 21', 'art 1', 'art 2', 'art 3', 'art 4']

Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and
Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto (Brazil)
Dariusz Butrymowicz (Poland), James Crawford (USA), David Godwin (USA), Kenneth Hickman (USA),
Fred Keller (USA), Haruo Onishi (Japan)
Makoto Kaibara (Japan), Ari D. Pasek (Indonesia)
270                               IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY                                   271     5.3   Water-heating heat pumps                        287
5.3.1 Technologies and applications             287
5.1   Stationary air conditioners (heat pumps for                 5.3.2 Refrigerant use and equipment
cooling and heating)                          273                  population                               288
5.1.1 Technologies and applications           273           5.3.3 Options for reducing HFC emissions        288
5.1.2 Refrigerant use and equipment                         5.3.4 Global warming effects                    289
population                            273
5.1.3 Options for reducing HFC emissions      274     5.4   Estimates for refrigerant emissions and costs
5.1.4 Global warming effects                  276           for emission reductions                         289
5.2   Chillers                                      279     References                                            292
5.2.1 Technologies and applications           279
5.2.2 Refrigerant use and equipment
population                           280
5.2.3 Options for HFC emissions reduction     283
5.2.4 Global warming effects                  285
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                 271
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY                                                     positive-displacement chillers in Europe. The high discharge
temperatures associated with ammonia permit a greater use
The various applications, equipment and products included in          of heat recovery than is the case for other refrigerants. Some
residential and commercial air-conditioning and heating sec-          chillers which use hydrocarbon refrigerants (as substitute for
tor can be classiﬁed in three groups: stationary air conditioners     HCFC-22), are also produced in Europe each year.
(including both equipment that cools air and heat pumps that               Centrifugal compressors are generally the most efﬁcient
directly heat air), chillers and water-heating heat pumps.            technology in units exceeding 1700 kW capacity. HCFC-123
and HFC-134a have replaced CFC-11 and CFC-12, respective-
Stationary Air Conditioners (Heat Pumps for Cooling and               ly, in new centrifugal chillers produced since 1993.
Air conditioners and air-heating heat pumps generally fall into       Water-Heating Heat Pumps
four distinct categories:                                             Water-heating heat pumps using vapour-compression technol-
• window-mounted, portable, and through-the-wall;                     ogy are manufactured in sizes ranging from 1 kW heating ca-
• non-ducted split residential and commercial;                        pacity for single room units, to 50−1000 kW for commercial/
• ducted residential split and single packaged;                       institutional applications, and tens of MW for district heating
• ducted commercial split and packaged.                               plants.
Various heat sources exist: air, water from ponds and rivers,
The vast majority of stationary air conditioners (and air-heat-       and the ground. Integrated heat pumps that simultaneously heat
ing heat pumps) use vapour-compression cycle technology with          water and cool air are also available.
HCFC-22 refrigerant. This refrigerant is already being phased             In developed countries, HCFC-22 is still the most commonly
out in some countries ahead of the schedule dictated by the           used refrigerant but HFC alternatives are being introduced. In
Montreal Protocol. In Europe HCFC-22 had been phased out of           developing countries, CFC-12 is also used to a limited extent.
new equipment by 31 December 2003. In the USA, production             HFC refrigerants are used in Europe in equipment produced af-
of HCFC-22 for use in new equipment will end on 1 January             ter 2003 (EU, 2000).
2010. In Japan, HCFC-22 is to be phased out of new equipment              In the area of non-HFC refrigerants, carbon dioxide is be-
on 1 January 2010; however, almost all new equipment has al-          ing introduced in domestic, hot-water heat pumps in Japan and
ready been converted to HFCs.                                         Norway, ammonia is being used in medium-size and large-ca-
The refrigerant options being considered as replacements          pacity heat pumps in some European countries, and several
for HCFC-22 are the same for all of the stationary air condi-         northern-European manufacturers are using propane (HC-290)
tioner categories: HFC-134a, HFC blends, hydrocarbons, and            or propylene (HC-1270) as refrigerants in small residential and
CO2. At present, two of these are being used: HFC blends in           commercial water-to-water and air-to-water heat pumps.
the vast majority of systems and hydrocarbons in a very small
number of smaller systems.                                            Reduction in HFC emissions
It is estimated that more than 90% of the installed base of       Options for reducing HFC emissions in residential and com-
stationary air conditioners currently use HCFC-22, and an esti-       mercial air-conditioning and heating equipment involve con-
mated 368 million air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps          tainment in HFC vapour-compression systems (applicable
are installed worldwide. This represents an installed bank of         worldwide and for all equipment) and the use of non-HFC sys-
approximately 548,000 tonnes of HCFC-22 (UNEP, 2003).                 tems (applicable in certain cases but not all due to economic,
safety and energy efﬁciency considerations). Non-HFC systems
Water Chillers                                                        include vapour-compression cycles with refrigerants other than
Water chillers combined with air handling and distribution            HFCs, and alternative cycles and methods to produce cooling
systems frequently provide comfort air conditioning in large          and heating.
commercial buildings (e.g., hotels, ofﬁces, hospitals and uni-            Containment can be achieved through:
versities) and to a lesser extent in large multi-family residential   • the improved design, installation and maintenance of sys-
buildings. Water chillers using the vapour-compression cycle              tems to reduce leakage;
are manufactured in capacities ranging from approximately 7           • designs that minimize refrigerant charge quantities in sys-
kW to over 30,000 kW. Two generic types of compressors are                tems
used: positive displacement and centrifugal. Heat-activated ab-       • the recovery, recycling and reclaiming of refrigerant during
sorption chillers are available as alternatives to electrical va-         servicing, and at equipment disposal.
pour-compression chillers. However, in general these are only         A trained labour force using special equipment is needed to
used where waste heat is available or the price of electricity,       minimize installation, service and disposal emissions. However,
including demand charges, is high.                                    implementing best practices for the responsible use of HFCs re-
HFCs (particularly HFC-134a) and HFC blends (particular-          quires an infrastructure of education, institutions and equipment
ly R-407C and R-410A) are beginning to replace HCFC-22 in             that is not widely available in much of the developing world.
new positive-displacement chillers. Ammonia is used in some           There is also a role for standards, guidelines, and regulations
272                                    IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
on HFC emission reduction that are appropriate for regional or       duced heat gain or loss) and other actions to reduce building
local conditions.                                                    energy consumption can have a very signiﬁcant impact on indi-
A number of other non-traditional technologies have been          rect emissions. In cooler climates where air conditioning is used
examined for their potential to reduce the consumption and           less often, or in locations where power generation emits little or
emission of HFCs. With only a few exceptions, these all suffer       no carbon dioxide, the direct emissions can exceed the indirect
such large efﬁciency penalties that the resultant indirect effects   greenhouse-gas emissions.
would overwhelm any direct emission reduction beneﬁt.                    Residential and commercial air-conditioning and heating
units are designed to use a given charge of a refrigerant, and not
Global warming effects                                               to emit that refrigerant to the atmosphere; however, emissions
Several factors inﬂuence the direct and indirect emission of         can occur due to numerous causes. The effects of refrigerant
greenhouse gases associated with residential and commercial          gas emissions are quantiﬁed by multiplying the emissions of a
air-conditioning and heating equipment. In those warm climate        refrigerant in kg by its global warming potential (GWP). The
regions where electricity is predominantly generated using fos-      emissions calculated are on a kgCO2-equivalent basis. If more
sil fuels, the generation of energy to power air conditioners        than a few speciﬁc systems are analyzed then it is appropriate
can cause greenhouse-gas emissions that are greater than the         to use average annual emission rates for each type of system to
direct refrigerant emissions by an order of magnitude or more.       calculate the comparative direct greenhouse-gas emissions.
Therefore, improving the integrity of the building envelope (re-
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                 273
5.1          Stationary air conditioners (heat pumps for                            The outdoor unit is connected via refrigerant piping to one
cooling and heating)                                                   (‘single-split’) or more (‘multi-split’) indoor units (fan coils)
located inside the conditioned space. Capacities range from
The several applications, equipment and products that are in-                       2.2−28 kW for a single split, and from 4.5−135 kW for a multi-
cluded in the sector of residential and commercial air condi-                       split. Representative leakage rates for single split are in the or-
tioning and heating can be classiﬁed in three groups: stationary                    der of 4−5% of the nominal charge per year (UNEP, 2003). As
air conditioners (this section), chillers (section 5.2), and water                  multi-split air conditioners have more connections the probabil-
heating heat pumps (section 5.3).                                                   ity of leaks is higher.
Air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps, ranging in size                         5.1.1.3 Ducted split residential air conditioners
from 2.0−700 kW, account for the vast majority of the resi-                         Ducted split residential air conditioners have a duct system that
dential and light-commercial air-conditioning market. In fact,                      supplies cooled or heated air to each room of a residence or in-
over 90% of the air-conditioning units produced in the world                        dividual zones within commercial or institutional buildings. A
are smaller than 15 kW. In the rest of this chapter the term air                    compressor/heat exchanger unit outside the conditioned space
conditioners will be used for air conditioners and heat pumps                       supplies refrigerant to a single indoor coil (heat exchanger) in-
that directly cool or heat air.                                                     stalled within the duct system or air handler. Capacities range
from 5−17.5 kW. Representative leakage rates are in the order
5.1.1        Technologies and applications                                          of 4−5% of the nominal charge per year (UNEP, 2003).
The vast majority of air conditioners use the vapour-compres-                       5.1.1.4    Ducted, commercial, split and packaged air
sion cycle technology, and generally fall into four distinct cat-                              conditioners
egories:                                                                            Ducted, commercial, split-system units must be matched with
• window-mounted, portable and through-the-wall air condi-                          an indoor air handler and heat exchanger. Packaged units con-
tioners;                                                                        tain an integral blower and heat exchanger section that is con-
• non-ducted or duct-free split residential and commercial air                      nected to the air distribution system. The majority of ducted,
conditioners;                                                                   commercial split and single package air conditioners are mount-
• ducted residential split and single package air conditioners;                     ed on the roof of ofﬁce, retail or restaurant buildings or on the
• ducted commercial split and packaged air conditioners.                            ground adjacent to the building. The typical range of capacities
for these products is 10-700 kW.
5.1.1.1    Window-mounted, through-the-wall, and portable                           Representative leakage rates are in the order of 4−5% of the
air conditioners                                                         factory charge per year (UNEP, 2003).
Due to their small size and relatively low cost, window-mount-
ed, through-the-wall, and portable air conditioners1 are used                       5.1.2      Refrigerant use and equipment population
in small shops and ofﬁces as well as private residences. They
range in capacity from less than 2.0 kW to 10.5 kW. These types                     There are no global statistics on the percentage of air-cooled
of air conditioners have factory-sealed refrigerant cycles that                     air conditioners that have been manufactured with non ozone
do not require ﬁeld-installed connections between the indoor                        depleting refrigerants. However, it is estimated that more than
and outdoor sections. Therefore refrigerant leaks resulting from                    90% of the installed base of stationary air conditioners current-
imperfect installation practices do not occur in these systems                      ly uses HCFC-22 (UNEP, 2003).
unless the unit is damaged during installation and service and a                        Estimates of the installed base (number of units) and re-
leak results. Representative refrigerant leakage rates are in the                   frigerant inventory were made using a computer model which
order of 2−2.5% of the factory charge per year (UNEP, 2003).                        predicts the number of units and refrigerant in the installed pop-
ulation on the basis of production data and product longevity
5.1.1.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) split air conditioners                            models (UNEP, 2003).
In many parts of the world, non-ducted split air conditioners                           An estimated 358 million air-cooled air conditioners (cool-
are used for residential and light-commercial air-conditioning.                     ing and heating) are installed worldwide with a total capacity
Non-ducted split air conditioners include a compressor/heat ex-                     of 2.2 x 109 kW cooling. Refrigerant charge quantities vary in
changer unit installed outside the space to be cooled or heated.                    relation to the capacity. Assuming an average charge of 0.25
kg per kW of capacity, those 358 million units represent an
installed bank of approximately 550,000 tonnes of HCFC-22
Portable air conditioners are a special class of room air conditioners designed   (Table 5.1).
to be rolled from room to room. They draw condenser air from the conditioned            HCFC-22 is already being phased out in some countries,
space or from outdoors and exhaust it outdoors. The air ﬂows from and to out-
doors through small ﬂexible ducts which typically go through a window. In
which elected to phase out ahead of the schedule dictated by the
some models condenser cooling is further augmented by the evaporation of con-       Montreal Protocol. In Europe HCFC-22 had been phased out of
densate and water from a reservoir in the unit.                                     new equipment by 31 December 2003. In the USA HCFC-22
274                                           IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
Table 5.1. Units manufactured in 1998 and 2001, unit population and refrigerant inventory.
Product Category                                              Units                Units          Estimated Unit    Estimated        Estimated
Manufactured         Manufactured              Population    HCFC-22         Refrigerant
2001                 1998                  (2001)    Inventory       Bank HFC
(millions)           (millions)              (millions)    (ktonnes)      (ktonnes)(1)
Window-mounted and Through-the-Wall                                13.6                   12.1               131            84                4
(Packaged Terminal) Air Conditioners
Non-ducted or duct-free Split Residential                          24.2                   16.3               158           199               10
and Commercial Air Conditioners
Ducted Split and single Packaged                                     5.9                   5.7                60           164                9
Ducted commercial split and packaged air                             1.7                   1.7                19           101                5
TOTAL                                                              45.4                   35.8               368           548               28
These values were calculated assuming that HCFC-22 bank is 95% of the total, for each category
Source: ARI, 2002; JARN, 2002b; DRI, 2001
will be phased out of new equipment on 1 January 2010. In                         some markets. R-410A air conditioners (up to 140 kW) are cur-
Japan HCFC-22 is due to be phased out of new equipment on 1                       rently available on a commercial basis in the USA, Asia and
January 2010, but almost all new equipment has already been                       Europe. A signiﬁcant proportion of the duct-free products sold
converted to HFCs.                                                                in Japan use R-410A. In 2002, approximately 5% of the equip-
The refrigerant options being considered as replacements                      ment sold into the US ducted residential market used R-410A.
for HCFC-22 are the same for all of the stationary air condi-                     It is likely that the US ducted residential market will mainly use
tioner categories: HFC-134a, HFC blends, hydrocarbons, and                        R-410A as the HCFC-22 replacement.
CO2. At present, two of these are being used: HFC blends, and
hydrocarbons (propane, a propane/ethane blend, and propyl-                        5.1.2.2 Hydrocarbons and CO2
ene).                                                                             The use of hydrocarbons in air-conditioning applications has
been limited due to the safety concerns inherent in the applica-
5.1.2.1 HFC blends                                                                tion of ﬂammable refrigerants.
To date, the vast majority of air conditioners using non ozone                        Propane (HC-290) has mainly been used in portable (facto-
depleting refrigerants have used HFC blends. Two HFC blends                       ry sealed) air conditioners. Approximately 90,000 HC-290 por-
currently dominate the replacement of HCFC-22 in new air-                         table air conditioners are reported to have been sold in Europe
cooled air conditioners. These are R-407C and R-410A. A few                       in 2003. The typical charge quantity used in these units is ap-
other HFC blends have been investigated and/or commercial-                        proximately 0.10 kg kW-1.
ized as refrigerants; however, none have been widely used in                          To date, CO2 units have been essentially limited to custom
new or existing (retroﬁt) air conditioners. There is a limited use                built applications or demonstration units. A component supply
of R-419A and R-417A as ‘drop-in’ refrigerants in some CEIT                       base from which to manufacture CO2 systems does not current-
countries.                                                                        ly exist.
R-407C                                                                            5.1.3          Options for reducing HFC emissions
Systems that use R-407C can be designed to match the per-
formance of HCFC-22 systems if appropriate adjustments are                        Options for reducing HFC emissions include refrigerant con-
made, such as changing the size of the heat exchangers. This is                   servation in HFC vapour-compression systems and the use of
demonstrated by the availability of R-407C systems in Europe                      non-HFC systems. These options are discussed below.
and Japan at capacities and efﬁciencies equal to the HCFC-22
units which they replace. In Europe, R-407C has been predomi-                     5.1.3.1 HFC vapour-compression systems
nantly used as the replacement for HCFC-22 in air-to-air air-                     Residential and commercial air-conditioning and heating units
conditioning applications. In Japan, R-407C has primarily been                    are designed to use a speciﬁed charge of a refrigerant, and not
used in the larger capacity duct-free and multi-split products.                   to emit that refrigerant to the atmosphere during normal opera-
tion. However, refrigerant emissions due to losses can occur as
R-410A                                                                            a result of several factors:
R-410A is being used to replace HCFC-22 in new products in                        • Refrigerant leaks associated with poor design or manufac-
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                         275
turing quality, such as leaks from valves, joints, piping and             • Technician training and awareness are essential to the suc-
heat exchangers represent on average 2−5% of the factory                    cess of refrigerant conservation, especially where preven-
refrigerant charge per year;                                                tive maintenance procedures have not been routine in the
•   Leaks in poorly installed ﬁeld-interconnecting tubing, which                past;
can emit 5−100% of factory charge within the ﬁrst year of                 • Developing countries could devote resources to developing
installation;                                                               a reclamation infrastructure, with the necessary refrigerant
•   Accidental releases due to mechanical failure or damage of                  recovery and reclaiming network, or emphasize on-site re-
equipment components can result in up to 100% loss of the                   frigerant recycling. The Multi-Lateral Fund of the Montreal
system charge;                                                              Protocol supports this practice;
•   Intentional venting of refrigerant during servicing (e.g.,                • In many developing countries, preventive maintenance of
air purging) or disposing of equipment (in many countries                   air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment has been rare.
this practice is still legal). This type of emission can repre-             Conservation approaches, which rely heavily on regular
sent anywhere from a small percentage to the total system                   maintenance, could be successfully implemented if coun-
charge;                                                                     tries were to provide incentives to encourage routine sched-
•   Losses of refrigerant during equipment disposal (up to 100%                 uled maintenance (UNEP, 2003).
of the system charge).
5.1.3.2 Non-HFC systems
For air conditioners working on the vapour-compression cycle                  Non-HFC systems include vapour-compression cycles with re-
and using any refrigerant, there are several practical ways to                frigerants other than HFCs, and alternative cycles and methods
promote refrigerant conservation, and to reduce refrigerant                   to produce refrigeration and heating. The four stationary air
emissions. The most signiﬁcant are:                                           conditioner categories described in Section 5.1.1 have the non-
• Improved design and installation of systems to reduce leak-                 HFC system options described below.
age and consequently increase refrigerant containment;
• Design to minimize refrigerant charge quantities in sys-                    5.1.3.2.1 Vapour-compression cycle with non-HFC
tems;                                                                                 refrigerants
• Adoption of best practices for installation, maintenance and                Many factors need to be taken into consideration when design-
repairing of equipment, including leak detection and re-                   ing an air-conditioning product with a new refrigerant, for ex-
pair;                                                                      ample, environmental impact, safety, performance, reliability,
• Refrigerant recovery during servicing;                                      and market acceptance. Non-HFC refrigerants that are currently
• Recycling and reclaiming of recovered refrigerant;                          being investigated and used are now detailed.
• Refrigerant recovery at equipment decommissioning;
• Appropriate government policies to motivate the use of                      Hydrocarbon refrigerants
good practices and to promote refrigerant conservation.                    An extensive literature review on the performance of hydrocar-
bon refrigerants was performed in 2001 (ARTI, 2001). Many
Standards and good practice guidelines, like ANSI/ASHRAE2                     articles reported that refrigerants such as propane offer similar
Standard 147-2002, outline practices and procedures to reduce                 or slightly superior efﬁciency to HCFC-22 in air-conditioning
the inadvertent release of halogenated refrigerants from station-             systems. Few rigorous comparisons of ﬂuorocarbon and hydro-
ary refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pump equipment                  carbon systems have been reported. However, the available data
during manufacture, installation, testing, operation, mainte-                 suggest that efﬁciency increases of about 2−5% were common
nance, repair, and disposal.                                                  in drop-in ‘soft-optimized’ system tests. In a system speciﬁcally
optimized for hydrocarbons, it might be possible to achieve ef-
5.1.3.1.1 Developing country aspects                                          ﬁciency increases somewhat greater than 5% by using propane
Developing countries face speciﬁc issues with respect to the                  rather than HCFC-22, assuming no other ﬁre safety measures
containment and conservation of refrigerants. Since the manu-                 need to be taken which would reduce efﬁciency. In certain coun-
facturing process is approaching a global standard, and most                  tries safety regulations require the use of a secondary loop and
of the developing countries are importers and not manufactur-                 this signiﬁcantly reduces the efﬁciency of the hydrocarbon sys-
ers of air-conditioning equipment, the speciﬁc issues faced by                tem and increases its cost compared to the HCFC-22 system. In
these countries are mostly related to servicing, training of tech-            order to offer equipment which meets the market requirements
nicians, legislation and regulations. Important points, in addi-              for the lowest cost, manufacturers will need to determine how
tion to those mentioned above, are:                                           the costs of safety improvements required for hydrocarbon sys-
tems compare with the costs required to raise the efﬁciency of
competing systems. Safety standards are likely to vary around
ANSI is the American National Standards Institute, Inc. ASHRAE is the       the world and this may lead to different choices. Vigorous de-
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,   bates among advocates of hydrocarbon and competing refriger-
Inc.                                                                          ants are likely to continue, due to the differences in perceived
276                                     IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
and acceptable risk in different countries. However under the         are illustrated by the examples in Figures 5.1 to 5.9. In regions
appropriate conditions, for example limited charge and sealed         with cooler climates, where air conditioning is used less often
circuits hydrocarbons can be used safely (ARTI, 2001).                or where the electricity generation energy source is not carbon-
intensive, direct emissions can outweigh the indirect effects.
Carbon dioxide                                                            Including the life-cycle climate performance (LCCP) as a
Carbon dioxide (CO2) offers a number of desirable characteris-        design criterion is one aspect that can minimize the GWP of
tics as a refrigerant: availability, low-toxicity, low direct GWP     residential and commercial air-conditioning and heating equip-
and low cost. CO2 systems are also likely to be smaller than sys-     ment. Factoring LCCP into the design methodology will result
tems using other common refrigerants but will not necessarily         in an optimum design that is different from one just optimized
be cheaper (Neks&#229;, 2001). There is a signiﬁcant amount of con-        for lowest cost. By optimizing for the best LCCP, the designer
ﬂicting data concerning the efﬁciency of CO2 in air- condition-       will also improve on a number of other parameters, for example,
ing applications. Some of the data indicate very low efﬁciencies      the design for energy efﬁciency, the type and amount of refrig-
compared to HCFC-22 systems while other references indicate           erant used in the unit (determined by refrigerant cycle design),
parity to better performance. Additional research and develop-        reduced leakage (service valve design, joining technologies,
ment will be needed to arrive at a deﬁnitive determination of the     manufacturing screening methods, sensor technologies for the
efﬁciency of CO2 in comfort air-conditioning applications.            early detection of refrigerant leaks), and reduced installation
and service losses (factory sealed refrigerant circuits, robust
5.1.3.2.2 Alternative technologies to vapour-compression              ﬁeld connection technologies, service valves that reduce losses
cycle                                                      during routine service). The investment required to achieve a
The absorption cycle offers a commercially-available alterna-         given reduction in LCCP will differ per factor.
tive to the vapour-compression cycle. At least two Japanese
manufacturers have had commercially-available, split-type             5.1.4.1 LCCP examples for air conditioners
absorption air conditioners available for about 5 years. One          Several examples of LCCP calculation are now given for tech-
Italian manufacturer has also been selling small-scale absorp-        nologies typical of those described above (i.e. vapour com-
tion units for some commercial installations. It is reported that     pression cycle with HCFC and HFC refrigerants), as well as
over 360,000 gas-ﬁred absorption units with capacities below          technologies that have been studied for their potential to reduce
7.5 kW have been produced in Europe and North America using           greenhouse-gas emissions from air-conditioning applications.
the ammonia-water cycle (Robur, 2004). The performance of a           As stated previously, the results obtained by these studies are
direct-ﬁred absorption system will generally result in a higher       dependent on the assumptions made (leakage rate, recovery
total-equivalent-warming-impact (TEWI) value than for a va-           rate, use of secondary loop, etc.). Changing these assumptions
pour-compression system, unless the regional electrical power         can lead to different results.
generation has a high CO2 emission factor.                                Figure 5.1 compares LCCP values for 3 tonne (10.5 kW) air-
A number of other non-traditional technologies have been          conditioning and heat pump units operating in Atlanta, Georgia,
examined for their potential to reduce consumption and emis-          USA. LCCP values are calculated for three efﬁciency levels −
sion of HFCs. These include desiccant cooling systems, Stirling       seasonal energy efﬁciency ratio (SEER) levels of 10, 12, and 14
cycle systems, thermoelectrics, thermoacoustics and magnetic          Btu Wh-1. By 2010 when HCFC-22 has been phased out for new
refrigeration. With the exception of the Stirling cycle and           equipment and higher energy efﬁciency standards (13 SEER in
desiccants, all of these alternatives suffer such large efﬁcien-      the US) are in place, an HFC blend refrigerant is likely to rep-
cy penalties that the consequent indirect effects would over-         resent a large part of the market for new equipment. The results
whelm any direct beneﬁt in emission reduction. In the USA,            generally show that direct warming impacts due to life-cycle
the Stirling cycle has remained limited to niche applications,        refrigerant emissions are less than 5% of the LCCP. The differ-
despite the research interest and very substantial funding by the     ence in the indirect warming component of LCCP at different
US Department of Energy, and has never been commercialized            efﬁciency levels is much greater. Propane and CO2 emissions
for air conditioning. In high latent-load applications, desiccant     have a negligible warming impact. However, the possible addi-
systems have been used to supplement the performance of con-          tional cost for using propane safely or for achieving a given ef-
ventional mechanical air conditioning.                                ﬁciency level with CO2, exceeds the difference in cost between
the 12 and 14 SEER performance levels, which have a greater
5.1.4      Global warming effects                                     impact on LCCP than the direct warming from refrigerant emis-
sions. (Figure 5.1 is based upon annual make-up losses of 2%
Several factors inﬂuence the emission of greenhouse gases             of charge and an end-of-life loss of 15% of charge, electrical
associated with residential and commercial air-conditioning           generation with emissions of 0.65 kg CO2 kWh-1, annual cool-
and heating equipment. These include direct emissions during          ing load of 33.8 million Btu and heating load of 34.8 million
equipment life and at the end of life, refrigerant properties, sys-   Btu, and a 15-year equipment lifetime) (ADL, 2002).
tem capacity (size), system efﬁciency, carbon intensity of the            Figure 5.2 provides a comparison of LCCP values for a
electrical energy source, and climate. Some of the sensitivities      small, commercial, rooftop air conditioner in Atlanta, Georgia
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                                                                                                                         277
80                     Indirect                     Direct
LCCP (tonnes CO2-eq)
22             22         C          0A         90         2                  22         C         0A                   22          22         C         0A        90        2                22       C    0A
C-              C-      4  07         41       -2        CO                    C-      4  07      41                    C-          C-      4   07        41       -2      CO                 C-        07 -41
R-          R-          HC
R-          R-                     F           F
R-           R-         HC                         CF       -4
HC            HC                                                             HC                                          HC          HC                                                        H        R        R
10 SEER                      12 SEER                                                 14 SEER                          10 SEER                          12 SEER                                     14 SEER
Cooling Only                                                                                             Heating and Cooling
Figure 5.1. LCCP values for 3 tonne (10.5 kW) air conditioner units operating in Atlanta, Georgia, USA (ADL, 2002).
Indirect               Direct
2                             2                                A                 a                0                                               2                              2
-2                            -2               07
10                34               29         2                                    -2                             -2          7C           0A
FC                            C                  4              4                1                   -        CO                                   C                              C             40           41
CF                 R-             R-               C-                  HC                                            CF                             CF             R-           R-
HC                          H                                                HF                                                                  H                              H
10 SEER                                                  11 SEER (2005)                                                                          10 SEER                              11 SEER (2005)
Atlanta                                                                                                                 Pittsburg
Figure 5.2. LCCP values for a 7.5 tonne (26.3 kW) commercial rooftop air conditioner in Atlanta, Georgia and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
(ADL, 2002; Sand et al., 1997).
278                                                                 IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
CO2•0•2.2
CO2•0•2.4          Refrigerant manufacturing
Refrigerant • Recovery Fraction • COP
HC-290•0.7•Std
HC-290•0.7•High
R-410A•0.6•3.2
R-410A•0.7•3.2
R-410A•0.6•3.4
R-410A•0.7•3.4
HFC-32•0.6•3.2
HFC-32•0.7•3.5
HFC-32•0.6•3.5
0     2                 4                6                       8                   10     12
LCCP (tCO2-eq)
Propane (HC-290) examples include a secondary loop.
Refrigerant manufacturing effect is so small that it is not visible on the chart.
Figure 5.3. LCCP values for 4 kW mini-split air conditioner units in Japan with COPs varying from 2.2−3.5 and with end-of-life refrigerant
recovery rates of 60% or 70% (Onishi et al., 2004).
and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. The results are similar to                                     required for propane, reducing COP and adding a 10−20% cost
those shown in Figure 5.1. Differences in efﬁciency have a                                        penalty. The two end-of-life refrigerant recovery rates examined
much greater effect on LCCP than the direct effect of refriger-                                   have only a secondary effect on LCCP. This is only apparent
ant emissions. (Figure 5.2 is based upon annual make-up loss-                                     for R-410A, which has the highest GWP of those compared. In
es of 1% of charge and an end-of-life loss of 15% of charge,                                      Japan and many other countries, it is unclear whether HFC-32
electrical generation with emissions of 0.65 kg CO2 kWh-1, and                                    (a ﬂammable refrigerant) in mini-splits would be permitted for
equivalent full load cooling hours of 1400 in Atlanta and 600 in                                  use in direct expansion or whether it would require a secondary
Pittsburgh, and a 15-year equipment lifetime) (ADL, 2002).                                        loop (work to determine this is still underway including an IEC3
Figure 5.3 presents LCCP values for 4 kW mini-split heat                                      standard). The LCCP penalty for a secondary loop in the HFC-
pump units in Japan. The chart compares units with 4 different                                    32 system is not shown here. This penalty would make HFC-32
refrigerants: CO2, propane (HC-290), R-410A, and HFC-32.                                          systems less attractive than R-410A.
Other parameters varied in this chart are the assumptions about                                       Figure 5.4 shows LCCP values for 56 kW multi-split air
the amount of refrigerant recovered at the end of the equipment                                   conditioners for commercial applications in Japan. The refrig-
life (recovery is assumed to be consistent with normal practice                                   erants compared are propane, R-407C, and R-410A with two
in Japan; 60% and 70% are analyzed) and the coefﬁcient of                                         rates of refrigerant recovery at the end of the equipment life,
performance (COP) level of the equipment (standard models                                         50% and 70%. Each system has a COP level shown on the
compared with high COP models – values shown on the chart).                                       chart, which has been obtained by using the variable compres-
Equipment life is taken to be 12 years with no refrigerant charge                                 sor speed (inverter drive). For comparative purposes, a propane
added during life, and power generation emissions of 0.378 kg                                     system without inverter has been added. The source for the data
CO2 kWh-1 are assumed. The units are assumed to run for 3.6                                       assumed that the propane system would have a secondary heat
months for cooling and 5.5 months for heating according to                                        transfer loop. Multi-split air conditioners for commercial ap-
Japanese Standard JRA4046-1999 (JRAIA, 1999). The ﬁgure                                           plication units are assumed to operate 1941 h yr-1 for cooling
shows that the LCCP for these mini-splits is dominated by the
COP, which is why CO2 has such a high LCCP. The source for
the data assumed that a secondary heat transfer loop would be                                     3
IEC is the International Eletrotechnical Commission
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                                 279
HC290•0.7•3.55        Refrigerant manufacturing                                                            inverter
R-407C•0.5•3.1       Direct
R-410A•0.5•3.55
R-407C•0.7•3.1
HC-290•0.7•2.5
R-410A•0.7•3.55
0   20                40                    60               80               100                   120
Refrigerant manufacturing effect is so small that it is barely visible on the chart.
Figure 5.4. LCCP values for 56 kW multi-split air conditioners in Japan with COPs varying from 2.5−3.55 and end-of-life refrigerant recovery
rates of 50% or 70% (Onishi et al., 2004).
and 888 h yr-1 for heating (JRAIA, 2003). Equipment life is as-                                  5.2          Chillers
sumed to be 15 years with no additional charge required during
the operating life. Power generation emissions are assumed to                                    Comfort air conditioning in large commercial buildings (in-
be 0.378 kg CO2 kWh-1 (Onishi et al., 2004). The ﬁgure shows                                     cluding hotels, ofﬁces, hospitals, universities) is often provided
that the combination of COP improvements obtained with in-                                       by water chillers connected to an air handling and distribution
verter drive plus the lower emissions rate for power generation                                  system. Chillers cool water or a water/antifreeze mixture which
in Japan, mean that the indirect component of LCCP is less im-                                   is then pumped through a heat exchanger in an air handler or
portant than in the previous US cases. Also the higher the COP,                                  fan-coil unit to cool and dehumidify the air.
the less important differences in COP are to the overall LCCP.
This ﬁgure clearly shows the value of achieving a high recovery                                  5.2.1        Technologies and applications
rate of refrigerant at the end of service life.
Two types of water chillers are available, vapour-compression
5.1.4.2 Global refrigerant bank                                                                  chillers and absorption chillers.
Table 5.1 estimates the refrigerant banks in 2001 as 548,000                                         The principal components of a vapour-compression chiller
tonnes of HCFC-22 and 28,000 tonnes of HFCs. Another source                                      are a compressor driven by an electric motor, a liquid cooler
(Palandre et al., 2004) estimates that in 2002, the stationary AC                                (evaporator), a condenser, a refrigerant, a refrigerant expan-
bank consisted of over 1,000,000 tonnes of HCFCs and nearly                                      sion device, and a control unit. The refrigerating circuit in
81,000 tonnes of HFCs. Although stationary AC includes more                                      water chillers is usually factory sealed and tested; the installer
than just air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps, it is clear                                does not need to connect refrigerant-containing parts on site.
that this type of equipment constitutes a large part of the HCFC                                 Therefore leaks during installation and use are minimal.
bank. Emission estimates for stationary air conditioners are                                         The energy source for absorption chillers is the heat pro-
given in Section 5.4.                                                                            vided by steam, hot water, or a fuel burner. In absorption chill-
ers, two heat exchangers (a generator and an absorber) and a
solution pump replace the compressor and motor of the vapour-
280                                     IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
Table 5.2. Chiller capacity ranges.                                   to increase over the years as designs are improved. However,
the chillers with the best COPs tend to be more expensive as
Chiller Type                            Capacity Range (kW)           they employ larger heat exchangers and other special features.
In the absence of minimum efﬁciency standards, many purchas-
Scroll and reciprocating water-cooled            7−1600               ers choose to buy lower-cost, lower-COP chillers.
Screw water-cooled                              140−2275
Full-load COP is commonly used as a simple measure of
Positive displacement air-cooled                35−1500
Centrifugal water-cooled                       350−30,000
chiller efﬁciency. With the increasing recognition of the domi-
Centrifugal air-cooled                          630−1150              nant contribution of the power consumption of chillers to their
Absorption                            Less than 90, and 140−17,500    GWP, more attention has been paid to the energy efﬁciency of
chillers at their more common operating conditions. In a single-
Source: UNEP, 2003                                                    chiller installation, chillers generally operate at their full-load or
design point conditions less than 1% of the time. Manufacturers
developed techniques such as variable-speed compressor drives,
compression cycle. Water is frequently the refrigerant used in        advanced controls, and efﬁcient compressor unloading methods
these systems and the absorbent is lithium bromide. Small ab-         to optimize chiller efﬁciency under a wide range of conditions.
sorption chillers may use an alternative ﬂuid pair: ammonia as        In the US, ARI developed an additional performance measure
the refrigerant and water as the absorbent.                           for chillers called the Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) which
Vapour-compression chillers are identiﬁed by the type of          is described in ARI Standard 550/590 (ARI, 2003). The IPLV
compressor they employ. These are classiﬁed as centrifugal            metric is based on weighting the COP at four operating condi-
compressors or positive displacement compressors. The latter          tions by the percentage of time assumed to be spent at each of
category includes reciprocating, screw, and scroll compressors.       four load fractions (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) by an individ-
Absorption chillers are identiﬁed by the number of heat input         ual chiller. The IPLV metric takes into account chiller energy-
levels they employ (i.e., single-stage or two-stage), and whether     reducing features which are increasingly becoming common
they are direct-ﬁred with a burning fuel, or use steam or hot wa-     practice, but are not reﬂected in the full-load COP.
ter as the heat energy source. Table 5.2 lists the cooling capacity       For a single chiller it is appropriate to use IPLV as the per-
range offered by each type of chiller.                                formance parameter, multiplied by actual operating hours when
For many years, centrifugal chillers were the most com-           calculating the LCCP. For multiple chiller installations, which
mon type of chillers above 700 kW capacity. Reciprocating             constitute about 80% of all installations, the calculation of
compressors were used in smaller chillers. From the mid-1980s         LCCP includes full load COP and the IPLV based on the actual
onwards, screw compressors became available as alternatives           operating hours estimated for each load condition.
to reciprocating compressors in the 140−700 kW range and as               The ARI IPLV calculation details are based on single chiller
alternatives to centrifugal compressors in the range up to about      installations and an average of 29 distinct US climate patterns.
2275 kW. Scroll compressors were introduced at about the              A modiﬁed version is being considered for Europe (Adnot,
same time and have been used as alternatives to reciprocating         2002).
compressors in the 7 to over 90 kW range.                                 Most installations have two or more chillers, so ARI recom-
The Japan Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration            mends use of a comprehensive analysis that reﬂects the actual
News (JARN, 2001) estimates that:                                     weather data, building load characteristics, number of chill-
• The market for centrifugal and large screw chillers is divid-       ers, operating hours, economizing capabilities, and energy for
ed between 40% in the USA and Canada, 25−30% in Asia,             auxiliaries such as pumps and cooling towers to determine the
and smaller percentages in other regions in the world;            overall chiller-plant system performance (ARI, 1998).
• The market for large absorption chillers is highly concen-
trated in Japan, China, and Korea with the USA and Europe         5.2.2      Refrigerant use and equipment population
as the remaining signiﬁcant markets;
• The world market for smaller, positive displacement chill-          Estimates and data about refrigerant use and equipment popula-
ers (with hermetic reciprocating, scroll, and screw compres-      tion, for the different types of chillers are presented below.
sors) is much larger in absolute terms than for the other
chiller types.                                                    5.2.2.1 Centrifugal chillers
Centrifugal chillers are manufactured in the United States,
The coefﬁcient of performance (COP) is one of the key criteria        Asia, and Europe. Prior to 1993, these chillers were offered
used to describe chillers. Other efﬁciency parameters are kW          with CFC-11, CFC-12, R-500, and HCFC-22 refrigerants. Of
tonne-1 (electrical power consumption in relation to cooling ca-      these, CFC-11 was the most common. With the implementation
pacity) and energy efﬁciency ratio (EER) or Btu Wh-1 (cooling         of the Montreal Protocol, production of chillers using CFCs or
capacity related to power consumption).                               refrigerants containing CFCs (such as R-500) essentially ended
Each type of chiller and refrigerant combination has a best-      in 1993. Centrifugal chillers using HCFC-22 rarely were pro-
in-class COP level that can be purchased. This COP level tends        duced after the late 1990s.
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                         281
Table 5.3. Centrifugal chiller refrigerants.                                 refrigerant. The refrigerant charge for a given cooling capac-
ity may vary with the efﬁciency level of the chiller. For any
Refrigerant                            Capacity Range (kW)                   given refrigerant, higher efﬁciency levels often are associated
with larger heat exchangers and, therefore, larger amounts of
CFC-11                                        350−3500                       charge.
CFC-12                                        700−4700
Production of a new refrigerant, HFC-245fa, as a foam-
R-500                                         3500−5000
blowing agent commenced in 2003, and it has been considered
HCFC-22                                      2500−30,000
HCFC-123                                     600−13,000                      as a candidate for use in new chiller designs. It has operating
HFC-134a                                     350−14,000                      pressures higher than those for HCFC-123 but lower than for
HFC-134a. Its use requires compressors to be redesigned to
match its properties, a common requirement for this type of
compressor. Unlike those for HCFC-123, heat exchangers for
The refrigerant alternatives for CFC-11 and CFC-12 or R-500                  HFC-245fa must be designed to meet pressure vessel codes.
are HCFC-123 and HFC-134a, respectively. These refrigerants                  Chillers employing HFC-245fa are not available yet. No chiller
began to be used in centrifugal chillers in 1993 and continue to             manufacturer has announced plans to use it at this time.
be used in 2004 in new production chillers.                                      Centrifugal chillers are used in naval submarines and sur-
Chillers employing HCFC-123 are available with maximum                   face vessels. These chillers originally employed CFC-114 as
COPs of 7.45 (0.472 kW tonne-1). With additional features such               the refrigerant in units with a capacity of 440−2800 kW. A num-
as variable-speed drives, HCFC-123 chillers can attain IPLV                  ber of CFC-114 chillers were converted to use HFC-236fa as a
values of up to 11.7. Chillers employing HFC-134a are avail-                 transitional refrigerant. New naval chillers use HFC-134a.
able with COPs of 6.79 (0.518 kW tonne-1). With additional
features such as variable-speed drives, HFC-134a chillers can                5.2.2.2 Positive displacement chillers
attain IPLV values of up to 11.2.                                            Chillers employing screw, scroll, and reciprocating compressors
Table 5.3 shows the range of cooling capacities offered for              are manufactured in many countries around the world. Water-
centrifugal chillers with several refrigerants. Table 5.4 shows              cooled chillers are generally associated with cooling towers for
the equipment population in a number of countries. This table                heat rejection from the system. Air-cooled chillers are equipped
provides estimates of the refrigerant bank in these chillers, as-            with refrigerant-to-air ﬁnned-tube condenser coils and fans to
suming an average cooling capacity of 1400 kW in most cas-                   reject heat from the system. The selection of water-cooled as
es and approximate values for the refrigerant charge for each                opposed to air-cooled chillers for a particular application varies
Table 5.4 Centrifugal chiller population and refrigerant inventory.
Country or             Refrigerant                    Avg. Capacity      Avg. Charge        No. Units    Refrigerant      Source of Unit
Region                                                (kW)               Level                           Bank             Nos.
(kg kW-1)                       (tonnes)
USA                    CFC-11                             1400               0.28            36,755        14,400         Dooley, 2001
USA                    HCFC-123                           1400               0.23            21,622          7000         Dooley, 2001
HFC-134a                           1400               0.36            21,622        10,900         with 50% split
Canada                 CFC-11                             1400               0.28              4212          1650         HRAI, 2003
Canada                 HCFC-123                           1400               0.23               637           205         HRAI, 2003
HFC-134a                           1400               0.36               637           320         with 50% split
Japan                  CFC-11                             1100               0.40              7000         3080          JARN, 2002c
HCFC-123 and HFC-134a              1600               0.40              4500         2880          JRAIA, 2004
India                  CFC-11                             1450               0.28              1100           447         UNEP, 2004
China                  CFC-11                         65% of total are       0.28              3700         2540          UNEP, 2004
CFC-12                         1400−2450, rest        0.36               338           300         Digmanese, 2004
HCFC-22                        are 2800−3500:         0.36               550           485
HCFC-123                       2450 avg.              0.23              3200         1800
HFC-134a                                              0.36              3250         2870
Brazil                 CFC-11                             1350               0.28               420           160         UNEP, 2004
CFC-12                             1450               0.36               280           145
17 Developing          CFC-11                                            Avg. unit charge    11,700         4000          UNEP, 2004
Countries              CFC-12                                            of 364 kg
Source for charge levels: Sand et al., 1997; for HFC-134a, ADL, 2002.
282                                            IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
Table 5.5. Positive displacement chiller refrigerants and average             and air-cooled versions using DX evaporators. Air-cooled ver-
charge levels.                                                                sions have increased their market share in recent years. Prior
to the advent of the Montreal Protocol, some of the smaller re-
Refrigerant and Chiller Type                   Evaporator         kg kW-1     ciprocating chillers (under 100 kW) were offered with CFC-
12 as the refrigerant. Most of the smaller chillers, and nearly
all the larger chillers, employed HCFC-22 as the refrigerant.
HCFC-22 and HFC-134a screw                          DX               0.27
and scroll chillers                                                           Since the Montreal Protocol, new reciprocating chillers have
R-410A and R-407C scroll chillers                  DX               0.27      employed HCFC-22, R-407C, and to a small extent, HFC-134a
HCFC-22 and HFC-134a screw chillers               ﬂooded            0.35      and propane or propylene. Some water-cooled reciprocating
HCFC-22 reciprocating chillers                     DX               0.26      chillers were manufactured with ammonia as the refrigerant but
Ammonia (R-717) screw or                           DX            0.04−0.20    the number of these units is very small compared to the number
reciprocating chillers(1)                                                     of chillers employing ﬂuorocarbon refrigerants. As with scroll
Ammonia (R-717) screw or                          ﬂooded         0.20−0.25    chillers, the use of brazed-plate heat exchangers reduces the
reciprocating chillers(1)                                                     system volume and system charge.
Hydrocarbons                                        DX               0.14         Table 5.5 shows approximate charge levels for each type of
positive displacement chiller with several refrigerants.
Source: UNEP, 2003
Charge levels for R-717 chillers tend to decrease with capacity and are       The refrigerant blend R-407C is being used as a transitional
lowest for plate-type heat exchangers rather than with tube-in-shell (UNEP,   replacement for HCFC-22 in direct expansion (DX) systems
1998)                                                                         because it has a similar cooling capacity and pressure levels.
However, R-407C necessitates larger and more expensive
heat exchangers to maintain its performance. For R-407C DX
with regional conditions and owner preferences.                               evaporators, some of this difﬁculty is offset in new equipment
When they were ﬁrst produced in the mid-1980s, screw                      by taking advantage of the refrigerant’s ‘glide’ characteristic
chillers generally employed HCFC-22 as the refrigerant.                       (‘glide’ of about 5oC temperature variation during constant-
HFC-134a chillers have recently been introduced by a number                   pressure evaporation) in counter-ﬂow heat exchange. The glide
of manufacturers and in some cases these have replaced their                  also can be accommodated in the conventional condensers of
HCFC-22 products.                                                             air-cooled chillers. In time, the higher-pressure blend, R-410A,
Screw chillers using a higher pressure refrigerant, R-410A,               is expected to replace the use of R-407C, particularly in smaller
have recently been introduced. Screw chillers using ammonia                   chillers (UNEP, 2003).
as the refrigerant are available from some manufacturers and
these are mainly found in northern-European countries. The                    5.2.2.3 Absorption chillers
numbers produced are small compared to chillers employing                     Absorption chillers are mainly manufactured in Japan, China,
HCFC-22 or HFCs.                                                              and South Korea. A few absorption chillers are manufactured in
Air-cooled and water-cooled screw chillers below 700                      North America. Absorption chiller energy use can be compared
kW often employ evaporators with refrigerant ﬂowing inside                    to electrical chiller energy by using calculations based on pri-
the tubes and chilled water on the shell side. These are called               mary energy. Absorption systems have higher primary energy
direct-expansion (DX) evaporators. Chillers with capacities                   requirements and higher initial costs than vapour-compres-
above 700 kW generally employ ﬂooded evaporators with the                     sion chillers. They can be cost-effective in applications where
refrigerant on the shell side. Flooded evaporators require higher             waste heat is available in the form of steam or hot water, where
charges than DX evaporators (see Table 5.5), but permit closer                electricity is not readily available for summer cooling loads,
approach temperatures and higher efﬁciencies.                                 or where high electricity cost structures (including demand
charges) make gas-ﬁred absorption a lower-cost alternative. In
Scroll chillers are produced in both water-cooled and air-cooled              Japan, government policy encourages absorption systems so as
versions using DX evaporators. Refrigerants offered include                   to facilitative a more balanced gas import throughout the year
HCFC-22, HFC-134a, R-410A, and R-407C. For capacities be-                     and to reduce summer electrical loads.
low 150 kW, brazed-plate heat exchangers are often used for                       Single-stage absorption applications are typically limited to
evaporators instead of the shell-and-tube heat exchangers em-                 sites that can use waste heat in the form of hot water or steam
ployed in larger chillers. Brazed-plate heat exchangers reduce                as the energy source. Such sites include cogeneration systems
system volume and refrigerant charge.                                         where waste engine heat or steam is available. Two-stage ab-
Air-cooled chiller systems are generally less expensive than              sorption chillers, driven by steam or hot water or directly ﬁred
the equivalent-capacity water-cooled chiller systems that in-                 by fossil fuels, were ﬁrst produced in large numbers in Asia
clude a cooling tower and water pump. However, under many                     (primarily in Japan) for the regional market during the 1980s.
conditions water-cooled systems can be more efﬁcient due to                   Two-stage chillers were produced in North America shortly af-
the lower condensing temperatures.                                            terwards, often through licensing from the Asian manufacturers.
Reciprocating chillers are produced in both water-cooled                  Small single-stage gas-ﬁred absorption chillers with capacities
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                        283
below 90 kW are produced in Europe and North America using                  scribed in Section 5.1.3.1 and the use of non-HFC systems.
ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent.                      These options are now detailed.
5.2.2.4 World market characteristics                                        5.2.3.1 HFC vapour-compression systems
Table 5.6 summarizes the market for chillers in 2001. It shows              Over the past 30 years, the life-cycle refrigerant needs of chill-
that air-cooled positive displacement chillers represented nearly           ers have been reduced more than tenfold (Calm, 1999) due to
75% of the number of units in the positive displacement catego-             design improvements and, in particular, the improved care of
ry. Chillers larger than 100 kW are dominant in the Americas,               equipment in the ﬁeld. The approaches that have been used to
the Middle East, and southern Asia while smaller air-cooled                 reduce CFC emissions over the last 30 years can also be applied
chillers and chiller heat pumps for residential and light com-              to HCFCs and HFCs.
mercial use are more common in East Asia and Europe.                             The starting points for reducing HFC emissions from chill-
In a number of countries the commercial air-conditioning                ers were designing the chiller and its components to use a re-
market appears to be moving away from small chillers toward                 duced amount of refrigerant charge, employing a minimum
ductless single-package air conditioners or ducted unitary sys-             number of ﬁttings that are potential leakage sources, avoiding
tems, due to the lower installation cost (JARN, 2002a).                     the use of ﬂare ﬁttings on tubing, and including features that
Market conditions in China are particularly interesting due             minimize emissions while servicing components such as shut-
to the recent rapid development of its internal market, chiller             off valves for oil ﬁlters and sensors. Many manufacturers have
manufacturing capabilities, and export potential. The centrifugal           already implemented such changes.
chiller population in China is included in Table 5.4. Signiﬁcant                 Service technicians can be trained and certiﬁed to perform
growth began in the 1990s. Before 1995, most centrifugals were              their tasks while minimizing refrigerant emissions during in-
imported. After 1995, increasing numbers of chillers were pro-              stallation and refrigerant charging, servicing, and ultimately
duced in China by factories using US designs (primarily HCFC-               taking equipment out of service. Charging and storing the re-
123 (30%) and HFC-134a (70%)) (ICF, 2003). For chillers of all              frigerant in the chiller at the factory prior to delivery can re-
types, China is now the largest market in the world with sales of           duce emissions at installation. Refrigerant should be recovered
34,000 units in 2001 and a growth of over 8.5% yr-1. The main               at the end of equipment life. Appropriate government policies
market is East China where there is a growing replacement mar-              can be effective in accomplishing these objectives. Some coun-
ket. Over half of all chiller sales are now reversible heat pumps           tries require annual inspections of equipment or monitoring of
that can provide cooling and heating. Screw and scroll chiller              refrigerant use to determine whether emissions are becoming
sales, mostly using HCFC-22, are rising as their technology be-             excessive and require action if this is the case.
comes more familiar to the major design institutes. Demand for                   Remote monitoring is becoming an established method for
absorption chillers has been slowing since 1999 when national               monitoring the performance of chillers. It is also being used
energy policy changed to relax controls on electricity for com-             to detect leakage either directly through leak detectors or in-
mercial businesses. China has a major residential market for                directly through changes in system characteristics (e.g., pres-
chillers with fan coil units (BSRIA, 2001).                                 sures). Remote monitoring can provide alerts to maintenance
engineers and system managers so as to ensure that early action
5.2.3      Options for HFC emissions reduction                              is taken to repair leaks and maintain performance.
As with stationary air conditioners, options for reducing HFC
emissions in chillers include refrigerant conservation as de-
Table 5.6. The world chiller sales in 2001 (number of units).
Chiller Type                          North and South            Middle East,        East Asia            Europe          World Total
America                S. Asia, Africa     and Oceania
Positive Displacement                  16,728               11,707                 66,166              77,599             172,200
Air cooled                                    12,700             7749                     43,714              61,933         126,096
Water cooled                                    4028             3958                     22,542              15,666           46,104
&lt;100 kW                                         2721             1678                     48,444              58,624          111,467
&gt;100 kW                                       14,007            10,029                    17,722              18,975           60,733
Centrifugal                              5153                  413                   2679                 664                8908
Absorption &gt;350 kW                        261                  289                   5461                 528                6539
Total chillers                         22,142               12,409                 74,306              78,791             187,648
Source: JARN, 2002b
284                                    IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
5.2.3.2   Non-HFC systems                                           ity, which deters their consideration for use in many applica-
tions. Refrigeration safety standards have been developed for
5.2.3.2.1 Vapour-compression cycle with non-HFC                     hydrocarbon systems, for example, IEC 60355-2-40, AMD. 2
refrigerants                                              ED. 4, ‘Safety of Household and Similar Electrical Appliances,
Part 2’. Typical safety measures include proper placement and/
5.2.3.2.1.1 Positive displacement chillers                          or gas tight enclosure of the chiller, application of low-charge
The non-HFC refrigerants that have been used in positive dis-       system design, fail-safe ventilation systems, and gas detector
placement compressor chillers are presented below.                  alarm activating systems. An alternative is outdoor installation
(ARTI, 2001). Comprehensive guidelines for safe design, in-
Ammonia                                                             stallation, and handling of hydrocarbon refrigerants have been
Chillers using ammonia as the refrigerant are available in the      produced (ACRIB, 2001). These guidelines limit the charge for
capacity range 100−2000 kW and a few are larger than this. The      domestic/public applications to &lt;1.5 kg for a sealed system or
use of ammonia is more complex than that of many other refrig-      &lt;5 kg in a special machinery room or outdoors. For commercial
erants because ammonia is a strong irritant gas that is slightly    and private applications the limits are &lt;2.5 kg and &lt;10 kg re-
toxic, corrosive to skin and other membranes, and ﬂammable.         spectively.
Recommended practice (ASHRAE, 2001a; ISO, 1993; CEN,
2000/2001) limits the use of large ammonia systems in public        Carbon dioxide
buildings to those systems, which use a secondary heat trans-       Carbon dioxide is being investigated for a wide range of po-
fer ﬂuid (which is intrinsic in chillers), so that the ammonia is   tential applications. However, CO2 does not match the cycle
conﬁned to the machine room where alarms, venting devices,          energy efﬁciencies of ﬂuorocarbon refrigerants for typical wa-
and perhaps scrubber systems can enhance safety. Guidelines         ter chilling applications (ASHRAE, 2001b). Therefore, there is
are available for the safe design and application of ammonia        usually no environmental incentive to use CO2 in chillers in-
systems (IEA, 1998, Chapter 4; ASHRAE, 2001a). Modern,              stead of HFCs. In Japan, CO2 has not been used in a chiller on a
compact factory-built units contain the ammonia far more ef-        commercial basis, but one demonstration unit has been built.
fectively than old ammonia plants.
The high discharge temperatures associated with ammonia         5.2.3.2.1.2 Centrifugal chillers
permit a far greater degree of heat recovery than with other re-    The non-HFC refrigerants that have been used in centrifugal
frigerants.                                                         compressor chillers are discussed below.
The wider acceptance of ammonia requires public ofﬁcials
being satisﬁed that ammonia systems are safe under emergency        Hydrocarbons
conditions such as building ﬁres or earthquakes, either of which    Hydrocarbon refrigerants are used in centrifugal chillers in pet-
might rupture refrigerant piping and pressure vessels. The most     rochemical plants where a variety of hazardous materials are
important factor is the establishment of building codes that are    routinely used and where the staff are highly trained in safety
acceptable to safety ofﬁcials (e.g., ﬁre ofﬁcers).                  measures and emergency responses. Hydrocarbon refrigerants
have not been used elsewhere due to concerns about system
Hydrocarbons                                                        safety due to the large charges of ﬂammable refrigerants.
Hydrocarbon refrigerants have a long history of application in
industrial chillers in petrochemical plants. Before 1997 they       Ammonia
were not used in comfort air-conditioning chiller applications      Ammonia is not a suitable refrigerant for centrifugal chill-
due to reservations about the system safety. European manu-         ers due to the large number of compressor stages required to
facturers now offer a range of hydrocarbon chillers. About 100      produce the necessary pressure rise (‘head’) for the ammonia
to 150 hydrocarbon chiller units are sold each year, mainly in      chiller cycle.
northern Europe (UNEP, 2003). This is a small number com-
pared to the market for more than 78,000 HCFC and HFC chill-        Water
ers in Europe (Table 5.6). The major markets have been ofﬁce        Water is a very low-pressure refrigerant, with a condensing
buildings, process cooling, and supermarkets.                       pressure of 4.2 kPa (0.042 bar) at 30&#176;C and a suction pressure
In a system optimized for hydrocarbons, one might be able to    of 1.6 kPa (0.016 bar) at 9oC. Traditionally, water has been used
achieve efﬁciency increases of more than 5% by using propane        in specialized applications with steam aspirators, and rarely
instead of HCFC-22. In the literature, efﬁciency comparisons        with vapour compressors. The low pressures and very high
for HCFC, HFC, and HC systems sometimes show substantial            volumetric ﬂow rates required in water vapour-compression
differences but do not represent rigorous comparisons. This is-     systems necessitate compressor designs that are uncommon in
sue was discussed in Section 5.1.3.2.1. The cost of HC chillers     the air-conditioning ﬁeld.
is higher than that of HCFC or HFC equivalents, partly due to           The few applications that use water as a refrigerant, use it to
the fact that hydrocarbon chillers still are a niche market.        chill water or produce an ice slurry by direct evaporation from a
A major disadvantage of hydrocarbons is their ﬂammabil-         pool of water. These systems carry a cost premium of more than
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                                                                                        285
50% above conventional systems. The higher costs are inherent
and are associated with the large physical size of water vapour
Indirect              Direct
chillers and the complexity of their compressor technology.                                        14
Recent studies indicate that there are no known compressor
dsigns or cycle conﬁgurations of any cost that will enable water                                   12
vapour-compression cycles to reach efﬁciencies comparable to
LCCP (ktonnes CO2-eq)
existing technology (ARTI, 2000; ARTI, 2004).                                                      10
5.2.3.2.2 Alternative technologies to vapour-compression
Absorption chillers are inherently larger and more expensive                                       4
than vapour-compression chillers. They have been successful in
speciﬁc markets as described in Section 5.2.2.3.                                                   2
Some countries have implemented the use of water-LiBr
absorption chillers in trigeneration systems. Trigeneration is                                     0
23            fa              a            2            2
a               A          3
-1           45               34           -2           -2          1                 10         NH
2                  -1        FC           FC                             4
the concept of deriving three different forms of energy from                                       HC
HC           HC           HF
C-            R-
the primary energy source, namely, heating, cooling and power
generation. This is also referred to as CHCP (combined heat-                                                       Centrifugal                                                     Screw                            Absorption
ing, cooling, and power generation). This option is particularly
relevant in tropical countries where buildings need to be air-      Figure 5.5. LCCP values for 1230 kW chiller-technology alternatives
conditioned and many industries require process cooling and         in an ofﬁce building in Atlanta, Georgia, USA with a 1% refrigerant
heating. Although cooling can be provided by conventional va-       annual make-up rate (ADL, 2002).
pour-compression chillers driven by electricity, heat exhausted
from the cogeneration plant can drive the absorption chillers so
that the overall primary energy consumption is reduced.             tower fan and pump power. The annual charge loss rates are
assumed to be 1% yr-1 for the vapour-compression chillers to
5.2.4     Global warming effects                                    account for some end-of-life losses and accidental losses in the
ﬁeld (ADL, 2002).
5.2.4.1   LCCP examples for chillers                                    Figure 5.6 compares TEWI values for 1000 tonne (3500 kW
chillers) with a 1% refrigerant annual make-up rate. CFC-11 and
Figure 5.5 presents LCCP values for chiller technology alter-       CFC-12 chiller data for equipment with 1993 vintage efﬁcien-
natives at 350 tonnes rated capacity (1230 kW) applied to a
typical ofﬁce building in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. LCCP values
for centrifugal and screw chillers fall within a +8% range and
refrigerant emissions account for less than 3% of the LCCP of                                40
Indirect               Direct                            1% refrigerant annual make-up rate
any of these technology options. Ammonia has been included                                   35
as a technical option, but local codes may affect its use. The
data source did not calculate LCCP for a hydrocarbon system.                                 30
TEWI (ktonnes CO2-eq)
However, hydrocarbon refrigerants have not been used in cen-
trifugal chillers in ofﬁce buildings due to concerns about safety
with large charges of ﬂammable refrigerants (UNEP, 2003).                                    20
The major portion of LCCP is the indirect warming associ-
ated with energy consumption. Direct warming due to refriger-                                15
ant emissions only amounts to between 0.2 and 3.0% of the                                    10
total LCCP. The LCCP values of the vapour-compression alter-
natives fall within a reasonably narrow range and show the clear                                   5
superiority of vapour compression over absorption in terms of
LCCP.                                                                                                   CFC-12                 CFC-11            HCFC-22 HFC-134a HCFC-123                                 NH3      HCFC-22
The LCCP of a typical direct-ﬁred, two-stage water-LiBr
absorption chiller is about 65% higher than the average LCCP                                                                   Centrifugal compressor                                                    Screw compressor
for vapour-compression cycle chillers.
The basic assumptions used to create Figure 5.5 include         Figure 5.6. LCCP TEWI values for 1000 tonne (3500 kW) chillers with
2125 annual operating hours, 30-year equipment life, 0.65 kg        a 1% refrigerant annual make-up rate in an Atlanta ofﬁce application
CO2 kWh-1 power plant emissions, and inclusion of cooling           (Sand et al., 1997).
286                                                                    IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
LCCP is dominant for this application but the effect of only
50% end-of-life recovery is not negligible. In this comparison,
2% refrigerant annual make-up rate
the propane system is not equipped with a secondary heat trans-
Indirect   Direct
35                                                                              fer loop with its added COP penalties. This is because chillers
and chiller/heat pumps inherently contain secondary loops in
their water-to-water or air-to-water systems. However, propane
chiller/heat pumps will have a 10−20% cost increase for safety
features compared to a system with a non-ﬂammable refriger-
20                                                                              ant and the same COP. For the same 10−20% cost increase, an
increase in COP from 2.65−3.05 should be achievable for the
R-407C system. This makes the LCCP with R-407C lower than
10                                                                              that of an equivalent-cost propane system (Onishi et al., 2004).
Figure 5.9 shows LCCP values for 355 kW air-cooled screw
5                                                                               chillers in Japan using propane, HFC-134a, or R-407C as re-
frigerants in systems with several levels of COP. The chiller life
CFC-12    CFC-11        HCFC-22 HFC-134a HCFC-123     NH3      HCFC-22     is assumed to be 25 years with end-of-life refrigerant recovery
assumed to be either 70% or 80%. Also, during the life of the
Centrifugal compressor                   Screw compressor       equipment it is assumed that a 10% additional charge is needed
to compensate for emissions. The units are assumed to operate
Figure 5.7. LCCP TEWI values for 1000 tonne (3500 kW) chillers with                                      700 h yr-1 for cooling and 400 hours yr-1 for heating. Emissions
a 2% refrigerant annual make-up rate in an Atlanta ofﬁce application                                     from power generation are assumed to be 0.378 kg CO2 kWh-1
(Sand et al., 1997).                                                                                     for Japan (Onishi et al., 2004). The ﬁgure shows that the indi-
rect component of LCCP is dominant for this application and
end-of-life refrigerant recovery rate. A comparison of the LCCP
cies are shown because many chillers are still operating with                                            values for the propane and HFC-134a air-cooled screw chiller/
these refrigerants. The ﬁgure shows the environmental beneﬁts                                            heat pumps reveals that only a modest increase in COP is re-
obtained by replacing CFC chillers with chillers employing                                               quired for the HFC-134a system to have a better LCCP than
non-CFC refrigerants that have higher COPs and a lower direct                                            propane. This COP increase with HFC-134a could be achieved
warming impact. In practice, the environmental beneﬁts from                                              by investing the cost of safety features for ﬂammable refriger-
replacement are greater because older CFC chillers are likely to                                         ant systems in performance improvements to the HFC systems
have refrigerant leak rates of 4% or more, which is higher than                                          instead (Onishi et al., 2004).
the 1% rate assumed in this ﬁgure.
Figure 5.7 shows the effect on TEWI for chillers in Figure
5.6, if the annual refrigerant make-up rate is doubled to 2% for
the chillers and the end-of-life refrigerant loss is 5%. The im-
Indirect    Direct
pact of the increased loss rate on TEWI is small, especially for                                                                                 HC290•0.7•2.65
the non-CFC chillers.
The leakage rates of 1% and 2% used in Figures 5.6 and
5.7 are lower than the historical average for chillers, but 2 to 4                                                                               R-407C•0.7•2.65
times the best-practice value of 0.5% per year available today
in the leading centrifugal and screw chillers.
The basic assumptions for Figures 5.6 and 5.7 are the same
as for Figure 5.5 with the exception of the increased cooling ca-                                                                                R-407C•0.7•2.65
pacity, the CFC chiller characteristics mentioned above, and the
additional assumption of a 5% loss of charge when the chiller is
scrapped.                                                                                                                                        R-407C•0.7•3.05
Figure 5.8 compares LCCP values for air-cooled 25 kW
scroll chiller/heat pumps in Japan. Two refrigerants, propane
and R-407C, are compared for these chiller/heat pumps with                                                                                                         0   20         40        60   80   100   120   140   160
two levels of end-of-life refrigerant recovery, 50% and 70%.                                                                                                                LCCP (tonnes CO2-eq) over 15 year life
The units are assumed to operate 700 h yr-1 for cooling and 400
h yr-1 for heating No additional charge has been added during                                            Figure 5.8. LCCP values for air-cooled 25 kW scroll chiller/heat
the 15-year life of the chiller, and the emissions from power                                            pumps in Japan for R-290 and R-407C, with end-of-life recovery of
generation are taken to be 0.378 kg CO2 kWh-1 for Japan (Onishi                                          70% or 50% of the refrigerant charge, and with a system COP of 2.65
et al., 2004). The ﬁgure shows that the indirect component of                                            or 3.05 (Onishi et al., 2004).
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                                                         287
Table 5.7. HFC consumption and emission estimates for chillers.                                                          5.3        Water-heating heat pumps
Year                  This section describes equipment and refrigerants for heating
2000             2010         water with heat pumps4.
HFC consumption, kt yr-1                                                                   2.5           3.5−4.5
5.3.1      Technologies and applications
HFC consumption, MtC-eq yr-1                                                                1            2.3−3.0
HFC emissions, kt yr-1                                                                     0.2           0.5−0.7
HFC emissions, MtC-eq yr-1                                                                 0.1           0.3−0.5        5.3.1.1 Vapour-compression cycle, heat-pump water heaters
Almost all heat pumps work on the principle of the vapour-
Source: IPCC, 2001                                                                                                       compression cycle. Heating-only, space-heating heat pumps are
manufactured in a variety of sizes ranging from 1 kW heating
capacity for single room units, to 50−1000 kW for commer-
cial/institutional applications, and tens of MW for district heat-
5.2.4.2 Global refrigerant bank and emissions                                                                            ing plants. Most small to medium-sized capacity heat pumps in
Table 5.4 provides a sample of the large and varying refrigerant                                                         buildings are standardized factory-made units. Large heat pump
bank in chillers. One source (Palandre et al., 2004) estimates                                                           installations usually are custom-made and are assembled at the
the Stationary AC banks in 2002 to be nearly 84,000 tonnes                                                               site.
CFCs and nearly 81,000 tonnes of HFCs. Although Stationary                                                                   In several countries water heating for swimming pools is
AC includes more than just chillers, it is clear that the CFC-11                                                         provided by heat pumps. This is a growing market for heat
and CFC-12 banks in chillers make up nearly the entire CFC                                                               pumps.
bank estimated. The growing use of HFC-134a in chillers con-                                                                 Heat sources include outdoor, exhaust and ventilation air,
tributes substantially to the HFC bank as well.                                                                          sea and lake water, sewage water, ground water, earth, industrial
Table 5.7 shows estimates of global HFC consumption and                                                              wastewater and process waste heat. Air-source and ground-cou-
emission for chillers in 2000 and 2010. These estimates are                                                              pled heat pumps dominate the market. For environmental rea-
based on information from IPCC (IPCC, 2001). Additional in-                                                              sons, many countries discourage the use of ground water from
formation on emission estimates is provided in Section 5.4.                                                              wells as a heat pump source (ground subsidence, higher-value
uses for well water). In countries with cold climates such as in
northern Europe, some heat pumps are used for heating only.
In countries with warmer climates, heat pumps serve hydronic
systems with fan coils provide heat in the winter and cooling in
the summer. Heat pumps with dual functions, such as heating
water and cooling air simultaneously, are also available.
In mature markets, such as Sweden, heat pumps have a sig-
niﬁcant market share as heating systems for new buildings and
are entering into retroﬁt markets as well. In Europe, comfort
HC290•0.7•2.77         Indirect   Direct
heating dominates heat pump markets − mostly with hydronic
systems using outside air or the ground. There is increasing use
HFC-134a•0.7•2.77
of heat pumps that recover a portion of exhaust heat in ventila-
tion air to heat incoming air in balanced systems. This reduces
the thermal load compared to having to heat the incoming air
R-407C•0.7•2.63                                                                  with primary fuel or electricity. Heat pumps in Germany and
Sweden provide up to 85% of the annual heating in some build-
ings. For these buildings, supplementary heat is required only
R-407C•0.7•3.32                                                                  on the coldest days.
Heat pumps have up to a 95% share of heating systems in
new buildings in Sweden. This is due to the initial development
R-407C•0.8•3.32
support and subsidies from the government that made the units
reliable and popular, high electricity and gas prices, widespread
0   200   400   600      800   1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000   use of hydronic heating systems, and rating as a ‘green’ heating
system by consumers (IEA, 2003a).
Heat pumps for combined comfort heating and domestic
Figure 5.9. LCCP values for 355 kW air-cooled screw chillers in
Japan for HFC-134a, R-290, and R-407C, with end-of-life refrigerant
recovery of 70% or 80%, and COPs of 2.63, 2.77, or 3.32 (Onishi et                                                       4
Heat pumps that heat air are included in section 5.2 on Stationary Air
al., 2004).                                                                                                              Conditioners.
288                                    IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
hot-water heating are used in some European countries. Most          Total sales of water-heating heat pumps in Sweden were close
of the combined systems on the market alternate between space        to 40,000 units in 2002. Of these, 60% used water or brine as a
and water heating, but units simultaneously serving both uses        source, and the rest used air or exhaust air. Fifty percent of these
are being introduced (IEA, 2004).                                    heat pump sales are for retroﬁts. The Swedish Energy Agency
The heat pumps for comfort heating have capacities up to         estimates that over 300,000 heat pumps are in operation there, a
25 kW. Supply temperatures are 35−45oC for comfort heat in           small portion of which are ‘air-to-air’ (IEA, 2003b).
new constructions and 55o−65oC for retroﬁts. Regulations in a            In the rest of Europe, heat pumps are primarily used in new
number of European countries require domestic water heaters          construction and provide combined operation − comfort heat-
to produce supply temperatures of 60−65oC.                           ing and DHW heating.
Small capacity (10−30 kW) air-to-water heat pump chillers            Switzerland had heat pump sales of 7500 units in 2002, of
for residential and light commercial use in combination with         which 50% were air-to-water and 43% were brine-to-water.
fan-coil units are popular in China as well as Italy, Spain, and     Heat pump sales in Germany were 12,500 units in 2002, of
other southern-European countries. Hot water delivery tem-           which 43% were ground-source combined heat pumps and 33%
peratures are in the 45−55oC range. In the future, the market        were for DHW heating only (JARN, 2004a).
growth of small air-to-water heat pumps may be slowed in                 In China, the use of heat pumps is rapidly increasing and
some markets by the growing popularity of variable-refriger-         had reached 35,000 units in 2002. Sales have increased as a
ant-ﬂow systems combined with multiple, indoor fan coil units        result of nationwide housing development projects where the
connected to a refrigerant loop for direct refrigerant-to-air heat   preference is for hydronic systems. More than half of the sales
transfer.                                                            volume is for units with a capacity of less than 30 kW (JARN,
In Japan, heat pump chillers are mainly for commercial ap-       2003).
plications above 70 kW. Commercial size heat pump chillers
of up to 700 or 1000 kW capacity are used for retroﬁt, replac-       5.3.3      Options for reducing HFC emissions
ing old chillers and boilers to vacate machine room space and
eliminate cooling towers (JARN, 2002b).                              5.3.3.1 HFC vapour-compression systems
Night-time electricity rates in Japan are only 25% of daytime    The actions described in Section 5.1.3.1 can also be used to
rates. As a consequence, domestic hot-water heat pumps are a         reduce emissions in heat pumps.
rapidly-growing market. They are operated only at night and
the hot water is stored for daytime use. Germany and Austria         5.3.3.2    Vapour-compression cycle with non-HFC
have been installing dedicated domestic hot water (DHW) heat                    refrigerants
pumps for a number of years (IEA, 2004).
5.3.1.2 Absorption heat pumps                                        In most applications HC-290 will yield an energy efﬁciency
Absorption heat pumps for space heating are mostly gas-ﬁred          comparable to or slightly higher (e.g., 5−10% higher) than that
and commonly provide cooling simultaneously with heat-               of HCFC-22. The performance difference increases in heat
ing. Most of the systems use water and lithium bromide as the        pumps at lower ambient temperatures. When designing new
working pair, and can achieve about 100oC output temperature.        heat pump systems with propane or other ﬂammable refriger-
Absorption heat pumps for the heating of residential buildings       ants, adequate safety precautions must be taken to ensure safe
are rare. In industry, absorption heat pumps are only employed       operation and maintenance. Several standards that regulate the
on a minor scale.                                                    use of hydrocarbons in heat pumps exist or are being devel-
oped in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. An example is
5.3.2     Refrigerant use and equipment population                   European Standard EN 378 (CEN, 2000/2001).
In some countries hydrocarbons are considered to be a via-
In the past, the most common refrigerants for vapour-compres-        ble option in small, low-charge residential heat pumps. Several
sion heat pumps were CFC-12, R-502, HCFC-22, and R-500. In           northern-European manufacturers are using propane (HC-290)
developed countries, HCFC-22 still is used as one of the main        or propylene (HC-1270) as refrigerants in small residential and
refrigerants in heat pumps, but manufacturers have begun to          commercial water-to-water and air-to-water heat pumps. The
introduce models using HFC alternatives (HFC-134a, R-407C,           hydrocarbon circuit is located outdoors using ambient air, earth,
R-404A) or hydrocarbons to replace their HCFC-22 models.             or ground water sources, and is connected to hydronic ﬂoor
Data on the installed base of water-heating heat pumps are       heating systems (IEA, 2002).
not readily available for most countries. In particular, the data
needed to estimate the bank of various refrigerants in use in        Carbon Dioxide
these heat pumps do not seem to exist. Global sales of these         The transcritical CO2 cycle exhibits a signiﬁcant temperature
heat pumps were small until 1995, but have increased steadily        glide on the high temperature side. Such a glide can be advanta-
since. The installed base of ground-source heat pumps was esti-      geous in a counter-ﬂow heat exchanger. Heat pumps generat-
mated to be about 110,000 units in 1998 (IEA, 1999).                 ing water temperatures of 90oC have been developed in Japan
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                 289
for home use. Typical heating capacities are 4.5 kW. The COP         • Equipment Lifetimes. How long is equipment assumed to
achieved by CO2 water-heating heat pumps is 4.0 and is slightly        exist? Are emission rates assumed to be constant over the
higher for ‘mild climates’. This COP also is attained by R-410A        lifetime?
heat pumps, but the highest water temperature available is about     • Emissions Scope. Are all refrigerants included, or just those
80oC (JARN, 2004b).                                                    reported in national inventories under the UNFCCC (i.e.,
Carbon dioxide is being introduced as a refrigerant for heat       HFCs and PFCs)? Does the source also estimate indirect
pumps, particularly those with a DHW function. Japan and               emissions from power generation?
Norway have been leaders in the development of CO2 water-heat-       • Geographical Extrapolation. If data are only available for
ing heat pumps. Because there is government support in Japan           a particular region, how are the data extrapolated to other
for the introduction of high-efﬁciency water heaters, 37,000 heat      countries or regions or disaggregated into individual coun-
pump water heaters were sold in Japan in 2002 that used CO2 or         tries within the region?
R-410A as refrigerants. The sales are estimated to have increased    • Temporal Extrapolation. How are data extrapolated into the
to 75,000−78,000 units in FY 2003 (JARN, 2004b).                       future? Do emission rates or refrigerant charges change in
the future? If so, by how much and on what basis?
Ammonia                                                              • Global Warming Potentials. What source is used for GWPs?
Ammonia has been used in medium-sized and large capacity               If CFCs and HCFCs are included in estimates, do GWPs
heat pumps, mainly in Scandinavia, Germany, Switzerland, and           represent the direct effect or include the indirect effect as
the Netherlands (IEA, 1993, 1994, 1998 (Chapter 4); Kruse,             well?
1993). System safety requirements for ammonia heat pumps are
similar to those for ammonia chillers, which were discussed in       Table 5.8 compiles several estimates for recent (1996−2005)
Section 5.2.                                                         emission rates. The data shown are direct emissions only.
Estimates for residential and commercial air conditioning and
5.3.4     Global warming effects                                     heating (also called ‘stationary air conditioning and heating’)
are sometimes divided into subcategories. For instance, some
There are no known published data on the global warming ef-          studies report separate estimates for air conditioners (for cool-
fects of water heating heat pumps.                                   ing and/or heating) and chillers, as described in Sections 5.1
and 5.2, respectively. No studies were found that contained
5.4       Estimates for refrigerant emissions and costs for          separate emissions of water-heating heat pumps as described
emission reductions                                        in Section 5.3.
Table 5.8 mostly shows estimates for the entire world, with
There are many data sources that can be used to estimate dis-        two examples for industrialized Europe to further highlight the
crete equipment inventories and refrigerant banks (e.g., ICF,        differences in the literature. Estimates for the entire air condi-
2003; JARN, 2002b, and JARN, 2002c). Several studies have            tioning and refrigeration sector are included to provide a per-
used these data along with ‘bottom-up’ methodologies to esti-        spective; see Chapter 4 and Chapter 6 for more information on
mate refrigerant banks and/or refrigerant emissions, for past,       Refrigeration and Mobile Air Conditioning.
current and/or future years, and for various countries, regions          It is clear that different sources provide vastly different
or the world.                                                        emission estimates. Similar differences are seen for refrigerant
These studies point to the dynamic and competitive nature        banks. Some of the differences shown above can be explained
of the air-conditioning market, especially as the transitions from   by the transition from ODS to non-ODS refrigerants (e.g., in
CFCs and HCFCs to HFCs and other refrigerants, as described          1996 relatively few HFC units existed, whereas by 2005 sub-
earlier in this chapter, occur. Therefore due consideration must     stantially more HFC units had been installed). However, the
be given to the data used, the assumptions made, and the meth-       major difference in the estimates is due to the data and method-
odologies employed in estimating refrigerant banks and emis-         ologies used.
sions. The differences that arise for current estimates of banks         Table 5.9 provides some example estimates of future emis-
and emissions are large, and are often further exacerbated when      sions under ‘baseline’ or ‘business-as-usual’ conditions, in 2010
projecting future banks and emissions. Some of the aspects that      and 2015. Again, the data is for direct emissions only. The data
may vary from study to study are:                                    for 2010 are mainly included to show that any given source
• Equipment Inventories. What type of equipment is includ-           is not always consistently higher or lower than another source
ed? How is it disaggregated?                                     (e.g., compare estimates from sources Harnisch et al., 2001,
• Refrigerant Charge. What is the average refrigerant charge?        and US EPA, 2004).
Are different charges used for different types or different          Some authors also examine various options for reducing the
vintages of equipment?                                           predicted emissions and the costs associated with this. As with
• Emission Sources. Are various emissions sources (e.g., in-         the emission estimates, there is a lot of variation between the
stallation, operating, servicing, end-of-life disposal) evalu-   sources and the results are heavily inﬂuenced by the assump-
ated separately, or is an average emission rate used?            tions made. The economic factors used, such as the monetary
290                                              IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
Table 5.8. Refrigeration and air conditioning emission estimates (MtCO2-eq yr-1) for past and current years.
Region       Substance        Year                                       Application(s)                                           Source/Notes
Stationary AC and Heating           Refrigeration             MAC
Chillers                AC
Commercial     Residential
AC&amp;H            AC&amp;H
EU-15        HFCs             1995                                                    4.3                                         March Consulting
Group, 1998
West.                         1996                                                    16.1                                        Harnisch et al., 2001
World        HFCs             1996                                0.2                                 X              X            Harnisch et al., 2001
2001              &gt;19.9                   2.0−2.4                                                   See note(1)
2002                               8.4                                  X              X            Palandre et al., 2004
2005               7.6             1.7                1.4               X              X            US EPA, 2004
10.7                                 X              X
HFCs,            1996                               20.0                                 X              X            Harnisch et al., 2001
HCFCs,                                                                638.0
CFCs             2002                              222.8                                 X              X            Palandre et al., 2004
X = applications not included in emission estimate(s) shown
Air-conditioner emissions calculated using Table 5.1 for bank, and averages from Section 5.1.1 for annual emission rates. Range assumes 0% to 100% R-407C
with the remainder R-410A. GWPs of blends calculated using GWPs from Table 2.6. Minimum chiller emissions calculated as total centrifugal chiller HFC-
134a bank for USA, Canada and China as shown in Table 5.4 (note Table 5.4 does not represent the complete world inventory) multiplied by emission rate of
1% yr-1 as used in Figures 5.5 and 5.6, and the same GWP source as above.
Table 5.9. Unmitigated refrigeration and air conditioning emission estimates (MtCO2-eq yr-1) for future years.
Region       Substance      Year         Scenario                              Application(s)                                       Source
Stationary AC and Heating         Refrigeration            MAC
Chillers               AC
AC&amp;H           AC&amp;H
EU-15        HFCs           2010         BAU                                                  28.2                                  March Consulting
Base                                                 36.6                                  US EPA, 2004
West.                                    Base                                                 68.8                                  Harnisch et al.,
Europe                                                                                                                              2001
World        HFCs           2015         Base             9.2           31.7                  49.4          X               X       US EPA, 2004
90.3                         X               X
Sc1                               100.1                            X               X       Palandre et al.,
667.0                                  2004
Base                                  14.8                         X               X       Harnisch et al.,
HFCs,          2015         Sc1                               322.8                            X               X       Palandre et al.,
HCFCs,                                                                          1527.2                                 2004
CFCs                        Base                               23.5                            X               X       Harnisch et al.,
293.5                                  2001
Base = Baseline scenario
BAU = Business-as-usual scenario
Sc1 = Scenario 1 (business-as-usual) in Palandre et al., 2004.
Chapter 5: Residential and Commercial Air Conditioning and Heating                                                                                              291
Table 5.10. Abatement options applicable for residential and commercial air conditioning and heating.
Application                  Option                      Region           Cost per             Monetary Unit           Discount           Source
tCO2–eq                                      Rate
AC                           Alternative Fluids          EU-15            23 to 26             ECU                     8%                 March Consulting
and Leak Reduction                                                (year not stated)                          Group, 1998
AC                           Energy Efﬁciency            EU-15            −79 to −70(1)        ECU                     8%                 March Consulting
Improvements                                                      (year not stated)                          Group, 1998
AC                           HC Refrigerant              EU-15            114(1)               1999 Euro               4%                 Harnisch, 2000
AC                           Leak Reduction              EU-15            44                   1999 Euro               4%                 Harnisch, 2000
Chillers                     HC and Ammonia              EU-15            49                   1999 Euro               4%                 Harnisch, 2000
Chillers                     Leak Reduction              EU-15            173                  1999 Euro               4%                 Harnisch, 2000
Stationary AC                Leak Reduction              World            38                   1999 USD                5%                 Harnisch et al., 2001
Stationary AC                STEK-like                   EU-15            18.3                 Euro                    Not stated         Enviros, 2003
and others                   Programme                                                         (year not stated)
AC and others                Recovery                    World            0.13                 2000 USD                4%                 US EPA, 2004
AC and others                Recovery                    World            0.13                 2000 USD                20%                US EPA, 2004
Chillers and others          Leak Repair                 World            −3.20                2000 USD                4%                 US EPA, 2004
Chillers and others          Leak Repair                 World            −1.03                2000 USD                20%                US EPA, 2004
AC and others                Recovery                    World            1.47                 2000 USD                4%                 Schaefer et al., 2005
Chillers and others          Leak Repair                 World            1.20                 2000 USD                4%                 Schaefer et al., 2005
These costs incorporate savings or additional costs due to assumed changes in energy efﬁciency; see the referenced source for more details.
Table 5.11 Mitigated refrigeration and air-conditioning emission estimates (MtCO2-eq yr-1) for future years and mitigation costs (USD per
tCO2-eq abated).
Region          Substance Year           Scenario                             Application(s)                                                Source
Stationary AC and Heating           Refrigeration                  MAC
Commercial      Residential
World            HFCs           2015      Mit            8.9 @ -3.20 29.2 @ 0.13        45.5 @ 0.13                 X                 X      US EPA, 2004
to -1.03
83.6 @ −3.20 to 0.13                            X                 X
364.9 @ −75 to 49
Sc2                               67.9                                    X                 X      Palandre et al.,
452.8                                             2004
Sc3                               43.0                                    X                 X
Mit                           7.6 @ 38.26                                 X                 X      Harnisch et al.,
HFCs,          2015      Mit                          9.4 @ 8.37−41.14                             X                 X      Harnisch et al.,
HCFCs,                                                             109.6 @ 1.05−85.14                                       2001
CFCs                     Sc2                               225.2                                   X                 X      Palandre et al.,
1114.2                                             2004
Sc3                               149.6                                   X                 X
Sc2 = Scenario 2 (some mitigation of emissions) in Palandre et al., 2004.
Sc3 = Scenario 3 (partial HFC phase-out) in Palandre et al., 2004.
292                                     IPCC/TEAP Special Report: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System
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