Source: https://eaugrads.net/2019/06/17/contract-7-series-7/
Timestamp: 2019-08-25 23:21:42
Document Index: 253329294

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 2', '§ 1301', 'art 6', 'art 16', 'art 8', 'art 6', '§ 1']

CONTRACTS GWAC 7:7 – EAUGRADS ESTABLISHED SINCE 1999
CONTRACTS GWAC 7:7
Governmentwide acquisition contracts (known as GWAC) is the processes by which agencies of the federal government purchase goods and services (procurement) involve legal contracts between the agency and a private business. A GWAC is an acquisition tool that facilitates and streamlines the purchasing of IT solutions by United States federal government departments and agencies, while ensuring that the many government-mandated rules are followed.
[1] These rules are complex, deriving from laws and regulations that guide the purchasing processes of each agency. According to the GSA website, “A Governmentwide Acquisition Contract (GWAC) is a pre-competed, multiple-award, indefinite delivery, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contract that agencies can use to buy total IT solutions, including both products and services.”
[2] Federal agencies may create GWACs to support the work of the federal government. This has been done by the GSA, NIH (NITAAC [1]) and NASA (SEWP). A GWAC is not necessarily restricted to the agency that runs it (see the article on SEWP as an example). All IDIQs, including GWACs, are regulated by FAR, a set of rules and regulations that must be followed by federal agencies and providers of goods and services to the government in the procurement process.[3]
Government procurement in the United States is the process by which the federal, state and local government bodies in the United States acquire goods, services (including construction), and interests in real property. In FY 2016 alone, the US Federal Government spent $461B on contracts.[1] Contracts for federal government procurement usually involve appropriated funds spent on supplies, services, and interests in real property by and for the use of the Federal Government through purchase or lease, whether the supplies, services, or interests are already in existence or must be created, developed, demonstrated, and evaluated. See 48 C.F.R. § 2.101 (“Acquisition” defined, as to goods and services only). Federal Government contracting has the same legal elements as contracting between private parties: a lawful purpose, competent contracting parties, an offer, an acceptance that complies with the terms of the offer, mutuality of obligation, and consideration. However, federal procurement is much more heavily regulated, subject to volumes of statutesdealing with Federal contracts and the Federal contracting process, mostly in Titles 10, 31, 40, and 41 of the United States Code.
Private parties entering into a contract with one another (i.e., commercial contracts) have more freedom to establish a broad range of contract terms by mutual consent than a private party entering into a contract with the Federal Government. Each private party represents its own interests and can obligate itself in any lawful manner. Federal Government contracts allow for the creation of contract terms by mutual consent of the parties, but many areas addressed by mutual consent in commercial contracts are controlled by law in Federal contracts and legally require use of prescribed provisions and clauses. In commercial contracting, where one or both parties may be represented by agents whose authority is controlled by the law of agency, the agent is usually allowed to form a contract only with reference to accepted notions of commercial reasonableness and perhaps a few unique statutes that apply. In Federal Government contracting, specific regulatory authority is required for the Government’s agent to enter into the contract, and that agent’s bargaining authority is strictly controlled by statutes and regulations reflecting national policy choices and prudential limitations on the right of Federal employees to obligate Federal funds. By contrast, in commercial contracting, the law allows each side to rely on the other’s authority to make a binding contract on mutually agreeable terms.
The authority of a Contracting Officer, the Government’s agent, to contract on behalf of the Government is set forth in public documents (a warrant) that a person dealing with the Contracting Officer can review. The Contracting Officer does not have authority to act outside of this warrant or to deviate from the laws and regulations controlling Federal Government contracts. The private contracting party is held to know the limitations of the Contracting Officer’s authority, even if the Contracting Officer does not. This makes contracting with the United States a more structured and restricted process than a commercial one.
2.1United States Constitution
2.2Statutes
2.2.1Antideficiency Act
2.2.2Identical bids
2.2.3FASA
2.3Federal Acquisition Regulation
3Acquisition process
3.1Preparing a proposal
3.2.1Stripped Down Components
3.2.2Risk
3.2.2.1Requirement overbundling
3.3Statement of work
3.4Source selection
3.4.1Source Selection Criteria
3.5Metrics/performance measures
3.6Trade-in or sales authority
4Contract administration
4.1Contracting officer
4.2Requests for Equitable Adjustments
4.3Modifications
4.4Claims
4.4.1Release of a claim
4.4.2Contract Disputes Act
4.5Cancellation of contract
4.6Terminations
4.7Real options analysis
The Federal Government’s authority to enter into contracts derives from the U.S. Constitution, which defines its powers. The Federal Government acts through legislation, treaties, implementing regulations, and the exercise of those authorities. The Federal Government’s power to contract is not set forth expressly and specifically in the U.S. Constitution. However, the U.S. Constitution appears to assume the continued vitality “Engagements” entered into under the Articles of Confederation. U.S. Const., Art. VI. Moreover, the power to contract was and is regarded at law as necessarily incidental to the Federal Government’s execution of its other powers. An early Supreme Court case, United States v. Thomas Tingey, 30 U.S. 5 Pet. 115 (1831), recognized that the United States Government has a right to enter into a contract. It is an incident to the general right of sovereignty, and the United States, may, within the sphere of the constitutional powers confided to it and through the instrumentality of the proper department to which those powers are confided, enter into contracts not prohibited by law and appropriate to the just exercise of those powers. Scores of statutes now also expressly authorize departments and agencies to enter into contracts. The U.S. Congress passes legislation that defines the process and additional legislation that provides the funds. Executive branch agencies enter into the contracts and expend the funds to achieve their Congressionally defined missions. When disputes arise, administrative processes within the agencies may resolve them, or the contractor can appeal to the courts.
Government contracts are governed by Federal common law, a body of law which is separate and distinct from the bodies of law applying to most businesses—the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) and the general law of contracts. The UCC applies to contracts for the purchase and sale of goods, and to contracts granting a security interest in property other than land. The UCC is a body of law passed by the U.S. state legislatures and is generally uniform among the states. The general law of contracts, which applies when the UCC does not, is mostly common law, and is also similar across the states, whose courts look to each other’s decisions when there is no in-state precedent.
Contracts directly between the Government and its contractors (“prime contracts”) are governed by the Federal common law. Contracts between the prime contractor and its subcontractors are governed by the contract law of the respective states. Differences between those legal frameworks can put pressure on a prime contractor.[citation needed]
Money appropriated for one purpose cannot be used for a different purpose, according to the Purpose Act (31 U.S.C. § 1301).[7] The annual DoD appropriations acts include approximately 100 different appropriations (known as “colors of money”), and by this rule operations and maintenance (O&M) funds may not be used to buy weapons. Even an expenditure within the apparent scope of one appropriation may not be permissible if there is a more specific appropriation or the agency has made a previous funds election contrary to the proposed use of funds. For example, O&M fund can be used for purchasing repair parts, but if the parts are required to effect a major service life extension that is no longer repair but replacement – procurement funds must be used if the total cost is more than $250,000 (otherwise known as the Other Procurement threshold, for example, Other Procurement Army (OPA) threshold) or another procurement appropriation is available such as the armored vehicle or weapons appropriation.
An Antideficiency Act violation can also occur when a contract uses funds in a period that falls outside of the time period the funds are authorized for use under what is known as the Bona Fide Needs rule (31 USC 1502), which provides: “The balance of a fixed-term appropriation is available only for payment of expenses properly incurred during the period of availability or to complete contracts properly made within that period.”
The Bona Fide Need Rule is a fundamental principle of appropriations law addressing the availability as to time of an agency’s appropriation. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994); 64 Comp. Gen. 410, 414-15 (1985). The rule establishes that an appropriation is available for obligation only to fulfill a genuine or bona fide need of the period of availability for which it was made. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 79 (1994). It applies to all Federal Government activities carried out with appropriated funds, including contract, grant, and cooperative agreement transactions. 73 Comp. Gen. 77, 78-79 (1994). An agency’s compliance with the bona fide need rule is measured at the time the agency incurs an obligation, and depends on the purpose of the transaction and the nature of the obligation being entered into. 61 Comp. Gen. 184, 186 (1981) (bona fide need determination depends upon the facts and circumstances of the particular case). In the grant context, the obligation occurs at the time of award. 31 Comp. Gen. 608 (1952). See also 31 U.S.C. Sec. 1501(a)(5)(B). Simply put, this rule states that the Executive Branch may only use current funds for current needs – they cannot buy items which benefit future year appropriation periods (i.e., 1 October through 30 September) without a specific exemption. The net result of this rule is funds expire after the end date for which Congress has specified their availability. For example, a single year fund expires on 1 October of the year following their appropriation (i.e., FY07 appropriations. (for example, 1 October 2006 through 30 September 2007) expire on 1 October 2007).
President Kennedy‘s Executive Order 10936 of 24 April 1961 required federal agencies to investigate and report on identical bids received in connection with the procurement of goods or services. It was revoked by President Reagan in 1983 by Executive Order 12430.[8]
Kennedy’s order reflected concern that “the prevalence of identical bidding [was] harmful to the effective functioning of a system of competitive bids” and that “identical bidding [might] constitute evidence of the existence of conspiracies to monopolize or restrain trade or commerce”.[9] Reagan’s order argued that the requirement had “proved ineffective” and “consume[d] resources that could be employed in a more effective manner to prevent antitrust violations”.[10]
The procurement process is subject to legislation and regulation separate from the authorization and appropriation process. These regulations are included in the Code of Federal Regulations (“CFR”), the omnibus listing of Government regulations, as Title 48. Chapter 1 of Title 48 is commonly called the Federal Acquisition Regulation (“FAR”). The remaining chapters of Title 48 are supplements to the FAR for specific agencies.
The process for promulgating regulations including the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) includes publication of proposed rules in the Federal Register and receipt of comments from the public before issuing the regulation. Courts treat the FAR as having the “force and effect of law”, and Contracting Officers do not have the authority to deviate from it. Supplements to the FAR have been issued following the same process, and have the same force and effect.
Frequently, contractor proposals in response to a Request for Proposals (RFP) include an exact copy of the RFP’s statement of work. An offeror’s response usually indicates their approach to performing the statement of work, their approach to managing the program or project, and examples of past performance on projects similar in size, scope, and complexity.
Evaluator scoring penalizes proposals that contain “fluff” or generic information that does not directly pertain to the specifics of the solicitation—the Government’s need, source selection factors and work statement or performance specification. Charts and other infographics can help a proposal. Examples would be: a six-line chart of the most compelling credentials of contractor’s key personnel, or including a picture of a uniformed security guard on the pages describing contractor’s uniforms. Professional proposal writers often have graphic design experience.
A proposal can be too long, causing the Government’s source selection authority to skim over it. The Government source selection team may not wish to spend much time on the acquisition source selection. Also, it is possible for vendors to put too much information into proposals which do not go to the heart of the acquisition, particularly information not related to the source selection criteria as well as the work statement.[citation needed]
For more complex acquisitions, source selection authorities will be interested in how the contractor will produce service or non-service deliverables. Thus, staffing plans, methodology to produce, past experience, ISO certifications, and other information which shows that risks to the Government acquisition have been identified and mitigated should be rated higher than other proposals which do not show such information. However, it is important that the proposal first and foremost address the solicitation’s work statement or technical specifications and source selection factors.[citation needed]
Acquisition planning is frequently dependent on the circumstances. For example, during World War II, quantity was the key. As in the Civil War, the U.S. achieved victory due in large part to the American industrial base. A war of attrition requires massive quantities of material, but not necessarily of great quality. During the Cold War, quality was key. The United States may not have had as many pieces of equipment as their opposition, but that equipment could be more effective, efficient, or lethal, and offset the opposition’s numerical advantage. Today, the military needs equipment that works where it is needed, is dependable, has a high degree of maintainability, has long-term reliability, is agile, versatile, and avoids equipment choices that result in political debate and partisan politics.
Many Federal acquisitions are rushed due to poor time management. In these cases, the tendency is to issue a sole-source contract to known vendors even though FAR Part 6 specifically forbids sole-source contracting when it is due to lack of advanced planning. There is also a high cost premium that is added to the cost of an acquisition when a buyer wants a supplier/vendor to rush to execute a contract or push their contract to the head of all other work the contractor/vendor is executing. It is often said that “if you want it bad, you get it bad.” Accordingly, bad acquisition planning generally produces poor and unjustifiable acquisition outcomes. Thus, it is critical to understand the time resources that are required to properly plan and execute a Federal acquisition. Generally, a Government acquisition for moderate to complex requirements requires at least 120 days.
Type of acquisition (FAR Part 16, Types of Contracts): There are two main types of contracts – fixed price and cost reimbursement. In deciding which type to use, a Contracting Officer’s identification of risk is key. A very well known requirement, such as for commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) items (in which no R&D would be needed and there are no high risk aspects) would be best acquired using a fixed-price contract, in which a price is fixed and includes the contractor’s profit; all risk of cost overrun is transferred to the contractor. A higher risk, more unknown requirement is more suited for cost reimbursement type contracts, in which the contractor is reimbursed for all costs, and is paid a fee above that amount. In this arrangement, cost overrun risk is placed mainly upon the Government.
Mandatory Sources: FAR Part 8 discusses the mandatory use of certain sources for acquiring some types of supplies and services. These sources include the Federal Prison Industries, various vendors who hire blind and disabled persons, and Federal Supply Schedules. Certain items cannot be purchased by most agencies, such as passenger motor vehicles; all passenger motor vehicles must be purchased by GSA, unless a waiver is obtained. This is due in part to Congressional restrictions on the use of appropriated funds to purchase vehicles and the special authority that GSA has as the Federal Government’s motor pool manager.
The degree of competition required under FAR Part 6, Competition Requirements (i.e., full and open competition, full and open competition after exclusion of sources, or other than full and open competition, also called “sole-source”)
Preparation of the SOW/PWS – a document that specifies the “who, what, when, where, how” of the contract; it must be specific enough for the contractor to adequately price the requirement and to be enforceable in court. Measurable outcomes must be stated clearly.
Source selection criteria (SSC): Source selection criteria “1) Represent the key areas of importance and emphasis to be considered in the source selection decision; and (2) Support meaningful comparison and discrimination between and among competing proposals.” (FAR 15.304, Evaluation factors and significant subfactors).
Lack of adequate market research often results in contracts that fail to achieve the customer’s expectations. Requiring activities are sometimes asked to write work statements on subject matter with which they have little experience. Persons with little knowledge as to how to conduct market research must seek training or guidance or apply the same common sense they would use if they were buying a high value item for themselves.
Stripped Down Components
Risk from Program Manager, Contracting and Investor’s Perspective:
Risk from an Investor’s perspective:
In other words, there is a misalignment in the perception of risk between the Program Manager, the Lawyer, and the Investor. It is ultimately the Investor who owns the contracting company, and this misalignment will have an effect on the Investor’s behavior and the stock’s performance.
Requirement overbundling
Example of how over-bundling causes big problems (permutations and evaluation of total price in source selection): Lets say a requiring activity wants to get polling services. Acquisition planning reveals there are five polls in ten different regions. However, it turns out that the Government will only be ordering one of the five polls in any real numbers and that particular poll is much more expensive in actual cost than the other four. If a weighting scheme is not applied to this bundled requirement, a vendor can make the four lightly ordered polls very cheap in their offer and the high volume poll very expensive, based on their knowledge of the ordering patterns of the Government in past acquisitions. Thus, on its face, the overall price of a bid when each poll is added together to arrive at a total price (used in source selection) would look attractive but in practice, the Government will burn through its budget very quickly given the vast majority of the actually ordered polls are extremely expensive (even though the actual cost of the most frequently ordered poll is far less than what was in the offer). To avoid the headache of a weighting scheme, all five polls should be broken apart and contracted for separately so they can be judged on their merits. This is an example of what is frequently done on major indefinite duration, indefinite quantity (IDIQ) contracts and explains why some acquisitions are appallingly expensive and require additional funding to achieve the requiring activity’s objectives.
Contractors competing for a Government requirement have an opportunity to request clarification or amendment of a work statement or solicitation. The request for clarification must be done relatively early in the acquisition process, preferably as close to the publication of a solicitation, RFQ, RFP or other publication. Frequently contracting officers will agree to such clarifications if a contractor’s request is well reasoned.
Agency regulations frequently provide guidance on source selections: See for example, AFARS 5115.308 Source selection decision – “A source selection decision document must be prepared for all source selections and reflect the SSA’s integrated assessment and decision. The document must be the single summary document supporting selection of the best value proposal consistent with the stated evaluation criteria. It must clearly explain the decision and documents the reasoning used by the SSA to reach a decision. The document should be releasable to the General Accounting Office and others authorized to receive proprietary and source selection information. When releasing a copy to offerors or to anyone not authorized to receive proprietary and source selection information, redacted material should be limited to that which is proprietary and that which must continue to be protected as source selection information.”
Vendor past performance is generally included as a source selection criteria. It is important to include a requirement for “recent and relevant” past performance.
Trade-in or sales authority
Unless specifically prohibited by another provision of law, an agency’s authority to contract is vested in the agency head, for example, the Secretary of the Air Force or the Administrator, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Agency heads delegate their authority to Contracting Officers, who either hold their authority by virtue of their position or must be appointed in accordance with procedures set forth in the Federal Acquisition Regulation. Only Contracting Officers may sign Government contracts on behalf of the Government. 48 CFR § 1.601. A Contracting Officer has only the authority delegated pursuant to law and agency procedures. This authority is set forth in the Contracting Officer’s certificate of appointment (formerly called a “warrant”). Unlike in commercial contracting, there is no doctrine of apparent authority applicable to the Government. Any action taken by a Contracting Officer that exceeds the Contracting Officer’s actual delegated authority is not binding on the Government, even if both the Contracting Officer and the contractor desire the action and the action benefits the Government. The contractor is presumed to know the scope of the Contracting Officer’s authority and cannot rely on any action of Contracting Officers when it exceeds their authority. Contracting Officers are assisted in their duties by Contracting Officer Representatives (CORs) and Contracting Officer Technical Representatives (COTRs), who usually do not have the authority of a Contracting Officer.
“It is black letter law that every contract with the Government contains an implied obligation that neither party will do anything to prevent, hinder, or delay performance.” Sterling Millwrights, Inc. v. United States, 26 Cl.Ct. 49, 67 (1992) (citing Lewis-Nicholson, Inc. v. United States, 213 Ct.Cl. 192, 550 F.2d 26, 32 (1977)).
When Government actions delay contractor performance and increase costs, “the contractor has a claim for damages.” (Lewis-Nicholson, 550 F.2d at 26).
“A constructive change generally arises where the Government, without more, expressly or impliedly orders the contractor to perform work that is not specified in the contract documents.” Lathan, 20 Cl.Ct. at 128 (citing Chris Berg, Inc. v. United States, 197 Ct.Cl. 503, 525, 455 F.2d 1037, 1050 (1972)).
Contractors may recover excess costs through an equitable adjustment, however, it “bears the burden of proving liability, causation, and resultant injury.” Ralph L. Jones, 33 Fed.Cl. at 331 (citing Wunderlich Contracting Co. v. United States, 173 Ct.Cl. 180, 199, 351 F.2d 956 (1965); Electronic & Missile Facilities, Inc. v. United States, 189 Ct.Cl. 237, 253, 416 F.2d 1345 (1969)).
A contractor must distinguish for the court those delays for which the Government is responsible as opposed to its own; the contractor’s standard for proving damages does not require “absolute exactness or mathematical precision.” Ralph L. Jones, 33 Fed.Cl. at 336 (quoting Electronic & Missile, 189 Ct.Cl. at 257).
The court “needs only enough evidence to make a fair and reasonable estimate.” Id. (citing Miller Elevator, 30 Fed.Cl. at 702; Electronic & Missile, 189 Ct.Cl. at 257).
“The impact of any modification is in our view to be determined by examining whether the alteration is within the scope of the competition which was initially conducted. Ordinarily, a modification falls within the scope of the procurement provided that it is of a nature which potential offerors would have reasonably anticipated under the changes clause.
To determine what potential offerors would have reasonably expected, consideration should be given to the procurement format used, the history of the present and related past procurements, and the nature of the supplies or services sought. A variety of factors may be pertinent, including: whether the requirement was appropriate initially for an advertised or negotiated procurement; whether a standard off the shelf or similar item is sought; or whether, for example, the contract is one for research and development, suggesting that broad changes might be expected because the Government’s requirement are at best only indefinite.”
GAO issued a decision on 31 Jan 06 in DOR Biodefense Inc. and Emergent BioSolutions, B-296358.3 and B-296358.4 regarding whether a modification is within the scope of the original competition under the Competition In Contracting Act (CICA). Modifications outside the scope of the original competition must be competed or justified as sole source actions. Scope analysis is not mechanical, but requires an integrated assessment of multiple factors, including contract type, specification or statement of work, cost and performance period. Whether the modification requires competition also depends upon whether the original solicitation adequately advised offerors of the potential for that type of change, and thus whether the modification would have changed the field of competition. In Biodefense, the Army issued a single award ten year indefinite quantity contract for development and certification of vaccines for biological defense. The challenged modification was exercise of an optional CLIN for development of a type of vaccine not expressly listed in the solicitation’s option that extended the performance period for the option by 8 years at a significant increase in cost. The GAO determined that this modification was, nevertheless, within the overall scope of the original competition based on the broad developmental purpose of the contract and the solicitation’s express notice to offerors that additional vaccine types could be added after award and that changes in regulation may affect performance period and costs. The discussion of actions taken by the Army in the original solicitation to put competitors on notice of the potential for post-award modifications provides good practice insight. See DOR Biodefense, Inc.; Emergent BioSolutions: http://www.gao.gov/decisions/bidpro/2963583.pdf
See DCMA’s Contract Administration Handbook for more information: http://guidebook.dcma.mil/15/instructions.htm
Release of a claim
The key point for T4Ds is that it is the only way that a Government agency can use prior year single year appropriated funds, such as O&M or many types of procurement funds, for reprocurement of the item in question. Accordingly, it is very important the Agency get the acquisition right up front because bad work statements and poor contract administration destroy the Government’s ability to T4D, thus keep their prior year funds to get a replacement contractor.
One approach to analysing Government procurements of large systems, such as weapons systems, is to use real options analysis.[15][16] Such procurements can be done in single annual lots (“single-year procurements,” or SYPs), or, with Congressional approval, multi-year procurement (MYP) contracts. Multi-year contracts generally lower the risk for the contractor, and thus the unit price paid by the Government. One way to look at this situation is that a multi-year contract contains a real option for the contractor to escape the uncertainty associated with a sequence of single-year contract negotiations (analogous to a put option). Real options analysis can give an estimate of the value to the contractor of transferring revenue risk to the Government as a function of the contract’s size and the volatility of the contract’s value, even though the option is not actively traded. The negotiated price is also influenced by the attitudes towards risk of the negotiating parties.
Conjoint analysis (in marketing), conjoint analysis – useful in determining essential elements of an acquisition from a customer’s perspective.
^ “How To Start a Federal Contracting Business”. Retrieved September 30, 2017.
^ “Federal Procurement Reports”. fpds.gov. Retrieved 4 Jan 2011.
^ “FY 2010 – Departments”. fpds.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
^ “Top 100 Contractors Report – Fiscal Year 2009”. fpds.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
^ “Small Business Goaling Report – Fiscal Year 2009” (PDF). fpds.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2011.
^ The Purpose Act says “Appropriations shall be applied only to the objects for which the appropriations were made except as otherwise provided by law.”
^ “48 CFR 14.201-1 – Uniform contract format”. Cornell University Law School. Retrieved 1 Aug 2016.
^ “Uniform Contract Format”. Defense Acquisition University. Retrieved 1 Aug 2016.
Manos, Karen L. (2004). Government Contract Costs & Pricing. Thomson-West.Vol. I – ISBN 0-314-11621-4Vol. II – ISBN 0-314-11708-3
U.S. Army Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School’s Contract Attorneys Deskbook
acquisition.gov– official US Federal Government website of the Integrated Acquisition Environment, functioning under the auspices of OMB‘s Office of Federal Procurement Policy and the Chief Acquisition Officers Council
Boards of Contract Appeals’ Decisions; CCH Contract Appeals Decisions
West Comptroller General’s Procurement Decisions
National Contract Management Association at http://www.ncmahq.org
Search the Government Services Administration (GSA) Schedules program. GSA Schedulesspends approximately $50 billion per year in federal procurement, much of which goes to small businesses.
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Contract formation, negotiation and drafting (statements of work, joint venture and teaming arrangements)
Contract changes and pricing of adjustments
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