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Sound Mining in the North - coal
A Guide to Environmental Regulation and Best
Practices Supporting Social Sustainability
Kai Kokko, Anniina Oksanen, Sanna Hast, Hannu I. Heikkinen,
Helka-Liisa Hentilä, Mikko Jokinen, Teresa Komu, Marika Kunnari,
Élise Lépy, Leena Soudunsaari, Asko Suikkanen and Leena Suopajärvi
Project financers:
The Municipality of Kolari
The Municipality of Muonio
Ylläksen Matkailuyhdistys ry (Ylläs Tourism Association)
Levin Matkailu Oy (Levi Tourism Ltd.)
Cover photography: Mikko Jokinen
Back cover photography: Aki Ollikainen
Editors: Kai Kokko and Anniina Oksanen
Layout: Jouni Hyvärinen and Anne Siika
Translation: Aimo Tattari
Electronic version: ISBN 978-951-40-2464-1 (PDF)
The project Different Land-Uses and Local Communities in Mining Projects (DILACOMI) has
attracted a great deal of attention in the media even before publication of its final results.
The interest can be explained partly by the fact that the project did not focus on internal mining
processes. Instead, the emphasis was on how mining affects local land use and communities and
how regulation and best practices can be used to steer mining toward social sustainability. The
project also addressed the reconciliation of livelihoods such as tourism and mining. In my view,
the project has advanced an informed discourse particularly among mining projects in Lapland.
Although a single research project cannot provide final solutions, the other authors and I hope
that this guide will assist a variety of stakeholders in pursuance of sound mining in the North.
The DILACOMI project has successors; other social scientific projects within the Tekes Green
Mining Programme have followed suit, and to my delight, the work on socially sustainable mining
also continues in the various other projects of the DILACOMI research group. Moreover, this
English version of the guidebook can be used in a comparative analysis of the project Sustainable
Mining, Local Communities, and Environmental Regulation in the Kolarctic Area (SUMILCERE).
DILACOMI is a successful consortium of individual projects carried out by the University of Oulu,
the Finnish Forest Research Institute (Metla), and the University of Lapland.
The following professors and researchers, with whom I had the privilege to co-author this guide,
deserve the greatest merit of successfully completing the project: Helka-Liisa Hentilä, Hannu I.
Heikkinen, Élise Lépy, Leena Soudunsaari and Teresa Komu (University of Oulu); Mikko Jokinen
and Sanna Hast (Metla); Asko Suikkanen, Leena Suopajärvi, Marika Kunnari and Anniina Oksanen
(University of Lapland). Oksanen has also effectively coordinated the project as a whole. I wish
to express my deepest gratitude to you all, as well as to all other researchers and individuals
in various institutions, for your contribution to this project!
In order to succeed, this type of a research consortium needs to be in continuous contact with
surrounding society and stakeholders. Such interaction was carried out in the DILACOMI project
by an active steering group. In addition to the representatives of the consortium institutions, the
steering group included Anita Alajoutsijärvi / Heino Alaniska (Agnico-Eagle Finland Oy), Heikki
Havanka (Municipality of Kolari), Casper Herler (Attorneys at Law Borenius, Ltd.), Timo Jokelainen
(Lapland Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment), Joanna Karinen
(Ylläksen Matkailuyhdistys ry), Katariina Palola (Municipality of Kittilä / Kideve), Anna Mäkelä
(Municipality of Kittilä), Joanna Kuntonen-van’t Riet / Miia Mikkonen (Northland Mines Oy),
Leena Lehtoruusu (Municipality of Muonio), Terho Liikamaa (Tukes), Petri Muje (Tunturi-Lapin
osaamiskeskus – Rurapolis Tunturi-Lapin kehitys ry), Anne Ollila / Marja Anttonen (Reindeer
Herders’ Association), Maria Petterson (Luleå University of Technology), Risto Pietilä (Geological
Survey of Finland, GTK), Harry Sandström (Spinverse Oy / Green Mining), Veli-Matti Tarvainen
(Association of the Finnish Extractive Resources Industry), Jussi Töyrylä (Levin Matkailu Oy),
and Maija Uusisuo / Riitta Lönnström (Regional Council of Lapland).
In addition, the steering group has given invaluable comments on the Finnish draft version of
this guide. But, in accordance with academic requirements, the authors are solely responsible
for its contents. Some of the steering group members have also been members of the project’s executive group. Tekes has been represented in the executive group first by Tapani Peura
and later by Kari Ruokonen. I extend my warm thanks to all the steering and executive group
members for their conversational and constructive collaboration during the project and to
Aimo Tattari for translating this guide into English. And finally, I want to thank each and every
financer mentioned at the beginning of the guide. Without your contribution to this project
we would know considerably less about mining in terms of environmental regulation and best
practices supporting social sustainability.
In Espoo, February 2014
Professor Kai Kokko
Director of the DILACOMI consortium
Figure 1. The old mining area of Hannukainen, the Yllästunturi fell and ski resort in the background. Photo: Lentokuva Vallas Oy / Northland Mines Oy.
Foreword......................................................................................................................................................................3
1 Expectations............................................................................................................................................................6
What do local people think when a mine is about to arrive in their neighbourhood?............ 6
A municipality’s expectations of an arriving mine .................................................................. 8
The stance of other businesses toward mining ...................................................................... 10
How do societal expectations manifest themselves?.............................................................. 12
What is the perspective of this guide and what is it based on?.............................................. 13
2 The phases and legal responsibilities of a mining project........................................................ 14
The phases of a mining project................................................................................................ 14
The phases and their links to the legal frame and liabilities.................................................... 16
3 Environmental regulation: key proceedings and hearing before decision making ................. 18
What are the preparations for the proceedings and who will be heard?................................ 18
The environmental impact assessment procedure (EIA) in mining projects............................ 21
When will there be a separate Natura assessment and what does it consist of..................... 24
What type of land use planning is involved in mining projects?.............................................. 26
Mining-related permit procedures.......................................................................................... 31
4 Social impact assessment (SIA) and the social licence to operate........................................... 35
Social impact assessment in legislation and different processes............................................. 35
How is social impact assessment linked to the acceptability of mining?................................. 38
What is the social licence to operate and how is it earned?................................................... 40
5 After-care measures................................................................................................................... 46
Preparing for after-care measures........................................................................................... 46
Mine closure and planning of after-care measures................................................................. 48
Ensuring the implementation of after-care measures ............................................................ 49
6 Recommendations for practices supporting the social sustainability of mining..................... 50
Best practices in social impact assessment.............................................................................. 50
Best practices in land use planning.......................................................................................... 53
Best practices in reconciling livelihoods.................................................................................. 55
7 Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 63
References.................................................................................................................................... 64
Legislation................................................................................................................................ 64
Literature / publications...................................................................................................................................65
What do local people think when a mine is about to arrive in their
Mining projects are unique owing to issues such as their location, the extracted ores, and the
method of implementation. The empirical results of the DILACOMI project are specifically related
to an operating gold mine Suurikuusikko (or the Kittilä mine) located about 20 km from the Levi
ski resort in Kittilä and the Hannukainen mine about to be reopened about 8-10 km from Ylläs
in Kolari with a wider opencast mine and iron ore as the main product (Figure 2). Academic
observations on the expectations of
various stakeholders are presented
Figure 2. Kittilä, Hannukainen, and Kaunisvaara mining
projects. Image: Mikko Jokinen.
People in local communities generally have a positive attitude toward
mining projects and mining. The
activity is expected to promote a
person’s own as well as other residents’ wellbeing in northern mining
municipalities. This holds true especially among permanent residents,
whereas holiday residents are clearly
more reserved. Regardless of the positive attitudes toward mining, there
is one thing on which both permanent and temporary residents agree:
Certain conditions must be set for
mining before it can be considered
acceptable (see Table 1 and Kunnari, 2014). These conditions concern
both mining companies and municipalities.
The conditions concerning mining companies relate specifically to employment: people hope
that Finnish and local people are favoured over foreigners and non-locals when hiring workers.
As for municipalities, the conditions relate to communication. Municipal authorities are expected to inform residents about all the identified effects of a mine as soon as the information
becomes available. (Kunnari 2014)
In fact, being heard and receiving information significantly affect the attitudes toward mining
in local communities. Attitudes are largely positive (at least consenting) if people feel that they
can freely express their attitudes toward mining, they have been given sufficient information,
the mining company operating in the area is trustworthy, and/or participation in social impact
assessment has been easy. Cash collateral and an agreement securing aftercare and landscaping
are also considered important. And further, mining companies should have an open communication policy regarding the impact of their operation and covering the entire life cycle of the
activity. (Kunnari 2014.)
Acceptability of action:
1) Acceptability has two levels: individual and general.
At the individual level, acceptability is firmly based on mental images of an activity, experiences related to the activity, and a subjective preference that the activity
either creates or does not create. At the general level, acceptability is based on advancing the common good of a community. It is easier for a community to accept
an activity with maximized advantages and minimized disadvantages. Acceptability at the general level ensures the implementation of a project without significant
2) The act behind acceptability is acceptance, which differs from supporting.
Supporting can be thought of as promoting. Acceptance is more closely related to
condoning and tolerating an activity.
3) The values prerequisite for acceptability include equity, trust, and usefulness.
An activity is acceptable when there is a mutual trust between the stakeholders
(mining company, local residents, etc.) and when people feel that the benefits (e.g.
economic) from the activity are divided equally between the stakeholders.
4) Acceptability is based on genuine interaction.
Such interaction builds on e.g. active communication about an activity, a freedom
to express opinions, consideration of differing opinions, and sufficient possibilities
to participate and influence.
5) Acceptability is an evolving process.
An activity may lose its acceptability at any point if its prerequisites and values
are ignored. Trust and acceptability are hard to come by, but it is more difficult, at
times even impossible, to regain them.
6) Acceptability is a precondition for the social licence to operate.
The social licence to operate is an instrument related to financing. It builds on
the key concepts of local acceptance, operational reliability, and, finally, the trust
created by an activity. The social licence to operate is weakly linked to environmental legislation, and it is in the first place a means of corporate self-regulation
created by the international financial sector.
Data Frame 1. The acceptability of mining and its preconditions in local communities (Kunnari
During environmental impact assessment, people would like to see the knowledge of local
communities utilized in the planning of mining activities and in the related decision making.
Rather than being pure environmental data or scientific facts, such local knowledge often derives from regional experience on environmental and other conditions. In interaction between
stakeholders, such knowledge is usually aimed at convincing the other parties about the validity
of one’s own view. Information gathered through environmental impact assessment is therefore
semantic; its significance and truth value are debatable. (Kokko 2013.) Distrust will increase
among local communities if people feel that local information is distorted for example in impact
assessment or if it is completely ignored in the planning of activities, in the related decision
making, or in supervision. In view of the social licence to operate, it is therefore important to
earn and maintain the trust of local people in mining companies as well as in municipal and
A municipality’s expectations of an arriving mine
The mining-related expectations in municipalities focus on improved economy and employment.
Municipalities consider this to be the most important social effect of mining. The Ministry of
Employment and the Economy has commissioned so far the most extensive assessments of the
economic impact of mining. (Hernesniemi et al. 2011 and Niemi 2011.) They have mostly comprised pre-evaluations of economic and employment effects that, in turn, have been calculated
by employing models of local economy used in economics. The impact is presented as gross
effects and often as cumulative effects. According to ETLA’s report, for example, the growth
of the metal mining industry in Lapland leads directly to an output of almost €600 million per
annum at the end of this decade. Taking into account the indirect effects, the report states
that the output of the province of Lapland will increase by up to €1.2 billion. The assessment
includes the following mining projects in Lapland: Hannukainen, Kevitsa, Suurikuusikko, and
the expansion of ferrochrome production at Outokumpu. The assessment points out that
the employment impact of the growth of mining in Lapland will be at its height in 2014, in
accordance with the development of the national economy. This means 3,000 new jobs in the
region. (Hernesniemi et al. 2011.)
However, the pre-evaluations do not consider for example net effects or conditional effects at
the municipal level. An equalization system is employed in the economic relations between the
state and municipalities. According to the system, if a municipality benefits significantly from
a mine’s corporate tax, its state subsidies can be decreased accordingly. An example of this is
the case of the municipality of Sotkamo and the Talvivaara mine.
In the Sotkamo case, the municipal tax revenue was assessed to be significantly higher than
what it turned out to be since 2009. Accordingly, the employment situation has not improved
as expected in Sotkamo or in other mining regions. Mines have not significantly decreased
unemployment, especially long-term unemployment. It is difficult to find jobs for the unemployed and long-term unemployed living in the periphery. In fact, mine workers often commute to
work from elsewhere. (Suikkanen 2012, 2013.) In this respect, mining companies have a special
challenge to meet local people’s expectations of being prioritized in getting a job.
Global mining corporations still have many ways to avoid corporate taxes. Thus, estimations
on the positive effects of mining projects to the municipal economy and employment have
been greater than what we have witnessed so far. This creates a substantial societal challenge
because the justification of mining and the grounds for mining permits are based on such
estimations. (Suikkanen 2012, 2013.)
Planning land use, infrastructures, and services (Data Frame 2), and making other investments
in an area lead to disappointment and generate concrete costs in municipalities if the estimated
economic and employment figures are overly optimistic. In fact, the factors of uncertainty in
the socio-economic impact of mining on municipalities should be given special attention in
Land use planning is planning that relates to a specific physical area and reconciles various
functions (e.g. housing, jobs, services, production, recreational areas, as well as traffic
and technical infrastructures). It is aimed to manage changing living environments and
thereby to meet the needs generated by the activities of a community. Land use planning
is done by public authorities (municipalities and regional councils), it is supervised by the
ELY centres and the Ministry of the Environment, and its target-orientation, methodology,
and statutory frame comply with the Land Use and Building Act (the LUBA 132/1999). The
planning combines various – sometimes competing – land use needs (e.g. agriculture,
forestry, nature preservation, recreational areas, tourist services, industrial activity, and
mining) in such a way that it is in the public interest.
The public interest is the overall good of society and citizens; action benefitting as many
Land use plans are presented on maps indicating the boundaries of various area reservations. The maps also include a legend of the symbols used, written regulations, and a
report which provides information required for assessing the aims and alternatives of the
plan and their impacts as well as the justification of the decision taken. In addition, the
maps show the legal consequences of planning.
Data Frame 2. Land use planning and the public interest.
In municipal land use planning, one must anticipate and analyse to a sufficient degree the
environmental and socio-economic impact related to mining (see the LUBA 132/1999, section 9). In contrast to other industries, the location of a mine cannot be planned beforehand
using conventional argumentation (e.g. placing a mine next to existing industrial facilities
or infrastructure). The location of a mine becomes clear gradually through multi-phase
geological studies and often a long period of exploration. Only a fraction of studied ore
deposits become functioning mines; the odds are roughly one in a thousand. (Hentilä,
H.-L. & Ihatsu, E. 2009, p. 16.)
Thus, mining projects contain various factors of uncertainty from the viewpoint of municipalities. How does a municipality arrange housing, services, traffic, and other technical
infrastructure for the duration of a mining project in such a way that they remain functional after the project? In land use planning, reconciling a mining project and its impact
requires close collaboration and a constant discourse between the municipality and the
mining company as well as other stakeholders.1
In the Oulu School of Architecture, mining-related effects on land use have been studied in pilot experiments that
involve interactive land use planning. (See Hentilä, H.-L. & Soudunsaari, L. 2013 and Hentilä, H.-L. & Ihatsu, E. 2009.)
The stance of other businesses toward mining
In Finland and Lapland, mining usually takes place in regions with existing land use of some type.
When realized, mining projects represent an extensive form of land use – some overlapping
with other forms of local land use is therefore inevitable, which brings up the salient question
of integrating the various uses of natural resources. Nature-related activities may be exclusive,
independent, competing, or complementary in relation to one another. The relations between
the various uses of nature dictate how they can coexist within a region. In practice, there is
nearly always competition or overlapping between activities. On the other hand, the forms of
land use within a particular area seldom cancel out or are totally independent of one another.
The multifaceted use of natural resources and the reconciliation2 of livelihoods are central to
land use planning. The idea of reconciliation has generally been linked to the local acceptability of land use projects and to the socially sustainable use of natural resources; it is found in
legislation regulating land use planning and, on the other hand, it is considered to be the basic
guideline in other planning practices as well (as in natural resource planning carried out by
Metsähallitus). On the one hand, this has increased the representation of stakeholders taking
part in project planning, and on the other hand, it has functioned as a tool of justifying the
Reconciliation is also involved in settling legal contradictions. General and private interests
in the use of natural resources are controlled and reconciled through a planning procedure
complying with section 8 of the Land Use and Building Act, and through other judicial means.
Perhaps the most important of them are agreements made by operators to settle conflicts
between forestry and reindeer husbandry / tourism.
Judicially, the right to use natural resources is often based on the ownership and control of an
area. In practice, the owner has a restricted right of use on the basis of environmental protection or other issues based on the public interest. Also minerals are considered to be of such
general interest that land owners only in principle have a right to them. A mining permit (or a
decision on the concession of a mining area in accordance with the old Mining Act 503/1965)
is the decisive document granting a party other than the owner the right to exploit a mineral
deposit. In practice, such a claim-based right of another party may lead to overlaps between
the livelihood of the owner or possessor and the mining activity (see e.g. the Supreme Administrative Court, KHO 2008:10).
Livelihoods based on rights of use belonging to other parties than the owner may exist in the
area of a mining project. Not all of these rights can be derived from the ownership of an area.
Such livelihoods are for example reindeer husbandry or berry picking based on the public right
The main legal tool in reconciling livelihoods is agreement. Agreement negotiations are facilitated
for example by a cadastral certificate that lists issues restricting the land owner’s competence
of agreement, such as the area of the real estate, the purpose of use of the real estate based
on the local detailed plan, certain restraints, easements, usufructs and restrictions comparable
to easements and established in a procedure analogous to a real estate formation procedure,
and special interests. A certificate of easements can also be useful in the negotiations because
Coordination of varied forms of land use and the idea of using natural resources in a variety of ways have stemmed
from multi-functional forest use planning and expanded into a general guideline in all land use planning. (See e.g.
Kangas & Kokko 2001; Eisto 2004.)
it reveals the encumbrances on real property: mortgages, special interests, statutory liens, and
restrictions of property use rights. (Kokko 2012.)
Agreement also requires observing the rights of the parties of agreement as well as the rights
of third parties. (Tammi-Salminen 2007, Kokko 2012.) It also requires observing, case-by-case,
the natural resource-related restrictions on the freedom of contract (see Data Frame 3) because
the transfer of an area or natural resources does not grant the acquirer more extensive rights
than the transferring owner has. In Data Frame 3 the owner-related restrictions are presented
from weaker to stronger.
Natural resource-related restrictions on the freedom of contract
1) actual authority to public use resting on general grounds, such as general use based on water rights legislation, everyman’s rights, and general fishing rights
2) authority to public use resting on special grounds, such as general fishing rights
based on the municipality of residence or the protection of Sámi culture
3) rights deriving from the legal status of various types of owners, such as easements
or special benefits, or other rights resting on special grounds, such as usage from
4) the rights of a party deriving from joint ownership
5) statutory protection of the public interest, such as general and special restraints
based on public law, general duties, and other special regulations and
6) statutory protection of the private interests of third parties, such as nuisance
restraint as well as the protection of professional fishing, fishing tourism, mining
rights, and neighbour’s rights.
Data Frame 3. Natural resource-related restrictions on the freedom of contract (Kokko 2012).
Reconciling diverse livelihoods is strongly linked to social sustainability and equity, and it cannot be achieved without understanding the various ways to utilize natural resources. Sustainable development is typically associated with the ecological, economic, social, and cultural
dimensions, of which the two former ones often dominate societal discussions. Cultural and
social sustainability are strongly interlinked. Social sustainability requires that development
reinforces people’s life management and living conditions as well as maintains their identity
and the possibilities to construct it. Societal equity is an integral part of this. In practice, social
sustainability should always be examined at the local level, and one should try to understand
its specific local dimensions and contents.
A socially (and culturally) sustainable development project should enhance or at least maintain
e.g. the following: residential influencing possibilities, employment, work conditions, development of the skills of local work force, possibilities for continuing and developing business
activities, recreational possibilities, local well-functioning social systems, continuation of local
values and way of life, and preservation of landscape and cultural attractions. And in addition
to employment, one should observe the diverse meanings and values attached to the living
environment. (Cf. Rannikko 2004, pp. 128–130.)
It is essential to understand the relations between forms of usage when adjusting a new line
of business to a context in which nature is already utilized in many ways and when a number
of social and cultural meanings and values are involved. One of the preconditions for social
sustainability is to secure the continuity of existing local livelihoods and the possibilities for
operational development. A planning process can be considered socially sustainable when
the ecological, economic, and social elements of sustainability form a well-functioning whole
at the end; when the activity is responsible with respect to other stakeholders; and when the
stakeholders are willing to negotiate and commit themselves to constructive cooperation. Other business operators’ expectations on mining relate to equality between contracting parties,
social sustainability, and fair treatment for example in land use planning.
How do societal expectations manifest themselves?
Society expects both tax revenue and responsible action from mining projects. The frame of
social and environmental responsibility in mining is set by legislation. As an example, responsibility for the environment is considered in section 20 of the Constitution of Finland (the CF
731/1999) in connection with the fundamental rights concerning the environment:
• “Nature and its biodiversity, the environment and the national heritage are the responsibility of everyone.”
• “The public authorities shall endeavour to guarantee for everyone the right to a healthy
environment and the possibility to influence the decisions that concern their own living
Environmental responsibility also applies to businesses. The responsibility is implemented
through ordinary legislation and divided into responsibility under private law, public law,
and criminal law. The fundamental rights concerning the environment emphasize everyone’s
possibility to influence decision making concerning their living environment through ordinary
legislation. Therefore, environmental regulation sets various types of requirements, related to
for example local participation, on socially sustainable mining.
The legislative frame of social and environmental responsibility is supplemented by good
governance and self-regulation carried out by mining companies. The DILACOMI project has
studied the practices supporting social sustainability and environmental responsibility in the
activities of the Hannukainen (Kolari) and Suurikuusikko (Kittilä) mines. And further down in
the text, experiences of the social licence to operate acquired from the Hannukainen project
will be described. These experiences are presented bearing in mind future mining projects.
What is the perspective of this guide and what is it based on?
The goal of this guide is to promote the planning and implementation of sustainable mining. To
this end, the above-mentioned expectations of various stakeholders were recognized and used
as a basis for writing the guide. During the writing process, however, it turned out that it is not
rational to address every issue from all of these viewpoints. The viewpoint therefore changes
by chapter – even within a chapter. We rely on the reader’s ability to decide which part of the
book to read. Hopefully, the guide assists in planning socially sustainable mining and proves
to be useful to people dealing with mining in companies, municipalities, state authorities, and
The guide is based on the research results of the DILACOMI project. It is not aimed to reiterate
information published in earlier guides on mining. Rather, it is an independent source relying
on research knowledge and promoting socially sustainable mining.
Chapter 2 describes the phases and responsibilities of a mining project and the ways in which
they are linked to administrative processes. Thereafter, Chapter 3 provides a closer look into the
environmental legislation that forms the regulative frame within which social impact is basically
assessed and stakeholders are heard in mining projects. Chapter 4 focuses on the connection
between social impact assessment, the acceptability of mining, and the social licence to operate. As noted before, local communities set special conditions regarding appropriate mine
closure and aftercare measures. Chapter 5 examines mining from this particular viewpoint.
Chapters 4 and 5 are supplemented by the research results of the DILACOMI project received
from an international comparison. Chapter 6 builds on the preceding chapters and contains
recommendations for practices supporting the social sustainability of mining. Finally, Chapter
7 sums up a few observations of high importance.
2 The phases and legal responsibilities of a mining project
The phases of a mining project
Implementing a mining project that has a significant impact requires reconciling of land use
planning, assessment of environmental and social impact, and various permit processes. Project planning and processing involve a number of stakeholders and authorities. The processes
and phases of a mining project must be interlinked in a timely manner in terms of scheduling,
combining of work phases, and, especially, producing and retrieving information. This also
allows one to view the project as a whole, particularly from the perspective of local residents,
and improves the opportunities for participation.
In general, the phases of a mining project are ore exploration, project development and research, ore production, mine closure, and aftercare. The purpose of ore exploration and the
related geological measurements is to find a deposit enabling economically viable mining. The
exploitability of a deposit is assessed through a number of studies and methods (e.g. drilling,
test mining, and test processing). The studies may take years, even decades. The future of a
project is influenced by the worldwide demand for raw materials, world market prices, and
financing. After feasibility studies a decision is made to start mining activities (also referred
to as the mining decision). The length of the production phase (mining, transportation, and
beneficiation) is determined by the size and quality of the deposit and by the world market
price of ore. The production phase may last from less than ten years to several decades. Exploring and classifying new raw materials is part of mining. Aftercare is an integral part of mine
closure, and it may take several years. (See e.g. Heikkinen et al. 2008.) Mining may be cyclic.
A deposit that has been deemed unprofitable or a mine that has already been closed may be
found profitable owing to new economic, technical, and scientific circumstances. (Hentilä &
Ihatsu 2009.) However, not all mines will be restarted.
Ore exploration and mining activity are regulated by the Mining Act (the MA 621/2011), which
defines the rights to explore, examine, and exploit minerals in the bedrock. According to section
7 of the Act, the so-called general exploration right entitles anyone, even on another’s land
and without a separate permit or landowner’s consent, to conduct geological measurements
and observations and to take minor samples, provided that this does not cause any damage.
One may reserve an area by making a reservation notification, but it does not entitle to ore
exploration, for which an exploration permit must be acquired. An exploration permit allows
closer measurements of a deposit on one’s own or someone else’s land in terms of quality,
extent, exploitability, etc. A mining permit is required for exploiting a deposit. It entitles one to
establish a mine and to start mining activities. (The MA 621/2011, chapters 2 and 3.)
Mining permits are generally processed and granted by Tukes (the Finnish Safety and Chemicals
Agency). When granting a permit, Tukes requests opinions regarding the permit application
from the municipality of the target area, the ELY centre, the regional council, and other required
parties (e.g. the Sámi Parliament and reindeer herding cooperatives). The parties concerned
may lodge objections to the permit; other parties may state their opinion. The owner of an
ore exploration permit must provide collateral for potential damage or inconvenience and for
carrying out after-care measures. Also the owner of a mining permit must provide collateral
covering mine closure and after-care measures. In addition, mining activity is subject to the
collateral stipulated in the environmental permit. The collateral issues are discussed in more
detail in chapter 5. Permits complying with the Mining Act require annual reporting of activities
to Tukes. (Tukes 2013.)
Establishing a mine and engaging in productive activity require a mining safety permit granted
by Tukes. Claiming the right to use land for mining activity and as auxiliary areas to a mine is
managed by the Council of State, which makes a decision about a redemption permit for the
rights. The permit is enforced in the proceedings establishing a mining area, unless the areas
or the rights of use concerning them have otherwise been acquired by the mining company
e.g. through a voluntary purchase. The proceedings of establishing a mining area are carried
out by the land survey office of the target area. (The MA 621/2011, section 33, chapters 8 and
12; Tukes 2013.)
A mine entails a large number of other permits, and the competent authority must always be
determined case-by-case. For example, building permits required for mining are granted by the
building supervision authority of the municipality in question (the LUBA 132/1999, sections
124 and 125).
A M LISH
INE MEN
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FEASIIBNIING DEC
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& A TORA
THE ER IO
MI CAR N
Chart 1. The main phases of mining and mining permits. Chart: Leena Soudunsaari, HelkaLiisa Hentilä, and Anniina Valjus.
The mining permit expires when mining activity ends. If the mining permit has been issued for
a fixed term, it expires at the end of the term unless the term is extended in accordance with
section 63 of the Mining Act. No later than within two years of the termination of mining activity,
the mining operator shall restore the mining area to a condition complying with public safety;
ensure its restoration, cleaning, and landscaping; and perform the measures specified in the
mining permit and the mining safety permit. (The MA 621/2011, chapter 15; Tukes 2013.) The
planning of mine closure and aftercare measures is discussed further in chapter 5.
The phases and their links to the legal frame and liabilities
In Finland, the Mining Act forms the legal frame of a permit to engage in mining activity, but it
also contains regulations related to the environmental responsibility and occupational safety
issues of a mining company. In addition, other environmental legislation has further provisions
on the environmental responsibility of mining projects. (See e.g. Kauppila et al. 2011, p. 41 and
Chart 2.) Chart 1 contains examples of the policy instruments (discussed further in the next
chapter) complying with the Mining Act. It does not contain policy instruments complying with
the Land Use and Building Act, the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (the
EIA Act 468/1994), and the Environmental Protection Act (the EPA 86/2000).
Public law-based regulation concerning environmental protection and land use planning is only
part of the regulative frame governing the environmental responsibilities of mining. When planning mining activities one must consider, as far as possible, various situations of responsibility
that may arise from private law-based (e.g. neighbour relations and environmental damage
indemnification) and criminal law-based regulation (e.g. impairment of the environment). The
overall scheme is supplemented by mining companies’ self-regulation and good governance
that should be based on the principles of corporate governance3 and environmental protection
The environmental liability of companies is usually associated with social responsibility. However, not all types of social responsibility link with justice. The dimension of social responsibility
has been considered to encompass four categories: economic (be productive), legal (obey the
law), ethical (be just, fair, etc.), and philanthropic (be communal and enhance the quality of
life). (Carroll 1979 and 1991.) Hereafter, we will focus on the legal system.
First, in the national and legal context, the social and environmental responsibility of mining
companies lies in a domain formed by basic and human rights4 stated in international treaties
and the Finnish Constitution, including for example environmental responsibility provided in
section 20.1 of the Constitution. Second, the background of legal responsibility is formed by
the EU’s Charter of Fundamental Rights5, treaties6, and legal acts (regulations, directives) and
decisions issued within their authority. In addition, the implementation of international
environmental law in the EU and Finland as well as international corporate self-regulation shape the regulative frame of the social and environmental responsibility of mining
The term corporate governance refers to the governance and internal steering system of a corporation.
For example the European Convention on Human Rights (63/1999).
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (C 364/1), 18 Dec. 2000.
Treaty on the European Union, TEU, and Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, TFEU, (C 326) 26 Oct.
Criminal law-based responsibility
Public law-based responsibility
Private law-based responsibility
The EU’s fundamental rights concerning
the environment, EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, Article
EU treaties, TEU and TFEU
EU legal acts, TFEU Article 288
Finland’s responsibility in the area of fundamental rights concerning the environment,
section 20.1 of the Constitution
Chart 2. The legal frame of corporate environmental responsibility (Kokko 2013b).
3 Environmental regulation: key proceedings and hearing
What are the preparations for the proceedings and who will be heard?
It is essential to genuinely hear various stakeholders and the public in order to gain local acceptance for a mining project. The success of a hearing may be enhanced by observing the following:
1) What does this particular hearing phase entail?
Hearings are arranged in the various phases of the planning and implementation process of a
mining project. An essential part of a hearing is to recognize the role of the party to be heard
and the purpose of each phase of the hearing. For example in EIA, the arrangements of the
assessment are the first topic of hearing (assessment programme phase) and only thereafter,
at the end of the process, the assessment results (assessment report phase). Hearings and
opportunities to participate are also arranged in the different phases of land use planning.
2) What information is relevant to the decision at hand?
To succeed and to be noticed, an objection or opinion must be presented to the proper authority not only in the appropriate phase but also in connection with the relevant permit (or
other decision). For example, it is advisable to present environmental data on water pollution
control in a hearing concerning the combined environmental protection and water permit, but
this data is of less importance when handling building permits.
3) How should one schedule the hearings related to a mining project?
A party concerned, an interested party, or another natural or legal person (Data Frame 4) who
wishes to express his/her/its opinion during hearing proceedings may request instructions from
an authority on the proceedings in question and on other proceedings in terms of progress,
schedule, and possibility to lodge an objection or state an opinion. According to section 8 of the
Administrative Procedure Act (434/2003), an authority is obligated, within its competence, to
provide the necessary advice to its customers and to respond to their questions. One may also
request information for example on the progress of EIA proceedings from the project developer.
According to section 39 of the Mining Act, before making a decision on a matter concerning
an exploration permit, a mining permit, a gold panning permit, and a redemption permit for
a mining area, the permit authority shall reserve an opportunity for the parties concerned to
lodge objections concerning the permit matter. The parties concerned are those whose interests, rights, or obligation the matter may concern. The concept of parties concerned cannot be
interpreted too strictly in hearings preceding these decisions; instead, the starting point should
be the entire area of impact. In practice, the parties concerned may include e.g. the owners
and possessors of real estate in an exploration area, a mining area, and an auxiliary area to a
mine, as well as the owners and possessors of real estate in neighbouring areas. In a reindeer
husbandry area, also herding cooperatives may be parties concerned. Also parties other than
those concerned must be reserved an opportunity to express their opinions on a matter concerning an exploration permit, a mining permit, or a gold panning permit. A reasonable time
limit in view of the nature of the matter shall be specified for filing objections and expressing
opinions. The hearing must not be arranged during a typical vacation period, for example in July.
The public means one or more natural or legal persons, and, in accordance with national legislation or practice, their associations, organizations or groups. (Aarhus Convention, Article 2,
paragraph 4 and SEA Directive 2001/42/EC, Article 2, paragraph d). According to the act on the
assessment of Government plans and programmes (the SEA Act 200/2005), the public means
private persons, their associations and groups, and communities and foundations. There is no
corresponding definition in the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure (468/1994),
in which the concept of participation rather refers to an extended definition of a party concerned.
The public concerned means the public affected or likely to be affected by, or having an interest
in, the environmental decision-making; for the purposes of this definition, non-governmental
organizations promoting environmental protection and meeting any requirements under national law shall be deemed to have an interest. (Aarhus Convention, Article 2, paragraph 5.)
An interested party means, in land use planning and in hearings on planning, landowners in the
area and those on whose living, working, or other conditions the plan may have a substantial
impact, and the authorities and corporations whose sphere of activity the planning involves.
(The LUBA 132/1999, section 62.) This is a suggestive definition, and should therefore not be
used to restrict public participation, particularly in an area where a mining-related plan may
have significant effects. The definition should be in line with the definitions of the public and
authorities stated in the SEA Directive. (Kokko 2007.)
According to section 6.1 of the Administrative Judicial Procedure Act (the AJPA 586/1996),
any person to whom a decision is addressed or whose right, obligation, or interest is directly
affected by a decision may appeal against the decision as a party concerned. The Supreme
Administrative Court has interpreted the concept of interest in such a way that for example
environmental protection organizations have had, subject to certain conditions, the right of
appeal (KHO 2007:74). The concept of party concerned has often been broadened in environmental legislation. For example, section 97.1 of the Environmental Protection Act (86/2000)
states that the right of appeal applies to persons whose rights or interests may be affected
by the matter. More recent environmental legislation also states that alongside the parties
concerned, the right of appeal has been given separately to e.g. environmental protection organizations. Therefore, it has not been necessary to settle their right of appeal by interpreting
the concept of parties concerned.
Data Frame 4. The public, an interested party, and a party concerned (Aikio & Oksanen 2014).
In accordance with section 37 of the Mining Act, the permit authority requests a statement
on a permit application for example from the municipality of the area of activities and from
the ELY centre of the region where impacts may arise. The permit authority is also obligated to
acquire the other statements and reports that are necessary in view of permit consideration.
The new Mining Act also has provisions on clearing a matter in the Sámi Homeland, Skolt
area, and special reindeer herding area (see 621/2011, section 38). In these areas the permit
authority shall establish the impact of a planned project in cooperation (an obligation to clear
and negotiate) with the Sámi Parliament, the local reindeer cooperatives and authority or
institution responsible for management of the area, and the applicant. (See also Paliskuntain
yhdistys 2013, Kokko 2010, and Aikio & Oksanen 2014.) In large mining projects this work is
supported by environmental impact assessment.
This obligation to clear and negotiate matters should be realized through interaction with the
local administrative authorities. Also in this case, one-sided hearing is not enough. According
to section 50 of the Mining Act, an exploration permit, mining permit, or gold panning permit
must not be granted if activities under the permit alone, or together with other corresponding
permits and other forms of land use, would cause harm to or impair the existing living conditions
as stated in this Act. It is a question of managing the entirety and reconciling different interests
in an area where traditional methods are used in earning a living and where customary law
is still valued. The role of local expertise is emphasized for example in reindeer herding. (See
Paliskuntain yhdistys 2013.)
The land use plans concerning a mining project are made through interaction between the
interested parties (Data Frame 4). The interested parties may include the following: land owners, private persons affected by the land use plan, branches of municipal government (e.g.
technical, environmental, industrial, social, educational, and recreational), state authorities,
residential and environmental associations, village committees, people working in the planned
area, and entrepreneurs. The interested parties may also include neighbour municipalities and
their residents if a plan extends across municipal borders.
Environmental legislation requires five types of active interaction between authorities, operators,
and the public (see e.g. the LUBA, section 1 and 6 and Chapter 8 and the EIA Act, section 2.1,
subsection 7). The purpose of hearings will not be achieved without reacting on and replying
to objections and opinions. Thus, one-sided reception of information with no genuine interaction essentially does not suffice to promote the reconciliation of interests and the exchange
of information between parties. Active interaction must be invested in, especially from the
viewpoint of the social licence to operate (Data Frame 5 and chapter 4).
Tietotaulu 5. Aktiivinen vuorovaikutus.
Active interaction does not mean the creation of participatory possibilities only. It also calls
for the utilization of surveys and other active methods of interaction whenever necessary.
Local residents and other public concerned may be encouraged to actively engage in
project planning for example by establishing a steering group or interest-specific groups.
One may request information from the authorities and the project developer to learn a part
of the participation process or the overall hearing procedure. The project developer’s role
in communication and guidance is emphasized when one wants to exceed the statutory
minimum requirements of public participation.
Instructions on voluntary hearings must be also provided in such a way that opinions and
objections are presented at a correct project phase and that they concern, wherever possible, matters relevant to the project planning and the project-related decision consideration.
Data Frame 5. Active interaction.
The environmental impact assessment procedure (EIA) in mining
The environmental impact assessment procedure shall be applied to a project or a material
alteration to a completed project which on the basis of international agreements, for example
the Espoo Convention7, requires an assessment or which may have a significant adverse environmental impact due to the special features of Finland’s nature and environment (the EIA
Act 468/1994, section 4.1) Further provisions on projects are listed in section 6 of the Decree
on Environmental Impact Assessment (the EIA Decree713/2006). According to the list, mining
projects in which metal ores or other mining minerals are mined, processed, and handled shall
be assessed when the total amount of extracted material is at least 550,000 tonnes per year
or when the mine concerned is an open-pit mine with an area of more than 25 hectares. In
addition, a mining project entailing mining, processing, and handling of uranium, excluding
test mining, test processing, and other comparable handling, shall always be submitted to the
In accordance with section 4.2 of the EIA Act, the assessment procedure may in an individual
case be applied discretionarily to a project or to a material alteration of a completed project
that will probably have significant adverse environmental impact comparable in type and extent
to that of the projects listed above, also taking into account the combined impact of different
projects. The EIA Decree provides further criteria that are to be considered especially when
applying the evaluation procedure in an individual case.
Environmental impact has been outlined as a broad concept for assessing various types of
projects, covering social impact as well (Data Frame 6). Its final scope in individual projects is
determined by delimiting the implementation options during the assessment process.
Environmental impact means the direct and indirect effects inside and outside Finnish
territory of a project or operations on
a) human health, living conditions and amenity,
b) soil, water, air, climate, vegetation, organisms, and biological diversity,
c) the community structure, buildings, landscape, townscape, and the cultural heritage,
d) utilization of natural resources, and
e) interactions between the factors stated in points a–d above. (The EIA Act 468/1994,
In this definition, social impact as a concept falls under point a.
Data Frame 6. Environmental impact and social impact.
Timing, assessment documents, and hearing
The environmental impact of a project must be assessed before any action relevant in terms
of environmental impact is taken to implement a project and, at the latest, before an authority
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (SopS 67/1997).
makes the decision required for implementing the project. The assessment commences when
the project developer delivers the assessment programme to the coordination authority. This
is done at the earliest possible phase of project planning so that the assessment can support
the planning. The programme supports the assessment and acts, after getting the opinions and
statements of other parties and the statement of the coordination authority8, as a basis for determining the project options to be assessed and the overall frame and limits of the assessment.
The assessment procedure comprises several phases and methods (see e.g. Kokko 2007, Appendices 3 and 4) through which the gathered information is entered into the assessment report.
According to section 11.1 of the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure, the
coordination authority shall see to publication of the assessment report through immediate
public announcement for a period of 14 days in the municipalities of the project’s probable
area of impact. The public announcement must also be published electronically and at least
in one newspaper in general circulation in the area of impact. In addition, the coordination
authority ensures that the necessary statements are requested on the assessment report, an
opportunity is reserved for expressing views, and the municipalities of the area of impact are
heard (the EIA Act 468/1994, section 11.2). Finally, the coordination authority concludes the
assessment by providing its own statement.
Two statutory hearings shall be arranged in the environmental impact assessment of a project
(see Chart 3). In practice, mining companies have voluntarily arranged more than two hearings.
In addition, the assessment report has been discussed with the cooperation authority prior to
the final version. It would be advisable to develop the Act into this direction (Data Frame 7).
In any case, the cooperation authority has a central role in assuring the quality of assessment.
Proposal to amend the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure
It is recommendable to amend section 11 of the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment
Procedure in such a way that opinions and statements are first given on the assessment report
proposal, after which the project developer finalizes the assessment report and describes the
changes made on the basis of the opinions and statements. The coordination authority would
then give a statement on the final assessment report in accordance with the present practice.
Proposal to amend legislation concerning decision making
The transfer of environmental knowledge in decision making could be enhanced through
sufficient resourcing and by considering the authorities as a neutral body that coordinates
information. Also, the possibilities of authorities to request a statement from universities and
other expert institutions could be developed and expanded further.
Data Frame 7. Developing the EIA procedure and knowledge consideration (Kokko 2013).
The coordination authority is the centre for economic development, transport and the environment (ELY centre) or,
in nuclear energy issues, the Ministry of Employment and the Economy.
Consideration of assessment in decision making
A public authority may not grant a permit for implementation of a project or make any other
comparable decision before it has obtained an assessment report and the coordination authority’s opinion on it. A permit or comparable decision on a project shall state in what way the
assessment report and the coordination authority’s opinion on it have been taken into account
(the EIA Act 468/1994, section 13).
Other provisions on the consideration of assessment have been given in various acts pertaining
to official decisions. The contents of consideration are defined by the prerequisites for decision
making provided in special enactments. For example, the Environmental Protection Act focuses
on pollution prevention aspects in the conclusions of assessment. The assessment of social impact can be observed e.g. in mining permit consideration because section 48.2 of the Mining Act
states that a mining permit cannot be granted if the mine causes highly significant detrimental
environmental impacts, or substantially weakens the living conditions and industrial conditions
of the locality, and the said danger or impacts cannot be remedied through permit regulations.
As for the authorities making decisions concerning a project, their role as parties coordinating
environmental knowledge could be strengthened further through legislation (Data Frame 7).
Competent coordination authority makes a
decision on using the assessment procedure
Decision not to apply
• Delimitation of the assessment and
the options to be assessed
• Delimitation of the area of impact
Statement of the coordination
Statements of other
• Limitation of the adverse impact
Chart 3. EIA procedure of projects (the EIA Act, chapter 2 and Pölönen 2007, p. 47).
Even if a mining project is not subjected to the environmental assessment procedure, the project
developer must obtain sufficient information about the project’s environmental impact, on the
scale that can reasonably be required. Thus, the project developer is bound by section 25 of the
Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure regarding the duty to be aware of impact
which has been of relevance e.g. in considering the prerequisites for a claim. (See KHO 2008:10.)
Also, according to section 5.1 of the Environmental Protection Act, operators must have sufficient
knowledge of their activities’ environmental impact and risks and of ways to reduce harmful
effects (knowledge requirement). Section 6 of the Mining Act has provisions on the general mining principles that must be adhered to. That section also includes the above-mentioned, more
generally formulated knowledge requirement. (The MA 621/2011, section 6.1, subsection 2.)
When will there be a separate Natura assessment and what does it
Chapter 10 of the Nature Conservation Act (the NCA 1096/1996) has provisions on the protection of the Natura 2000 network. This protection encompasses a safeguarding mechanism
for ecological value, covering the assessment of the impact of projects and project plans as
well as a restraint on deteriorating any ecological value to be protected (Chart 4). Exceptions
to the deterioration restraint are possible by Council of State decision (the NCA 1096/1996,
sections 65 and 66). The assessment of the Natura network (Natura assessment) is, as a rule,
an independent procedure in mining projects. But in practice, it is often done in connection
with the environmental impact assessment procedure. This assessment may also be required
when assessing the impact of a mine-related land use plan.
The assessment is typically carried out prior to making mining-related permit decisions. After the
assessment, the permit authority must request a statement on it from the centre for economic
development, transport and the environment (ELY centre) and the authority in charge of the
nature conservation site in question. When issuing its statement the ELY centre examines the
various project options from the viewpoint of the deterioration restraint. The deterioration
restraint described in section 66.1 of the Nature Conservation Act is interpreted in light of
the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) and the fundamental rights concerning the environment
(section 20 of the CF 731/1999). If there remains factual uncertainty in the assessment on the
impact of a project, it is weighed in light of the precautionary principle. After the decision,
no reasonable scientific doubt should remain about an adverse impact on ecological value
and, in the same vein, about detrimental effects on the integrity of a Natura 2000 site. (Kokko
2013, p. 313–314.) The statement should also point out if one of the project options requires
an exception to be made and, especially, if the Council of State is not likely to grant one. In
addition, potential required compensation measures should be foreseen to enable the project
developer to prepare for costs arising from them.
On the basis of assessment, hearings, and statements, the authority making a permit decision
determines whether the decision can be made without an exception granted by the Council
of State. Regarding the interpretation of Article 6, paragraph 3 of the Habitats Directive, it may
also be necessary to hear the public in a separate Natura assessment. The hearing may also
be arranged as part of the permit procedure. If the assessment is part of the Environmental
Impact Assessment Procedure or land use planning, the public will be heard in that context.
Preliminary deliberation of the need for a permit
Is the project likely to have a signiﬁcant
impact on the ecological value of the
Natura 2000 network object?
(the NCA 1096/1996, section 65.1)
Opinion of the ELY Centre and the authority
responsible for the Natura 2000 network object
(the NCA 1096/1996, section 65.2)
Separate participation procedure when needed
(Habitats Directive, Article 6 (3))
Deterioration restraint, if it is shown that the
project has a signiﬁcant detrimental impact on
the protected ecological value of a Natura 2000
network object (the NCA 1096/1996, section 66.1)
(the NCA 1096/1996, sections 66.2 and 66.3)
object does not constitute
a legal obstacle to continuing
object prevents continuing
Permit granted on
the basis of other legislation
Permit denied based on
the Natura provisions of
the NCA 1096/1996
(the NCA 1096/1996, section 69)
Chart 4. Natura assessment and permit decision (Kokko 2013, p. 301).
The Council of State may grant an exception to the protection of a Natura 2000 site if a project
or a plan thereof must, in the absence of alternative solutions, be carried out for imperative
reasons of overriding public interest. If a region contains a priority habitat as specified in Annex I
of the Habitats Directive or a priority species as specified in Annex II, then stricter requirements
for exception may be set in accordance with section 66.3 of the Nature Conservation Act.Ex-
pansion of the Kevitsa mine is a good example of how the safeguarding mechanism functions.
When the project was planned, the Natura assessment was annexed to the assessment report
indicating the following in terms of project option no. 2:
“It is not possible to definitively exclude the fact that the measures in question would not in
the foreseeable future have an adverse impact on the integrity of the Natura site and on the
preservation of its ecological functionality. Based on the precautionary principle, the total impact
of the project option on the habitat types and species serving as the grounds for conserving
the Natura site is considered to be significantly adverse.”9
Based on what is stated above, implementation option no. 2 would most likely neither receive
a permit from the authority nor be subject to a Council of State exception because option 1 of
the project alternatives “would not, with this type of implementation, have significantly adverse
effects on the habitat types or species or the Natura site as a whole.”10 Since alternative 1 was
possible, further planning on the basis of option no. 2 was not realized pursuant to section 66
of the Nature Conservation Act.11
What type of land use planning is involved in mining projects?
Land use planning procedures in practice
Land use planning encompasses detailed and strategic planning that outlines future development prospects and lines of operation regarding land use as a whole. The projects and plans
of various stakeholders are integrated through strategic planning. An individual project may
be large and its impact extensive (e.g. a mining project) or it may only bring a small change to
the living environment. Less extensive projects are managed with local detailed plans, whereas
the area reservations of projects with more significant effects are also included in local master
plans and regional plans.
Land use planning is steered through national land use objectives (NLO)12 adopted by the Council
of State. The plan levels are hierarchically arranged: the tools of strategic planning, the NLO,
and generic plans (regional plans, local master plans) steer lower-level and more detailed plans
(local detailed plans). On the other hand, a detailed plan replaces and is legally more effective
than a more generic plan. These instruments constitute the system of land use planning (the
LUBA 132/1999, section 4 and Chart 5).
Regional plans are made and approved by a competent regional council and ratified by the
Ministry of the Environment. Local master plans, which may also be drawn up by sub-area, are
made and approved by municipalities. A number of municipalities may also draw up a joint
master plan. It is approved by a joint body of the municipalities and ratified by the Ministry of
the Environment. Local detailed plans steer the construction of areas at the local level. Local
detailed plans are drawn up and approved by municipalities. Several local detailed plans and
9 Pöyry (2011): Kevitsa Mine expansion. Environmental Impact Assessment Report, p. 257–258.
10 Ibid, p. 257–258.
11 The opinion of the ELY centre of Lapland, pursuant to section 65 of the Nature Conservation Act and given on 15
July 2011, concerning the Natura assessment of Kevitsa Mine’s expansion project (LAPELY/242/07.01/2010), p. 20.
12 The national land use objectives (NLOs) relate to the environment, ecological and cultural values, environmental
protection, natural resources, community structure, services, traffic, and the economy. Further information:
Valtioneuvoston päätös valtakunnallisista alueidenkäyttötavoitteista (2000) (Council of State decision on national
land use objectives). Valtioneuvoston päätös valtakunnallisten alueidenkäyttötarkoitusten tarkistamisesta (2009)
(Council of State decision on reviewing the national land use objectives) URL: http://www.ymparisto.fi/fi-FI/
Elinymparisto_ja_kaavoitus/Maankayton_suunnittelujarjestelma/Valtakunnalliset_alueidenkayttotavoitteet
National land use objectives
- Approved by the Council of State
- Part of comprehensive regional planning together with
the regional scheme and regional development programme
- Made and approved by the regional council
- Ratiﬁed by the Ministry of the Environment
Joint master plan of municipalities
- Approved by a joint body of the municipalities
- Made and approved by the municipality
(project) planning
Chart 5. The land use planning system. Chart: Leena Soudunsaari and Helka-Liisa Hentilä.
master plans may be in force in a municipality. The present planning status is typically announced
on a municipality’s web pages and in a planning review. More detailed provisions on the NLOs,
land use plans, and their required contents regarding each plan type are laid down in sections
3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 of the Land Use and Building Act.
The land use plan types used in mining projects differ in practice depending on the characteristics of the individual project and on the municipal planning situation. Generic planning has a
significant effect on the progress of a mining project because as opposed to detailed planning
(e.g. local detailed plan), it is used to outline broader views on mining projects and ways to
promote the arrival of mining projects in an area. (Hentilä & Soudunsaari 2013b.) How, then,
should land use planning be carried out before granting a mining permit?
The relation between mining permits and land use planning
Section 47 of the Mining Act has provisions on the prerequisites for granting a mining permit,
and according to subsection 4 of the same section, the relationship of a mining area and an
auxiliary area to other land use shall be explained.
The Mining Act does not unequivocally refer to the level of planning applicable for settling
mining-related land use requirements in relation to other livelihoods or housing. The primary
instrument from the viewpoint of the Mining Act is the legally binding plan (regional plan, legally
binding local master plan, or local detailed plan), but other solutions are also possible if certain
rather strict conditions are met, provided that the impact of the mining activity is assessed to a
sufficient degree in cooperation with the municipality, the regional council, and the ELY centre.
In individual cases, only a decision concerning areas that require planning could be made, but
in that case the scope of mining activity should be so small that it cannot be expected to create
significant environmental or other adverse effects. Also, the need for reconciliation with housing
and other livelihoods should not be extensive. (Aikio & Oksanen 2014.)
The generic nature of a regional plan renders the legal effects of area reservations very vague.
A ratified local master plan should therefore be the starting point for land use arrangements
in mining projects before granting a mining permit. For mining operators the master plan also
means security because it addresses land use reconciliation issues more comprehensively than
a local detailed plan. (Oksanen 2014.) A local master plan also leaves more room for changes
when the planning of a mining project is still in progress. When the mining permit has been
granted, the local detailed plan can then be used to specify for example the locations of buildings, tailings reservoirs, open-pit mines, and excess rock piles. Land use plans can also be altered
if for example new deposits are found or the mining activity deviates from the planned use
of land. It is, however, more time-consuming to change the local detailed plan than to apply
for minor deviations from the master plan. On the other hand, it is possible to gain significant
synergy advantages if the deposit is well-defined, the land area is owned by the mining company, and the project planning is well underway – provided that the environmental impact of
the project together with the effects of the local detailed plan are assessed before applying for
a mining permit. Thus, the timing and the level of detail in mining-related land use planning
must always be settled case-by-case.
It is easier to predict the success of a mining project if one follows the land use planning situation and participates in the planning process of the target area. According to section 46.1
of the Mining Act, neither an exploration nor a gold panning permit shall be granted for an
area where activities in accordance with the permit would impede the implementation of a
legally binding plan. A municipality may also oppose the granting of an exploration permit for
a valid reason deriving from land use planning (Data Frame 8). In this sense the influencing
possibilities of a municipality are greater than what was provided in the repealed Mining Act.
The above-mentioned does not mean that a municipality has a general right to prohibit ore
exploration. However, when applying for an ore exploration permit it is wise to study the land use
planning and other land use issues concerning the area to prepare for potential contradictions.
It is also advisable to negotiate the matter at least with the municipality and the land owner.
The following can be considered as valid reasons to oppose a permit:
• pending land use planning specifying a purpose of use that would be impeded by
ore exploration or gold panning,
• incompatible land use, land use already planned to be implemented, or some other
land use requirement, or
• special ecological or cultural value.
Data Frame 8. Good reasons to prohibit the granting of an ore exploration permit.
Planning process, participation, and influencing
The municipal authority announces current planning projects for example in local newspapers,
municipal web pages, and an annual planning review of all planning matters that are or will
in the near future become pending in the local authority or the regional council (the LUBA
132/1999, section 7). The land use planning process has four phases: initiation, preparation,
proposal, and approval.
Land use plans must be founded on sufficient studies and reports. When a plan is drawn up,
the environmental impact of implementing the plan, including socio-economic, social, cultural
and other impacts, must be assessed to the necessary extent. Such an assessment must cover
the entire area where the plan may be expected to have material impact (the LUBA 132/1999,
section 9). It is therefore advisable to combine, when possible, the land use planning process
and the environmental impact assessment procedure of a mining project to enable concurrent
hearings. The coordination authority, the local municipal planning authority or the regional
council, and the project developer must in fact cooperate to a sufficient degree to integrate the
assessment procedure and the planning process (the EIA Act 468/1994, section 5.1).
Plans must be drawn up through interaction between the parties of interest (see chapter 3).
The planning process chart, below, contains statutory means of participation (e.g. plan proposal
hearing, for more details see the LUBA 132/1999, chapter 8) as well as modes of participation
that support and complement the interaction of various stakeholders (public events, public
authority cooperation, etc.). It is possible to form a steering group or an interest-specific group
consisting of varied stakeholders, as long as the arrangements do not contradict the requirements
of chapter 8 of the Land Use and Building Act to provide possibilities for interaction in land use
planning and its environmental impact assessment. (KHO 2011:86, see also Oksanen 2014.)
• Start of planning
• Drawing up the Participation and
Assessment Scheme (PAS)
• Giving feedback on the PAS
• Negotiations between public authorities
• Drawing up a draft plan
• Presenting the draft plan and preparatory
material in public
• Participation in a public event, seminar,
• Cooperation between public authorities
• Drawing up a plan proposal
• Presenting the plan proposal in public
• Filing an objection regarding the plan
• Approval of the plan by the municipal council
• Ratifying/appealing
Chart 6. Land use planning process from the viewpoints of planning, decision making, and participation. Chart: Leena Soudunsaari and Helka-Liisa Hentilä.
The land use planning process is started by the local municipal authority’s decision to draw
up or amend a land use plan (decision to initiate proceedings). The persons in charge of land
use planning (e.g. architect or manager of technical services) define the preliminary planning
objectives, the required analyses, and the scope of impact assessment regarding a project.
They also draw up the Participation and Assessment Scheme (PAS) including a plan that covers
participation and other interaction as well as impact assessment. The PAS also contains basic
information on the land use planning process and its schedule (the LUBA 132/1999, section
63). The PAS is usually publicized concurrently with the announcement of initiated planning for
example on the notice board of the municipality, in local newspapers, and on the web pages
of the municipality. Interested parties may propose negotiations to the ELY centre if they consider the scope of the PAS to be inadequate (the LUBA 132/1999, section 64). The adequacy
and realization of the PAS may also be addressed in negotiations between public authorities
carried out in the initiation phase between the municipal planning authority and the ELY centre
coordinator. (See the LUBA 132/1999, section 66, and e.g. Ympäristöministeriö 2007.)
In the preparation phase, land use planners elaborate on the objectives for example on the
basis of feedback from the interested parties. They also collect and draw up reports on the
planned area. Planners outline the principles of the land use plan, form various alternatives,
and examine the significant effects related to their implementation. The preparation phase of
the land use planning process is central to participation because it entails participation sessions (e.g. public event, seminar, workshop, walking tour in the planned area) and cooperation
between public authorities as required by the significance and impact of the plan. Assessing
the impact and comparing the alternatives serve as a basis for selecting the alternatives to be
developed into draft plans, the impact of which will also be assessed. The draft plans and the
preparatory material are publicized and the interested parties may state their opinions to the
planner either orally or in writing. (See e.g. Ympäristöministeriö 2007.)
The planners analyse the feedback on the draft plans and materials, after which they start
drafting a land use plan (a map, a legend of the symbols used, and written regulations) proposal
as well as a land use plan report that describes the content of the plan. The plan proposal is
presented in the municipality e.g. to the technical committee, and if the committee is in favour
of the plan, it is presented in public for a period of 30 days. The public presentation is communicated at least in the local newspaper. Expert opinions on the plan proposal are requested
when necessary (e.g. from the ELY centre, other public authorities related to the plan, and the
salient communities). An opportunity to present a written objection about the plan proposal
is reserved for the residents of the municipality and for the interested parties. The planning
authority sums up the objections and opinions and decides whether it is necessary to revise
the proposal. If a plan is important, negotiations between public authorities may be arranged
after receiving the objections and opinions. The land use planner replies to the opinions and
objections. (See LUBA 132/1999, section 65, and e.g. Ympäristöministeriö 2007.) A plan proposal
shall be made available to the public again if it is materially altered on the basis of objections
and opinions (Land Use and Building Decree LUBD 895/1999, section 32).
A plan proposal proceeds through the municipal board to the municipal council for approval. The
decision to approve a plan must immediately be sent to those members of the municipality and
to those objectors who so requested and provided their address while the plan was available to
the public. In addition, the land use plan decision is publicized e.g. in a newspaper. A party that
is unsatisfied with a decision is entitled to appeal the matter to the Administrative Court. Joint
master plans as well as regional plans are appealed to the Ministry of the Environment, which
ratifies these plans. The ELY centre may issue a written rectification reminder to a municipality
about the approval of a land use plan. Depending on the court decision, the approval of a plan
is publicized again after court proceedings. (See LUBA 132/1999, sections 67, 188, and 195 and
e.g. Ympäristöministeriö 2007.)
A municipality must monitor its plans (e.g. local detailed plans according to the LUBA 132/1999,
section 60, and the LUBD 895/1999, section 2) to ensure that they are followed and kept upto-date and, when necessary, take action to revise outdated plans. A land use plan may be
outdated e.g. because it has not been implemented or it has been implemented only to some
extent. The surrounding conditions may also have changed e.g. in terms of traffic arrangements.
Mining-related permit procedures
Required permits and analyses
Before starting mining activities, permits complying with several acts must be applied for. The
most important permits are an ore exploration, gold panning, and mining permit complying
with the Mining Act (the authority: Tukes; see the MA 621/2011, chapter 5, and section 33 on
licencing authorities); an environmental permit complying with the Environmental Protection
Act (the authority: AVI; see the EPA 86/2000, chapter 3 on authorities and their functions); a
permit regarding water resources management complying with the Water Act (the authority:
AVI; see the WA 587/2011, chapter 1, section 7); various safety-related permits (the mining
safety permit is issued by Tukes; see the MA 621/2011, section 122) such as those concerning
handling of hazardous chemicals, handling and storage of explosives, and rescue plans (rescue
authorities, see the MA 621/2011, section 115); safety reports and e.g. monitoring programmes
concerning the safety of dams (the authority: ELY centre; see the Dam Safety Act 494/2009,
section 5). When needed, it is possible to apply for a redemption permit for a mining area
from the Council of State. It grants the right to use a mining area and an auxiliary area to the
mine (see the MA 621/2011, section 33.1). In addition, there must be building permits (municipalities) for processing, office, and other such buildings (see the LUBA 132/1999, section
125). When mining and enrichment operations are aimed at producing uranium or thorium,
there must also be a permit complying with the Nuclear Energy Act (the authority: Council of
State; see the MA 621/2011, section 33.1 and the NEA 990/1987, section 16). In this case the
permit application pertaining to the Nuclear Energy Act and the mining permit application
are processed concurrently (990/1987, section 23.3). The number of required permits varies
according to the characteristics of mines.
The success of the permit applications and permit processes depends on project planning. If
there are shortcomings in a permit application, the public authority must ask the operator to
complement the supplied information. The permit process can be expedited through careful
planning and by checking the statutory permit granting requirements. When applying for permits
one must also find out what reports13 are needed so that the competent authority may grant
the permits complying with statutory requirements. There are some issues to be reported in
connection with all permits (Data Frame9).
A permit application must contain a necessary and reliable report concerning e.g. the
following: the planned activity, its impact, the parties concerned, the existing land use
planning status regarding the area, and possible assessments (EIA and Natura assessment). The required information varies according to the nature and scope of the planned activity and is specified in permit-related legislation. (See e.g. the MA 621/2011,
section 34; Decree on Mining 391/2012, chapter 3; the EPA 86/2000, section 35; and the
EPD 169/2000, chapter 3).
Data Frame 9. Reporting required for permits.
Participation in permit procedures
Permit procedures typically include a hearing process enabling the parties concerned and the public
(Data Frame 4, chapter 3) to state their opinion on a project. In addition, opinions are requested
from the local authorities, other authorities, and experts. The example used here is the environmental permit procedure (Chart 7).
The environmental permit procedure starts with an application that must be publicized by posting
it for 30 days on the notice boards of the relevant municipalities. In large mining projects the actual
time reserved for filing objections and expressing opinions has been 47–51 days starting from the
beginning of publicizing the documents. (Oksanen 2014.) The application is complemented when
necessary in negotiations with the regional state administrative agency (AVI). The regional state
administrative agency then requests an opinion on the permit application from the municipality
in which the activity referred to in the application is located, from the ELY centre in whose area of
operation the environmental impact of the activity may arise, and, if necessary, from the munici13 For example the Mining Act (621/2011), section 34; the Government Decree on Mining Activities (391/2012), chapter 3; the Environmental Protection Act (86/2000), section 35; and the Environmental Protection Decree (169/2000),
palities within the area of impact. The permit authority also requests an opinion on the application
1. environmental protection authorities in municipalities where the environmental impact of
the activities referred to in the application may arise;
2. authorities protecting the public interest in the matter; and
3. other parties as necessary for due consideration of the permit.
The permit authority may also acquire other necessary reports related to the matter for example
from the Finnish Environment Institute and other expert agencies (the EPA 86/2000, section 36
and the EPD 169/2000, section 32). Before passing a decision on a permit, the permit authority
shall provide those whose rights or interests might be concerned (party concerned) with an
opportunity to lodge an objection regarding the matter (chapter 3). In addition, persons other
than the parties concerned shall be provided with an opportunity to state their opinion (the
EPA 86/2000, section 37).
The permit authority may also carry out an inspection (judicial view) before granting a permit
and reserve the project developer a possibility to be heard before passing a final decision.
The environmental permit can be processed jointly with the water permit. The decision is publicized properly and it may be appealed to the Vaasa Administrative Court (the LUBA 86/2000,
sections 39, 53, 54, and 96 and 434/2003, the Administrative Procedure Act, sections 34 and 38).
It would be challenging, if not impossible, to present a universal chart on the phases of the
permits required in mining projects. The chronological order may vary according to applicable
legislation and appeals processes. Legislation does not have strict provisions on the order
in which mining permits are applied for. In fact, it affords the necessary leeway to plan and
implement mining projects. Owing to various factors, the procedures do not always progress
linearly or according to schedule. It could even be disadvantageous for the schedule and project
to be forced to wait for each subprocess to finish and to follow a preset order when changes
occur during the application process. From this perspective, concurrent processes that are not
tied to a set order are justifiable. A complex whole, however, tends to cause confusion and
uncertainty among the public and does not always serve the desired purpose. It is therefore
useful to continue looking for ways to coordinate and integrate mine-related permit and other
administrative procedures. (Oksanen 2014.)
The beginning of procedure
Public (party)
Hearing of the project developer
Chart 7. Environmental permit procedure (Kokko 2013).
(in the limits of rights
4 Social impact assessment (SIA) and the social licence to
Social impact assessment in legislation and different processes
Although there is an obvious need (Data Frame 10) for social impact assessment (SIA), it lacks
a clear regulative frame in legislation. Neither its form nor its content is regulated directly at
the statutory level. However, alongside the actual mining activity a mining project encompasses many processes related to social sustainability, although their order cannot be pinpointed
beforehand. Chart 8 describes the other processes associated with the phases of a mining
project. The participation and interaction of various stakeholders in the official processes of
land use planning, EIA, and SIA play an important role in the beginning of a mining project.
The statutory processes of participation and interaction as well as the social licence to operate
and its maintenance through self-regulation contribute to sustainable development at the local
level. So far, we have discussed process-related regulatory frames within legislation (chapters
2 and 3). Later on, we will focus on good practices (especially chapter 6).
Social impact is assessed in order to
• outline and foresee how the project or plan changes the quality of life or the development of the area of impact and what the consequences of those changes are
(changes and their consequences);
• assess or predict the capacity of the community/area to adapt to changing conditions (adaptability);
• assess the meaning and significance of the changes in view of various stakeholders
and groups (significance of the changes);
• reduce or prevent potential adverse effects well in advance and designedly (minimization of adverse effects);
• consider and resolve contradictions caused by the activity (conflict resolution);
• recognize the possibilities for a social licence to operate (acceptability in the local
Data Frame 10. The reasons to assess social impact. (See e.g. Päivänen J. et al. 2005.)
TIC LAN USE PLANN
AFTSTORA
THE ERCA TIO
MI RE N &
MIT, LAND USE P
S TU IT
FEASIBI G PERM
& MINI N
A M L I SH
PTABILITY OF
Chart 8. Environmental regulation and practices supporting the social sustainability of mining.
Chart: Leena Soudunsaari, Helka-Liisa Hentilä, and Anniina Valjus.
The significance and implementation time of SIA coincide mostly with the above-described
project and land use plan assessment procedures. Social impact is also relevant when participating in official decision making if there are legal requirements concerning SIA (Data Frame
11). In this context participation must be viewed in a broad sense, and it may occur before a
decision (communication, statement requests, and hearing of opinions) and after a decision
(appealing, the right to initiate proceedings).
Section 159 of the Mining Act serves as an example of the right to initiate proceedings. It states that unless proceedings have been instituted on the mining authority’s own initiative, the
rectification of an offence or neglect in the area of impact can be requested by
1. a party concerned suffering damage;
2. a registered association or foundation whose purpose is to promote protection of the
environment or health, nature conservation, or the pleasantness of the living environment, and in whose operating area, in compliance with regulations, the environmental
impact in question appears;
3. the municipality in which the activity is located, or another municipality in the area of
which the detrimental impacts appear;
4. a Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment or another authority
on the matter that is charged with protecting the public interest in its field;
5. the Sámi Parliament, if the detrimental impact appears in the Sámi Homeland;
6. the Skolt village meeting, if the detrimental impact appears in the Skolt area.
Utilization of the right to initiate proceedings requires a written application, and the mining
authority will issue an appealable decision on it.
A mining project’s social impact must be taken into account in administration on the basis
• As part of the concept of environmental impact (the EIA Act 468/1994, section 2.1;
the SEA Act 200/2005, section 2.1; and the MA 621/2011, section 5.1)
• As part of the concept of environmental deterioration (the EPA 86/2000, section 3.1)
• As part of the concept of land use planning and building (for example the LUBA
132/1999, sections 1, 5, 9, 39, 54, 117c, and 117f)
• As part of the concept of peremptory impediment for granting of a permit (the MA
621/2011, section 48.1 and the WA 587/2011, chapter 3, section 4).
Data Frame 11. Examples of considering social impact in administration.
The success of SIA is largely dependent on interaction and foresight. Interaction cannot be
regulated thoroughly by legislation because of the diversity of mining projects, which leaves
room for company self-regulation. Thus, participatory processes can be carried out flexibly in
individual cases and by considering the special characteristics of each project. In individual
projects and in accordance with company standards, self-regulation may be used to give social
impact assessment, impact hearings, and impact consideration a higher status than that required by law. For example, section 11 of the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure
clearly states that, in addition to what is provided in this Act, it is possible to organize publication and hearings also in other ways. An example of good self-regulation is the practice to
form an EIA process steering group or interest-specific groups encompassing various interested
parties during the environmental impact assessment procedure. In such groups, important
issues related to project planning and assessment (nature conservation, infrastructures, other
livelihoods, etc.) can be addressed by experts more thoroughly than in public communication
sessions. (Oksanen 2014.)
How, then, should the legislative frame and self-regulation be developed to get an adequate
picture of social impact and to be able to retain the social licence to operate? Detailed statutory
development is not possible here, but some guidelines can be drawn. One way to support a
mining project through self-regulation is that the mining company and other stakeholders in
cooperation with the municipality draw up a social impact management plan in the project
planning phase. The management plan also supports land use planning. It defines how the
assessments are carried out during the life cycle of the mine, how the results are reported,
and how potential problems are prevented and moderated. The social impact management
plan should include a plan on how to communicate the social impact of the project during its
entire life cycle. When needed, the plans can be updated and combined into a management
and communication plan (Data Frame 12).
• Planning of social impact assessment and the related interaction covering the entire
life cycle of the project (management and communication plan).
• Environmental assessment of municipal land use planning and environmental impact
assessment of the project are combined, if possible, and a joint SIA is incorporated
• Environmental permit requirements concerning social impact are developed further.
• Environmental permits are coordinated and, if possible, participation is arranged
concurrently. At the same time, SIA is tested as part of them and updated as necessary.
• The social licence to operate has been earned during project planning or latest when
the planned activity starts and the permit decisions are legally valid.
• The social licence to operate is retained using self-regulation during the entire life
cycle of the project, while the operator takes care of the before-mentioned social and
environmental responsibilities throughout the activity and in the after-care phase.
Data Frame 12. Guidelines for regulation development (Kokko 2011, Suopajärvi 2013, and
Franks 2012).
How is social impact assessment linked to the acceptability of mining?
Although in section 2(1a) of the EIA Act 468/1994 the definition of environmental impact includes social impacts as described above (Data Frame 6, chapter 3), the said Act does not refer
to the concepts ‘social impact assessment (SIA)’ or ‘social’ and it does not expressly define the
implementation of social impact assessment. SIA is carried out as a single entity within environmental impact assessment (EIA), and its part in the whole assessment procedure is rather
small – the share of SIA documentation in mining project assessment programmes and reports
is 3% – 4%. (Suopajärvi 2013.)
In Finland, social impact assessment has been developed especially by STAKES/THL (e.g. Juslén
1995), and this definition is quite well established in mining projects. According to the definition,
SIA focuses on a project’s effects that change people’s living conditions, amenity, wellbeing, and
the distribution of wellbeing. The definition follows quite closely the wording of the EIA Act,
section 2(1 a) with the addition that also wellbeing and the distribution of wellbeing should
be considered. However, the definition partly disregards the idea of the EIA Act, section 2(1e)
dealing with the interaction of various effects. The idea holds that effects on the environment,
on the community structure, and on the use of natural resources inevitably manifest themselves
in the lives of people and communities as social impacts. Also the current paradigm of social
scientific environmental research postulates that the environment and communities with their
cultures are not individual categories.
Social impact assessments are carried out to order by environmental consultation firms, universities, and research institutions. SIA has become professionalized in Finland. It means that
in extensive projects, which mining typically represents, assessments are mainly carried out
by large and established consultation companies.
Social impact assessment is an area of special expertise that requires an understanding of generic societal phenomena and specific local issues. Reliable SIA presupposes that the assessing
consultants possess expertise on social scientific research and evaluation research. Also the
coordination authority evaluating the contents of SIA should have access to social scientific
research expertise, and it must utilize the expertise when submitting a statement on the assessment programme and report.
Currently, the SIA is done once as part of the environmental impact assessment procedure before the mining permit process and the ensuing activity. Thereafter, social impact is no longer
assessed, even though the impact refers to effects caused by a project and realized in the daily
lives of people and communities – effects that vary according to the various phases of mining
activity. SIA should, in fact, be understood as a process that starts from the planning phase and
extends through the implementation phase to mine closure and beyond.
The importance of SIA should be increased through legislation and through the voluntary action of mining companies, also referred to as self-regulation (Data Frame 13). More detailed
recommendations for better SIA development practices are presented in chapter 6.
The requirements for granting a permit regarding adverse effects on human health laid
down in section 42.1 (1) of the Environmental Protection Act should be developed in such
• they also cover other social effects more extensively and
• the assessment of social impact is also linked to the environmental permit review
The permit conditions could be changed in the permit review as needed. Thus, the current
social impact of a mine could be addressed as part of the consideration to amend the permit.
The monitoring of social impact assessment should be entered more firmly into a mine’s
environmental impact monitoring programme that is presented in the assessment report
(see the EIA Decree 713/2006, section 10 (9)).
Social impact assessment cannot be a mere phrase in the monitoring programme of the
assessment report. Instead, social impact monitoring should continue in the form of
self-regulation throughout the life cycle of a project.
Data Frame 13. Recommendations for developing regulation concerning social impact assessment.
Social impact assessment can be used to analyse the acceptability of a mining project among
the local community. It should also be tied to the concept of social licence to operate. SIA can
be essential to a mining project in terms of its acceptability and social licence to operate.
What is the social licence to operate and how is it earned?
The social licence to operate simply means that the local community approves and supports
mining in the area of impact. It is not comparable to administrative permits such as the mining
permit or the environmental permit, and there is no legislation or defined procedure through
which it could be earned. It is mainly a question of how an individual company operates in the
conditions and with the community of a mine’s impact area. In practice, mining companies
must be able to earn the social licence to operate because of requirements set by the financial market. Some financers require social impact assessments and a social licence to operate
before making a decision to invest. The social licence to operate can be seen as a triangle
displaying the relation of a mining company to its financers and the local community. On the
other hand, the relation between the financer and the local community should be clearer and
more transparent (Chart 9).
The social licence to operate has at least three levels: 1) social legitimacy, 2) credibility, and
3) trust. Legitimacy is based on the norms of the local community. These norms may be legal,
social, or cultural and either official or formed within the community. In order to gain the trust
of the community a mining company must recognize and understand the norms that manifest
the local code of conduct. If it does not succeed in this, it risks losing its reputation and the
Social licence to
Chart 9. The three parties of the social licence to operate in relation to one another. Chart: Kai
trust of the local community, which may result in opposition, delayed schedules caused by
prolonged permit procedures, and problems with financing.
The idea is that the social licence to operate starts from cooperation with local people. This
includes active and open communication as well as citizen engagement and a readiness to answer the questions asked by local people. Credibility and trust are based on a company’s ability
to provide current, truthful, and comprehensible information while being committed to abide
by the norms of the community. The norms that guide and control companies are essentially
based on environmental legislation. If a company does not follow environmental legislation or
operates against permit regulations stated in the Environmental Protection Act, it may lose a
great deal of its credibility and trustworthiness. It takes time and resources to build trust. The
challenge is that a company is expected to confront the local community also in contexts other
than business. Moreover, it is expected to arrange possibilities for participation and cooperation. Trust is built and strengthened through this type of social cohesion and teamwork. (See
e.g. socialicense.com.)
The social impact assessment procedure described in chapter 4 of this Guide and the hearing
procedures exhibit certain preconditions for earning the social licence to operate. By utilizing
the results of SIA and EIA operators learn more about the local community’s wishes and their
customary land use practices that promote wellbeing. These issues can be addressed in the
planning phase to promote socially more sustainable mining.
Perhaps the most significant problem and development target regarding the social acceptability
of mining is operational non-transparency. For example the Kittilä mine has invested in operational transparency especially by arranging mine tours for the public. Transparency should in fact
be developed throughout the life cycle of a mine from ore exploration to after-care measures.
Problems with transparency in an individual mine’s activity (e.g. the earlier communication
policy of the Talvivaara mine) and a failure to engage in an open dialogue easily reflect on
the social acceptability of the entire industry. Open communication about potential changes
in production or about even the most extreme risks may reduce the backlash in the event of
a sudden change. This presumption is based on the significance of open communication in
today’s society; communicating risks that have already materialized is a risk in and of itself. On
the other hand, transparency and openness regarding potential negative events may benefit
a mining company in the long run and promote trust and social acceptance even in the event
of unforeseen operational mishaps.
Data Frames 14a – 14d14 provide some examples on how a mining company can gain the trust
and acceptance of local people through its own effort. Legislation cannot and is not meant to
cover all areas of collaboration. Social acceptability and the social licence to operate depend
largely on a company’s own initiative and self-regulation.
According to Northland Mines Oy,
without a social licence to operate there will not be a mine.
The company has promised to commit to sustainable values and to observe the following
international principles and instructions:
• The principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other basic and human
rights, including the World Bank’s guidelines on human trafficking,
• The ten sustainable development principles of the International Council on Mining and
Metals (ICMM),
• The quality standards and operational management systems of the mining industry (ISO
14001, OHSAS 18001, ISO 26000), and
• Other best practices and norms of the mining industry.
The company started working on the social licence to operate already in 2005, that is, at an
early stage of planning its activity. It has placed special emphasis on societal relations, even set
up a team for it. Also, building and maintaining the relations is the responsibility of everyone
in the company. The mindset is that a mine is part of society.
Transparent communication and a respectful attitude are important in earning the trust
of the local community. Difficult issues must also be addressed. It is essential to treat the
local operators consistently; the same rules apply to each interest group.
Data Frame 14a. Good practices in earning the social licence to operate: an understanding of
the significance of the licence and the ensuing conclusions (case study: the Hannukainen mining
project in Kolari).
Challenges recognized by the company
• Natura 2000 (waterways, vulnerable sea trout waters)
• Reindeer husbandry areas – Muonio reindeer herding cooperative, the logistics (railroad)
also affect five cooperatives
• Vicinity of a tourist resort (Ylläs 10 km and a cabin site 400 m)
• Frontier area (Espoo Convention, frontier waters agreement)
• Transfer of the Hannukainen village, more than a hundred landowners
Information exchange and intelligibility are challenging to accomplish because the mine project
evolves and the plans are updated according to new information from assessments.
Data Frame 14b. Good practices in earning the social licence to operate: recognizing the challenges (case study: the Hannukainen mining project in Kolari).
14 We wish to thank Joanna Kuntonen-van’t Riet, Environmental Safety Manager at Northland Mines Oy and a member
of the DILACOMI project steering group, for her presentation material on the Hannukainen project and for her
valuable comments on our Guide.
The mining company has deemed the following measures necessary:
• The company has made models and visualizations to show people what the area would
look like after 15 years of mining activity. This is the easiest way to make knowledge
on the mine and its effects available to the participants of the EIA and SIA procedures,
• Knowledge transfer has also been enhanced through constantly updated web pages (see
http://www.hannukaisenkaivos.fi/). The pages, written in Finnish, provide information
on the progress of the project and on people’s possibilities to participate in the process.
• The attractiveness of mining and the local people’s understanding of the company
have been increased actively in many ways:
◦◦ summer jobs have been offered to young people
◦◦ ore courses and occupational safety card education have been arranged for
This enables the local people to relate to the company instead of treating it as a strange
and distant operator.
• Trust and cooperation with the municipalities are also essential when pursuing a social licence to operate. Continuous municipal cooperation is required e.g. in land use
• Also other important local operators such as tourism businesses, other entrepreneurs,
hunting associations, and reindeer herding cooperatives have been considered in the
project planning phase. Cooperation between these parties has been supported by
launching an EIA steering group and interest-specific SIA groups.
• The company has valued participation in societal development projects (the Meänmaa
project in Kolari) and in independent mining research projects (DILACOMI and MINERA).
Data Frame 14c. Good practices in earning the social licence to operate: concrete measures
(case study: the Hannukainen mining project in Kolari).
It is necessary to engage the citizens of the area of impact in mine planning throughout the
project – from ore exploration to mine closure. To retain the right to exploit extractive resources, it is important that companies create long-lasting relations of interaction with the local
residents. (Thomson & Boutilier 2011.) This relates to the previously-described concept of
social licence to operate, which is tied to the social and environmental impact of a mine and
to the ways of managing this impact. Good management practices include engaging the local
citizens in mine development.
Nowadays, the relation between responsible company practices and the rest of society is often
covered by corporate social responsibility policies and communication strategies. Social responsibility measures are typically guided by two main objectives: maximizing the profits and
minimizing the negative social and environmental effects of a mine. Gaining the social licence
to operate therefore also relates to successful measures that contribute to a mining company’s
social responsibility and communication. These measures are used to acquire the social trust
and acceptance of local people and thereby to ensure continued utilization of resources (Data
Frame 14d).
To gain and retain a social licence to operate a mining company must ensure that
• communication and interaction between the company and local people exceeds
the legislative obligations of public participation for example in the EIA procedure,
• the voluntary arrangements for participation are not terminated when environmental permits have been granted,
• the company’s strategies of social responsibility and communication are carried out
at a level required by the local community.
Data Frame 14d. Observations on citizen engagement in relation to the social licence to operate.
A mining company should implement its social policy by demonstrating a genuine intention to
be part of the local community, not an outsider. For example the policy of social responsibility
of the Canadian operator Agnico-Eagle Mines has been adapted to meet the requirements
of the mining region and the whole country. In Mexico and in Nunavut, North Canada, the
unemployment rate is high and the general level of education is rather low compared to Finland, for example. At the Pinos Altos gold mine in Mexico, the company has contributed to
the construction of schools and a medical centre and to implementing support programmes
for families. At Nunavut’s Meadowbank, the challenges relate to northern conditions and the
insufficient infrastructure of the area. In this remote area the company has constructed the
entire infrastructure it needs for mining as well as public transport to the mining area to enable
commuting from the village of Baker Lake 110 km away. The approach is different in Finland,
and the company has mostly supported sports and cultural activities in the residential area of
the workers (Data Frame 14d).
To earn and maintain the social licence to operate for mining it is important to consider the
potential role of the financing sector in setting the norms of sustainability. The concept of
social licence to operate is often associated with the social acceptability requirements set for
mining by international financers. The problem is that the financial sector does not operate or
communicate openly in relation to local communities (Chart 9). And further, it is not clear which
financers require operators to follow created indicators or how the indicators are followed in
practice. (The Equator Principles 2006, see also US SIF 2012.)
It would in fact be more important to raise the publicity level of the social requirements for
financing mining activity. The question remains, how will financers be informed about the
concrete social effects and activities of a mine at the local level? Can the information flow
be influenced by parties other than the mining company, for example by local operators or
residents (Chart 9)? The following two notions are a positive sign of the functionality of the
• Semipublic financers may be more apt to use their power to control mining activity (Ilmarinen, Solidium).
• Mining companies invest considerably in press and stock exchange releases and reports,
indicating a need to convince their financers.
In terms of concepts, one should also keep in mind that sustainable development or social
sustainability is not the same as the social licence to operate. The latter focuses on the viewpoints of companies and the economy as well as on time periods. Also, by observing social
issues, companies pursue continued operations and utilization of resources. As a by-product,
the generic and intergenerational sustainability of operations may improve. Thus, the social
licence to operate functions as a tool to reach the objectives of sustainable development.
5 After-care measures
Preparing for after-care measures
Regulation of after-care measures
The Mining Act that entered into force in 2011 has, for the first time, provisions on after-care
measures. After-care measures concerning ore exploration, gold panning, and mining are regulated through the respective permits. Before the renewed Mining Act, only the Environmental
Protection Act (especially section 90) had provisions on after-care measures. Also the National
Audit Office noted in 2007 that it had been possible to carry out mining operations partly at
the risk of others because the old Mining Act did not recognize all the responsibilities, and
therefore the office required the responsible ministry to remedy the situation.15 The corrections
were realized in the new Mining Act. Thus, operators must observe the provisions of both acts.
The provisions of the Mining Act on after-care measures supplement rather than replace the
provisions of the Environmental Protection Act.
Preparations for mine closure and after-care work should be made before establishing a mine,
that is, already in the planning phase. The purpose is to cover the entire life cycle of the mine.
When applying for permits as required by the Mining Act, a necessary and reliable report must
be provided on mine closure, the related measures, and after-care measures. This applies to
the mining permit, gold panning permit, as well as the ore exploration permit. A mining permit
application must also contain a report on the objectives of after-care measures, including a
summary of the main issues (the MA 621/2011, section 34 supported by the MD 391/2012,
section 16.1, subsections 13 and 15).
Development of risk classification and risk assessment
Mines, their locations, and the utilized technologies vary considerably. Risk classification and
assessment should be applied to the entire life cycle of a mine, including mine closure and
after-care. An environmental risk may encompass e.g. the following: a) natural phenomena
and changes therein (climate, precipitation, floods, etc.), b) human activity (careless use of
hazardous chemicals, hurry, economic change), c) insufficient human resources or skills, d)
vulnerability of the area of impact and its communities, or e) combined effects of these. The
damage inflicted is often caused by insufficient, overly optimistic, or improvident risk assessment (Data Frame 15). The severity of damage depends on the scale and operating principle
of a mine, as well as the chemicals used. But it also depends on the vulnerability of the environment and communities to damage, which, in turn, is influenced by their interdependency.
Risk assessment and management require continuous cooperation between a mining company
and the local community. Risk management may involve the development of new technology,
but the risks of new technological solutions should also be assessed before launch. It would be
advisable to develop an appropriate risk classification system and corresponding instructions
for mining projects based on international experiences (the issues of interest include the mine
type, the related chemicals, the scale of the mine, the size of the impact area, and the related
community’s vulnerability).
15 See Valtiontalouden tarkastusvirasto 2007: Valtio etsintä- ja kaivostoiminnan edistäjänä. Toimintakertomus 154, p.
An environmental and social tragedy - Giant Mine, Canada
The Giant Mine is located at few kilometres away from the centre of Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories of Canada. Discovered already at the end of the 19th century by prospectors, the gold deposit
was not mined until the late 1940s when the Giant Mine officially opened. The production began in
1948 and the site was abandoned in 1999. During its 50 years of operation, Yellowknife experienced
a rapid demographic, ethnic, and economic growth due to the number of jobs offered by the several
companies who owned the site.
Found in arsenopyrite ore, the gold had to be released by roasting the ore at very high temperatures.
This process also released arsenic trioxide which was at first discharged directly into the environment.
In the course of time the mining companies installed electrostatic precipitators that removed part of
the arsenic trioxide dust. During its life cycle of 50 years, the mine produced roughly 237,000 tonnes
of arsenic trioxide dust. The dust was finally stored in underground chambers below the permafrost
that was presumed to last indefinitely.
In 1999, the company Royal Oak Mines went bankrupt, and milling and processing on the site stopped. Besides the obvious community effects such as:
loss of more than 300 jobs;
loss of severance pay and reduction of pensions;
health problems caused by arsenic trioxide; and
loss of income for the city of Yellowknife,
the environmental impact has been considerable:
contamination of soil, air, and lakes because of leaking tailings ponds;
some arsenic trioxide dust was stored in old mining chambers beneath the permafrost. Later
on the frost melted and the dust leached out with ground water. Attempts have been made afterwards to collect and treat the material.
It seems that the government had an important role to play as well in the environmental catastrophe
of the Giant Mine. No environmental regulation concerning the mine was settled until the 1970s, no
air quality regulations were laid down, etc. After the bankruptcy the Giant Mine site was shortly owned by another company, which turned it over to the state in 2001. Since, the federal government has
been responsible for the clean-up, but the resources reserved for the task have been insufficient. The
process has been delayed because of a search for funding and an Environmental Impact Assessment
process required for underground arsenic management.
The government has proposed a Giant Mine Remediation Plan to clean up the surface, stabilize and
secure the underground arsenic trioxide, and monitor health and security. The current remediation
plan outlines the long-term storage and management of the arsenic trioxide dust using the frozen
block method that simulates permafrost conditions.
The main conclusions of the Giant Mine disaster are as follows:
environmental legislation and administrative interpretations thereof were inaccurate in regulating for example the processing and storing of arsenic trioxide;
the hypothesis of unchanging environmental and economic conditions on a long-term basis was
wrong when deciding on the application of new technology. To make such a decision would also
have required assessing the economic, environmental, and climatic risks, even if they were inconvenient or not likely to materialize;
the collateral was lacking; mining companies should reserve a part of their profit for after-care
measures and unexpected situations; and
the consequences of mining are not the same for long-term indigenous communities (e.g. the
Dene people) as they are for mining companies that visit an area according to economic trends.
Sources: Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, Affolder et al. 2011, Banfield & Jardine
2013, O´Reilly 2001, The Developers Assessment Report.
Data Frame 15. An example of unsuccessful risk management.
Mine closure and planning of after-care measures
Based on regulation concerning after-care measures and preparing for them as provided in the
Mining Act and the Environmental Protection Act, regulation on mine closure (chapter 5, above)
can be considered to be rather comprehensive. This view is emphasized by section 103b of
the Environmental Protection Act stating that the decommissioning and after-care of a waste
site for extractive waste must be planned in such a manner as to prevent major accidents. But
according to international examples (Data Frame 15), the implementation of mine closure
regulation must also be ensured in advance by authorities as well as companies.
In fact, a mining project should include a mine closure and after-care plan, and special attention should be paid to the financing of after-care measures as part of the permit process.
Transparent resource allocation for after-care should also be included in a mine’s production
plan. Currently, there are more examples of landscaping plans than landscaping measures as
far as old mines are concerned. The social credibility of after-care measures requires the development of after-care plans and financing. Especially in remote areas it is advisable to make
a socio-economic plan for the period after mine closure and to do it already when planning
the work force. This could help to avoid social problems arising from mine closure (e.g. ghost
towns such as Joutel in Quebec, Canada). On the other hand, an after-care plan can also be
used to recognize positive development options (Data Frame 16).
Canadian and Scandinavian after-care solutions that are important from the viewpoint
• Currently, the most typical after-care plan for a mining area deals with landscaping. In
surface mining, carried out without the use of hazardous chemicals, stopes are usually
allowed to get filled by water. When successfully accomplished, a flooded open-pit
mine may become a recreational area used for fishing, diving, etc. or it may become
an artificial nature attraction (a bird lake). Active restoration measures are, however,
often necessary also in these cases because without them stopes are sterile, dark, and
deep in comparison to natural waters.
• After-use as a tourist attraction is also typical. Especially local mining companies in Scandinavia have continued operations through mine tourism. Museums, guided mine tours,
and cultural events (e.g. concerts) arranged in old mines have become commonplace.
• A new economic possibility to use decommissioned mines is energy production or
storage using geothermal energy or closed-loop hydro power technologies. Examples
of the use of geothermal energy can be found in North America and Europe. Geothermal energy has currently been used mainly for mines’ own energy production and for
Data Frame 16: After-use alternatives.
Temporary mine closures and economic arrangements of mine companies, caused by e.g.
changing economic trends, bring special challenges to risk management. A temporary closure
must be assigned a time limit after which the after-care plan is to be implemented. The most
obvious reason why after-care measures have not been implemented is a mining area’s closure on a temporary basis (e.g. Rautaruukki, Kolari). If a deposit enables reopening the mine
(e.g. Hannukainen, Kolari), the after-care measures should be implemented by preserving the
option to do so while ensuring that the closed mine area integrates into the environment and
that the risks are manageable. In case of a temporary closure or company rearrangements, the
transfer of social and environmental responsibilities should be transparently included in the
plan. In terms of trust and the social acceptability of after-care plans, it is advisable to further
develop reserve funds aimed for maintaining after-care measures and for covering damages
during the entire life cycle of a mine.
When a mining project expands or the activity changes, the permit regulations concerning
after-care measures should also be checked and, if necessary, updated correspondingly. Operators should plan after-care measures that can be adhered to. When necessary, the competent
permit authority may also give advice on the steps to be taken after mine closure. There are
guidebooks on after-care techniques (see e.g. Heikkinen et al. 2008) but attention should also
be paid to the social effects of mine closure. In terms of self-regulation, it is recommendable
that mining projects anticipate the social effects or mine closure and plan the best adaptive
measures in collaboration with the local community.
Ensuring the implementation of after-care measures
An international comparison emphasizes the global recession and fluctuating metal prices
affecting mining and its continuity. It also shows the impact of a mining company’s bankruptcy
(Data Frame 15). A sudden interruption of business, even bankruptcy, may easily lead to considerable environmental problems and create a pressure to resort to shared risk management
(funds), if available, or even to societal support, in which case the benefits and adverse effects
of mining do not measure up in accordance with the polluter pays principle. Special attention
must therefore be paid to the continual accumulation of collateral to sufficiently cover the
increasing risks of expanding mining operations. The risks of bankruptcy and ceased activity
to the environment and community can be removed or at least considerably decreased by
sufficient collateral. (See also Kauppi 2013 p. 26.)
The mining permit contains regulations on mining-related collateral and other liabilities concerning the termination of activities and the time thereafter (see the MA 621/2011, chapter 10).
The amount of collateral should accrue to cover the costs of after-care measures also if a mining
company, for example due to bankruptcy, cannot fulfil its obligations concerning the time after
mine closure. Section 43 of the Environmental Protection Act also concerns the regulations of
the environmental permit on preventing pollution, part of which regulate the measures to be
taken after termination of activities. Section 43 b of the Act states that the collateral for a waste
area for extractive waste shall also cover the costs of restoring a land area, located within the
area of impact of the waste area and specified in more detail in the waste management plan
for extractive waste, to a satisfactory state. (For more details, see Kauppi 2013 p. 26.)
6 Recommendations for practices supporting the social
Best practices in social impact assessment
The weight of social impact assessment should be increased in the environmental impact
assessment procedure. Simultaneously, SIA should be considered as a separate part of EIA.
SIA requires an understanding of generic societal phenomena and of specific local issues, and
therefore calls for increased resources and greater attention during the lifetime of a project.
Thus, the best practices of SIA can be linked to statutory procedures and company self-regulation as described in chapter 4. The implementation of superior practices promotes socially
sustainable mining (Data Frame 17).
The social sustainability of mining can be promoted through the following practices:
• in the project planning phase, making a social impact management and communication
plan that covers the entire life cycle of a project (self-regulation);
• conducting high-quality SIA in assessment procedures (the statutory EIA procedure and
land use planning);
• including the SIA follow-up programme in the assessment report and monitoring the
SIA process during the life cycle of the project (the statutory EIA procedure and self-regulation).
Data Frame 17. The relation between regulation and some practices supporting social sustainability.
Social impact refers to effects which are likely to emerge during a project and which vary according to the phases of the project. SIA should therefore be divided into pre-assessment and
a realistic and multilevel assessment of the realized development. SIA should proceed in step
with project planning, implementation, and finalization. During a mine’s life cycle, the social
impact assessments can be carried out as follows:
1. In connection with SIA and during the EIA process and project planning, an initial analysis
should be made to assess the foreseeable effects of the mining activity and to settle, for
example in a steering group consisting of various parties of interest, the preconditions according to which the mining activity is acceptable from the viewpoint of the local community.
2. When a mine is in operation, social impact assessments should be made regularly and
with rather stable contents to get reference data on the various phases of mining. The
assessments of the operating phase should also focus on how the terms of acceptability
have been realized and how they have changed, if at all. In this way SIA increases the participatory possibilities of the local community. The actual social impact is assessed during
the project and when social effects present themselves.
3. At the end of mining activity, the assessments should focus on how to get prepared for the
time after mining by minimizing the adverse effects faced by local people and communities.
Voluntary social impact assessments carried out regularly by the mining company throughout
the mining activity benefit the company as well as the municipalities of the region in many
ways. Up-to-date information on the impact of mining on the local communities enables longterm planning and promotes handling of potential problems already in advance. Social impact
assessment on a regular basis provides information on the views of the local community, which
a company can also utilize in its reporting as required by the social licence to operate. In this
way SIA also increases the participatory possibilities of the local people.
Before carrying out an SIA, the local people should be properly notified of its implementation
methods and objectives. This increases people’s awareness of how they can influence mining-related issues in the SIA process. Active participation can be promoted for example by steering
groups or interest-specific groups (Data Frame 14c, chapter 4). SIA should encompass experts
as well as the stakeholders of the mining region who are able to influence the contents and
terms of the social licence to operate. The local people (including vacation residents) must be
provided a possibility to be heard by using a sufficiently large sample and diverse data collection
methods; it should be easy to take part in the social impact assessment process.
Other development proposals can also be considered in the context of SIA. First, only authorized assessment professionals should be allowed to perform an assessment. Currently, a social
impact assessment can be made by a consultant appointed by the mining company, and assessments vary considerably in terms of the methods used, credibility, information content, etc.
Cooperation authorities should also have expertise in social scientific research or they should
utilize it more efficiently when giving statements on assessment programmes and reports.
Second, SIA should always be reported in a form that allows re-evaluating the validity of the
conclusions stated in the report. This requires a careful description of the research methods
and material as well as an open discussion on the interpretation options. The transparency of
SIA can also be enhanced by publishing the reports in their entirety on the Internet pages of
the cooperation authority.
Although social impact assessments must be defined case-by-case, their physical area should
as a rule cover more than the close vicinity of the mine. A mine often has an impact on the
traffic and waterways of a more extensive area, and hence the views of the people concerned
should be heard in SIA.
SIA must enable a careful definition of the advantages and disadvantages concerning the
various groups of the local community. Special attention should be paid to people referred to
as vulnerable groups, defined on a case-by-case basis in each project. In the North, reindeer
herders are a vulnerable group, and therefore particular attention should be paid to their
views (Data Frame 20). Social impact assessments should also be gender-sensitive, and special
attention should be paid to the views of young people because mining has long-term effects
that change the local environment permanently. Future generations must be also considered
from the viewpoint of sustainable development. In this context the minimum requirement is
that the views of young people are appreciated and actively collected, for example with the
assistance of schools, as part of social impact assessment. Thus, social impact assessment can
be systematically enhanced through various self-regulation practices carried out by companies
(Data Frame 18).
• A summary of recommendations: The significance of social impact assessment
should be increased as part of the environmental impact assessment procedure
carried out at the initial phase of a project. However, SIA should also be considered
as an independent assessment in order to emphasize the role of and the need for
• SIA should be divided into evaluations before a mining permit decision and after
the decision as a realistic, multilevel assessment of the actual progress of a project.
• SIA should proceed in step with project planning, implementation, and finalization.
• SIA should entail regular assessments from the beginning of a project to the time
after the termination phase.
• SIA should be defined case-by-case, but its physical area should as a rule cover more
than the close vicinity of the mine.
• The results of SIA should be presented in a form that allows evaluating the validity
of the conclusions.
• SIA should only be carried out by an authorized expert on evaluation research.
• The SIA procedure and the related objectives should be communicated comprehensively, and for example a steering group can be set up to actively enhance the
• SIAs are gender sensitive. In addition, special attention should be paid to the views
of young people and to the significance of age distribution in the response analysis.
• SIA should carefully specify the advantages and disadvantages faced by the local
• SIA should be tied to the concept of social licence to operate.
Data Frame 18. Best practices in social impact assessment.
Best practices in land use planning
Land use planning does not concern the planning of a mining area only. Instead, mining projects also affect other municipal and regional land use and they should therefore be examined
strategically from the viewpoint of the entire municipal or provincial development. (Hentilä &
Soudunsaari 2013b.) Planners must consider the impact of mining projects on other construction
work and infrastructural planning, which affects the examination of the currency and functionality of land use plans (e.g. local master plans of the nearest population centre and changes
or expansions to local detailed plans).
It is essential to integrate the various plans and to engage in long-term land use planning by
considering the duration of a potential mining project. Starting strategic land use planning
when a mining project has already entered its planning phase does not provide a sound basis
for high-quality land use planning. (Hentilä & Soudunsaari 2013b.) The key questions of land
use planning are as follows: What can be done to enable a mining project, mining activity, mine
closure, as well as a possible restart? How can a municipality function and evolve sustainably
if a mining project fails to launch?
Proactive planning also speeds up the launch of potential new mining projects. Finalized land use
plans and strategic lines make it easier for a municipality to prepare for and adapt to the initial
phase of a mining project, in which the location and auxiliary area operations vary according
to the available options and impact assessment. Proactiveness also prevents the emergence
of coinciding land use needs (e.g. mining vs. the construction of vacation houses) when plans
of different levels are combined. For example, a regional plan may have zones reserved for
mining activities. (Hentilä & Soudunsaari 2013b.)
The combining of land use planning, the EIA and SIA processes, and permit processes must always
be considered and scheduled case-by-case. It is essential to find a contact point for starting the
various processes. Studies (Hentilä & Soudunsaari 2013b) suggest that it is good practice if land
use planning, EIA, SIA, and the feasibility study of a mining project are conducted concurrently.
Planning a mining project typically leads to significant changes in land use, and therefore time
must be reserved for land use planning and potential appeals. In an ideal case all land use plan
levels are analysed and changed simultaneously, but this does not occur often. It takes roughly
five years to change the regional plan (2–3 years to conduct the work, roughly 1 year to get the
Ministry’s ratification, up to 1.5 years to possible Supreme Administrative Court proceedings).
For example in Lapland, regional plans are made on a ten-year basis. The flexibility of the regional plan is increased by the fact that it is generic, which means that it can also be changed
in stages or in parts, when necessary. The regional scheme is even more flexible; it is updated
every fourth year, i.e., once during a council term. The regional scheme has provisions for potential mining projects, railway lines, and other traffic arrangements to promote the progress
and operations of mining projects. Municipal plans respond to changes more quickly. For
example the local master plan takes from two to three years to process and the local detailed
plan a bit more than a year. However, a municipality must wait for binding decisions from the
mining company before starting the planning process. Transparency, cooperation skills, and
information exchange are of utmost importance in mining-related land use planning (Table 1).
(Hentilä & Soudunsaari 2013b.)
Required in land use planning
Information: information reception and
Stakeholders (municipality, mining company, ELY centre,
regional council, consultants)
As early as possible; proactive and scheduled planning
Statutory basic information as well as unofficial information
Knowledge sharing in different processes (EIA, SIA, plan reports)
Essential to all stakeholders
Interactive training to mining companies and authorities on the
requirements of mining and the duties of the authorities
Regarding the parties of interest, special attention must be paid
to information, communication, timing, and the communication
Cooperation and interaction: between
the stakeholders and between the stakeholders and parties of interest
Transparent and comprehensive (other municipal sectors included)
Statutory processes as well as unofficial cooperation (interest-specific groups, seminars)
Close cooperation between the authorities, between the authorities and the mining company, and between the authorities, the
mining company and the parties of interest
Guidance on municipal land use planning given by the ELY centre
and the regional council
Consultation and other purchased
TInvitations for tenders must be made carefully
Time must be reserved for thorough and high-quality work
High-quality work will be cheaper than making several corrections
The input of people familiar with land use planning as well as land
use and building legislation is needed especially at the beginning
of a mining project
It is essential to consider the possible special characteristics of an
area, for example reindeer husbandry and Sámi areas.
EIntegration of processes: for example in
relation to project planning and the EIA
The life cycle of a mining project is not well-defined partly because of the world market
The life cycle and temporariness of a mining project must also be
considered in other processes: before, during, and after the activity (prediction)
Well-timed combining of processes saves costs and overlapping
work; it also improves the flow of information
The start-up and progress of processes require binding decisions
Table 1. Best practices enhancing cooperation and interaction from the viewpoint of land use
planning. Table: Leena Soudunsaari and Helka-Liisa Hentilä.
Best practices in reconciling livelihoods
General prerequisites and possibilities
A number of interests, practices, and nature-related needs must be considered when reconciling
nature-based livelihoods and the various forms of land use. Reconciliation requires a sufficient
knowledge of the mentioned issues, and the users of an area should also know about the needs
and practices of other stakeholders. When it comes to mining, a single land area cannot have
other uses; other users of nature must give up the actual mining area. The extent of such an
area varies between mines. In terms of reconciliation and earning social acceptance for mining,
it is essential to credibly and comprehensively assess the local and regional effects of a mine.
This involves not only surface areas but also the functions, values, and meanings attached to
the areas. If mining changes the environment extensively so that other actors must give up
their activities and livelihoods or they cannot reach their goals in a feasible way, then it is no
longer a matter of reconciliation. Instead, things may lead to an irreconcilable conflict situation.
The key issue in reconciliation is the way in which each actor utilizes the natural resource at
hand, that is,
• as a mineral reserve, for example by the modern extractive industry;
• as a visual and sound landscape and a nature experience for tourists, for example by
nature-based tourism businesses;
• as pastures, for example by reindeer owners; or
• as a living and leisure environment, for example by landowners and lessors.
Since mining is tied to a specific area and excludes other operations, collisions between different
interests are likely to occur. Stakeholders have various relations to a utilized natural resource,
and the utilization involves a variety of practices. The practices of utilization are often not aimed
at profits only; they may also be linked to many cultural and social values. For example, the risk
of conflict increases if the practices of mining permanently change or damage the concepts of
clean nature and experiencing the wilderness used in nature tourism. If mining destroys reindeer pastures or significantly reduces the possibilities to use them (circulation of the grounds,
critical land divisions, etc.), the possibility of conflict will increase between the trades. To find
and understand such problems is a prerequisite for reconciliation. Also, avoiding serious conflicts
requires constant transparency and communication between the main stakeholders.
Planning and reconciliation always involve informational uncertainty, power struggles between
the parties, and versatile or even incompatible interests, values, and practices. Lasting results
cannot be reached by only meeting the minimum requirements of social sustainability, while ignoring the fundamental differences of opinion between the parties of interest. A mere
consensus is not necessarily the best goal. One should rather create and maintain a fixed and
open channel for discussion. Even if discussions are marked by contradiction, they create and
maintain possibilities for new practices and solutions.
The idea of social sustainability should be opened up in local planning projects by explaining the
situational meanings of the concept. The areas of impact of the studied cases, the Hannukainen
mining project in Kolari and the Suurikuusikko gold mine in Kittilä, are important for tourism
as well as reindeer husbandry, and the main stakeholders concerning them are the mining
company, the municipality, the authorities, reindeer husbandry, nature tourism, recreation
users, and non-permanent residents.
Reconciling mining with other land uses can be observed from the viewpoints of both the
stakeholders and the various phases of a mining project. Table 2 sums up some conclusions
based on case studies (the Hannukainen mining project in Kolari and the Suurikuusikko gold
mine in Kittilä) and on an international comparison. The conclusions have been made from the
viewpoint of various operators and mainly from the viewpoint of northern Finland.
Practices of nature-based tourism
Open communication on the
solutions (incl.
The best technical solutions to
Mining structures,
and needs or local and needs or local traffic, noise, and
dust: effects in
relation to one’s
Arranging brieArranging briefings
and nature use of
local and non-per- Relations
manent residents between stakeholders
cycle of a mine
cycle of mining
(visibility in the
landscape incl.
light pollution),
traffic, noise, and
roundup and grazing practices
Active communication with mining operators
Discrete communication on mining to tourists
New tourism products and planning of activity
effects manifest
Losing the social
Large investments Decreased credi(e.g. infrastructu- bility regarding
re, services)
Active participation in monitoring,
Changes in grazing and herding
on the environment and landscape utilized in
tourism (through
or polluting)
Losing the financers
effects to individual herders
Broad societal
Sudden retreat or Lost credibility
bankruptcy of the regarding official
mining company performance
Losing the social other livelihoods,
licence to operate collapse of tourism
Planning the ecothe termination of nomic structure
activity as early as after mining
Restoring damage community and
to the landscape service structure
and other damage after mining
removal of structures in close
Cumulative effects along with
Changes in services or products
Destroyed image of clean and
Preparing for closure and finding
out what it means
information requires continuous
updating during
the entire mining
Table 2. Reconciliation and best practices. Table: Mikko Jokinen and Sanna Hast.
Reconciliation should be seen as a mediation process, and it should be assigned to a party
who is as neutral and qualified as possible. This party may be the municipality, an authority, or
a mutually agreed external mediator. When planning reconciliation, it is important to define
its participants, method, and location. A municipality has a statutory obligation to consider
reconciliation in connection with land use planning, and other competent authorities must
do so in their decision making. But the same applies to all stakeholders and all users of the
environment, for example mining companies, consultants, tourism entrepreneurs, reindeer
herding cooperatives, and individual reindeer herders. The party conducting the reconciliation
process should recognize the social and cultural backgrounds of the parties and consider them
in communicating and when addressing the parties. Reconciliation can also be carried out in
interest-specific groups, for example in connection with social impact assessment.
The reconciliation process can be facilitated by a check list that is adjusted according to the
situation at hand. The check list is meant for the party who launches and conducts the reconciliation process (Data Frame 19).
Figure 3. Tourism is an extremely important business in western Lapland in Kolari, tourism covers 48% of the income (Satokangas 2013). One may consider it as nature-based tourism because studies show that nature is the main attraction. Photo: Mikko Jokinen.
1. Identify the nature users of the mining area. Remember that the mine may have effects
tens of kilometres away.
2. Call together all the stakeholders to describe their interests, practices, values, and
expectations related to the environment surrounding the mine.
3. Define the roles and responsibilities and try to find a way to proceed with the reconciliation process.
4. Respect transparency. The success of reconciliation depends on the transparency of
the process and on the trustworthiness of the stakeholders.
5. Make sure that all the stakeholders have access to the latest information. This concerns particularly the mining project plans, but it also concerns the plans of the other
stakeholders. Updating is important.
6. Treat everyone equally and with respect. Different stakeholders have different relations
to the place, landscape, and natural resources, as well as to the information base.
The cultural background of the stakeholders should be recognized, and the person
in charge of the reconciliation process should be sensitive in this respect. Otherwise
proper communication may not emerge and the preconditions for reconciliation are
lost. The meeting venues should be neutral and the host’s task should rotate through
joint agreement. Also the use of language should be such that it is understood by all
parties. Otherwise the threshold to participate in joint planning and discourse may
become too high. Remember sensitivity in social situations.
7. Be culturally sensitive in collecting information and people’s views. General meetings
are not the only way of collecting information because some people avoid them or
participate in them passively. Interview the key actors also separately.
8. Seek scientific information and utilize the best expertise.
9. Discuss and assess jointly the impact of mining on other nature users and look for
situations that may benefit the various parties of interest.
10. Be honest. The effects of businesses and operations should not be belittled or exaggerated.
Data Frame 19. Reconciliation check list.
A case study on mining and reindeer husbandry16
The international mining company Northland Resources S.A. has launched and is currently
planning mining projects in Kolari, Finland and Pajala, Sweden. The environmental impact
assessment procedure (EIA) of the Tapuli mine of the Kaunisvaara project in Pajala has been
completed and the mining was started at the end of 2012. The project is intended to comprise
three open-pit mines. It will be located on the summer grazing grounds of Muonio Sámi Village
in Sweden. The EIA process of the planned Hannukainen mine on the other side of the border in
Kolari, Finland, is still being carried out by the subsidiary Northland Mines Oy at the beginning
of 2013. The planned location of its extensive open-pit mine is on the grazing grounds of the
Muonio herding cooperative in Finland.
An economic analysis of reindeer husbandry in Muonio Sámi Village has been made as part of
the EIA procedure. The analysis focuses on the effects of mining on reindeer husbandry. Herders were content with the analysis, but the mining company changed its plans after the EIA
process. The ore transportation arrangements were altered against the interests of the village.
However, the impact on reindeer husbandry was not reassessed.
The reindeer herders of the village feel that the company has arranged enough meetings with the
herders and provided enough information on its plans. The meetings, however, have often taken
place at inconvenient times, for example during the summer earmarking and autumn round-up.
Thus, taking part in project planning has at times been extremely difficult. Negotiations with
the mining company were also hindered by frequent changes in the personnel representing the
company. In 2011 communication expired after the project had received the required permits.
In Muonio Sámi Village people would have contacted the media and project financers if the
company had refused to carry on negotiations. Regardless of requests, the company had not
made an indemnity agreement with the reindeer herders after the EIA process. The villagers
found themselves in a very difficult situation. At the beginning of 2012 the connection picked
up and the company appointed a permanent representative to communicate with the reindeer
herders. Interaction has improved, but the indemnity agreement remains undone.
The Muonio reindeer cooperative is well aware of the operation of the subsidiary company
Northland Resources in Muonio Sámi Village in Sweden. The reindeer herders are skeptical
about the company and eager to make the indemnity agreement before the mine receives
production permits. Negotiations with the Finnish subsidiary company, however, have been
conducted in a good spirit. The company’s fixed team of representatives is appreciated, and
the Muonio herding cooperative has received more administrative support than herders in
Muonio Sámi Village. However, also in Muonio the inconvenient meeting times have made it
difficult for herders to fully participate in the planning process.
Based on the case study, the involvement of reindeer herders can be improved as follows:
• The effects of a mine must be monitored after the EIA process as well, and based on
the effects the existing agreements are revised – there cannot be one-time agreements
between dynamic industries.
• Reindeer herders’ work seasons of must be considered when planning their participation
16 This case study is based on Teresa Komu’s thesis (Komu 2013).
• A company should form a fixed group to interact with reindeer herding communities. This
enables the parties to get familiar with one another and the company representatives
to learn more about reindeer herding.
• An indemnity agreement and an agreement on corrective measures should be done
before the environmental authorities grant a mining permit.
• In extensive land use projects, reindeer herding communities need administrative support
(e.g. from the Reindeer Herders’ Association, the Sámi Parliament, or Svenska Samernas
Riksförbund) and legal advice to be able to effectively pursue their goals.
The main observations of the case study can be included in generic recommendations for best
practices. The recommendations enable the reconciliation of mining with reindeer husbandry,
which contributes to socially more sustainable mining (Data Frame 20).
Figure 4. Reindeer round-up in the Muonio herding cooperative. Photo: Hannu I. Heikkinen.
Indemnity agreements are made as soon as the operating area is known and before the environmental authority grants a mining permit.
2. Negotiations and the engagement process are continued after the official environmental impact
3. The environmental impact and the social impact of the mine are monitored after the official EIA
• Agreements are checked jointly, when necessary, on the basis a changed environmental impact;
one-time agreements cannot be made between dynamic industries.
• The impact on reindeer husbandry is reassessed when project implementation plans change
and, if necessary, after the permits have been granted.
4. The impact of the mine is examined from the viewpoint of the entire reindeer herding community, not just in the close vicinity of the mine because
• reindeer herding is carried out comprehensively in the area of the entire community and
• changes in one place typically affect the whole area.
5. The existing forms of land use and their effects on reindeer husbandry (accumulation) must be considered by the environmental authorities when making decisions on mining permits
6. The busy working seasons of reindeer herders must be considered in scheduling and when making arrangements for interaction because
• reindeer herding is a nature-based livelihood, and it is difficult for herders to attend meetings
during busy periods and
• reindeer herders should be given a chance for spontaneous and unofficial discussions with a
7. Persons in the mining company responsible for interaction with reindeer herders should form a strong and permanent team to facilitate the negotiation process and to reinforce the group’s knowledge on reindeer husbandry.
8. The persons in charge of the mining company should gain on-site knowledge about the work of the surrounding reindeer herding community.
9. The mining company should also consider the faculties and possibilities of various stake
holders to pursue their goals in negotiations because
• reindeer herding communities need legal advice and
• the communities need support from their trusteeship organizations (e.g. the Reindeer Herders’
Association, the Sámi Parliament, and Svenska Samernas Riksförbund).
10. Differences between and within reindeer herding communities must be observed.
• Reindeer owners do not necessarily have enough knowledge of all areas. In these cases the
reindeer herders using the area must be consulted.
• Since reindeer herding communities use different areas in a variety of ways, the local reindeer
herding community must always be consulted.
Data Frame 20. Best practices in reconciling mining with reindeer husbandry.
Mining changes the environment permanently. It is a special industry that involves numerous
phases, responsibilities, and stakeholders with their expectations. The expectations of the stakeholders may sometimes vary significantly, and they need to be recognized to avoid conflicts.
The expectations are discussed in more detail in chapter 1 of this Guide.
A mine has a number of significant effects on the environment, including social effects. Environmental regulation is strongly linked to social and environmental responsibility, but the legal dimension
is only a part of responsible mining. Situations of legal responsibility also vary from one project
phase to another. The various phases of a mining project and the related legal responsibilities are
described shortly in chapter 2. At the very beginning, the guide provides an overall picture of the
regulative system guiding mining companies in relation to society and especially the environment.
The provisions of environmental legislation on participation define the minimum level of hearing
and consideration in decision making concerning the social impact of a mine. . Environmental
legislation is flexible and must adapt to a variety of situations; it cannot define the practices of
social sustainability in detail. In this respect, earning the acceptance of local communities also
depends on corporate governance and self-regulation conducted by mining companies. A salient
issue in self-regulation is the social licence to operate acquired during corporate financing. Chapter
3 of this guide provides a more detailed description of the regulative frame within which socially
sustainable mining is attainable.
Social impact assessment should not end in the EIA process; it should continue throughout the life
cycle of a mine. Changes in the activity of a mine lead to changes in its social impact. Interaction
with the local community is also enhanced by the social licence to operate, which is based on
earning the local residents’ acceptance time and time again. Thus, the social licence to operate is
not an administrative permit defining operational conditions; it entails broader communication
with the local community as well as environmentally and socially responsible mining. Chapter 4 of
this guide depicts the connection between social impact assessment, environmental legislation,
and the social licence to operate.
The provisions of the old Mining Act on after-care measures were laid down poorly. Also local
people have expressed their concern about the issue. The new Mining Act, together with the
Environmental Protection Act, improves this situation. Chapter 5 of this guide discusses collaterals
and other issues that can be used to ensure proper after-care measures and the acceptability
of mining also when the activity is terminated. The unfortunate international example of Giant
Mine demonstrates the worst that can happen if after-care measures are not taken seriously from
the beginning and if risk management is not in order. (See e.g. Banfield & Jardine 2013.) On the
other hand, proper after-care measures can be seen as an asset in view of other industries, such
as tourism, energy production, and energy storage.
The Hannukainen mine in Kolari and the Kittilä mines have engaged in practices contributing to
social sustainability, but some improvement needs have also emerged. Chapter 6 of this guide
contains recommendations on best practices that are based on the above observations and other
research conducted as part of the DILACOMI project. The recommendations are generic, which
means that they have to be adjusted according to individual situations. The recommendations
concern especially social impact assessment, land use planning, and the reconciliation of mining
with other industries. Hopefully, the recommendations are helpful on the way toward socially
more sustainable mining.
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Figure 5. The Suurikuusikko open-pit gold mine in Kittilä. Photo: Mikko Jokinen.
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Sound Mining in the North offers guidelines for operators who
are getting prepared for launching a mining project and for sustaining it
during its entire life cycle. The book is intended specifically for mining
companies, authorities, municipalities, and tourism businesses. It is also
useful to citizens who wish to actively promote the social sustainability
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