Source: https://www.mruni.eu/en/mokslo_darbai/jurisprudencija/archyvas/?l=96885
Timestamp: 2019-07-16 12:36:07
Document Index: 387455641

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 1', 'art;\n3', 'art;\n5', 'art 1', 'art 3', 'art.\n138']

Jurisprudence, 2006, No. 4(82)
Saulė Vidrinskaitė. Catalogue of Human Rights: Legal Actuality of the Republic of Lithuania and The European Union
Abstract. The article is dedicated to analyse theoretical aspects of human rights and liberties. Human rights and liberties is a comprehensive system of values. These values are established by the national Constitution and leading legal acts. Human rights and liberties are established by the state’s Constitution and described by the leading legal acts. International obligations of the state in the sphere of human rights and treaties guarantee level of there protection.
Nowadays reality is that Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe is important to legal system of the Republic of Lithuania. The context of human rights is existing in constitutional environment. This Treaty was adopted by the Heads of State and Governments the Constitution is divided into parts, were one of them is the Union’s Charter of Fundamental Rights.
The article deals with the system of human rights and values as well as with the standards established by the laws and international treaties in this sphere to respond to the needs and values of citizens and peoples.
The article is analysing the Charter of Fundamental Rights, solemnly proclaimed at the Nice European Council in December 2000, and has been incorporated into the European Constitution as Part II.
The article is devoted to the analysis of the definition of the human rights and liberties. This definition is presented according the legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania and the international obligations of the state as well as the legal norms of the Constitutional Treaty of Europe. The article deals with the descriptive, analytical research and normative methods. It is defined that existing diversity of human rights and liberties makes possible to classify them and to unite them to the catalogue. Human rights and liberties are recognised values and they are safeguarded by the fundamental principles. These principles guarantee the stability of the protection of human rights and liberties as well as development of them. The state and the person as two independent subjects are functioning on the basis of the legal status. The individual is obligated to realise the legal norms and has a rights to ask from the state to guarantee the certain level of protection of the civil, political and economical, social and cultural rights. The legal system, system of values and public order are needed for the implementation and protection of human rights and liberties.
The state and the human being are two subjects who are acting independently within the framework of their legal status. Individual should realise not only requirements of legal norms and he or she has a right to require that state would guarantee certain level of civil, political, economical, social and cultural rights implementation. The legal system, wildly recognised opinion and international order are required for implementation of human rights.
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Goda Ambrasaitė. Appeal in Administrative Proceedings: Principal Reform Directions
Abstract. Alongside the establishment of administrative courts in Lithuania in 1999, it was necessary to adopt a legal act, regulating proceedings in those courts, very promptly. Naturally it was impossible even to think about the comprehensive code of administrative procedure at that time. Drafting of codified legal would have taken a lot of time; especially taking into account the fact that there was no practice of functioning of administrative courts in Lithuania theretofore. Law on Administrative Proceedings of the Republic of Lithuania was drafted and adopted by the way of transferring provisions of the Code of Civil Procedure, effectual at that moment, modifying some of them in order to adjust to the peculiarities of administrative procedure. The same applies also to the provisions of the Law on Administrative Proceedings regulating the appellate procedure in a court of higher instance.
It stands to reason that transfer and modification of provisions from other legal act, without having a clear concept of certain type of procedure, could only be a temporary solution. Present regulation of appellate procedure in Law on Administrative Proceedings is far not perfect and practical activities of the Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania have already disclosed a number of shortcomings. In respect that a new Code of Administrative Procedure is presently under preparation, the article aims to overlook main possible directions for the development of legal regulation of appellate procedure in administrative cases.
Limited volume of the article prevents the author from exhaustive analysis of all necessary amendments. Thus the article is practically limited to the analysis of most conceptual issues – nature and principles of appeal.
Formulation of certain provisions regulating the appellate procedure to a great extent depends on how the nature and purpose of appeal is understood – whether it is rehearing of a case (novum judicium) or control of validity and legality of a judgment of the first instance court (revisio prioris instantiae).
Taking into account the peculiarities of national system of administrative courts and functions attributed to the Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania, conception of appeal as control of validity and legality of a judgment (revisio prioris instantiae) is better solution for the administrative procedure of Lithuania.
Abandonment of the principles tantum devolutum quantum appellatum and non reformatio in peius in the Law on Administrative Proceedings of Lithuania was probably based on the assumption that administrative cases, unlike most of civil cases, are non-dispositional, and therefore neither principles of parties disposition and competition, nor tantum devolutum quantum appellatum and non reformatio in peius principai should apply. The author disagrees with this attitude, and insists that those principles, considering also the necessary exceptions, should be applied in administrative procedure as well.
Existence and limits of the prohibition to present new evidence on appeal largely depend on the conception of role of a judge in administrative proceedings which will be chosen by the drafters of the Code on Administrative Procedure. Although taking into account the nature of administrative procedure this prohibition should not be absolute, Code on Administrative Procedure should contain provisions aimed to preclude possible misuse of procedural rights and causeless transfer of a hearing on the merits to the court of appellate instance.
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Aistė Diržytė, Aleksandras Patapas, Kristina Vrubliauskaitė. Cognitions of Lithuanian Juvenile Offenders
Abstract. The question of juvenile crime prevention is still complicated in Lithuania as well as in other EU countries. There are many studies on “what works” in preventing criminal behavior and its recurrence. In this study we tried to explore the inner cognitive patterns of juvenile offenders that might contribute to their problematic behavior, focusing on their basic beliefs and cognitive schemas as this aspect has not been explored comprehensively yet. The study showed that in compare to secondary school students, juvenile offenders hold less favorable beliefs towards self, the world, and their relationships with other people. A strong negative reciprocity between these beliefs and early maladaptive schemas has been found.
Oleg Drobitko. Legal Position of the Consignee
Abstract. The article deals with the legal position of a cargo recipient as one of the actors of the transport legal relations considering the legal control of the cargo shipment agreement as the basis for the burden of shipment. The concept of this agreement is presented in Part 1 of clause 6.808 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania. Its analysis reveals that there could be three parties of this agreement as the legal position of the cargo sender and the carrier are one way or another presented in the legal resources, but the legal position of the recipient of the cargo has not been given due attention yet. This problem has been mentioned by D. Ambrasiene in her publication “The Legal Regulation of International Road Transportation” but so far it has not been sufficiently researched. In my opinion, the peculiarities of the legal rights of a cargo recipient determine the special position of the cargo shipment agreement among other civil agreements. The article deals with the main current attitudes towards the cargo shipment agreements in the legal literature, which differ in the definitions of the relations between the cargo sender and the carrier on the one hand and the cargo recipient on the other hand., i.e.
1) The cargo shipment is an agreement on behalf of the third party;
2) The agreement of the delivery of the performance to the third part;
3) The specific agreement, where the recipient of the cargo is an independent subject;
4) The cargo recipient and its sender make one part;
5) That is a three-party agreement, where every part has its own rights and duties;
6) The cargo sender is the agent of the cargo recipient and acts on his behalf.
In my opinion, the cargo shipment agreement is a threeparty (or multilateral) agreement and the cargo recipient joins it not just at the moment of accepting the way-bill but from the start of the conclusive actions, by which he confirms his agreement to accept the duties of the cargo recipient and exercise his rights.
In the article I analyse the chain of the legal relations among the cargo sender, carrier and recipient. The conclusive actions, which confirm the commitment of the person to accept the rights and duties of a cargo recipient, have to be passed by him to the shipment carrier and only then he becomes a party of the cargo shipment agreement. The part 1 of the clause 6.808 of the Code of the Civil Law of the Republic of Lithuania stating that either the sender or the recipient has to pay for the cargo shipment proves that the recipient of the cargo is one of the parties of the shipment agreement. The main conclusions in this study were based on the analysis of the regulations and acts of the Code of Civil Law of the Republic of Lithuania, controlling the legal relations of transportation.
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Lyra Jakulevičienė. Main Constrains in Implementing the EU Asylum Acquis in Lithuania
Abstract. This article aims to review the main Lithuanian asylum legislation in light of the EU asylum acquis and identify existing or possible constrains to the effective implementation of the acquis. The author analyses the main legal documents regulating the protection of refugees, adopted under Article 63 of the Amsterdam Treaty of the European Union (EU), which represents a first stage of asylum law harmonisation process in the EU. At the time of Lithuania’s accession to the EU it was under an obligation to align its law and practice with then legally non-binding EU provisions on asylum. Even more so after accession, this time with legally binding legislation, now in place in the EU. But even after the adoption of the last asylum instrument under the Amsterdam Treaty by the end of 2005, asylum law developments within the EU can not be considered completed yet. Discussions on the second stage of harmonisation and preparations for it are taking place within the EU. This process will further influence the development of legal regulation of asylum matters in the EU Member States, including Lithuania. The author stresses that not less important than the legal alignment is the development of national jurisprudence in line with the legal provisions and spirit of the EU law in this field.
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Aušra Kargaudienė. The Principles of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of European Union and Their Influence over Administrative Law System
Abstract. The main aim of this article is to present some of the articles of the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights (the Charter), and observe the presumptive influence of these articles’ provisions over Lithuanian administrative law system.
The first part of this paper observes the principles of good administration, which are declared in the 41 article of the Charter.
The author presents the implementation of these principles in provisions of the Lithuanian Law on Public Administration.
The part two observes the rights of the elderly protected by the Article 25 of the Charter provisions, and the situation of the elderly persons in Lithuania after the Lithuanian Constitutional Court decision. Part three observes the Law amending the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Defence of Consumer Rights and this amendment positive aspect. This part of the article is related to the Article 38 of the Charter, which guarantees the high level of consumer protection.
During the time, while discussions arises what the Charter is and what it shall be, when its current legal status is unclear and undefined, the main issue is obvious – the provisions of this document will have an influence over the national constitutional and administrative systems of the Member States.
And the Lithuanian’s administrative system will not be an exception. Considering the issues viewed in this article, the conclusions are, that the declared rights can be protected properly when the individuals, not only public administration institutions, are active and sophisticate in these legal matters, rights and guarantees of the international documents provisions.
Living with or without EU Constitution, the Lithuania has to accept the challenges: to guarantee and to strengthen the protection of fundamental rights by developing society’s legal education. The big part of people maintains, that they do not have enough information where to apply if their rights are violated.
29 December 2004 the Government of the Republic of Lithuania adopted a resolution on the approval of the Societies legal educational program. This resolution confirms that the legal education problems in society became the underlying task of the government to forthcoming next years.
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Egidijus Krivka. Institute of Shareholders’ Derivative Action in Lithuanian Legal System
Abstract. From the 1 January 2004 the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Companies embeds the institute of shareholders’ derivative action, which is entirely new for the Lithuanian legal system. Article 16(1)(4) of the Law of the Republic of Lithuania on Companies has validated the right of shareholders to file an action with the court for reparation of damage resulting from nonfeasance or malfeasance by the company manager and Board members of their obligations.
Through a derivative action one or several shareholder(s) defend rights and lawful interests of a company and, at the same time, defend rights and lawful interests of entirety (group) of the company’s shareholders, therefore the derivative action is classified as a class action. When defending rights and lawful interests of a company or association through a derivativeaction, a shareholder indirectly defends not only his or her personal interests but also rights and interests of all the shareholders as a group of persons. The right to file such an action is granted to a shareholder by the above–mentioned law, when a company, due to a variety of reasons, is not able to defend its rights and interests independently.
A distinctive feature of the derivative action is the fact that such an action defends a public interest, since in a lawsuit brought under derivative action a court judgement may establish obligation of company manager or Board members to compensate damage done to the company due to their illegal activities resulting from nonfeasance or malfeasance of their obligations, and the company may be constituted by a fairly large group of shareholders. In such a lawsuit, however, a court is not authorised to take decision on compensation of a company’s shareholders losses incurred due to activities of the above–mentioned persons.
Such provisions related to the institute of derivative action once again confirm the fact that the derivative action should be attributed to class actions. Article 49(5) of the Civil Proceedings Code of the Republic of Lithuania lays down that a class action can be brought for protection of a public interest.
This fact suggests that shareholders’ derivative action for protection of rights and lawful interests of a company can be reasonably considered as a class action by shareholders for the purpose of protection of a public interest, namely the interest of all the shareholders of that company.
The author believes that problems related to shareholders’ derivative action in the Lithuanian legal system can be properly solved and precise answers to most of problematic questions can be obtained, if laws on proceedings include rules regulating the proceedings of class actions.
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Ingrida Mačernytė-Panomariovienė. The Safeguarding of Employees` Rights in the Event of Transfers of Undertakings, Businesses or Parts of Undertakings or Businesses
Abstract. Lithuania like all other new EU member states has faced the task not only to harmonize labour law system with EC law but also to guarantee common social values – protection of the employees in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings or businesses. During the transfer, not only the transferor and the transferee, as the present and future owners of company, but also the employees, as a part of an
undertaking, have the interest in the outcome of the action. Baring in mind changing economic – social – political situation, European Community elaborates legal regulations and seeks so that employees’ rights would be protected in all situations of a transfer of an undertaking, even when a company becomes insolvent. Because of this reason there was a Council Directive No. 2001/23/EC adopted, which substantially interchanges Directives No. 77/187/EEC and No. 98/50/EC. The above mentioned Directive includes protection of workers from the groundless redundancies as well as other guarantees (such as information and consultation) that are applied in the event of transfer of an undertaking or part of it or bankruptcy. This means that in any case of transfer of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings or businesses, new employer must overtake all employment and collective bargaining agreements. In other words the transferee together with the transferred company receives all the workers with the same conditions that were set by the previous employer.
Articles 63 part 3 and 138 of the Lithuanian Labour Code include only partial protection of the employees in the event of transfer of an undertaking or part of it. This is why the purpose of the questions discussed in this article is whether Lithuanian regulation of protection of workers in the event of transfers of undertakings, businesses or parts of them fully corresponds with the objectives and requirements of the directives, whether the terms applied in the Directive are understood in the same way as they are understood in the European Community and other EU member states.
The conclusion after examining legal basis and state practice is that in Lithuania, during the events of transfer of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings or businesses, stability of employees’ legal relations, regulated by art.
138 of Lithuanian Labour Code, are safeguarded. Yet rights and duties (working conditions), which arise from labour relations that were present on the day of transfer, do not remain. It is also noticed that the transferee of undertakings, businesses or parts of undertakings does not have the duty to inform and consult prior to the transfer.
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Linas Meškys. Administrative Liability of Legal Entity: Problems and Solutions Proving the Fault of Legal Entity
Abstract. Legal entities are active participants in legal relations and are able to violate laws, thus they should carry the liability.
Liability of legal entities was seen as unproblematic in the civil liability context where presumption of fault exists. In liability for administrative violations (administrative liability) the principle of the presumption of innocence of a person against whom administrative violations proceedings have been initiated, exists i.e. administrative liability of legal entities shall occur if fault exists. But the elements of fault consist of human traits and a legal entity is not a human, it’s rather an abstraction. The difficulty proving the fault of legal entity occurs and the theoretical question arises: how to prove the fault of legal entity.
Administrative liability is similar to criminal liability therefore these questions may be answered by using theories analyzing criminal liability of legal entities. Those theories are vicarious liability, alter ego (identification) and corporate culture theories.
Under the theory of vicarious liability, a legal entity may be liable for the acts of its employees, agents or any person for whom it is responsible. This theory might be suitable in attributing administrative liability to legal entities.
Under alter ego (identification) theory, there is an identity between the legal entity and the persons who constitute its directing mind, that is, the individuals (officers or managerial level employees) whose duties within the firm are such that in the course of their duties they do not take orders or directives from a higher authority within the organization. The commission of an offence by a person or group of persons identified with the organization therefore constitutes an offence by the corporation as well. This doctrine also might be suitable in attributing administrative liability to legal entities.
Corporate culture theory might be suitable as well in the context of administrative liability of legal entities. Under this theory the fault of legal entity might be proven directly. For the purposes of attributing liability, corporate culture refers primarily to the chain of command, the decision-making structure and the general atmosphere concerning obedience to the law. This notion, especially in the case of very large entities, considers such things as the goals pursued by the firm, the corporate setting, the organizational pressures and the prevailing mentality as factors that may have promoted the commission of an offence.
Thus, by using vicarious liability, alter ego (identification) and corporate culture theories the fault of legal entity might be established and administrative liability to legal entity might be attributed.
Theoretical conclusions might be confirmed by looking at the practical side of the problem, i.e. whether in some states (Lithuania, Russia and France) legal entities are recognized as subjects of administrative liability?
The Lithuanian Code of Administrative Violations does not expressly define that the subject of administrative liability is only an individual. The systematic analysis of Lithuanian laws showed that legal entity is recognized as the subject of administrative liability. The draft of Lithuanian Code of Administrative Violations clearly establishes administrative liability of legal entities.
The new Russian Federation Code of Administrative Violations extends administrative liability to legal entities. Liability for administrative violations shall occur if fault exists.
The existence of fault is an obligatory condition for imposing administrative liability on an entity.
In France the subjects of administrative liability are only public bodies and civil servants. But private legal entities may be held liable for administrative violations. The fault of legal entities may occur by establishing the fault of representatives or the governing bodies of legal entities.
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Egidija Stauskienė. Reversal of Execution of a Judgement
Abstract. In civil procedure judgements of lower courts, that can be heretofore executed, are quite often reversed as a result of use by parties of means of recourse against judgements - appeal, cassation or reopening of proceedings. In other words, after the execution of a judgement it may emerge that the judgement was illegal and must therefore be quashed by the appellate or cassation court by passing a new judgement to reject a claim, ruling to discontinue civil proceedings or leave the claim untried. It is recognized that realisation of the court judgement which was afterwards reversed is also illegal, and means the violation of rights and legitimate interests of the defendant, as opposed to the restoration of violated substantive rights or protection of legitimate interests of the plaintiff. In this case the institution of reversal of execution of judgements should be applied in order to restore justice. The purpose of the mentioned institution is to re-establish the status of the substantive legal relations between the parties that had existed prior to the execution of the judgement, which was afterwards reversed by the court of higher instance by deciding a case differently than it was done by the reversed judgement (restoration of status quo ante). Application of the institution of reversal of execution of judgements is based on the principle ex iniuria ius non oritur or, in other words, on the idea that illegality of a judgement makes the execution of this particular judgement also illegal; consequently the parties must be returned to the situation that had existed before the illegal judgement was adopted (executed). Reversal of execution of judgement is interrelated with the deprivation of executed judgement of the legal significance. Legal significance of such a judgement terminates after the appellate court, cassation court or the court hearing the case in reopened proceedings passes the new judgement (ruling). It should be noted that adoption of a new judgement on appeal could determine the reversal of execution of judgement only if the judgement was executed as a result of application of the institution of immediate execution of judgements.
The article deals with the concept of reversal of execution of judgements, grounds for and limits of the application of this institution. The following circumstances are recognized as grounds for the application of the institution of reversal of execution of judgements:
1) reversal of the executed judgement and adoption of a new judgement to reject a claim;
2) reversal of the executed judgement and adoption of a ruling to discontinue proceedings;
3) reversal of the executed judgement and adoption of a ruling to leave the claim untried.
Taking into account the aims and functions of civil procedure, the author tries to disclose an interrelation between substantive and procedural law when applying the norms of institution of reversal of execution of judgements. The article also presents the analysis of judicial practice on application of institution under consideration, as well as peculiarities of legal regulation of this institution in foreign states (Russia, Germany).
At the end of the article conclusions characterising the legal nature of the institution of reversal of execution of judgements and preconditions for application of this institution are provided.
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Vytautas Šlapkauskas. A Critique of the Overemphasized Instrumental Approach to Law
Abstract. Positivist law should have a coherently dualistic nature: one oriented towards values and the other towards norms. However, in cases of the social deterioration of values, legislators can turn the law into an artificial mechanism of the production of social order, thus putting emphasis on the instrumental approach to law. The present article questions the unlimited authority of the instrumental approach to law and analyzes the social premises and consequences of its prevalence in consumer society and the limits of its development. The article aims to show the dangers the unlimited authority of the instrumental approach to law may entail for the values that law postulates in the first place.
The increased emphasis on the instrumental approach to law in Western societies has been directly influenced by the stabilizing of the economic growth of the state and the transition to a rising stagnation. In order to ensure the quality of social life, the state resorted to the possibilities granted by instrumental law and consequently overemphasized its role in society.
The three major malaises of contemporary society – individualism, the instrumental priority of reason and the consequences the two bring to political life – have been the main sources of today’s increased emphasis on the instrumental approach to law.
Societies have always controlled the unrestricted endorsement of the instrumental approach to law. Common law and normative pluralism, statutory pluralism and human rights operate as today’s restrictive means against the unconditional use of the instrumental approach to law.
Virgilijus Valančius, Rimvydas Norkus. Aspects of Contact of Administrative and Criminal Justice in Lithuania
Abstract. Following the establishment of administrative courts in 1999, the lawmaker trusted upon the administrative courts the adjudication of cases, which were quite different in character: according to the Lithuanian laws, administrative courts settle cases over law in the sphere of public and local administration, as well as cases concerning the lawfulness of normative acts, and administrative offences. The proceedings in all of these cases are regulated by a single Law on Administrative Proceedings of the Republic of Lithuania, which provides only few peculiarities for the hearings of cases of different categories.
It is obvious that the legal nature of the mentioned cases is very different. The proceedings, concerning the application of administrative sanctions, have especially distinctive features.
Although acts in respect of which administrative responsibility is established are not considered to be crimes according to the Lithuanian national laws, in the scope of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) they are in many cases associated with the criminal indictment of a person. Questions of incrimination sometimes also arise in cases, which are resolved according to the rules of resolution of disputes with the public administration.
The identification of such cases is especially important because if the criminal nature of the case is determined, an obligation is vested on the state to ensure the observance of the rights of a person being indicted, established by the ECHR and the national laws.
The relation between the administrative responsibility and criminal responsibility remains a problematic issue in Lithuania. Whereas such kinds of responsibility often arise in respect of similar acts, and national laws establish the preconditions for one kind of responsibility to convert to the other, it is important to guarantee that a person is not prosecuted and punished for the same offence twice. Categories of cases heard by the administrative courts, problems of the identification of such cases and the implementation of particular principles in different categories of administrative cases are analyzed. By referring to examples of judicial practice, the authors offer the criteria, according to which an indictment of criminal nature could be established in an administrative case. The most recent jurisprudence of the Lithuanian administrative courts is discussed, which is related to the application of the principle ne bis in idem, where, after stating the absence of guilt in a criminal case, the mentioned case is consigned to be heard in the course of administrative proceedings.
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Ana Volochova. Practical Peculiarities in the Establishment of Collective Dominance
Abstract. The article deals with the peculiarities of establishing collective dominance, which are considered in the context of the European Community and Lithuanian competition law.
The object of the article is analysed in legal aspects, also taking into account leading economic concepts and theories, and does not include the issues connected with the abuse of the collective dominant position.
The author indicates that the collective dominance must be assessed on the basis of both – quantitative and qualitative – criteria. The main attention is paid to the qualitative criteria, especially to those, which relate to the coordinative behavioural aspects of a group of undertakings, that are “suspected of” holding a collective dominant position on a relevant market, and which especially emphasise the peculiarities of the establishment of collective dominance. It is alleged that the situation of tacit collusion is likely when undertakings are united by certain economic links which may be interpreted as pure economic or structural links. Structural links between undertakings is not a sufficient ground for establishing collective dominance, however, this kind of links may raise danger by inducing entities to coordinate their conduct on the market.
It is also very important to emphasise that oligopolistic market structure may be quite competitive, so it is not correct to acknowledge that all oligopolies create collective dominance, therefore, it is vital to perform a case-by-case analysis of the relevant market, where the fact of collective dominant position is considered to be.
The practice of the European Community Court’s demonstrates that some key aspects are essential in the process of establishing collective dominance: it is critical to estimate the opportunity of each member of a group of undertakings to monitor the actions of other group members, but it is also important to prove that these entities have a possibility to maintain status quo, that is, to apply certain retaliation mechanism to the undertakings whose conduct deviates from the common policy and to reconstitute the former situation of tacit collusion.
The importance of the opportunity to establish collective dominance is particularly seen in the fact that it may fill some legal and practical gaps by creating the basis for the punishment of undertakings for the conduct, which is not covered by the provisions connected with the abuses of individual dominant position and prohibited agreements, and for the prohibition of concentrations that may significantly impede effective competition, in particular as a result of the creation or strengthening of a collective dominant position on a relevant market.
The author of the article also concludes that the criteria of establishing collective dominance are not fully scrutinised in competition law, so it is still enough space for further theoretical discussions and practical developments.
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