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Intention to Create Legal Relations | Offer And Acceptance | Consideration
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Assignment for business law-3
Contracts I Checklist - Wilmarth - Fall 2004_3
2013. Vol.4, No.2, 82-93
Published Online June 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/blr)
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/blr.2013.42011
Intention to Create Legal Relations and the Reform of Contract
Law: A Conservative Approach in the Modern Global Era
Faculty of Law, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand
Email: zliao@waikato.ac.nz
Received March 5th, 2013; revised April 6th, 2013; accepted April 14th, 2013
Copyright 2013 Zhixiong Liao. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
This paper is partially to refute the submissions by Gulatis article recently published on Beijing Law Review which proposes abandoning the requirement of proving intention to create legal relations for the
formation of an enforceable contract. After a critical analysis of the abandonists arguments, this paper
argues that intention to create legal relations is the marrow of contractual relationships and the arguments for abandoning such a requirement because of the existence of consideration and/or offer and acceptance as test(s) of contractual enforceability is untenable and unconvincing. Consideration and/or offer
and acceptance may be evidence of serious intention to be bound somehow but unnecessary intention to
be bound legally. For a number of reasons, the doctrine of consideration is very unlikely to work any better than the intention to create legal relations test. If a test of contractual enforceability must be abandoned,
that should be the doctrine of consideration rather than the intention to create legal relations. This paper
compares the current positions of some common law jurisdictions, upholds the needs of stability, consistency, and the harmonisation of contract law in the modern global era, and proposes a conservative approach of contract law reform regarding the intention requirement and the related presumptions, that is, all
common law jurisdictions should go back to the orthodox English position.
Keywords: Intention to Create Legal Relations; Consideration; Contract Theory; Contract Law
Recently, Beijing Law Review published an article written
by Bhawna Gulati, entitled Intention to Create Legal Relations: A Contractual Necessity or an Illusory Concept (Gulati,
2011). Gulati suggests that intention to create legal relations
is not a contractual necessity but an illusory concept and
strongly argues for abandoning the requirement of proving an
intention to create legal relation in case of countries that require the existence of consideration for forming a valid and
enforceable contract (ibid, p. 132).
Gulati (2011) raises again the interesting issue whether the
intention to create legal relations should be a separate requirement, additional to agreement (offer and acceptance) and
consideration, for the formation of a legally enforceable contract. The word again is used here because there has been a
long-lasting debate on this issue and the argument for abandoning the requirement of (proving) intention to create legal
relations (or intent to contract or contractual intention) is not
new (Williston, 1957; Hepple, 1970).
For the convenience of discussion, this paper labels abandonists those who argue for or propose abandoning the intention to create legal relations as a requirement for the formation
of a contract. This paper will critically analyse the abandonists
arguments. Contrary to the abandonists view, this paper argues
that intention to create legal relations is not an illusory concept
but a necessity for the formation of a legally enforceable contract; and that consideration and/or offer and acceptance are not
substitutes for such an intention requirement. If something must
be exiled from common law, than that should be consideration
rather than intention to create legal relations. This paper will
also compare the current positions, regarding this issue, of
some common law jurisdictions, namely, the United Kingdom
(England), the United States, Australia and New Zealand. They
seem to represent three different types of treatment of the intention to create legal relations and the related presumptions; and
any of other common law jurisdictions seem to adopt one of
these three positions. On the bases of the critical analysis and
the comparison, and taking into account the need of harmonisation and unification of contract law in the modern global era,
this paper proposes a conservative approach of contract law
reform regarding the intention to create legal relations requirement, that is, common law jurisdictions should go back to the
orthodox position of English law.
A Critical Analysis of the Abandonists
It is uncontroversial that courts should not enforce all agreements/promises made. The law must devise test(s) to distinguish enforceable contracts from unenforceable agreements/
promises. Many contract law doctrines/principles/rules are potentially capable of playing this distinguishing role. Leaving
aside those concerning formality, vitiating factors and contract interpretation, the doctrines of offer and acceptance, consideration and intention to create legal relations are most releCopyright 2013 SciRes.
vant, regarding the formation of an enforceable contract. In the
past decades, various arguments have been raised against the
intention to create legal relations requirement. It is worthwhile
to undertake a critical analysis of the abandonists arguments in
order to draw a plausible and convincing conclusion on this
important contract law issue.
Consideration and Intention to Create Legal
The most often raised and seemingly strongest argument for
abandoning the intention to create legal relations requirement
for the formation of an enforceable contract is that there already
exists the doctrine of consideration as a test of legal enforceability hence the intention test is superfluous and unnecessary
(Williston, 1957). This argument alone is insufficient to prove
the redundancy of the intention to create legal relations requirement (intention test). A counter argument can equally be
raised: the doctrine of consideration is unnecessary because
there already exists another test of legal enforceabilitythe
intention to create legal relations (Chloros, 1968). For the argument that the intention test should be abandoned to be convincing, at least such points must be proved: 1) the doctrine of
consideration is sufficient to cover the functions of the intention
test; and either 2) the doctrine of consideration is necessary for
contract law or for an enforceable contract so it cannot be abolished, or 3) the doctrine of consideration (consideration test)
works better than the intention test. Research finds, however,
this is an extremely tough or impossible task for the abandonists.
Is the Doctrine of Consideration Sufficient to Cover the
Functions of the Intention Test?
It has been noted that the courts and the writers are unanimous that proof of serious intention is required (ibid, p. 140)
for an agreement to be enforceable. The essence of the intention
test is that for an agreement to be enforceable the parties must
intend to be legally bound by the agreement. It is argued that
the consideration itself can be taken as a proof strong enough
to indicate the presence of intention of forming a legally binding contract so a separate requirement of (proving) intention to
create legal relations is superfluous (Gulati, 2011: p. 132).
This argument obviously overlooks the circumstances where
consideration could be found but the agreement is still unenforceable due to the parties indicate, expressly or impliedly,
that they do not intend to be legally bound by the agreement.
Consideration may be said a strong evidence to indicate the
presence of the parties intention to be bound somehow, but
unnecessarily to be bound legally. It is true that the existence of
consideration very often indicates the parties seriousness about
undertaking some kind of obligation, but unnecessary a legal
obligation (Kimel, 2003: p. 138). Consideration may indicate
the parties serious intention to be bound but unnecessarily the
intention to be legally bound.
It is widely accepted that freedom of contract is a valuable
and fundamental principle of contract law. Freedom from contract is a corollary of freedom of contract. People should be
allowed to make a contract (which is legally enforceable), and
should equally be allow to make an agreement that is not legally enforceable but relying on trust, fidelity, love, affection,
confidence and/or close relationships between the parties and/or
other moral and social norms. Making a legally binding agreeCopyright 2013 SciRes.
ment should be voluntary (ibid, p. 132).
It might be argued that exclusion of courts jurisdiction is illegal so the parties intention to exclude their agreement from
being enforced by courts should not be upheld. There is a significant and substantial difference between exclusion of courts
jurisdiction and exclusion of the legal enforceability of an
agreement. A party to an agreement with a clause that this
agreement is binding in honour only and should not have
any legal effects may still bring the case to a court arguing for
the existence of a contract and plea the court to enforce the
agreement, but the court is very unlikely to enforce the agreement because of the parties manifest intention not to be legally
Therefore, even if we accept that the existence of consideration (the test of bargain) is sufficient to prove the parties serious
intention, consideration is still insufficient to cover the essential
function (let alone all the functions) of the intention to create
legal relations test. A serious intention is unnecessarily an intention to be legally bound.
Is Consideration Necessary for Contract Law or an
If the parties intention to be legally bound itself is required
for an enforceable contract, in order to argue that consideration
is necessary for an enforceable contract, it must be proved that
consideration is necessary for the proving of such intention.
Consideration is not necessary for the purpose of proving intention to be legally bound. Consideration is even unnecessary for
proving serious intention. There are many other ways to prove
the parties serious intention and/or intention to be legally
bound. It is undeniable that a deed may be legally enforceable
even if there is no consideration. It is also undeniable that contract law in civil law systems functions well despite the lack of
the concept of consideration. It is a mistaken brief that the concept of cause in continental contract law equivalents or
corresponds to the common law concepts of consideration
(Chloros, 1968: pp. 145-147). These suggest consideration is
unnecessary for the enforcement of some agreements. It has
been suggested that consideration is a substitute of formality,
which also functions to indicate the parties serious intention.
The key point is, therefore, enforceability of an agreement depends on whether the parties has by their statements or conducts shown their intention to be legally bound by the agreement. There are a number of methods to signify their serious
intention or intention to be legally bound: inserting a clause that
this agreement is legally binding, employing a lawyer in the
negotiation and/or drafting, adopting a formality (a deed, a
notary public, an oath or to put the agreement in writing and
sign1), performance immediately following the agreement, and
etc. A nominal consideration deliberately taken by the parties
may be stronger evidence than a substantial consideration to
prove intention to be legally bound. All of these suggest that it
is the parties intention to be legally bound rather than the existence of consideration that is paramount for the enforcement of
an agreement or a promise and that consideration is not neces1
For example, the Judicature Act 1908 (NZ), s 92 provides that an acknowledgement in writing and signed by a creditor of the receipt of a part of his
debt in satisfaction of the whole debt shall be enforceable notwithstanding
any rule of law. Here, the most relevant rule of law is that a (promise of)
part payment of an existing due debt in satisfaction of the whole debt is
unenforceable because of the lack of consideration, established by the House
of Lords in Foakes v Beer (1884) 9 App Cas 605.
sary for proving such intention2.
Whether the doctrine of consideration is necessary for contract law is a highly controversial issue. Because this paper has
argued that consideration is insufficient to cover all the functions of the intention test, and such sufficiency is essential for
the validity of the argument that the intention test should be
abandoned due to the existence of the consideration test, it is
unnecessary to answer this controversial issue. For the purpose
of this paper, it is sufficient to say that the consideration may
indicate serious intention to be bound somehow but unnecessary the intention to be legally bound. Notwithstanding this, the
following paragraphs are still helpful to show that the necessity
of consideration for contract law has been seriously doubted.
Professor Coote points out that the idea that consideration is
essential to the very notion of a contract is a typical common
law concept, but it is quite untrue and if it were true, common
law countries would be the only ones which knew what a contract was (Coote, 1995: p. 22). In fact, [t]he civil law systems
have been able to develop a perfectly adequate law of contract
without consideration (Chloros, 1968: p. 164). It has been argued that consideration is neither a necessary nor a central
feature of contractual obligation whether contractual obligetion is reliance-based or voluntary assumption based (Benson,
2001: p. 121). If contractual liability is only one form of reliance-based promissory obligations, as what Atiyah (1986: pp.
40-42) argues, then consideration becomes evidence of reliance, nothing more (Benson, 2001: p. 121). It is the existence
of reliance that is the crucial factor in establishing liability,
whether or not consideration has been given (ibid). If contractual liability is to be understood not reliance-based, but as voluntary or intentional assumption of promissory obligation, as
what Fried (1981: pp. 28-39) and Coote (2010: pp. 7-51) argue,
then such voluntary assumption need not depend upon or be
evidenced by the existence of consideration (Benson, 2001: pp.
Does the Consideration Test Work Better than the
Intention Test?
Simply saying that there is another test (the consideration test)
of enforceability is not sufficient to prove that the intention test
should be abandoned. It must also be proved that why this (intention) test, rather than that (consideration) test, should be
abandoned. In this regard, this paper argues that the consideration test is very unlikely to work any better than the intention
test and if one of these two tests must be abandoned it should
be the consideration test rather than the intention test. Firstly,
the doctrine of consideration suffers not less attacks by scholars
than the intention test. It has been noted that all of the doctrines
of offer and acceptance, consideration and intention to create
legal relations suffer criticisms but the attacks on consideration
are the most severe; and it is unlikely that English law would
adopt the doctrine of consideration were it to be given the opportunity to start afresh (McKendrick, 2003: p. 273). Many
have found the doctrine of consideration confusing (Coote,
This can be illustrated by the United States Uniform Written Obligation Act
(drafted by Williston and is adopted in Pennsylvania), s 1, which proposes:
A written release or promise hereafter made and signed by the person
releasing or promising shall not be invalid or unenforceable for lack of
consideration, if the writing also contains an additional express statement, in
any form of language, that the signer intends to be legally bound. See
Uniform Written Obligations Act, s 1, in Handbook of the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws and Proceedings 584 (1925),
cited in Klass (2009: p. 1450).
1995: p. 22). Justifications claimed for the doctrine of consideration have been forcefully argued illusory and untenable (Koo,
Secondly, there have been official law reform proposals for
abandoning the doctrine of consideration but there is none for
abandoning the intention test. The United Kingdom Law Revision Committees 1937 Report proposed a reform of some of
the rules on consideration, such as writing as a substitute for
consideration and moral obligation as good consideration
(Chloros, 1968: p. 144). It is observed that [I]n effect, the Report spelt the abolition of the doctrine through the back door
(ibid). Later in 1968, a paper commissioned by the United
Kingdom Law Commission pointed out that the rest aspects of
the doctrine of consideration would have been modified by the
Committees other proposals, e.g., the proposal to abolish the
rule that past consideration is no consideration and [h]ad
these proposals been put into effect they would have resulted in
the virtual abolition of the doctrine of consideration although in
theory English law would have still been governed by that doctrine (ibid). The 1968 paper, after detailed discussions, concluded that English law would lose nothing if the doctrine of
consideration were to be abolished (ibid, p. 164).
Finally but most importantly, some severe problems with the
doctrine of consideration have been recognised, and the possibility of abolishing the doctrine has been seriously discussed
and considered, by courts in some common law jurisdictions.
For example, as Professor Coote noted, in re Selectmove Ltd
[1995] 1 WLR 474, a differently constituted [English] Court
of Appeal has found impossible to reconcile the English
Court of Appeal discussion in Williams v Roffey Bros &
Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd [1990] 1 All ER 5123 with the decision of the House of Lords in Foakes v Beer (1884) 9 App Cas
605 (Coote, 1995: p. 22). Most notably, judges in the Singapore
High Court and Court of Appeal, recently, in a number of case
judgements, openly questioned the utility of the doctrine [of
consideration] (Koo, 2011: p. 464). In Chwee Kin Keong v
Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2004] 2 SLR(R) 594, Rajah JC (as
he then was) of the Singapore High Court in obitor, strongly
doubted the necessity of consideration in commercial contracts
and upheld the intention test. His honour stated (at para. [139]):
The modern approach in contract law requires very little
to find the existence of consideration. Indeed, in difficult
cases, the courts in several common law jurisdictions have
gone to extraordinary lengths to conjure up consideration.
(See for example the approach in Williams v Roffey Bros
& Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd. [1990] 1 All ER 512.) No
modern authority was cited to me suggesting an intended
commercial transaction of this nature could ever fail for
want of consideration. Indeed, the time may have come
for the common law to shed the pretence of searching for
consideration to uphold commercial contracts. The marrow of contractual relationships should be the parties intention to create a legal relationship [Emphasis original].
Another Judge, Phang J, in another Singapore High Court
case of Sunny Metal & Engineering Pte Ltd v Ng Khim Ming
Eric [2007] 1 SLR(R) 853, also in obitor, extended the judicial
criticism of the consideration doctrine to non-commercial transactions. His honour suggested that the doctrine of considera3
In this case, the English Court of Appeal invented the concept of practical
benefit to get around the consideration requirement in order to achieve a
just outcome.
tion may be outmoded even outside the context of purely commercial transactions (at para. [29]) because (at para. [30]):
[T]he combined effect of Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd. and the well-established proposition that consideration must be sufficient but need not
be adequate [make it] all too easy to locate some element
of consideration between contracting parties. This would
render requirement of consideration otiose or redundant,
Most recently in 2009, Phang JC (this time sitting as a Court
of Appeal judge), in his judgement of the Singapore Court of
Appeal case of Gay Choon Ing v Loh Sze Tie Terrence Peter
[2009] 2 SLR(R) 332, continued his attacks on the doctrine of
consideration. After the conclusion of the judgment, he added a
lengthy (11 pages) critique entitled A coda on the doctrine of
consideration (at para. [92-118]), which discussed the history
and rationale of, and difficulty, with the doctrine, and suggested
that doctrines of economic duress, undue influence and unconscionability are possible alternatives of the doctrine of consideration (at para. [113]).
The above analysis shows that the problems with the doctrine
of consideration have been recognised, and the possibility of
abolishing the doctrine has been seriously considered and argued for, not only by academics, but also by official law reform
reports and judicial opinions in some common law jurisdictions.
This is, however, not the case regarding the intention to create
legal relations requirement. This shows that the doctrine of
consideration is very unlikely to work any better than the intention to create legal relation test.
Some might argue that in the United States intention to create
legal relations is not required for a contract, because Section 21
of the Restatement (Second) of Contract provides that [n]either real nor apparent intention that a promise be legally binding is essential to the formation of a contract. Such an argument ignores the proviso of the Section 21 (Which provides
but a manifestation of intention that a promise shall not affect
legal relations may prevent the formation of a contract), the
Comments to the section4 and the fact that the Restatement is
only black-letter rules which does not necessarily describe
judicial practice in the United States (Klass, 2009: p. 1448).
Section 21 of the Restatement in effect merely indicates enforcement as a default with an opt-out rule and subject to exceptions where the proof of intention is required (ibid). It cannot be said that intention to contract has been abolished from
the contract law of the United States. This issue will be discussed further in part III of this paper where the current position of the US law is analysed. Further, even some scholars
who strongly argue for abandoning the intention requirement
has noted that US [.] and UK require the establishment of
intention to create legal relations in addition to the existence
of consideration (Gulati, 2011: p. 127).
A few scholars have noted that [c]ase authorities in many
common law jurisdictions show that both animus contrahendi
and consideration are prerequisites to contract (Cheshire and
Fifoot, 1969: p. 189). It should also be noted that the case
authorities referred to are limited to those before 1970, far
Restatement (Second) of Contracts s 21 cmt c (1981) provides that [i]n
some situations the normal understanding is that no legal obligation arises,
and some unusual manifestation of intention is necessary to create a contract. Traditional examples are social engagements and agreements within a
before the notable cases demonstrating the confusion and difficulties of the doctrine of consideration, such as Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd. [1990] 1 All ER 512, Re
Selectmove Ltd. [1995] 1 WLR 474, and the recent Singapore
cases discussed above. Importantly, these suggestions, whether
true or not, at least do not point in favour the argument that the
consideration test works better than the intention test hence it is
the intention test rather than the consideration should be exiled
from common law.
In summary, consideration is neither sufficient nor necessary
in proving intention to create legal relations. The doctrine of
consideration is under fierce attacks, both by academics and
judicial opinions, and it is very unlikely to work any better than
intention to create legal relations as a test of enforceability of
Intention to Create Legal Relations and Offer and
It is also argued that intention to be legally bound is already
necessary for the finding of offer and acceptance and to overcome any uncertainty, each of which is already a constituent
of an enforceable contract so intention to create legal relations as an additional requirement is superfluous (Chen-Wishart, 2009: p. 444).
If this argument were correct, it would equally apply to consideration and would also make consideration redundant. If
intention to be legally bound is already proved by the finding of
offer and acceptance and certainty, which are already
constituent[s] of an enforceable contract (ibid, emphasis added), anything else including consideration would be superfluous,
as the most often and seemingly strongest argument for abandoning the (proof of) intention requirement is the consideration itself can be taken as a proof strong enough to indicate the
presence of intention of forming a legally binding contract
(Gulati, 2011: p. 132). An absurd outcome would logically flow
from the abandonists argument, that is, so long as there are
offer and acceptance and certainty, there will be an enforceable
contract. A further nightmare for consideration will also naturally flow from this argument, that is, as Benson (2001: pp.
149-155) pointed out, an offer necessarily contains a promise
by the offeror and the offerees acceptance must also contain a
promise in exchange for the offerors promise. In that way,
offerors promise in exchange for offerees promise (consideration) is already necessary for the finding of offer and acceptance and overcome any uncertainty, and each of which is
already a constituent of an enforceable contract (Chen-Wishart,
2009: p. 444), hence a separate test of consideration is unnecessary.
A more appropriate view is that offer and acceptance (with
certainty) alone is not enough for the formation of an enforceable contract. Offer and acceptance must be supplemented by
other doctrines. Offer and acceptance (with certainty) focus on
the phenomenon of consensus ad idem. Offer is an expression
of the offors willingness to be bound by the terms of the offer,
but unnecessary with the intention to be legally bound. A contract can be deconstructed into three levels. First, offer and
acceptance concludes an agreement, but whether the agreement
is legally binding is another issue. Second, if the agreement is
supported by consideration, the agreement is binding somehow
but unnecessarily legally. Third, if there is intention to create
legal relations, the agreement is legally binding and thus a con85
Therefore, it is the intention to be bound somehow rather
than the intention to be legally bound is is already necessary
for the finding of offer and acceptance and to overcome any
uncertainty. In this sense, the above problems raised are even
more troublesome for consideration, because offer and acceptance have already required the parties intention to be bound
somehow by the promises made in exchange for each another.
They are exactly what consideration functions in that the existence of consideration also indicates the parties intention to be
bound somehow. If something is superfluous for the formation
of an enforceable contract that must be consideration rather
than the intention to create legal relations.
It might also be argued that the seriousness of the parties intention is already required for the finding of offer and acceptance, because an offer (acceptance) not seriously made is simply not an offer (acceptance) at all. This is true but similar to
what this paper argues above in part II A, in making effective
offer or acceptance, the offeror and offeree must show their
seriousness about undertaking some kind of obligations, but
unnecessarily seriousness about undertaking legal obligations.
If an offer was not seriously made, the maker did not express an intention to create any relations, legal or otherwise
(Smith, 2005: p. 37, emphasis original). Merely serious intention to be bound is not enough for a legally enforceable contract,
there must be serious intention to be legally bound. Again, if
something must be abandoned, that will be consideration rather
than the intention to create legal relations, because consideration only indicates the parties serious intention (not necessarily
legal intention) and such seriousness is already necessary for
the finding of offer and acceptance and to overcome any uncertainty, each of which is already a constituent of an enforceable
contract (Chen-Wishart, 2009: p. 444).
The Domestic/Commercial Distinction
Another way of arguing for abandoning the requirement of
(proving) of the intention to create legal relations is to attack
the two rebuttable presumptions based on the distinction between domestic/social and commercial agreements: that commercial agreements are prima facie enforceable and social and
domestic agreements are not (ibid). Three sorts of arguments
were put forth in support the suggestion that presumptions
based the domestic/commercial agreements distinction are no
longer reasonable and justifiable (Gulati, 2011: p. 129).
Despite the attacks on the distinction between domestic/social and commercial agreements, the courts in most common
law jurisdiction still treat them differently. Pure domestic
agreements are classic examples of non-commercial agreements.
Other non-commercial agreements may include appointment
agreements between a church and a priest (as that in Ermogenous v Greek Orthodox Community of SA Inc [2002] HCA 8), a
collective agreement between a labour union and an employer
(as that in Ford Motor Co Ltd v Amalgamated Union of Engineering and Foundry Worker [1969] 1 WLR 339). Courts very
often treat them by referring to domestic/social agreements. For
the convenience of analysis, this paper uses domestic agreements as an illustration of how non-commercial agreements are
and should be treated.
The Changing Appearance versus Nature of
Domestic/Social Relations
It is argue that due to the changing nature of domestic/so86
cial relations, the dividing line between the domestic and
commercial contracts is shrinking, so the presumptions based
on the domestic/commercial agreements distinction is no
longer reasonable and justifiable (Gulati, 2011: p. 129). Criticisms can be made on this argument. First, this argument mixes
up the appearance of domestic/social relations with the nature
of such relations. It must be noted that the nature of domestic/
social relations has not substantially changed notwithstanding
that the appearance of such relations seems to have changed.
[H]igh divorce rates and more precise statements about a
couples obligations (ibid) do not mean nowadays the nature
of the relation between husband and wife is not dissimilar to a
commercial relation. Who is able to forcefully argue that today
the nature of domestic relations is basically commercial? Even
if there are some commercial factors in the domestic relations,
it is undeniable that love, honour and cherish are still the
nature of familial relations. In commercial settings, agreements
are generally results of at-arms-length bargaining whereas in
domestic settings it is very much more likely (than in comercial settings) that agreements are results of generosity/good
will/care/passion and love. Family agreements differ categorically from arms-length commercial contracts (Trebilcock &
Elliott, 2001: p. 53). Had the nature of familial relations substantially changed and become not dissimilar to commercial
relations, family as the basic structure of our society would
It might be true that husbands and wives often have divergent interests (ibid, p. 60), but this does not mean the basic
nature of the relation between husbands and wives are substantially the same with commercial relations between strangers or
business partners. Whereas commercial actors can be assumed
[] to be actuated by self-oriented motives, family members
cannot be (ibid, p. 53). Family financial arrangements should
not [] be thought of as bargains in the strict sense (ibid).
When courts apply generic contract law principles/rules on
agreements between husbands and wives, such divergent interests might not always be appreciated (ibid, p. 60, emphasis
added), but principles/rules of other areas of law (such as family law) may step in to fill the gap where such divergent interests should be appreciated to achieve just and fairness. That fact
that legislation requires much more stringent formality for certain agreements between husbands and wives to be legally enforceable5 demonstrates the special nature of familial relations
and that there are substantial differences between domestic and
commercial arrangements. Such legislation also reflects the fact
that close relationships may often affect the parties judgments
as to the nature, value and terms of the agreements hence courts
should be more cautious about enforcement of agreements between parties with domestic/social relations.
Second, the abandonists argument mixes up domestic agreements with domestic contracts. The dividing line between the
domestic and commercial contracts is shrinking (Gulati, 2011:
p. 129, emphasis added) does not mean the distinction between
This can be illustrated by the Property (Relationships) Act 1976 (New
Zealand), section 21, which provides that for an agreement dealing with
relational property between a couple (whether married, civil union or de
facto partners) to be legally enforceable, such agreement must be in writing,
signed by each party in the presence of a lawyer who must certify that independent legal advice has been given regarding the implications and effects
of the agreement. Similarly in Australia, the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth),
sections 90B-90G set out stringent requirements for the enforcement of
financial agreement between spouses, including the agreement being in
writing, signed, independent legal advice, etc.
domestic and commercial agreements or arrangements no
longer exists. For contracts, whether domestic or commercial,
the distinction should be very limited. However, a large amount
of domestic/social agreements or arrangements are not contracts, the distinction between domestic/social and commercial
agreements are still substantial. Further, assuming what is argued were the dividing line between the domestic and commercial agreement is shrinking, such an argument would still
fail to spell out to what extent the dividing line must be
shrinking in order to justify treating domestic/social agreements the same way as commercial agreements.
Third, most importantly, this abandonists argument ignores
the fact that the distinction of the underlying values promoted
by the different categories of arrangements remains unchanged.
The fundamental distinction between domestic/social and commercial arrangements still exists for the purpose of contract law.
Generally, domestic/social arrangements are not bargains in
the ordinary sense of the term and parties enter into domestic/social agreements mainly for the purpose of promotion of
the parties shared interest [emphasis original] whereas commercial agreements are generally bargains whereby the parties
pursue personal advantages, that is, self-interest of a party
(Smith, 2004: p. 214). The shared interest lies both in the subject matter of the agreement (children, housework, etc.) and in
the goal of strengthening the relationship itself (ibid). The law
should uphold rather than undermine the distinctive sharedinterest value of families and/or other close social relations.
The proper way of upholding is non-interference, that is, to
leave domestic/social arrangements in the hands of the parties,
because the mere threat of legal enforcement can change the
character, and hence the value, of domestic agreements (ibid).
This may be an important justification for the non-enforcement
default of domestic/social agreement.
Relational Contract and Behavioural Decision Theories
It is argued that the application of behavioural decision theory undermines the distinction between family and comercial
arrangements (Keyes & Burns, 2002: p. 588) and that relational theory suggests that the similarities between the two
categories may outweigh the differences (ibid, p. 586), hence,
family agreements should be presumed to be enforceable as
commercial ones (ibid).
Relation contract theory argues that the majority of contractual arrangements are relational contracts, the parties to which
value and endeavour to preserve relations and uphold social
norms rather than simply attempt to maximise wealth or efficiency (Seddon & Ellinghaus, 1997: pp. 894-896). The parties
value incompleteness and the flexibility coming from incomepleteness (Heffey, Paterson, & Robertson, 2002: p. 27). They
seek to preserve their business relationships where possible,
rather than to enforce their contractual rights (keyes & Burns,
2002: p. 586). Therefore, it is argued, that when commercial
contractual relationships are viewed in this way, there is little
justification for the distinction between family and commercial
arrangements (ibid).
This argument is not without problems. First, relational contract theory has its drawbacks. Not all commercial relations are
long term and on-going relations and many contracts are entered into for one-shot transactions only. Furthermore, it would
be incorrect to treat all relational contracts as one category, and
contracts can be relational in various senses and to various degrees (Heffey, Paterson, & Robertson, 2002: p. 28). Some busiCopyright 2013 SciRes.
nesses, such as franchising, joint venture, and the supply chain
of processing materials may be relational; whereas others such
as the commercial banking industry may be less relational
Second, even if all or most commercial contract were relational, there would still be substantial difference of the underlying values between commercial relational contracts and familial agreements. Parties to commercial relational contracts
may put down the short-term self-interest temporarily in order
to preserve the longer business relationships, but the rival
self-interest of each party still exists for a long run. It is unimaginable that commercial parties value the relations to such
an extent that they ignore both the short-term and long-term
self-interest. Business organisations may uphold or be required
to follow social norms, but this does not mean the pursuing of
profit (including long-term business gains or business advantages) is no longer an important objective of business organisations. The basic function and objective of commercial relations,
no matter how relational they may be, is still substantially different from those of domestic/social relations. Commercial contracts, including the relational ones, are still a basic mechanism
for the parties to deal with each another at arms length,
whereas domestic/social agreements are not.
Third, the meaning and effect of incompleteness, a striking
feature of relational contracts, are different for relational commercial contracts and domestic/social agreements. For commercial agreements, the gaps as a result of the incompleteness can be filled, for business efficacy, by implied terms
developed based on commercial practices in a particular market
sector, the context of a contractual community (Wightman,
2000: p. 106), so the incompleteness may not be a real one in
many circumstances. For domestic/social agreements, however,
the parties are not participating in practices which share a set
of norms which commonly apply to a category of situations
(ibid, p. 107), no sector wide practices can be adopted to fill
the gaps, so the incompleteness in domestic/social agreements are much more substantial and real.
Behavioural decision theory (BDT) suggests that human
beings, whether involved in family or commercial arrangements,
are affected by numerous irrational decision-making processes.
These may affect the ability to make a rational choice at the
outset about whether an arrangement should be contractually
binding (Keyes & Burns, 2002: p. 588). It is therefore argued
that the application of behavioural decision theory undermines
the distinction between family and commercial arrangements
Three points can be made about this argument. First, the
theoretical validity of BDT remains to be seen. Posner comprehensively criticised BDTs attacks on rational choice theory
(Posner, 1998). Second, even if BDT itself is theoretically tenable, it may not be appropriate to apply in analysing legal issues.
Many scholars have argued that the BDT, primarily based on
cognitive and social phycology, is not appropriate to apply in
analysing legal issues (Hillman, 2000; Rostain, 2000). Third,
even if BDT could be apply in analysing legal issues BDT
would not necessarily undermines the distinction between
family and commercial arrangements (Keyes & Burns, 2002: p.
588) to such an extent that substantially vitiates the distinction.
If rationality means self-interested, wealth-maximising as an
economic person is presumed to pursue, in domestic arrangement settings, the parties are much more likely to be irrational in decision making than parties in commercial tran87
sactions. Close relations between the parties inevitably influence their cognitive and psychological aspects which impair the
ability/mood/environment for a rational decision making. The
closer the relations between the parties are, the more likely the
parties may make irrational decisions and the more severe the
irrationality may be. Even if both family members in domestic agreements and parties in commercial transactions are irrational, their degrees of irrationality could still be so substantially different that it is inappropriate for contract law to treat
the two categories of agreements in a same way.
Difficulty of Distinguishing Domestic/Social from
It is argued that determining the category of the agreement in
issue is a prerequisite for the courts to choose an appropriate
presumption of the parties intention, but it could be extremely
difficult to determine whether a particular agreement is a domestic/social one or a commercial one in certain circumstances,
especially, where the two types of relations are intermingled,
such as a family business (Gulati, 2011).
Admittedly, in practice it could be very difficult to distinguish domestic/social relations from commercial settings in
certain circumstances, especially, in intermingle cases. In this
regard, courts have developed rules/principles that are helpful
in dealing with borderline or intermingled cases. For example, a
business agreement between family members would be treated
as a commercial agreement and the intention to be legally
bound is thus presumed; or if it is treated as a domestic agreement the no intention presumption will be rebutted by the
commercial aspects (as in Roufos v Brewster (1971) 2 SASR
218). An ordinary commercial contract or contract of employment is not rendered unenforceable by the mere fact that
the parties happen to be closely related (Lucke, 1967-1970, p.
424). The no intention presumption does not apply to estranged couples, or the presumption is rebutted by the fact of
the estrangement (Merritt v Merritt [1970] 1 WLR 1211). Over
time, courts have identified factors pointing in favour or against
the finding of intention to be legally bound6, which could also
be helpful in determining the nature of the relationships and the
application and rebuttal of the presumptions.
Most importantly, the practical difficulty does not negate the
clear distinction of different values promoted by the different
types of agreements. Practical difficulty does not justify treating the same way the two types of agreements which are substantially different in nature. Such practical difficulty is not
unique to contract law. Many other areas of law have similar
practical difficulties, which may be even worse than the distinguishing domestic/commercial relations. For example, in tax
law, it could be extremely difficult to determine whether a particular sum spent/received is revenue or capital in nature, or
whether a tax payers conducts amounts to tax avoidance or
merely tax mitigation. The difficulty does not result in courts
treating revenue and capital, tax avoidance and tax mitigation in
the same way. This is because revenue and capital, tax avoidance and tax mitigation are completely different in nature
which justifies courts to treat them completely differently, despite the practical difficulty.
In summary, although the society has been changed over the
90 more years after the judgment of Balfour v Balfour [1919] 2
KB 571, the fundamental distinction, that is, the different val6
For case authorities and discussions on this, see Lucke (1967-1970: pp.
ues promoted by domestic/social and commercial arranges,
remains unchanged. Neither relational contract theories and
behavioural decision theory, nor practical difficulty in distinguishing domestic arrangements form commercial arrangements negates the underlying value and nature distinction between domestic and commercial arrangements. Such a distinction still exists and will continue to exist no matter how the
society develops and changes so long as the nature and value of
domestic and other close relations based on love, passion, affection, trust or other moral or social norms are still appreciated
by human beings. It is another issue whether courts should
continue to adopt different evidentiary presumptions for proving intentions to create legal relations in different settings. This
will be discussed in the law reform part of this paper.
It should also be noted that even if it were successfully argued that the presumptions based on the domestic/commercial
distinction should be abandoned, the displacement of the presumption would still not mean the proving of the intention to
create legal relations should not be a requirement for the formation of an enforceable contract. The requirement of proving is
one thing, whether applying presumptions in the proving process is another thing.
Legal Fiction, Difficult to Prove and
It is argued that the orthodox language of intention appears
to be based on a legal fiction, in that few (if any) parties turn
their minds at the time of forming such agreements to the question of whether legal rights are being created (Poole, 2006: p.
189). Since intention is a subjective state of mind, which is
notoriously difficult to prove, there is often no objective
evidence which may be produced as conclusive proof (ibid, p.
186). Therefore, courts may manipulate the intention test (or
the presumptions) for the appropriateness of enforcement in
the particular contexts (Chen-Wishart, 2009: p. 444).
The problems raised above are related not only to the proving
of intention to create legal relations, but also to the intention
itself; and some problems are related to any kinds of intention.
Unless the concept of intention (not limited to contractual intention) is excluded from contract law, these problems will
remain. It has been noted, however, that the courts and the
writers are unanimous that proof of serious intention is required (Chloros, 1968: p. 140, emphasis added). There is a
dilemma for those who argue for abandoning the intention test:
if they accept that serious intention is unnecessarily legal intention, this paper thanks them for backing up the argument that
consideration, offer and acceptance may indicate serious intention but unnecessarily legal intention; but if they argue that
serious intention means intention to create legal relations, then
any attacks on the intention to create legal relations requirement,
including the legal fiction, difficult to prove and manipulation, will be attacks on their own arguments. It seems that
they do not mean that serious intention or intention to be legally
bound is unnecessary but that the proving of such intention is
redundant because the consideration itself can be taken as a
proof strong enough to indicate the presence of intention of
forming a legally binding contract (Gulati, 2011: p. 132). The
difference between arguments for and against the intention test
is not whether the intention itself is required, but whether a
separate intention test is necessary additional to the consideration test for enforceability. Therefore, the arguments that conCopyright 2013 SciRes.
sideration, offer and acceptance should be taken as evidence
strong enough to prove the intention to be legally bound is
based on the same ground that such intention itself is still required. Consequently, a difficulty for one argument is equally a
difficulty for the opposite. So long as the notion of serious
intention is still relied upon by contract law for the purpose of
distinguishing contracts from unenforceable agreements, the
above raised problems with intention will go with arguments
Particularly, as to the difficulty of proving intention and the
intention objectively proved may be different from what the
parties actually intended, the proving of consideration has the
same difficulty, because promises can only be made intentionally and the search for intention is necessarily subjective
(Smith, 2004: p. 174). As an offer is an expression of the offerors intention to be bound by the terms of the offer, the existence of an offer hinges on the intention, which is again subjective. This problem goes to the fundamental objective theory of
contract. It is settled law that intention can only be inferred
from objective facts. In determining the parties intention,
courts look at the statements and conducts of the parties rather
than their internal state of mind. Interestingly, having said that
there is often no objective evidence which may be produced as
conclusive proof (Poole, 2006: p. 186), how can abandonists
argue that the consideration itself can be taken as a proof
strong enough to indicate the presence of intention of forming a
legally binding contract (Gulati, 2011: p. 132, emphasis added)? Is consideration an exception or not objective evidence at
Similarly, the manipulation concern is not unique to the intention test. Even if the intention requirement is abolished,
there is still the concern that courts may manipulate the doctrine
of consideration or other contractual requirements to achieve
the appropriateness of enforcement in the particular contexts
(Chen-Wishart, 2009: p. 444). The invention of practical benefit, in Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors) Ltd
[1990] 1 All ER 512, as consideration is a good illustration of
such possible manipulations. The manipulation concern will not
be alleviated by abandoning the intention requirement. Any
judicial discretion could be a risk of judicial manipulation.
Flexibility is inevitably at the price of certainty, but the excessive pursuit of certainty may result in rigidity. Manipulation
can be minimized by a set of consistent principles and the doctrine of precedents. In this sense, keeping the two rebuttable
presumptions of intention base on domestic/social and commercial distinction may be a good way to balance the competing needs of flexibility and certainty.
Comparison of Current Positions in Common
Current Positions in Some Common Law
The current positions in the United States, United Kingdom
(England), and Australia/New Zealand represent three categories of positions adopted by common law jurisdictions concerning the requirement of intention to create legal relations
and the related evidentiary rules. Arguably, any of the other
common law jurisdictions currently adopts one of these three
positions. It is therefore helpful to have a comparison of them
before law reform proposals are made.
In the United States, section 21 of the Second Restatement of
Contracts provides that Neither real nor apparent intention that
a promise be legally binding is essential to the formation of a
contract, but a manifestation of intention that a promise shall
not affect legal relations may prevent the formation of a contract. The comments to Section 21, however, provide that [i]n
some situations the normal understanding is that no legal obligation arises, and some unusual manifestation of intention is
necessary to create a contract. Traditional examples are social
engagements and agreements within a family group (Restatement (Second) of Contracts, s 21 cmt c (1981)). This means
that the United States contract law has not abandoned the notion of intention to create legal relations but merely adopted
enforcement as a default with exceptions of non-enforcement.
One exception is where the parties intention not to be legally
bound is manifested (the second clause of the Restatement
(Second) of Contracts, s 21). Another is that [i]n some situations (including situations where domestic or social agreements are involved) intention to create legal relations is necessary to create a contract (Restatement (Second) of Contracts,
s 21 cmt c (1981)).
The orthodox and current position of English law is that intention to create legal relations is necessary, additional to consideration, offer and acceptance, for the formation of a legally
enforceable contract (This is confirmed in Baird Textile Holdings Ltd v Marks & Spencer plc [2001] EWCA (Civ) 274 at
[59]). There are also two established rebuttable presumptions.
One is that commercial agreements are presumed to be legally
binding unless courts are satisfied by strong evidence to the
contrary (Edwards v Skyways Ltd [1964] WLR 349; OKeefe v
Ryannair Holdings plc [2002] IEHC 154). The other is domestic/social agreements are presumed not to be legally binding
unless proved otherwise by evidence to the contrary (Balfour v
Balfour [1919] 2 KB 571; Jones v Padavatton [1969] 2 All ER
Traditionally, Australian and New Zealand law took the
same position as that in English law but this has been changed
by judicial actions. Currently in both Australian and New Zealand law, intention to create legal relations is required and the
party alleging the existence of the contract is to prove the existence of the intention. The two rebuttable presumptions based
on the domestic/commercial distinction have been doubted by
the Court of Appeal of New Zealand in Fleeming v Beevers
[1994] 1 NZLR 385, and by the High Court of Australia in
Ermogenous v Greek Orthodox Community of SA Inc [2002]
HCA 8. It is suggested that the effect of these case judgements
is that the presumptions of intention (or no intention) to be
legally bound are no longer relied upon in any context (Burrow,
Finn & Todd, 2012: p. 172; Courmadias, 2006: pp. 175-185).
As the intention to create legal relations is still required for an
enforceable contract and the presumptions are no longer relied
upon, the general rule of evidence concerning the burden of
proof applies, which means an agreement will not be enforceable unless the party alleging the existence of a contract proves
Comparison of the Current Positions
It has been observed that concerning enforceability of contracts and intention to create legal relations the real difference
between English law and US law is not as what the black letter rules indicate (Klass, 2009: pp. 1438-1439). The actual
situation is that courts in both jurisdictions presume, in practice,
that commercial agreements are enforceable and domestic
agreements are not. In the United States, the law provides intention to be legally bound is generally not required and commercial agreements are enforceable as a default, unless there is
manifest intention of the parties not to be legally bound (Restatement (Second) of Contract, s 21). English law says that
intention to create legal relations is required, but courts presume the existence of such intention unless satisfied by strong
evidence to the contrary (Edwards v Skyways [1964] 1 WLR
349; Rose and Frank Co v J R Crompton & Bros Ltd [1932] 2
KB 261). The effect is that commercial agreements are enforceable as a default. Therefore, although there seems to be a
huge difference between the black letter law of United States
(which says intention to be legally bound is not required) and
that in England (which says intention to be legally bound is
required, as stated in Baird Textile Holdings Ltd v Marks &
Spencer plc [2001] EWCA (Civ) 274 at [59]), the real practice
is that commercial agreements in both jurisdictions are enforceable as default. The minor difference is that in the United
States, an otherwise enforceable commercial agreement will not
be enforced only if the parties manifest (express) their intention
not to be legally bound (Klass, 2009: pp. 1468-1469), whereas
in England, an otherwise enforceable commercial agreement
will not be enforced if there is strong evidence (very often but
unnecessarily being express statements of the parties) of the
parties intention not to be legally bound (Edwards v Skyways
Ltd [1964] WLR 349). Despite this difference, the English law,
by adoption of the strong presumption and other evidentiary
rules (such as reading ambiguous expression of intent against
the defendant, holding one-sided or partial performance of the
agreement negates an unambiguous statement that it is not intended as a contract), produces the same outcome as the
United States law would in most commercial cases (Klass,
2009: p. 1459).
As to non-commercial agreements, especially domestic/social agreements, the United States law and the English law,
regarding intention to contract, are even more similar. Intention
to create legal relations is required for domestic and social
agreements to be enforceable in both jurisdictions. In the
United States, the normal understanding is that no legal obligation arises, and some unusual manifestation of intention is
necessary to create a contract (Restatement (Second) of Contracts, 21 cmt c (1981)). Here, the normal understanding corresponds to the English law presumption that domestic/social
agreements are prima facie unenforceable, and the manifestation of intention is necessary to create a contract corresponds
to the English rule that the non-enforcement presumption can
be rebutted by evidence to the contrary.
Both English law and the law in Australia/New Zealand require intention to create legal relations for the formation of an
enforceable contract, but the English law adopts the two evidentiary presumptions whereas the law in Australia/New Zealand seems have abandoned such presumptions. The effect of
abandoning the presumptions is that intention to create legal
relations as a contractual requirement is to be proved by the
party arguing for enforcement of the agreement in issue,
whether it is a commercial agreement or not. For domestic/
social agreements, this does not, in practice, change the nonenforcement default, in that whether the presumption is adopted
or not, such agreements are prima facie unenforceable unless
intention to create legal relations is proved. For commercial
agreements, the difference seems to be more obvious, at least
when the black letter rules are concerned. As English law
adopts the strong presumption that parties to commercial
agreements are intended to be legally bound, commercial
agreements are prima facie enforceable. Positive proof of the
intention to be legally bound is not required. Whereas in Australia and New Zealand, without the presumption, the application of general rules on burden of proof is that positive proof of
such intention is required for commercial agreement to be enforceable.
In practice, however, under English law, because the presumptions of intention are rebuttable by evidence to the contrary, the parties will try their best to produce evidence to rebut
or to reinforce the presumptions, which to a large extent results
in the English approach closer to the all-things-considered approach taken by Australia/New Zealand. The key difference lies
in that the presumptions only shift the onus of proof in cases
where commercial agreements are involved. The effect is that
for most commercial cases, the outcome would be the same.
Only in (commercial) borderline cases, where neither the plaintiff nor the defendant can prove the parties intention to be
bound or otherwise, the outcome will be different: under the
English law there will be a contract by virtue of the presumption, whereas under the Australia/New Zealand law there will
To sum up, commercial agreements are prima facie enforceable under current English law and the United States law,
whereas they are not under the current Australian/New Zealand
law. Partially based on Klasss observation (Klass, 2009: p.
1468), the current positions of law in these common law jurisdictions regarding the requirement of intention to create legal
relations can be summarized as a table below (Table 1), which
may be oversimplified, but still be helpful in the discussion of
possible law reform options.
Notably, in all these jurisdictions, the practical effect is that
domestic/social agreements are presumed unenforceable as a
default. It should also be noted that consideration is still required for an enforceable contract in all of these jurisdictions,
which means that the intention to create legal relations, where
required (such as the situations where domestic/social agreements are involved), is a separate requirement additional to the
consideration requirement for an enforceable contract.
Contract Law Reform: A Conservative
Approach in the Modern Global Era
Gulati (2011) proposes to abandon the intention to create legal relations requirement in common law jurisdictions where
consideration is required for an enforceable contract, but to
keep the intention requirement in jurisdictions where consideration is not required (e.g. in civil law jurisdictions). This paper
argues that this may not be a good law reform option. First, this
proposal is based on the argument that the existence of consideration is sufficient to prove intention to create legal relations.
As this paper argues in Part II A, consideration is neither necessary nor sufficient for the proving of intention to create legal
Second, Gulatis proposal is contrary to the trend of globalisation and the goals of harmonisation and unification of contract law. Contract law concerns about transactions and in such
a globalisation era transactions go easily beyond the border of a
particular jurisdiction. Surely contract law differences may be
Comparison of current positions of US, UK and Australia/New Zealand.
Enforceable unless intention not to be legally bound manifested
Unenforceable unless intention to be bound proved
Enforceable unless intention not to be legally bound strongly proved
Unenforceable unless intention to be legally bound proved
deal with by private international law rules especially by the
parties choice of the governing law of the contract, but the
efficiency and consistency from the unification of contract law
is still very attractive. Therefore, unification rather than diversification should be an important objective of contract law
reform. Intention to create legal relations requirement is a
common feature of civil-law systems (see, e.g. The Principles
of European Contract Law, art 2:101), whereas consideration is
Third, abandoning the intention to create legal relation will
not increase any certainty and/or consistency of contract law,
but increase the rigidity. As his paper has argued in Part II, the
consideration test is unlikely to work any better than the intention test. Consideration is also subject to the manipulation concern. The uncertainty and inconsistency related to the doctrine
of consideration has been illustrated by the difficulty of reconciling the judgments in Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls (Contractors) Lt [1990] 1 All ER 512 and Foakes v Beer (1884) 9
App Cas 605, and the intrusion of the doctrine of promissory
estoppel. On the other hand, abandoning the intention test will
inevitable bring in a rigidity problem, that is, so long as an
agreement is supported by consideration, it is enforceable,
whether the parties intended to be legally bound or not. Such
rigidity ignores that as a matter of fact, there are many agreements that are supported by consideration but the parties do not
intended to be legally bound by them.
Fourthly, abandoning the intention test is contrary to most of
the theories on the nature of contract, especially, contractual
liability as voluntarily assumed liability, freedom of contract
(and freedom from contract as a corollary), and etc. It is also
contrary to the judicial opinion that intention to create legal
relations is the marrow of contractual relationships (Chwee
Kin Keong v Digilandmall.com Pte Ltd [2004] 2 SLR(R) 594 at
[139]).
It is submitted therefore that intention to create a legal relation should be kept as a requirement of an enforceable contract,
whether consideration is also required or not. If something must
be abolished, then it is consideration rather than the intention to
It is further submitted that the presumptions based on the
domestic/social and commercial arrangements should also be
kept. As argued in part III, the underlying value distinction
between these two categories of agreements remains unchanged.
The presumptions provide certainty to some extent and that
they are rebuttable by evidence to the contrary provides flexibility. The change of social environment may be reflected in
courts interpretation of evidentiary facts and their weights and
the development of the category of domestic/social agreements.
As discussed above, the concept of cause does not correspond to the common law concept of consideration but relates more to morality or the order
public, the reason for entering into a contract, and motive or object. See
Chloros (1968: pp. 145-146).
The Australia/New Zealand approach (with the intention requirement but the presumptions displaced) is not a satisfactory
law reform choice. First, it has not substantially changed the
non-enforcement default status of domestic/social agreements,
in that intention to be legally bound is still required to be positively proved in order for the agreements to be enforceable. For
this reason, enforcement of domestic agreements has not been
made easier, as feminists and/or advocates of gay/lesbians
rights argue for8. The result of dumping the presumptions is not
an enforcement default of domestic agreement but a non-enforcement default of commercial agreements. The feminists
argument that domestic agreements should not be treated discriminately from commercial agreements is uphold, but their
proposal to make domestic agreement generally enforceable
without the need of proving intention to create legal relations
failed (in order to achieve this goal, merely abandoning the
presumptions is not enough but feminists must prove that the
intention to create legal relations should not be a requirement
for any enforceable agreement whether a domestic agreement
or not). The net effect of merely dumping the presumptions is
that a) less certainty of enforceability of commercial agreement,
b) a higher cost incurred in proving intention for the enforcement of commercial agreements.
A better option of contract law reform concerning the intention to create legal relations requirement is for all the common
law jurisdictions to adopt (or go back to) the orthodox (which is
also the current) English law position, that is, to keep both the
intention to create legal relations requirements, and the two
presumptions and the related evidentiary rules. Such a mechanism balances the need of flexibility and certainty. Flexibility
can be achieved by the development of the categories that the
domestic/social presumption is applicable, by carving out special agreements from the enforcement default), and courts
discretion in accepting and weighing of evidence to rebut or
reinforce the presumptions. The presumptions provide for certainty to some extent, in that at least it is well-known that
commercial agreements are prima facie enforceable whereas
domestic/social agreements are not. This is better than the allthings-considered approach without the presumptions, as the
current position of Australia/New Zealand law, which results in
less certainty. As the above analytical comparison shows, such
a conservative reform will not cause substantial changes to
the United States law, as regarding the intention requirement
the practical effect of the current United State law is very similar to the current English law. Nor will this reform cause
significant difficulties for Australia/New Zealand law as their
legal positions were just changed recently, and for most cases,
whether commercial or domestic/social, the outcome would not
be different, whether the rebuttable presumptions or all-thingsconsidered fact based approach is used (Burrows, Finn & Todd,
See, for example, Peter Goodrich, Friends in high places: Amity and
agreement in Alsatia (2005) International Journal of Law in Context 41.
2012: pp. 175-176). For other common law jurisdictions, such
as Singapore, the English position is also their current position.
It seems that such a reform is a conservative one. Being conservative, however, is unnecessarily inappropriate in the modern era, especially for courts and law. As a New Zealand Chief
Justice once mentioned, the Courts and the very law itself
are conservative institutions not given to rapid transformation.
There is nothing wrong [with the law and Courts being conservative institutions not given to rapid transformation]9. Stability
and consistency should be important considerations when law
reform is proposed.
As contractual liability stems from the parties voluntary or
intentional assumption of obligations, intention to create legal
relations is [t]he marrow of contractual relationships (Chwee
[139]). Intention to create legal relations is necessary for the
formation of an enforceable contract. On one hand, consideration (the test of bargain), and the intention required by offer and
acceptance (with certainty) could be evidence of the parties
serious intention to be bound somehow, but serious intention is
unnecessarily intention to be legally bound. One the other hand,
there are many other ways for the parties to prove their intention to create legal relations. Therefore, consideration, as with
offer and acceptance, is neither sufficient nor necessary for the
proving of intention to create legal relations. The intention to
create legal relations should not be abandoned.
It is true that the doctrine of intention to create legal relations
is not perfect, but the doctrine of consideration is very much
more problematic. The possibility of abolishing the doctrine of
consideration, and the possible alternatives have been seriously
considered and proposed not only by academics, but also by
official law reform reports and courts in some common law
jurisdictions. The doctrine of consideration is very unlikely to
work any better than the doctrine of intention to create legal
relations. If one of the two tests of enforceability must be
abandoned, it should be the doctrine of consideration rather
than intention to create legal relations.
Although in the modern era, the distinctive underlying value
promoted by domestic/social agreements (shared interest of the
parties), significantly different from that of commercial agreements (the pursuit of each parties self-interest), remains unchanged. The presumptions based on the domestic/commercial
distinction remain justifiable.
In addition to theoretical consistency, stability, harmonisation and unification of contract law in the modern global era are
also important considerations in proposing contract law reform.
These, in addition to the findings from the comparison of the
related legal rules in some common law jurisdictions, justifies a
conservative approach, that is, common law jurisdictions should
go back to the orthodox (and current) English rule. The English
law, on one hand, requires the intention to create legal relations
for an enforceable contract, which makes it look more, than the
black letter of the United States law, in line with the position
in civil law jurisdictions. One the other hand, by the adoption of
the presumptions and other related evidentiary rules, the English rule produces practical effect substantially similar to the
See Honourable Sir Thomas Eichelbaums speech at Admission of first
graduates from the School of Law, University of Waikato, reported at
[1994] NZLJ 254 at 255.
United States rule and properly balances the needs of flexibility and certainty. Such a mechanism is also widely accepted by
other common law jurisdictions to date. Such a reform will not
cause an earthquake to contract law in almost all common jurisdictions.
A conservative approach, however, does not mean a complete inaction forever. This paper submits that if something
must be abandoned from the prerequisites of formation of a
contract, the doctrine of consideration may be abandoned by
common law, but not in the near future. As argued in Part II of
this paper, an offer necessarily contains a promise by the offeror and the offerees acceptance must also contain a promise
in exchange for the offerors promise; consideration could be
evidence of the parties intention to be bound somehow, which
is already required for offer and acceptance; and intention to be
legally bound is the fundamental test of enforceability. Abandoning the consideration requirement will not only make contract law more consistent internally within contract law and
within the common jurisdictions, but also be desirable for the
harmonisation and unification of contract law internationally.
Continental law does not have the consideration concept. The
problems with the doctrine of consideration and the benefit
from abandoning this doctrine have been strongly argued for by
prominent scholars, evidenced by judicial opinions in Singapore High Court and Court of Appeal, and proposed by the
United Kingdom Law Commission. Taking into account that
the civil law concept of causa might be (thought) related to
the common law concept of consideration, a compromise can
be adopted by making the presence of reciprocity a weak
presumption of the presence of intention to create legal relations, similar to what Koo (2011) proposes. At this stage, however, a conservative reformer would better accept Phang JCs
statement in the Singapore Court of Appeal judgment of Gay
Choon Ing v Loh Sze Tie Terrence Peter [2009] 2 SLR(R) 332
at [118]:
the maintenance of the status quo may well be the
most practical solution in as much as it will afford the
courts a range of legal options to achieve a just and fair
result in the case concerned [notwithstanding] problems
of theoretical coherence [Emphasis in original].
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