Source: http://www.africanwater.org/leestemaker.htm
Timestamp: 2018-01-23 13:51:59
Document Index: 122925870

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 1', 'Art 35', 'Art 36', 'Art 2', 'Art 1', 'Art 22', 'art 140', 'Art 3', 'art 34', 'Art 7', 'Art 13', 'Art 13', 'Art 26', 'Art 26', 'art 13', 'Art 14', 'Art. 10', 'Art 7', 'Art 8', 'Art 8', 'Art 9', 'Art 65', 'Art7', 'Art.10', 'Art 35', 'Art. 37', 'Art 18', 'Art 19', 'Art 22', 'Art 18', 'Art 85', 'art 15', 'art 19', 'art 18']

The Water Page - Comparison of Southern African Water Law
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"An analysis of the new national and sub national Water Laws in Southern Africa"
The author would like to acknowledge the valued contributions of Concação Quadros of the Faculdade Direito, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique, Dr. Serraventose, Direcção de Aguas, Ministerio das Obras Publicas e Habitação and Tobias Schmitz, Johannesburg, with whom this project on the law started.
Until 20 May 2000, the UN-member countries can sign the text of the UN-Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses. The discussion among the member states is mainly on the -lack of- balance in the laws’ provisions between the rights and obligations of the upstream and downstream countries. The UN-convention is tilted towards lower riparian states, according to some member states, and is not safeguarding the interest of the upper riparian states.
"A basin state may not be denied the present reasonable use of the waters of an international drainage basin to reserve for a co-basin state a future use of such waters. (…..) Nothing in the Helsinki Rules prevents South Africa….from using an inequitably large share of the water while the less developed states of Swaziland and Mozambique have less need for it."
"However,….if and when at some future date, additional water is required to meet the legitimate economic and social needs of Swaziland and Mozambique, the continued use of more than an equitable share by South Africa would not be guaranteed" (1980,132).
The ‘Ncomati River flows through Swaziland where its’ water is heavily used for sugarcane irrigation, then it comes back into South Africa as Komati River just before entering Mozambique to join the Incomati River.
In short, the water course should be seen as a whole, and not –as in the protocol- as a series of sub-catchments with their own individual management. The environmental protection (and the Reserve) had to be secured and the SADC tribunal should be able to handle the disputes between the member states.
"Water Management moved from the pre-colonialist collective realm to become a publicly related resource in terms of Roman-Dutch law, and then, under Anglo-Saxon jurisprudence (….), was captured as a private resource for the minority (Muller:2000).
Now, the SA Water Act’s first objective is serving the majority of people their basic needs in water and food terms and maintaining the environment.
In Mozambique, the water law’s history is following the Portuguese Water laws until independence in 1974. In 1991, a new water law was gazetted. It considered all water as a state owned, a public good, and all infrastructure, bridges, dams and canals build by the state (Lei n16/91 art 1). All water resources are to be governed by the state for the benefit of the population. Water is seen as gratis and free for all. Only the large scale users need permits and concessions. The 1991 law has characteristics of a revolutionary time, using the concept of rational use, which implies a set of non-stated values, in freedom fighters language such as:
" Melhoria do saneamento, luta contra a poluição e contra a deterioração das aguas pela intrusão de salinidade. (…) Luta contra a erosão dos solos e o controlo das cheias".
The Mozambique water law is not explicit on the objectives of Water Management (it mentions ‘racionalização de seu uso’, which is a non stated scale of values). The Swazi law only give a mechanism for water quantity and quality control. The South African law gives clear political objectives in terms of sustainability, social and economic benefits.
Can the ‘water course’ be the legal concept in all three river basin states?
Muller, M. 2000, Transforming Water Law to Achieve South Africa’s Development Vision, A Case Study in National Law. 2nd World Water Forum. The Hague, March, 2000.
National Water Act, approved in 1998
Water Act, approved as Lei no 16/91
Proposed Water Act (98)
Water law is consistent with the constitution (and supports the Bill of Rights)
Constituição (1990): Art 35: All Natural Resources, including water are owned by the state and Art 36: The state is in charge to the knowledge, inventory and valuing of the natural resources and determines the conditions for use, in order to serve the national interests.
The existing constitution gives the ownership of all natural resources, including water to the King.
The new constitution is being prepared in a participatory process and will reorganise the institutional set up of water management. A New Water Act (1998) has been proposed to the parliament, not yet approved
SA: Human Right to Water and Sanitation
Moz: Water is a state owned resource to be managend for national interest
Swazi: Water is a King owned resource.
Water = a resource for all
Art 2,3: All water is state owned, for public use
All water is owned by the King and has a consistent status in the law, except rainwater
Art 1: All inland waters, superficial and groundwater are state property, to establish a public water domain.
Art 22: water is gratis and free for subsistence use.
There is no private ownership of water but a right to use water for basic needs up till 10 ha of farming
The proposed Water Act
Includes environmental needs of water and requests permits for large scale use, (art 140
No riparian principle
Art 3. There is no riparian right, the regulations of permits and concessions still apply
Riparian users need permits for large scale water use (art 34.4)
No riparian rule
(in 1998 ended in SA)
Catchment is the administrative and management unit
Recognising the unity of the water cycle and the interdependence of its elements, the basic hydrological unit is the catchment, also for administration
Art 7 (…)The unity of management of the river basins coexists with the river flows and the drainage basin including the related aquifers.
The proposed unit of management and data collection is the river basin, with a Water Authority for each river basin
The administrative and management unit is at catchment level (SA) or at riverbasin level (Moz, Swazi) The two concepts are not set in legal terms
Characteristics of water are acknowledged
The variable, uneven and unpredictable distribution of water in the water cycle should be acknowledged in the legal and administrative bodies
N.A. in two of the three countries
Water management for sustainable, social and economic benefits of the society
The objective of managing the quantity, quality and reliability of the nation’s water resources is to achieve optimum, long term, environmentally sustainable social and economic benefits for the society from their use.
Art 13,1 describes the rational use of water (racionalização de seu uso), which implies a non-stated scale of values
Art 13,1c: water utilisation should be without damage to the minimum flow and the environmental flow and respects as much as possible the natural regime of the water flow
For water quantity and quality a control system is proposed, 70 % of the water is used for large scale sugar production
Not clearly stated in Moz and Swaziland.
The water required to ensure that all people have access to sufficient water shall be reserved
Art 26,1 states priority of water allocation for human consumption and sanitation
No priority in water needs specified
SA and Moz give explicit priority to human consumption and sanitation
Minimum allocation for the environment
Art 26,2 Priority for environmental demand above private use, art 13,1c gives protection for environmental flows
No priority for environmental demand mentioned
SA and Moz give explicit priority to environmental need of water
Priority has the allocation for human need and the environment.
The water required to meet the basic human needs referred to in principle 8 and the needs of the environment shall be identified as "The Reserve" and shall enjoy priority of use by right. The use of water for all other purpose shall be subject to authorisation.
Not as such formulated in the Act.
The Reserve is explicit for SA, implicit for Moz and not existing for Swaziland
Co-operation with and agreed allocation to downstream countries
International water resources, specifically shared river systems, shall be management in a manner that optimises the benefits for all parties in a spirit of mutual co-operation. Allocations agreed for downstream countries shall be respected.
Art 14 Water management in the same basin should benefit all states involved: Investigation, projects or construction of infrastructure should be prepared and realised in a joint effort as well as exchange of information, water quality, pollution and erosion control.
Art. 10 (5 b, c) recognises the Joint Water Commissions: potential developments in neighbouring countries and other SADC countries are taken in consideration
International cooperation within Shared River basins is common,
SA and Swaziland give
consideration to downstream development, Moz N.A.
National Government is responsible
The National Government is the custodian of the nation’s water resources, as an indivisible national asset. Guided by its duty to promote the public trust, the National Government has ultimate responsibility for, and authority over, water resources management, the equitable allocation and usage of water and the transfer of water between catchments and international water matters.
Art 7,1 ‘Ministerio da Obras Publicas e Habitação’ is the responsible ministry for Water Resources Management, supported by the Conselho Nacional de Aguas (National Water Council)
Proposed National Water Authority will be responsible for Water Resources management
In general, national government is responsible
National Government ensures
As custodian of the nation’s water resources, the National Government shall ensure that the development, apportionment, management and use of those resources is carried out using the criteria of public interest, sustainability, equity and efficiency of use in a matter which reflects its public trust obligations and the value of water to society while ensuring that basic domestic needs, the requirements of the environment and the international obligations are met.
Art 8 The state shall implement eleven stated objectives related to improved water services to all sectors
No explicit ensuring of basic needs or environmental needs,
International obligations are ensured as far as in joint water commissions is agreed.
SA govn ensures, Moz government implements and in Swaziland no ensuring is made, but the international obligations
Water resources shall be developed, apportioned and managed in such a manner as to enable all user sectors to gain equitable access to the desired quantity, quality and reliability of water. Conservation and the other measures to manage demand shall be actively promoted as a preferred option to achieve these objectives
Art 8, h: The state shall look for a balance in case of conflicting water use
No outspoken intentions on equitable access to water
SA: equitable access
Moz: balanced access
Swazi: n.a.
Integrated management of water quality and quantity, in line with environment
Water quality and quantity are independent and shall be managed in an integrated manner, which is consistent with broader environmental management approaches
Art 9,1: In the requested Inventory of Water Resources, integrated water management is mentioned as the objective
SA and Moz mention integrated management, Swaziland not
Polluter pays, and prevention has priority
Water quality management options shall include the use of economic incentives and penalties to reduce pollution; and the possibility of irretrievable environmental degradation as a result of pollution shall be prevented
Art 65, 66: give sanctions and penalties to reduce all unauthorised behaviour related to water resources, including extraction or deposits of material without authorisation.
Not in the Water Act but Swazi Environmental Act (94) deals with pollution according the principle
Not clear about monitoring mechanism
Principle 17 and 18:
Water management = environmental management
Water resources development and supply activities shall be managed in a manner that is consistent with the broader national approaches to environmental management.
Art7,1c states that water management policy will be consistent with the territorial planning and environmental conservation policy
Art.10 (5,d) states that a objective of the Water Resources Master Plan is to protect aquatic environment
Part VIII, 62 (3) local Authority sets the standards of the water quality of the effluent
Aquatic environment protected
Transparant allocation and management
Art 35-41 give the rules for allocation of water concessions. These are clear.
The Water Board may restrict the time and hours of the day that water may be diverted, stored or used
Art. 37 (3,a)
Clear rules on allocation and management,
In Swaziland at Water Board level.
Prior investments in infrastructure counts in case of allocation
Prior investments counts only in SA
Protection of the downstream from upstream use
The development and management of water resources shall be carried out in a manner which limits to an acceptable minimum the danger to life and property due to natural or manmade disasters
Protection from upstream use only in SA
Institutional framework must be transparent
Art 18 gives the institutional structure of the Ministerio das Obras Publicas e Habitação, Direcção Nacional de Aguas (DNA) and the Administracoes Regionais de Aguas (ARA’s), based on River Basin Units
New Water Act proposes River Basin Authorities, but State interventions remain very important
A decentralisation tendency towards river basin authorities
Management at catchment level to allow for participation:
Art 19,1 includes users organisations and local government as members in the ARA’s Council for Integrated Management
Decentralisation to the River Basin Authorities proposed in the New Act, not yet in place,
Idem, limited participation of poor people (in users organisations and local government in Water Councils.
Service is paid for
Beneficiaries of the water management system shall contribute to the cost of its establishment and maintenance, on an equitable basis.
Art 22 states that water use at a small scale is gratis and free, when no licence or concession is needed.
Art 18,3,b calls the ARA’s to launch and collect a tax for water use
Art 85(1) proposes the Water Board to recover costs (fees and charges) from the user
Cost recovering is actual in SA, and in regulations of the Moz Act and proposed in Swaziland
Civil right to water and sanitation
The right of all citizens to have access to basic water services (the provision of potable water supply and the removal and disposal of human excreta and waste water) necessary to afford them a healthy environment on an equitable and economically and environmentally sustainable basis shall be supported
No right to water or sanitary services described
SA: Human Right
Moz: priority
Swazi: no rights
Water services is in line with local government
Water services shall be regulated in a manner, which is consistent with and supportive of the aims and approaches of the broader local government framework.
Water activities should be in line with the ‘Political Geral do Estado, art 15’, Local government institutions participate in the Management Councils of the ARA’s (art 19)
Yes, art 18
Water services in line with local government
Consistence with other water management
While the provision of water services is an activity distinct from the development and management of water resources, water services shall be provided in a manner consistent with the goals of water resources management.
NA in Moz and Swaziland
Where water services are provided in a monopoly situation, the interest of the individual consumer and the wider public must be protected and the broad goals of public policy promoted.
No protection for the indivudual consumer, The Swazi Water Cooperation holds monopoly
SA: protection
Moz: N.A.
Swazi: No protection