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1 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES ŕí Warsaw October 2003
2 Published by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) Al. Ujazdowskie 19, Warsaw, Poland OSCE/ODIHR 2003 All rights reserved. The contents of this publication may be freely used and copied for educational and other non-commercial purposes, provided that any such reproduction be accompanied by an acknowledgement of the OSCE/ODIHR as the source. Designed by Pebekom, Piła, Poland Printed in Poland by Drukarnia Waldemar Grzebyta
3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This progress report was prepared by a group of international law experts with experience in electoral and human rights practices. The experts were: Hrair Balian, Director of Special Programs at the Geneva Center for Security Policy and former Head of the ODIHR Election Section; Michael Boda, Wolfson College, University of Oxford; Vladimir Goati, Institute of Social Sciences, Belgrade; Daniel Finn, Consultant, International Law & Public Affairs, Califon, New Jersey; John Hartland, Consultant, Center for the Comparative Study of Elections, Strasbourg; Vladimir Lysenko, Member of the Central Election Commission of the Russian Federation, Moscow; Patrick Merloe, Senior Associate and Director of Election Programs, National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, Washington, DC; Gerald Mitchell, External Consultant, Brussels; Jessie Pilgrim, Legal Consultant, Tulsa, Oklahoma; Steven Wheatley, Senior Lecturer in Human Rights Law and International Law, University of Leeds, Leeds. The ODIHR acknowledges the contribution of Pierre Garrone and Martin-Micallef Gael from the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) in Strasbourg. Dan Finn is the principal author of Parts One, Two, and Four. Part Three is primarily based on the OSCE/ODIHR Draft Paper International Standards and Commitments on the Right to Democratic Elections: A Practical Guide to Democratic Elections Best Practice, prepared by Jessie Pilgrim and submitted by the ODIHR to the OSCE Permanent Council in November Hrair Balian, John Hartland, Patrick Merloe, and Steven Wheatley provided extensive comments on various parts of the present report. Acknowledgements 3
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PART ONE INVENTORY OF OSCE COMMITMENTS AND OTHER PRINCIPLES FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS General Principles and OSCE Commitments Introduction Legal Framework: Scope and System Equality: Constituencies and Districting Impartiality: Administration and Management Universality: Right to Vote Candidacies and Political Parties Election Campaign Voting Process Results: Determination, Publication, and Implementation Complaints and Appeals Domestic and International Observation Co-operation and Improvement PART TWO EXPLANATORY COMMENTS ON THE INVENTORY OF OSCE COMMITMENTS AND OTHER PRINCIPLES FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS General Principles and OSCE Commitments I. Introduction II. Legal Framework: Scope and System III. Equality: Constituencies and Districting IV. Impartiality: Administration and Management V. Universality: Right to Vote VI. Candidacies and Political Parties VII. Election Campaign VIII. Voting Process IX. Results: Determination, Publication, and Implementation X. Complaints and Appeals XI. Domestic and International Observation XII. Co-operation and Improvement PART THREE BACKGROUND REPORT: OSCE COMMITMENTS AND OTHER PRINCIPLES FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS I. Introduction II. Background III. Foundational Commitments and Obligations A. Universal Background B. Regional Background IV. Democratic Elections: Components and Considerations Table of Contents 5
6 A. Introduction B. Legal Framework: Scope and System C. Equality: Constituencies and Districting D. Impartiality: Administration and Management E. Right to Vote: Universal and Equal Suffrage F. Candidacies and Political Parties G. Election Campaign, Finance, and Media H. Voting Process I. Results: Determination, Publication, and Implementation J. Complaints and Appeals K. Election Observation L. Co-operation and Improvement PART FOUR REFERENCES ABOUT THE OSCE/ODIHR EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
7 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The present document is a progress report on a project initiated by the OSCE s Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR) to establish an inventory of existing election-related norms, commitments, principles, and good practices. Since its adoption in 1990, the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE, now the OSCE), commonly known as the Copenhagen Document, has been acknowledged as one of the main international texts setting forth principles for democratic elections in the OSCE region and, indeed, worldwide. Although not primarily an election-related instrument, the Copenhagen Document includes wide-ranging commitments for the OSCE participating States to hold genuinely democratic elections in the broader context of respect for human rights that are free, fair, transparent, and accountable through the rule of law; by suffrage that is universal, equal, and secret; and that guarantee the right to be elected, as well as the right to vote. The commitments outlined in the Copenhagen Document have served to guide the election-related work of the OSCE/ODIHR since its establishment as the Office for Free Elections in As the scope and mandate of the ODIHR s election-related activities have expanded, the Copenhagen Document has continued to be highly relevant. After 13 years, the lasting impact of the Copenhagen Document may be due in large part to the comprehensiveness of its language. Since 1990, the body of texts at national, regional, and international levels that set forth the principles for democratic elections has grown. Although the principle of democratic elections was set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in the 1960s, the international community did not begin to address the issue in greater depth until only recently. Since the OSCE's adoption of the Copenhagen Document, however, a number of institutions have contributed to the development of international principles related to elections. In Europe, the work in this field by the Council of Europe and its Parliamentary Assembly and the case law of the European Court of Human Rights have enriched the international principles for democratic elections. The European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) of the Council of Europe has developed a Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States is the most recent contributor to the effort with a convention on the subject that would be applicable within the CIS. The 20 members of the Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO) have also approved a draft convention on democratic elections and submitted the document to the Council of Europe for consideration. On the global scale, the UN Human Rights Committee adopted a General Comment (General Comment 25) interpreting the principles for democratic elections set forth in Article 25 of the ICCPR, to which the vast majority of OSCE participating States are State Parties, and other UN bodies have contributed to a growing list of international documents on the subject, as a global consensus in support of democracy emerged in the 1990s. This rich body of norms, political commitments, principles, case law, comments, and recommendations is dispersed across a considerable number of documents published by various international organizations. As such, practitioners in the electoral field do not have the benefit of a single document presenting this body of materials on the principles of democratic elections in a comprehensive and easily accessible format. As a leading institution promoting democratic elections since the early 1990s in the OSCE region, the ODIHR is well placed to compile such a comprehensive document, in effect an inventory of existing norms, political Executive Summary 7
8 commitments, and principles. Accordingly, and in an attempt to assist OSCE participating States with a more consistent methodology when observing elections and providing technical assistance, the ODIHR launched a project in November 2001 to compile the inventory. Three additional developments prompted the ODIHR in this endeavour. First, during the 2000 Bucharest Ministerial Meeting, the Russian Federation urged the ODIHR to prepare a comprehensive review of the election legislation of participating States with a view to developing common standards under which democratic elections could be enhanced. Second, during the 2001 OSCE Human Dimension Seminar, the ODIHR was encouraged to examine the possibility of building on the Copenhagen Document and clarifying and further developing the commitments for democratic elections. Third, in at least three different forums, projects were initiated to develop new international documents for democratic elections: (a) the CIS Convention on the Standards for Democratic Elections, Electoral Rights and Freedoms adopted in 2001, which is already in the process of ratification by member states; (b) the ACEEEO draft Convention on Election Standards, Electoral Rights and Freedoms, 2002, which has been submitted to the Council of Europe for consideration; and (c) the Venice Commission Code of Good Practice in Electoral Matters, 2002, which could become the basis for further action in this area by the Council of Europe. The ODIHR has welcomed these initiatives and commented on draft versions of the documents. However, the ODIHR was concerned that without a comprehensive document presenting a complete inventory of existing international norms, commitments, and principles for democratic elections, and given the changes in international relations since the Copenhagen Document was developed in 1990, the well-intentioned efforts of various institutions posed a risk of fragmentation of those generally agreed commitments. As such, and as a first step, the ODIHR initiated in November 2001 a project to catalogue the existing standards in a comprehensive document. The project was made possible with a generous contribution from Switzerland. For this purpose, the ODIHR convened a diverse group of international law experts with experience in electoral and human rights practices in the West, as well as the CIS and the states of the former Yugoslavia. The group met five times, consulted on an ongoing basis throughout the duration of the project, and prepared two draft reports submitted to the 2002 OSCE Human Dimension Implementation Meeting and the Permanent Council. In Decision 509 of 5 December 2002, the Permanent Council (PC) welcomed the ODIHR effort and tasked it to further develop... [the] current draft and to report on progress made to the [PC] by 30 June Further, in Decision 7 of 7 December 2002, the OSCE Ministerial Council in Porto tasked the PC to consider the need to elaborate additional commitments on elections, in the spirit of enhanced co-operation with other international organizations, as well as among participating States, and to report to the next Ministerial Council meeting in In response to the identified requirement to develop a document that both serves as an inventory of existing norms, commitments, and principles of democratic elections and assists the Permanent Council to consider the need to elaborate additional commitments on elections, the present progress report sets forth in Part One a comprehensive inventory that clearly identifies: (1) the existing universal norms related to elections contained in UN documents, including human rights treaties; (2) the OSCE commitments from the Copenhagen Document and subsequent texts; and (3) principles derived from other regional instruments applicable to the OSCE area and common standards of practice among participating States. In addition, in some cases in which no universal principle could be identified, the experts have also identified good practices that participating States might consider. For ready reference and after a section detailing general principles and OSCE commitments, the inventory is organized according to the functional components of an election process: 8 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
9 1. Introduction; 2. Legal Framework: Scope and System; 3. Equality: Constituencies and Districting; 4. Impartiality: Administration and Management; 5. Universality: Right to Vote; 6. Candidacies and Political Parties; 7. Election Campaign, Financing, and Media; 8. Voting Process; 9. Results: Determination, Publication, and Implementation; 10. Complaints and Appeals; 11. Domestic and International Observation; and 12. Co-operation and Improvement. Part Two of this progress report includes explanatory comments corresponding to each of the paragraphs included in the inventory (Part One). Part Three includes background material in support of the inventory, much of which had been originally included in the draft reports submitted earlier. Finally, Part Four contains the references used in this progress report, organized by source institutions. Executive Summary 9
10 PART ONE INVENTORY OF OSCE COMMITMENTS AND OTHER PRINCIPLES FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS General Principles and OSCE Commitments 1. OSCE participating States recognize that pluralistic democracy and the rule of law are essential for ensuring respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms, the development of human contacts and the resolution of other issues of a related humanitarian character. They therefore welcome the commitment expressed by all participating States to the ideals of democracy and political pluralism, as well as their common determination to build democratic societies based on free elections and the rule of law The participating States express their conviction that full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and the development of societies based on pluralistic democracy and the rule of law are prerequisites for progress in setting up the lasting order of peace, security, justice and co-operation that they seek to establish in Europe. They therefore reaffirm their commitment to implement fully all provisions of the Final Act and of the other [O]SCE documents relating to the human dimension and undertake to build on the progress they have made The participating States declare that the will of the people, freely and fairly expressed through periodic and genuine elections, is the basis of the authority and legitimacy of all government. The participating States will accordingly respect the right of their citizens to take part in the governing of their country, either directly or through representatives freely chosen by them through fair electoral processes They recognize that co-operation among themselves, as well as the active involvement of persons, groups, organizations and institutions, will be essential to ensure continuing progress towards their shared objectives OSCE participating States reaffirm that democracy is an inherent element of the rule of law. They recognize the importance of pluralism with regard to political organizations They confirm that they will respect each other s right freely to choose and develop, in accordance with international human rights standards, their political, social, economic and cultural systems. In exercising this right, they will ensure that their laws, regulations, practices and policies conform with their obligations under international law and are brought into harmony with the provisions of the Declaration on Principles and other OSCE commitments They solemnly declare that among those elements of justice which are essential to the full expression of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all human beings are the following: 7... the 1 Copenhagen Document, op. cit., Preamble. N.B., all citations are to the materials listed in the References at the end of this report. 2 Id., (OSCE substituted for CSCE). 3 Id., 6 (excerpt). 4 Id., Preamble. 5 Id., 3. 6 Id., 4 (CSCE changed to OSCE). 7 Id., EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
11 activity of the government and the administration as well as that of the judiciary will be exercised in accordance with the system established by law. Respect for that system must be ensured; 8... human rights and fundamental freedoms will be guaranteed by law and in accordance with their obligations under international law; 9... all persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law will prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground The participating States will ensure that the exercise of all the human rights and fundamental freedoms set out [in the Copenhagen Document] will not be subject to any restrictions except those which are provided by law and are consistent with their obligations under international law, in particular the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and with their international commitments, in particular the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These restrictions have the character of exceptions. The participating States will ensure that these restrictions are not abused and are not applied in an arbitrary manner, but in such a way that the effective exercise of these rights is ensured Any restriction on rights and freedoms must, in a democratic society, relate to one of the objectives of the applicable law and be strictly proportionate to the aim of that law Introduction 1.1 Through the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference of the Human Dimension and other instruments, the OSCE participating States have recognized the special importance of political pluralism in achieving their shared goals for co-operative development of the human dimension. 13 They have committed themselves to the establishment and further development of democratic institutions, including representative government and the rule of law. 14 They recognize the importance of pluralism with regard to political organizations. 15 They have further agreed that elections in particular will be monitored 16 and assessed in terms of specific commitments, as well as in terms of the process of consolidating democratic institutions The OSCE participating States have recognized that periodic, genuine elections are the foundation of representative government; 18 the right to participate in elections that are free and fair is a fundamental human right 19 guaranteed by international law; 20 and that to be democratic an election process must be universal, equal, fair, secret, free, transparent, and accountable Id., Id., Id., Id., 24. All OSCE participating States are members of the United Nations and are therefore subject to the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well to other UN General Assembly resolutions and documents pertaining to democracy, democratic elections, and human rights. Fifty-one participating States are parties to the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and are subject to its provisions. In addition, 45 participating States are members of the Council of Europe and are subject to the European Convention on Human Rights and decisions of the European Court of Human Rights. 12 Id. 13 See id., Preamble. 14 See, for example, id., 6 and Preamble. 15 Id., See id., See Istanbul Declaration, Charter of European Security, See Copenhagen Document, See id., See id., See ODIHR Bluebook, op. cit., 3; see, generally, Copenhagen Document, esp Inventory of OSCE Commitments and Other Principles for Democratic Elections 11
12 1.3 Since the adoption of the Copenhagen Document, there has been continued development of international standards for democratic elections both within the OSCE area and elsewhere in the world. This has made it possible to restate, clarify, and develop the principles of democratic elections set forth in the Copenhagen Document. 1.4 The OSCE commitments and other principles related to democratic elections contained herein are organized under the following sections, reflecting the various aspects of the electoral process: 1. Introduction; 2. Legal Framework: Scope and System; 3. Equality: Constituencies and Districting; 4. Impartiality: Administration and Management; 5. Universality: Right to Vote; 6. Candidacies and Political Parties; 7. Election Campaign, Including Financing and Media; 8. Voting Process; 9. Results: Determination, Publication, and Implementation; 10. Complaints and Appeals; 11. Domestic and International Observation; and 12. Co-operation and Improvement. 2. Legal Framework: Scope and System 2.1 OSCE participating States solemnly declare that among those elements of justice which are essential to the full expression of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all human beings are the following: a form of government that is representative in character, in which the executive is accountable to the elected legislature or the electorate To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will 24 hold free elections at reasonable intervals, as established by law; 25 [and] permit all seats in at least one chamber of the national legislature to be freely contested in a popular vote The composition of primary legislative bodies at all levels of government should be selected through direct elections. 27 Other high public offices, including for senior officials of the state and executive branch, should also be filled through direct election, indirect election by the elected chamber of the national parliament or another representative body, or, for regional or local posts, the relevant legislature Id., Id., Copenhagen Document, Id., Id., See Copenhagen Document, 6 and 7.2; ECHR Prot. 1, Art. 3; ECtHR, Matthews, Mathieu-Mohin cases; CDL Guidelines, I, 5; ACEEEO, 1(1), 2(1), 10(1-2). See esp. CDL Guidelines, id.: The following must be elected by direct suffrage: i. at least one chamber of the national parliament; ii. sub-national legislative bodies; iii. local councils. Compare CIS Electoral Convention, op. cit., 1(1), which states that elections are the basis of elective bodies of governmental power and local self-government, of other bodies of people s (national) representation, of legitimacy of bodies being elected, elective officials. See also CoE Local Self-Government Charter, Preamble, and especially Art. 3(2): Th[e] right [to local self- government] shall be exercised by councils or assemblies composed of members freely elected by secret ballot on the basis of direct, equal, universal suffrage, and which may possess executive organs responsible to them. 28 See ACEEEO, 2: The parties recognize that the election standards are the following: 2.1 the right to elect and be elected to bodies of state power and bodies of local administration (bodies of local self-government), other bodies of popular (national) representation, elective state and municipal offices EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
13 2.4 The system for direct election of legislators and other public officials is a matter for national determination, provided the system operates transparently; is based on universal and equal suffrage of voters; and does not discriminate among candidates and political parties. 29 In choosing an electoral system, states should take into account to what extent it gives effect to the will of the voters, 30 preserves political pluralism, 31 and protects the interests of minorities and other groups in society A clear and detailed legislative framework for conducting elections must be established through statutory law, 33 either in a comprehensive code or through a set of laws that operate together consistently and without ambiguities or omissions. 34 Except in extraordinary cases in which serious deficiencies have been revealed in the legislation or its application and when there is an effective political and public consensus on the need to correct them amendments to the law may not be made during the period immediately preceding elections, 35 especially if the ability of voters, political parties, or candidates to fulfil their roles in the elections could be infringed Equality: Constituencies and Districting 3.1 To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will guarantee universal and equal suffrage to adult citizens See Copenhagen Document, 5.2, 6; UDHR, 21(3); CDL Guidelines, I, 4; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines. 30 The ICCPR, 25, guarantees the free expression of the will of the electors, and the ECHR, Protocol. 1, 3, ensures the free expression of the opinion of the people ; these are generally taken to mean that an election system must lead to a genuinely representative government. The UNHRC Comments, 21, applied the ICCPR provision to the equality of voting rights, e.g., in terms of constituencies and redistricting. Panels asked to assess the representativeness of the results of elections have been cautious, however, especially when asked to review the legality of an entire method of election. In the X. v. United Kingdom and Liberal Party v. United Kingdom decisions, the European Commission of Human Rights refused to rule that the results of elections in single-mandate districts were unrepresentative since the award of mandates was not proportional to the votes received. In the former case, the Commission concluded that the phrase about free expression in ECHR Protocol 1, Art. 3, referred to the voter s freedom in voting and was not intended to apply to the election system. Despite the absence of a clear legal baseline concerning the representativeness of the results of elections, broader considerations of legitimacy including under Copenhagen Document 6 and other paragraphs would apply against a system that seriously distorted the results of elections. 31 Similar to the question of the representativeness of government, the effect of a system of elections could be assessed including under Copenhagen Document Preamble and par. 3 with respect to its effects on political pluralism. At the same time, however, it should be noted that states have a right to achieve certain purposes through their systems of representation; one legitimate purpose is to achieve stability of government and avoidance of fragmentation in legislative bodies. 32 See UN Minorities Declaration; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.4.b; and ODIHR Guidelines to Assist National Minority Participation in the Electoral Process (Warsaw, OSCE/ODIHR, 2001), (Minority Electoral Guidelines). See esp. Copenhagen Document, 31: Persons belonging to national minorities have the right to exercise fully and effectively their human rights and fundamental freedoms without any discrimination and in full equality before the law. The participating States will adopt, where necessary, special measures for the purpose of ensuring to persons belonging to national minorities full equality with the other citizens in the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The CIS Electoral Convention, 18(1)(b), excludes from its prohibition against discrimination special measures undertaken in order to provide for adequate representation of any strata of the country s population, in particular of national minorities and ethnic groups, which actually is, due to political, economic, religious, social, historical and cultural conditions, deprived of the possibility to avail itself of an equal standing in respect of political and election rights and freedoms as the rest of the population. 33 See EComHR, Greek case; CDL Guidelines, II, 2.a: Apart from rules on technical matters and detail..., rules of electoral law must have at least the rank of a statute. The CIS Electoral Convention, 1(3), states: The citizen s right to elect and be elected should be fixed in the Constitution and/or in the laws. Its execution should be determined by laws and other legal acts.... The Convention, 19(2)(b), also calls for action to adopt the entire election legal framework in a legislative manner and not by executive decree. 34 The UNHCR Comments, 19, indicate that,... elections must be conducted fairly and freely on a periodic basis within a framework of laws guaranteeing the effective exercise of voting rights. 35 See CDL Guidelines, II, 2.b: The fundamental elements of electoral law... should not be open to amendment less than one year before an election. 36 See the ODIHR's final reports on the 2000 Georgian presidential election and 1999 Estonian parliamentary elections. 37 Copenhagen Document, Copenhagen Document, 7.3. Inventory of OSCE Commitments and Other Principles for Democratic Elections 13
14 3.2 The delineation of constituencies in which elections are conducted must preserve the equality of voting rights by providing approximately the same ratio of voters to elected representatives for each district. 39 Existing administrative divisions or other relevant factors (including of a historical, demographic, or geographical nature) may be reflected in election districts, provided the design of the districts is consistent with the equality of voting and fair representation for different groups in society When necessary, redrawing of election districts shall occur according to a predictable timetable and through a method prescribed by law and should reflect reliable census or voter registration figures. Redistricting should also be performed well in advance of elections, be based on transparent proposals, and allow for public information and participation Impartiality: Administration and Management 4.1. The administration of elections must be conducted autonomously, free from government or other interference, by officials or bodies operating transparently under the law. 42 Appointees to the election administration shall be required to carry out their responsibilities in an effective and impartial manner and should be individuals with the competence and commitment to do so The impartiality of the election administration can be achieved through either a mainly professional or politically balanced composition. 44 Appointments to election administration positions at all levels should be made in a transparent manner, and appointees should not be removed from their positions prior to the expiration of their term, except for legal cause Election institutions should have sufficient funding and other state support to enable them to operate effectively. They should be assisted by a professional secretariat, preferably also autonomous, and receive the support and co-operation of other agencies. 46 With respect to conducting election-related activities, decisions 39 See generally id.; UDHR, 1, 2, 21(3); ICCPR, 25(b); ECtHR, X v. United Kingdom and Liberal Party cases; CIS Electoral Convention, 3(1); CDL Guidelines, I, 2.2, 2.4.b and 2.5; ACEEEO, 9( ). See esp. CDL Guidelines, I, 2.2: Equal voting power: seats must be evenly distributed between the constituencies.... ii. It entails a clear and balanced distribution of seats among the constituencies on the basis of one of the following allocation criteria: population, number of resident nationals (including minors), number of registered voters, and possibly the number of people actually voting. An appropriate combination of these criteria may be envisaged. 40 See UN Minorities Declaration, 2(2); UNHRC Comments, 21; CDL Guidelines I, 2.4; ODIHR, Minority Electoral Guidelines; ACEEEO, 9(1.1)-(1.2). The UNHRC Comments, id., state in the pertinent part: The principle of one person, one vote must apply, and within the framework of each State s electoral system, the vote of one elector should be equal to the vote of another. The drawing of electoral boundaries and the method of allocating votes should not distort the distribution of voters or discriminate against any group See CDL Guidelines, I, 2.2, e.g., I, 2.2.vii: When constituency boundaries are redefined... it must be done... impartially;... without detriment to national minorities; [and] taking into account the opinion of a committee, the majority of whose members are independent See UNHRC Comments, 20; CDL Guidelines, II, 3.1; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, VI; ACEEEO, 5(2.5), 13; IPU, 4(2). See, for example, IPU, id., which indicates:... States should take the necessary... steps to ensure the progressive achievement and consolidation of democratic goals, including through the establishment of a neutral, impartial or balanced mechanism for the management of elections.... Emerging democracies, without a strong tradition of accountability for government administration, often prefer to achieve impartiality through the formation of independent election commissions. See, for example, CIS Electoral Convention, 11(1), 19(2)(j); ACEEEO, id. 43 See, for example, id.:... States should... [e]nsure that those responsible for the various aspects of the election are trained and act impartially. 44 See id.; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, VI. 45 See id., VI.A. See also CIS Electoral Convention, 11(3) (premature termination of election bodies or their members to be carried out as determined by the law). 46 These principles are based on the observations and recommendations of several ODIHR election observation missions (EOM). See, for example, ODIHR final reports on the 2000 Albanian local elections (appropriate staff needed for Central Election Commission); 2002 parliamentary elections in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (funding and support for autonomous secretariat recommended); and 2000 Croatia House of Representatives elections (additional administrative support for State Election Commission recommended). 14 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
15 of electoral bodies, adopted within their areas of competence, shall be binding, and the operations of other state agencies must be subordinate to those of the election administration It is desirable for the election administration, especially the central election authority, to be established on a permanent basis 48 and, if possible, provided with a regular budgetary allocation, so that essential electionrelated functions and programmes can be carried out on a continuous basis. 49 Core members of permanent election bodies should be granted definite tenure of office, 50 and membership should rotate on a regular basis Universality: Right to Vote 5.1 To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will 52 guarantee universal and equal suffrage to adult citizens The guarantee of universal and equal suffrage requires that individuals be permitted to vote on a nondiscriminatory basis and without any distinction based on social or economic factors, physical disability, ethnic background, or political belief. 54 Exceptional circumstances, such as the need to provide more effective representation for women, national minorities, or other groups, may justify measures to provide them enhanced voting rights All eligible citizens shall have the right to vote in elections. Non-citizens may be granted the right to vote in sub-national elections pursuant to an applicable international agreement or in other circumstances The guarantee of universal suffrage requires that individuals be eligible to vote once they reach the age of majority 57 and that their suffrage cannot be suspended or withdrawn except for reasons of legal incapacity (e.g., based on mental incapacity) or conviction for a serious criminal offence. Withdrawal of individual franchise must be based on judicial action, and, in the case of criminal conviction, must be proportionate to the nature of the offence See CIS Electoral Convention, 11(6): Decisions of electoral bodies, adopted within the framework of competence, are binding for executive authorities, state institutions, local self-governments, political parties and other public formations, their representatives, organizations, officials, voters, lower electoral bodies, other persons and organizations mentioned by laws. 48 See, for example, CDL Guidelines, II, 3.1.c; ODIHR, Legal Review Guidelines, id. See also the ODIHR s final reports on the 2000 Romanian national elections and the 1999 Slovak Republic presidential elections (need for permanent election administration). 49 See, for example, ODIHR final report on the 2001 Croatian local elections (permanent body needed to support SEC and continue services between elections); report of needs assessment mission on the 2003 Armenian presidential elections (sufficient resources required for election administration). 50 See ODIHR, Legal Review Guidelines, VI.A. 51 Election experts advise that continuity should be preserved and that sudden turnovers of membership be avoided through the adoption of such devices as staggering the terms of members of permanent election bodies. 52 Copenhagen Document, 7 53 Id., See Copenhagen Document, 7.3; ICCPR, 25(b); CEDAW, 7(a)-(b); CERD, 5(c)-(d); Women s Rights Convention, I; CDL Guidelines, I ; ODIHR Minority Electoral Guidelines; ACEEEO, 8(2), 12, 20 (2.3), 21 (2.2); IPU, 2(4), 4(1). 55 See esp. Copenhagen Document, 31 (quoted previously). See also CDL Guidelines, I, 2.4.b: Special rules guaranteeing national minorities reserved seats or providing for exceptions to the normal seat allocation criteria... do not in principle run counter to equal suffrage. The need to enhance the representation of women has recently been recognized in the CIS Electoral Convention, 10(2), which calls for further steps aimed at providing women with fair and real, equally with men, possibilities to execute the right to elect and be elected..., to elective posts both individually and as part of political parties (coalitions) on the terms and in accordance with the procedure stipulated by the Constitution, laws. 56 See Foreigners Convention; CDL Guidelines, I, 1.b; ACEEEO, 21 (2.12). 57 See id.; UNHRC Comments, 14; ICCPR, 25(b); Child Rights Convention, 1; CDL Guidelines, I, 1.b & c; ACEEEO, 8 (1.1). The CDL Guidelines, id., state: [T]he right to vote must be acquired, at the latest, at the age of majority[,] and the ACEEEO takes the same approach. 58 See UNHRC Comments and ICCPR, id.; ECtHR, Labita and Iwanczuk cases; EComHR decisions; CDL Guidelines, 1, 1.d; ACEEEO, 20 (1) & (2.1)-(2.2). The CDL Guidelines, id., permit deprivation of the right to vote or be elected only if provided for by law, observing the proportionality principle, based on mental incapacity or criminal conviction for a serious offence, with the withdrawal of political rights or finding of mental incapacity imposed by express decision of a court. Inventory of OSCE Commitments and Other Principles for Democratic Elections 15
16 5.5 Residence in the state may be required for the exercise of the right to vote. 59 To vote in local or regional elections, a reasonable period of residence in the area may be required Registration of voters must be accomplished in an accurate, timely, and transparent manner, and individuals shall be given effective opportunity to understand their rights, check the accuracy of their registration, and ensure that errors are corrected Secure mechanisms 62 should be implemented to permit absentee voting by persons who are temporarily away from their area of residence, especially if such persons are residing internally. 63 The absence of a permanent residence should not prevent an otherwise qualified person from being registered as a voter Candidacies and Political Parties 6.1 To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will 65 respect the right of citizens to seek political or public office, individually or as representatives of political parties or organizations, without discrimination; 66 [and] respect the right of individuals and groups to establish, in full freedom, their own political parties or other political organizations and provide such political parties and organizations with the necessary legal guarantees to enable them to compete with each other on a basis of equal treatment before the law and by the authorities States must permit candidates to seek elective office, either independently or as representatives of political parties or other organizations, without unnecessary obstacles. 68 Candidacies may be subject only to reasonable and equally applied registration procedures, such as a requirement to provide personal identification information, a personal statement or party endorsement, or evidence of a minimum level of public support See ECtHR, Hilbe case; EComHR, X v. United Kingdom In the latter decision, p. 122, the European Commission of Human Rights found that a residence requirement in national elections was justified by several factors: [F]irst, the assumption that a non-resident citizen is less directly or continuously interested in, and has less day-to-day knowledge of its problems; secondly, the impracticability for Parliamentary candidates of presenting the different electoral issues to citizens abroad so as to secure a free expression of opinion; thirdly, the need to prevent electoral fraud, the danger of which is increased in uncontrolled postal votes; and finally the link between the right of representation in the Parliamentary vote and the obligation to pay taxes, not always imposed on those in voluntary and continuous residence abroad. The CIS Electoral Convention, 2(c), adopts a different approach, opting to exclude non-resident status from preventing voting by citizens in national elections: [E]very citizen living or staying in the period of conducting of the national elections beyond the boundaries of their state has the voting rights equal to those pertaining to other citizens of their state See EComHR, Polacco case; CDL Guidelines, I, 1.c (ordinarily, a maximum of six months); ACEEEO, 8 (1.3). In the Polacco case, id., the Commission indicated that the required period of residency for local elections may not exceed a few months. 61 See, generally, ECHR, 8; Personal Data Convention, 108; CDL Guidelines, I, 1.2; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, VII; ACEEEO, 8(1.5), 21 (2.3-.4); IPU, 2(2) & (4), 4(1). 62 See ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, XII.E. The CIS Electoral Convention, 3(3), states that, assuring provision of the maximum convenience for voters, but subject to implementation through the law, citizens should be provided an opportunity to vote through absentee and other means (including advance voting, mobile voting, or other procedures). 63 See ODIHR final report on the 2002 parliamentary elections in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, p See ODIHR final report on the 2000 Croatian House of Representatives elections, p Copenhagen Document, Id., Id., 7.6. The CIS Electoral Convention, 9(2), insists that authentic elections are based on real political pluralism, and ideological variety and a multi-party system that are exercised through functioning of political parties. See also id., Art. 19(g) (facilitation of political parties). Consistent with the previous practice in the CIS area, however, the Convention, in Art. 10(3) on Fair Elections, also stresses the role of independent candidacies and candidacies sponsored by other public formations and subjects... mentioned in the Constitution, laws. 68 See UDHR, 20(1), 21; UNHRC Kyrgyzstan report; ECHR, 14; ECtHR, Podkolzina case; CDL Guidelines I, 1.3, 2.3 and 3.1.b; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, VIII, A-B; ACEEEO, 4(5), 9(1.3), 14, 20; IPU, 3(1) and (7). See, for example, CDL Guidelines, 2.3.a: Equality of opportunity must be guaranteed for parties and candidates alike. This entails a neutral attitude by state authorities See ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, id.; ACEEEO, id. ACEEEO, 4(5) states: Genuine elections shall ensure fair legal conditions for nomination, registration, refusal or cancellation of registration of candidates, lists of candidates of political parties (coalitions) and for 16 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
17 6.3 No additional qualification requirements, beyond those applicable to voters, may be imposed on candidates except, for certain offices, concerning age and duration of citizenship and/or residence. 70 Some categories of public employment may be made incompatible with candidacy, if justified by the nature of the position 71 or the potential for conflict of interest. 6.4 Denial of candidacy on the grounds that the programme of a candidate or party violates the constitution or that candidacy poses an unreasonable risk of violence must be based on a justified determination, subject to judicial review, that: (a) the programme of the candidate or party is based on ethnic hatred, political violence, or war propaganda or is otherwise inconsistent with fundamental democratic values; or (b) its conduct demonstrates that it is not prepared to respect the law or to confine itself to peaceful means in order to achieve its objectives. 72 Actions against candidacies on such grounds must be proportionate and not undertaken for political reasons No discriminatory actions may be carried out against certain candidacies, 74 and no special advantages of an organizational or financial nature may be granted to other candidates or political parties, 75 except with respect to the submission of signature petitions or financial surety. 76 Any such advantages should be equally available and should reflect the parties base of support or electoral record Election Campaign A. General 7.1 The participating States reaffirm that [1] everyone will have the right to freedom of expression including the right to communication. This right will include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers....; [2] everyone will have the right of peaceful assembly and demonstration. Any restrictions which may be placed on the exercise participation of all political parties (coalitions) in the election campaign. Requirements to registration shall be established in good time before the commencement of the election campaign; they shall be clear, definite, free from any conditions which may serve as a basis for discriminatory restrictions or possible abuses and shall be applied in a uniform manner. See also CIS Electoral Convention, 9(6): Authentic elections assume equal and fair conditions for registration of candidates, lists of candidates and political parties (coalitions). Registration requirements should be clear, and they should not include requirements that may become the grounds for limitations or privileges of a discriminatory nature. Any arbitrary or discriminatory application of standards for registration in order to damage separate political parties (coalitions), candidates, lists of candidates is not allowed. 70 See Copenhagen Document, 7.5 and 7.6; UDHR, 29-30; UNCHR Comments, 15; UNHRC Latvian case; ECHR, 10(2); CDL Guidelines, I, 1; ACEEEO, 4(5), 8(1.1), 20(3); IPU, 3(7). The CDL Guidelines, 1.1.a.iii, state that the right to stand for election should preferably be acquired at the same age as the right to vote and in any case not later than the age of 25, except where there are specific qualifying ages for certain offices (e.g. member of the upper house of parliament, head of state). 71 See ECtHR, Ahmad case. 72 See ECtHR, Turkish political cases (esp. Refah Partisi case, par. 98), Stankov case; EComHR, Glimmerveen case. The CIS Electoral Convention, 13(6), provides: During an election campaign, there shall not be allowed abuse of the freedom of speech and freedom of mass communication, including appeals to a violent seizure of power, violent alteration of the constitutional system and breach of the territorial integrity of the state, appeals aimed at propaganda of war, terrorist, any other violent actions, appeals provoking a social, racial, national, ethnic, religious hatred and hostility. 73 See ECtHR and EComHR cases, id. In its final report on the October 2002 general elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Warsaw, 9 January 2003), the ODIHR observed that the basis for international-community decisions to exclude individuals from running for election was not always clearly spelled out, the process was not transparent, and there was no effective means of judicial redress or right to a fair and public hearing. It was found that both international standards and OSCE commitments required these elements. 74 See Copenhagen Document 7.5 and 7.6; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.a; ACEEEO, 14(2). 75 See Copenhagen Document, See, for example, ACEEEO 14(5): In the cases and in the procedure provided for by laws, nomination and registration of candidates, lists of candidates of political parties (coalitions) may be carried out by collection of the number of voters signatures established by law or payment of an electoral (monetary) deposit or by means of other procedures which take into account, among other things, the parliamentary status of a political party (coalition), the number of votes received by a political party at the previous elections to the national legislative body (parliament). 77 See CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.b: Depending on the subject matter, equality may be strict or proportional.... If it is proportional, political parties must be treated according to the results achieved in the elections.... Inventory of OSCE Commitments and Other Principles for Democratic Elections 17
18 of these rights will be prescribed by law and consistent with international standards; [3] the right of association will be guaranteed To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will 79 ensure that law and public policy work to permit political campaigning to be conducted in a fair and free atmosphere in which neither administrative action, violence nor intimidation bars the parties and the candidates from freely presenting their views and qualifications, or prevents the voters from learning and discussing them or from casting their vote free of fear of retribution; 80 [and] provide that no legal or administrative obstacle stands in the way of unimpeded access to the media on a non-discriminatory basis for all political groupings and individuals wishing to participate in the electoral process The fair and free atmosphere needed for effective political campaigning requires the state to provide election contestants equal opportunity to convey their messages to the electorate. 82 The government and all state bodies must provide equal access to public facilities (including indoor and outdoor meeting venues), services, and assistance 83 and must not discriminate among the contestants in terms of the application of laws, regulations, or administrative procedures The commitment to ensure a fair and free atmosphere for campaigning also obliges state authorities to make every effort to prevent actions by private persons against election contestants that unfairly limit their ability to promote their candidates and programmes, including actions that violate the law or regulations. 85 States have a particular obligation to prevent and respond to any recourse to violence or intimidation against election participants States shall provide, through the state media and other means, for effective programmes of voter information and education. 87 In areas where there is a significant national or linguistic minority, such programmes should also be conducted in the language or dialect of that minority. 88 B. Financing 7.6 States may establish reasonable limits on private financing of political parties and candidates in order to preserve fair competition during elections 89 and lessen incentives for corruption and undue influence in politics Copenhagen Document, Id., Id., Id., See Copenhagen Document, 7.7; UDHR, 29(2)-(3); ECHR, 10(2); ECtHR, Incal case; CDL Guidelines, I, 3.1.a; ACEEEO, 5(2.2); IPU, 3 (3)-(4). There is less authority concerning the duration of an election campaign; on this point, the CIS Electoral Convention, 9(5), states: Setting of a term of elections and their conducting [and other election actions] should be performed in the manner and in terms that allow the candidates, political parties (coalitions) and other players of the election process to place the full-fledged pre-election campaign on a broad footing. 83 See CDL Guidelines, id.: State authorities must observe their duty of neutrality. In particular, this concerns: i. media; ii. billposting; iii. the right to demonstrate; iv. funding of parties and candidates. 84 See, for example, ODIHR final report on the 2002 parliamentary elections in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. 85 See Copenhagen Document, 7.7. See also CIS Electoral Convention, 9(8) (obligation to prosecute violations of voter rights and election procedures). 86 See IPU, 4(8): States should take the necessary measures to ensure that parties, candidates and supporters enjoy equal security, and that State authorities take the necessary steps to prevent election violence. See also ACEEEO, 2 (3). 87 See IPU, 4(1): In particular, States should... initiate or facilitate national programmes of civic education, to ensure that the population are familiar with election procedures and issues. See also CDL Guidelines, I, 3.1.b (previously quoted in part; see also following footnote). 88 See CDL Guidelines, id., iii: The [voter] information must also be available in the languages of the national minorities. See also ACEEEO, 17(6): The Parties shall use their best efforts [to] make the electoral information indicated by law available to representatives of national minorities, ethnic groups in their native language. 89 See ECtHR, Bowman and Pierre-Bloch cases; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.c-e; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, X.C, ACEEEO, 5(2.2); IPU, 3(3). The CDL Guidelines, I.2.3.e, state: The principle of equality of opportunity can, in certain cases, lead to a limitation of political party spending, especially on advertising. 90 See UNHRC Comments, 19, which states in part: Reasonable limitations on campaign expenditure may be justified where this is necessary to ensure that the free choice of voters is not undermined or the democratic process distorted by the disproportionate expenditure on behalf of any candidate or party. 18 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES
19 7.7 Any public funding or other support for candidates, political parties, and their election campaigns must be provided in an equitable manner, based on objective criteria such as the candidate or party s current support or results in recent elections and the amount of funds needed to campaign effectively States shall require political parties and independent candidates in elections to disclose and report periodically on the campaign funds they have received and the sources thereof, as well as on their campaign expenditures and the purposes for which they were made. 92 The national election authority or another official body 93 should monitor and enforce the disclosure and reporting of campaign finances and publish the information in a suitable and timely manner. 7.9 States may restrict or prohibit financial or other material contributions or other assistance to political parties and candidates from certain sources, such as from foreign persons or organizations, 94 and shall prevent direct assistance from state bodies or public enterprises. 95 The precise nature of the impermissible sources and types of contribution or other assistance should be clearly identified in the law and specified, if necessary, through regulation by the competent state body. 96 C. Media 7.10 States should provide an adequate opportunity, on an equitable and non-discriminatory basis, for election contestants to inform the public about their candidacies and political programmes, including through the state media States should encourage active media coverage of elections, 98 and election authorities must provide the media regular information, as well as other opportunities to cover the election process in a full and timely manner. 99 States should not impose special limitations on the media during elections except with respect to content that could unduly influence the voting (such as publicizing polling data before or during the voting 100 or running electoral advertising or election-related programming during a legally established blackout period) See CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.a-b; ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines, X.B; ACEEEO, 16(4). The CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.a states: Equality of opportunity must be guaranteed for parties and candidates alike. This entails a neutral attitude by state authorities, in particular with regard to [inter alia] public funding of parties and campaigns. (The following paragraph, b, discussing whether equality may be either strict or proportional, was quoted previously.) 92 See ECtHR, Pierre-Bloch case; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.d; ACEEEO 16 (5)-(8). The cited CDL guideline merely states: Political party, candidates and election campaign funding must be transparent. The cited ACEEEO provisions are much more detailed. See also CIS Convention, 12(5). 93 See CIS Electoral Convention, 12(6) (control or supervision of campaign financing can be exercised either by electoral bodies or other bodies or officials). 94 See ECHR, 16; ACEEEO, 2(7). The CIS Electoral Convention, 1(7), takes a strong position against direct or indirect foreign involvement in elections, including by foreign citizens, persons without citizenship, foreign legal entities, international non-governmental movements. Under Art. 12(3) of the Convention, all foreign donations to candidates or political parties participating in elections, or other public organizations linked with a candidate or party, would be prohibited. 95 See CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.e. 96 See ODIHR, Legal Review Guidelines, X. 97 See CDL Guidelines, I, 3.1.b; ACEEEO 7, 17(6). The CDL Guidelines, id., state: The public authorities have a number of positive obligations; inter alia, they must: i. submit the candidatures received to the electorate; ii. enable voters to know the lists and candidates standing for election, for example through appropriate posting See Copenhagen Document, See CIS Electoral Convention, 13(3) (states to ensure that the press has the right to attend electoral body meetings, review election documents and materials, attend public campaign events, and be present during voting, vote counting, vote tabulation, and announcement of results). 100 See ODIHR, Electoral Opinion Polls Study. 101 See ODIHR final report on the 2001 Albanian parliamentary elections, p. 22 (campaign silence should be respected by parties and media). Inventory of OSCE Commitments and Other Principles for Democratic Elections 19
20 7.12 States must ensure that equal access and fair treatment of election contestants is provided by all stateowned media outlets, including all electronic and print media. 102 This obligation extends to news reports, editorial comment, and all other content The state shall ensure that all parties and candidates are offered consistent and equivalent rates for campaign advertising. 103 During an election period, all media should be required to identify clearly the source of all advertising or other programming related to the elections that is sponsored by political parties, candidates, or others States shall establish means through which the fairness of media coverage of the elections can be maintained but without unnecessarily limiting the ability of the media to report fully on elections and, in the case of the private media, to express views about the candidates, parties, and their programmes. 105 In particular, states should establish procedures to receive and act on complaints by election contestants concerning unfair or illegal media activities during an election Voting Process 8.1 To ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government, the participating States will 107 ensure that votes are cast by secret ballot or by equivalent free voting procedure The procedures that govern voting at regular polling places, as well as in other special locations must ensure that all voting is conducted in a secure, orderly, personal, and secret manner Voting procedures should ensure that registered voters are promptly and adequately identified and that mechanisms are in place to prevent fraudulent voting. 110 Procedures should also be implemented to safeguard the integrity of ballots and other sensitive election materials before, during, and after the vote Polling places must be established 112 in locations that ensure that voters have an equivalent opportunity to exercise their right to vote in a way that is not unduly burdensome. 113 Subject to necessary security controls, special voting procedures should be employed to permit sick, disabled, elderly, or geographically dispersed voters who are unable to reach the polls an opportunity to cast their votes See Copenhagen Document, 7.7, 7.8; OSCE, BiH media case; UDHR, 19; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.a.ii; ACEEEO, 4(3), 17; IPU, 3(4). 103 See CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3: In conformity with freedom of expression, legal provision should be made to ensure that there is a minimum access to privately owned audiovisual media, with regard to the election campaign and to advertising, for all participants in elections. See also ODIHR final report on the 2000 parliamentary elections in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. 104 See ODIHR Legal Review Guidelines. 105 See Copenhagen Document, 7.7 and 7.8; UDHR, 19; UNHRC Kyrgyzstan report, 21; ECtHR, Lopes Gomes Da Silva and Oberschlik cases; CDL Guidelines, I, 2.3.a.ii & c; ACEEEO, 4(3), 17; IPU, 3(4). 106 See, for example, ODIHR final reports on the 2000 Kyrgyz Republic parliamentary and presidential elections and Georgian parliamentary elections. 107 Copenhagen Document, Id., 7.4 (excerpt). 109 See Copenhagen Document, 5.1 and 7.4; UNHRC Comments, 20; CDL Guidelines, I, 3.2; ACEEEO, 11 (1 and 3); IPU, 4(5). The CIS Electoral Convention, 5(4), also stresses the exclusion of the possibility to exert any control or monitoring over filling in the voting paper by the voter... The CIS Convention also opposes any compulsion or coercion on voters to cast ballots in an election. Id., Art See CDL Guidelines, I, See, for example, ODIHR final report on the 2000 Albanian local-government elections, p See id., ii: [V]oters should always have the possibility of voting in a polling station See IPU, 2(5): Every voter has the right to equal and effective access to a polling station in order to exercise his or her right to vote. 114 See CDL Guidelines, I, 3.2.ii-vi. 20 EXISTING COMMITMENTS FOR DEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS IN OSCE PARTICIPATING STATES