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Noise and vibration control on construction and open sites Part 3. Code of practice applicable to surface coal extraction by opencast methods
ICS 17.140.20; 17.160; 73.020
BS 5228 : Part 3 : 199 1997
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BS 5228 : Part 3 : 1997
Committees responsible for this British Standard The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by Technical Committee B/209, General building codes, to Subcommittee B/209/17, Noise control on open sites, upon which the following bodies were represented:
Association of Consulting Engineers British Aggregate Construction Materials Industries British Coal Corporation British Compressed Air Society Building Employers' Confederation Chartered Institute of Environmental Health Concrete Society Construction Health and Safety Group Construction Plant-Hire Association Department of the Environment (Building Research Establishment) Department of the Environment (Pollution Control and Waste Directorate) Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors Federation of Dredging Contractors Federation of Piling Specialists Institution of Civil Engineers Sand and Gravel Association Limited ` , , ` , ` , , ` , , ` ` ` ` , ` -
This British Standard, having been prepared under the direction of the Sector Board for Building and Civil Engineering, was published under the authority of the Standards Board and comes into effect on 15 May 1997 ©
BSI 1997
First published as BS 5228 May 1975 First published as BS 5228 : Part 3 May 1984 Second edition May 1997 The following BSI references relate to the work on this standard: Committee reference B/209/17 Draft for comment 96/101066 DC ISBN 0 580 26874 8 Copyright British Standards Institution Provided by IHS under license with BSI No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Page Committees responsible
Code of practice Introduction
Site planning and practical measures to reduce noise and vibration
Limitations on emission of noise and vibration from sites
(informative) Legislative detail
(informative) Coal processing, storage and distribution
5 Inside back cover
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Copyright British Standards Institution BSI Provided by IHS under license© with BSI 1997 No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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Foreword This Part of BS 5228, which has been prepared by Subcommittee B/209/17, covers the control of noise and vibration from surface coal extraction by opencast methods. It supersedes BS 5228 : Part 3 : 1984, which is withdrawn. BS 5228 refers to the need for the protection of persons living and working in the vicinity of such sites and those working on the sites, from noise and vibration. It recommends procedures for noise and vibration control in respect of construction and demolition operations and aims to assist architects, contractors and site operatives, designers, developers, engineers, and local authority environmental health officers and planners, regarding the control of noise and vibration. Noise and vibration can cause disturbance to processes and activities in neighbouring buildings, and in certain extreme circumstances vibration can cause or contribute to building damage. Noise and vibration can be the cause of serious disturbance and inconvenience to anyone exposed to it and in certain circumstances noise and vibration can be a hazard to health. The Environmental Protection Act 1990 [1] in England and Wales (and Scotland by virtue of the Environment Act 1995 [2]) contains provisions for the abatement of nuisances caused by noise and vibration. The provisions of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 [1] are extended to vehicles, machinery and equipment in streets by the Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act 1993 [3], the Control of Pollution Act 1974 [4] in England, Wales and Scotland, and the Pollution Control and Local Government (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 [5] in Northern Ireland. The 1974 and 1990 Acts (sections 73(1) and 79(7), respectively) and the 1978 Order (Article 53(1)) define `noise' as including `vibration'. It should be noted that BS 6472 covers the human response to vibration in structures and BS 7385 : Part 1 covers the measurement and evaluation of structural vibration. BS 7385 : Part 2 contains guidance on damage levels from groundborne vibration. NOTE. An item dealing with the vibratory loading of structures is being processed within ISO/TC 98/SC/2, Safety of structures. This is being monitored by BSI. ` , ` ` ` ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` -
BS 5228 consists of the following Parts: Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5
Code of practice for basic information and procedures for noise and vibration control Guide to noise and vibration control legislation for construction and demolition, including road construction and maintenance Code of practice applicable to surface coal extraction by opencast methods Code of practice for noise and vibration control applicable to piling operations Code of practice applicable to surface mineral extraction excluding coal1)
BS 5228 : Part 1 is common to all the types of work covered by this and the other Parts of BS 5228, which should be read in conjunction with Part 1. Other Parts will be published in due course as and when required by industry.
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Attention is drawn to the Control of Pollution Act 1974 [4] (Part III(Noise)), the Environmental Protection Act 1990 [1] (Part III (Statutory Nuisances and Clean Air)), the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 [6] (in Northern Ireland, the Pollution Control and Local Government (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 [5] and the Health and Safety at Work (Northern Ireland) Order 1978 [7]), and to the Noise at Work Regulations, 1989 SI 1790 [8] and the Noise at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland), 1990 Statutory Rules 147 [9]. Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
Summary of pages This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv, pages 1 to 6, an inside back cover and a back cover.
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Opencast coal sites can pose a greater diversity of problems of noise and vibration control compared with most other types of industrial activity for the following reasons: a) apart from some ancillary operations, they are carried out entirely in the open and can extend over a wide area; b) they are of variable duration from a few months to several years and in some cases sites in adjacent areas can follow one another in succession over a prolonged period. c) a wide variety of activities are carried out involving the following phases: 1) geological and geotechnical exploration; 2) preliminary operations to establish the site; 3) soil stripping and removal of overburden; 4) coaling, coal preparation, storage and dispatch; 5) backfilling and final site restoration; 6) rehabilitation of final land form to public amenity, agriculture or other subsequent development; d) a wide range of earth-moving and specialized plant is employed, the use of which varies significantly at different phases and times and at different heights and depths within the site.
For the purposes of this Part of BS 5228, the definitions given in BS 5228 : Part 1 apply together with the following.
1 Scope This Part of BS 5228 gives recommendations for good practice for measures to control noise and vibration, enabling coal to be extracted economically by opencast methods with the minimum of disturbance to the community.
3.1 overburden The material overlying the coal, including topsoil and subsoil. NOTE. Economic deposits of other minerals may occur in the overburden.
3.2 baffle mound A temporary dump usually formed from topsoil or subsoil, for the purpose of reducing noise from the site and to provide a visual screen.
4 Legislation It should be noted that opencast coal mining is governed by a wide variety of legislative instruments and government policy statements. Policy regarding the working of opencast coal is set out in a series of guidance notes on mineral planning. The most important of these is MPG 3 [10], which was revised in July 1994 and expanded to cover all aspects of the coal industry. Other important notes are MPG 1 [11], dealing with general principles, MPG 9 [12], which contains some guidance on vibration levels associated with blasting, and MPG 11 [13], on noise from surface mineral workings. The legislative framework consists of several elements, the most important of which is the Coal Industry Act 1994 [14], passed in July 1994. Other key legislation includes the Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946 [15], the Opencast Coal Act 1958 [16] and the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 [17]. (See annex A for detailed legislative information.)
5 Site planning and practical measures to reduce noise and vibration
2.1 Normative reference 5.1 General This Part of BS 5228 incorporates, by dated or undated reference, provisions from other Prior to making an application for planning publications. These normative references are made permission, an applicant should discuss with the at the appropriate places in the text and the cited Mineral Planning Authority (MPA) and the publications are listed on the inside back cover. For appropriate department of the local authority (see dated references, only the edition cited applies; any annex A) the predicted noise and vibration levels subsequent amendments to or revisions of the cited from the proposed site and the control measures to publication apply to this Part of BS 5228 only when be implemented. This will highlight at an early stage incorporated in the amendment by reference or any noise and vibration issues that should be revision. For undated references, the latest edition of addressed. The predicted noise and vibration levels the cited publication applies together, with any and proposed control measures should be included amendments. in the application documentation. 2.2 Informative references This Part of BS 5228 refers to other publications that provide information or guidance. Editions of these publications current at the time of issue of this standard are listed on the inside back cover, but reference should be made to the latest editions.
Local residents and other interested parties should also be consulted at this stage.
5.2 Site planning In planning the working of the site, consideration should be given to the effect of the proposed working method and site layout on adjacent sensitive premises. Where necessary, alternative methods or arrangements which have the least impact of emissions of noise and vibration should be employed if economically viable.
Due to the highly visible and intrusive nature of operations involved in the construction and removal of overburden mounds, they should always be sited as far from noise-sensitive premises as possible. Their height should be restricted where appropriate.
During construction of an overburden mound, the faces nearest to noise-sensitive premises should be progressively raised to form an effective baffle so that the bulk of tipping is carried out behind those 5.3 Location of site elements faces. Similarly, those faces should be retained for as With due consideration of the topography of the area long as practicable during removal of the mounds to and natural screening effects, care should be taken provide screening for the bulk of the removal in the siting of the following: operations. a) access points; Internal haul roads should be located as far as practicable from noise-sensitive premises and be b) limit of excavation; appropriately screened. The roads should have easy c) baffle mounds; gradients and gradual turns to reduce noise emission d) acoustic fences; from vehicles and mobile plant. e) overburden mounds; Overburden mounds should be located as far from f) internal haul roads; g) plant yards and maintenance facilities; h) coal screening and washing plants; i) pumps, generators and static plant; j) stocking areas and loading facilities; k) off-site coal haulage routes; l) site amenities and car parking.
Access points should be located with due regard to the proximity of noise-sensitive premises. The location and design of access points have to be agreed with the highway authority and the MPA. The limit of excavation is determined by a wide range of geological and engineering constraints such as the location, nature and quality of the coal, the characteristics and stability of the strata and the existence of faults and other features. In addition to these constraints, further reductions to the limit of excavation should be considered, for example, to provide additional space around the excavation area for baffle mounds or other screening methods or to utilize fully the natural screening effects of the existing topography. Baffle mounds should be sited so as to provide protection to noise-sensitive premises and should be extended in length beyond the limits of the premises to be protected. To obtain the best protection, they should be sited to obscure the line of sight to the noise sources and to maximize the path differences. Guidance on the noise reduction to be expected from baffle mounds and similar barriers may be found in annex D of BS 5228 : Part 1 : 1997. Where protection to noise-sensitive premises is required and where construction of a baffle mound is impracticable, the provision of another type of acoustic barrier should be considered. Visual considerations should be taken into account.
noise-sensitive premises as is reasonable, except where they are used as baffle mounds. Site amenities, plant yards, maintenance areas, coal screening/washing plants, stocking and loading facilities should be sited remote from and be screened from noise-sensitive premises. Where coal is to be transported from the site by road, the route should be carefully selected to minimize the impact on noise-sensitive premises even if this results in an increased haulage distance. 5.4 Working methods The phasing of the works and the working methods will have a major bearing on the control of noise. The following are of special importance: a) depth of the coal seams; b) direction of working; c) height, method of construction and location of overburden mounds; d) location, gradient and screening of site roads; e) plant to be employed; f) working hours; g) rate of production; h) use and control of blasting. Working methods should be adopted that allow for early screening of noise-sensitive premises from the subsequent operations. Where practicable, noisy static site elements should be located to take advantage of the screening effects of overburden and soil mounds. Once the limit of excavation and the maximum depth of the coal seams to be extracted have been determined in accordance with 5.3, a direction of working and phasing of operations can be deployed that reduces the transmission of noise from the site.
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There is a wide range of variables that influence these activities therefore it is not possible to be prescriptive for individual sites and a commonsense approach should be adopted. For example, it may be useful to retain an area of high ground within an excavation area of a site to screen other site activities until the latter stages of a particular phase of an operation, whereas in other cases the material from the high ground may be more effectively utilized as screening material in an earlier phase of the operation. 5.5 Selection of plant The characteristics of noise and vibration emissions from each item of plant, and their collective effect, should be assessed during the selection process for the acquisition of plant. Consideration should be given to the selection of plant with the least impact in terms of noise and vibration. Where electric plant is to be deployed on site, consideration should be given to the installation of a mains supply in preference to on-site generators. Information concerning sound power levels for specific items of plant may be found in tables 10 and 11 of annex C of BS 5228 : Part 1 : 1997. 5.6 Deployment of plant The movement of plant on and off the site should be restricted as far as practicable to within the agreed working hours for the site. The time taken to carry out noisy operations near occupied properties outside the site should be reduced to as short a period as possible. 5.7 Working hours The restriction of working hours for any operation where emissions of noise and vibration may have an adverse effect on the occupants of sensitive premises should be considered in preference to the sterilization of coal reserves. Coal haulage by road from such sites should be limited to between 0700 hours and 1900 hours, unless local circumstances require otherwise. 5.8 Training and supervision Operatives should be trained to employ proper techniques to keep site noise and vibration to a minimum. Effective supervision and a commitment by all concerned should provide the best and most effective way of achieving the objectives of this standard. Site working should be carried out strictly in accordance with the conditions of planning permission and the recommendations of this standard, which should be enforced by site supervision. A programme of self monitoring should be implemented to ensure that site working conforms to these conditions and recommendations. Copyright British Standards Institution BSI Provided by IHS under license© with BSI 1997 No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
5.9 Operation of plant Efficient exhaust silencers and/or enclosures should be fitted to all engines and all plant should be maintained in efficient working order. Consideration should be given to the provision of acoustic enclosures (see BS 5228 : Part 1), particularly when fixed plant is operated near noise-sensitive premises. Dragline buckets should be emptied as close to spoil heaps as possible, taking care to keep the clanging of chains on buckets to a minimum. Doors of diesel powered excavators should generally be kept closed. Plant should be parked as far as possible from noise-sensitive premises and engines should be started one by one. Excessive and unnecessary revving of engines should be avoided at all times. ` , , ` , ` , , ` , , ` ` ` ` , ` -
Audible reversing warning systems on dump trucks should be of a type which, whilst ensuring that they give proper warning, have a minimum noise impact on persons outside opencast coal sites. When reversing, dump trucks should travel in a direction away from noise-sensitive premises whenever possible. Consideration should be given to the employment of other reversing warning systems to reduce the impact of noise outside opencast coal sites, provided the chosen systems conform to applicable regulations, including those related to Health and Safety. The construction of baffle mounds adjacent to noise-sensitive premises should not be carried out at night. It may also be necessary to restrict this operation to times other than early mornings or late evenings, to avoid undue disturbance to local residents. Fixed noise sources such as generators and pumps, particularly those operating for 24 h each day, should be sited as far from noise-sensitive premises as is reasonable or, when site conditions permit, should be sited within the excavation. When this is impracticable they should be enclosed within baffle mounds or acoustic enclosures. Pumps should be electrically driven and sound-reduced plant should be employed for electric power generation. Routine servicing, maintenance and testing of plant should be carried out whenever possible within a properly screened plant yard. For the larger items of plant such as main excavators that are serviced and maintained at their working positions, care should be taken to avoid disturbance from noise at sensitive locations particularly during unsociable hours.
5.10 Blasting Blasting can be an emotive issue for residents around an opencast site. Good liaison between operator and residents is essential to prevent unnecessary anxiety. Wherever possible the operator should inform each resident of the proposed times of blasting and of any deviation from this programme in advance of the operations. On each day that blasting takes place it should be restricted as far as practicable to regular periods. Blasthole drilling can cause excessive noise emissions particularly when carried out at or near ground level and close to the site boundary. The choice of appropriate drilling rigs such as down-the-hole hammers or hydraulic drifters as opposed to compressed air drifters will reduce the impact of noise emissions from this activity. ` , ` ` ` ` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` -
Each blast should be carefully designed to maximize its efficiency and reduce the transmission of noise and vibration. Initiation using detonating fuse on the surface may cause problems associated with air overpressure. This can be avoided by adopting the technique of down-the-hole initiation or, if this is not possible, can be alleviated using exposed lines of detonating fuse with a reasonable thickness of selected overburden. Groundborne vibration can lead to concern being expressed by residents around opencast sites usually over the likelihood of damage to property, albeit that even the most cosmetic of plaster cracking is extremely unlikely. This problem can be mitigated by the adoption of good blasting techniques which may include consideration of the following measures: a) reduction of instantaneous charge weights; b) the judicious use of short delay detonators;
All of these activities generate noise and vibration. The major sources are the crushing and screening processes, the reception and disposal hoppers, mobile site plant and road and rail traffic. Coal disposal sites are areas of major industrial activity which may need to be located at least 400 m from noise-sensitive premises. If there are any noise-sensitive premises in close proximity, effective screening of mobile plant and traffic by baffle mounds is required and proper provision should be made for the effective insulation of fixed plant and equipment, such as the use of lined chutes and properly designed acoustic enclosures.
6 Limitations on emission of noise and vibration from sites Opencast coal extraction and associated works can take place in remote to semi-urban area conditions. Each site and situation should be considered for noise and vibration control on its own merits. When the site is adjacent to noise-sensitive premises it may be necessary to impose conditions including specific noise limits, with such other conditions imposed as determined by the Secretary of State for Energy or Mineral Planning Authority as appropriate. Guidance regarding criteria for the setting of noise and vibration control targets can be found in clause 8 of BS 5228 : Part 1 : 1997. Guidance on vibration levels associated with blasting is given within MPG 9 [12] and for noise from surface mineral workings within MPG 11 [13]. Limitations on working hours for the site, or part of it, and the restriction of the noisier activities to less sensitive times or days, can be employed as means of limiting the impact of noise and vibration from opencast coal sites.
c) decking of explosive charges within boreholes; d) ensuring that the maximum free (fragmented or open) face is available for each shot; e) adequate stemming with appropriate material such as sized gravel or stone chippings. 5.11 Coal disposal sites After coal is excavated from an opencast site it may be taken to a coal disposal site. This can be located within an opencast site, adjacent to an opencast site or at some distance, near main line rail and road facilities, and can serve more than one site. At a coal disposal site any, all or a combination of the following can take place: coal washing, crushing, screening, blending, storage in hoppers or on the ground in bunds and dispatch from the disposal point by rail or road vehicles. (See annex B.)
Annex A (informative) Legislative detail Before 1984 the British Coal Corporation's sites were authorized by the Secretary of State for Energy. Since then for all opencast sites a planning permission has been required from the appropriate Mineral Planning Authority (MPA) or, on appeal, from the Secretary of State for the Environment in England or the Secretary of State for Scotland or Wales as appropriate. The operator therefore makes a planning application to the relevant MPA, either the County Council in shire counties, the Metropolitan Council in the former Metropolitan Counties, or the District Council in Scotland. Mineral planning authority will also be exercised by new unitary authorities being created in Scotland, Wales and parts of England. Before making a planning application, the operator often undertakes extensive drilling and other explorations to prove the coal reserves. These operations are now governed by clause 22 of the Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1988 [18]. Coal operators also require a licence from the Coal Authority (see further in this annex) if they wish to explore for coal. Since July 1988 almost all the British Coal Corporation's site applications and many larger sites applied for by other operators have been accompanied by an Environmental Statement. These are required under the Town and Country Planning (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations 1988 [19], which implemented the 1985 EC Environmental Assessment Directive [20]. The Environmental Statement examines the environmental implications of the proposed operations (noise, dust, visual impact, traffic, etc.) on the local community as well as the impact on the ecology and landscape of the site. The MPA considers the application and, if satisfied that the proposals are acceptable in planning and environmental terms, approves it subject to conditions governing the site operations and restoration.
Almost all coal in Great Britain is vested in the Coal Authority, a non-departmental public body created by the Coal Industry Act 1994 [14]. The authority is responsible for managing the non-operational aspects of the UK coal industry. All future coal mining operations will require a lease and licence from the Coal Authority under Part II of the Coal Industry Act 1994 [14]. Sites licensed by the British Coal Corporation before 31st October 1994 under Section 36 (2) of the 1946 Act (as amended by the Coal Industry Act 1990) [15], can, however, continue operations during the validity of those licences. Sites contained in the 1994 privatization packages have licences granted by the Government. The previous limitation of 250 000 t on the amount of coal extracted from any one licensed opencast site was removed by the 1994 Act. Applicants for licences are responsible for securing the planning permission and other consents needed to work the coal, including rights to occupy the land and to disturb other minerals. Many opencast sites win significant quantities of other minerals, principally seams of fireclay beneath the coal seams. These operations also require planning permission.
Annex B (informative) Coal processing, storage and distribution When coal is delivered by road to a disposal point it generally arrives at elevated discharge hoppers into which coal is tipped from the lorries after they have passed over a weigh bridge. The coal falls through a large grid screen into the hopper and is conveyed by a screw conveyor into roller crushers, usually diesel driven, which reduce the coal size. It may then pass through a coal washing plant before being carried by belt conveyors into the coal screening house.
If the planning application is refused or not determined by the MPA, the operator may appeal to the Secretary of State for the Environment, Wales or Scotland as appropriate. A public inquiry is held under an Inspector, and following the Inspector's report the Secretary of State grants or refuses permission. After an opencast site receives planning permission an authorization from the local authority is also needed for the coal loading operations, which are Part B processes in accordance with the Regulations under Part 1 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 [1].
Here the coal is conveyed to the top of the building before falling through a series of shaking screens of diminishing size where the required sized coal is removed to separate storage facilities. The sized, washed and blended coal is then conveyed to the main storage area where it is laid down in layers and levelled using one or more diesel loader/dozers. When required for the market, the coal is dug out using a diesel loader and loaded into a reclaim hopper. From here a belt conveyor takes the coal to elevated storage hoppers from which either road vehicles or railway wagons are loaded by gravity.
List of references (see clause
Normative references BSI publications BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London
BS 5228 : BS 5228 : Part 1 : 1997
Noise control on construction and open sites Code of practice for basic information and procedures for noise control
Informative references BSI publications BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London
BS 6472 : 1992 BS 7385 : BS 7385 : Part 1 : 1990 BS 7385 : Part 2 : 1993
Guide to evaluation of human exposure to vibration in buildings (1 Hz to 80 Hz) Evaluation and measurement for vibration in buildings Guide for measurement of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on buildings Guide to damage levels from groundborne vibration
Other publications [1] GREAT BRITAIN. Environmental Protection Act 1990. London: The Stationery Office [2] GREAT BRITAIN. Environment Act 1995. London: The Stationery Office [3] GREAT BRITAIN. Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act 1993. London: The Stationery Office [4] GREAT BRITAIN. Control of Pollution Act 1974. London: The Stationery Office [5] NORTHERN IRELAND. Pollution Control and Local Government (Northern Ireland) Order 1978. Belfast: The Stationery Office [6] GREAT BRITAIN. Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. London: The Stationery Office [7] NORTHERN IRELAND. Health and Safety at Work (Northern Ireland) Order 1978. Belfast: The Stationery Office [8] GREAT BRITAIN. Noise at Work Regulations, 1989 SI 1790. London: The Stationery Office [9] NORTHERN IRELAND. Noise at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland), 1990 Statutory Rules 147. Belfast: The Stationery Office [10] DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT/WELSH OFFICE. Opencast coal mining. Mineral Planning Guidance Note MPG 3. London: The Stationery Office, 1988 [11] DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT/WELSH OFFICE. General considerations and the Development Plan System. Mineral Planning Guidance Note MPG 1. London: The Stationery Office, 1988 [12] DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT/WELSH OFFICE. Planning and Compensation Act 1991: Interim Order Permissions (IDOs) Conditions . Mineral Planning Guidance Note MPG 9. London: The Stationery Office, 1992 [13] DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT/WELSH OFFICE. The control of noise at surface mineral workings. Mineral Planning Guidance Note MPG 11. London: The Stationery Office, 1993 [14] GREAT BRITAIN. Coal Industry Act 1994. London: The Stationery Office [15] GREAT BRITAIN. Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946. London: The Stationery Office [16] GREAT BRITAIN. Opencast Coal Act 1958. London: The Stationery Office [17] GREAT BRITAIN. Town and Country Planning Act 1990. London: The Stationery Office [18] GREAT BRITAIN. Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1988. London: The Stationery Office [19] GREAT BRITAIN. Town and Country Planning (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations 1988. London: The Stationery Office [20] EUROPEAN COMMISSION. Council Directive 85/337/EEC. Environmental assessment (1985) ` , , ` , ` , , ` , , ` ` ` ` , ` -
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