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FACULTY OF LAW Lund University. Jonathan Örnberg
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1 FACULTY OF LAW Lund University Jonathan Örnberg Extractive Industries and Sami in Sweden An Analysis of the Procedural Safeguards in the Swedish Mineral Framework and Sweden's International and Regional Obligations LAGM01 Master Thesis Graduate Thesis, Master of Laws Programme 30 higher education credits Supervisor: Alejandro Fuentes Term: Spring 2018
2 Table of Contents Summary 1 Sammanfattning 2 Preface 3 Abbreviations 4 1. Introduction General Background Purpose Research Questions Method and Material Limitations Literature overview Disposition Sami and Mining in Sweden Traditional lives of Sami in Sweden Reindeer husbandry and the use of land Other traditional activities and the use of land The effects of mining activities on Sami Effects on Sami traditional lives Effects on the environment and the Sami Conclusion Sweden's International Obligations International Minority Protection People's Right to Self-determination The Right to Participate in Cultural Life The Minority Right to Culture The Sami Minority Right to Culture in the CCPR Right to Information United Nations Declaration on Minorites International Indigenous Protection United Nations Declaration on Indigenous Peoples Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention C International Environmental Protection RIO 1992 Declaration Aarhus Convention 38
3 Convention on Biological Diversity Conclusion Sweden s Regional Obligations Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities European Convention on Human Rights The Cultural Dimension Sami cultural rights in the ECtHR The Environmental Dimension The Fair Balance in Minority Protection Conclusion Swedish Legal Setting The Sami Status and Protection Right to land and natural resources Right to Reindeer Husbandry, Fishing and Hunting The Swedish Mineral Framework Balance of Rights Environmental Impact Assessments Consultation and participation opportunities Sami rights in Swedish courts The legacy of Taxed Mountains Recent Developments Conclusion Critical analysis of the consistency of Swedish mineral safeguards Balance of Interests International Consistency Regional Consistency Environmental Impact Assessments International Consistency Regional Consistency Consultation and Participation International Consistency Regional Consistency Conclusions 86 Bibliography 88 Table of Cases 95
4 Summary The Sami are one of the world s indigenous peoples that live in a land area referred to as Sápmi that extends over the north of Sweden, as well as parts of Norway, Finland and Russia. Part of the Sami population in Sweden lives according to their traditional way of life which includes reindeer husbandry, hunting, fishing, and other resource-based activities. It is internationally recognized that indigenous peoples have a special connection to their ancestral land and access to such lands is essential in the practice of their traditional way of life. The Swedish government since the 19 th century granted mining concessions to companies to exploit the mineral-rich areas in Sweden that are also part of the land area Sápmi. Mining activities adversely impact the traditional Sami way of life, as well as the access to their cultural heritage and spiritual places. The Swedish mineral framework employs three procedural safeguards in the process surrounding the approval mining concessions; a balance of the competing interest, environmental impact assessments, and public participation in the decision-making process. In Sweden the Sami are recognized as a people, minority and indigenous peoples which entail international obligations for Sweden towards Sami, and also affects the requirements for the formulation of procedural safeguards. Sweden s obligations under international human rights law and European human rights law stipulate specific obligations for Sweden surrounding the protection of the Sami way of life, considerations of Sami interests, Sami consultation and participation. The balance of rights is not consistent with Sweden s international obligations as it does not give due consideration of the Sami interests and enables an encroaching effect on the Sami way of life. The system for environmental impact assessment is not consistent with Sweden s international obligations as it lacks explicit Sami consultations as well as considerations of reindeer husbandry and social impacts, making it unable to take due account of the Sami interest. The public participation in decision-making processes is further inconsistent with Sweden s international obligations as the legal framework in the approval process for mining concession only stipulates a mere right to information and in the planning framework only indirect consultation opportunities. This system for Sami consultation and participation does not adhere to Sweden s international obligations surrounding effective participation and consultation. The procedural safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework; the balance of interests, environmental impact assessments and public participation and consultation, are not consistent with Sweden s international obligations, under the international human rights system as well as the European human rights system. 1
5 Sammanfattning Samerna är ett av världens ursprungsfolk som lever i landområdet Sápmi som sträcker sig över norra Sverige, så väl som delar av Norge, Finland och Ryssland. En del av samerna i Sverige lever enligt deras traditionella levnadssätt som inkluderar renskötsel, jakt, fiske och andra resurs-baserade aktiviteter. Det är internationellt erkänt att urfolk har en särskild förbindelse till deras förfaders mark- och landområden och att tillgång till sådan mark är grundläggande för praktiserandet av deras traditionella levnadssätt. Sedan 1800-talet har den svenska staten beviljat gruvkoncessioner till företag för att exploatera de mineral-rika landområdena i Sverige som också utgör del av landområdet Sápmi. Gruvdrift medför allvarlig påverkan på samernas traditionella levnadssätt så väl som tillgången till deras kulturella arv och spirituella platser. Den svenska minerallagstiftningen använder sig av tre processuella skyddsåtgärder i tillståndsprocessen kring mineralkoncessioner; en intresseavvägning av konkurrerande markintressen, miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar och allmänhetens deltagande i beslutprocessen. I Sverige är samerna erkända som ett folk, urfolk och en minoritet, vilket innebär internationella skyldigheter för Sverige gentemot samerna och som även påverkar kriterierna för utformningen av processuella skyddsåtgärder. Sveriges förpliktelser enligt internationella mänskliga rättigheter och enligt det europeiska systemet för mänskliga rättigheter uppställer specifika skyldigheter för Sverige angående skydd av samernas levnadssätt, beaktande av samiska intressen, samt samiskt samråd och deltagande. Intresseavvägningen i minerallagstiftningen är inte förenlig med Sveriges internationella folkrättsliga förpliktelser eftersom den inte tar vederbörlig hänsyn till samiska intressen och möjliggör en inträngande effekt på samernas traditionella levnadssätt. Systemet för miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar är ej förenligt med Sveriges internationella folkrättsliga förpliktelser då det saknar explicita samråd med samer såväl som särskilt beaktande av sociala och renskötselskonsekvenser, vilket inte gör det möjligt att ta vederbörlig hänsyn till samiska intressen. Allmänhetens deltagande i beslutsprocesser är vidare oförenligt med Sveriges internationella folkrättsliga åtaganden då lagstiftningen i beslutsprocessens för beviljandet av mineralkoncessioner endast stipulerar en rätt till information och i planerings regelverket endast indirekta samråds möjligheter. Detta system för samiskt samråd och deltagande följer inte Sveriges internationella folkrättsliga förpliktelser rörande effektivt deltagande och samråd. De processuella skyddsåtgärderna i den svenska minerallagstiftningen; intresseavvägning, miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar och allmänhetens deltagande och samråd, är inte förenliga med Sveriges internationella folkrättsliga åtaganden som följer utav internationella mänskliga rättigheter och det europeiska systemet för mänskliga rättigheter. 2
6 Preface I would like to especially thank my supervisor Alejandro Fuentes for providing guidance and advice throughout the writing and research process of this thesis. I would also like to give special thanks to my family and Flávia for providing me with constant encouragement and ideas. I would further like to thank my friends and colleagues, Juan, Erlina, Get, Victoria, Ana and Raul, each of whom has given me support throughout the process. 3
7 Abbreviations Aarhus convention C169 CAB Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (adopted 28 June 1998, entered into force 30 October 2001), 2161 UNTS 447; 38 ILM 517 (1999) International Labour Organization (ILO), Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, (adopted 27 June 1989, entered into force 5 September 1991) C169 County Administrative Board (Länsstyrelsen) CBD Convention on Biological Diversity (adopted 5 June 1992) 1760 UNTS 79; 31 ILM 818 CCPR CESCR CERD EIA ECHR ECtHR FCNM GJB HD HFD HovR Human Rights Committee Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination Environmental Impact Assessment European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, (adopted 4 November 1950, entered into force 3 September 1953), ETS 5. European Court of Human Rights Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (adopted 1 February 1995, entered into force 1 February 1998) ETS 157 Swergies Rikes Lag 1734, Jorda Balk (1734 Real Property Code). Högsta Domstolen (Supreme Court) Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen (Supreme Administrative Court after 2011) Hovrätt (Appellate Court) ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 4
8 ICESCR JB LNM MB MF ML MÖD PBL PCIJ RF International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 Jordabalk (1970:995) (1971 Real Property Code) Lag (2009:724) om nationella minoriteter och minoritetsspråk (Law on National Minorities and Minority Languages) Miljöbalken (1998:808) (The Environmental Code) Mineralförordning (1992:285) (Mineral Ordinance) Minerallag (1991:45) (The Swedish Mineral Law) Miljööverdomstolen (Supreme Environmental Court) Plan- och Bygglagen (2010:900) The Planning and Building Act) Permanent Court of International Justice Kungörelse (1974:152 om beslutad ny regeringsform (Instrument of Government) Rio 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (adopted 13 June 1992) UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I); 31 ILM 874 RNL Rennäringslag (1971:437) (Reindeer Husbandry Act) RR Regeringsrätten (Supreme Administrative Court before 2011) RÅ UDHR UN Charter UNCHR UNDM UNDRIP UNESCO Regeringsrättens Årsbok (Yearbook of the Supreme Administrative Court) Universal Declaration on Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217 A(III) United Nations, Charter of the United Nations (adopted 24 October 1945) 1 UNTS XVI United Nations Commission on Human Rights Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (adopted 3 February 1992) A/RES/47/135 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (adopted 2 October 2007) A/RES/61/295 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 5
9 1. Introduction 1.1. General Background Indigenous peoples exist all around the world and throughout history indigenous peoples have been the subject of colonization, oppression, and marginalization. Indigenous peoples are generally characterized as peoples having a historical continuity with pre-colonial populations, are culturally distinct, have their own social, economic and political system, strives to maintain their distinctiveness, and identify as indigenous. 1 The core of indigenous peoples rights lies in their ability to claim the right to selfdetermination. 2 Indigenous peoples are often recognized as having a special relationship to their ancestral lands and the access to such ancestral land is essential in the practice of their traditional way of life, culture, and religion. 3 The European Sami is one of the world's indigenous peoples, residing in a land area named Sápmi, that extends over Norway, Finland, Russia and a majority of the land area in Sweden. 4 In Sweden, the Sami are recognized as a people, indigenous peoples and as a minority. 5 Parts of Sápmi and lands in the north of Sweden are also rich in natural resources such as minerals. In Sweden, Since the 19th century, the government of Sweden has granted mining concessions to state-owned and private companies in the north mineral-rich lands of Sweden. These mining concessions threaten the traditional livelihoods of the Swedish Sami and their existence as an indigenous people due to competing land use interests. The enactment of safeguards in national legislation constitutes an important step in the realization of rights and may manifest in forms such as; effective participation in decisionmaking, consultation, free, prior, and informed consent, consideration of indigenous interests, right to share of reasonable benefits, and the use of EIAs. 6 1 UNCHR Study of the problem of discrimination against indigenous peoples: Final report submitted by the Special Rapporteur Mr. José R. Martinez Cobo (1982) E/CN.4/Sub.2/1982/Add.6., see also, Karin Kvarfordt, Nils-Erik Sikku and Michael Teius, The Sami: an Indigenous People in Sweden (National Sami Information Centre, Regeringskansliet - Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Consumer Affairs, Sametinget, 2005), p. 9, see also, Martin Scheinin, What are Indigenous Peoples?, in Nazila Ghanea & Alexandra Xanthaki (eds.), Minorities, Peoples and Self-determination, (Koninklijke Brill NV 2005), p. 3ff. 2 Martin Scheinin, Indigenous Peoples Land Rights Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (2018), p. 9ff. 3 See, C169, article 13, UNDRIP, articles 8, 10, 11, 12, 25, and 26, see also, Martin Scheinin, What are Indigenous Peoples?, (n 1) 3f. 4 Karin Kvarfordt (n 1) p Regeringens Proposition 1976/77:80: om insats för samerna (Government Bill 1976/77:80: about effort for Sami), p. 16ff, see also, Kulturutskottets betänkande 1976/77:43: med anledning av propositionen 1976/77:80: om insats för samerna (Committee on Culture Report KrU 1976/77: 43: on account of the government bill 1976/77:80: about effort for Sami along with motions), p See, UNDRIP arts. 5, 18, 19, 32 and 38, Rio 1992, principle 17, see generally, Alejandro Fuentes, Judicial Interpretation and Indigenous Peoples Rights to Lands, Participation and Consultation - The 6
10 1.2. Purpose The purpose of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive assessment of the compliance of the procedural safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework with Sweden s international obligations towards Sami in the international human rights system and in the European human rights system Research Questions What constitutes the traditional way of life of Sami in Sweden and how do mining activities affect the traditional way of life of Sami? What obligations does Sweden have towards Sami in the international human rights system and in the European system of human rights? What procedural safeguards does the Swedish mineral framework employ? How do the procedural safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework correspond to Sweden s obligations in the international human rights system and the European human rights system towards Sami? 1.4. Method and Material This thesis will employ a human rights-based approach, basing itself on a legal comparative and analytical study of the Swedish mineral framework in relation to international and European human rights law. The specific focus lies on the established safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework, which will be discussed in chapter 5. The chapter of the thesis describing international human rights law will be divided into three international regimes and sub-chapters; international indigenous protection, international minority protection and international environmental protection. Minority and indigenous regimes will be discussed as part of Sweden s obligations due to the Sami status in Sweden's as both indigenous peoples and as a minority. The international environmental law regime will be discussed due to the environmental components of human rights law, the environmentally hazardous characteristic of mining activities and the indigenous relationship to the land, this thesis will bring up international environmental law as part of Sweden's international obligations. International environmental law will be used in the systematic interpretation of the indigenous and minority regimes. 7 Inter-American Court of Human Rights Approach, in International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 23 (2015) See, Legal consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa), Notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, pp. 16 and 31, compare, Alejandro Fuentes, Expanding the boundaries of international human rights law. The systematic approach of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, in European Society of 7
11 Under international minority protection the Bill of Rights; Universal Declaration on Human Rights, UNGA Res 217 A(III) (UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR), will form the basis of the discussion as these comprise the most comprehensive instruments surrounding international minority protection in international law, see further pages The Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, A/RES/47/135 (UNDM) will also be used as it contains explicit and important provisions on minorities. In this discussion UN-authoritative interpretations and jurisprudence together with reports and legal scholars will be used to explain the contents of Sweden s obligations under these instruments. Under international indigenous protection, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples A/RES/61/295 (UNDRIP) and the International Labour Organization, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, C169 (C169) will be discussed as they constitute the most relevant instruments in this situation, see further pages Under international environmental protection, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26 (vol. I); 31 ILM 874 (Rio 1992), the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 2161 UNTS 447; 38 ILM 517 (1992) (Aarhus convention) and the United Nations 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity 1760 UNTS 79; 31 ILM 818 (CBD) will be used. The Rio 1992, Aarhus Convention and the CBD are the most relevant instruments that contain provisions relating to the topic of procedural safeguards and indigenous or minority protection, see further chapter 3.3. The Aarhus Convention and the CBD are ratified by Sweden and their obligations are directly applicable to Sweden. the Aarhus convention and the CBD together with Rio 1992 will be used in the systematic interpretation of the regimes of protection; international minority protection and international indigenous protection. The European human rights chapter will only discuss the minority protection regime as the European system of human rights lacks any explicit standards related to indigenous peoples. The basis for the discussion will be the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, ETS 5 (ECHR) and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, ETS 157 (FCNM) as these constitute the most comprehensive and relevant standards for minority protection under the European human rights system. The jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) and the European Commission will be used to describe the cultural aspect of minority rights, as well as to describe how the rights of Sami have been actualized in jurisprudence. The jurisprudence of the ECtHR will also describe the environmental dimension of minority rights. International Law (Conference Paper No. 13/2017, 2017 ESIL Conference, Naples, 7-9 September 2017), p. 5ff. 8
12 The basis for the discussions in the chapter describing the Swedish legal frameworks will be the Swedish mineral framework; namely Minerallag (1991:45) (The Swedish Mineral Law) (ML), Miljöbalken (1998:808) (The Environmental Code) (MB), and Plan- och Bygglagen (2010:900) The Planning and Building Act) (PBL). The thesis will also deal with the Swedish legislation dealing with Sami rights; Kungörelse (1974:152 om beslutad ny regeringsform (Instrument of Government) (RF), Jordabalk (1970:995) (1971 Real Property Code) (JB), Swergies Rikes Lag 1734, Jorda Balk (1734 Real Property Code) (GJB), Lag (2009:724) om nationella minoriteter och minoritetsspråk (Law on National Minorities and Minority Languages) (LNM) and the Rennäringslag (1971:437) (Reindeer Husbandry Act) (RNL). To fully understand the Swedish legal setting, the preparatory work, as well as legal writings on Sami rights and reports on mining and reindeer herding will be consulted. The jurisprudence of the Swedish courts will be used to see how the Sami rights concerning property and reindeer husbandry, as well as how the mining safeguards have been applied in the Swedish legal system Limitations This thesis will be limited to analyzing Sami rights as; minority rights and indigenous peoples rights, based on international, European and Swedish definitions. The full extent of Sami rights will not be discussed, as only those related to property or cultural rights will be relevant for the scope of this thesis. International environmental law will be used in the systematic interpretation of the minority and indigenous rights to interpret the obligations that Sweden have towards Sami. Due to the thesis focus on the Swedish mineral framework procedural safeguards, the right to information will be discussed as a part of Sami rights. The focus of this thesis lies on the procedural safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework. This thesis will, therefore, bring up European and international standards in relation to minority and indigenous rights and then relate to how these affect the content of procedural safeguards. The right to property of Sami in Sweden will not be discussed as an individual question but will be used to describe the Swedish legal setting, in which these mining safeguards are placed in. The issue of discrimination will not be discussed individually either, as it constitutes a separate and distinct argument relating to Sami rights, and is not directly relevant to the issue of mining safeguards. The Espoo convention 8 will not be dealt with as the focus of this thesis is not on transboundary environmental effects. As the ILO Convention C169 is not ratified by Sweden its obligations will not be treated as directly applicable to Sweden but as part of the corpus juris of international human rights law and will be used in the systematic interpretation. 9 Only 8 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment In a Transboundary Context (adopted 25 February 1991, entered into force 10 September 197), UNTS 1989 p See the material in footnote 7. 9
13 communications from the Human Rights Committee (CCPR) will be brought up in the international setting of Sami rights, as no Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) communications for Sweden exists and Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) communications lie outside the scope of this thesis Literature overview The issue of indigenous rights and extractive industries have been developed and debated to various degrees in the global setting. European human rights law does not contain any explicit information on this subject, which due to a lack of explicit indigenous rights standards is unsurprising. The Inter-American system of Human Rights and the international human rights system together with international ILO Standards have acted as the vanguard in the promotion of the rights of indigenous peoples. The Sami right to use land and natural resources as well as the reindeer husbandry right has been debated among Scandinavian academic writers as well as internationally. Sweden has several times been criticized by international supervisory bodies in regard to its stance and policies on Sami rights, as well as the on the mining policy. Environmental effects of mining in the polar environment have been written about by scholars and organizations around the world. The Swedish Sami parliament has presented their viewpoints on the Swedish mining activities in Sápmi. 10 Furthermore, the Swedish Sami parliament has also written their own guideline document on how to implement Sami land use in the EIA process. 11 Human rights concerns in relation to extractive industries and indigenous peoples have been reported upon by the former ( ) Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples, James Anaya. 12 James Anaya as well as the current (2014-) Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, Ms. Victoria Tauli Corpuz, have in their reports, 13 commented on the legal situations of Sami in Norway, Sweden and Finland, specifically on the Swedish framework for mining and the rights to lands, water and natural resources. Sweden have also received stern critique from the CERD committee concerning the rights of indigenous peoples and Sweden s legislation surrounding natural resource extraction Minerals and Mines in Sápmi: the Viewpoint of the Swedish Sami Parliament, 2014, < accessed Samisk Mark-användning och MKB, Svenska Samernas Riksförbund, 2010, (Sami Land-use and EIA, Swedish Sami National Association, 2010), < accessed UNCHR Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, James Anaya - Extractive industries and indigenous peoples (2013) A/HRC/24/ UNCHR Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, James Anaya - The situation of the Sami in the Sápmi region of Norway, Sweden and Finland (2001), A/HRC/18/35/Add.2, and UNCHR Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the human rights situation of the Sami people in the Sápmi region of Norway, Sweden and Finland (2016) A/HRC/33/42/Add UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), Concluding observations on the combined twenty-second and twenty-third periodic reports of Sweden, CERD/C/SWE/CO/22-23, para
14 The environmental aspects of the reindeer husbandry legal framework and the right to land have been commented on by Christina Allard. 15 The Swedish use and process concerning EIA in relation to EIA best practices in the Arctic have been written about. 16 The already written literature have scrutinized the Sami legal situation in Sweden and some have commented on the Swedish mineral framework. The Swedish Sami right to participation and consultation have, in a report concerning physical planning and infrastructure from the Swedish department in the International Commission of Jurists, been examined. 17 The contribution of this thesis to the already written literature will be an in-depth analysis of the specific Swedish mining safeguards as a component in the Swedish legal system, scrutinized under the obligations that Sweden has towards Swedish Sami, from their status as a minority and indigenous peoples. The approach of this thesis will be to assess the mining safeguards in the Swedish mineral framework as a component in the general protection of Sami rights in Swedish law. Unlike earlier writing, this thesis entails a comprehensive study of Sweden's obligations deriving from Sweden's obligations from both the international and European human rights systems. The focus of this thesis lies on the property and cultural rights in the indigenous and minority regimes, however, this thesis will also in this approach integrate environmental law through systematic interpretation Disposition Chapter 1 will give a brief introduction of the research subject as well as describe the purpose, research questions, method and material, limitations, literature overview and disposition of the thesis. Chapter 2 gives a better understanding of the Sami traditional way of life and culture, its connection to the land and how mining activities affect the Sami way of life. Chapter 3 explains the content of indigenous peoples and minorities rights in international human rights law. Chapter 3 maps out the obligations that Sweden has towards Sami in Sweden, as derived from international human rights law. 15 Christina Allard, Two Sides of the Coin: Rights and Duties: The Interface between Environmental Law and Saami Law Based on a comparison with Aoteoaroa/New Zealand and Canada (Luleå University of Technology, Department of Social Sciences, Division of Social Science, Doctoral Thesis 2006). 16 Timo Koivurova, Pamela Lesser, Sonja Bickford, Paula Kankaanoää and Marina Nenasheva, Environmental Impact Assessment in the Arctic: A Guide To Best Practice (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. 2016). 17 The report discusses the general opportunities of Sami to participation and consultation in planning decisions and also discusses the format of Sami parliament. The report focuses on the general Swedish framework and brings up specific cases but is limited to the legal setting before The report also generally considers Sweden's international obligations towards Sami, see Sia Åkermark Siliopoulou and Miriam Talah, Samernas rätt till deltagande och samråd - Fysisk planering och infrastruktur, Svenska Avdelningen av Internationella Juristkommissionen, 2007 (Sami right to participation and consultation - Physical planning and infrastructure, Swedish Department in the International Commission of Jurists). 11
15 Chapter 4 discusses the extent of minority protection in European human rights law, as no indigenous peoples standards exist in European human rights law. Chapter 4 maps out the obligations that Sweden has towards Sami in Sweden, as derived from European human rights law. Chapter 5 will describe the Swedish legal setting, including the general Sami status and protection of cultural and property rights. The Swedish mineral framework and its procedural safeguards will also be described. Chapter 6 will provide the analysis of this thesis. The analysis will assess the consistency between the Swedish mineral framework safeguards and Sweden's European and international obligations regarding Sami. Chapter 6 will also provide the conclusions of the thesis. 12
16 2. Sami and Mining in Sweden To understand what the Swedish legislation along with Sweden s international and regional obligations are meant to protect the situation needs to be contextualized in the current Sami situation in Sweden. This contextualization is essential to the thesis analysis since it seeks to scrutinize Swedish legislation in relation to the situation of the Sami in Sweden. This chapter will hereby examine what constitutes the traditional way of life of Sami in Sweden and how this lifestyle is connected to land and resources. The chapter will then proceed to examine how mining operations affect the Sami traditional way of life as well as the environment. Environmental perspectives will remain important aspect throughout the thesis due to this special relationship between Sami and the environment, see further down. After going through the Swedish factual setting this thesis will then, in chapter 3, stipulate the international obligations that Sweden have regarding Sami Traditional lives of Sami in Sweden It is recognized that the specific way of life of indigenous peoples is closely intertwined and dependent on the use of land for indigenous peoples traditional activities. 18 The Sami culture and traditions have developed over thousands of years through such a close connection to nature and land. 19 The Sami in Sweden traditionally practice reindeer husbandry as well as hunting and fishing. These activities, in particular, reindeer husbandry, form a central part of the Sami identity and livelihood. 20 Sami livelihoods include many other natural resourcebased activities and their cultural identity include everything from language and traditional lifestyle to music and art. 21 Nowadays, Sami people are involved in a variety of other occupations that exists in a modern society and only a minority of Swedish Sami around 10 % are engaged in traditional reindeer husbandry activities. 22 Nevertheless, reindeer husbandry has remained as the unique economic and cultural emblem of the Sami in Sweden and for outside viewers, reindeer husbandry is seen as an inseparable part of Sami culture Gudmundur Alfredsson, Minorities, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples, and Peoples: Definitions of Terms as a matter of International Law, in Nazila Ghanea & Alexandra Xanthaki (eds.), Minorities, Peoples and Self-determination (Koninklijke Brill NV 2005), p. 169, see international instruments such as UNDRIP article 25, and C169 article A/HRC/33/42/Add.3 (n 13), para Randall S. Abate and Elizabeth Ann Kronk, Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples: The Search for Legal Remedies (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited 2013), p. 290f, see also Kvarfordt (n 1), p Randall S. Abate (n 20), see also, Mattias Åhren, Indigenous Peoples Culture, Customs and Traditions and Customary Law - The Saami People s Perspective, 21 Ariz. J. Int l & Comp. L (2004). 22 Koivurova, et al., Legal Protection of Sami Traditional Livelihoods from the Adverse Impacts of Mining: A Comparison of the Level of Protection Enjoyed by Sami in Their Four Home States (Arctic Review on Law and Politics Vol. 6, No. 1, 2015, pp 11-51) p. 12ff. 23 Ibid. 13
17 Reindeer husbandry and the use of land Reindeer husbandry, a significant cultural and economic part of the essence of the Sami way of life, is highly dependent on access to vast and undisturbed land areas due to reindeer migration between seasonal grazing pastures. 24 Because of differing properties, locations, and suitability some pastures are used during summer and others during winter and autumn. Reindeer in Sweden spend the summer on tundra or in coastal areas where they feed on green vegetation, and then during winter, they migrate to boreal forests or taiga to feed on lichens. 25 Reindeer husbandry requires access to seasonal pastures: both summer grazing pastures and winter grazing pastures. Old and new migration routes are used to transport reindeers between the seasonal pastures. During summer grazing the reindeers put on a lot of weight to get through the winter and the layer of fat built up during summer grazing has a direct impact on the reindeers calf percentage, calf mortality, and calf weight. 26 The extent of access to winter grazing pastures directly affects the size of reindeer herds and the sustainability of reindeer husbandry. 27 To limit reindeer husbandry to summer grazing pastures will make reindeer husbandry unsustainable as the reindeer population will lose access to important feeding grounds in the boreal forests. 28 The Sami reindeer husbandry needs access to high-quality contiguous lands to enable reindeer seasonal migration and to serve as winter grazing pastures. 29 Reindeer husbandry is greatly conditioned by the weather and grazing conditions of the land areas and is particularly sensitive to disturbances or interference from other land users. 30 The semidomesticated reindeers constitute a keystone species that shape the circumpolar socioecological systems and is intrinsically linked to the cultural identity and socio-economic wellbeing of the northern communities like the Sami in Sweden Other traditional activities and the use of land Not all Sami in Sweden are exclusively semi-nomadic reindeer-herders and use the lands in many other ways. Some Sami referred to as the Sami fisher-folk by the Swedish government, are permanent settlers near the northern lakes of Sweden who support 24 S. Abate (n 20). 25 S. Abate (n 20), see also, Kvarfordt (n 1), p S. Abate (n 20), p Nanna Borchert and Kenyon Fields (eds), Land is Life: Traditional Sámi Reindeer Grazing Threatened in Northern Sweden, (2001), p Ibid. 29 Nanna Borchert (n 27), p Kvarfordt (n 1), p Thora Martina Herrmann, Per Sandström, Karin Granqvist, Natalie D Astous, Jonas Vannar, Hugo Asselin, Nadia Saganash, John Mameamskum, George Guanish, Jean- Baptiste Loon & Rick Cuciurean, Effects of mining on reindeer/caribou populations and indigenous livelihoods: community-based monitoring by Sami reindeer herders in Sweden and First Nations in Canada (2014 The Polar Journal, 4:1), p
18 themselves through hunting and fishing. 32 The traditional livelihood of the Sami fisher-folk is dependent on their ability to fish within the reindeer-herding territory. 33 The landscape and its environment traditionally used by the Sami in the north of Sweden constitute a part of the Sami cultural heritage. Part of the landscape where the Sami conduct reindeer husbandry constitutes the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) world heritage site Laponia due to its rich biodiversity, historical value for the Sami culture and its value as a Sami cultural environment. 34 Many Sami handicrafts and traditional tools, and cultural dresses are made with material deriving from the reindeer husbandry activities or from other sources found throughout the land. 35 The Sami cultural heritage constitutes of several parts; the material cultural heritage; physical remnants in the landscape, the immaterial cultural heritage; traditional knowledge, tales, places with special meanings, Sami names for places, and the biological and cultural heritage; remnants showing how humans have utilized the nature such as grazing mires or bark pits. 36 Sami history and traditions are often not written down but upheld through oral traditions and the old semi-nomadic life of Sami makes the cultural heritage difficult to observe. 37 Moreover, the Sami cultural heritage must be viewed as a whole, as sites, items or objects may form integral components of the heritage and must be interpreted together. During land exploitation, it is important that all cultural parts that are present in the same environment are protected. 38 The Sami also have a spiritual connection to their land, specifically to their sacred sites; sieidi, throughout Sápmi. 39 Sami sacred sites, sieidi, due to their often personal and secret nature following the prior criminalization of the sieidi cult, are often not identifiable for nonindigenous and located on land owned by others makes the Sami access to sacred sites highly problematic. 40 The sieidis location and spiritual use are closely connected to the other traditional activities of the Sami; such as reindeer herding, hunting, and fishing. 41 The spiritual connection to the environment and the animals residing there is a prominent feature in Sami traditions, culture, and religion. 32 Christina Allard and Susann Funderud Skogvang, Indigenous Rights in Scandinavia: Autonomous Sami Law (Ashgate Publishing Company 2015), p. 120f. 33 Christina Allard, Indigenous Rights in Scandinavia: Autonomous Sami Law (n 32), p Kvarfordt (n 1), p Kvarfordt (n 1), p. 44f. 36 Samisk Mark-användning (n 11), p Samisk Mark-användning (n 11), p Ibid., at 28f. 39 Leena Heinmämäki and Thora Martina Herrman, Experiencing and Protecting Sacred Natural Sites of Sámi and other Indigenous Peoples: The Sacred Arctic (Springer Polar Series, Springer International Publishing AG 2017), p. 16 ff. 40 Ibid. 41 Leena Heinmämäki (n 39), p. 76ff. 15
19 2.2. The effects of mining activities on Sami One of today's major threats to reindeer husbandry is the increasing mining boom and the trend of granting mining concessions in the Arctic landscape. 42 Mine operation also has a significant effect on the environment, in particular, the Arctic environment due to its unique and fragile ecosystems and special human-nature relationships. 43 The largest source of landbased pollution of the marine environment in the Arctic is the mining-metallurgical complexes. 44 Most of Sweden's mineral deposits can be found in the land traditionally used by the Sami for reindeer husbandry, thus causing conflicting land claims. 45 The mining business in Sweden is growing 46 and so are its impacts on its surroundings Effects on Sami traditional lives The most obvious effect of mining activities on the traditional lives of Sami is the expropriation of land for mining concessions and operations. The mining operations and the generated mining waste claims significant local land areas for an extended period of time and inevitably affects the landscape and environment in a way which makes it incompatible with other economic operations or interest such as reindeer husbandry. 47 The use of vast land areas in reindeer husbandry to accommodate seasonal migration is under threat by the expanding mining businesses. The loss of grazing lands will not only constrain the traditional reindeer husbandry practices but will also make the livelihood less capable of handling future challenges such as the effects of climate change. 48 The exploitation of land and establishment of mines entails several cumulative effects, apart from the transformation of the land by the mine itself, such as the development of infrastructure, construction of roads, buildings, and power lines along with the establishment of other exploitations. 49 These changes often entail a permanent transformation of the landscape. 42 Koivurova, et al. (n 22), p Timo Koivurova (n 16), p Davor Vidas, Protecting the Polar Marine Environment: Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention (The Fridtjof Nansen Institute Norway, 2000), p Koivurova, et al. (n 22), p Timo Koivurova (n 16), p Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (Proposition for a Strategy for the Treatment of Mining Waste: Reporting on a Government Mission) (Naturvårdsverket (Swedish Environmental Agency) and Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning, SGU (Sweden s Geological Survey), NV , SGU: /2016, ), p Ingunn Vistnes et al., Reindeer Husbandry and Barents Impacts of Future Petroleum Development on Reindeer Husbandry in the Barents Region (International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry (ICRH) 2009), p Rasmus Larsen Kløcker, Kaisa Raitio, Per Sandström, Anna Skarin, Marita Stinnerbom, Jenny Wik- Karlsson, Stefan Sandström, Carl Österlin and Yann Buhot, Kumulativa Effekter av Exploateringar på Renskötseln: Vad behöver göras inom tillståndsprocesser (Cumulative Effects of Exploitation on Reindeer 16
20 Mining operations and the race for resources in the Arctic leads to a motorization and development of real estate and infrastructure, transforming the environment and encroaches upon the migration routes, calving grounds and the tundra itself that the reindeers rely on for survival. 50 The specific diets and migratory patterns of reindeers are often disrupted by mines and their supporting infrastructure as they cut off migratory routes and affect grazing areas. 51 Even relative limited actions may severely obstruct the reindeer husbandry practice. 52 Mining operation and the treatment of mining waste, especially during transport and stockpiling, generates dust and noise. 53 Mining operations have two effects on reindeer husbandry: it creates an effect of avoidance; through the creation of disturbance zones, and also creates obstacles in the migratory reindeer routes. 54 Disturbance zones and landscape obstacles both have the effect of decreasing reindeer usage of the affected area. 55 Disturbance zones from mining may extend up to 10 km, some say even up to 15 km 56, from outside the mine. 57 The loss of grazing land interacts together with other types of land intrusions or disturbances which have a straining effect on the practice of reindeer husbandry both economically and socially. 58 This prevention of access to traditional land that the mining operations presents for the Sami not only affect the traditional reindeer husbandry but also affect their ability to exercise other cultural activities such as fishing, hunting, and gathering. Mining also effectively prevents Sami access to parts of their cultural heritage Effects on the environment and the Sami Environmentally hazardous activities are defined as discharges of wastewater, solids or gases, 59 use of land, buildings or facilities in such a way as to cause harm to human health or Husbandry: What needs to be done within permit processes) (Naturvårdsverket (Swedish Environmental Agency) 2016), p S. Abate (n 20), p. 292f. 51 Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Shafted - A Case of Cultural and Structural Violence in the Power Relations between a Sami Community and a Mining Company in Northern Sweden, in Kristina Sehlin MacNeil, Extractive Violence on Indigenous Country: Sami and Aboriginal Views on Conflicts and Power Relations with Extractive Industries (Umeå University 2017), p Regeringens Proposition 1985/86:3: med förslag till lag om hushållning med naturresurser m.m. (Government Bill 1985/86:3: with a proposition for a law on the housekeeping with natural resources etc.), p Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p Rasmus Larsen Kløcker, Kumulativa Effekter av Exploateringar på Renskötseln, (n 49), p Kløcker, Kumulativa Effekter av Exploateringar på Renskötseln, (n 49), p. 33f. 56 Rasmus Kløcker Larsen and Rebecca Lawrence, Då är det inte renskötsel : Konsekvenser av en gruvetablering i Laver, Älvsbyn, för Semisjaur Njarg sameby, ( Then it is not Reindeer Husbandry : Consequences of a mine establishment i Laver, Älvsbyn, for Semisjaur Njarg Sami-village), Stockholm Environment Institute, Project report , p. 49ff. 57 Kløcker, Kumulativa Effekter av Exploateringar på Renskötseln, (n 49), p Rasmus Kløcker Larsen (n 56), Då är det inte renskötsel, p. 51 f. 59 Discharges into land, water or groundwater from land, buildings or facilities; MB, chapter 9, section 1, point 1. 17
21 the environment, 60 and as the use of land, buildings or facilities in a manner that may cause environmental inconvenience. 61 Mining operations constitute environmentally hazardous activities in Sweden. 62 Mining operations may create toxic leachate with high levels of metals and heavy metals such as; arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, nickel, lead, uranium and zinc, as well as other substances such as; sulfate, phosphate and nitrogen compounds, that may leak into the surrounding water and groundwater sources. 63 Extracted metals that are spread or leaked into the environment cannot be broken down naturally but remains in the soil, meaning that high levels of heavy metals will remain in the environment for a long time even after the cessation of mining activities. 64 The environmental impact of abandoned or closed mines is even in some circumstances bigger than other existing businesses that emitting hazardous substances. 65 Toxic substances exist in all types of soil and rocks and exposure to such substances are known to cause long-term damage to human health, ecosystems and the environment Conclusion Mining operations often entail permanent changes of the arctic landscape and make it very hard to co-exist alongside reindeer husbandry due to their differing characteristics. Reindeer husbandry requires the use of vast, untouched, and undisturbed lands and mining operations not only permanently change the area of operations and the surrounding areas but also creates noise and waste pollution that affects both the environment and the inhabitants residing there. Mining operation creates disturbance zones that effectively prevents reindeer husbandry and outside these zones access to land may be heavily restricted for reindeer husbandry migratory routes as well as to other traditional Sami activities such as fishing, hunting, gathering, and access to the Sami cultural heritage. Mining activities may not only affect the present Sami s access to land and traditional activities but may also through the permanent change and pollution of the environment affect future access to traditional Sami land, heritage, culture, and traditions. The substantial environmental degradation that mining operations cause through emissions and discharges, together with its long-lasting arctic impacts even after the cessation of the 60 By means of emission other than those referred to in MB, chapter 9, section 1, point 1, or by contamination of land, air, water or groundwater; MB, chapter 9, section 1, point By noise, shaking, light, ionizing or non-ionizing radiation or the like; MB, chapter 9, section 1, point Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p. 102, see MÖD 2003:135 and MÖD 2005:15, see also, Handledning Miljöfarlig Verksamhet: Ge oss kraft att förändra (Tutoring Environmentally Hazardous Activities: Give us power to change), (Naturskyddsföreningen (Swedish Society for Nature Conservation), PG ), p. 6, see also MB, chapter 9, section Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p. 108f. 66 Förslag till Strategi för Hantering av Gruvavfall: Redovisning av ett Regeringsuppdrag (n 47), p. 104ff. 18