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1 October 2014 TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration Program Officer: Gwen Chisholm-Smith Research Results Digest 109 CONTENTS Background, 1 Chapter 1 Introduction, 3 Objectives of this Research, 4 Project Scope, 4 Organization of this Report, 5 Impact of the Affordable Care Act on Non-Emergency Medical Transportation (NEMT): Assessment for Transit Agencies This digest presents the results of TCRP Project J-06/Task 81, Impact of Non-Emergency Medical Transportation on Transit Agencies. The research was conducted by Richard Garrity and Kathy McGehee, RLS & Associates, Inc., Dayton, Ohio. Chapter 2 Overview of the Medicaid Program and NEMT Service Delivery Models, 5 Brief Overview of the Medicaid Program, 5 Transportation in the Medicaid Program, 7 Human Services Transportation Delivery Methods, 11 State NEMT Service Delivery Models, 13 Chapter 3 The Affordable Care Act and Legal Challenges, 25 An Overview of the ACA, 25 Immediate Changes Resulting from the ACA, 28 Medicaid Expansion Under the ACA, 30 Legal Challenges to the ACA, 31 Summary, 32 Chapter 4 The ACA, Medicaid Expansion, and States Waiver Experiences, 32 Status of Medicaid Expansion, 32 States that Have Previously Expanded Medicaid Eligibility, 34 Chapter 5 Medicaid Expansion Under the ACA and Challenges to the Public Transit Industry, 40 Estimated Newly Enrolled Individuals, 40 Other Ancillary Impacts on Public Transportation Systems as a Result of the ACA, 44 Examples of States that Demonstrate Success in Deploying Brokerage Strategies in Cooperation with Public Transit Services, 46 Chapter 6 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research, 49 Summary, 49 Suggestions for Future Research, 50 References, 50 Appendix A, GAO Summary of Programs with Potential Dual Eligibility with ADA Complementary Paratransit Programs, 52 Background The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, and the related Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (jointly referred to as the Affordable Care Act or ACA), complete a massive overhaul of the nation s health insurance and health delivery systems. For the first time, the ACA will provide universal access to health coverage, through various methods, including expansion of the Medicare program, expansion of eligibility under the Medicaid program, the establishment of state-level insurance exchanges, and expansion of the Children s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). Moreover, the act attempts to coordinate these actions to provide efficiency in service delivery. The ACA will have significant impact on Medicaid. One of the primary mechanisms that would be used under the act to ensure universal health care access is a substantial expansion in eligibility under the Medicaid program. The ACA will increase the number of individuals who will be eligible for Medicaid by expanding existing eligibility categories and creating new eligibility categories. The most notable addition is that non-disabled individuals, ages 19 to 64 with incomes at 133% of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) or less, and who are not pregnant and other wise covered under Medicaid or Medicare, will become eligible for Medicaid effective January 1, A recent Supreme Court decision found that the requirement for Medicaid expansion exceeded Congress constitutional authority. Despite this ruling, the Medicaid expansion remains an integral component of the ACA. However, the ruling creates a variety of implementation efforts that makes an overall assessment of the act s impact on public transportation more difficult. Medicaid originated in 1965 with passage of Title XIX of the Social Security Act. Undertaken as a funding partnership between the federal government and the states, Medicaid is a program designed to provide medical assistance to needy persons. Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for America s poorest people. Medicaid is one of more than 60 different programs that fund passenger transportation. Outside of major transit programs funded by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), Medicaid is by far the largest single source of funding to support human services transportation. One recent report estimates that Medicaid transportation2 expenditures in FY 2006 were $1,171,400,000, comprising more than 43.5% of the estimated $2,691,605,000 used to support transportation disadvantaged individuals the elderly, low income persons, and individuals with disabilities (1). It is likely this figure has increased since 2006, even as states have implemented measures to control transportation costs. It is not unreasonable to conclude, based on recent overall Medicaid growth rates, that non-emergency transportation (NEMT) accounts for about $3 billion in outlays each year. Yet this amount represents less than 1% of total Medicaid expenditures. The requirement to provide transportation under Medicaid can be traced to the Handbook of Public Assistance (Supplement D), the program s earliest comprehensive federal inter pretive guidance. First published in 1966, the supplement stated that criteria to assure high quality of care and services would be determined by the provision of necessary transportation of recipients to and from suppliers of medical and remedial care and service. Many states, however, did not provide full access to medical services and the program has a long history of legal challenges to what has become known as the transportation assurance. Courts have generally ruled that states must provide this service. Five key provisions of NEMT stipulate that such services be: Available in all political subdivisions of the State; Provided with reasonable promptness to all eligible individuals; Furnished in the same amount, duration, and scope to all individuals in a group; Provided in a manner consistent with the best interests of the recipient; and Available to eligible recipients from qualified providers of their choice. Historically, states were given the option of providing transportation as an administrative expense or as a form of medical assistance. When states elect to provide NEMT as an administrative expense, the federal matching rate, known as the FMAP rate, is 50%, which may be less than the state s reimbursement rate for other services. However, this option negates one potential obstacle to coordination in that requirement for freedom of choice of service providers does not apply. This enables the state to direct NEMT users to specific providers or permits the state to bid the service in an effort to find lower cost methods of service delivery. If a state opted to provide transportation as a medical service, it could potentially receive more federal funding if the state s FMAP rate was higher than 50%, but it would have to adhere to statewide service delivery and freedom of choice provisions. (States may seek waivers of nearly all Medicaid regulations in order to experiment with different methods of service delivery and to seek more efficient methods of providing health care to eligible populations.) More recently, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 provided a new method of implementing a statewide NEMT transportation brokerage, permitting a state to claim transportation at the FMAP rate while limiting the freedom of choice in transportation providers. Moreover, states no longer had to apply for waivers to implement such programs. A review of state practices found a variety of service delivery models, including: Brokerage models, Fee-for-service models, Mixed models, Public transit models, and Managed care models. The ability to analyze the potential impact of the ACA on public transportation is hindered by events that have transpired since passage. First, National Federation of Independent Business et al. v. Sebelius, Secretary of Health and Human Services, et al. (2) created a scenario where states could reject Medicaid expansion. Based on projections in participating states, it is estimated that nearly 9 million individuals will enroll in the Medicaid program because of the ACA. Based on the experience of states that have utilized waiver authority to expand their Medicaid programs in ways similar to those required in the ACA, it is anticipated that new enrollees will be more ambulatory and less transit-dependent than the traditional Medicaid-eligible population, and that only about 270,000 new enrollees will require NEMT. Similarly, because of eligibility criteria associated with Medicaid expansion, it is anticipated that fixed-route transit services, where available, will meet most NEMT needs of the newly enrolled population. 23 Annual expenditures to meet the NEMT demand of this population are estimated at just under $90 million per year. In areas where traditional fixed-route services are unavailable, it is anticipated that non-urbanized area community transportation systems and existing Medicaid brokerages will see some increases in NEMT usage directly related to expansion. Additionally, as states continue to seek the lowest-cost transportation method appropriate to client needs, it is likely that new enrollees will prefer alternative methods of personal transportation including the state s making mileage payments directly to clients, friends and family, and volunteers to brokered and community transportation approaches. Despite Medicaid s being a significant funder of NEMT transportation, there is little documentation on the scope, extent, and methods of NEMT service delivery. The transportation industry would benefit from future research in this area, as follows: Number of Medicaid eligible individuals who require NEMT, by Medicaid population and/ or program segment; Method of NEMT service delivery when transportation services are required (e.g., mileage reimbursement, volunteer, bus pass for fixedroute, community transportation); Efforts to model NEMT trip-making, enabling state agencies to better estimate the costs of program and waiver decisions; and Impacts of NEMT on mode selection in brokermanaged programs. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The Affordable Care Act (ACA) and the technical corrections incorporated into the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, complete a massive overhaul of the nation s health insurance and health delivery systems. For the first time, the ACA will provide for universal access to health coverage, through various methods, including expansion of the Medicare program, expansion of eligibility under the Medicaid program, the establishment of state-level insurance exchanges, and expansion of the Children s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). Moreover, the act attempts to coordinate these actions to provide efficiency in service delivery. More notable, however, were the legal challenges to the law. A recent Supreme Court upheld the individual mandate but found that the requirement for Medicaid expansion exceeded Congress constitutional authority. Despite the ruling, the Medicaid expansion remains an integral component of the act. However, the decision creates a variety of implementation efforts that makes an overall assessment of the act s impact on public transportation more difficult. The ACA will have substantial impact on Medicaid, as one of the primary mechanisms that would be used under the Act to ensure universal health care access is a substantial expansion in eligibility, both in existing eligibility categories and in newly mandated ones. The most notable addition is that non-disabled individuals, ages with incomes at 133% of the Federal Poverty Level (FPL) or less, and who are not pregnant and otherwise covered under Medicaid or Medicare, would become eligible for Medicaid effective January 1, 2014 (3). The expansion in the number of individuals eligible for Medicaid is the factor that impacts Non- Emergency Medical Transportation (NEMT); any increase in the number of Medicaid individuals could potentially trigger the Medicaid transportation assurance a term that been used to describe federal and state practices that assure that eligible Medicaid recipients are provided with access to covered services (4). Given the broad discretion afforded to states in structuring their Medicaid programs, projecting the actual impact of expanded categories of eligibility under Medicaid is difficult. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) Office of the Actuary estimates in the 2010 Actuarial Report on the Financial Outlook for Medicaid that the ACA will increase medical enrollment by 20 million persons by 2019 (5). It is further estimated that the federal government will be responsible for 95% of the project cost increases brought about by the addition of these new enrollees. (CMS added that state-bystate assessment of impact is impossible because of the unavailability of demographic, macroeconomic, health care, and program assumptions specific to each state.) Importantly, it should be noted that CMS has recently issued final rules for Medicaid eligibility changes brought about by ACH (6). This rule codifies policy and procedural changes to the Medicaid and CHIP programs related to eligibility, enrollment, 34 renewals, public availability of program information and coordination across insurance affordability programs. These changes could bring both positive and negative impacts to the public transportation industry. Positive changes include the fact that newly eligible individuals will require NEMT services, and state and local officials will turn to public and community transportation organizations to deliver these services. The increased demand for both fixedroute and demand-response transportation services could bolster revenues for public transit in a period of few funding increases. Conversely, there may be potential adverse impacts. Rate setting policies viewed as a credible means of cost containment in the Medicaid program may result in transit providers being asked to perform services at less than fully allocated rates. New NEMT service delivery providers, some operated by for-profit companies, may view public transit as an opportunity to shift expensive NEMT paratransit to complementary Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) paratransit services in circumstances where there is dual eligibility for both services, thereby increasing corporate profits. This could increase the costs and deficits of paratransit services for fixed-route systems. Moreover, the potential for wholesale paradigm changes in overall statewide Medicaid service delivery and the pace of these changes that may be brought about by the ACA have created much uncertainty, particularly in the transit industry. The relatively slow pace of state implementation, in part due to the legal uncertainty about the status and constitutionality of the ACA, have slowed many state implementation efforts further limiting the public s understanding of these changes. Finally, despite the fact that the CMS is the second largest funder of passenger transportation behind the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), many transportation providers knew little about the scope and scale of Medicaid, let alone key regulatory elements that impact NEMT. Objectives of this Research The objectives of this research are to: (1) assess the potential impact on a state-by-state basis of implementing the ACA on the provision of NEMT and (2) gather information that can be used to inform the transit community on how public transit and NEMT providers have in the past and can in the future integrate or effectively use their respective resources and services. Project Scope Overview The project scope was organized based on the original work program developed by the project committee. Work elements for the synthesis include: Conduct a state-by-state survey of current implementation efforts. A key parameter to be determined is whether the state has made any estimate of the number of projected new enrollees who will also qualify for transportation assistance given current rules. Determine those states that routinely compile NEMT service and financial data. Determine the current NEMT service delivery model employed by the state and determine if the state is contemplating any changes in service delivery because of anticipated increased use by new enrollees. Determine if the state places any cap on transportation under its NEMT program. Compute average utilization rates for those states that: 44 Have formulated their approach to the 2012 CMS rulemaking; 44 Plan to accommodate expansion in NEMT usage by new enrollees through existing service delivery networks; and 44 Have reliable service and financial data. Draw conclusions about potential impacts from the previous step. Focus study efforts on a sampling of states that provide a range in: 44 Geographic diversity; and 44 NEMT service delivery models. Conduct case studies and surveys of transportation providers to gain additional insights on impacts, the role of public funding, and service issues. This gave rise to a project definition that encompassed the following tasks: Task 1: Conduct a literature review Task 2: Collect data 45 Issues Task 3: Identify key trends in NEMT service provision Task 4: Draft interim report Task 5: Conduct detailed case studies Task 6: Prepare Final Report. The initial work program was developed prior to the Supreme Court decision in National Federation of Independent Business et al. v. Sebelius, Secretary of Health and Human Services, et al. As discussed more fully in Chapter 3, this decision essentially gave the states the alternative to opt out of Medicaid expansion. Moreover, CMS did not issue any guidelines to the states regarding a timetable for opting in or out of Medicaid expansion. Thus, this work program began with the assumption that all states would be expanding their NEMT programs; however, the Supreme Court s decision has resulted in a complex matrix of states that have opted in, have not made a decision, or have formally announced the state will not expand. As of the date of issuance of this report, the status of individual states was changing on a weekly basis; the status of any state may change prior to the publication of this research. Finally, discussions with individual state Medicaid agencies indicate that some states are moving forward with expansion; however, they have used waiver authority to change the parameters of services and service eligibility. This factor must also be taken into account when assessing ACA impact. In summary, ACA impact on NEMT has become considerably more difficult to assess, and in some cases impossible to document. Organization of this Report This chapter supplied an outline of the scope and approach of this synthesis. The second chapter provides fundamental information about the Medicaid program and the various service models employed by the states to delivery NEMT. The third chapter describes the ACA, the legal challenges to the act, and states responses to Medicaid expansion. The fourth chapter addresses potential impacts on public transportation, while the final chapter offers conclusions and recommendations for avenues of further research. CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE MEDICAID PROGRAM AND NEMT SERVICE DELIVERY MODELS Brief Overview of the Medicaid Program Origins Medicaid originated in 1965 with passage of Title XIX of the Social Security Act. Undertaken as a funding partnership between the federal government and the states, Medicaid is a program designed to provide medical assistance to needy persons. Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for America s poorest people. Within rules established by CMS, states are required to provide Medicaid coverage for certain individuals who receive federally assisted incomemaintenance payments, as well as for related groups not receiving cash payments. Generally, individuals eligible for Medicaid include: Limited-income families with children, as described in section 1931 of the Social Security Act, if they meet the requirements for the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program that were in effect in their state on July 16, 1996; Children under age 6 whose family income is at or below 133% of the FPL; Pregnant women whose family income is below 133% of the FPL (services limited to those related to pregnancy, complications of pregnancy, delivery, and postpartum care); Infants born to Medicaid-eligible women for the first year of life, with certain restrictions; Supplemental Security Income (SSI) recipients in most states (or aged, blind, and disabled individuals in states using more restrictive Medicaid eligibility requirements that predate SSI); Recipients of adoption or foster care assistance under Title IV-E of the Social Security Act; Special protected groups (typically individuals who lose their cash assistance under Title IV-A or SSI because of earnings from work or from increased Social Security benefits, but who may keep Medicaid for a period of time); All children under age 19, in families with incomes at or below the FPL; Certain other Medicare beneficiaries (7). 56 States may elect to expand on the definition of eligible persons, addressing groups categorically related to the list above. Additionally, many states have developed programs that parallel Medicaid, augmenting the coverage in a variety of ways. Thus, a state has broad discretion in defining how its Medicaid plan will address coverage, services provided, and populations served. Generally, a state must offer the following services under its Medicaid program to categorically needy persons: Inpatient hospital services; Outpatient hospital services; Pregnancy-related services, including prenatal care and 60 days postpartum pregnancyrelated services; Vaccines for children; Physician services; Nursing facility services for persons aged 21 or older; Family planning services and supplies; Rural health clinic services; Home health care for persons eligible for skilled nursing; Laboratory and x-ray services; Pediatric and family nurse practitioners; Nurse-midwife services; Federally qualified health center (FQHC) services and ambulatory services of an FQHC that would be available in other setting; and Early and periodic screening, diagnostic, and treatment (EPSDT) for children under age 21 (7). Medicaid regulations require that services, once stipulated in a state plan, be provided in the lowest cost manner appropriate to client needs; that services be provided to all eligible persons throughout the state; and that eligible individuals be allowed to attend the service provider of their choice. Federal Medical Assistance Percentages (FMAP) The rate of federal participation in Medicaid services varies by whether the activity is classified as a program service or an administrative service. Program services are reimbursed at the Federal Medical Assistance Percentage (FMAP), established annually by CMS. These rates of participation vary by state. In FY 2012, rates varied between 50% (many states) to a high of nearly 73% for West Virginia (8). Generally, any activity classified as an administrative activity is reimbursed at the 50% FMAP level. There is also an Enhanced Federal Medical Assistance Percentages which applies to the Children s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) under Title XXI of the Social Security Act. This rate is equal to the FMAP for the state increased by 30% of the amount by which such FMAP is less than 100%; but in no case shall the enhanced FMAP for a state exceed 85%. These rates range from 65% to 81% (for Mississippi). Transportation or access to a medical provider is not specifically listed as a Medicaid service. Historically, many states recognized the need to provide transportation service and began funding this activity as an administrative activity. Providing transportation as an administrative activity negated the need to adhere to the freedom of choice option, and Medicaid agencies could provide transportation service using a provider of the state or local agency s choosing. This often involved purchase of bus passes or tokens for use on fixed-route systems (where available) or use of local community transportation or specialized transportation providers. Not all states opted to provide transportation, and there is a long history of legal challenges demanding those states comply. Ultimately, federal regulations were changed to ensure access to services, and again states were given broad authority to determine how transportation was provided. If included as a program service, the state could obtain the typically higher FMAP rate for the service, but had to adhere to the freedom of choice provision (4). Medicaid Waivers Many transportation professionals understand that various FTA regulations allow grant recipients to submit a waiver request to the FTA Administrator that would permit some local practice not addressed or otherwise prohibited under a regulation. For example, 49 CFR part 604.6(c), permits a transit system to petition the FTA for a special exception to permissible charter services. Such waivers requests are infrequently requested within the transit industry, and even less frequently granted. Waivers in the Medicaid program, on the other hand, are used by nearly every state to implement innovative ways to deliver and/or pay for health care service or the CHIP program. There are four primary types of waivers and demonstration projects: Section 1115 Research & Demonstration Projects: States can apply for program flexibility 67 to test new or existing approaches to financing and delivering Medicaid and CHIP. Section 1915(b) Managed Care Waivers: States can apply for waivers to provide services through managed care delivery systems or other wise limit people s choice of providers. Section 1915(c) Home and Community-Based Services Waivers: States can apply for waivers to provide long-term care services in home and community settings rather than institutional settings. Concurrent Section 1915(b) and 1915(c) Waivers: States can apply to simultaneously implement two types of waivers to provide a continuum of services to the elderly and people with disabilities, as long as all federal requirements for both programs are met (9). Transportation in the Medicaid Program NEMT has always been a part of the Medicaid program; however, for various reasons, many states did not always provide this service. Indeed, it may be useful in looking at the origins of NEMT to explore the issue from three perspectives: (1) the early years of Medicaid implementation; (2) years when states operated under the transportation assurance ; and (3) years since passage of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, which substantially changed the NEMT service delivery model. Basis for Transportation as a Component in the Medicaid Program Overview of the Transportation Assurance. Codified as Title XIX of the Social Security Act, the earliest versions of Medicaid made no reference to a requirement to provide transportation. Rosenbaum et al. note that the history of the program can be traced to Handbook of Public Assistance (Supplement D), the program s earliest comprehensive federal interpretive guidance (4). First published in 1966, the supplement stated that criteria to assure high quality of care and services would be defined as the provision of necessary transportation of recipients to and from suppliers of medical and remedial care and service (7). However, many states treated the handbook as guidance, not as a regulation. In addition, the Reagan administration announced in the early 1980s that it would no longer rely on the supplement as controlling program guidance. Nevertheless, there is long-standing regulatory basis for the transportation assurance. The requirement to provide transportation was included in initial rulemaking issued by CMS, then the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) in 1968 (10). These regulations were ultimately codified, periodically revised, and re-located to U.S.C by 1978 (11). The regulation, as presently configured, is relatively simple in scope and reads as follows: Assurance of transportation. A state plan must (a) Specify that the Medicaid agency will ensure necessary transportation for recipients to and from providers; and (b) Describe the methods that the agency will use to meet this requirement. Additional Considerations. Title XIX law and regulations mandate the medical care and services which must be covered in a State Medicaid program, as well as the administrative requirements necessary to operate the Medicaid program efficiently. Rosenbaum et al. elaborate that requirements to have the state describe the methods to be used in meeting the transportation assurance stem from the Social Security Act regulations that stipulate that medical assistance must be: Available in all political subdivisions of the state; Provided with reasonable promptness to all eligible individuals; Furnished in the same amount, duration, and scope to all individuals in a group; Provided in a manner consistent with the best interests of the recipient; Available to eligible recipients from qualified providers of their choice; and Provided in accordance with methods of administration found necessary by the Secretary for proper and efficient operation of the state plan (4). Elaboration of necessity was addressed in 1998 by a working group of 10 state Medicaid agencies (12). These requirements have been interpreted more recently to mean the following when determining necessity: Transportation provided is to/from a Medicaidcovered service; 78 The least expensive form of transportation available is used and is appropriate for the client; Transportation is provided to the nearest qualified provider; and No other transportation resource is available free of charge (13). Two of the original provisions have proven problematic with respect to the coordination of public transportation and NEMT. The first criterion requires that the state provide NEMT to all parts of the state (often referred to the state-wideness criterion). Few states have public transportation operations in all areas of the state. This requires Medicaid to find alternative transportation in those areas not served by public transportation. Second, the criterion that requires freedom of choice in the selection of service providers often was contrary to coordination plans that attempted to consolidate services under the auspices of a single entity (which eliminated consumer choice). Transportation as an Administrative Service In 1978, HEW issued additional guidance on how states could bill for necessary NEMT, giving them the option of providing transportation as an administrative expense or as a form of medical assistance. Regardless of the method of billing, Medicaid regulations require that when several modes of transportation are available, states must use the least costly means that is appropriate to the medical needs of the client. Additionally, Medicaid considers itself to be the payer of last resort (14). The General Accounting Office (GAO) has explained Congressional intent in this regard as follows: If Medicaid beneficiaries have another source of health care coverage such as private health insurance or a health plan purchased individually or provided through an employer that source, to the extent of its liability, should pay before Medicaid does (15). While envisioned as a precaution against Medicaid s reimbursing a provider for medical services that could be paid from an individual s private health insurance, this concept of payer of last resort has been extended to transportation services. In other words, if a Medicaid client was dually eligible under Medicaid and some other funding program for transportation, Medicaid looks to the other funding source to pay for the trip. This concept has presented challenges to those entities seeking to create coordinated transportation service delivery networks involving multiple funding programs. NEMT as an Administrative Expense. When states elect to provide NEMT as an administrative expense, the federal matching rate is 50%, which may be less than the state s FMAP rate. However, this option negates one potential obstacle to coordination in that the freedom of choice provision does not apply. This enables the state to direct NEMT users to specific providers or permits the state to solicit bids in an effort to find lower-cost methods of service delivery. States that opted to treat transportation in this manner still must adhere to other guidelines. The 1978 HEW guidance, contained in the Medicaid Assistance Manual, states that proper and efficient operation of a state Medicaid plan requires: The state is obligated to first investigate use of free services that may be available to the client; In the absence of free services, the state should seek the least costly transportation alternative; and States should consider use of volunteers, gas vouchers, bus tokens, and/or use of public and private transportation companies. NEMT as a Medical Service Expense. One key distinction if a state elects to provide NEMT as an optional medical service is that the state has a direct vendor relationship with the transportation service provider. The provider bills the Medicaid agency directly and payment is received from the state. Another important factor is that the service can be billed at the state s current FMAP rate, which may be higher than the 50% federal participation rate for administrative services. If provided as an optional medical service, NEMT must meet the requirements of 42 CFR (a), as follows: Transportation must be defined to include expenses for transportation and other related travel expenses determined to be necessary by the state Medicaid agency to secure medical examinations and treatment for a recipient; 89 Transportation services must be provided by a vendor to whom a direct vendor payment can appropriately be made by the agency; The cost of transportation for the recipient by ambulance, taxicab, common carrier, or other appropriate means; The cost of meals and lodging en route to and from medical care, and while receiving medical care; and The cost of an attendant to accompany the recipient, if necessary, and the cost of the attendant s transportation, meals, lodging, and, if the attendant is not a member of the recipient s family, salary (14). Additionally, within these regulatory parameters, a state could utilize its waiver authority if the request was approved by CMS. States could seek what was commonly referred to as a 1915(b) waiver. The Secretary of Health and Human Services had broad authority to grant waivers of various provisions that effectively structured coverage, controlled costs, or resulted in more efficient service delivery. Under such waivers, states could restrict participation by service providers, provide services that are not statewide, and restrict recipient choice. States have used this option to implement brokered services, capitated payment systems, and managed delivery arrangements. In order to receive approval for a 1915(b) waiver authority, a state must submit a proposal and demonstrate cost-effectiveness of the proposed waiver provisions every two years. Legal Challenges to the Obligation to Provide NEMT. Despite the obligation to provide transportation on behalf of eligible individuals, Medicaid regulations have been subject to numerous legal challenges. For more than a decade, disparate practices across the country resulted in numerous lawsuits regarding a state s failure to provide medical transportation. In most cases, the courts have ruled that the transportation assurance, which then existed only by administrative rule, is an enforceable right, and that NEMT must be provided to eligible recipients by the states. Among the more notable cases is Morgan v. Cohen, a class action suit filed by Medicaid eligible clients authorized to participate in partial hospitalization services in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (16). At the time, the Pennsylvania Department of Public Welfare (DPW) was navigating changes to its Medicaid transportation plan, and plaintiffs felt their assurance and right to transportation was placed in jeopardy based on newly formulated transportation strategies. The absolute right to transportation was recognized by the court, and DPW s specialized transportation plan was found invalid. The plaintiffs prevailed in this case. There are a number of other cases in different jurisdictions where the courts have also upheld the transportation assurance. Another noteworthy case is Smith v. Vowell, a suit filed on behalf of a single individual but expanded to a class action. In this Texas case, the court ruled that the state and its Department of Public Welfare failed to promulgate a state plan and failed to provide transportation to an individual with disabilities. The case involved other issues articulated by the plaintiffs, who sought both injunctive relief and the payment of retro active benefits (both denied). The court found for the plaintiff on the central issue of transportation, and ordered the State of Texas to provide transportation to the plaintiff within 30 days and to all members of the class within 60 days; and to develop a state plan for medical assistance with regard to medical transportation (17). Daniels et al. v. Tennessee Department of Health and Environment et al. is another case that started as an individual suit and was expanded to a class action. This suit was settled by consent decree and incorporated a unique element: The plaintiffs actually proposed a solution to the state s failure to provide transportation. Although the suit first addressed ambulance transportation, it was expanded to include NEMT. With minor exceptions, the court ordered the state to follow the plaintiffs plan for remedy (18). Other cases, all generating opinions that upheld the transportation assurance, can be cited in Kentucky, Oregon, and North Carolina (19). The one common theme in these cases involved the fact that the transportation assurance was only part of the regulatory framework for Medicaid, as the law itself did not address transportation. Most courts in these decisions cited Wright v. City of Roanoke Redevelopment and Housing Authority (a case that went to the Supreme Court, which ultimately ruled that rights defined in part by a statute and in part by a federal agency regulation were enforceable) as the basis for upholding the validity of the transportation assurance. Thus, the regulatory construct of the transportation assurance in 42 U.S.C was upheld and enforced in virtually every case. 910 Yet, at least one notable case found otherwise. In Harris v. James, the court recognized the transportation assurance, but developed a different conclusion with respect to the enforceability of the regulatory component of the rule. This case involved a class action filed on behalf of clients receiving dialysis services. Filed in 1994, the suit claimed that the State of Alabama violated Medicaid regulations that required the provision of transportation, as the state provided dialysis service but not a means of transport to these treatments. A district court found in favor of the plaintiffs and ordered Alabama to provide NEMT. Alabama appealed the decision and a Court of Appeals overturned the decision, finding that transportation assurance does not create an enforceable right to transportation (20). The Deficit Reduction Act of As noted previously, states could request waivers of existing Medicaid regulations. States generally described the waiver process in particular, the need to re-file and justify a Section 1915(b) waiver every two years as administratively burdensome. Partially in response to these complaints, Congress created new permissive language that simplified waivers for NEMT transportation in the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 (DRA). The act was projected to generate $39 billion in federal entitlement reductions between 2006 and 2010 and $99 billion between 2006 and The DRA includes net reductions from Medicaid of $4.8 billion over the next five years and $26.1 billion over the next 10 years. Many of the policy changes in the DRA would shift costs to beneficiaries and have the effect of limiting health care coverage and access to services for low-income beneficiaries (21). A small provision of the DRA, however, had a monumental impact on NEMT service delivery. Section 6083 of the act was entitled State Option to Establish Non-Emergency Medical Transportation Program. That section of the law contains four provisions that enable and/or require a state to: Select an NEMT broker through a competitive bidding process, provided the factors of experience, performance, references, resources, qualifications, and costs be used in the evaluation process; Monitor beneficiary access and complaints and ensure that transport personnel are licensed, qualified, competent, and courteous; Audit and provide oversight to ensure the quality of the transportation services provided and the adequacy of beneficiary access to medical care and services; and Comply with the prohibitions on referrals and conflict of interest as the Secretary shall establish (21). CMS issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in the Federal Register on August 24, 2007; final rules were published on December 19, 2008 (22). Many have argued that the rules favor use of a private sector broker (in lieu of use of existing governmental public entities and/or community transportation systems). In the preamble to the 2007 proposed rules, CMS stated we are proposing that state and local bodies that wish to serve as brokers compete on the same terms as non-governmental entities. The agency explains: We did not wish to prevent a government entity that is awarded a brokerage contract through the competitive bidding process from referring an individual in need of transportation service to a government transportation provider that is generally available in the community. Therefore, we have included an exception to allow such a governmental broker to provide an individual transportation service or to arrange for the individual transportation service by referring to or certain conditions have been met that will assure an arms-length transaction (23). The final rules created new options for states to implement an NEMT brokerage without having to seek a waiver of the freedom of choice, eliminated the state-wideness requirement, and provided that such systems would be reimbursed at the FMAP rate. Moreover, the rules did away with the states need to justify the cost effectiveness of the proposed waiver and the need to re-apply every two years. A key provision of the policy, and one central to public transportation, was the prohibition against self-referral. This means that a broker could not assign a trip where the provider has some organizational or financial relationship with the provider. As public entities are usually the operators of public and community transportation services, the inability to assign trips to its own services was seen as an issue by many public entity transit providers. The basis to include this provision was a matter of law, but was to be implemented at the discretion 1011 of the Secretary. The law directed the Secretary of Health and Human Services to embrace conflict of interest rules issued for physicians to prevent doctors from making referrals to other health care providers where the physician has some type of ownership interest. Given this direction from Congress, the Secretary modified a rule implemented to enforce Section 1877 of the Social Security Act as it applies to the Medicare program (24). There are some exceptions to these provisions on self-referral. Four waiver options were included in the rulemaking. The first three waivers assume that the broker is a non-governmental entity. The self-referral and conflict of interest provisions can be waived if: Transportation is provided in a rural area (defined elsewhere in Medicaid regulations) and there are no other available Medicaid providers determined to be qualified except the nongovernmental (e.g., private entity) broker; Transportation is so specialized that there is no other available Medicaid participating provider or other provider determined by the state to be qualified except the non-governmental broker; and Except for the non-governmental broker, the availability of other Medicaid participating providers or other providers determined by the state to be qualified is insufficient to meet the need for transportation. A fourth waiver exists and is designed, with limitations, for a governmental entity serving as the broker, including circumstances where a governmental broker directly provides service or subcontracts/ refers trips to another governmental-owned transportation service provider. These limitations include: The contract with the governmental broker provides for payment that does not exceed the actual costs calculated as though the broker were a distinct unit, and excludes from these payments any personnel or other costs shared with or allocated from parent or related entities; The governmental unit that acts as a broker maintains an accounting system such that all funds allocated to the Medicaid brokerage program and all costs charged to the brokerage program will be completely separate from any other program; The governmental broker must document that its services (or those services contracted to another governmental entity) are the most appropriate and the lowest cost alternative; and The governmental broker documents that in terms of charges to Medicaid, the entity charges no more than: 44 Fixed-route services the standard fare charged to the public; and 44 Paratransit the rate charged to other state human service agencies for comparable services. The first and second conditions mandate several elements. The broker would first be required to be a distinct governmental unit, and the contract could not include payment of costs other than those unique to the distinct brokerage function. The implication is that the governmental unit s central services costs and/or indirect costs could not be charged as costs of NEMT brokerage operations. The third condition, found at (a)(4) (ii)(b)(4)(ii), is more problematic. This requires the governmental entity to document that its services are the most appropriate and are the lowest-cost alternative for the Medicaid client. This suggests some type of trip-by-trip analysis. The fourth limitation establishes caps on Medicaid participation rates by mode of service. In a brokered operation run by a governmental entity, the amounts paid for NEMT cannot exceed the standard fare for fixed-route services and cannot exceed the rates charged to other state human service agencies (or their substate units) for paratransit services. Impacts of the DRA of The brokerage provisions have two definitive impacts. By greatly simplifying the requirements to establish a brokerage, the DRA has allowed the number of states that utilize privately operated brokerages in NEMT service delivery to expand. Additionally, the legislation essentially corrects that primary obstacle cited in Harris v. James; this act provided evidence of Congressional intent of a transportation assurance in the Medicaid program (4). Human Services Transportation Delivery Methods In examining service delivery models, it is important to understand that public transit service 1112 delivery models differ substantially from those used for effective human services transportation delivery. A recent TCRP report suggested that a greater understanding of human services transportation will occur if transit professionals recognize that such services represent four distinct types of transportation or modes, as follows: Community transportation, Case management transportation, Travel services for individuals, and Managed care transportation. This typology is important, as NEMT can comprise all four different forms of human services transportation (25). Community Transportation This category includes the following functions and their related costs: Trips provided for clients of human service agencies who could travel on a group basis (even if they are the only traveler on the vehicle at the moment); Trips provided by paid staff and volunteers who have been trained to provide transportation services; Efforts associated with eligibility determination, scheduling, arranging, or billing for transportation; The purchase of specific individual transportation services from existing public or private transportation providers via contract or other arrangements; The purchase of bus tokens, passes, or tickets for distribution to riders; Personal care by attendants or interpreters who accompany eligible riders while traveling in the community transportation mode; Payments made to riders to help defray the costs of their travel using community transportation services; and Other activities and expenses if authorized and applicable. For example, Medicaid sometimes reimburses expenses for long-distance intercity bus and commercial air fares and lodging and subsistence expenses when these expenses are required to obtain out-of-town medical care. Expenses such as these are not common for other programs. Case Management Transportation This category includes transportation in which agency staff transport individuals and provide other services while the individual or group is being transported. Trips are typically provided in agency-owned vehicles or staff-owned vehicles. This category is distinguished from directly operated community transportation, in which the staff member providing case management transportation may perform specifically planned case management or therapeutic functions while providing the transportation services. Generally the person providing the transportation is a social worker or case worker whose primary role is not that of providing client transportation but of providing case management or therapeutic functions. This type of transportation includes the following: Transportation of clients in staff-owned vehicles; Transportation of clients in agency-owned vehicles that are not specifically dedicated to community transportation; and Lodging, meals, and parking expenses associated with case management transportation, as well as other expenses if authorized and applicable. Travel Services for Individuals This category includes the following: Transportation services designed to be offered to one individual at a time (although careful analysis might show that community transportation could be a more cost-effective option in a number of cases); Any direct payment to an individual client to subsidize his or her use of a private automobile to facilitate program-related purposes, including 44 Gasoline subsidies paid directly to the client, family member, friend, or volunteer; 44 Car maintenance or repair expenses; 44 Cost of vehicle modifications to incorporate adaptive technologies; 44 Purchase of vehicle liability insurance on behalf of clients, and 44 Financial stipends to support an individual s ongoing transportation needs (e.g., payments for employment and employmentrelated transportation for a specific amount of time); 1213 Mileage reimbursements or other fixed-rate reimbursements paid directly to clients; Mileage reimbursements paid to family, friends, or volunteers for providing transportation to eligible clients; Car rental expenses; Costs associated with personal care attendants or interpreters who accompany the eligible client while traveling in specific individual transportation mode; Lodging, meals, and parking expenses associated with specific individual transportation; and Other expenses if authorized and applicable. The key element about this category is that this often represents the least-cost transportation option for Medicaid clients. In order to efficiently administer an NEMT program, the entity must have the capability to assess this mode and potentially utilize this method as part of the mix of service options. Managed Care Transportation This category includes transportation provided as part of an overall client health care plan (either a short-term or long-term care plan), under which the provider agency is obligated to provide client transportation. Transportation expenses often are part of a fixed payment or capitated payment made to the service provider by the funding source. Examples of this type of transportation include the following: Direct operation of provider-owned vehicles to provide transportation services to individual clients; Purchase of transportation from public or private transportation service providers; Lodging, meals, and parking expenses associated with managed care transportation; and Other expenses if authorized and applicable (26). State NEMT Service Delivery Models There are no federal Medicaid requirements for the methods a state must use to deliver NEMT services. A state is obligated to define how it will provide such service in the state plan submitted annually to CMS. However, given Medicaid rules, all four human service transportation methods of transportation are typically involved in NEMT. A review of the literature suggests that there is no common approach to the classification of NEMT service delivery models. Service delivery models may be statewide, regional, or local in nature; however, there may be various combinations within these levels of responsibilities for trip request intake and actual service provision. Finally, various brokerage models have been implemented at the state or regional level, but the prohibition on self-referral has created a vast network of actual service providers. Many states have worked diligently to coordinate NEMT services with existing public and community transportation and/or other human services transportation. These approaches tend to be local or regional in nature, although some state level initiatives have been used to foster these local initiatives. A previous TCRP report has described local examples of successful coordination between public transit and NEMT services. As noted in that report, coordination of public transit and NEMT has proven problematic for a number of reasons, including: Differing service standards for ADA complementary paratransit and NEMT; Differing laws applicable to transit and NEMT (e.g., drug testing); Jurisdictional issues (e.g., public transit operating within specific jurisdictional units while NEMT may extend beyond these boundaries; and Funding interpretations (e.g., Medicaid will only pay the public paratransit fare, not the fully allocated cost of service) (25). These challenges have given rise to different service models in NEMT at the state level. This report has documented whether a state provides formal transit/human service agency coordination structure and, if so, the type of service delivery model used by the state Medicaid agency (Table 1). Brokerage Models NEMT Statewide Private Brokerage. Medicaid brokerages are common and take on various forms. The broker s services are generally competitively bid with various private for-profit companies participating in the procurements. Within this category the following models have been implemented: Competitively selected private broker, statewide coverage; and 1314 Table 1 Summary of state service delivery models for NEMT transportation. State Total Population Medicaid Enrollment 1 % State-Level Coordination Efforts 2 Alabama 4,779,736 1,015, % Legislation was proposed in 2010 to create a United We Ride (UWR) Commission in statute but was deferred to the existing Commission, which will continue operating under the Governor s Executive Order 28 Alaska 710, , % The Community and Public Transportation Advisory Board (CPTAB) was legislatively established within the Department of Transportation & Public Facilities by the Alaska Legislature in late 2012 (AS ). Arizona 6,412,700 1,783, % No state-level coordinating council, executive order, or legislation. Arkansas 2,915, , % 2010 legislation led to shortlived council activities. Currently the state transit association leads coordination efforts. NEMT Involvement with State Coordination Efforts 3 The Alabama Medicaid Agency. The Agency is represented in the Commission but, to date, does not take an active role in decision making. Alaska Department of Health and Social Services is a member of CPTAB. No formal coordination of regional brokers with other agencies, although it was reported that some coordination of NEMT and aging sponsored trips does occur. NEMT Service Delivery Eligible NEMT recipients must call a state-operated centralized trip intake line. Ten (10) NEMT coordinators work on a regional basis to assign trips to providers. Third-party vendor approves transportation requests that focus primarily on travel outside the resident community. State has contracts with air carriers so that Medicaid clients can work with State Travel Office for air travel. MCOs typically utilize a mix of private and public operators for NEMT. Arizona has recently cut back funding for NEMT in Maricopa and Pima Counties. There are 10 competitively selected Medicaid-only regional brokerage programs that arrange for all NEMT in the state.15 California 37,253,956 11,168, % Longtime legislatively mandated coordination requirement. In 2010 the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Mass Transportation (DMT) completed the Mobility Action Plan (MAP) Implementation Study that identified and assessed impacts of human services coordination legislation and regulations and detailed recommended strategies that can be implemented by the DMT and other California entities. Colorado 5,029, , % The Colorado Coordinating Council of Transportation Access and Mobility (CCCTAM) that was formed through a Governor s initiative in Connecticut 3,574, , % State statute on coordination rescinded in Coordination between ConnDOT and other state agencies takes place on formal and informal bases. NEMT clients use public transit services where available. Mixed brokerages in specific but limited number of regions. Individual counties handle NEMT in other areas of the state. Transportation is available to eligible clients who have no other means of transportation, and who reserved a ride with at least 48 hours notice and the trip is to and from a Medicaid covered medical service and that service provider is the closest appropriate provider of service. Clients unable to use available public transit services utilize private NEMT providers. Competitively selected NEMT broker in Denver region. Two regions of six counties each contract NEMT out. One uses a private company, and one uses a nonprofit that also provides transportation. Non-emergency medical transportation is managed within the Managed Care Division, a unit with the Medical Care Administration. The Fee for Service Non- Emergency Medical Transportation (NEMT) program is administered by DSS according to five geographic districts, with each district having an assigned transportation broker. The State pays according to a capitated rate (per member, per month) that reflects the number of eligible Medicaid enrollees covered. Transportation is included in the capitated rates paid by the State. (continued on next page)16 Table 1 (Continued) State Total Population Medicaid Enrollment 1 % State-Level Coordination Efforts 2 NEMT Involvement with State Coordination Efforts 3 NEMT Service Delivery Delaware 897, , % One statewide Medicaid broker selected through a competitive process. District of 601, , % Columbia Florida 18,801,310 3,421, % Commission for Transportation Disadvantaged (CTD) and the Transportation Disadvantaged (TD) Trust Fund are used to administer and fund coordination. Georgia 9,687,653 2,048, % The Georgia Coordinating Committee for Rural and Human Services Transportation (RHST) of the Governor s Development Council (GDC) was established by the passage of HB 277 and SB 22 (2010). In 2004, the Florida Agency for Health Care Administration (AHCA) contracted with the CTD to transfer the administration and management of NEMT to the CTD. The agreement stated that NEMT was to be provided by the CTD, certain Medicaid Health Maintenance Organizations, and Medicaid Reform Provider Service Networks. The Georgia Department of Community Health (DCH) is an active participant in state level coordination efforts but strongly believes current brokerage strategy is best service delivery County-based coordinated systems delivery of NEMT services. Public and privately operated brokerages operating in 5 regions of the state. option. Hawaii 1,360, , % Two brokers began NEMT service delivery in 2010 after a transition from a fee-forservice delivery model.17 Idaho 1,567, , % The Division of Public Transportation assists local mobility stakeholders to facilitate coordination efforts. A large part of the coordination effort is handed off to the Community Transportation Association of Idaho (CTAI). Illinois 12,830,632 3,017, % The Illinois Interagency Coordinating Committee on Transportation (ICCT) was created by state Public Act in 2003 Indiana 6,483,802 1,243, % Interactive state-level coordination council. INDOT Longstanding issues of payment rates for NEMT transportation when coordinated with public transportation. Medicaid is a participant in the ICCT. Illinois has a private, statewide broker for Medicaid trip authorizations and assignment; this broker does not coordinate with other programs. Indiana s Rural Transportation Assistance Program (RTAP) facilitates regional coordination activities. Transitioned to statewide, private broker on September 1, Statewide NEMT brokerage (one broker) County-based fee for service model. Iowa 3,046, , % Transitioned to statewide, private broker in Kansas 2,853, , % A state-level coordination committee was established in Now, it is very active. It is a partnership with Kansas University Transit Center and Kansas DOT while other State agencies participate and have voting authority. The Medicaid brokerage firm for Kansas is active in the local committees and contracts with local non-profit transit providers to provide non-emergency medical transportation Statewide NEMT brokerage (one broker) (continued on next page)18 Table 1 (Continued) State Total Population Medicaid Enrollment 1 % State-Level Coordination Efforts 2 Kentucky 4,339, , % The Coordinated Transportation Advisory Committee (CTAC) is codified in section of the Kentucky Revised Statutes. Within the Office of Transportation Delivery, the Human Services Transportation Delivery Branch (HSTD) is responsible for the oversight of the HSTD program. NEMT Involvement with State Coordination Efforts 3 NEMT is fully coordinated under this program. NEMT Service Delivery Network of nonprofit and public brokerage systems on a regional level. Louisiana 4,533,372 1,312, % State agency approval of providers (public and private providers only) and eight regional trip request intake centers. Fee for service delivery model. Maine 1,328, , % MaineCare s current service delivery system is coordinated with 10 existing transportation providers, known as Full Service Regional Transportation Providers (FSRTPs) providing service in eight regional jurisdictions. Maryland 5,773, , % The State Coordination Committee for Human Service Transportation (SCCHST) was formed in The committee was established to evaluate needs, improve inter-agency cooperation, develop a fiveyear plan, and serve as a clearinghouse for transportation coordination issues. Massachusetts 6,547,629 1,568, % Highly coordinated regional transportation authority structure MaineCare reports that CMS required the agency to revamp its NEMT system. NEMT is fully coordinated under this program. MaineCare will initiate a regional brokerage model. In January 2013, MaineCare selected one broker to serve six regions, and two other brokers to serve the remaining two regions. Local service delivery model. Transportation grant managers in each county select providers. Services are provided by public transportation, bus, taxicab, or van. Clients call designated providers in their respective counties. Six RTAs provider transportation services in nine HST regions in the state.19 Michigan 9,883,640 2,124, % Long history of local coordination. Due to a severe budget crunch in the State legislature, the funds granted to create a Coordinating Council were returned to the FTA in Minnesota 5,303, , % The State legislature decided to solidify coordination efforts and created the Minnesota Council on Transportation Access by statute in Mississippi 2,967, , % Informal efforts by MDOT to encourage local coordination efforts. Missouri 5,988,927 1,146, % Statewide coordination council inactive. Montana 989, , % The Human Services Transportation Coordinated Council was formed in The Council functioned for two years before it was dissolved by the Governor in 2009 because of budget constraints. Since that time, a Transportation Coordinator position has been created to oversee coordination efforts within the State. Nebraska 1,826, , % Informal efforts led by the Metro-Area Planning Agency, AARP of Nebraska, and Easter Seals Nebraska in response to the lack of effort directed at coordination at the state level. Medicaid is not coordinated with other programs on a State level. Department of Human Services has been a participant in state coordination efforts. State Medicaid is testing a pilot project with a private broker in Wayne, Oakland, and Macomb counties. NEMT is administered on a county-bycounty basis in other parts of the State. An RFP for a statewide brokerage was rescinded in 2011 based on issues with existing private NEMT providers. The DHS is looking into other means for service delivery, including regional brokers. Mississippi moved from a local agency fee-for-service model to a single statewide broker on November 1, The Missouri Department of Social Services currently contracts with one competitively selected statewide broker. The Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services contracts with a statewide broker. The Nebraska Department of Health and Human Services transitioned to a statewide brokerage with a single broker on July 1, (continued on next page)20 Table 1 (Continued) State Total Population Medicaid Enrollment 1 % State-Level Coordination Efforts 2 Nevada 2,700, , % The State s coordination of programs has been limited to Sections 5310, 5316, and New Hampshire 1,316, , % New Hampshire s State Coordinating Council for Community Transportation was created by state statute in New Jersey 8,791,894 1,231, % New Jersey has been actively involved in the coordination of services since the 1980s. A recent executive order furthering these goals sunset in NEMT Involvement with State Coordination Efforts 3 The Department of Health and Human Services is actively involved in the State Coordinating Council. New Jersey Transit is currently exploring methods by which it can increase coordination with the state s NEMT Service Delivery Nevada s Department of Health Care and Finance Policy (DHCFP) has operated a statewide brokerage with a single broker since Fee for service model with enrolled/qualified providers. New Jersey Department of Human Services has operated a statewide brokerage with a single broker since Medicaid broker. New Mexico 2,059, , % State uses a mixed model where some managed care organizations utilize brokers while other components use direct client reimbursement and fee for service model. New York 19,378,102 5,208, % The State had an Interagency Coordinating Committee on Rural Public Transportation that was created in the early 1990s by statute. County-based programs have strong relationships with coordinated community transportation programs. Current brokerage operation begun in New York City in late New York State is currently conducting a pilot project to test a regionalized brokerage model for other areas in the state. View more
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