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Opinion of the United States Supreme Court | NASA v. Nelson | Electronic Privacy Information Center - JDSupra
NASA v. NelsonOpinion of the United States Supreme Court
The Supreme Court has issued a decision in NASA v. Nelson, a case brought by NASA scientists who argued that the government's invasive background checks violated the Constitution. The Supreme Court found that the inquiries implicate "a privacy interest of Constitutional significance" but that the requests were reasonable and that the information would be protected under the Privacy Act. Writing in concurrence, Justice Scalia said the Court's opinion "will dramatically increase the number of lawsuits claiming violations of the right to informational privacy." EPIC authored a amicus brief, cosigned by 27 technical experts and legal scholars, which highlighted problems with the Privacy Act, including the "routine use" exception, security breaches, and the agency's authority to carve out its own exceptions. Please see full decision below for more information.
Download PDF 1 (Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2010 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as isbeing done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has beenprepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Syllabus NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINI-STRATION ET AL. v. NELSON ET AL. CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT No. 09–530. Argued October 5, 2010—Decided January 19, 2011 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a workforce of both federal civil servants and Government contract em-ployees. Respondents are contract employees at NASA’s Jet Propul-sion Laboratory (JPL), which is operated by the California Instituteof Technology (Cal Tech). Respondents were not subject to Govern-ment background checks at the time they were hired, but that changed when the President ordered the adoption of uniform identifi-cation standards for both federal civil servants and contractor em-ployees. The Department of Commerce mandated that contract em-ployees with long-term access to federal facilities complete a standardbackground check, typically the National Agency Check with Inquir-ies (NACI), by October 2007. NASA modified its contract with Cal Tech to reflect the new requirement, and JPL announced that em-ployees who did not complete the NACI process in time would be de-nied access to JPL and face termination by Cal Tech. The NACI process, long used for prospective civil servants, begins with the employee filling out a standard form (here, Standard Form85, the Questionnaire for Non-Sensitive Positions (SF–85)). SF–85 asks whether an employee has “used, possessed, supplied, or manu-factured illegal drugs” in the last year. If so, the employee must pro-vide details, including information about “treatment or counseling re-ceived.” The employee must also sign a release authorizing the Government to obtain personal information from schools, employers, and others during its investigation. Once SF–85 is completed, theGovernment sends the employee’s references a questionnaire (Form 42) that asks open-ended questions about whether they have “any reason to question” the employee’s “honesty or trustworthiness,” or 2 NASA v. NELSON Syllabus have “adverse information” concerning a variety of other matters. All SF–85 and Form 42 responses are subject to the protections of thePrivacy Act.With the deadline for completing the NACI process drawing near, respondents brought suit, claiming, as relevant here, that the back-ground-check process violates a constitutional right to informationalprivacy. The District Court declined to issue a preliminary injunc-tion, but the Ninth Circuit reversed. It held that SF–85’s inquiriesinto recent drug involvement furthered the Government’s interest in combating illegal-drug use, but that the drug “treatment or counsel-ing” question furthered no legitimate interest and was thus likely to be held unconstitutional. It also held that Form 42’s open-ended questions were not narrowly tailored to meet the Government’s inter-ests in verifying contractors’ identities and ensuring JPL’s security, and thus also likely violated respondents’ informational-privacy rights. Held: 1. In two cases decided over 30 years ago, this Court referred broadly to a constitutional privacy “interest in avoiding disclosure of personal matters.” Whalen v. Roe, 429 U. S. 589, 599–600; Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U. S. 425, 457. In Whalen, the Court upheld a New York law permitting the collection of names andaddresses of persons prescribed dangerous drugs, finding that the statute’s “security provisions,” which protected against “public disclo-sure” of patient information, 462 U. S., at 600–601, were sufficient toprotect a privacy interest “arguably . . . root[ed] in the Constitution,” id., at 605. In Nixon, the Court upheld a law requiring the former President to turn over his presidential papers and tape recordings for archival review and screening, concluding that the federal Act at is-sue, like the statute in Whalen, had protections against “undue dis-semination of private materials.” 433 U. S, at 458. Since Nixon, the Court has said little else on the subject of a constitutional right to in-formational privacy. Pp. 8–10.2. Assuming, without deciding, that the Government’s challengedinquiries implicate a privacy interest of constitutional significance, that interest, whatever its scope, does not prevent the Government from asking reasonable questions of the sort included on SF–85 and Form 42 in an employment background investigation that is subjectto the Privacy Act’s safeguards against public disclosure. Pp. 10–24. (a) The forms are reasonable in light of the Government interests at stake. Pp. 11–19. (1) Judicial review of the forms must take into account the con-text in which the Government’s challenged inquiries arise. When the Government acts in its capacity “as proprietor” and manager of its Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 3 Syllabus “internal operation,” Cafeteria & Restaurant Workers v. McElroy, 367 U. S. 886, 896, it has a much freer hand than when it regulates as tocitizens generally. The questions respondents challenge are part of a standard background check of the sort used by millions of privateemployers. The Government has been conducting employment inves-tigations since the Republic’s earliest days, and the President has had statutory authority to assess an applicant’s fitness for the civilservice since 1871. Standard background investigations similar tothose at issue became mandatory for federal civil-service candidates in 1953, and the investigations challenged here arose from a decisionto extend that requirement to federal contract employees. This his-tory shows that the Government has an interest in conducting basicbackground checks in order to ensure the security of its facilities andto employ a competent, reliable workforce to carry out the people’s business. The interest is not diminished by the fact that respondentsare contract employees. There are no meaningful distinctions in the duties of NASA’s civil-service and contractor employees, especially atJPL, where contract employees do work that is critical to NASA’s mission and that is funded with a multibillion dollar taxpayer in-vestment. Pp. 12–15. (2) The challenged questions on SF–85 and Form 42 are rea-sonable, employment-related inquiries that further the Government’sinterests in managing its internal operations. SF–85’s “treatment or counseling” question is a followup question to a reasonable inquiryabout illegal-drug use. In context, the drug-treatment inquiry is alsoa reasonable, employment-related inquiry. The Government, recog-nizing that illegal-drug use is both a criminal and medical issue, seeks to separate out those drug users who are taking steps to ad-dress and overcome their problems. Thus, it uses responses to the drug-treatment question as a mitigating factor in its contractor cre-dentialing decisions. The Court rejects the argument that the Gov-ernment has a constitutional burden to demonstrate that its em-ployment background questions are “necessary” or the least restrictive means of furthering its interests. So exacting a standard runs directly contrary to Whalen. See 429 U. S., at 596–597. Pp. 16– 18. (3) Like SF–85’s drug-treatment question, Form 42’s open-ended questions are reasonably aimed at identifying capable employ-ees who will faithfully conduct the Government’s business. Askingan applicant’s designated references broad questions about job suit-ability is an appropriate tool for separating strong candidates from weak ones. The reasonableness of such questions is illustrated bytheir pervasiveness in the public and private sectors. Pp. 18–19. (b) In addition to being reasonable in light of the Government in-4 NASA v. NELSON Syllabus terests at stake, SF–85 and Form 42 are also subject to substantialprotections against disclosure to the public. Whalen and Nixon rec-ognized that a “statutory or regulatory duty to avoid unwarranteddisclosures” generally allays privacy concerns created by government“accumulation” of “personal information” for “public purposes.” Whalen, supra, at 605. Respondents attack only the Government’s collection of information, and here, as in Whalen and Nixon, the in-formation collected is shielded by statute from unwarranted disclo-sure. The Privacy Act—which allows the Government to maintainonly those records “relevant and necessary to accomplish” a purpose authorized by law, 5 U. S. C. §552a(e)(1); requires written consent be-fore the Government may disclose an individual’s records, §552a(b);and imposes criminal liability for willful violations of its nondisclo-sure obligations, §552a(i)(1)—“evidence[s] a proper concern” for indi-vidual privacy. Whalen, supra, at 605; Nixon, supra, at 458–459. Respondents’ claim that the statutory exceptions to the Privacy Act’s disclosure bar, see §§552a(b)(1)–(12), leave its protections too porousto supply a meaningful check against unwarranted disclosures. But that argument rests on an incorrect reading of Whalen, Nixon, and the Privacy Act. Pp. 19–23. 530 F. 3d 865, reversed and remanded. ALITO, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which ROBERTS, C. J., and KENNEDY, GINSBURG, BREYER, and SOTOMAYOR, JJ., joined. SCALIA, J., filed an opinion concurring in the judgment, in which THOMAS, J., joined. THOMAS, J., filed an opinion concurring in the judgment. KA-GAN, J., took no part in the consideration or decision of the case. _________________ _________________ Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 1 Opinion of the Court NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in thepreliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested tonotify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash-ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in orderthat corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 09–530 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMIN-ISTRATION, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. ROBERT M. NELSON ET AL. ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OFAPPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT[January 19, 2011] JUSTICE ALITO delivered the opinion of the Court. In two cases decided more than 30 years ago, this Court referred broadly to a constitutional privacy “interest inavoiding disclosure of personal matters.” Whalen v. Roe, 429 U. S. 589, 599–600 (1977); Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U. S. 425, 457 (1977). Respondentsin this case, federal contract employees at a Governmentlaboratory, claim that two parts of a standard employmentbackground investigation violate their rights under Whalen and Nixon. Respondents challenge a section of a form questionnaire that asks employees about treatmentor counseling for recent illegal-drug use. They also object to certain open-ended questions on a form sent to employ-ees’ designated references. We assume, without deciding, that the Constitution protects a privacy right of the sort mentioned in Whalen and Nixon. We hold, however, that the challenged por-tions of the Government’s background check do not violatethis right in the present case. The Government’s interests as employer and proprietor in managing its internal op-2 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court erations, combined with the protections against public dissemination provided by the Privacy Act of 1974, 5 U. S. C. §552a, satisfy any “interest in avoiding disclosure” that may “arguably ha[ve] its roots in the Constitution.” Whalen, supra, at 599, 605. I A The National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA) is an independent federal agency charged withplanning and conducting the Government’s “space activi-ties.” Pub. L. 111–314, §3, 124 Stat. 3333, 51 U. S. C.§20112(a)(1). NASA’s workforce numbers in the tens of thousands of employees. While many of these workers arefederal civil servants, a substantial majority are employed directly by Government contractors. Contract employeesplay an important role in NASA’s mission, and their du-ties are functionally equivalent to those performed by civil servants. One NASA facility, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California, is staffed exclusively by contract employees. NASA owns JPL, but the California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech) operates the facility under aGovernment contract. JPL is the lead NASA center for deep-space robotics and communications. Most of this country’s unmanned space missions—from the Explorer 1satellite in 1958 to the Mars Rovers of today—have been developed and run by JPL. JPL scientists contribute to NASA earth-observation and technology-development projects. Many JPL employees also engage in pure scien-tific research on topics like “the star formation history of the universe” and “the fundamental properties of quantumfluids.” App. 64–65, 68.Twenty-eight JPL employees are respondents here. Many of them have worked at the lab for decades, and none has ever been the subject of a Government back-Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 3 Opinion of the Court ground investigation. At the time when respondents were hired, background checks were standard only for federal civil servants. See Exec. Order No. 10450, 3 CFR 936 (1949–1953 Comp.). In some instances, individual con-tracts required background checks for the employees of federal contractors, but no blanket policy was in place. The Government has recently taken steps to eliminatethis two-track approach to background investigations. In 2004, a recommendation by the 9/11 Commissionprompted the President to order new, uniform identifica-tion standards for “[f]ederal employees,” including “con-tractor employees.” Homeland Security Presidential Directive/HSPD–12—Policy for a Common Identification Standard for Federal Employees and Contractors, PublicPapers of the President, George W. Bush, Vol. 2, Aug. 27,p. 1765 (2007) (hereinafter HSPD–12), App. 127. The Department of Commerce implemented this directive by mandating that contract employees with long-term access to federal facilities complete a standard background check, typically the National Agency Check with Inquiries (NACI). National Inst. of Standards and Technology,Personal Identity Verification of Federal Employees &Contractors, pp. iii–vi, 1–8, 6 (FIPS PUB 201–1, Mar. 2006) (hereinafter FIPS PUB 201–1), App. 131–150, 144–145.1 An October 2007 deadline was set for completion ofthese investigations. Memorandum from Joshua B. Bol-ten, Director, OMB, to the Heads of all Departments and Agencies (Aug. 5, 2005), App. 112. In January 2007, NASA modified its contract with Cal Tech to reflect the new background-check requirement. JPL management —————— 1As alternatives to the NACI process, the Department of Commercealso authorized federal agencies to use another “Office of Personnel Management . . . or National Security community investigation re-quired for Federal employment.” App. 145. None of these alternative background checks are at issue here. 4 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court informed employees that anyone failing to complete the NACI process by October 2007 would be denied access to JPL and would face termination by Cal Tech. B The NACI process has long been the standard back-ground investigation for prospective civil servants. The process begins when the applicant or employee fills out a form questionnaire. Employees who work in “non-sensitive” positions (as all respondents here do) completeStandard Form 85 (SF–85). Office of Personnel Manage-ment (OPM), Standard Form 85, Questionnaire for Non-Sensitive Positions, App. 88–95.2 Most of the questions on SF–85 seek basic biographicalinformation: name, address, prior residences, education,employment history, and personal and professional refer-ences. The form also asks about citizenship, selective-service registration, and military service. The last ques-tion asks whether the employee has “used, possessed,supplied, or manufactured illegal drugs” in the last year. Id., at 94. If the answer is yes, the employee must provide details, including information about “any treatment or counseling received.” Ibid. A “truthful response,” theform notes, cannot be used as evidence against the em-ployee in a criminal proceeding. Ibid. The employee must certify that all responses on the form are true and mustsign a release authorizing the Government to obtain per-sonal information from schools, employers, and others during its investigation. —————— 2For public-trust and national-security positions, more detailed formsare required. See OPM, Standard Form 85P, Questionnaire for Public Trust Positions, online at http://www.opm.gov/Forms/pdf_fill/sf85p.pdf;(all Internet materials as visited Jan. 13, 2011, and available in Clerkof Court’s case file); OPM, Standard Form 86, Questionnaire for National Security Positions, online at http://www.opm.gov/Forms/pdf_fill/sf86.pdf. Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 5 Opinion of the Court Once a completed SF–85 is on file, the “agency check” and “inquiries” begin. 75 Fed. Reg. 5359 (2010). The Government runs the information provided by the em-ployee through FBI and other federal-agency databases.It also sends out form questionnaires to the former em-ployers, schools, landlords, and references listed on SF–85.The particular form at issue in this case—the Investiga-tive Request for Personal Information, Form 42—goes to the employee’s former landlords and references. Ibid.3 Form 42 is a two-page document that takes about fiveminutes to complete. See ibid. It explains to the reference that “[y]our name has been provided by” a particular employee or applicant to help the Government determinethat person’s “suitability for employment or a security clearance.” App. 96–97. After several preliminary ques-tions about the extent of the reference’s associations with the employee, the form asks if the reference has “any reason to question” the employee’s “honesty or trustwor-thiness.” Id., at 97. It also asks if the reference knows of any “adverse information” concerning the employee’s “violations of the law,” “financial integrity,” “abuse of alcohol and/or drugs,” “mental or emotional stability,” “general behavior or conduct,” or “other matters.” Ibid. If “yes” is checked for any of these categories, the form calls for an explanation in the space below. That space is alsoavailable for providing “additional information” (“deroga-tory” or “favorable”) that may bear on “suitability for government employment or a security clearance.” Ibid. All responses to SF–85 and Form 42 are subject to the protections of the Privacy Act. The Act authorizes the Government to keep records pertaining to an individual —————— 3The Government sends separate forms to employers (Form 41), edu-cational institutions (Form 43), record repositories (Form 40), and law enforcement agencies (Form 44). 75 Fed. Reg. 5359. None of these forms are at issue here. 6 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court only when they are “relevant and necessary” to an end“required to be accomplished” by law. 5 U. S. C. §552a(e)(1). Individuals are permitted to access their records and request amendments to them. §§552a(d)(1),(2). Subject to certain exceptions, the Gov-ernment may not disclose records pertaining to an indi-vidual without that individual’s written consent. §552a(b). C About two months before the October 2007 deadline for completing the NACI, respondents brought this suit, claiming, as relevant here, that the background-check process violates a constitutional right to informational privacy. App. 82 (Complaint for Injunctive and Declara-tory Relief).4 The District Court denied respondents’ motion for a preliminary injunction, but the Ninth Circuit granted an injunction pending appeal, 506 F. 3d 713(2007), and later reversed the District Court’s order. The court held that portions of both SF–85 and Form 42 arelikely unconstitutional and should be preliminarily en-joined. 512 F. 3d 1134, vacated and superseded, 530 F. 3d 865 (2008).Turning first to SF–85, the Court of Appeals noted respondents’ concession “that most of the questions” on the form are “unproblematic” and do not “implicate the consti-tutional right to informational privacy.” 530 F. 3d, at 878. But the court determined that the “group of questions concerning illegal drugs” required closer scrutiny. Ibid. Applying Circuit precedent, the court upheld SF–85’sinquiries into recent involvement with drugs as “necessary to further the government’s legitimate interest” in combat-ing illegal-drug use. Id., at 879. The court went on to hold, however, that the portion of the form requiring —————— 4Respondents sought to represent a class of “JPL employees in non-sensitive positions.” App. 79. No class has been certified. Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 7 Opinion of the Court disclosure of drug “treatment or counseling” furthered nolegitimate interest and was thus likely to be held uncon-stitutional. Ibid. Form 42, in the Court of Appeals’ estimation, was even “more problematic.” Ibid. The form’s “open-ended andhighly private” questions, the court concluded, were not “narrowly tailored” to meet the Government’s interests in verifying contractors’ identities and “ensuring the securityof the JPL.” Id., at 881, 880. As a result, the court held, these “open-ended” questions, like the drug-treatment question on SF–85, likely violate respondents’ informa-tional-privacy rights.5 Over the dissents of five judges, the Ninth Circuit denied rehearing en banc. 568 F. 3d 1028 (2009). We granted certiorari. 559 U. S. ___ (2010). —————— 5In the Ninth Circuit, respondents also challenged the criteria thatthey believe the Government will use to determine their “suitability”for employment at JPL. Respondents relied on a document, which had been temporarily posted on the JPL intranet, that listed factors pur-portedly bearing on suitability for federal employment. App. 98–104. Among the listed factors were a failure to “mee[t] financial obligations,”“health issues,” and “mental, emotional, psychological, or psychiatricissues.” Id., at 98, 102. Other factors, which were listed under the heading “Criminal or Immoral Conduct,” included “indecent exposure,” “voyeurism,” “indecent proposal[s],” and “carnal knowledge.” Id., at 98. The document also stated that while “homosexuality,” “adultery,” and“illegitimate children” were not “suitability” issues in and of them-selves, they might pose “security issue[s]” if circumstances indicated a“susceptibility to coercion or blackmail.” Id., at 102. The Court of Appeals rejected respondents’ “challenges to . . . suitability determina-tion[s]” as unripe. 530 F. 3d, at 873. Although respondents did not filea cross-petition from that portion of the Ninth Circuit’s judgment, theynonetheless discuss these suitability criteria at some length in theirbrief before this Court. Respondents’ challenge to these criteria is not before us. We note, however, the Acting Solicitor General’s statement at oral argument that “NASA will not and does not use” the documentto which respondents object “to make contractor credentialing deci-sions.” Tr. of Oral Arg. 22. 8 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court II As noted, respondents contend that portions of SF–85and Form 42 violate their “right to informational privacy.”Brief for Respondents 15. This Court considered a similar claim in Whalen, 429 U. S. 589, which concerned New York’s practice of collecting “the names and addresses of all persons” prescribed dangerous drugs with both “legiti-mate and illegitimate uses.” Id., at 591. In discussingthat claim, the Court said that “[t]he cases sometimescharacterized as protecting ‘privacy’” actually involved “at least two different kinds of interests”: one, an “interest in avoiding disclosure of personal matters”;6 the other, an interest in “making certain kinds of important decisions”free from government interference.7 The patients whobrought suit in Whalen argued that New York’s statute“threaten[ed] to impair” both their “nondisclosure” inter-ests and their interests in making healthcare decisions independently. Id., at 600. The Court, however, upheld the statute as a “reasonable exercise of New York’s broad police powers.” Id., at 598. Whalen acknowledged that the disclosure of “privateinformation” to the State was an “unpleasant invasion of privacy,” id., at 602, but the Court pointed out that the New York statute contained “security provisions” that —————— 6429 U. S., at 598–599, and n. 25 (citing Olmstead v. United States, 277 U. S. 438, 478 (1928) (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (describing “the right to be let alone” as “the right most valued by civilized men”); Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U. S. 479, 483 (1965) (“[T]he FirstAmendment has a penumbra where privacy is protected from govern-mental intrusion”); Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U. S. 557, 559, 568 (1969); California Bankers Assn. v. Shultz, 416 U. S. 21, 79 (1974) (Douglas, J., dissenting); and id., at 78 (Powell, J., concurring)). 7429 U. S., at 599–600, and n. 26 (citing Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973); Doe v. Bolton, 410 U. S. 179 (1973); Loving v. Virginia, 388 U. S. 1 (1967); Griswold v. Connecticut, supra; Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 U. S. 510 (1925); Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U. S. 390 (1923); and Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 165 U. S. 587 (1897)). Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 9 Opinion of the Court protected against “public disclosure” of patients’ informa-tion, id., at 600–601. This sort of “statutory or regulatory duty to avoid unwarranted disclosures” of “accumulated private data” was sufficient, in the Court’s view, to protecta privacy interest that “arguably ha[d] its roots in the Constitution.” Id., at 605–606. The Court thus concluded that the statute did not violate “any right or liberty pro-tected by the Fourteenth Amendment.” Id., at 606. Four months later, the Court referred again to a consti-tutional “interest in avoiding disclosure.” Nixon, 433 U. S., at 457 (internal quotation marks omitted). Former President Nixon brought a challenge to the PresidentialRecordings and Materials Preservation Act, 88 Stat. 1695,note following 44 U. S. C. §2111, a statute that required him to turn over his presidential papers and tape re-cordings for archival review and screening. 433 U. S., at 455–465. In a section of the opinion entitled “Privacy,” the Court addressed a combination of claims that the review required by this Act violated the former President’s“Fourth and Fifth Amendmen[t]” rights. Id., at 455, and n. 18, 458–459. The Court rejected those challenges afterconcluding that the Act at issue, like the statute in Whalen, contained protections against “undue dissemina-tion of private materials.” 433 U. S., at 458. Indeed, the Court observed that the former President’s claim was “weaker” than the one “found wanting . . . in Whalen,” as the Government was required to return immediately all“purely private papers and recordings” identified by the archivists. Id., at 458–459. Citing Fourth Amendment precedent, the Court also stated that the public interest in preserving presidential papers outweighed any “legitimateexpectation of privacy” that the former President may have enjoyed. Id., at 458 (citing Katz v. United States, 389 U. S. 347 (1967); Camara v. Municipal Court of City and County of San Francisco, 387 U. S. 523 (1967); and Terry 10 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court v. Ohio, 392 U. S. 1 (1968)).8 The Court announced the decision in Nixon in the wan-ing days of October Term 1976. Since then, the Court has said little else on the subject of an “individual interest inavoiding disclosure of personal matters.” Whalen, supra, at 599; Nixon, supra, at 457. A few opinions have men-tioned the concept in passing and in other contexts. See Department of Justice v. Reporters Comm. for Freedom of Press, 489 U. S. 749, 762–763 (1989); New York v. Ferber, 458 U. S. 747, 759, n. 10 (1982). But no other decision has squarely addressed a constitutional right to informational privacy.9 —————— 8The Court continued its discussion of Fourth Amendment principles throughout the “Privacy” section of the opinion. See 433 U. S., at 459 (citing United States v. Miller, 425 U. S. 435 (1976), United States v. Dionisio, 410 U. S. 1 (1973), and Katz, 389 U. S. 347)); 433 U. S., at460–462 (addressing the former President’s claim that the Act was“tantamount to a general warrant” under Stanford v. Texas, 379 U. S. 476 (1965)); 433 U. S., at 463–465, and n. 26 (concluding that the challenged law was analogous to the wiretapping provisions of Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, notwith-standing the lack of a “warrant requirement”). 9State and lower federal courts have offered a number of different interpretations of Whalen and Nixon over the years. Many courts holdthat disclosure of at least some kinds of personal information should besubject to a test that balances the government’s interests against the individual’s interest in avoiding disclosure. E.g., Barry v. New York, 712 F. 2d 1554, 1559 (CA2 1983); Fraternal Order of Police v. Philadel-phia, 812 F. 2d 105, 110 (CA3 1987); Woodland v. Houston, 940 F. 2d 134, 138 (CA5 1991) (per curiam); In re Crawford, 194 F. 3d 954, 959 (CA9 1999); State v. Russo, 259 Conn. 436, 459–464, 790 A. 2d 1132, 1147–1150 (2002). The Sixth Circuit has held that the right to infor-mational privacy protects only intrusions upon interests “that can be deemed fundamental or implicit in the concept of ordered liberty.” J. P. v. DeSanti, 653 F. 2d 1080, 1090 (1981) (internal quotation marks omitted). The D. C. Circuit has expressed “grave doubts” about theexistence of a constitutional right to informational privacy. American Federation of Govt. Employees v. HUD, 118 F. 3d 786, 791 (1997). Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 11 Opinion of the Court III As was our approach in Whalen, we will assume for present purposes that the Government’s challenged in-quiries implicate a privacy interest of constitutional sig-nificance. 429 U. S., at 599, 605.10 We hold, however, —————— 10The opinions concurring in the judgment disagree with this ap-proach and would instead provide a definitive answer to the questionwhether there is a constitutional right to informational privacy. Post, at 6–7 (opinion of SCALIA, J.); post, at 1 (opinion of THOMAS, J.). One of these opinions expresses concern that our failure to do so will “har[m] our image, if not our self-respect,” post, at 7 (SCALIA, J.), and will cause practical problems, post, at 8–9. There are sound reasons for eschewing the concurring opinions’ recommended course. “The premise of our adversarial system is that appellate courts do notsit as self-directed boards of legal inquiry and research, but essentiallyas arbiters of legal questions presented and argued by the parties before them.” Carducci v. Regan, 714 F. 2d 171, 177 (CADC 1983) (opinion for the court by Scalia, J.). In this case, petitioners did not askus to hold that there is no constitutional right to informational privacy, and respondents and their amici thus understandably refrained from addressing that issue in detail. It is undesirable for us to decide a matter of this importance in a case in which we do not have the benefit of briefing by the parties and in which potential amici had little notice that the matter might be decided. See Pet. for Cert. 15 (“no need in this case” for broad decision on “the scope of a constitutionally-basedright to privacy for certain information”). Particularly in cases like thisone, where we have only the “scarce and open-ended” guideposts ofsubstantive due process to show us the way, see Collins v. Harker Heights, 503 U. S. 115, 125 (1992), the Court has repeatedly recognized the benefits of proceeding with caution. E.g., Herrera v. Collins, 506 U. S. 390, 417 (1993) (joined by SCALIA, J.) (assuming “for the sake ofargument . . . that in a capital case a truly persuasive demonstration of‘actual innocence’ ” made after conviction would render execution unconstitutional); Cruzan v. Director, Mo. Dept. of Health, 497 U. S. 261, 279 (1990) (joined by SCALIA, J.) (“[W]e assume that the UnitedStates Constitution would grant a competent person a constitutionallyprotected right to refuse lifesaving hydration and nutrition”); Regents of Univ. of Mich. v. Ewing, 474 U. S. 214, 222–223 (1985) (“assum[ing],without deciding, that federal courts can review an academic decision ofa public educational institution under a substantive due process stan-dard”); Board of Curators of Univ. of Mo. v. Horowitz, 435 U. S. 78, 91– 12 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court that, whatever the scope of this interest, it does not pre-vent the Government from asking reasonable questions of the sort included on SF–85 and Form 42 in an employ-ment background investigation that is subject to the Pri-vacy Act’s safeguards against public disclosure. A 1 As an initial matter, judicial review of the Government’s challenged inquiries must take into account the context inwhich they arise. When the Government asks respon-dents and their references to fill out SF–85 and Form 42, it does not exercise its sovereign power “to regulate orlicense.” Cafeteria & Restaurant Workers v. McElroy, 367 U. S. 886, 896 (1961). Rather, the Government conducts the challenged background checks in its capacity “as pro-prietor” and manager of its “internal operation.” Ibid. Time and again our cases have recognized that the Gov-ernment has a much freer hand in dealing “with citizenemployees than it does when it brings its sovereign powerto bear on citizens at large.” Engquist v. Oregon Dept. of Agriculture, 553 U. S. 591, 598 (2008); Waters v. Churchill, 511 U. S. 661, 674 (1994) (plurality opinion). This distinc-tion is grounded on the “common-sense realization” that if —————— 92 (1978) (same); see also New York State Club Assn., Inc. v. City of New York, 487 U. S. 1, 20 (1988) (SCALIA, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (joining the Court’s opinion on the understand-ing that it “assumes for purposes of its analysis, but does not hold, theexistence of a constitutional right of private association for other thanexpressive or religious purposes”). Justice SCALIA provides no support for his claim that our approach inthis case will “dramatically increase the number of lawsuits claiming violations of the right to informational privacy,” post, at 9, and will leave the lower courts at sea. We take the same approach here that the Court took more than three decades ago in Whalen and Nixon, and there is no evidence that those decisions have caused the sky to fall.We therefore decide the case before us and leave broader issues for another day. Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 13 Opinion of the Court every “employment decision became a constitutional mat-ter,” the Government could not function. See Connick v. Myers, 461 U. S. 138, 143 (1983); see also Bishop v. Wood, 426 U. S. 341, 350 (1976) (“The Due Process Clause . . . isnot a guarantee against incorrect or ill-advised personnel decisions”).An assessment of the constitutionality of the challengedportions of SF–85 and Form 42 must account for thisdistinction. The questions challenged by respondents arepart of a standard employment background check of thesort used by millions of private employers. See Brief for Consumer Data Indus. Assn. et al. as Amici Curiae 2 (hereinafter CDIA Brief) (“[M]ore than 88% of U. S.companies . . . perform background checks on their em-ployees”). The Government itself has been conducting employment investigations since the earliest days of theRepublic. L. White, The Federalists: A Study in Adminis-trative History 262–263 (1948); see OPM, Biography of AnIdeal: History of the Federal Civil Service 8 (2002) (noting that President Washington “set a high standard” for fed-eral office and finalized appointments only after “investi-gating [candidates’] capabilities and reputations”). Since 1871, the President has enjoyed statutory authority to“ascertain the fitness of applicants” for the civil service “as to age, health, character, knowledge and ability for the employment sought,” Act of Mar. 3, 1871, Rev. Stat. §1753,as amended, 5 U. S. C. §3301(2), and that Act appears to have been regarded as a codification of established prac-tice.11 Standard background investigations similar to those —————— 11The debate on the 1871 Act in the House of Representatives con-tained this exchange on presidential authority to conduct backgroundchecks: “Mr. PETERS: Has he not that power [to conduct the proposed investi-gations of candidates for the civil service] now? “Mr. DAWES: He has all that power. If you will go up to the WarDepartment or the Department of the Interior you will see pretty much 14 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court at issue here became mandatory for all candidates for the federal civil service in 1953. Exec. Order No. 10450, 3 CFR 936. And the particular investigations challenged inthis case arose from a decision to extend that requirementto federal contract employees requiring long-term access tofederal facilities. See HSPD–12, at 1765, App. 127; FIPS PUB 201–1, at iii–vi, 1–8, App. 131–150. As this long history suggests, the Government has aninterest in conducting basic employment background checks. Reasonable investigations of applicants and em-ployees aid the Government in ensuring the security of itsfacilities and in employing a competent, reliable work-force. See Engquist, supra, at 598–599. Courts must keep those interests in mind when asked to go line-by-line through the Government’s employment forms and to scrutinize the choice and wording of the questions they contain. Respondents argue that, because they are contractemployees and not civil servants, the Government’s broad authority in managing its affairs should apply with dimin-ished force. But the Government’s interest as “proprietor”in managing its operations, Cafeteria & Restaurant Work-ers, supra, at 896, does not turn on such formalities. See Board of Comm’rs, Wabaunsee Cty. v. Umbehr, 518 U. S. 668, 678, 679 (1996) (formal distinctions such as whether a “service provider” has a “contract of employment or a contract for services” with the government is a “very poorproxy” for constitutional interests at stake). The fact that respondents’ direct employment relationship is with CalTech—which operates JPL under a Government con-tract—says very little about the interests at stake in this case. The record shows that, as a “practical matter,” there are no “[r]elevant distinctions” between the duties per-—————— all of this nailed up on the doors, in the form of rules and regulations.” Cong. Globe, 41st Cong., 3d Sess., 1935 (1871). Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 15 Opinion of the Court formed by NASA’s civil-service workforce and its contrac-tor workforce. App. 221. The two classes of employees perform “functionally equivalent duties,” and the extent of employees’ “access to NASA . . . facilities” turns not on formal status but on the nature of “the jobs they perform.” Ibid. At JPL, in particular, the work that contract employees perform is critical to NASA’s mission. Respondents in thiscase include “the lead trouble-shooter for . . . th[e] $568 [million]” Kepler space observatory, 7 Record 396; the leader of the program that “tests . . . all new technologythat NASA will use in space,” App. 60; and one of the lead“trajectory designers for . . . the Galileo Project and the Apollo Moon landings,” id., at 62. This is important work,and all of it is funded with a multibillion dollar investment from the American taxpayer. See NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Annual Report 09, p. 35 (2010), online athttp://www.jpl.nasa.gov/annualreport/2009-report.pdf. The Government has a strong interest in conducting basicbackground checks into the contract employees mindingthe store at JPL.12 —————— 12In their brief, respondents also rely on the fact that many of them have been working at JPL for years and that Cal Tech previouslyvetted them through standard “employment reference checks.” Brief for Respondents 52–53. The record indicates that this may be wrong as a factual matter. E.g., 7 Record 391 (“I have not been required toundergo any type of background investigation to maintain my position with JPL”); id., at 397 (“I have never been required to undergo any typeof background investigation to maintain my position with JPL otherthan . . . [one] which required that I provide my name, social securitynumber, and current address” to facilitate a “check for outstandingwarrants, arrests, or convictions”); id., at 356, 367, 386–387 (similar). Even if it were correct, the fact that Cal Tech once conducted a back-ground check on respondents does not diminish the Government’s interests in conducting its own standard background check to satisfy itself that contract employees should be granted continued access to the Government’s facility. In any event, counsel abandoned this position at oral argument. Tr. of Oral Arg. 38. 16 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court 2 With these interests in view, we conclude that the chal-lenged portions of both SF–85 and Form 42 consist of reasonable, employment-related inquiries that further the Government’s interests in managing its internal opera-tions. See Engquist, 553 U. S., at 598–599; Whalen, 429 U. S., at 597–598. As to SF–85, the only part of the formchallenged here is its request for information about “any treatment or counseling received” for illegal-drug use within the previous year. The “treatment or counseling”question, however, must be considered in context. It is a followup to SF–85’s inquiry into whether the employee has“used, possessed, supplied, or manufactured illegal drugs” during the past year. The Government has good reason toask employees about their recent illegal-drug use. Like any employer, the Government is entitled to have itsprojects staffed by reliable, law-abiding persons who will“‘efficiently and effectively’” discharge their duties. See Engquist, supra, at 598–599. Questions about illegal-drug use are a useful way of figuring out which persons havethese characteristics. See, e.g., Breen & Matusitz, An Updated Examination of the Effects of Illegal Drug Use in the Workplace, 19 J. Human Behavior in the Social Envi-ronment, 434 (2009) (illicit drug use negatively correlated with workplace productivity). In context, the follow-up question on “treatment orcounseling” for recent illegal-drug use is also a reasonable, employment-related inquiry. The Government, recogniz-ing that illegal-drug use is both a criminal and a medical issue, seeks to separate out those illegal-drug users whoare taking steps to address and overcome their problems. The Government thus uses responses to the “treatment orcounseling” question as a mitigating factor in determining whether to grant contract employees long-term access to Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 17 Opinion of the Court federal facilities.13 This is a reasonable, and indeed a humane, approach,and respondents do not dispute the legitimacy of theGovernment’s decision to use drug treatment as a mitigat-ing factor in its contractor credentialing decisions. Re-spondents’ argument is that, if drug treatment is only used to mitigate, then the Government should change themandatory phrasing of SF–85—“Include [in your answer] any treatment or counseling received”—so as to make aresponse optional. App. 94. As it stands, the mandatory “treatment or counseling” question is unconstitutional, in respondents’ view, because it is “more intrusive than necessary to satisfy the government’s objective.” Brief for Respondents 26; 530 F. 3d, at 879 (holding that “treat-ment or counseling” question should be enjoined because the form “appears to compel disclosure”).We reject the argument that the Government, when itrequests job-related personal information in an employ-ment background check, has a constitutional burden to demonstrate that its questions are “necessary” or the leastrestrictive means of furthering its interests. So exacting a standard runs directly contrary to Whalen. The patientsin Whalen, much like respondents here, argued that NewYork’s statute was unconstitutional because the State could not “demonstrate the necessity” of its program. 429 U. S., at 596. The Court quickly rejected that argument,concluding that New York’s collection of patients’ prescrip-tion information could “not be held unconstitutional sim-ply because” a court viewed it as “unnecessary, in whole or —————— 13Asking about treatment or counseling could also help the Govern-ment identify chronic drug abusers for whom, “despite counseling and rehabilitation programs, there is little chance for effective rehabilita-tion.” 38 Fed. Reg. 33315 (1973). At oral argument, however, the Acting Solicitor General explained that NASA views treatment or counseling solely as a “mitigat[ing]” factor that ameliorates concernsabout recent illegal drug use. Tr. of Oral Arg. 19. 18 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court in part.” Id., at 596–597. That analysis applies with even greater force where theGovernment acts, not as a regulator, but as the manager of its internal affairs. See Engquist, supra, at 598–599. SF–85’s “treatment or counseling” question reasonably seeks to identify a subset of acknowledged drug users who are attempting to overcome their problems. The Govern-ment’s considered position is that phrasing the question inmore permissive terms would result in a lower response rate, and the question’s effectiveness in identifying illegal-drug users who are suitable for employment would be“materially reduced.” Reply Brief for Petitioners 19. That is a reasonable position, falling within the “‘wide lati-tude’” granted the Government in its dealings with em-ployees. See Engquist, supra, at 600. 3 The Court of Appeals also held that the broad, “open-ended questions” on Form 42 likely violate respondents’ informational-privacy rights. Form 42 asks applicants’ designated references and landlords for “information”bearing on “suitability for government employment or a security clearance.” App. 97. In a series of questions, the Government asks if the reference has any “adverse infor-mation” about the applicant’s “honesty or trustworthi-ness,” “violations of the law,” “financial integrity,” “abuse of alcohol and/or drugs,” “mental or emotional stability,” “general behavior or conduct,” or “other matters.” Ibid. These open-ended inquiries, like the drug-treatmentquestion on SF–85, are reasonably aimed at identifying capable employees who will faithfully conduct the Gov-ernment’s business. See Engquist, supra, at 598–599. Asking an applicant’s designated references broad, open-ended questions about job suitability is an appropriate tool for separating strong candidates from weak ones. It would be a truly daunting task to catalog all the reasons why a Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 19 Opinion of the Court person might not be suitable for a particular job, andreferences do not have all day to answer a laundry list ofspecific questions. See CDIA Brief 6–7 (references “typi-cally have limited time to answer questions from potential employers,” and “open-ended questions” yield more rele-vant information than narrow inquiries). Form 42, bycontrast, takes just five minutes to complete. 75 Fed. Reg.5359. The reasonableness of such open-ended questions is illustrated by their pervasiveness in the public and private sectors. Form 42 alone is sent out by the Government over1.8 million times annually. Ibid. In addition, the use of open-ended questions in employment background checksappears to be equally commonplace in the private sector. See, e.g., S. Bock et al., Mandated Benefits 2008 Compli-ance Guide, Exh. 20.1, A Sample Policy on ReferenceChecks on Job Applicants (“Following are the guidelines for conducting a telephone reference check: . . . Ask open-ended questions, then wait for the respondent to answer”);M. Zweig, Human Resources Management 87 (1991) (“Also ask, ‘Is there anything else I need to know about [candi-date’s name]?’ This kind of open-ended question may turn up all kinds of information you wouldn’t have gotten any other way”). The use of similar open-ended questions bythe Government is reasonable and furthers its interests in managing its operations. B 1 Not only are SF–85 and Form 42 reasonable in light of the Government interests at stake, they are also subject to substantial protections against disclosure to the public.Both Whalen and Nixon recognized that government“accumulation” of “personal information” for “public pur-poses” may pose a threat to privacy. Whalen, 429 U. S., at 605; see Nixon 433 U. S., at 457–458, 462. But both deci-20 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court sions also stated that a “statutory or regulatory duty toavoid unwarranted disclosures” generally allays these privacy concerns. Whalen, supra, at 605; Nixon, supra, at 458–459. The Court in Whalen, relying on New York’s“security provisions” prohibiting public disclosure, turned aside a challenge to the collection of patients’ prescriptioninformation. 429 U. S., at 594, and n. 12, 600–601, 605. In Nixon, the Court rejected what it regarded as an even“weaker” claim by the former President because the Presi-dential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act “[n]otonly . . . mandate[d] regulations” against “undue dissemi-nation,” but also required immediate return of any “purelyprivate” materials flagged by the Government’s archivists. 433 U. S., at 458–459. Respondents in this case, like the patients in Whalen and former President Nixon, attack only the Government’s collection of information on SF–85 and Form 42. And here, no less than in Whalen and Nixon, the information collected is shielded by statute from “unwarranted disclo-sur[e].” See Whalen, supra, at 605. The Privacy Act,which covers all information collected during the back-ground-check process, allows the Government to maintainrecords “about an individual” only to the extent the re-cords are “relevant and necessary to accomplish” a pur-pose authorized by law. 5 U. S. C. §552a(e)(1). The Act requires written consent before the Government maydisclose records pertaining to any individual. §552a(b).And the Act imposes criminal liability for willful violationsof its nondisclosure obligations. §552a(i)(1). These re-quirements, as we have noted, give “forceful recognition”to a Government employee’s interest in maintaining the “confidentiality of sensitive information . . . in his person-nel files.” Detroit Edison Co. v. NLRB, 440 U. S. 301, 318, n. 16 (1979). Like the protections against disclosure in Whalen and Nixon, they “evidence a proper concern” for individual privacy. Whalen, supra, at 605; Nixon, supra, Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 21 Opinion of the Court at 458–459. 2 Notwithstanding these safeguards, respondents arguethat statutory exceptions to the Privacy Act’s disclosure bar, see §§552a(b)(1)–(12), leave its protections too porousto supply a meaningful check against “unwarranted dis-closures,” Whalen, supra, at 605. Respondents point in particular to what they describe as a “broad” exceptionfor “routine use[s],” defined as uses that are “compatiblewith the purpose for which the record was collected.” §§552a(b)(3), (a)(7). Respondents’ reliance on these exceptions rests on anincorrect reading of both our precedents and the terms ofthe Privacy Act. As to our cases, the Court in Whalen and Nixon referred approvingly to statutory or regulatory protections against “unwarranted disclosures” and “undue dissemination” of personal information collected by theGovernment. Whalen, supra, at 605; Nixon, supra, at 458. Neither case suggested that an ironclad disclosure bar isneeded to satisfy privacy interests that may be “root[ed] inthe Constitution.” Whalen, supra, at 605. In Whalen, the New York statute prohibiting “[p]ublic disclosure of the identity of patients” was itself subject to several excep-tions. 429 U. S., at 594–595, and n. 12. In Nixon, the protections against “undue dissemination” mentioned inthe opinion were not even before the Court, but were to beincluded in forthcoming regulations “mandate[d]” by the challenged Act. 433 U. S., at 458; see id., at 437–439 (explaining that the Court was limiting its review to theAct’s “facial validity” and was not considering the Admin-istrator’s forthcoming regulations). Thus, the mere fact that the Privacy Act’s nondisclosure requirement is sub-ject to exceptions does not show that the statute provides insufficient protection against public disclosure. Nor does the substance of the “routine use” exception 22 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court relied on by respondents create any undue risk of public dissemination. None of the authorized “routine use[s]” of respondents’ background-check information allows for release to the public. 71 Fed. Reg. 45859–45860, 45862(2006); 60 Fed. Reg. 63084 (1995), as amended, 75 Fed.Reg. 28307 (2010). Rather, the established “routine use[s]” consist of limited, reasonable steps designed to complete the background-check process in an efficient andorderly manner. See Whalen, supra, at 602 (approvingdisclosures to authorized New York Department of Healthemployees that were not “meaningfully distinguishable” from routine disclosures “associated with many facets of health care”). One routine use, for example, involves alimited disclosure to persons filling out Form 42 so that designated references can “identify the individual” at issueand can understand the “nature and purpose of the inves-tigation.” App. 89. Authorized JPL employees also review each completed SF–85 to verify that all requested infor-mation has been provided. Id., at 211. These designated JPL employees may not “disclose any information con-tained in the form to anyone else,” ibid., and Cal Tech is not given access to adverse information uncovered during the Government’s background check, id., at 207–208. The “remote possibility” of public disclosure created by these narrow “routine use[s]” does not undermine the Privacy Act’s substantial protections. See Whalen, 429 U. S., at 601–602 (“remote possibility” that statutory securityprovisions will “provide inadequate protection against unwarranted disclosures” not a sufficient basis for strikingdown statute).Citing past violations of the Privacy Act,14 respondents —————— 14 E.g., GAO, Personal Information: Data Breaches are Frequent, but Evidence of Resulting Identity Theft is Limited; However, the Full Extent Is Unknown 5, 20 (GAO 07–737, 2007) (over 3-year period, 788data breaches occurred at 17 federal agencies). Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 23 Opinion of the Court note that it is possible that their personal informationcould be disclosed as a result of a similar breach. But data breaches are a possibility any time the Government storesinformation. As the Court recognized in Whalen, the mere possibility that security measures will fail provides no“proper ground” for a broad-based attack on government information-collection practices. Ibid. Respondents alsocite a portion of SF–85 that warns of possible disclosure“[t]o the news media or the general public.” App. 89. Byits terms, this exception allows public disclosure onlywhere release is “in the public interest” and would not result in “an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy.” Ibid. Respondents have not cited any example of such adisclosure, nor have they identified any plausible scenario in which their information might be unduly disclosed under this exception.15 In light of the protection provided by the Privacy Act’s nondisclosure requirement, and because the challengedportions of the forms consist of reasonable inquiries in anemployment background check, we conclude that the Government’s inquiries do not violate a constitutional right to informational privacy. Whalen, supra, at 605. * * * For these reasons, the judgment of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the case is remanded for further proceed-ings consistent with this opinion. It is so ordered. —————— 15Respondents further contend that the Privacy Act’s ability to deter unauthorized release of private information is significantly hampered by the fact that the statute provides only “an ex post money-damages action,” not injunctive relief. Brief for Respondents 44 (citing Doe v. Chao, 540 U. S. 614, 635 (2004) (GINSBURG, J., dissenting)). Nothing in Whalen or Nixon suggests that any private right of action—for money damages or injunctive relief—is needed in order to provide sufficient protection against public disclosure. 24 NASA v. NELSON Opinion of the Court JUSTICE KAGAN took no part in the consideration or decision of this case. _________________ _________________ Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 1 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 09–530 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMIN-ISTRATION, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. ROBERT M. NELSON ET AL. ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OFAPPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT[January 19, 2011] JUSTICE SCALIA, with whom JUSTICE THOMAS joins,concurring in the judgment. I agree with the Court, of course, that backgroundchecks of employees of government contractors do not offend the Constitution. But rather than reach this con-clusion on the basis of the never-explained assumption that the Constitution requires courts to “balance” the Government’s interests in data collection against its con-tractor employees’ interest in privacy, I reach it on simpler grounds. Like many other desirable things not included in the Constitution, “informational privacy” seems like a good idea—wherefore the People have enacted laws at thefederal level and in the states restricting the government’s collection and use of information. But it is up to the Peo-ple to enact those laws, to shape them, and, when they think it appropriate, to repeal them. A federal constitu-tional right to “informational privacy” does not exist. Before addressing the constitutional issues, however, I must observe a remarkable and telling fact about thiscase, unique in my tenure on this Court: Respondents’ brief, in arguing that the Federal Government violated theConstitution, does not once identify which provision ofthe Constitution that might be. The Table of Authorities contains citations of cases from federal and state courts, 2 NASA v. NELSON SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment federal and state statutes, Rules of Evidence from four states, two Executive Orders, a House Report, and even more exotic sources of law, such as two reports of theGovernment Accountability Office and an EEOC document concerning “Enforcement Guidance.” And yet it containsnot a single citation of the sole document we are calledupon to construe: the Constitution of the United States. The body of the brief includes a single, fleeting referenceto the Due Process Clause, buried in a citation of the assuredly inapposite Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U. S. 558 (2003), Brief for Respondents 42; but no further attempt ismade to argue that NASA’s actions deprived respondentsof liberty without due process of law. And this legal strat-egy was not limited to respondents’ filing in this Court; inthe Ninth Circuit respondents asserted in a footnote that “courts have grounded the right to informational privacyin various provisions of the Constitution,” Brief for Appel-lants in No. 07–56424, p. 25, n. 18, but declined to identifywhich ones applied here.To tell the truth, I found this approach refreshinglyhonest. One who asks us to invent a constitutional right out of whole cloth should spare himself and us the pre-tense of tying it to some words of the Constitution. Re-grettably, this Lincolnesque honesty evaporated at oral argument, when counsel asserted, apparently for the firsttime in this litigation, that the right to informational privacy emerged from the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. Tr. of Oral Arg. 28–29. That counsel in-voked the infinitely plastic concept of “substantive” due process does not make this constitutional theory any lessinvented. This case is easily resolved on the simple ground that the Due Process Clause does not “guarante[e] certain(unspecified) liberties”; rather, it “merely guaranteescertain procedures as a prerequisite to deprivation of liberty.” Albright v. Oliver, 510 U. S. 266, 275 (1994) Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 3 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment (SCALIA, J., concurring). Respondents make no claim that the State has deprived them of liberty without the requi-site procedures, and their due process claim therefore must fail. Even under the formula we have adopted for identifying liberties entitled to protection under the faux“substantive” component of the Due Process Clause—that“the Due Process Clause specially protects those funda-mental rights and liberties which are, objectively, deeply rooted in this Nation’s history and tradition,” Washington v. Glucksberg, 521 U. S. 702, 720–721 (1997) (internal quotation marks omitted)—respondents’ claim would fail.Respondents do not even attempt to argue that the claimat issue in this case passes that test, perhaps recognizing the farcical nature of a contention that a right deeplyrooted in our history and tradition bars the Governmentfrom ensuring that the Hubble Telescope is not used by recovering drug addicts. The absurdity of respondents’ position in this case should not, however, obscure the broader point: Our due process precedents, even our “substantive due process” precedents, do not support any right to informationalprivacy. First, we have held that the government’s act of defamation does not deprive a person “of any ‘liberty’ protected by the procedural guarantees of the Fourteenth Amendment.” Paul v. Davis, 424 U. S. 693, 709 (1976).We reasoned that stigma, standing alone, does not “sig-nificantly alte[r]” a person’s legal status so as to “justif[y] the invocation of procedural safeguards.” Id., at 708–709. If outright defamation does not qualify, it is unimaginable that the mere disclosure of private information does.Second, respondents challenge the Government’s collec-tion of their private information. But the Government’s collection of private information is regulated by the Fourth Amendment, and “[w]here a particular Amendment pro-vides an explicit textual source of constitutional protectionagainst a particular sort of government behavior, that 4 NASA v. NELSON SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment Amendment, not the more generalized notion of substan-tive due process, must be the guide for analyzing theseclaims.” County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U. S. 833, 842 (1998) (internal quotation marks omitted; alterationin original). Here, the Ninth Circuit rejected respondents’ Fourth Amendment argument, correctly holding that the Form 42 inquiries to third parties were not FourthAmendment “searches” under United States v. Miller, 425 U. S. 435 (1976), and that the Fourth Amendment doesnot prohibit the Government from asking questions aboutprivate information. 530 F. 3d 865, 876–877 (2008). That should have been the end of the matter. Courts should not use the Due Process Clause as putty to fill up gaps they deem unsightly in the protections provided by other con-stitutional provisions.In sum, I would simply hold that there is no constitu-tional right to “informational privacy.” Besides being consistent with constitutional text and tradition, this view has the attractive benefit of resolving this case withoutresort to the Court’s exegesis on the Government’s legiti-mate interest in identifying contractor drug abusers and the comfortingly narrow scope of NASA’s “routine use” regulations. I shall not fill the U. S. Reports with furtherexplanation of the incoherence of the Court’s “substantivedue process” doctrine in its many manifestations, since the Court does not play the substantive-due-process card.Instead, it states that it will “assume, without deciding” that there exists a right to informational privacy, ante, at 1. The Court’s sole justification for its decision to “assume, without deciding” is that the Court made the same mis-take before—in two 33-year-old cases, Whalen v. Roe, 429 U. S. 589 (1977), and Nixon v. Administrator of General Services, 433 U. S. 425 (1977).* Ante, at 11. But stare —————— *Contrary to the Court’s protestation, ante, at 11, n. 10, the Court’s Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 5 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment decisis is simply irrelevant when the pertinent precedent assumed, without deciding, the existence of a constitu-tional right. “Stare decisis reflects a policy judgment that in most matters it is more important that the applicablerule of law be settled than that it be settled right.” State Oil Co. v. Khan, 522 U. S. 3, 20 (1997) (internal quotationmarks omitted). “It is the preferred course because itpromotes the evenhanded, predictable, and consistentdevelopment of legal principles.” Ibid. (internal quotationmarks omitted). Here, however, there is no applicable ruleof law that is settled. To the contrary, Whalen and Nixon created an uncertainty that the text of the Constitutiondid not contain and that today’s opinion perpetuates. A further reason Whalen and Nixon are not entitled to stare decisis effect is that neither opinion supplied any coherent reason why a constitutional right to informa-tional privacy might exist. As supporting authority, Whalen cited Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U. S. 557 (1969), a —————— failure to address whether there is a right to informational privacycannot be blamed upon the Government’s concession that such a right exists, and indeed the Government’s startling assertion that Whalen and Nixon (which decided nothing on the constitutional point, and havenot been so much as cited in our later opinions) were “seminal”— seminal!—decisions. Reply Brief for Petitioner 22. We are not bound by a litigant’s concession on an issue of law. See, e.g., Grove City College v. Bell, 465 U. S. 555, 562, n. 10 (1984). And it should not be thought that the concession by the United States is an entirely self-denying act. To be sure, it subjects the Executive Branch to constitu-tional limitations on the collection and use of information; but the Privacy Act, 5 U. S. C. §552a (2006 ed. and Supp. III), already containsextensive limitations not likely to be surpassed by constitutional improvisation. And because Congress’s power under §5 of the Four-teenth Amendment extends to the full scope of the Due Process Clause, see City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U. S. 507 (1997), the United Stateshas an incentive to give that Clause a broad reading, thus expandingthe scope of federal legislation that it justifies. Federal laws prevent-ing state disregard of “informational privacy” may be a twinkle in theSolicitor General’s eye. 6 NASA v. NELSON SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment First Amendment case protecting private possession of obscenity; the deservedly infamous dictum in Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U. S. 479 (1965), concerning the “penum-bra” of the First Amendment; and three concurring ordissenting opinions, none of which remotely intimated that there might be such a thing as a substantive due process right to informational privacy. 429 U. S., at 599, n. 25. Nixon provided even less support. After citing the observation in Whalen that “[o]ne element of privacy has been characterized as the individual interest in avoiding disclosure of personal matters,” Nixon, supra, at 457 (quoting Whalen, supra, at 599; internal quotation marksomitted), it proceeded to conduct a straightforward Fourth Amendment analysis. It “assume[d]” that there was a “legitimate expectation of privacy” in the materials, andrejected the appellant’s argument that the statute at issue was “precisely the kind of abuse that the Fourth Amend-ment was intended to prevent.” Nixon, supra, at 457–458, 460. It is unfathomable why these cases’ passing, barely explained reference to a right separate from the Fourth Amendment—an unenumerated right that they held to be not applicable—should be afforded stare decisis weight.At this point the reader may be wondering: “What, afterall, is the harm in being ‘minimalist’ and simply refusing to say that violation of a constitutional right of informa-tional privacy can never exist? The outcome in this case is the same, so long as the Court holds that any such hypo-thetical right was not violated.” Well, there is harm. The Court’s never-say-never disposition does damage for sev-eral reasons. 1. It is in an important sense not actually minimalist. By substituting for one real constitutional question(whether there exists a constitutional right to informa-tional privacy) a different constitutional question (whetherNASA’s background checks would contravene a right to informational privacy if such a right existed), the Court Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 7 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment gets to pontificate upon a matter that is none of itsbusiness: the appropriate balance between security and privacy. If I am correct that there exists no right to in-formational privacy, all that discussion is an exercise in judicial maximalism. Better simply to state and apply the law forthrightly than to hold our view of the law in pectore, so that we can inquire into matters beyond our charter, and probably beyond our ken. If, on the other hand, the Court believes that there is a constitutional right to informational privacy, then I fail tosee the minimalist virtues in delivering a lengthy opinion analyzing that right while coyly noting that the right is“assumed” rather than “decided.” Thirty-three years have passed since the Court first suggested that the right may, or may not, exist. It is past time for the Court to abandon this Alfred Hitchcock line of our jurisprudence.2. It harms our image, if not our self-respect, because it makes no sense. The Court decides that the Government did not violate the right to informational privacy without deciding whether there is a right to informational privacy,and without even describing what hypothetical standardshould be used to assess whether the hypothetical right has been violated. As I explained last Term in objecting to another of the Court’s never-say-never dispositions: “[The Court] cannot decide that [respondents’] claimfails without first deciding what a valid claim wouldconsist of. . . . [A]greeing to or crafting a hypotheticalstandard for a hypothetical constitutional right is suf-ficiently unappealing . . . that [the Court] might as well acknowledge the right as well. Or [it] could avoidthe need to agree with or craft a hypothetical stan-dard by denying the right. But embracing a standard while being coy about the right is, well, odd; and de-ciding this case while addressing neither the standard nor the right is quite impossible.” Stop the Beach Re-8 NASA v. NELSON SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment nourishment, Inc. v. Florida Dept. of Environmental Protection, 560 U. S. ___, ___ (2010) (plurality opinion)(joined by ALITO, J.) (slip op., at 12–13). Whatever the virtues of judicial minimalism, it cannot justify judicial incoherence.The Court defends its approach by observing that“we have only the ‘scarce and open-ended’” guideposts ofsubstantive due process to show us the way.” Ante, at 11, n. 10. I would have thought that this doctrinal obscurityshould lead us to provide more clarity for lower courts;surely one vague opinion should not provide an excuse for another. The Court observes that I have joined other opinionsthat have assumed the existence of constitutional rights. Ibid. It is of course acceptable to reserve difficult constitu-tional questions, so long as answering those questions is unnecessary to coherent resolution of the issue presented in the case. So in Cruzan v. Director, Mo. Dept. of Health,497 U. S. 261, 279–280 (1990), we declined to decide whether a competent person had a constitutional right torefuse lifesaving hydration, because—under a constitu-tional standard we laid out in detail—such a right did notexist for an incompetent person. In Herrera v. Collins, 506 U. S. 390, 417–418 (1993), we declined to decide whether it would be unconstitutional to execute an innocent per-son, because Herrera had not shown that he was innocent. In New York State Club Assn., Inc. v. City of New York,487 U. S. 1, 10–15 (1988), we declined to decide whether there was a constitutional right of private association forcertain clubs, because the plaintiff had brought a facialchallenge, which would fail if the statute was valid in many of its applications, making it unnecessary to decidewhether an as-applied challenge as to some clubs could succeed. Here, however, the Court actually applies a constitutional informational privacy standard without Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 9 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment giving a clue as to the rule of law it is applying. 3. It provides no guidance whatsoever for lower courts. Consider the sheer multiplicity of unweighted, relevant factors alluded to in today’s opinion: • It is relevant that the Government is acting “in itscapacity ‘as proprietor’ and manager of its ‘internal op-eration.’” Ante, at 12. Of course, given that we aretold neither what the appropriate standard should be when the Government is acting as regulator nor what the appropriate standard should be when it is acting asproprietor, it is not clear what effect this fact has on the analysis; but at least we know that it is something. • History and tradition have some role to play, ante, at 13–14, but how much is uncertain. The Court pointsout that the Federal Government has been conductinginvestigations of candidates for employment since theearliest days; but on the other hand it acknowledges that extension of those investigations to employees ofcontractors is of very recent vintage. • The contract employees are doing important work. They are not mere janitors and maintenance men; they are working on a $568 million observatory. Ante, at 15. Can it possibly be that the outcome of today’s casewould be different for background checks of lower-levelemployees? In the spirit of minimalism we are nevertold. • Questions about drug treatment are (hypothetically)constitutional because they are “reasonable,” “useful,” and “humane.” Ante, at 16–17 (internal quotation marks omitted). And questions to third parties are constitutional because they are “appropriate” and “per-vasiv[e].” Ante, at 18–19. Any or all of these adjectives may be the hypothetical standard by which violation of the hypothetical constitutional right to “informational privacy” is evaluated. 10 NASA v. NELSON SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment • The Court notes that a “‘statutory or regulatory dutyto avoid unwarranted disclosures’ generally allaysthese privacy concerns,” ante, at 20 (emphasis added),but it gives no indication of what the exceptions to thisgeneral rule might be. It then discusses the provisionsof the Privacy Act in detail, placing considerable em-phasis on the limitations imposed by NASA’s routine-use regulations. Ante, at 21–23. From the length ofthe discussion, I would bet that the Privacy Act is nec-essary to today’s holding, but how much of it is neces-sary is a mystery. 4. It will dramatically increase the number of lawsuitsclaiming violations of the right to informational privacy. Rare will be the claim that is supported by none of the factors deemed relevant in today’s opinion. Moreover, the utter silliness of respondents’ position in this case leaves plenty of room for the possible success of future claimsthat are meritless, but slightly less absurd. Respondentsclaim that even though they are Government contractor employees, and even though they are working with highlyexpensive scientific equipment, and even though the Gov-ernment is seeking only information about drug treatment and information from third parties that is standard inbackground checks, and even though the Government is liable for damages if that information is ever revealed, and even though NASA’s Privacy Act regulations are veryprotective of private information, NASA’s background checks are unconstitutional. Ridiculous. In carefullyciting all of these factors as the basis for its decision, the Court makes the distinguishing of this case simple as pie.In future cases filed under 42 U. S. C. §1983 in thosecircuits that recognize (rather than merely hypothesize) aconstitutional right to “informational privacy,” lawyerswill always (and I mean always) find some way around today’s opinion: perhaps the plaintiff will be a receptionist Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 11 SCALIA, J., concurring in judgment or a janitor, or the protections against disclosure will beless robust. And oh yes, the fact that a losing defendant will be liable not only for damages but also for attorney’sfees under §1988 will greatly encourage lawyers to sue, and defendants—for whom no safe harbor can be found in the many words of today’s opinion—to settle. This plain-tiff’s claim has failed today, but the Court makes a gener-ous gift to the plaintiff’s bar. * * * Because I deem it the “duty of the judicial department tosay what the law is,” Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cranch 137, 177 (1803), I concur only in the judgment. _________________ _________________ Cite as: 562 U. S. ____ (2011) 1 THOMAS, J., concurring in judgment SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 09–530 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMIN-ISTRATION, ET AL., PETITIONERS v. ROBERT M. NELSON ET AL. ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OFAPPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT[January 19, 2011] JUSTICE THOMAS, concurring in the judgment. I agree with JUSTICE SCALIA that the Constitution does not protect a right to informational privacy. Ante, at 1 (opinion concurring in judgment). No provision in the Constitution mentions such a right. Cf. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U. S. 558, 605–606 (2003) (THOMAS, J., dissent-ing) (“I can find neither in the Bill of Rights nor any other part of the Constitution a general right of privacy . . .” (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted)). And the notion that the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment is a wellspring of unenumerated rights against the Federal Government “strains credulity foreven the most casual user of words.” McDonald v. Chi-cago, 561 U. S. ___, ___ (2010) (THOMAS, J., concurring inpart and concurring in judgment) (slip op., at 7).
Published In: Constitutional Law Updates, Government Contracting Updates, Health Updates, Labor & Employment Updates, Privacy Updates
Brief of Amici Curiae Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) , et al. In support of The Respondents