Source: https://www.legalcrystal.com/case/104965/hodel-vs-virginia-surface-mining
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Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 522', '§ 522', '§ 521', '§ 1201', '§ 502', '§ 1252', '§ 515', '§ 1265', '§ 503', '§ 1253', '§ 503', '§ 1253', '§ 504', '§ 1254', '§ 506', '§ 1256', '§ 1265', '§ 515', '§ 1265', '§ 515', '§ 301', '§ 151', '§ 201', '§ 522', '§ 522', '§ 515', '§ 522', '§ 521', '§ 521', '§ 525', '§ 1275', '§ 1276', '§ 521', '§ 525', '§ 1275', '§ 521', '§ 521', '§ 518', '§ 1268', '§ 1276', '§ 1268', '§ 5', '§ 5', '§ 742', '§ 7401', '§ 1251', '§ 1272']

Hodel Vs Virginia Surface Mining - Citation 104965 - Court Judgment | LegalCrystal
Hodel Vs. Virginia Surface Mining - Court Judgment
LegalCrystal Citation legalcrystal.com/104965
Case Number 452 U.S. 264
Respondent Virginia Surface Mining
hodel v. virginia surface mining - 452 u.s. 264 (1981) u.s. supreme court hodel v. virginia surface mining, 452 u.s. 264 (1981) hodel v. virginia surface mining & reclamation association, inc. no. 79-1538 argued february 23, 1981 decided june 15, 1981 * 452 u.s. 264 appeal from the united states district court for the western district of virginia syllabus a preenforcement challenge to the constitutionality of the surface mining control and reclamation act of 1977 (act) was presented in a federal district court action wherein the plaintiffs were an association of coal producers engaged in surface coal mining operations in virginia, some of its member coal companies, individual landowners, the commonwealth of.....
Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining - 452 U.S. 264 (1981)
U.S. Supreme Court Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining, 452 U.S. 264 (1981)
Decided June 15, 1981 *
Held: In the context of a facial challenge, the Act is constitutional. Pp. 452 U. S. 275 -305.
(a) The Act does not violate the Commerce Clause as regulating the use of private lands, rather than the interstate commerce effects of surface coal mining. In view of the legislative record, which includes extended hearings concerning the effects of surface mining on the Nation's environment and economy and the need for uniform minimum nationwide standards, it cannot be said that Congress did not have a rational basis for its findings, set out in the Act itself, that surface coal mining has substantial effects on interstate commerce. And the Act's regulatory scheme is reasonably related to the goals Congress sought to accomplish -- the Act's restrictions on the practices of mine operators all serving to control the environmental and other adverse effects of surface coal mining. Pp. 452 U. S. 275 -283.
(b) Sections 515(d) and (e) of the Act, which prescribe performance standards on "steep slopes," including a requirement that an operator return the site to its "approximate original contour," and which authorize variances from the contour requirement, do not violate any Tenth Amendment limitation on congressional exercise of the commerce power as interfering with the States' "traditional governmental function" of regulating land use. The steep-slope provisions govern only the activities of coal mine operators who are private individuals and businesses, and do not regulate the "States as States." Cf. National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U. S. 833 . Appellees' contentions that the threat of federal usurpation of their regulatory roles coerces the States into enforcing the Act, and that the Act regulates the States as States because it establishes mandatory minimum federal standards, are without merit, since the Tenth Amendment does not limit congressional power to preempt or displace state regulation of private activities affecting interstate commerce. Moreover, Congress does not invade areas reserved to the States by the Tenth Amendment simply because it exercises its authority under the Commerce Clause in a manner that displaces the States' exercise of their police powers. Pp. 452 U. S. 283 -293.
(c) The issue whether the Act's steep-slope provisions and § 522(e), which prohibits mining in certain locations, violate the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment is not ripe for judicial resolution. Because appellees' taking claim arose in the context of a facial challenge, it presented no concrete controversy concerning either application of the Act to particular surface mining operations or its effect on specific parcels of land. And the "mere enactment" of the Act does not constitute a taking, since it does not deny an owner economically viable use of his land, the Act, except for § 522(e), neither categorically prohibiting surface coal mining nor purporting to regulate alternative uses to which coal-bearing lands may be put. Pp. 452 U. S. 293 -297.
(d) The provisions of §§ 521, 525, and 526 of the Act pertaining to the Secretary's issuance of orders for immediate cessation of a surface mining operation determined to be in violation of the Act do not violate the Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause. Summary administrative action resulting in deprivation of a significant property interest without a prior hearing is justified when, as here, it responds to situations in which swift action is necessary to protect the public health and safety. The objective criteria for the issuance of immediate cessation orders, established by the Act, and the Secretary's implementing regulations, are specific enough to control governmental action and reduce the risk of erroneous deprivation, and mine operators are afforded a prompt and adequate postdeprivation administrative hearing and an opportunity for judicial review. And the District Court erred in reducing to 24 hours the statutorily prescribed 5-day period for the Secretary's response to mine operators' requests for temporary relief from an immediate cessation order. The record does not show that the Secretary has not responded or will not respond in less than five days, which is the statutory maximum, and appellees have not demonstrated that they have been adversely affected by the 5-day period in a particular case or that it is generally unreasonable. In addition, no evidence was introduced to show that a shorter reply period is administratively feasible. Pp. 452 U. S. 298 -303.
(e) Appellees' due process challenge to the Act's provisions for the imposition of civil penalties for violations of cessation orders is premature. Appellees did not allege that they, or any one of them, have had civil penalties assessed against them, and there was no finding that any of appellee coal mine operators have been affected or harmed by any of the statutory procedures for the assessment and collection of fines. Pp. 452 U. S. 303 -304.
MARSHALL, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which BURGER, C.J., and BRENNAN, STEWART, WHITE, BLACKMUN, POWELL, and STEVENS, JJ., joined. BURGER, C.J., filed a concurring statement, post, p. 452 U. S. 305 . POWELL, J., filed a concurring opinion, post, p. 452 U. S. 305 . REHNQUIST, J., filed an opinion concurring in the judgment, post, p. 452 U. S. 307 .
These cases arise out of a preenforcement challenge to the constitutionality of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (Surface Mining Act or Act), 91 Stat. 447, 30 U.S.C. § 1201 et seq. (1976 ed., Supp. III). The United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia declared several central provisions of the Act unconstitutional and permanently enjoined their enforcement. 483 F.Supp. 425 (1980). In these appeals, we consider whether Congress, in adopting the Act, exceeded its powers under the Commerce Clause of the Constitution, [ Footnote 1 ] or transgressed affirmative limitations on the exercise of that power contained in the Fifth and Tenth Amendments. We conclude that, in the context of a facial challenge, the Surface Mining Act does not suffer from any of these alleged constitutional defects, and we uphold the Act as constitutional.
Section 501(a) directs the Secretary to promulgate regulations establishing an interim regulatory program during which mine operators will be required to comply with some of the Act's performance standards, as specified by § 502(c) 30 U.S.C. § 1252(c) (1976 ed., Supp. III). Included among those selected standards are requirements governing: (a) restoration of land after mining to its prior condition; (b) restoration of land to its approximate original contour; (c) segregation and preservation of topsoil; (d) minimization of disturbance to the hydrologic balance; (e) construction of coal mine waste piles used as dams and embankments; (f) revegetation of mined areas; and (g) spoil disposal. § 515(b), 30 U.S.C. § 1265(b) (1976 ed., Supp. III). [ Footnote 2 ] The interim
regulations were published on December 13, 1977, see 42 Fed.Reg. 62639, [ Footnote 3 ] and they are currently in effect in most States, including Virginia. [ Footnote 4 ]
assist the Secretary in enforcing the interim standards. [ Footnote 5 ] The States are not, however, required to enforce the interim regulatory standards, and, until the permanent phase of the program, the Secretary may not cede the Federal Government's independent enforcement role to States that wish to conduct their own regulatory programs.
Under § 503, any State wishing to assume permanent regulatory authority over the surface coal mining operations on "non-Federal lands" [ Footnote 6 ] within its borders must submit a proposed permanent program to the Secretary for his approval. The proposed program must demonstrate that the state legislature has enacted laws implementing the environmental protection standards established by the Act and accompanying regulations, and that the State has the administrative and technical ability to enforce these standards. 30 U.S.C. § 1253 (1976 ed., Supp. III). The Secretary must approve or disapprove each such proposed program in accordance with time schedules and procedures established by §§ 503(b), (c),
30 U.S.C. §§ 1253(b),(c) (1976 ed., Supp. III). [ Footnote 7 ] In addition, the Secretary must develop and implement a federal permanent program for each State that fails to submit or enforce a satisfactory state program. § 504, 30 U.S.C. § 1254 (1976 ed. Supp. III). In such situations, the Secretary constitutes the regulatory authority administering the Act within that State, and continues as such unless and until a "state program" is approved. No later than eight months after adoption of either a state-run or federally administered permanent regulatory program for a State, all surface coal mining and reclamation operations on "non-Federal lands" within that State must obtain a new permit issued in accordance with the applicable regulatory program. § 506(a), 30 U.S.C. § 1256(a) (1976 ed., Supp. III).
On October 23, 1978, the Virginia Surface Mining and Reclamation Association, Inc., an association of coal producers engaged in surface coal mining operations in Virginia, 63 of its member coal companies, and 4 individual landowners filed suit in Federal District Court seeking declaratory and injunctive relief against various provisions of the Act. The Commonwealth of Virginia and the town of Wise, Va., intervened as plaintiffs. [ Footnote 8 ] Plaintiffs' challenge was primarily directed at Title V's performance standards. [ Footnote 9 ] Because the permanent regulatory program was not scheduled to become effective until June 3, 1980, plaintiffs' challenge was directed at the sections of the Act establishing the interim regulatory program. Plaintiffs alleged that these provisions violate the Commerce Clause, the equal protection and due process guarantees of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, [ Footnote 10 ] the Tenth Amendment, [ Footnote 11 ] and the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment. [ Footnote 12 ]
Id. at 435, quoting National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U. S. 833 , 426 U. S. 852 (1976). The court also ruled that various provisions of the Act effect an uncompensated taking of private property in violation of the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment. Finally, the court agreed with plaintiffs' due process challenges to some of the Act's enforcement provisions. The court permanently enjoined the Secretary from enforcing various provisions of the Act. [ Footnote 13 ]
In No. 79-1538, the Secretary appeals from that portion of the District Court's judgment declaring various sections of the Act unconstitutional and permanently enjoining their enforcement. In No. 79-1596, plaintiffs cross-appeal from the District Court's rejection of their Commerce Clause challenge to the Act. [ Footnote 14 ] Because of the importance of the issues raised, we noted probable jurisdiction of both appeals, [ Footnote 15 ] 449 U.S.
817 (1980), and consolidated the two cases. [ Footnote 16 ] For convenience, we shall usually refer to plaintiffs as "appellees."
On cross-appeal, appellees argue that the District Court erred in rejecting their challenge to the Act as beyond the scope of congressional power under the Commerce Clause. They insist that the Act's principal goal is regulating the use of private lands within the borders of the States, and not, as the District Court found, regulating the interstate commerce effects of surface coal mining. Consequently, appellees contend that the ultimate issue presented is "whether land, as such, is subject to regulation under the Commerce Clause, i.e. whether land can be regarded as in commerce.'" Brief for Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, Inc., et al. 12 (emphasis in original). In urging us to answer "no" to this question, appellees emphasize that the Court has recognized that land use regulation is within the inherent police powers of the States and their political subdivisions, [ Footnote 17 ] and
argue that Congress may regulate land use only insofar as the Property Clause [ Footnote 18 ] grants it control over federal lands.
We do not accept either appellees' framing of the question or the answer they would have us supply. The task of a court that is asked to determine whether a particular exercise of congressional power is valid under the Commerce Clause is relatively narrow. The court must defer to a congressional finding that a regulated activity affects interstate commerce, if there is any rational basis for such a finding. Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241 , 379 U. S. 258 (1964); Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U. S. 294 , 379 U. S. 303 -304 (1964). This established, the only remaining question for judicial inquiry is whether "the means chosen by [Congress] must be reasonably adapted to the end permitted by the Constitution." Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, supra, at 379 U. S. 262 . See United States v. Darby, 312 U. S. 100 , 312 U. S. 121 (1941); Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U.S. at 379 U. S. 304 . The judicial task is at an end once the court determines that Congress acted rationally in adopting a particular regulatory scheme. Ibid.
Judicial review in this area is influenced above all by the fact that the Commerce Clause is a grant of plenary authority to Congress. See National League of Cities v. Usery, supra, at 426 U. S. 840 ; Cleveland v. United States, 329 U. S. 14 , 329 U. S. 19 (1946); NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U. S. 1 , 301 U. S. 37 (1937). This power is "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the constitution." Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 22 U. S. 196 (1824). Moreover, this Court has made clear that the commerce power extends not only to "the use of channels of interstate or foreign commerce" and
to "protection of the instrumentalities of interstate commerce . . . or persons or things in commerce," but also to "activities affecting commerce." Perez v. United States, 402 U. S. 146 , 402 U. S. 150 (1971). As we explained in Fry v. United States, 421 U. S. 542 , 421 U. S. 547 (1975),
See National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 840 ; Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, supra, at 379 U. S. 255 ; Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U. S. 111 , 317 U. S. 127 -128 (1942); United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U. S. 110 , 315 U. S. 119 (1942); United States v. Darby, supra, at 312 U. S. 120 -121.
only after six years of the most thorough legislative consideration. [ Footnote 19 ] Committees of both Houses of Congress held extended hearings during which vast amounts of testimony and
Appellees do not, in general, dispute the validity of the congressional findings. [ Footnote 20 ] Rather, appellees' contention is that
United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U.S. at 315 U. S. 119 . See Fry v. United States, 421 U.S. at 421 U. S. 547 ; NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. at 301 U. S. 37 . This Court has long held that Congress may regulate the conditions under which goods shipped in interstate commerce are produced where the "local" activity of producing these goods itself affects interstate commerce. See, e.g., United States v. Darby, 312 U. S. 100 (1941); Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U. S. 111 (1942); NLRB v. Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., supra; Kirschbaum Co. v. Walling, 316 U. S. 517 (1942). Cf. Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U. S. 294 (1964). Appellees do not dispute that coal is a commodity that moves in interstate commerce. Here, Congress rationally determined that regulation of surface coal mining is necessary to protect interstate commerce from adverse effects that may result from that activity. This congressional finding is sufficient to sustain the Act as a valid exercise of Congress' power under the Commerce Clause.
Id. at 312 U. S. 115 . The same rationale applies here to support the conclusion that the Surface Mining Act is within the authority granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause.
Finally, we agree with the lower federal courts that have uniformly found the power conferred by the Commerce Clause broad enough to permit congressional regulation of activities causing air or water pollution, or other environmental hazards that may have effects in more than one State. [ Footnote 21 ] Appellees do not dispute that the environmental and other problems that the Act attempts to control can properly be addressed through Commerce Clause legislation. In these circumstances, it is difficult to find any remaining foundation
mining on "steep slopes," [ Footnote 22 ] on the ground that they violate a constitutional limitation on the commerce power imposed by the Tenth Amendment. These provisions require "steep slope" operators: (i) to reclaim the mined area by completely covering the highwall and returning the site to its "approximate original contour"; [ Footnote 23 ] (ii) to refrain from dumping spoil material on the downslope below the bench or mining cut; and (iii) to refrain from disturbing land above the highwall unless permitted to do so by the regulatory authority. 515(d), 30 U.S.C. § 1265(d) (1976 ed., Supp. III). Under § 515(e), a "steep slope" operator may obtain a variance from the approximate original contour requirement by showing that it will allow a post-reclamation use that is "deemed to constitute an equal or better economic or public use" than would otherwise be possible. 30 U.S.C. § 1265(e)(3)(A) (1976 ed., Supp. III). [ Footnote 24 ]
because it interferes with the States' "traditional governmental function" of regulating land use. Id. at 435. The court held that, as applied to Virginia, the Act's steep slope provisions impermissibly constrict the State's ability to make "essential decisions." [ Footnote 25 ] The court found the Act accomplishes this result "through forced relinquishment of state control of land use planning; through loss of state control of its economy; and through economic harm, from expenditure of state funds to implement the act and from destruction of the taxing power of certain counties, cities, and towns." Id. at 435 [ Footnote 26 ] The court therefore permanently enjoined enforcement of §§ 515(d) and(e). [ Footnote 27 ]
The District Court's reliance on National League of Cities requires a careful review of the actual basis and import of our decision in that case. There, we considered a constitutional challenge to the 1974 amendments to the Fair Labor Standards Act which had extended federal minimum wage and maximum hour regulations to most state and local government employees. Because it was conceded that the challenged regulations were "undoubtedly within the scope of the Commerce Clause," 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 841 , the only question presented was whether that particular exercise of the commerce power
Ibid. We began by drawing a sharp distinction between congressional regulation of private persons and businesses "necessarily subject to the dual sovereignty of the government of the Nation and of the State in which they reside," id. at 426 U. S. 845 , and federal regulation "directed, not to private citizens, but to the States as States," ibid. As to the former, we found no Tenth Amendment impediment to congressional action. Instead, we reaffirmed our consistent rule:
"Congressional power over areas of private endeavor, even when its exercise may preempt express state law determinations contrary to the result that has commended itself to the collective wisdom of Congress, has been held to be limited only by the requirement that 'the means chosen by [Congress] must be reasonably adapted to the end permitted by the Constitution.' Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241 , 379 U. S. 262 (1964)."
Id. at 426 U. S. 840 .
Id. at 426 U. S. 854 . It indicated that, when Congress attempts to directly regulate the States as States, the Tenth
Id. at 426 U. S. 845 . The Court held that the power to set the wages and work hours of state employees was "an undoubted attribute of state sovereignty." Ibid. And because it further found that the challenged regulations would "displace the States' freedom to structure integral operations in areas of traditional governmental functions," id. at 426 U. S. 852 , the Court concluded that Congress could not, consistently with the Tenth Amendment, "abrogate the States' otherwise plenary authority to make [these decisions]." Id. at 426 U. S. 846 . [ Footnote 28 ]
It should be apparent from this discussion that, in order to succeed, a claim that congressional commerce power legislation is invalid under the reasoning of National League of Cities must satisfy each of three requirements. First, there must be a showing that the challenged statute regulates the "States as States." Id. at 426 U. S. 854 . Second, the federal regulation
must address matters that are indisputably "attribute[s] of state sovereignty." Id. at 426 U. S. 845 . And third, it must be apparent that the States' compliance with the federal law would directly impair their ability "to structure integral operations in areas of traditional governmental functions." Id. at 426 U. S. 852 . [ Footnote 29 ] When the Surface Mining Act is examined in light of these principles, it is clear that appellees' Tenth Amendment challenge must fail because the first of the three requirements is not satisfied. The District Court's holding to the contrary rests on an unwarranted extension of the decision in National League of Cities.
827, 837-842 (CA9 1975), vacated and remanded, 431 U. S. 99 (1977). The most that can be said is that the Surface Mining Act establishes a program of cooperative federalism that allows the States, within limits established by federal minimum standards, to enact and administer their own regulatory programs, structured to meet their own particular needs. See In re Permanent Surface Mining Regulation Litigation, 199 U.S.App.D.C. 225, 226, 617 F.2d 807, 808 (1980). In this respect, the Act resembles a number of other federal statutes that have survived Tenth Amendment challenges in the lower federal courts. [ Footnote 30 ]
preempt or displace state regulation of private activities affecting interstate commerce. This assumption is incorrect. A wealth of precedent attests to congressional authority to displace or preempt state laws regulating private activity affecting interstate commerce when these laws conflict with federal law. See, e.g., Jones v. Rath Packing Co., 430 U. S. 519 , 430 U. S. 525 -526 (1977); Perez v. Campbell, 402 U. S. 637 , 402 U. S. 649 -650 (1971); Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul, 373 U. S. 132 , 373 U. S. 141 -143 (1963); Bethlehem Steel Co. v. New York State Labor Relations Bd., 330 U. S. 767 , 330 U. S. 772 -776 (1947); Hines v. Davidowitz, 312 U. S. 52 , 312 U. S. 67 -68 (1941). Moreover, it is clear that the Commerce Clause empowers Congress to prohibit all -- and not just inconsistent -- state regulation of such activities. See, e.g., City of Burbank v. Lockheed Air Terminal, Inc., 411 U. S. 624 (1973); Campbell v. Hussey, 368 U. S. 297 (1961); Rice v. Santa Fe Elevator Corp., 331 U. S. 218 (1947); Transit Comm'n v. United States, 289 U. S. 121 (1933). Although such congressional enactments obviously curtail or prohibit the States' prerogatives to make legislative choices respecting subjects the States may consider important, the Supremacy Clause permits no other result. See Chicago & North Western Transp. Co. v. Kalo Brick & Tile Co., 450 U. S. 311 , 450 U. S. 317 -319 (1981); Sanitary District v. United States, 266 U. S. 405 , 266 U. S. 425 -426 (1925); The Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U. S. 352 , 230 U. S. 399 (1913); Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. at 22 U. S. 211 . As the Court long ago stated:
Missouri Pacific R. Co. v. Stroud, 267 U. S. 404 , 267 U. S. 408 (1925). Thus, Congress could constitutionally have enacted a statute prohibiting any state regulation of surface coal mining. We fail to see why the Surface Mining Act should become constitutionally suspect simply because Congress chose to allow the States a regulatory role. Contrary to the assumption by both the District Court and appellees, nothing in
National League of Cities suggests that the Tenth Amendment shields the States from preemptive federal regulation of private activities affecting interstate commerce. To the contrary, National League of Cities explicitly reaffirmed the teaching of earlier cases that Congress may, in regulating private activities pursuant to the commerce power, "preempt express state law determinations contrary to the result which has commended itself to the collective wisdom of Congress. . . ." 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 840 . The only limitation on congressional authority in this regard is the requirement that the means selected be reasonably related to the goal of regulating interstate commerce. Ibid. We have already indicated that the Act satisfies this test. [ Footnote 31 ]
This conclusion applies regardless of whether the federal legislation displaces laws enacted under the States' "police powers." The Court long ago rejected the suggestion that Congress invades areas reserved to the States by the Tenth Amendment simply because it exercises its authority under the Commerce Clause in a manner that displaces the States' exercise of their police powers. See Hoke v. United States, 227 U. S. 308 , 227 U. S. 320 -323 (1913); Athanasaw v. United States, 227 U. S. 326 (1913); Cleveland v. United States, 329 U.S. at 329 U. S. 19 ; United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. at 312 U. S. 113 -114; United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co., 315 U.S. at 315 U. S. 119 . Cf. United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U. S. 144 , 304 U. S. 147 (1938) ("it is no objection to the exertion of the power to regulate interstate commerce that its exercise is attended by the same incidents which attend the exercise of the police power of the states"); [ Footnote 32 ] accord, FPC v. Natural Gas Pipeline Co., 315
U.S. 575, 315 U. S. 582 (1942); Hamilton v. Kentucky Distilleries & Warehouse Co., 251 U. S. 146 , 251 U. S. 156 (1919); Seven Cases v. United States, 239 U. S. 510 , 239 U. S. 514 (1916). This Court has upheld as constitutional any number of federal statutes enacted under the commerce power that preempt particular exercises of state police power. See, e.g., United States v. Walsh, 331 U. S. 432 (1947) (upholding Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-392); NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U. S. 1 (1937) (upholding National Labor Relations Act, 29 U.S.C. §§ 151-168); United States v. Darby, supra, (upholding Fair Labor Standards Act, 29 U.S.C. §§ 201-219). It would therefore be a radical departure from long-established precedent for this Court to hold that the Tenth Amendment prohibits Congress from displacing state police power laws regulating private activity. Nothing in National League of Cities compels or even hints at such a departure. [ Footnote 33 ]
In sum, appellees' Tenth Amendment challenge to the Surface Mining Act must fail because here, in contrast to the situation in National League of Cities, the statute at issue regulates only "individual businesses necessarily subject to the dual sovereignty of the government of the Nation and the State in which they reside." National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 845 . [ Footnote 34 ] Accordingly, we turn to the District Court's ruling that the Act contravenes other constitutional limits on congressional action.
The District Court held that two of the Act's provisions violate the Just Compensation Clause of the Fifth Amendment. First, the court found that the steep slope provisions discussed above effect an uncompensated taking of private property by requiring operators to perform the "economically and physically impossible" task of restoring steep slope surface mines to their approximate original contour. 483 F.Supp. at 437. [ Footnote 35 ] The court further held that, even if steep slope surface mines could be restored to their approximate original contour, the value of the mined land after such restoration would have "been diminished to practically nothing."
Ibid. Second, the court found that § 522 of the Act effects an unconstitutional taking because it expressly prohibits mining in certain locations and "clearly prevent[s] a person from mining his own land or having it mined." Id. at 441. [ Footnote 36 ] Relying on this Court's decision in Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U. S. 393 (1922), the District Court held that both of these provisions are unconstitutional because they "depriv[e] [coal mine operators] of any use of [their] land, not only the most profitable. . . ." 483 F.Supp. at 441.
factual setting that makes such a decision necessary. See Socialist labor Party v. Gilligan, 406 U. S. 583 , 406 U. S. 588 (1972); Rescue Army v. Municipal Court, 331 U. S. 549 , 331 U. S. 568 -575, 331 U. S. 584 (1947); Alabama State Federation of Labor v. McAdory, 325 U. S. 450 , 325 U. S. 461 (1945). Adherence to this rule is particularly important in cases raising allegations of an unconstitutional taking of private property. Just last Term, we reaffirmed that
Kaiser Aetna v. United States, 444 U. S. 164 , 444 U. S. 175 (1979) (citations omitted). These " ad hoc, factual inquiries" must be conducted with respect to specific property, and the particular estimates of economic impact and ultimate valuation relevant in the unique circumstances.
Because appellees' taking claim arose in the context of a facial challenge, it presented no concrete controversy concerning either application of the Act to particular surface mining operations or its effect on specific parcels of land. Thus, the only issue properly before the District Court, and, in turn, this Court, is whether the "mere enactment" of the Surface Mining Act constitutes a taking. See Agins v. Tiburon, 447 U. S. 255 , 447 U. S. 260 (1980). The test to be applied in considering this facial challenge is fairly straightforward. A
statute regulating the uses that can be made of property effects a taking if it "denies an owner economically viable use of his land. . . ." Agins v. Tiburon, supra, at 447 U. S. 260 . See Penn Central Transp. Co. v. New York City, 438 U. S. 104 (1978). The Surface Mining Act easily survives scrutiny under this test.
First, the Act does not, on its face, prevent beneficial use of coal-bearing lands. Except for the proscription of mining near certain locations by § 522(e), the Act does not categorically prohibit surface coal mining; it merely regulates the conditions under which such operations may be conducted. [ Footnote 37 ] The Act does not purport to regulate alternative uses to which coal-bearing lands may be put. [ Footnote 38 ] Thus, in the posture in
Moreover, appellees cannot at this juncture legitimately raise complaints in this Court about the manner in which the challenged provisions of the Act have been or will be applied in specific circumstances, or about their effect on particular coal mining operations. There is no indication in the record that appellees have availed themselves of the opportunities provided by the Act to obtain administrative relief by requesting either a variance from the "approximate original contour" requirement of § 515(d) or a waiver from the surface mining restrictions in § 522(e). If appellees were to seek administrative relief under these procedures, a mutually acceptable solution might well be reached with regard to individual properties, thereby obviating any need to address the constitutional questions. [ Footnote 39 ] The potential for such administrative solutions confirms the conclusion that the taking issue decided by the District Court simply is not ripe for judicial resolution. [ Footnote 40 ]
"creates an immediate danger to the health or safety of the public, or is causing, or can reasonably be expected to cause, significant, imminent environmental harm to land, air, or water resources. . . . [ Footnote 41 ]"
A mine operator aggrieved by an immediate cessation order issued under § 521(a)(2) or by a cessation order issued after a notice of violation and expiration of an abatement period under § 521(a)(3) may immediately request temporary relief from the Secretary, and the Secretary must respond to the request within five days of its receipt. § 525(c), 30 U.S.C. § 1275 (1976 ed., Supp. III). Section 526(c) of the Act, 30 U.S.C. § 1276(c) (1976 ed., Supp. III), authorizes judicial review of a decision by the Secretary denying temporary relief. In addition, cessation orders are subject to informal administrative review under § 521(a)(5), and formal administrative review, including an adjudicatory hearing, under § 525(b), 30 U.S.C. § 1275(b) (1976 ed., Supp. III). [ Footnote 42 ]
The District Court held that § 521(a)(2)'s authorization of immediate cessation orders violates the Fifth Amendment because the statute does not provide sufficiently objective criteria for summary administrative action. In this regard, the court relied on its finding that OSM inspectors had issued against a particular company three immediate cessation orders which were later overturned on appeal, and that the company involved had suffered significant losses. The court enjoined the Secretary from issuing any immediate cessation orders "until such time as Congress makes provisions to correct the use of subjective criteria by OSM inspectors." 483 F.Supp. at 448. [ Footnote 43 ] In addition, the court ruled that, even if the Act is amended to correct this problem, the 5-day response period prescribed by the Act does not meet the requirements of due process. Instead, tie court held that the Secretary must respond within 24 hours to a mine operator's request for temporary relief from an immediate cessation order. We find both aspects of the District Court's reasoning unpersuasive.
Our cases have indicated that due process ordinarily requires an opportunity for "some kind of hearing" prior to the deprivation of a significant property interest. See Parratt v. Taylor, 451 U. S. 527 , 451 U. S. 540 (1981); Boddie v. Connecticut, 401 U. S. 371 , 401 U. S. 379 (1971). The Court has often acknowledged,
however, that summary administrative action may be justified in emergency situations. See, e.g., Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U. S. 663 , 416 U. S. 677 -680 (1974); Boddie v. Connecticut, supra, at 401 U. S. 378 -379; Ewing v. Mytinger & Casselberry, Inc., 339 U. S. 594 , 339 U. S. 599 -600 (1950); Fahey v. Mallonee, 332 U. S. 245 , 332 U. S. 253 -254 (1947); Yakus v. United States, 321 U. S. 414 , 321 U. S. 442 -443 (1944); Bowles v. Willingham, 321 U. S. 503 , 321 U. S. 519 -520 (1944); Phillips v. Commissioner, 283 U. S. 589 , 283 U. S. 595 -599 (1931); North American Cold Storage Co. v. Chicago, 211 U. S. 306 , 211 U. S. 315 -321 (1908). The question then, is whether the issuance of immediate cessation orders under § 521(a) falls under this emergency situation exception to the normal rule that due process requires a hearing prior to deprivation of a property right. We believe that it does.
The immediate cessation order provisions reflect Congress' concern about the devastating damage that may result from mining disasters. [ Footnote 44 ] They represent an attempt to reach an accommodation between the legitimate desire of mining companies to be heard before submitting to administrative regulation and the governmental interest in protecting the public health and safety and the environment from imminent danger. Protection of the health and safety of the public is a paramount governmental interest which justifies summary administrative action. Indeed, deprivation of property to protect the public health and safety is "[o]ne of the oldest examples" of permissible summary action. Ewing v. Mytinger & Casselberry, Inc., supra, at 339 U. S. 599 . See Mackey v.
Montrym, 443 U. S. 1 , 443 U. S. 17 -18 (1979); id. at 443 U. S. 21 , n. 1, 25 (STEWART, J., dissenting); North American Cold Storage Co. v. Chicago, supra, at 211 U. S. 315 -316. Moreover, the administrative action provided through immediate cessation orders responds to situations in which swift action is necessary to protect the public health and safety. This is precisely the type of emergency situation in which this Court has found summary administrative action justified. See Ewing v. Mytinger & Casselberry, Inc., supra; North American Cold Storage Co. v. Chicago, supra.
"[r]easonably be expected to cause substantial physical harm to persons outside the permit area before such condition, practice, or violation can be abated. A reasonable expectation of death or serious injury before abatement exists if a rational person, subjected to the same conditions or practices giving rise to the peril, would not expose himself or herself to the danger during the time necessary for abatement. [ Footnote 45 ] "
If anything, these standards are more specific than the criteria in other statutes authorizing summary administrative action that have been upheld against due process challenges. See, e.g., Ewing v. Mytinger & Casselberry, Inc., supra, at 339 U. S. 595 -596 (" dangerous to health . . . or would be in a material respect misleading to the injury or damage of the purchaser or consumer'"); Fahey v. Mallonee, supra, at 332 U. S. 250 -251, n. 1 ("is unsafe or unfit to manage a Federal savings and loan association" or "[i]s in imminent danger of becoming impaired"); Air East, Inc. v. National Transportation Safety Board, 512 F.2d 1227, 1232 (CA3) ("`emergency requiring immediate action . . . in respect to air safety in commerce'"), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 863 (1975).
The fact that OSM inspectors have issued immediate cessation orders that were later overturned on administrative appeal does not undermine the adequacy of the Act's criteria, but instead demonstrates the efficacy of the review procedures. The relevant inquiry is not whether a cessation order should have been issued in a particular case, but whether the statutory procedure itself is incapable of affording due process. Yakus v. United States, 321 U.S. at 321 U. S. 431 -435. The possibility of administrative error inheres in any regulatory program; statutory programs authorizing emergency administrative action prior to a hearing are no exception. [ Footnote 46 ] As we
explained in Ewing v. Mytinger & Casselberry, Inc., 339 U.S. at 339 U. S. 599 :
amount of any civil penalty that is to be assessed against it. § 518(c), 30 U.S.C. § 1268(c) (1976 ed., Supp. III). Section 518(c) further states that, if the operator "wishes to contest either the amount of the penalty or the fact of the violation," it must "forward the proposed amount to the Secretary for placement in an escrow account." [ Footnote 47 ] Once the escrow requirement is met, the operator receives a full adjudicatory hearing before an administrative law judge, with a right of appeal to an administrative board and judicial review of the final decision. See 30 U.S.C. § 1276(a)(2) (1976 ed., Supp. III). If, after administrative or judicial review, it is determined that no violation occurred or that the amount of the proposed penalty should be reduced, the appropriate amount must promptly be refunded to the operator with interest. 30 U.S.C. § 1268(c) (1976 ed., Supp. III).
We also agreed to hear the appeal in No. 80-231, Hodel v. Indiana, which involves similar constitutional challenges to different provisions of the Surface Mining Act, and which we also decide today. Post p. 452 U. S. 314 . At least three other District Courts have considered constitutional challenges to provisions of the Surface Mining Act. In Concerned Citizens of Appalachia, Inc. v. Andrus, 494 F.Supp. 679 (ED Tenn.1980), appeal pending, No. 81-488 (CA6), the District Court upheld the Act in the face of challenges similar to those raised by plaintiffs in the instant case. In Star Coal Co. v. Andrus, No. 79-171-2 (SD Iowa, Feb. 13, 1980), appeal dism'd, No. 80-1284 (CA8), the District Court rejected challenges based on the Fifth and Tenth Amendments, but enjoined some of the Act's enforcement provisions. And in Andrus v. P-Burg Coal Co., 495 F.Supp. 82 (SD Ind.1980), aff'd, 644 F.2d 1231 (CA7 1981), the District Court rejected a Commerce Clause challenge to the Act.
Appellees do contend that surface mining enhances, rather than diminishes, the utility of land in the steep-slope areas of Virginia. Congress, however, made contrary findings, and it is sufficient for purposes of judicial review that Congress had a rational basis for concluding as it did. See Kleppe v. New Mexico, 426 U. S. 529 , 426 U. S. 541 , n. 10 (1976); United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U. S. 144 , 304 U. S. 152 -154 (1938).
See, e.g., United States v. Byrd, 609 F.2d 1204, 1209-1210 (CA7 1979); Bethlehem Steel Corp. v. Train, 544 F.2d 657, 663 (CA3 1976); Sierra Club v. EPA, 176 U.S.App.D.C. 335, 360, 540 F.2d 1114, 1139 (1976), cert. denied, 430 U.S. 959 (1977); District of Columbia v. Train, 172 U.S.App.D.C. 311, 328, 521 F.2d 971, 988 (1975), vacated and remanded on other grounds sub nom. EPA v. Brown, 431 U. S. 99 (1977); United States v. Ashland Oil & Transportation Co., 504 F.2d 1317, 1325 (CA6 1974); Pennsylvania v. EPA, 500 F.2d 246, 259 (CA3 1974); South Terminal Corp. v. EPA, 504 F.2d 646, 677 (CA1 1974); United States v. Bishop Processing Co., 287 F.Supp. 624 (Md.1968), aff'd, 423 F.2d 469 (CA4), cert. denied, 398 U.S. 904 (1970).
426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 852 , n. 17. In Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer, 427 U. S. 445 (1976), the Court upheld Congress' power under § 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment to authorize private damages actions against state governments for discrimination in employment. The Court explained that, because the Amendment was adopted with the specific purpose of limiting state autonomy, constitutional principles of federalism do not restrict congressional power to invade state autonomy when Congress legislates under § 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment. Id. at 426 U. S. 452 -456. Similarly, in City of Rome v. United States, 446 U. S. 156 , 446 U. S. 179 (1980), we held that the Tenth Amendment places no restrictions on congressional power "to enforce the Civil War Amendments by appropriate legislation.'"
Demonstrating that these three requirements are met does not, however, guarantee that a Tenth Amendment challenge to congressional commerce power action will succeed. There are situations in which the nature of the federal interest advanced may be such that it justifies state submission. See Fry v. United States, 421 U. S. 542 (1975), reaffirmed in National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 852 -853. See also id. at 426 U. S. 856 (BLACKMUN, J., concurring).
See, e.g., United States v. Helsley, 615 F.2d 784 (CA9 1979) (upholding the Airborne Hunting Act, 16 U.S.C. § 742j-1); Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Carey, 552 F.2d 25, 36-39 (CA2) (upholding the Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. § 7401 et seq. (1976 ed., Supp. III)), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 902 (1977); Sierra Club v. EPA, 176 U.S.App.D.C. 335, 359, 540 F.2d 1114, 1140 (1976) (upholding the Clean Water Act, 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq. ), cert. denied, 430 U.S. 959 (1977).
See supra at 452 U. S. 283 . It is significant that the Commonwealth of Virginia presses its Tenth Amendment challenge to the Act simply as another regulator of surface coal mining whose regulatory program has been displaced or preempted by federal law. As indicated in text, there are no Tenth Amendment concerns in such situations.
United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. at 312 U. S. 116 , quoting United States v. Rock Royal Cooperative, 307 U. S. 533 , 307 U. S. 569 -570 (1939).
The remaining justification asserted by the District Court for its Tenth Amendment ruling, one that appellees urge here, is that the steep slope mining requirements will harm Virginia's economy and destroy the taxing power of some towns and counties in the Commonwealth. In this regard, the court may have been influenced by the discussion in National League of Cities about the likely effects of the challenged regulations on the finances of state and local governments. National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. at 426 U. S. 846 -847. But as the Court made clear, the determinative factor in that case was the nature of the federal action, not the ultimate economic impact on the States. Id. at 426 U. S. 847 . Moreover, even if it is true that the Act's requirements will have a measurable impact on Virginia's economy, this kind of effect, standing alone, is insufficient to establish a violation of the Tenth Amendment. In Oklahoma v. Atkinson Co., 313 U. S. 508 , 313 U. S. 534 -535 (1941), the Court rejected the assertion that an adverse impact on state and local economies is a barrier to Congress' exercise of its power under the Commerce Clause to regulate private activities affecting interstate commerce. We are not persuaded that there are compelling reasons presented in the instant cases for reversing the Court's position.
Sections 522(a), (c), and (d), which become applicable during the permanent phase of the regulatory program, require the establishment of procedures for designating particular lands as unsuitable for some or all surface mining. 30 U.S.C. §§ 1272(a), (c), and (d) (1976 ed., Supp. III). The District Court's ruling that these latter provisions effect an unconstitutional taking of private property is puzzling, and cannot stand. Since these provisions do not come into effect until the permanent phase of the Act's regulatory program, they have not been applied to appellees or any other private landowner in Virginia. In these circumstances, there was no justiciable case or controversy with regard to these sections of the Act. See United Public Workers v. Mitchell, 330 U. S. 75 , 330 U. S. 89 -91 (1947).
Although we conclude that "mere enactment" of the Act did not effect a taking of private property, this holding does not preclude appellees or other coal mine operators from attempting to show that, as applied to particular parcels of land, the Act and the Secretary's regulations effect a taking. Even then, such an alleged taking is not unconstitutional unless just compensation is unavailable. See Duke Power Co. v. Carolina Environmental Study Group, Inc., 438 U. S. 59 , 438 U. S. 94 , n. 39 (1978); Regional Rail Reorganization Act Cases, 419 U. S. 102 , 419 U. S. 125 -136 (1974); Larson v. Domestic Foreign Commerce Corp., 337 U. S. 682 , 337 U. S. 697 , n. 18 (1949).
THE CHIEF JUSTICE, concurring. *
I agree fully with his view that we often seem to forget the doctrine that laws enacted by Congress under the Commerce Clause must be based on a substantial effect on interstate commerce. However, I join the Court's opinions in these cases and in No. 80-231 because, in them, the Court acknowledges and reaffirms that doctrine. See, e.g., ante at 452 U. S. 280 .
* [This opinion applies also to No. 8231, Hodel, Acting Secretary of the Interior, et al. v. Indiana et al., post, p. 452 U. S. 314 .]
property for public use. [ Footnote 2/1 ] See San Diego as & Electric Co. v. City of San Diego, 450 U. S. 621 , 450 U. S. 654 (1981) (BRENNAN, J., dissenting). [ Footnote 2/2 ] But whether there has been such a "taking" and, if so, the amount of just compensation, are questions to be decided in specific cases. Agins v. Tiburon, 447 U. S. 255 , 447 U. S. 260 (1980); Kaiser Aetna v. United States, 444 U. S. 164 , 444 U. S. 175 (1979). I agree with the Court, therefore, that it is premature to consider in these cases questions under the Compensation Clause. Ante at 452 U. S. 293 -297. Appellees have identified no specific property that is alleged to have been taken. The Court's decision thus is confined to a holding that the Act, in this respect, is not facially unconstitutional. Ante at 452 U. S. 297 , n. 40. The "taking" issue remains available to, and may be litigated by, any owner or lessee whose property interest is adversely affected by the enforcement of the Act. [ Footnote 2/3 ] I add a word about the area of Virginia that will be affected by this Act, as its location, topography, and geology are highly relevant to an understanding of the "taking" question. Bituminous coal, Virginia's most valuable natural resource, [ Footnote 2/4 ] is found in a region marked by steep mountain slopes, sharp ridges, massive outcrops of rock, and narrow valleys -- conditions that severely limit alternative uses of the land. Because of thin soil and rugged terrain, the land in its natural state is not suited for agricultural use or the growing of merchantable timber. Its value lies, in most instances,
solely in its coal. Mining the coal is a major industrial activity in an otherwise impoverished area of Virginia. [ Footnote 2/5 ]
In Agins, 447 U.S. at 447 U. S. 260 , we observed that the
JUSTICE REHNQUIST, concurring in the judgment. *
United States v. Darby, 312 U. S. 100 , 312 U. S. 114 (1941). In the Shreveport Rate Case, 234 U. S. 342 , 234 U. S. 351 (1914), the Court upheld the action of Congress in regulating the rates of intrastate railroads, reasoning that the commerce power included the power to "control . . . all matters having such a close and substantial relation to interstate traffic. . . ." In NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U. S. 1 (1937), the Court rejected the notion that certain kinds of activity were not in "commerce," such as manufacturing, cf. United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 1 (1895), and concluded that Congress may regulate labor relations in any manufacturing plant because a work stoppage at any such plant "would have a most serious effect upon interstate commerce." 301 U.S. at 301 U. S. 41 . And in Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U. S. 111 (1942), the Court expanded the scope of the Commerce Clause to include the regulation of acts which, taken alone, might not have a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce, such as a wheat farmer's own production, but which might reasonably be deemed nationally significant in their cumulative effect, such as altering the supply and demand relationships in the interstate commodity market. See also Perez v. United States, 402 U. S. 146 , 402 U. S. 154 (1971) ("Where the class of activities is regulated and that class is within the reach of federal power, the courts have no power to excise, as trivial, individual instances' of the class"). As
NLRB v. Jones Laughlin Steel Corp., supra, at 301 U. S. 37 .
And Justice Cardozo, in his cogent writing on the subject, often expressed his concern about too broad a reading of the commerce power. In his concurring opinion in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U. S. 495 , 295 U. S. 554 -555 (1935), he observed:
Justice Cardozo elaborated on this point in his separate opinion in Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U. S. 238 , 298 U. S. 327 (1936).
"Mining and agriculture and manufacture are not interstate commerce considered by themselves, yet their relationship to that commerce may be such that, for the protection of the one, there is need to regulate the other. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States. . . . Sometimes it is said that the relation must be 'direct' to bring that power into play. In many circumstances such a description will be sufficiently precise to meet the needs of the occasion. But a great principle of constitutional law is not susceptible of comprehensive statement in an adjective. The underlying thought is merely this, that 'the law is not indifferent to considerations of degree.' Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, supra, concurring opinion, p. 295 U. S. 554 . It cannot be indifferent to them without an expansion of the commerce clause that would absorb or imperil the reserved powers of the states. At times, as in the case cited, the waves of causation will have radiated so far that their undulatory motion, if discernible at all, will be too faint or obscure, too broken by cross-currents, to be heeded by the law."
interstate commerce. E.g., NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. at 301 U. S. 37 (local activities may be regulated if they have a "close and substantial relation to interstate commerce"). Moreover, simply because Congress may conclude that a particular activity substantially affects interstate commerce does not necessarily make it so. Congress' findings must be supported by a "rational basis," and are reviewable by the courts. Cf. Perez v. United States, 402 U.S. at 402 U. S. 157 (STEWART, J., dissenting). ** In short, unlike the reserved police powers of the States, which are plenary unless challenged as violating some specific provision of the Constitution, the connection with interstate commerce is itself a jurisdictional prerequisite for any substantive legislation by Congress under the Commerce Clause.
interstate commerce. Virginia Surface Mining, ante at 452 U. S. 276 ; Indiana, post at 452 U. S. 323 -325. The Court takes this statement of the proper "test" from Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, 379 U. S. 241 , 379 U. S. 258 (1964). In my view, the Court misstates the test. As noted above, it has long been established that the commerce power does not reach activity which merely "affects" interstate commerce. There must instead be a showing that regulated activity has a substantial effect on that commerce. See NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., supra; Shreveport Rate Cases, 234 U. S. 342 (1914); Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U.S. at 317 U. S. 125 (local activity may be reached by Congress if "it exerts a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce"); North American Co. v. SEC, 327 U. S. 686 , 327 U. S. 705 (1946) (Congress may attack an evil which bears a "substantial relationship to interstate commerce"). As recently as Maryland v. Wirtz, 392 U. S. 183 , 392 U. S. 197 , n. 27 (1968), Justice Harlan stressed that
Even in Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc., in the paragraph just prior to the passage relied on by the Court here, the Court emphasized that Congress had the power to regulate local activities "which might have a substantial and harmful effect upon that commerce." 379 U.S. at 379 U. S. 258 . Though I believe the Court errs in its statement of the "test," it may be that I read too much into the Court's choice of language. In the Virginia case, for example, it does mention at one point that Congress did have a "rational basis for concluding that surface coal mining has substantial effects on interstate commerce." Ante at 452 U. S. 280 .