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Timestamp: 2016-10-27 07:18:18
Document Index: 469120817

Matched Legal Cases: ['Art. 17', 'Art. 18', 'Art. 19', 'Art. 13', 'Art. 14', 'Art. 22', 'Art.23', 'Art. 3', 'Art. 16', 'Art. 26', 'Art. 28', 'art. 12', 'art. 20', 'art. 22', 'art. 22', 'art. 24']

⭐Who Asked Them Anyway? Rights, Policies and Wellbeing of Refugees in Egypt
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1 Who Asked Them Anyway? Rights, Policies and Wellbeing of Refugees in Egypt Katarzyna Grabska Forced Migration and Refugee Studies, American University in Cairo, Egypt July 2006 Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty University of Sussex Falmer, Brighton BN1 9SJ United Kingdom 12 C O N T E N T S LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 4 1. INTRODUCTION 5 Purpose of the Study 5 Key Research Questions 5 Research Design 6 Methodological and Ethical Concerns 8 Key Concepts 9 Labelling and Categorisation 9 Refugees 9 Rights 10 Rights-based vs Needs-based Approaches to Policy EGYPT: REFUGEES AND POLICIES 13 Refugees in Egypt 13 Local Circumstances 15 Policies on Refugees in Egypt 16 Egypt s International Commitment 16 The Government s Perspective on Refugees and Rights 18 Local Integration 18 Rights to Education, Work and Health Care 19 Governmental Initiatives towards Refugees 23 International Organisations: UNHCR and Other UN Organisations 25 The Role of UNHCR: Protection and Assistance 25 Other UN Agencies 27 NGOs and Service Providers MOBILISING AROUND RIGHTS: REFUGEES 33 Refugees as Agents 33 Refugees Perception of Rights 33 Awareness of Rights Among Refugees 34 23 Mobilisation and Rights 35 Remittances 35 Community Activities 35 CBOs and CBAs 36 Limits to Community-based Development 37 Access to Schools in Alexandria 38 Protests 39 Refugees Perceptions of Policies 40 Developmental Approach 40 Integration Approach 41 Self-Reliance FEASIBILITY OF BOTTOM-UP AND RIGHTS-BASED APPROACHES 45 Obligations and Responsibilities 45 Whose Needs and What Rights? Rights-based Versus Needs-based Approaches in Programming 45 Responsibilities and Perceptions 47 Accountability and Access to Justice 49 Refugees and Participation in Policy Making and Programming CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 52 REFERENCES 54 APPENDIX: LIST OF INTERVIEWS 57 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without support, encouragement and assistance from far too many individuals and organizations to enumerate. Sarah Sadek provided valuable research and logistical support throughout the entire research and writing process. My thanks go to all those who devoted their time to meet with us and answer many of our questions. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to those refugees who decided to share their stories with us and whose insights constitute the content of the report. I would like to thank the Department for International Development and the Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty for providing financial support for the study. Lastly, I would like to thank Karim Amer for providing editorial and intellectual support. 34 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CBA CBO CRS DAR ExCom FMRS ILO MDG NCCM NCPD OAU ODA PRSP RAD RSD RO Cairo Sakakini UNDP UNHCR WFP Community-based Association Community-based Organization Catholic Relief Services Development Assistance for Refugees Executive Committee of the High Commissioner Forced Migration and Refugee Studies Program of the American University in Cairo (AUC) International Labour Organisation Millennium Development Goal National Council on Childhood and Motherhood National NGO Center on Population and Development Organization of African Unity Overseas Development Assistance Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (Plan) Refugee Aid and Development Refugee Status Determination UNHCR Regional Representation to the Palestinian Authority and the League of Arab States Sacred Heart Church (in Sakakini Square) United Nations Development Programme United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees World Food Programme 45 1. INTRODUCTION Purpose of the Study This research, developed as part of the Development Research Centre on Migration, Poverty and Globalization, was funded by the Department for International Development (DfID) of the UK government. It was carried out by the Forced Migration and Refugee Studies program (FMRS) at the American University in Cairo between February and June It is part of a wider research program examining the policies affecting forced migrants in the Arab world. The project addressed the interplay of politics, policies, and populations in the production of current perceptions of refugees and other forced migrants. Throughout the project, the researchers looked at the domestic policy environment as shaped by national and international political, social, and economic forces. The research considered the actors, forces, and conditions which determine policy in all its stages from how it is devised, to how it is applied, including how policy may be subverted or rendered ineffectual. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to describe the process whereby refugees and forced migrants are held in limbo, in a state of not belonging. The study reflects on these policies and their rationale. Instead of looking exclusively at international policies affecting refugees, the research also considered domestic policies and how they determine the identities, opportunities, and welfare of asylum seekers. The contradictions between these policies and their actual implementation were considered, which included looking closely at the role of international, local, and community-based actors. This project documents and analyzes the assumptions upon which refugee policy has been based, the impact that policies themselves have in either relieving hardship or continuing dependency, and assesses whether refugee policy may be based on incorrect assumptions about the role that refugees play in the social and economic fabric of Egypt. The research went beyond the simple documentation of refugee-related policy and the position of Egypt, to examine the intersection of policies that directly and indirectly affect the lives, conditions, and opportunities available for refugees. Key Research Questions 1. How do international, national, and local policies interact to shape the world of refugees and forced migrants as well as that of host societies and institutions? How are they affected by different strands of thought (e.g. rights-based vs. needs-based approaches), and the interests and lobbies which they embody? 2. What are the assumptions of international institutions concerning the needs of refugees and forced migrants? 3. How efficient are humanitarian policies set out by international organizations and to what extent are they limited by not taking into account the national settings in which they are enforced? 4. How do refugees interact with the policy environment in Egypt? 5. How can policies be developed that enhance refugees survival strategies and their contributions to the host society, whilst addressing the concerns of host country nationals? 56 More importantly, the research aimed at challenging the top-down needs-based perspectives which are the usual points of departure for policies on refugees and forced migrants in general. Instead, in order to get away from these conceptual and policy frameworks bordering on social engineering (Mehta and Gupte 2003), a rights-based perspective was employed during the fieldwork as well as data analysis to propose alternative solutions and to recognize the agency of uprooted populations themselves in shaping their livelihoods and choices. In the introduction I set out the methodological challenges and constraints of the research as well as concepts used in the study. Chapter 2 examines the political and structural environment of refugee policies in Egypt and presents the different actors and institutions and their respective roles and responsibilities. Chapter 3 of the report considers refugees own perspectives on the forced migration policies in Egypt and how they impact on their rights. It also presents findings of refugees mobilization around gaining access to rights and the consequences for the refugee regime in Egypt. The last part of the report discusses the feasibility of establishing rights-based policies for refugees considering the complexities of bottom-up decision-making process. Research Design While choosing the appropriate methodology and framework for this research, the researchers (the author of the report and the research assistant) were faced with the dilemma of what Jacobsen and Landau called the dual imperative (Jacobsen and Landau 2003). Researching into other s suffering can only be justified if alleviating that suffering is an implicit objective (Turton 2003). At the same time, the challenge becomes how to satisfy the demands and rigour of sound academic research and produce knowledge that ensures livelihoods and better protection of forced migrants (Jacobsen and Landau 2003). Hence, basing research on sound and ethical methodology becomes a basis for improving policies. This became even more relevant as we applied the politically and ideologically charged rights-based approach. The theoretical framework was developed using the rights-based approach to the study of policies affecting forced migrants. The research tested the appropriateness of this approach in analyzing and improving policies. By considering refugee rights as a departure point for the creation of policies, the possibility of reforming the existing top-down policy frameworks with bottom-up perspectives was examined. These wider policy frameworks affecting forced migrants were considered in the context of the macro-economic, political, and social situation of Egypt. The research began by studying the relevant literature on refugees in Egypt, documents relating to policy and legal frameworks affecting refugees and the general policy environment in Egypt, including issues of access to rights. The fieldwork took place in Cairo as the main place where refugees reside in Egypt. As it was revealed during an earlier research on livelihoods of Sudanese refugees (Grabska 2005), the general living conditions and access to rights for refugees are more amicable in Alexandria than in Cairo. Policy implementation mechanisms and obstacles were examined using the example of these two different urban settings. The fieldwork utilized a combination of semi-structured interviews, focus groups, in-depth interviews, as well as participant observation. Traditionally, policy research focuses on a review of secondary policy statements and interviews with policy-makers. In order for those whom these policies directly affect to have a direct input into the research, refugees were considered 67 as primary stakeholders in the creation of these policies. Refugees perspectives on their situation and their rights were an important element in assessing the policy frameworks affecting forced migrants. Hence, before starting fieldwork, researchers met with several refugees and refugee groups to seek their views on the issues and questions to be considered during the research. Based on this input, semi-structured interviews were developed as a basis for data collection. Interviews were conducted with policy stakeholders, including government officials (among others Foreign Ministry Refugees Department, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Interior, National Council of Childhood and Motherhood, National Council of Women), international organizations (UNHCR and other UN agencies, including UNDP, UNICEF, and WFP) as well as NGOs and faith-based institutions implementing and influencing policies and programs for refugees. 1 The purpose of this stage was to gather information regarding the policy frameworks and implementation of these policies from the perspective of policy-makers and key implementers. The interviews focused on examining the approaches used by stakeholders in creating and implementing policies affecting refugees. In addition, interviews were carried out with donors in order to consider their influence on the policy decisions of the major stakeholders. The potential and constraints of including funding for refugees in wider developmental plans for Egypt was examined. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews were carried out with refugee-based organizations and groups which mobilize in order to claim their rights. Due to political and regime constraints in Egypt, mobilization around rights takes a less visible, more subdued form. Most organized actions take place not in the form of official protests, but rather in the form of petitioning, organization of community and assistance groups, and meetings with community leaders. During this stage, the input of refugees and their perspectives into the policy-making process was documented. Researchers also participated in a few gatherings between policy-makers and refugees as well as participated in the interagency forum involving those organizations working in the refugee field in Egypt. Over the past two years, a number of refugee associations came to life in response to the lack of policy dialogue between refugees and UNHCR. Those organizations emerged across all refugee nationalities. Trends, dynamics, effectiveness and policy input of these movements were examined in the course of the research. Also, refugee communities in Alexandria organized themselves efficiently in order to claim the right to education for their children. Researchers also attended one of the demonstrations organized by Sudanese refugees in front of the UNHCR office in Cairo, who raised a number of concerns regarding their status in Egypt. The background and reasons for the success of this mobilization will be examined in this report. Most of the empirical data regarding refugee perceptions on their rights and the effect of policies on their wellbeing was borrowed from previous studies on the livelihoods of refugee populations in Egypt (El Abed 2003; Al Sharmani 2003), especially the comparative study of livelihoods of Sudanese refugees granted and denied refugee status in Egypt (Grabska 2005). Some additional refugee communities were consulted in order to get an overarching view of the refugee situation in Egypt. 1 A full list of all interviewed persons is appended at the end of the report. 78 Access to the different refugee communities was based on personal contacts through FMRS 2 and my own knowledge of and relationships with refugees, as well as by seeking assistance from different NGOs and faith-based institutions working with refugees in Egypt. Lastly, academics, refugee advocates, and researchers who have worked on the issues of forced migration in Egypt were contacted and interviewed for the general context of the policy environment in Egypt. Interviews with policy-makers and academics took place in their offices; and meetings with local and refugee-based NGOs were arranged in their premises. A few individuals were interviewed in the offices of FMRS for convenience of access (specific locations are provided in the annex). As the study aimed at explaining why certain policies are adopted and how they influence the livelihoods of refugees, it was important to include the perspective of the host population. Part of the data was generated from interviews with national policy makers and NGOs. Additional information was borrowed from my previous fieldwork on livelihoods of Sudanese refugees in Egypt (Grabska 2005), which included interviews with Egyptian households. The interactions between the two communities were examined in the research. Throughout the fieldwork, I worked closely with a research assistant, who also facilitated interpretation and translation when necessary both with Egyptian officials and those refugees who spoke Arabic. As an Egyptian, she had the advantage of getting access to Egyptian officials and gaining their confidence. In addition, one of the FMRS students conducting research for her MA thesis participated in some of the interviews, as her topic closely linked to the DRC research (Ingraham 2005). Methodological and Ethical Concerns During the fieldwork, there were no major difficulties with gaining access to respondents. Most of those interviewed were open to talking to researchers. There were a few problems encountered with scheduling interviews with some of the Egyptian government departments, particularly with the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of International Cooperation. In the first instance, officials were suspicious about talking to researchers and rescheduled the interviews several times, with researchers having to wait for hours in their offices. Finally, after two months, we managed to arrange a meeting with one of the higher officials in the Department of Passports and Residence. In the case of the Ministry of International Cooperation, we asked to interview the Minister of International Cooperation in order to seek her perspective on the issues of development aid and the possibility of including refugees in it. Her office was never available and in the end we were informed that it was not possible to be given an interview either with the Minister or with anyone else in the ministry. The Ministry has nothing to do with refugees and you should contact UNHCR, we were told. In general, carrying out research in Egypt can be problematic, especially when the project tackles sensitive issues. Problems have previously been encountered with the security apparatus in Egypt while carrying out research on the situation of Palestinians in Egypt. Security officials found the topic extremely sensitive due to the wider political debates on 2 I have been working with the Forced Migration and Refugee Studies program since July 2002, first as a coordinator of the program and then as a researcher. As I have conducted several research projects on urban refugees in Egypt, I have been known to the community and to policy makers. My personal contacts with embassies and donor institutions allowed me to have relatively easy access to policy makers. In addition, I have collaborated with several refugee organizations and NGOs working with refugees and often participated in their meetings and events. Hence, no major obstacles were faced while scheduling interviews. 89 Palestinian refugees in the Middle East and stopped the research project. The researcher was not able to continue her fieldwork and when she came back to Cairo several months later to participate in a conference, she was denied entry at the airport. With the politicization of the refugee debate in Egypt, and especially with the sensitivities around Palestinians in mind, we decided not to cover Palestinian issues in the research and rather focused on the other refugee groups present in Egypt. Since much in-depth fieldwork has already been carried out among different refugee groups in Cairo, and in order to avoid research fatigue among refugee respondents, we relied on empirical data on the impact of policies on livelihoods of refugees from other studies. Only a limited number of refugees were contacted to carry out supplementary interviews. As many of the refugees live in precarious conditions with little or no legal status in the country, we attempted to minimize exposing the respondents to additional security risks. Key Concepts Labelling and Categorization Definitions of forced migrants and refugees have provoked a debate across numerous disciplines with many arguing about the negative impacts of the narrow labelling adopted in refugee studies (Malkki 1992, Zetter 1998, Mehta and Gupte 2003, Turton, 2003). Although the concept of forced migration should naturally encompass different forms of migration, including internal displacement and development-induced displacement, traditionally, however, it has predominantly focused on the narrow sub-category of refugees and those forced to flee due to violence, war, and insecurity (see, for example, Hammerstad 2005). Turton (2003: 2) asks whether, as academics and scholars wanting to influence policy, we should be blindly defining the subject matter in terms of categories and concepts which are employed by policy makers. As Turton argues, categories adopted by policy makers are often unhelpful for a scientific understanding as they limit the possibilities of inquiry. Hence, the study of forced migration will become less relevant the more it follows categorizations adopted by policy makers. For instance, while talking about forced migration, the category of development-induced displacement is ignored, thus producing results relevant only to refugee studies. This discussion links to the debate of voluntary versus involuntary (enforced) migration and settlement, which combines the reasons behind the actual movement with the effects of relocation. Refugees: To adopt exclusively the legal definition of refugees as provided in the 1951 Convention or the 1969 OAU Convention would be to narrow the categories of persons of concern to this study. A large number of refugees have fled to Egypt and applied for refugee status through the UNHCR office only to have their claims for asylum denied and in some cases, their files have consequently been closed following an unsuccessful appeal process. For a variety of reasons, these individuals are either unwilling or unable to return to their countries of origin and hence remain in Egypt in precarious conditions, as illegal aliens, very often without any documentation or legal permission to reside in the country. As a result, they face constant fear of arrest or, in extreme cases, deportation. Thus, in defining the concept of refugees the approach initially developed by Malkki (1995) and consequently adopted by Al Sharmani (2003) is followed. It conceptualizes the term as a complex and dynamic process of becoming. A gradual transformation, not an automatic 910 result of crossing of a national border. 3 The term refugee should not be seen exclusively in the context of the country-of-origin experiences which lead an individual or a group to flee, leaving him or her with a sense of loss (in terms of protection, social networks, and material property). Rather, the dynamic aspect of the refugee experience must be taken into account, whereby one becomes a refugee not only by escaping violence and persecution and crossing an international border, but also by going through the process of seeking asylum, as part of evolving relationships, networks, and personal developments (Al Sharmani 2003). Such an approach allows for a better understanding of the dynamics and livelihoods of populations in flux, in transit, and whose livelihoods themselves are defined by the experience. As argued by Christopher McDowell and Arjan de Haan (1997), population movements, whether haphazard or ordered, are regarded as an established pattern, and migration is both a strategy of survival and livelihood, and inseparable from identity. The label refugee, however, is also controversial, especially when it comes to policy formulation. As argued by Zetter (1998), the label both stereotypes and institutionalizes a status. Although it claims to be apolitical, through legal and policy making it establishes highly politicized interpretations (Wood 1985). The category refugee designates crisis and the associated condition of poverty and marginalization. Hence, by being linked to the needsbased approach to humanitarian assistance, the label implies burden and imposes an institutionalized dependency (Zetter 1992, 1998). At the same time, however, the category refugee establishes rights and entitlements guaranteed under universal human rights and international law. However, only those who are recognized as refugees based on the strict legal definitions of who qualifies for refugee status can access these rights. Rights: The concept of rights of refugees constitutes part of the discourse on the universality of human rights. As Mehta and Gupte (2003) assert, refugees claims to entitlements are rooted more directly in the universality of human rights and their rights are protected by international law. Refugees as human beings should naturally have access to the same basic human rights guaranteed under the international human rights covenants and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In addition, international law spells out clearly rights and entitlements granted to refugees. 4 However, as was previously stressed, not all forced migrants classify as refugees. In fact, the strict legal criteria and status determination procedures often employed by either host governments or carried out by UNHCR on behalf of governments, mean that many remain outside of international protection. Illegality and lack of refugee status means limited and disadvantaged access to jobs, 5 lack of access to education for children, 6 lack of access to health services, and not being able to claim their other rights in the host society, 7 including the right to freedom of movement. 8 3 As quoted in Al Sharmani (2003), the concept was developed by Malkki Liisa, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, UN Refugee Convention and OAU 1969 Convention. 5 The 1951 Convention lists a number of rights which should be guaranteed for refugees by the host government. The following articles refer to the right to work in the country of asylum: Art. 17 re: wage-earning employment, Art. 18 re: self-employment, Art. 19 re: liberal professions, Art. 13 re: moveable and immovable property, and Art. 14 re: artistic rights and industrial property. 6 Art. 22 guarantees access to public education for refugee children and Art.23 deals with the access to public relief. 7 Art. 3 addresses the issue of non-discrimination and Art. 16 talks about the access to courts. 8 Two articles mentioned in the Convention address the issue of freedom of movement, including Art. 26 directly talking about freedom of movement and Art. 28 dealing with travel documents. 1011 Rights, however, are granted to refugees temporarily, pending a durable solution to the refugee problem. According to the UNHCR, there are three possible outcomes: voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement in a third country. Only the first one of the alternatives guarantees a permanent solution. Some scholars have recently addressed the idea of local integration, referring to it as the forgotten solution in developing countries (e.g. Jacobsen 2001). However, conceptualization of the term integration has been quite a challenging endeavor, with different meanings proposed by different scholars, often imprecise and even contradictory. As set out in the 1951 Convention, local integration, defined as assimilation and naturalization, refers to the granting of asylum and residency, and eventually citizenship by the host government (Jacobsen 2001). 9 UNHCR itself defines integration as the process by which the refugee is assimilated into the social and economic life of a new national community (UNHCR, undated: 5, as quoted by Kuhlman 1991). The refugee problem should be solved naturally by granting citizenship, as Kibreab (1989) puts it. Such integration would take place through a process of legal, economic, social, and cultural incorporation of refugees, resulting in naturalization and acquisition of citizenship. 10 Both in Africa and the Middle East the possibility of local integration has not been accepted by most host governments. The presence of refugees is seen as temporary, leading to two possible solutions: either repatriation or resettlement (in a third country). In Egypt, although refugees are tolerated and have been allowed to settle among the local host community, resettlement has been the preferred solution, both from the point of view of the host government 11 and refugees themselves. With little chance of full integration, (especially since the refugees as well as the host government view their presence as transitory), the majority of refugees tend to live on the margins of the host society, yet constantly interact and come into contact with its members. The research focused on three key rights which according to the 1951 UN Convention on Refugees should be enjoyed by refugees: the right to work, the right to education, and the right to health services. 12 Rights-based Versus Needs-based Approaches to Policy: As Posner and Clancy (2005) point out, the core of a rights-based approach to refugee assistance is the identification of a certain standard of treatment to which an individual refugee is entitled. Although rights of refugees are firmly grounded in the international regime, when it comes to practice, the majority of policies focus on providing relief and emergency assistance. Hence, the main way of thinking in creating these policies is based on refugee needs rather than rights. Due to limited resources, however, often such policies can barely meet the most basic needs. In most cases, they result in encampment of refugees making them dependent on basic assistance at the expense of freedom and access to rights (Voutira 1995, Voutira and Harrell-Bond 2000, Hyndman 1997). Needs-based approaches result in top-down policy formulation, with little or no involvement of refugees themselves. This philanthropic mode of operation is often donor driven and externally determined (Collinson 2005:13). According to Jeff Crisp, [ ] it is now time to reconsider the wisdom of using scarce resources to feed, shelter and generally warehouse refugees who are 9 The 1951 Convention, Article 34, points out that the state of asylum shall facilitate the naturalization of refugees (UN Convention, 1951). 10 However, assimilation is an old-fashioned term and it is presumptuous to assume that all diacritical marks can be lost. It also creates a resistance from both the host society and refugees themselves by promoting the absorption of the refugee community into the country of asylum (Harrell-Bond 1987:7). 11 Interview with Ambassador Menha Bakhoum, Department of Refugee Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egypt, 13 March The Egyptian government while signing the 1951 Convention made reservations to Articles 20 and 22-24, including restrictions in access to public education, work and social services. 1112 deliberately prevented from establishing livelihoods and becoming self-sufficient. Notions such as integrated zonal development and refugee aid and development may be forgotten or discredited. But the principles on which they are based that refugees should enjoy productive lives and contribute to the development of the areas where they are settled could usefully be revived (2001: 16). 13 On the other hand, recognizing the marginalization and vulnerability of a particular group and, as argued by Collinson (2005), acting to redress this marginalization and assert claims to protection on the basis of more beneficiary-centered approaches to humanitarian programming requires redefining humanitarian action around the concept of rights rather than needs (see also Slim 2001 and Darcy and Hofmann 2003). If policies were to be formed by taking rights of refugees and forced migrants as a starting point and by employing a participatory programme, the inadequacies and pitfalls of the existing modus operandi would be arguably redressed. In these discussions, however, financial resources as well as the will and interests of donors, host governments and international organizations are often ignored. As Darcy and Hofmann assert, the apparent dichotomy that has developed between needs and rights is unhelpful and misleading, and there is no necessary incompatibility between the two. According to their view, the principal value of rights-based programming lies in the ability to identify more precisely responsibilities for humanitarian outcomes, and to bring corresponding influence to bear on those responsibilities (Darcy and Hofmann 2003:23 quoted in Collinson 2004:13). The core distinction between rights and needs is the legal context. Rights imply justiciability, the ability to access and claim justice. As Mehta and Gupte (2003: 20) argue, there is a real need for adequate legal acumen vis-à-vis refugee and oustee issues, and adequate access for all to that legal framework. Refugees continue to be human beings even though they were forced to cross borders and hence, there is no reason why their rights should not be justiciable (Khiddu- Makubuya 1994, Kabeer 2005). The issue of rights as opposed to needs however takes us one step further and prompts questions about responsibility and accountability. Rights provide a legal component that points to the institutional duty to protect, respect, fulfill and safeguard them. We will come back to these issues while discussing the difficulties in operationalizing rights-based approaches for refugee policies. 13 For further discussion of inadequacy of needs-based approaches and the relevance of rights-based programming for forced migrants see Mehta and Gupte13 2. EGYPT: REFUGEES AND POLICIES Refugees in Egypt Throughout history, Cairo has enjoyed the status of a cosmopolitan city attracting diverse populations from across the globe. Although refugees have not constituted a significant share of its foreign residents, Egypt has been seen as a place of exile by refugee populations, including Armenians who fled the 1915 massacre under the Ottomans, Palestinians after 1948, and Sudanese after Palestinians are said to constitute one of the largest groups of exiled residents, numbering between 50,000 and 70,000 (El Abed 2003). In the 1950s and 1960s Cairo was host to exiles from liberation movements across Africa and the Middle East, representing nonetheless small numbers of political activists. A further influx of refugees started arriving in Egypt in the 1990s as a result of wars in the Horn of Africa, especially Sudan, Ethiopia, and Eritrea and Somalia. Most of them headed for Cairo. Since the late 1990s, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Cairo office has seen a significant increase in the number of asylum seekers. Only within one year, between 1998 and 1999, the number of asylum seekers doubled. In 2001, the number of asylum seekers was 13,176, which represents a 96 percent increase from Several reasons might account for this increase. Egypt is seen as one of the few stable countries in the region. Changing patterns of civil conflicts, especially in Sudan and Somalia, and the intensification of the war in Sudan has led more people to seek refuge in Egypt. Furthermore, Egypt is also an attractive destination on account of one of the largest resettlement programs in the world, both through the UNHCR and through private sponsorship programs to Canada, Australia, the USA and Finland. 15 With Sudanese and Somali diasporas in many of these western states, resettlement programs constitute a huge incentive. For instance, Mulki Al Sharmani points to the transnational familial networks that more refugees are becoming part of. As she explains, [ ] the efforts and desires of individual refugees to move from one place to the other or ultimately resettle in the West are part and parcel of collective family-based strategies to ensure survival and a stable life for different family members (Al Sharmani 2004, 2005). At the same time, the number of refugees who remain in Egypt, especially those who were unsuccessful in being granted refugee status, is quite significant. Without legal status and protection in Egypt, and often unable to return to their countries of origin, these people live on the margins of society, struggling to secure their livelihoods as illegal aliens within the socioeconomic and policy context of contemporary Egypt. The vast majority choose to live in the city of Cairo, where they negotiate space, their identity, and reconcile cultural and religious differences on a daily basis. One reason behind the increasing numbers of asylum seekers is the fact that as of 1995, UNHCR has been processing status determination for Sudanese. Since the 1989 coup in Sudan, UNHCR started receiving an increasing number of asylum requests from the Sudanese community. However, due to the privileged status that Sudanese enjoyed in Egypt, and with some opposition members given de facto asylum by the Egyptian government, UNHCR s involvement was not significant. With the deteriorating security conditions in Egypt and Sudanese facing increased security checks, and due to the strained relations between the 14 UNHCR Cairo Statistical Report See also Kagan (2002). 15 A few refugees have also been resettled to the UK, the Netherlands, and elsewhere. 1314 Sudanese and Egyptian governments, more and more Sudanese have begun to go to the UNHCR office for help. As Sperl (2001) points out, in March 1994 the Egyptian government requested the UNHCR office to undertake the task of screening Sudanese asylum seekers with a view to assisting the neediest among them lest they engage in activities incompatible with law and order or get mobilized by organizations advocating violence. With the assassination attempt on President Hosni Mubarak in June 1995 during his visit to Addis Ababa, allegedly carried out by Sudanese Islamists, the Wadi el Nil agreement between Sudan and Egypt was revoked. This marked a change not only in the situation of Sudanese residing in Egypt, but also in the asylum procedures for UNHCR. For Sudanese wishing to reside legally in Egypt, it now became necessary to secure a visa to enter Egypt and a residence permit. With the limited education and work opportunities as a result of the change of legislation, their status was now made equal to that of any foreigner. 16 With the growing refugee population and with limited possibilities for securing adequate living conditions in Egypt, resettlement to a third country became a preferred durable solution for refugees, with increasing numbers being resettled to Australia, Canada, USA, and Finland since According to UNHCR statistics, between 1997 and March 2004, over 72,000 asylum seekers approached UNHCR. Among these, over 32,000 were granted refugee status with another 7,300 pending a decision on their applications. From the rough calculations, there are over 32,000 cases that have been rejected, of which some 15,000 files have subsequently been closed. 17 Of those recognized, over 18,400 people have been resettled through UNHCR. However, it is believed that equally high numbers have been resettled through the private sponsorship and family reunification programmes administered directly by the Australian and Canadian embassies. 18 Today there are over 21,000 officially recognized refugees present in Egypt coming from 32 countries. Seventy-five percent of these are Sudanese, followed by 16 percent Somalis (4,000), and smaller numbers of Ethiopians, Eritreans, Sierra Leoneans and refugees from the Great Lakes region (UNHCR 2004a). Overall, there are between 120,000 and 150,000 asylum seekers, recognized refugees and those whose applications for refugee status have been rejected residing in the country. 19 Refugees in Egypt live in urban settings, mainly in Cairo and Alexandria, with some of the Sudanese residing in Sinai or around Aswan. There are no camps built specifically for refugees; rather they are scattered around the cities, making them somewhat invisible. Often, they share the same living conditions with poor Egyptians, finding accommodation in poorer neighborhoods in Cairo (Al Sharmani 2004, Grabska 2005). 16 This regulation has been applied (allegedly) only to new arrivals after 8 July Between June 2004 and May 2005, UNHCR had been registering approximately 800 newly arrived Sudanese per month. It should be noted that as of June 2005, UNHCR is not processing status determination for Sudanese asylum seekers due to the ongoing peace efforts in Sudan. Those arriving in Egypt since then are granted temporary protection and allowed to remain in the country. 17 The numbers of closed files among Sudanese in Egypt vary between 12,000 and 15,000, as indicated in the UNHCR R-O Cairo Refugee Self-Reliance Survey (UNHCR 2004). 18 The numbers of resettlement have been steady over the past few years, at about 4,000 persons per year. In addition, private sponsorship and humanitarian resettlement programmes administered directly through the embassies (Canadian and Australian) process another 1,500 persons per year. 19 This number includes estimated somewhere between 50,000 and 70,000 Palestinians living in Egypt (El Abed 2003). 1415 Local Circumstances Access to rights and treatment of refugees in Egypt has to be seen in the context of local conditions. As a host society, Egypt has numerous problems which prevent the country from fully integrating refugees in its borders, as was mentioned on numerous occasions during interviews with Egyptian government officials. 20 According to the UNDP Human Development Index, Egypt is categorized as a lower middle-income country. It was ranked 120 out of 177 states in 2004, coming below countries such as Iran, Algeria and the Palestinian Occupied Territories (UNDP 2004:3). Egypt suffers from two main problems: high rates of illiteracy and population growth (EHDR 2004: 26). As Ingraham (2005) points out, In addition, approximately 37 percent of the population is under the age of 15, leading to predictions that the population will almost double by 2030 (UNFPA 2002:1). Due to high birthrates and overpopulation (over 70 million,) there is high pressure on the educational system in the country. According to the UNDP Human Development Report 2004, the official literacy rate for Egypt was estimated at 69 percent in 2002 while adult illiteracy was around 44 percent. The basic and secondary enrolment ratio was estimated at 85 percent (EHDR 2004). Due to high unemployment in Egypt (officially 20 percent (EHDR 2004), and unofficially double that figure), the government places restrictions on foreigners right to work in order to protect its domestic labor force. Most of the Egyptians are either unemployed or underemployed, and even those with higher education have to often work in the informal sector. Furthermore, some 500, ,000 new entrants are said to enter the job market each year. The strategic and political importance of Egypt is recognized by donors, who provide a large amount of bilateral and multilateral development assistance. In 2002, Egypt received USD1.28 billion in overseas development assistance (ODA), making it the third largest recipient in Africa (Ingraham 2005). Egypt s national development plan and the strategy to reach the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) highlights poverty reduction as one of the main objectives, focusing on job growth, increasing access to and quality of education, the targeted use of a social safety net and increasing programme monitoring. 21 The progress toward MDGs varies with regards to each goal 22.The goals relevant in the context of refugee rights and policies in Egypt have to do with access to primary education and attainment of employment. As Ambassador Moushira Khattab, Secretary General of the National Council on Childhood and Motherhood (NCCM) emphasized, the difficulties in securing primary education for refugees must be seen in light of the overall challenges the Egyptian government faces in providing quality primary education for all children. She argues that as such refugees are not discriminated against in terms of their access to education, but face the same challenges as other Egyptians. 23 Realization of MDGs is linked to several constraints, including the lack of both financial and human resources, gaps in service delivery and difficulty obtaining accurate statistics (Ingraham 2005). However, the low level of civil society participation is highlighted as one of the major obstacles, with the lack of involvement of NGOs and bodies representing civil society (Egypt 20 Minister Plenipotentiary Minha Bakhum, Department of Refugee Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), interview by author and other researchers, 13 March 2005, MFA, Cairo; Ambassador Moushira Khattab, Secretary General, National Council for Childhood and Motherhood, 6 April 2005, NCCM, Cairo; Ministry of Manpower and Labour, 11 April 2005, Cairo and Ministry of Education, 12 March 2005, Cairo. 21 See Ingraham 2005 and World Bank For further discussion see Ingraham 2005 and El-Saharty et al Ambassador Khattab, NCCM, 6 April16 Human Development Report 2004). The difficult economic and social conditions in Egypt are further worsened by the Emergency Law, which has been in place since As a result, civil society is constrained in its operations and many have their human rights violated by law enforcement institutions. Policies on Refugees in Egypt In the rights-based paradigm, issues of responsibility and accountability are brought to the fore. While discussing issues of refugee rights and policies, the key question that comes to mind relates to the locus of responsibility and accountability for realization of rights: who is in charge of protecting refugees? How can refugees access their rights and where can they claim justice? Although governments often sign up to international conventions and retain ultimate responsibility, they delegate certain responsibilities and obligations to international institutions, and hence, strip themselves from the moral and legal duty of creating an environment where refugees can thrive. Another element which is pivotal to this discussion has to do with the power over granting refugee status, which is directly linked to certain privileges and entitlements. Who decides who is a refugee? On what basis is this decision made? Are there safeguards in place which guarantee open, just process? These issues will be guiding the discussion through the next section of the research paper. Egypt s International Commitment Refugee rights and policies in Egypt have to be seen in the context of Egypt s commitments under the international human rights framework. As Tarek Badawy and Abdallah Khalil assert, It is equally important to interpret Egyptian laws in light of the international conventions to which Egypt is a party. [ ]International treaties and conventions become part of domestic law following their ratification and publication in the Official Gazette; by virtue of their publication they become normal laws (Badawy and Khalil 2005). The relevant international conventions to which Egypt is a signatory and which provide a context for refugee rights as human rights are as follows: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), published in the Official Gazette on 14 April The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), published in the Official Gazette on 14 April The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), ratified in October The International Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), following Presidential Decree Number 369 of 1967, published in the Official Gazette on 11 November The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), published in the Official Gazette on 14 February The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees as amended by the 1967 Protocol, published in the Official Gazette on 26 November The UN Convention on Migrant Workers and their Families, ratified in July The 1981 African [Banjul] Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, published in the Official Gazette on 23 February At least in theory, rights stipulated under each of the conventions and human rights instruments should be applicable to all people residing within the borders of the state, regardless of their 1617 status. At the regional level, there is no Arab instrument of relevance that is applied in domestic law. Neither the 1994 Arab Refugee Convention 24 nor the Arab Charter on Human Rights adopted in 2004 came into force due to the very low number of signatories (Badawy and Khalil 2005). Although Egypt has signed the 1994 Convention, no state has ratified it so far. The main reason behind the reluctance of Arab states to adopt a regional refugee regime is the highly politicized issue of Palestinians. In an interview, Mahmoud Rachad, Director of Human Rights Department of the Arab League, emphasized that refugees have never had any problems in Arab countries: We believe in the Arab world that our tradition, culture, we ourselves are tolerant and the Arab societies are very generous. 25 Hence, most of the Arab states do not see it necessary to have a separate legal document which would govern the rights of refugees in Arab countries. Further, Mahmoud Rachad pointed out that the majority of refugees in Arab countries are Palestinians who cannot really be perceived as refugees, as they are Arabs, and in our countries, we consider any Arab as a brother, so Palestinians cannot be considered as refugees in Arab states. 26 I.G. Elsouri, Director of Development and Social Policies Department of the League of Arab States, commented that it was impossible for Egypt to accept Sudanese as refugees, because they too are seen as brothers both for political and moral reasons. 27 If Sudanese were to be recognized as refugees it would be a liability on the part of Arab states; however, no Arab country would regard refugees from another Arab country as refugees. The national legislation contains numerous articles relating to non-discrimination. Examples include Article 11 of the Constitution which guarantees equality between men and women. Moreover, Articles 8 and 40 of the Constitution guarantee equal opportunities and equality before the law for all citizens without discrimination in any way. In addition, Article 151 of the Egyptian Constitution bans discrimination based on any reason (Badawy and Khalil 2005). As a founding signatory to both the 1951 Convention and its 1967 Protocol in addition to the 1969 OAU Convention, 28 Egypt has undertaken international obligations with regard to providing asylum, protection, and guaranteeing rights for refugees on its territory. However, with the lack of implementing legislation and with the number of reservations added to the 1951 Convention, the rights of refugees and asylum seekers are significantly constrained. 29 Finally, the Egyptian Constitution gives the right of asylum to political refugees, although only a few of high political calibre have benefited from this provision in the past, including the Shah of Iran, Jaafar Nimeri of Sudan, and the wife of the last king of Libya (Zohry and Harrell-Bond, 24 The Convention urged Arab states to adopt a broad concept of refugee and displaced person as well as a minimum standard for their treatment, guided by the provisions of the United Nations instruments relating to human rights and refugees as well as relevant regional instruments, and to also guard against refoulement, it remained mainly a political statement (Grindell 2003, Zohry and Harrell-Bond 2005: 50). 25 Interview with Mahmoud Rachad M. Ghaleb, Director of Human Rights Department, Head of the Technical Secretariat for the Permanent Arab League Committee for Human Rights, The League of Arab States, 20 April 2005, the League of Arab States Headquarters. 26 Ibid. 27 Interview with Mr. I.G. Elsouri, Director of Development and Social Policies Department and the Technical Committee of ASAMC, The League of Arab States, 17 April 2005, The League of Arab States office in Mohandessin. 28 The 1951 Geneva Convention and its 1967 Protocol were ratified by Egypt y Egypt on 22 May Egypt ratified the 1969 OAU Convention on 12 June The five reservations made to the Convention concern personal status (art. 12 (1)), rationing (art. 20), access to primary education (art. 22 (1)), access to public relief and assistance (art. 22), and labor legislation and social security (art. 24). As a result, refugee children are restricted in their rights to state-funded education, and the right to work is regulated by Egypt s domestic legislation concerning the employment of foreigners, law no. 137 of 1981, whereby refugees are required to obtain a work permit as any other foreigner. 1718 2003:50). 30 Although not confirmed in any official law, those granted political asylum by the Presidential Office enjoy rights equal to nationals. Ambassador Menha Bakhum, the Head of the Refugee Affairs Department at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, stated that they are also eligible for Egyptian passports. 31 The Government s Perspective on Refugees and Rights Local Integration: Egypt has been generous in opening up its borders to refugees, especially those coming from neighboring countries. However, in terms of access to rights and possibility of local integration, the room to manoeuvre is very tight. As Menha Bakhum argued, We welcome refugees, especially those from Sudan, who are treated here like brothers, due to a special link between Sudan and Egypt. [ ] Refugees are not fully integrated in Egypt in the sense of naturalization. Egypt does not provide for naturalization of refugees. However, Egypt opens its doors and borders to them. 32 She stressed that the option of granting refugees citizenship is not possible given Egypt s large population. The Department of Refugee Affairs is the main governmental body directly involved in the refugee regime in Egypt. As Ambassador Bakhum pointed out: The policy of accepting and assimilating refugees in Egypt is the main policy promoted. Policy of welcoming and making their lives easier in Egypt, but still keeping the reservations made to the convention as a security, since Egypt cannot afford to lift them. The ability to lift reservations depends on the level of development of the country. As long as this is not happening, Egypt cannot afford to extend this access [to rights] to refugees. 33 The central policy of the government is to offer refugees temporary residence pending one of two durable solutions: either resettlement or repatriation. In an interview with the author, Bakhum stated: Our priority for refugees in Egypt is repatriation or resettlement. Until this happens, we are willing to welcome and have them on our territory. 34 At the same time, the language used to describe the temporary condition of refugees in Egypt refers to assimilation. Although the Department of Refugee Affairs is the official focal point for refugee issues in Egypt, it has no leverage over securing funding for refugee-related projects. The Ministry of International Cooperation controls all funds coming into the country to be channeled to all development or humanitarian related projects. As one of the interviewees pointed out, the Ministry of International Cooperation pulls all the strings in influencing policy. One of the underlying reasons for a restrictive policy on refugees in Egypt is the local economic and social situation in the country. As per Bakhum s statement, refugees get better treatment than nationals in Egypt, because they are privileged and they have UNHCR which takes care of them. In her view, many refugees come to Egypt to be able to migrate to the West and UNHCR provides them with this opportunity, whereas although many Egyptians dream of the same, they do not have this option. Her statement is a testimony to the fears of the burden that 30 Article 53 of the Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 11 September 1971 as amended by the referendum of 22 May Interview with H.E. Minha Bakhum, Head of Refugee Affairs Department, MOFA, 13 March H.E. Bakhum, MOFA, 13 March Ibid. 34 Ibid. 1819 refugees might create on the host country and the concern of the lack of attention by the international community to local conditions in the country of asylum: The Egyptian government is already doing more than expected, because the 1951 Convention talks about providing equal treatment for refugees and nationals. Refugees receive better treatment than nationals in Egypt. For a country like Egypt, accepting refugees on its land is already an achievement and more than other countries do. Refugees put pressure on the economy, on the environment, on the ecosystem, on infrastructure; they contribute to the overcrowding of the city. If I was in the government at the time of signing the 1951 Convention, I would have never signed it. 35 The issue of local context for appropriate policies on forced migrants was also emphasized by Ambassador Mushira Khattab, the Secretary General of the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood. She pointed out that the socio-economic consideration of the host country as well as issues of domestic migration have to be taken into account as there are many Egyptian children outside schools. It is a matter of lack of resources rather than discrimination. She added that we have to be realistic. Refugees in Egypt will not have the same access to resources as refugees in Sweden or the UK. 36 The openness of the Egyptian government to hosting refugees on their soil was seen as a major international humanitarian gesture by many respondents, including representatives of the League of Arab States and some of the UN agencies. In the eyes of Mr Rachad of the Arab League, by giving refugees residence and opening up their borders to them the Egyptian government is already doing its best considering the economic crisis in the country. Refugees are often ungrateful, and this is not fair, as Egyptians are very generous and tolerant [with refugees]. There is no other country suffering from such a high unemployment who would accept them. 37 Rights to Education, Work, and Health Care: In Egypt, there is neither national legislation regarding refugees nor a central government body which deals comprehensively with refugee issues. The two ministerial authorities which take up issues of refugees directly are the abovementioned Department of Refugee Affairs and the Ministry of Interior. Both coordinate closely with the UNHCR office on a regular basis. The first one deals mainly with the issuance of letters to obtain residence permit and securing release of detained asylum seekers and refugees. The second body is responsible for the issuance of residence permits for asylum seekers and refugees. For any other matters, refugees are considered equal to foreigners residing in the country. Three specific rights will be discussed here: right to education, right to work, and right to health care. Right to Education: Although the Egyptian government placed a reservation on the right of refugee children to public education, this right should be seen in the perspective of broader obligations under the universal human rights system. It could be argued that Egypt as a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child is obliged to provide access to public education for all children residing on its territory. In addition, over the years there have been a couple of ministerial decrees and decisions which have provided for exceptions for certain refugee groups. In 1992, the Minister of Education issued Decree No. 24 allowing Sudanese 35 ibid. 36 Interview with H.E. Mushira Khattab, Secretary General, National Council of Childhood and Motherhood, 6 April Mohmoud Rachad, the League of Arab States, 20 April20 children, inter alia, to attend Egyptian public schools. 38 Article 5 of this Decree gives Sudanese, Jordanian, and Libyan children the right to access primary education for free in state-owned schools in the same way as Egyptian students. Palestinian children too have the right to access state-owned schools for free provided their parents work with the Egyptian government, the public sector, or the military in Egypt, or if they are retired. 39 In 2000, the Minister of Education issued another Decree extending the application of the 1992 Decree to other refugees. 40 Refugees have to present certain documents such as a birth certificate, a valid passport or valid national identity document (such as refugee card), the original school certificate from the country of origin, and a letter from UNHCR, in addition to other documents (Ibid, and Article 3 of Decree No.24 of 1992). The fact that these procedures are regulated by decrees rather than laws creates confusion in the implementation process and proves challenging as it trickles down from the ministerial level to the school administration level. The Egyptian education system is centralized and the same norms apply in each governorate and each school. This, however, makes it problematic when changes to the law occur. In an interview, the senior specialist in the Department of Foreign Students in the Ministry of Education stated that their department does not deal with refugees and asylum seekers. They are rather concerned with services for foreigners. Refugees are considered as foreigners when it comes to access to educational services. As per his view, they are subject to the same regulations as all other foreigners residing in the country. He was also not aware of any decrees providing exceptional treatment for any of the foreigner groups in Egypt. 41 Inconsistencies in the interpretation of the law exist within the different departments of the Ministry of Education, not to mention the confusion at the governorate and school level. Another official from the Ministry of Education responsible for the department of Class One system confirmed that according to Egyptian law Palestinian and Sudanese children (including asylum seekers and refugees) are treated as equal to Egyptians in terms of admission and tuition in public schools. Other foreign pupils are subject to foreign tuition identified by the Foreign Students Department. However, those who are unable to afford their studies can get permission from the Minister of Education to be allowed to study free of charge under the One Class System or any other educational system in Egypt. 42 The right to education and the actual access to education have to be seen in the context of the overall education situation in Egypt, which is characterized by high illiteracy rates and a large number of drop-outs. The local context for the debate on the right to education and the actual access to education was mentioned in several interviews with Egyptian government officials. Mushira Khattab, for example, stressed that the right of the refugee child to access school has to take into account that the government of Egypt is unable to provide access to schools for every Egyptian child. She stated, I do not think there is discrimination of asylum seekers and refugees in Egypt, but there is discrimination against certain children. The solution is to build 38 Decree No. 24 of 1992 regarding scholarships and procedures governing foreign children s access to Egyptian schools and access of Egyptian children returning to Egyptian schools from abroad. Published in the Official Gazette, Vol.54, 3 March For further discussion see Tarek Badawy s paper on education possibilities for refugee children in Egypt (2004) and the Africa Citizenship and Discrimination Audit For further details see Dingemans Interview with Senior Specialist at the Department of Foreign Students at the Ministry of Education, 12 March This information was provided by the director of Class One system department at the Ministry of Education to the legal advisor from AMERA, a legal aid NGO, who in turn shared it with the author of this report. 20 View more
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