Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/35341705/Gomulkiewicz
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Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 106', '§ 2', '§ 2', '§ 106', '§ 106', '§ 106', '§ 101', '§ 101', '§ 101', '§ 106', '§ 106', '§ 106', '§ 2', '§ 7', '§ 8', '§ 8', '§ 2', '§ 201', '§ 0', '§ 5', '§ 1', '§ 2', '§ 11', '§ 1', '§ 3', '§ 1202', '§ 2', '§ 734', '§ 7', '§ 740', '§ 740', '§ 12', '§ 4']

Gomulkiewicz | Gnu | Free Software
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GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE 3.0: HACKING THE FREE SOFTWARE MOVEMENT’S CONSTITUTION
Robert W. Gomulkiewicz* TABLE OF CONTENTS I. II. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................1016 A QUICK SOFTWARE TUTORIAL .........................................1018
III. WHAT MAKES SOFTWARE “FREE” (OR NOT)? .....................1019 IV. HOW COPYRIGHT AND LICENSING CREATE THE FOUNDATION FOR SOFTWARE FREEDOM ...........................1022 CREATION OF THE GPL......................................................1024 WHY STALLMAN CARES ABOUT LICENSING AND THE ROLE THE GPL PLAYS IN SOFTWARE FREEDOM .........1025
VII. GPL 3.0: THE REVISION PROCESS .....................................1027 VIII. GPL 3.0: THE SUBSTANTIVE ISSUES ..................................1028 A. A Few Important Definitions to Fix .........................1028 1. The Heart of Copyleft—GPL Section 2(b)........1028 2. Clarifying GPL Section 2(b) ............................1030 B. Some Problems with Patents....................................1033 C. Other Issues on the Table.........................................1034
* Director, Intellectual Property Law and Policy Program and Associate Professor of Law, University of Washington School of Law. I owe thanks to the participants at the 2005 IPIL/Houston Santa Fe Conference: Transactions, Information and Emerging Law, and the Pacific Intellectual Property Scholars Conference for their comments on drafts of this Article. Thanks are also due to Signe Brunstad, Karen Copenhaver, Jonathan Franklin, David McGowan, Heather Meeker, and University of Washington School of Law students Sean Kellogg, Bill Snyder, and David Tilton for useful discussions. Jolene Lau Marshall provided valuable research assistance. Finally, I am grateful for research funding provided by the Shidler Center for Law, Commerce, and Technology.
1016 IX. X.
[42:4
GPL 3.0: HACKING A SIMPLER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE FORM ..................................................................1035 CONCLUSION .....................................................................1036
APPENDIX I.................................................................................1037 APPENDIX II ...............................................................................1038 “So, before we start changing [the GPL], we had better be aware how difficult this is going to be and of all the things that will come loose once we start shaking it.” 1 Eben Moglen “In many ways, my only gripe with the GPL has been how many words it seems to need to say something very simple.” Linus Torvalds2 I. INTRODUCTION
The General Public License (GPL) enshrines a software hacker’s3 freedom to use code in important ways.4 Hackers often refer to the GPL as the free software movement’s “constitution.”5 Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF),6 wrote the most recent version of the GPL, version 2.0,
1. Peter Galli, Rewriting GPL No Easy Task, EWEEK, Feb. 2, 2005, available at http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1758752,00.asp (quoting Eben Moglen, Professor of Law and Legal History at Columbia Law Sch., Address at the OSDL Enterprise Linux Summit: GPL v3—Issues of Substance and Process (Feb. 1, 2005)). 2. Stephen Shankland, Torvalds: A Solaris Skeptic, CNET NEWS.COM, Dec. 21, 2004, http://news.com.com/Torvalds+A+Solaris+skeptic/2008-1082_3-5498799.html (quoting Linus Torvalds, creator of the Linux kernel). 3. Software developers who have a passion for programming are called “hackers.” THE NEW HACKER’S DICTIONARY 233–34 (3d ed. 1996). Outside the software development community the term “hacker” often refers to a programmer who writes malicious code such as viruses and worms. See id. at 130, 234. However, serious programmers use the term “hacker” in a positive sense, as in: “I’m hacking some code to fix that bug.” See id. at 231. Hackers call malicious programmers “crackers.” Id. at 234. See generally STEVEN LEVY, HACKERS: HEROES OF THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION (1984) (describing hackers in the positive sense of the term). 4. For an explanation of these freedoms, see infra Part IV. 5. Richard Stallman & Eben Moglen, GPL Version 3: Background to Adoption, http://www.fsf.org/news/gpl3.html (last visited Nov. 11, 2005); see also The History of the GPL, http://www.free-soft.org/gpl_history (last visited Nov. 11, 2005) (explaining that the GPL “enables the development of software by the people, of the people and for the people”). The GPL is a license, of course, not a constitution, although hackers consider their licenses to be more like social compacts than contracts. 6. Lawrence Lessig, The People Own Ideas!, TECH. REV., June 2005, at 46, 48–49. Some say that the GPL is Stallman’s most brilliant idea. See, e.g., id.
org (last visited Nov.14 This Article explores the substantive 7.. 11. PITT. Peter Galli. 75 (2002).0 1017 back in 1991. The Linux software is an operating system kernel. Nov. Linux is often packaged with Stallman’s GNU software to form what is commonly called the GNU/Linux operating system. See. http:// www. 12. Plugged in to Microsoft’s Biggest Rival. The History of the GPL. at 60 (discussing how distributors and software companies capitalize on Linux). and Novell place Linux at the center of their business strategy. (discussing how Microsoft “woke up to the threat” Linux created and instigated a marketing and business strategy to face the threat). 2005).eweek. MontaVista Software. See The GNU Operating System. BIO-IT WORLD. Stallman pledges to work on the revision until he is satisfied with the result. Others have observed that this timing coincides strategically with Microsoft’s next major update to the Windows operating system known as “Longhorn” or “Windows Vista. 2005. SEATTLE TIMES. it is quite old.. I will touch only briefly on the GPL revision process. supra note 5 (“Linus Torvalds adopted GPL Version 2 for his operating system kernel. Moglen estimates that a draft of GPL version 3. (reporting that Eben Moglen felt it was “time for a change” and that “15 years is probably long enough”). As this Article was going to press. See Stallman & Moglen. led by Stallman and Eben Moglen. Id.0 will be released sometime in late 2005 or early 2006.com/newsitems/2005/Aug2005/08-12-05-newsgnu/view. GPL Could Put Heat on Microsoft. 2004.com (last visited Nov. WK. Jan.bio-itworld.. See Robert W. 29. 1999). 64 U. id. 9. but for a license. the Free Software Foundation (FSF) . 14.10 Traditional computer industry players such as IBM. available at http://www.g. L. See Stallman & Moglen. supra note 5 (noting that as the creator and author of the GPL. There are three particularly interesting aspects of the GPL revision: the process for changing it.0 will be momentous for many reasons..1217. RUNNING LINUX 1. e. at C1 (describing Microsoft’s competition with Linux). supra note 5. I have commented previously on the revision process for 13 open source licenses.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. 10. the substance of the changes. id.g. MontaVista Software. Some have observed that this timing coincides nicely with the fifteenth anniversary of GPL 2. 2005. EWEEK. Hewlett-Packard. but one reason stands out: The GPL governs much of 9 Linux-based software which is challenging the dominance of Microsoft’s Windows platform. Therefore.asp (noting the similarity in timeframes). REV. and MySQL have arisen to 12 capitalize on the popularity of Linux. 13. e.” See. 11. not a complete operating system.7 For a constitution. BUS.g.11 New companies such as Red Hat. thus Linux must be combined with other software programs to make a complete operating system. and the form that the changes will take. 10 (3d ed.. See. 8. Aug. De-bugging Open Source Software Licensing. LinuxWorld: GPL Upgrade Due in 2007. Gomulkiewicz. The revision process is finally underway. Stallman has the “right to preserve its integrity as a work representative of his intentions”). Brier Dudley. 11.00. called Linux.com/ print_article2/0. available at http://www. 2005. See Steve Hamm.a=139964. See Paul Krill.mvista. e. FSF’s 8 general counsel.gnu. 31. The release of GPL version 3. 11. http://www. MATT WELSH ET AL.0.. 12. a fourteen-year-old document is young. Apr. Linux Inc.”). 2005) (describing the GNU/Linux system).
15 called the Simple Public License. Lotus Dev. which could serve as a model for a simplified GPL. Object code is machine-readable code—it consists of a series of ones and zeros that most humans cannot understand. Depending on your point of view. available at http://www. 180–81 (1999) (defining object code and open source).00. I still own some shares of stock in the company. supra note 17. In the interest of full disclosure. L. 714 F.2d 1240. Peter Galli.. II. 22. Gomulkiewicz. 18.1895.22 announced that it would soon publish a document outlining the roadmap and process for providing input on the first draft of GPL 3. EWEEK. or Java. See Apple Computer.2d at 1243 (describing how object code is used by computers). See infra Appendix I. Id. the Article proposes a new form. 19.16 As background. this Article begins with a brief software tutorial. Thus. I should mention that I served as an in-house licensing lawyer at Microsoft for ten years prior to joining the faculty of the University of Washington School of Law. It then explains that the FSF intends to make only minimal changes to the GPL’s form.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1018 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 changes that the FSF is considering for GPL 3. v. Inc. Indeed. v.” I do not work for Microsoft anymore.0 and offers some approaches that the drafters could take. Coming Soon to a Kernel Near You: GPL 3. REV. Paperback Software Int’l. this either makes me particularly unqualified or particularly well-qualified to offer suggestions about the GPL.2d at 1243. 44 (D.0. 1243 (3d Cir. Franklin Computer Corp. Id. Supp. How Copyleft Uses License Rights to Succeed in the Open Source Software Revolution and the Implications for Article 2B. at 180–81.” and a history of the GPL. . 179. 2005. 1983) (describing object code and source code). hacker commentators were surprised at my admiration for the open source movement but cautioned not to trust “Darth Vader. 1990). Corp. however. A QUICK SOFTWARE TUTORIAL Software comes in two basic forms: object code and source code.17 Programmers write software in source code form using a 18 computer language such as Basic. 17.asp. Source code is human-readable code—it can be understood by any programmer proficient in the language. Mass. see also Robert W. 36 HOUS. C++. 16. 714 F. 714 F. 1879114.eweek.com/article2/0. a description of the principles of “free software. Gomulkiewicz. the first time I wrote an article about open source software while I was still counsel at Microsoft. Oct. 37. See Apple Computer. 21. 740 F. 28. 20.20 Object code runs the 21 computer. and argues that failing to modify the GPL’s form ignores one of the chief complaints about the GPL—that it is too wordy and unwieldy. 15.19 Programmers convert source code into object code using a tool called a compiler or interpreter. See Apple Computer.
e. 24. “Free” versus “Open Source. supra note 13. J. The Magic Cauldron. STALLMAN.’” RICHARD M. 55–56 (explaining the differences between the free software movement and the open source movement). http://www. Raymond gets credit for popularizing the “open source” terminology. 41 (Joshua Gay ed.” CNET NEWS.catb. See. html (last visited Nov.COM. and the right to distribute the software and any changes. supra note 24. 28. The Free Software Definition. Entrepreneurial Open Source Software Hackers: MySQL and Its Dual Licensing. See STALLMAN.” It likes to say.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. free software means software that comes with certain rights: the right to study the source code. is the only ethically satisfactory form of software development”). . Why “Free Software” is Better than “Open Source. 23. supra note 5 (arguing that “free software . The Open Source Definition. 11. 203. the right to change the software in any manner. History of the OSI.org/ philosophy/fsfs/rms-essays. . 2002). supra note 23.opensource. in FREE SOFTWARE. 2005). Prominent hacker Eric S. The FSF contends that “‘[f]ree software’ is a matter of liberty. and Homesteading the Noosphere. 11. & TECH. Richard Stallman. Raymond has written important works explaining the inner-workings of what he calls the “hacker tribe. at 55.g.org/docs/ history. Letter to the Editor. thus limiting its attractiveness to commercial enterprises. supra note 23. FREE SOCIETY: THE SELECTED ESSAYS OF RICHARD M.. not price. because free software does not always come free of charge. 2005) (listing Eric Raymond’s writings). 2005). http://www.org/~esr/ writings (last visited Nov. REV.org/docs/definition. Stallman & Moglen.” such as The Cathedral and the Bazaar.html (last visited Nov. available at http://www. The open source philosophy is outlined in the Open Source Definition.gnu. 26.25 The free software movement is part of a larger movement 26 called the “open source software” movement.opensource. at 78– 79 (describing the various reasons hackers believe that software should be released as open source or free software). 27.23 Many companies have based significant businesses on free software. 205–07 (2004) (describing various ways in which software companies profit from the use of free software). STALLMAN.27 Stallman and others of his philosophical persuasion 28 do not like the change in emphasis. See Eric’s Random Writings.” in FREE SOFTWARE. RICHARD M. Gomulkiewicz. See generally STEVEN WEBER. III. Gomulkiewicz. 25. “think of ‘free’ as in ‘free speech. at 41. 3. FREE SOCIETY: THE SELECTED ESSAYS OF RICHARD M. See Open Source Initiative. L. 11. at 204–05.pdf.’ not as in ‘free beer. . WHAT MAKES SOFTWARE “FREE” (OR NOT)? What makes free software free? Surely not price. THE SUCCESS OF OPEN SOURCE (2004) (describing where and how the free software movement fits into the “open source software” movement).0 1019 This “ones and zeros” nature of object code leads some people to call it binary code. Feb. STALLMAN 41.24 Instead. See Robert W. The above explanation is a paraphrase of the FSF’s definition of the freedom associated with free software. the right to run the software for any purpose. STALLMAN. Open Source Initiative.. 9 COMP. Some hackers coined the phrase “open source software” because the free software movement had become associated with an antibusiness attitude. Gomulkiewicz. http://www.
See Gomulkiewicz.ssrn. it may refer to a set of license agreements (i. which holds source code as a trade secret and provides limited (or no) rights to make or distribute derivative works. e. some now refer to software as free and open source software. THE BUSINESS OF SOFTWARE (2004) (describing various business models in the software industry). 04-9. 2005) (explaining what constitutes FOSS software). proprietary software. The FOSS movement realizes that labels such as “closed source” and “proprietary” paint non-FOSS developers in a negative light. supra note 13. Law Sch. supra. Law and the Future of F/OSS Production. 11.html (objecting to the use of open source terminology as applied to FSF projects because of the differing philosophies behind the free software movement and the open source movement).com/2009-1081_3-5562233. 2–3. 32. Stallman’s “free” as in “freedom”). SCO What? Rhetoric.stcpl. FREE/OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE (FOSS): PRIMER—A GENERAL INTRODUCTION. it may refer to a philosophy (i. at 21–23 (describing rhetoric and exaggerations used by non-FOSS developers to discredit the FOSS movement).com. THE CATHEDRAL AND THE BAZAAR 27 (2000)). available at http://www. See.. See. McGowan. 14–15 (Univ. Non-FOSS developers play the same game.mspx (listing “unauthorized disclosure of source code” as a significant “Risk Factor.html (last updated June 20. See Free Software Foundation. Common labels are commercial software. available at http://papers. of course. 29. STRATEGIC TECHNOLOGY CONSULTING. Research Paper No. and closed source 32 Each of these labels has its strengths and software.g.pdf (last visited Nov. see also Dudley. Raymond’s “[g]iven enough eyeballs. but labeling also carries great importance in the FOSS community’s rivalry with traditional commercial software publishers such as Microsoft.30 There is much debate among software developers about 31 what to call software that is not FOSS. 34. supra. and there is non-commercial non-free software”). supra note 10 (noting Microsoft’s strategy of shifting the debate in its rivalry with Linux).com/msft/ar. second. See David McGowan. e.microsoft.org/philosophy/categories.. First. http://www. http://news. See generally MICHAEL A. at 78 (explaining why it is common for developers to hold source code as a trade secret). CUSUMANO. RAYMOND. labeling FOSS as anti-intellectual property and unconstitutional. 30. all bugs are shallow.gnu. see also MICROSOFT CORPORATION ANNUAL REPORT 17 (2005).au/downloads/Foss_Primer. at 3.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1020 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 Free and open source software (often known by the 29 acronym FOSS) stands in contrast to most traditional commercial software..” ERIC S. http://www. Labeling is a serious matter.34 2005..e. The problem with using the term “commercial” is that FOSS may be used in both commercial and 33 noncommercial settings.e. It is worth noting that there are at least three senses in which the terminology “free software” or “open source” software is used.com. See McGowan. 2004). weaknesses. it may refer to a method of software development (i. 33.e.g. To be diplomatic.. as mentioned supra note 28.com/abstract=555851 (detailing how rhetoric can be used to shape opinions in the FOSS debate). Lawyers tend to contrast “proprietary” with “non-proprietary. third. those approved by the Open Source Initiative or FSF)..” and explaining the importance of confidential source code to the company and the harms that could result from unauthorized disclosure). 31. 2005) (stating that “there is commercial free software. of Minn. The issue with the term “proprietary” is that FOSS is protected by a proprietary right. 14–15 (providing other examples of the rhetoric used by FOSS developers to bolster their positions).” that is to say . Categories of Free and Non-Free Software. Hackers debate the aptness of the “free” and “open source” labels. or FOSS for short.
See Bradley M. See id. supra note 17. Oct. STALLMAN. supra note 13. supra note 23. Stallman. See infra Part IV for a discussion of the importance of licensing for free software. (explaining that the process of changing from copyright to copyleft guarantees users’ freedoms rather than taking them away). 36. 89 (illuminating how copyright can be used to guarantee freedom).. 40. . As to the rights licensed.40 “owned” versus “not owned. Nonetheless. at 181 (explaining the difference between software in binary form and open source software). See Gomulkiewicz.37 A better label might be “Binary Use Software” or “BUS” for 38 short.36 The term “closed source” is misleading in that many traditional commercial software publishers do provide access to their source code. 2005.html (asserting that “[p]roprietary software is an exercise of power” and control). Free Software Foundation. such as Microsoft. in FREE SOFTWARE. 35. FOSS licensing provides free and open access to source code whereas BUS normally provides only 39 access to the software in binary code form.microsoft. Freedom or Power. http://www.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. Hackers use the term “copyleft” to illustrate that the GPL reverses the exclusivity of the copyright holder’s rights by broadly licensing those rights. 38. supra note 17. BUS often comes with a license to create some derivative works (such as derivative works of clip art or software libraries) or to make extra copies (such as a copy for laptop use).0 1021 namely copyright law. See Gomulkiewicz. I admit that the Binary Use Software (BUS) label is not perfect. see also Microsoft Corp.org/philosophy/ freedom-or-power.” Hackers use the term “proprietary” in a different sense: to communicate whether access to software is controlled or not controlled.mspx (describing how Microsoft is sharing source code with outside entities). http://www. and this trend is on the increase. as hackers like to say. 18. distribute. Gomulkiewicz. publish source code without confidentiality restrictions). I think it creates a better “apples to apples” comparison than any of the other labels presently in use. FOSS licensing grants the licensee the right to freely copy. supra note 33 (describing copylefted software). See RICHARD M. 37. you need copyright before you can have a copyleft. What is Copyleft?. For one thing.35 In fact. at 89. FREE SOCIETY: THE SELECTED ESSAYS OF RICHARD M. and create derivative works of the software whereas BUS licensing simply provides the licensee with the right to use the functionality of the software. Microsoft Shared Source Initiative Overview. 39. Kuhn & Richard M. at 78 & nn.22 & 25–26 (explaining that many commercial publishers. STALLMAN.com/resources/sharedsource/Initiative/Initiative. Whether licensees actually value the additional rights granted in FOSS licenses is a major point of debate between the FOSS and BUS communities.gnu. In terms of access to source code. at 185–86 (explaining the difference in licensing terms between typical commercial software and open source software). This label contrasts traditional commercial software and FOSS on two levels: access to the software’s source code and the nature of a licensee’s right to do things with the software.
2005. 2005) [hereinafter Debian. 687.html (describing the enforceability debate). Legal Protection for Software: Still a Work in Progress. ¶¶ 42–55 (2000). 45. however. supra note 17.org/intro/about (last visited Nov. Debian Wins Munich Linux Deal. Christian H. e. Getting Serious About User-Friendly Mass Market Licensing for Software. 42.J.43 A hacker who believes that software should be free. 28. see also Debian.” which could render some open source licenses unenforceable).. including the rights to copy. distribute. 1249 (3d Cir. Ravicher. Daniel B. CNET NEWS. see generally Robert W. INTELL. Robert W. v.html. User-Friendly Licensing].g.vjolt. About Debian.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1022 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 IV. http://www.2d 1240. does not want to hold these rights exclusively. 361–64 (2002) (advising that “a user is not bound by a contract of which he is not made aware. REV. The Debian Project is a nonprofit organization dedicated to creating Linux-based software. 11. See. combined with a license of the code. Inc. The License Is the Product: Comments on the Promise of Article 2B for Software and Information Licensing. Recently. 2005). The hacker gives away the exclusive rights by licensing 44 them.. trade secret. trademark. and create derivative works.45 Stallman calls this “copyleft”—using a license to reverse the exclusive rights under copyright.debian. 891. 714 F.net/vol5/issue3/v5i3a11-Ravicher. See 17 U. See generally Jason B. 1983).com. Gomulkiewicz. Taking the Case: Is the GPL Enforceable?.42 The moment a hacker writes code. patent.J. Franklin Computer Corp. software must be copyrighted and licensed. 349. 449–51 (2002) (describing how software is protected by copyright. supra note 13.org/intro/free (last visited Nov. 692 (2004) [hereinafter Gomulkiewicz. Gomulkiewicz.J. For a discussion of mass-market licensing in the software industry. 12 GEO.L. 22 RUTGERS COMPUTER & TECH. Apple Computer.S. Williamson. Nadan. http://www. the city of Munich announced that it chose to implement Debian’s Linux distribution on a large scale computer installation.C. Licensing gives hackers the power and flexibility to grant the rights that they equate with software freedom. See also Robert W. 46.”). See Gomulkiewicz. 43. 8 TEX. L.41 Copyright law protects software in its source and object code forms.J. WESLEYAN L.com/Debian+wins+Munich+Linux+deal/2100-7344_3-5689003. at 79–80. L. copyright applies. 445. Although some commentators have questioned the legality and enforceability46 of free software 41. 11. 689–90. 21 SANTA CLARA COMPUTER & HIGH TECH. A Brief Defense of Mass Market Software License Agreements. 5 VA. § 106 (2000) (listing the exclusive rights of a copyright holder). What Does Free Mean? or What Do You Mean by Free Software?. J. Debian. 44. PROP.debian. L. Open Source Licensing: Virus or Virtue?. Gomulkiewicz. & TECH. . 896–99 (1998) (describing the prevalence and significance of mass-market licenses in the software industry). and contract law). Gomulkiewicz & Mary L. http:// news. creates the legal framework that guarantees the freedom of free software. http://www. Facilitating Collaborative Software Development: The Enforceability of Mass-Market Public Software Licenses. giving the hacker a bundle of exclusive rights. at 185–89 (explaining that licensing is the legal force behind free and open source software). HOW COPYRIGHT AND LICENSING CREATE THE FOUNDATION FOR SOFTWARE FREEDOM A copyright on code. See generally Robert W. 11. Stephen Shankland. Wacha. 335 (1996) (explaining how end user license agreements (EULAs) are useful and efficient for mass-market distribution of software).COM. Apr. REV. What Does Free Mean] (“To stay free. L. MASON L. 10 TEX. 13 BERKELEY TECH. See Gomulkiewicz. 451 (2005) (addressing GPL enforceability).
2005) (mem. 26. Inc. Mar.49 For some recent cases that have addressed GPL enforceability. 2005). and Complaint. Although it is difficult to assess which license is more popular. No.D. Defender of the Linux Faith. supra. see Landgericht [LG] [Trial Court] Apr.com. Ingrid Marson.wikipedia. Inc. Fortinet UK Ltd. Software Map.COM.47 Two license forms dominate the free software movement: The Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) style license and the GPL.com/Defender+of+the+Linux+ faith/2100-7344_3-5625667.. 2005.com/Fortinet+settles+GPL+ violation+suit/2100-7344_3-5684880. some evidence indicates that hackers use the GPL the most.) (dismissing motion to allow more discovery to determine enforceability of SCO’s purported copyrights in UNIX and copyright claims against IBM).). Marson.G. CNET NEWS. 1999).gpl-violations.pdf (ruling GPL legally valid and enforceable under German law). 2003) (alleging that the defendant violated the GPL license by distributing the program without the requisite copyright and license notices). 18. eds. 2005).com. at 189–90 (describing the significance of licensing to the success of the free software movement). REP.” Debian. Drew Techs. which was imposed until it complied with GPL). 31– 33 (Chris DiBona et al. “A license is the authors [sic] way of allowing use of their creation (software in this case). Utah Feb. 11.R. The University of California at Berkeley created the original BSD-style license to accompany its distribution of the UNIX operating system.COM. in ways that are acceptable to them. http://sourceforge. he wrote its firewall. 2005) (reporting that a Munich court ruled that a British software company violated the terms of the GPL and noting the company agreed to modify its end user license). No. Marshall Kirk McKusick.jbb.php?form_cat=14 (last visited Nov. 48. Statistics and Top 20. Welte v. v. 2. SCO Group. (BNA) 11 (Apr.. IBM Corp. 2005.org to prevent companies from violating the terms of the GPL. No.0 1023 licensing. http://freshmeat. http://news. available at http://www. Defender of Linux. supra note 41.html (reporting a court injunction against Fortinet.org/wiki/GNU_ General_Public_License (last visited Nov. CNET NEWS. 12. SALUS. and Sourceforge. 2004. What Does Free Mean. http://news. supra note 17. Welte set up the website http://www. Soc’y of Auto. Fortinet Settles GPL Violation Suit. known as the Berkeley Software 48 Distribution. Id... 2:03-CV-294 (D.5% of the free or open source software projects listed on the SourceForge website). Defender of Linux] (reporting on the work of Harald Welte to personally enforce violations of the GPL as they relate to Linux). 21 O 6123/04 (F.net/softwaremap/trove_list. 47. see Freshmeat. Engineers. http://en. 2:03-CV-74535 (E. by others. 9. v. 11. See PETER H. 11. Variations of this license are used with popular free software programs such as the Apache web server. 5 WORLD E-COM.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. Mich.de/ judgment_dc_munich_gpl. GNU General Public License. 10. PROP. 49.net/ stats/rating/?expand=rating (last visited Nov. Welte is a co-author of Linux. in OPENSOURCES: VOICES FROM THE OPEN SOURCE REVOLUTION 31. 142–43 (1994). Hackers often debate the issue of whether the GPL or the BSD-style license provides more freedom for programmers. 2005) (reporting that as of April 2004 the GPL was used for nearly 75% of the projects listed on the Freshmeat website and 68. For a breakdown of the statistics. Wikipedia. A QUARTER CENTURY OF UNIX. Inc. See also Ingrid Marson. Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix: From AT&T-Owned to Freely Redistributable. Apr. Nov.html [hereinafter Marson. . & INTELL. it remains the cornerstone of the free software movement. See Gomulkiewicz.
12. Using terms from these prior licenses.54 One of the unique features of GPL 1. 1989. see also LAWRENCE ROSEN. Guardian Life. The FSF’s general counsel.org/papers/1999-pracmgr/ Manager's-Guide-to-Linux. 52. supra note 5. Regardless of who wrote the words. supra note 53. 2005). Share and Share Alike: Understanding and Enforcing Open Source and Free Software Licenses.org/gpl_history/emacs_gpl. http://www. GNU is recursive for “GNU’s Not UNIX.gnu. available at http://www. 54. he argues it is a pure license and as such does not need to adhere to contract formation formalities.html.gnu. GNU BULL. Eben Moglen. See The History of the GPL.columbia.org/bulletins/bull6. 1989. 481–83 (stating that “[t]he GPL likely is a contract. 443. There is some question about whether this method of licensing creates an enforceable contract.7.0 was that a copy of the license need not accompany the software licensed under it—“All that’s needed is a brief notice in the program itself.” This came out of Stallman’s disagreement with AT&T over its restrictive licensing of UNIX source code. Inside IT.” Emacs General Public License. Eben Moglen. 11. Stallman seems to have written the GPL with the assistance of legal counsel. Prasad. See Specht v. GNU BULL. 2002) (holding where reference to an existing license was printed in a manner that tended to conceal the nature of acceptance. Id..html (last visited Nov. User-Friendly Licensing.gnu. 11. and GNU 52 Compiler Collection.51 GNU Debugger.3d 17. The license for Emacs is entitled the “Emacs General Public License. 53.. Jack Schofield. rather. available at http://www. http://www. he created a license that could “apply to any program without modification. supra note 46. 56. no matter who is publishing it. supra note 5 (“‘The actual document [GPL] consists of several pages of rather complicated legalbol that our lawyers said we needed. 55. 2004.. The Practical Manager’s Guide to Linux.0. downloading the program did not manifest assent to license). http://emoglen. The History of the GPL. to say that the General Public License applies. The General Public License as a Subroutine. CREATION OF THE GPL [42:4 Richard Stallman created50 separate licenses for the early versions of his GNU Emacs software. Carver. An enforceable contract requires a meaningful opportunity to review the license terms and manifestation of assent. GUARDIAN (London). Jan. The General Public License as a Subroutine. at 16. 51. But see Wacha. Stallman wanted to create a single license form. at 458.li.org/copyleft/copying-1. at 688 & n. sidesteps this issue by arguing that the GPL is not a contract. 2005). OPEN SOURCE LICENSING: SOFTWARE FREEDOM AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW 51–71 (2005) (discussing whether open source licenses are contracts or pure licenses and the implications of the distinction). http://www.html)). there is no doubt that the GPL reflects Stallman’s philosophy. although he is generally credited with its authorship. at 28–35.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1024 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW V. 443–48 (2005) (noting that the GPL implements Stallman’s vision). See Brian W.0. which could apply to any software project. software could be licensed simply by reference to the GPL standard form. 306 F.” but as a license it is . 32 (2d Cir. 8. L. Feb.edu/publications/lu12.56 50.org/bulletins/bull5. see also Gomulkiewicz. free-soft. see also GNU General Public License Version 1. 20 BERKELEY TECH. I (Aug. Ganesh C.pdf. Jan. 691–92 (discussing court decisions on mass-market licensing). Free Software Matters: Enforcing the GPL.law. June 1988.”55 In other words.”53 This became the GNU General Public License version 1. Netscape Commc’ns Corp.html. supra note 44.’” (quoting What is Copyleft?.html (last visited Nov. 2001).J. however.
A detailed discussion of the pure license versus contract debate is beyond the scope of this Article. 61. 59. 6. supra note 46.html. In contrast. 2005) (on file with the Houston Law Review) (concluding that open source licenses are contracts).0 1025 The January 1991 issue of the GNU Bulletin discussed the prospects for a new version of the GPL that would apply to GNU library software (this became the Library GPL.fsf. He experienced the frustration of being accused of violating a license in his development of the GNU Emacs software. that the FOSS license most resembling a pure license in the sense of doing little more than granting permission is the BSD-style license. Gosling sold his rights in difficult to invalidate). supra note 44 (describing how users typically ignore software licenses and proposing solutions). 2005). a hacker who is famous for many software innovations including the Java language. however. under the expectation based on Gosling’s own words in his own manual that he was going to follow the same spirit that I started with . Id.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. however. 58. The question of enforceability may depend on the context. available at http://www. http://www. at 491 (“A software engineer who is well acquainted with the existence of the GPL might have trouble arguing with a straight face that she was unaware that. It is worth observing.. See id. User-Friendly Licensing.61 Eventually. 60. (“‘Gosling originally had set up his Emacs and distributed it free and gotten many people to help develop it. Frequently Asked Questions about the GNU GPL. the GPL requires the licensee to agree to several important terms—whether these are covenants or license conditions or whether this distinction even matters is an open question. Address before the Association of American Law Schools (Jan.” VI. 1991. for instance. WHY STALLMAN CARES ABOUT LICENSING AND THE ROLE THE GPL PLAYS IN SOFTWARE FREEDOM Most software users care little or nothing about the terms of software licenses. the FSF intends the GPL to apply to Linux. Margaret Jane Radin.”). but we hope to clarify points that have led to misunderstanding and sometimes unnecessary 57 worry. GNU BULL.60 James Gosling. now called the Lesser GPL) as well as a new version of the regular GPL: “We will also be releasing a version 2 of the ordinary GPL. Between hackers.org/ licenses/gpl-faq. industry custom may be sufficient—hackers are fully aware that the GPL’s terms apply to any code that claims to be GPL licensed. See generally Gomulkiewicz.59 Stallman created the first Emacs software in 1975. GNUs Flashes. and reportedly allowed free distribution of his Gosling Emacs source code. See Wacha.html (last visited Nov. supra note 5 (noting that GNU Emacs software is an extensible text editor similar to those Stallman developed in the past and telling the story behind Stallman’s experience with using free code that turned into proprietary code). Free Software Foundation.58 Stallman. most clarifications can be found on the FSF’s website in its Frequently Asked Questions section. Since the release of this version of the GPL. See The History of the GPL.gnu. 57. Jan. learned that ignoring a license can have serious consequences. 11.org/ bulletins/bull10. wrote the first C language version of Emacs. There are no real changes in its policies.
onlamp. Stallman wanted to guarantee that the code remained available for hackers to exercise the four basic freedoms described previously. 1986) (transcript available at http://www. supra note 23. Stallman. once a programmer released code as free code. We’ve learned a lot in the past 20 years. baseless. 68. Stallman was forced to rewrite the Gosling Emacs code that was contained in GNU Emacs. supra note 5. 22. But see Federico Biancuzzi. and to pass this obligation on.com/pub/a/onlamp/2005/06/30/esr_interview. 2005. Stallman. 66. 67. They didn’t actually say that they would do anything. 64. . Under the GPL. Lecture at the Royal Institute of Technology (Oct. and Gosling denied ever 65 having given permission. http://www. which is a sad thing. Eric S. .(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1026 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 Gosling Emacs to a company called UniPress.gnu. Stallman. supra note 61 (“[T]hey .COM. it took me about a week and a half. The fears that originally led to the reciprocity stuff in GPL are nowadays.”).onlamp. http://www. In other words. (“So I was forced to rewrite all the rest that remained.html (“It’s 2005 not 1985. . at least in my opinion. Stallman received a copy of Gosling Emacs source code from a friend and used it in his initial version of his GNU Emacs.html))). supra note 13. See Federico Biancuzzi. they just said that it wasn’t clear whether they might ever someday do something. in FREE SOFTWARE. . STALLMAN. a programmer may modify Software Program 1 to create Software Program 2. RMS: The GNU GPL is Here to Stay. but if the programmer does so and distributes the original Emacs . See supra note 25 and accompanying text. O’REILLY ONLAMP. ESR: “We Don’t Need the GPL Anymore.63 UniPress told Stallman that he was not allowed to use Gosling Emacs. June 30. 62. Id. .com/lpt/a/6222 (arguing that the GPL does a good job of preventing the loss of software freedom). 69 at no charge. 69. .62 Meanwhile. at 196. .67 The GPL 68 became the mechanism for maintaining software freedom.66 This experience convinced Stallman that he needed to find a way to keep free software free. So they won a tremendous victory. at 195. and I did that. Consequently.’” (quoting Richard M. at 88–92 (discussing the complexity of GPL section 2(b)). . wind up injuring only themselves. supra note 61. see Gomulkiewicz. The GPL accomplishes this goal by granting full rights to create derivative works of a program with one important condition: that the licensee also grants full rights to create derivative works of any program based on the original program.”). Sept. Ultimately Stallman says he included only a “small fraction” of Gosling’s code in GNU Emacs.org/philosophy/ stallman-kth. People who do what the GPL tries to prevent . GNU General Public License. Id. 30. § 2(b). FREE SOCIETY: THE SELECTED ESSAYS OF RICHARD M.64 Stallman’s friend lost the message from Gosling granting him rights in Gosling’s Emacs. Raymond doubts that a license is necessary for this purpose anymore. And this was enough to scare people so that no one would use it any more. put up a message on the network saying that I wasn’t allowed to distribute the program. 63.COM. 65. 2005. The History of the GPL.” O’REILLY ONLAMP.”).
at 699–705 (describing the challenges of improving typical mass-market software licenses). as Moglen observes. Lawyers Ride Shotgun for Open Source. Given the current significance of the GPL to a wide variety of constituencies. When Stallman created GPL 2.COM. See Gomulkiewicz.html.0 1027 Software Program 2.GPL 3. CEO of Cybersource Pty. 70. supra note 1.’”72 The challenge posed by updating the GPL will be more akin to the challenge of amending the U.73 74 The process for updating the GPL is unfolding. supra note 13. http://www. VII.71 currently.internetnews. I have never faced a problem as complex as this.com.0: THE REVISION PROCESS The GPL is showing its age. INTERNETNEWS.php/3495981 (noting that Sleepycat Software CEO Mike Olson is one of the select members of the free-software community being consulted about revisions to the GPL). User-Friendly Licensing. Stallman & Moglen. See Galli. Constitution or negotiating a treaty than updating a typical software license.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. at 96–103 (outlining the role of the proposed organization). Galli. revising the GPL will be particularly complex because it represents the “de facto constitution for the Free Software movement.0. See Gomulkiewicz. Moglen and Stallman have been discussing proposed changes at public events and in private correspondence with a select number of 75 They plan to seek widespread public hacker leaders.0 it was essentially a license for a small group of serious hackers. any other programmer must be given the right to modify Software Program 2 to create Software Program 3 through infinity. If the programmer does not agree to this condition. http://news. Moglen’s new Software Freedom Law Center will play a role in collecting comments on draft GPL 3. .COM. Jan. supra note 5. 75. 72. as any fourteen-year-old license would.S. 2005. I have proposed the creation of an open source license standards organization to update and maintain important open source licenses such as the GPL. Michael Singer. then he or she has no rights to create derivatives of Software Program 1. While there is no doubt the GPL needs to be fixed. 31. See Stephen Shankland. Ltd. lots of people’s livelihoods depend on us getting this right. at 3 (quoting Eben Moglen).0’s “perceived importance was relatively minor due to the minimal spread of free software”).com/dev-news/article. 73. “‘There are billions of dollars riding on this now. CNET NEWS. 71.) (discussing how GPL 2. The History of the GPL. 2005. Insider Hints at GPL Changes. Apr.”70 The GPL’s stakeholders range from individual hacker hobbyists to corporations such as IBM and countries such as China. supra note 44.com/Lawyers+ ride+shotgun+for+open+source/2100-7344_3-5557962. 74. see also Galli.’”). 7. Any unlicensed derivatives infringe the copyright in Software Program 1. supra note 1 (quoting Eben Moglen as stating “‘In my career of almost 20 years as an educator. supra note 5 (describing the founding of the free software movement). supra note 14 (interview with Con Zymaris.
see also Peter Galli.”). Under his guidance. 2005.com/article2/0. .(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1028 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 comment. they are adept at reaching consensus to avoid forking. . which holds the copyright of the GPL. particularly those in the legal field. . . supra note 26. 77. assertion of patents. See WEBER. But it is unlikely things will come to that because even though debate between hackers is ruthless. GPL section 2(b) implements the free software movement’s “share back” objective. 79. DMCA. see also Gomulkiewicz. A Few Important Definitions to Fix 1. in updating key FOSS licenses such as the GPL). 2004. term and termination. The issues include: definition of “works based on” a GPL-licensed program. Galli.COM.0: THE SUBSTANTIVE ISSUES The GPL revision will address a number of substantive issues. Mr. Moglen: GPL 3. The Background to Adoption puts it this way: “Stallman remains the GPL’s author. Moglen and Stallman anticipate the updating process will take at least a year. 78. EWEEK. It does so as follows: In order to gain the right to create a derivative of a GPL-licensed program.00. See Stephen Shankland. Sprucing Up Open Source’s GPL Foundation.’” Id.eweek. CNET NEWS. definition of “distribution” when software functionality is delivered as a web service. the process will not be like a constitutional convention at all. implied patent licensing. “‘Like it or not. http://news.” Stallman & Moglen. supra note 1 (“Everyone seeking input will be given a chance to comment and propose changes to the license . supra note 13. (quoting Eben Moglen). 2. Stallman’s decision on the license is final.asp.76 Although they have not set a firm date for finalizing changes. available at http://www.79 This Part explores some of the major issues.com. international intellectual property issues.0 that is unacceptable to key constituencies? Some hackers may stick to GPL 2. Others could take the bold step of creating an alternative license based on GPL ideas. 1881088.77 However. See Galli.1759. one important feature of the 78 process is crystal clear: Stallman will make the final decision. In this sense. but what will happen if the FSF produces a GPL 3. supra note 5. a programmer must agree to give back to the community by causing “any work that you distribute or publish. supra note 1. that in whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof. license compatibility between the GPL and other open source and proprietary licensed code. at 102–03 (urging FOSS developers to seek widespread commentary and participation by all stakeholders. The Heart of Copyleft—GPL Section 2(b). This is a powerful point. the Free Software Foundation.GPL 3. 23. Nov. at 64 (describing the practice of forking and how rare a major fork is among hackers). A. with as much right to preserve its integrity as a work representative of his intentions as any other author or creator. See id.com/Sprucing+up+open+sources+GPL+ foundation/2100-7344_3-5501561.html (chronicling the likely changes to the GPL in an effort to modernize it). implications of trusted computing.0. VIII.0 Rewrite Drive Is No Democracy. Dec. to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties under 76. will coordinate and direct the process of its modification.
or if the developer’s program is neither derived from nor contains GPL-licensed code. such as an operating system kernel. then section 2(b) does not come into play. supra note 13. 82. A frequently cited issue on the agenda for GPL 3. .de/linux/gnu. “Infectious” Open Source Software: Spreading Incentives or Promoting Resistance?.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/jilt/2005_1/valimaki (explaining the differences between the U. http://www2. Here are some situations that have puzzled programmers:83 • Is a program that dynamically links to another program “derived from” or does it “contain” the program? • When a program uses services of another program. J. 2005. § 2(b). See Linus Torvalds’s clarifying note to the GPL as applied to Linux: NOTE! This copyright does *not* cover user programs that use kernel services by normal system calls—this is merely considered normal use of the kernel. at 196. at 88–90 (analyzing the scope of section 2(b) and its requirement that developers publish their source code for free use).html. 81. definition of derivative works and international treatment of the derivative works concept). and to allow 81 anyone to create derivative works of it. A primary concern is the international diversity in defining “derivative works.. when is software “derived from” or when does it “contain” GPL-licensed software? Second. to deliver the source code. GNU General Public License and the Distribution of Derivative Works. but the instance of code that it refers to (the Linux kernel) is copyrighted by me and others who actually wrote it.0 1029 the terms of this License. 36 RUTGERS L. when has software been “published” or “distributed”? The answers to these questions matter because they dictate whether the programmer is required to deliver the program’s source code and license derivative works. is the program “derived from” or does it “contain” 84 the program? If a firm participates in a joint venture or a multinational corporation ships code to its subsidiaries. has it distributed or published the code? • 80. Vetter.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. GNU General Public License.warwick. First.J. free of charge. If a developer’s program has never been published or distributed. & TECH. 84.” See Mikko Välimäki. supra note 69.S. 83. L.linux. See Greg R. INFO. 53. http://www. See Gomulkiewicz.0 is international copyright. 88–94 (2004) (providing a broader discussion of problems confronted by programmers when they attempt to interpret section 2(b)). Also note that the GPL below is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation. Two aspects of this wording have proven difficult to 82 interpret. and does *not* fall under the heading of “derived work”.”80 The net effect of this language is to require a developer who distributes code based on a GPLlicensed program.ac. GNU General Public License (1991).
0 will clarify section 2(b).com. see also Lydia Pallas Loren. See Gomulkiewicz.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1030 • HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 If a firm runs a web business on software derived from GPL-licensed code. Another advantage cited by my student Sean Kellogg is that to the extent the GPL purports to be a copyright license rather than a contract. at 88–92 (analyzing whether GPL section 2(b) applies to derivative works and noting the “murky” intent of the GPL). § 106(3) (2000) (defining the distribution right). § 106(3). 17 U. If the GPL’s authors decide to include this case as GPL code under section 2(b). If section 2(b) is also referring to collective works. should the web business 85 be required to share the source code? 2. Compare 17 U. constituting separate and independent works in themselves. in 86 87 particular its definitions of “publish.S.C. supra note 56. § 106(5) (defining the public performance right). only that the authors should clarify which interpretation they mean.D.” and 88 “derivative work.C. Supp. As an interpretive aid.C.C. it should use that term as well as the term “derivative work. 4 J.” “distribute. the license should conform closely to the copyright holder’s exclusive copyrights.S. Programmers hope GPL 3. with 17 U. See 17 U. supra note 13. Cangemi. see also Getaped. 62 (2000) (elaborating on a copyright holder’s privilege to control the creation of derivative works). 86. v.S. SMALL & EMERGING BUS.S. There are several approaches the GPL’s revisers could use to do so. 89.S. . at 118 (pointing out that GPL section 2 may only apply to derivative works and not to collective works). § 101 (defining a “collective work” as one “in which a number of contributions.Y. the GPL’s authors could tie section 2(b) more clearly to the Copyright Act’s terminology. 188 F. 90.” If the GPL’s authors take this approach. §§ 101. 87.” I am not suggesting that either interpretation is more plausible. 17 U. 2002) (discussing cases on “publication” of works). § 101.C.S. one suggestion is to work with the “public performance” right under copyright law rather than the “distribution” right. Clarifying GPL Section 2(b).”).N. 106(2). 88. 2d 398. they should eliminate the word “contain” in section 2(b) because it is not a term of art under copyright law and use of “contain” in section 2(b) has caused confusion: Is the GPL merely describing a subset of derivative works or is it referring to collective works?89 A potential advantage90 of tying the GPL more closely to the Copyright Act nomenclature is that the GPL could draw on 85. 57. L. see also ROSEN.C. 17 U. Inc. are assembled into a collective whole. The Changing Nature of Derivative Works in the Face of New Technologies. 400–01 (S.
Cf.. Online. which degrades its usefulness as a 95 tool to interpret contractual language.g.S. See generally Ralph S. Inc. See. 1998) (“[A] deriviative work must exist in a concrete or permanent form. Loren. 2d at 1104–06 (describing the parties’ intent with the phrase “in conjunction with” rather than “derivative work”).2d 965.0. 1322–23 (N. Inc. 92. e. v. 2d 1306. 95. See. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Unauthorized Derivative Source Code. 333 F. 1 (1984) (discussing the cases and commentaries on developments in the body of law encompassing copyright). the GPL could continue to use the “work based on a program” phrasing.. 6–8 (noting that “commentators have condemned the expansive breadth courts have accorded to the definition of derivative works”). NO. 1992) (concluding that a derivative work does not require fixation).2d 426. For example. at 486–87 (recognizing that courts may defer to copyright law as a guide). 307 F. 96. Inc.C. 171 F. Brown.” (internal quotation marks and citations omitted)). Ga.. Lewis Galoob Toys. . the GPL’s authors could purposely choose to 96 avoid Copyright Act terms of art. and must substantially incorporate protected material from the preexisting work .94 Unfortunately.. 93.0 1031 the cases that construe the terms “publish.. Inc.D. These cases could serve as an interpretive guide for users of the GPL 3. v.A.. at 1.D. Cal.. 212 (3d Cir. Inc..S..N.3d 199.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. Inc. Nat’l Car Rental Sys.R. Int’l. Inc. REP. Supp. v. Telecomm Technical Servs. Sean Hogle. ...J. Playmedia Sys. Alternatively. Quest Software. Micro Star v. Siemens Rolm Commc’ns. Int’l v. 698–99 (N. See. contradictory”). 2004) (discussing the terms “publication” and “limited publication” in a software context). Supp. 66 F. Inc. Inc. Computer Assocs. 154 F.”). Am.”92 and “derivative work”93 in the context of software source code.D. v.g.. § 106(3) (defining the right to “distribute copies or phonorecords of [a] copyrighted work”).g. e.C. 171 F.” the same is true of the term “publish.. 991 F. it is very likely that the court would look to cases construing the Copyright Act to help it construe similar terms in the GPL. COMPUTER & INTERNET LAW. H. Dun & Bradstreet Software Servs. 118 F. See. 2d 688. 2d 1094. 5675–76 (discussing public distribution and noting that § 106(3) establishes the exclusive right of publications). Just as the authors of the GPL would do well to eliminate the term “contain. 1105–06 (C. Inc. 1997) (holding that the addition of a work to a library’s collection is dissemination to the public and sufficient to establish “distribution”). Playmedia Sys. 1998) (analyzing the issue of when “a distribution is considered a ‘limited publication’ for copyright purposes” (citations omitted)). at 62 (1976). 94. 434 (8th Cir.g. See 17 U. Computer Assocs. Nintendo of Am. see also 17 U. Ill. e. 964 F. Supp. 3 CARDOZO ARTS & ENT. supra note 88. 94-1476. the case law in this area is sparse and more perplexing than illuminating.. The Widening Gyre: Are Derivative Works Getting Out of Hand?. Inc. L. . 1993) (noting that “the distribution right is only the right to distribute copies” and does not extend to the function of computer software). supra note 46. . 5659.3d 197. 2002) (defining derivative work “as ‘a new created work based on the original copyright work’” (quoting the jury instructions given by the trial court)). as reprinted in 1976 U. at 92–93 (indicating that copyright case law regarding the definition for derivitive works “is confusing and. 2001) (“[E]ven if the subsequent program borrowed very little of the previous program.”91 “distribute.S. but 91.C. e. This approach is not groundbreaking—if a court interpreted the GPL today. Formgen Inc..3d 1107. v. . Supp. They could use programming terms rather than legal terms. at times.. . 203 (4th Cir. § 106(3).C.” which is subsumed in the exclusive right to distribute.. 967–68 (9th Cir. a court could still conclude that the subsequent program was a ‘derivative’ if it was comprised mostly of the previous program.. See Wacha. Hotaling v. Grace Consulting. . May 2001. 1110 (9th Cir.
The trick is in knowing that this is the case in any particular license. The FSF already does this to a degree through its 98 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) document. at 705 (urging license drafters to use tools such as hypertext linking to detailed explanations of terms and illustrations to improve readability and usability of mass-market licenses). it is the programmer and his or her licensee’s intended meaning that controls. Indeed. To implement this suggestion. supra note 44. See Gomulkiewicz. . parties using the GPL will have to wrestle with the meaning of the GPL’s words in a given case relying on industry custom and other traditional methods of construing ambiguous contractual language. Linus Torvalds’s note clarifying what the GPL template means when licensing Linux provides a famous illustration of this point. provides responses to frequently asked questions about the GPL. Loren. it would be trivial to provide a hypertext link from the GPL to the 102 illustrations. users of the GPL template could link to the specific illustrations that they agree with rather than the whole set provided by the FSF. User-Friendly Licensing. supra note 13. supra note 88. at 91 n. 98. The FAQ. It is probably fair to say that many programmers deploy the GPL with full knowledge of and agreement with the 100 FAQ’s illumination of the GPL. 100. The difficulty with using the FAQ to interpret the GPL is that once a programmer uses the GPL template. Did the licensor agree with the FAQ? What about the licensee? Did they agree with all the FAQ or only parts? The FSF could make the FAQ more useful by turning it into 101 a collection of illustrations. The GPL could explicitly reference these illustrations. For an example of this device. the GPL’s authors would eliminate the tie between “works based on the Program” and “derivative work” in GPL section 1. not that of the FSF. 102.121. See supra note 84 (clarifying the GPL’s application to the Linux kernel).”97 From there. The FSF’s illustration bank could 97. Free Software Foundation. so as to “avoid confusion with the legally significant term ‘derivative works’”). the GPL’s authors could provide some assistance. see RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF CONTRACTS (1979). Rather than simply allowing the words to speak for themselves. Cf. as the name suggests. Torvalds recognizes this implicitly because his clarifying note is responding to a conflicting interpretation in the FSF’s FAQ. at 59 (coining the term “integrated work” to describe works that digitally reference preexisting works but do not copy preexisting material. 101.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1032 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 make it clear that the term is not synonymous with a Copyright Act “derivative work. however. Gomulkiewicz. 99. In this era of electronic contracts. supra note 57.99 That is not to say that the FAQ is irrelevant.
Perens wrote the influential Open Source Definition which defines the criteria for an open source license. supra note 48. http://news. com/Open-source+allies+go+on+patent+offensive/2100-7344_3-5827844. Red Hat. 107. supra note 48. 11.ibm. http://www. does the GPL grant rights under the licensor’s patents as well as its copyrights? Although the GPL’s grant language speaks mainly in terms of copyrights. Licensing. http://news. but pointing out efforts to counter patent threat to open-source developers. CNET NEWS.org/MPL/MPL-1. 2005. e. http://www.html (noting Novell’s vow to use its patents to defend open source software). 2005) (providing a collection of approved licenses along with guidance for their use).1.com/Novell+vows+patent+defense+of+open+source/2100-7344_3-5406571. First.COM. Nonetheless.html (observing the limited scope of the Sun and IBM patent grants and commenting that the threat of patent infringement lawsuits still exists).redhat. Stephen Shankland.com. Sun: Patent Use OK Beyond Solaris Project. Stallman. what is its scope? 103.com/ legal/patent_policy.html (last visited Nov. Perspective: The Open-Source Patent Conundrum. Jan. Statement of Position and Our Promise on Software Patents. CNET NEWS.COM.com. Richard S. such as an open-source patent pool). 11. The Open Source Definition. com. http://news. 31. http://www. have pledged to use their patents to promote 105 rather than impede free software. 67–68. at 53.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. Stephen Shankland. 2005.103 B..html (last visited Nov. 11. supra note 69.com/ibm/licensing/patents/pledgedpatents.COM. see also Stephen Shankland.g. in OPENSOURCES: VOICES FROM THE OPEN SOURCE REVOLUTION. The Open Source Initiative would be an obvious candidate. Stallman sees patents as one of the greatest threats to the free software movement. Nokia: Linux Kernel May Use Our Patents. most notably patent powerhouse IBM. at 171. CNET NEWS.0 1033 grow and evolve over time. IBM Statement of Non-Assertion of Named Patents Against OSS.html.html (noting that Nokia promised free use of its patented technology in the Linux kernel). May 25.opensource.com. is there also an implied right under 107 patents? If there is an implied patent license. 11.. 11. Patents play into the GPL in two ways. http://www. 2005) (pledging free use of five-hundred patents to promote open source software). hackers remain 106 wary. 2005).com/Sun+Patent+use+ OK+beyond+Solaris+project/2100-7344_3-5557658. OpenSource Allies Go on Patent Offensive. http://news. Inc. with Mozilla Public License Version 1. 2005) (promising to allow infringement of their patents as long as the software is FOSS).pdf (last visited Nov. Aug.com. 2005. . CNET NEWS. Other organizations could provide illustrations as well. in OPENSOURCES: VOICES FROM THE OPEN SOURCE REVOLUTION.html (detailing the threat of infringement suits by Microsoft.COM. Bruce Perens. 31. 106. 105. http://news. § 2. Compare GNU General Public License.com/The+open-source+patent+conundrum/ 2010-1071_3-5557340.org/licenses (last visited Nov. Stephen Shankland. Sun Microsystems offered the unfettered use of 1600 patents with software licensed under its Community Development and Distribution License. 12. CNET NEWS.1.104 Some corporate boosters of free software. IBM. See Bruce Perens. See. The GNU Operating System and the Free Software Movement.COM. 104. Novell Vows Patent Defense of Open Source.1. 2005. See Open Source Initiative.com/Nokia+ Linux+kernel+may+use+our+patents/2100-7344_3-5720696.mozilla. 2004. Oct. Some Problems with Patents Most hackers hate software patents. Jan.
and 3 MELVILLE B. § 7.1. see U.S. If GPL (version) 3 can help do that. 111. C. On the issue of moral rights.109 The MPL. NIMMER ON COPYRIGHT § 8D.0 can do even more: “We need to find some way to monkey-wrench the awful.”108 As a solution. § 8. Raymond hopes GPL 3.110 In addition. states that if a MPL licensee sues any upstream licensor over patents related to the licensor’s software. on Patents. does it apply to hardware-software combinations? Does it apply to derivative works? Second.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1034 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 In particular.” Shankland. . This Article will not explore those issues. Other Issues on the Table All the talk about a new version of the GPL has unearthed a wish list of issues that GPL 3. . Id. 109. Primary concerns would be the difference in the definition of derivative works and treatment of moral rights. but below is a representative list: • Internationalizing the GPL: This would entail revising the GPL so that it fits more comfortably 112 with copyright law from a variety of jurisdictions.0 could address. at 458–67 (1987). at 198. See GNU General Public License. Raymond.2(b). See ROSEN. if a MPL licensee sues any upstream licensor over patents unrelated to the licensor’s software. NIMMER & DAVID NIMMER. the 111 licensee loses its patent licenses. Both Domestic and International. then the licensee loses both its patent and copyright licenses. Comm. Mozilla Public License Version 1. COPYRIGHT AND MULTIMEDIA PRODUCTS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 160–64 (2002) . 112. 99th Cong. it would be extremely valuable. or the Open Source License (OSL) written by former Open Source Initiative general counsel Lawrence Rosen. supra note 79 (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Eric S. Hacker Eric S. . See Stallman & Moglen. The latter provision enables parties to place all patent “weapons” back on the table in patent litigation. 110. broken software-patent oligopoly before it does more serious damage . Copyrights and Trademarks of the S. what happens if someone asserts patent rights against the licensee of GPL-licensed code? The GPL says that the GPL terminates if the licensee cannot continue to abide by its terms “as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement. of U. the GPL could adopt alternatives offered by other open source licenses such as the Mozilla Public License (MPL).02[D][2] (2005). at 179–227 (explaining each part of the Open Source License and providing comparisons to other template licenses). IBM’s Common Public license (CPL). on the Judiciary. supra note 69. app. See also IRINI A. Adherence to the International Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Before the Subcomm. supra note 56. 108. STAMATOUDI. Adherence to the Berne Convention: Hearing on the Implications.S. for example. supra note 107. president emeritus and a founder of Open Source Initiative). supra note 5 (noting the global reach of the GPL and the need to ease internationalization difficulties to achieve the ideal of a global copyright license).
in the name of creating more secure software systems. 29. 11. Stallman seems committed to minimizing changes to its form. • Trusted Computing: There is concern among hackers that. supra note 13. Some leading figures in the free software movement have few quibbles about the GPL other than its wordiness. Torvalds: GPL Needs Minor Work. 114. 116. at 3 (stating that while portions of the GPL may be ambiguous. See Gomulkiewicz.’” Shankland. Using Open Source Code in Proprietary Products. BUS licensors will create software that will not allow software created by the FOSS community to interoperate with it. 115.113 This approach misses a golden opportunity to improve the GPL in an important way.’” Peter Galli.116 (discussing the varied treatment of moral rights in Europe as they relate to software).J.. Nov.0: HACKING A SIMPLER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE FORM In creating GPL 3. a BUS operating system would only allow access if an application was digitally signed in a certain way. 113. my only gripe with the GPL has been how many words it seems to need to say something very simple. available at http:// .. GPL 3. 2001. EWEEK.0. the GPL has known bugs. e. the provisions on modification and distribution seem directed at ensuring that GPL-licensed software remains free software that cannot be made proprietary with downstream licenses).0 1035 It could also involve providing non-English language translations of the GPL. Dec.L. supra note 2. In the diabolical case. and he plans to make the license appear as similar as possible to GPL 2.115 Simplifying the GPL may be the most valuable revision that could be made to it.0. “‘I don’t think the GPL is perfect.Y. See. Some say the wording is not artful. N. He hopes changes to the length will not exceed ten percent. 2004. supra note 1. According to Linus Torvalds: “‘In many ways. • IX. The GPL in its current form is not the epitome of clarity. For example.114 Regardless. and one of my issues has been how verbose it is. Richard Raysman & Peter Brown.g. and some say it is artfully ambiguous so as to sweep as much code into its code-freeing license condition as possible. Galli.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3. at 83–92 (listing some of the GPL’s bugs). that operating system could refuse to accept calls from any application licensed under the GPL. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA): Some people in the FOSS community would like to find a way for the GPL to carve back the effects of the DMCA on the use of technological measures to control software.
this Article proposes that the GPL’s form can be simplified dramatically.0. and software programmers have developed an interest and a stake in GPL 3.119 www. but changing it is not allowed. which says. “Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document.” GNU General Public License. government officials. many lawyers. CONCLUSION The FSF plans to update the venerable GPL. but this one is different.com/article2/0.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1036 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW [42:4 In an attempt to stimulate discussion about what could be done to simplify the GPL.0 license form. My license differs from the license for the GPL 2.eweek. See infra Appendix I (containing the Simple Public License (“SimPL”) form). The SimPL is designed to provide a simple copyleft. businesspeople. I call this the Simple Public License (“SimPL”). The FSF says that it welcomes input. My license for the SimPL license form is simply this: “You may do anything that you want with it. supra note 69. then you may not call your license the Simple Public License or the SimPL. 119.1759. this type of update could be the most useful one of all. 117.0. . X. however. The SimPL revises the form but does not intend to alter the substance of GPL 2.00. if you change the license form in any way. 118. and according to at least some hackers. see also infra Appendix II (annotating the SimPL and explaining the rationale for its provisions).1731874. Since the last revision.” To avoid confusion.asp (quoting Linus Torvalds). the Appendix contains a proposed 117 118 license. Previous GPL revisions have passed virtually unnoticed outside the hacker community. Hence.
You get the right to: • Use the software for any purpose.0 APPENDIX I 1037 Simple Public License (SimPL) The SimPL applies to the software’s source and object code and comes with any rights that I have in it. You may not recover any other damages. you may only recover direct damages up to the amount you paid for it (that is zero if you did not pay anything). • Follow all export control laws. • Licensing any Derived Work under the SimPL. • If the software damages you in any way. derivative works of any Derived Work. • Providing the source code of any Derived Work in a form that is easy to get and use. • A patent holder prevents you from distributing the software under the terms of the SimPL. . so this may not apply to you). except it ends automatically if: • You do not abide by the “give back to the community” terms (your licensees get to keep their rights if they abide). There are some things that you must shoulder: • The software comes with NO WARRANTIES of any kind. The SimPL continues perpetually. If you distribute a Derived Work. distributing. • Letting anyone make. You agree to the SimPL by copying. free of charge. • Leaving other people’s copyright notices in place. None. you must give back to the community by: • Prominently documenting any changes that you make to the software.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] GPL 3.” (The state or country where you live may not allow you to limit your liability in this way. • Make derivative works of it (this is called a “Derived Work”). including those called “consequential damages. or making a derivative work of the software. • Copy and distribute it and any Derived Work.
the SimPL moves this wording up to the beginning of the license to give the potential licensee upfront notice of the actions that will signify assent. However. You agree to the SimPL by copying. The primary disadvantage of the term “derivative works” is that it is not particularly clear or definite because courts in the United States and around the world have and can in the future construe it in various ways. the developer will give potential licensees a meaningful opportunity to review the SimPL and obtain the licensee’s assent. 120. app. the GPL uses the “derivative works” nomenclature at present. (demonstrating the use of a notice to apply the license terms to a new program and providing a sample notice). The SimPL uses the copyright term of art “derivative works” rather than the GPL’s “work based on the Program” nomenclature. The SimPL uses the terminology “derivative” here because it uses the term “derivative works” in the license grant rather than the GPL’s “work based on the Program” nomenclature. 125. at 198.C. The GPL uses the terminology “modifying the Program or works based on it” to describe the action that demonstrates assent. or making a derivative 122 123 work of the software. See 17 U. The SimPL follows the GPL’s model of assent by action. § 2. it has the additional deficiency of confusingly using both the “derivative works” nomenclature and the “work based on the Program” nomenclature. at 196–97. See Gomulkiewicz. . § 201 (2000) (providing that the owner of a copyright in a collective work has acquired only the right to reproduce and distribute a contributed work as part of the collective work). See supra notes 86–95 and accompanying text (explaining the advantages and disadvantages of adopting copyright terms of art).S. See id. 124. distributing. at 84–86 (explaining that the GPL’s ambiguity concerning the right to run a program results in confusion and “[t]he GPL’s approach would be more coherent if it simply granted the right to run the program”). supra note 69. • Make derivative works of it (this is called a “Derived 125 Work”). See GNU General Public License. at 196. GPL “pure license” purists who believe that this practice is unnecessary or abhorrent should at least put the potential licensee on notice that the software is licensed under the SimPL. You get the right to: 124 • Use the software for any purpose. 123. supra note 13. See Gomulkiewicz. Id. at 88–92 (discussing the confusion surrounding the nomenclature). supra note 69. 122.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1038 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW APPENDIX II [42:4 Simple Public License (SimPL): Annotated 120 The SimPL applies to the software’s source and object code 121 and comes with any rights that I have in it. See GNU General Public License. Id. The SimPL says the obvious for the sake of clarity. 121. The GPL assumes that the user has the right to use the software. including copyrights and any applicable patents. supra note 13. § 0. § 5. The SimPL does not use the word “contains” as found in GPL section 2(b) because to the extent this word is referring to derivative works it is redundant and to the extent it is referring to collective works the concept is picked up in the right to copy and distribute the software. “Software” refers to the software that the developer will associate with the SimPL. This makes it clear that the license grant is under all potential intellectual property rights. so it already suffers from this deficiency. Ideally. However.
at 197 (stating that source code should be distributed on a medium “customarily used for software interchange”). including 126. 128. at 196. The GPL mentions that the licensee should retain appropriate copyright notices. Such notices are not required under the Berne Convention. . U.S. The right to “publish” is subsumed by the right to “distribute” so the SimPL does not use the term “publish. 17 U. the SimPL’s license to copy and distribute subsumes the license grants to copy and distribute source and object code in GPL sections 1. at 196.gov/circs/circ01. 130. and 3. § 1. at 196. available at http://www. copyright law make it illegal to strip out copyright management information such as copyright notices. 129. posting the source code on the Internet is relatively easy to do. Internationally. In today’s world.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 2005] • GPL 3. supra note 69. § 2(a).S. § 11. As such. The SimPL uses the word “distribute” because it is one of the exclusive rights granted under copyright law. you must give back to the community by: • Prominently documenting any changes that you 128 make to the software. Thus. §§ 1–2.S. • If the software damages you in any way. § 3. Nonetheless. Licensing any Derived Work under the SimPL. You may not recover any other damages. 132. at 199. copyright notices provide attribution for prior authors. § 1202(b). If you distribute a Derived Work. 132 There are some things that you must shoulder: • The software comes with NO WARRANTIES of any 133 kind. 198. See id. and attribution is often an important goal of open source licensing. § 2(b).” 127. See id. The SimPL assumes that the licensed software includes its source and object code forms. 133. arguably the SimPL does not need a provision addressing the retention of copyright notices. Letting anyone make. 129 Providing the source code of any Derived Work in a 130 form that is easy to get and use. 131. Cf. at 196 (stating that modified files must have prominent notices of changes). copyright law.copyright. derivative 131 works of any Derived Work. 2. although they provide some advantages under U. the term is equivalent to the “making available” right. See id. GNU General Public License. Id. Cf.C. Recent amendments to U. COPYRIGHT BASICS 4 (2004). COPYRIGHT OFFICE. 6. free of charge. The SimPL leaves the exact method up to industry practice and custom. supra note 69.S.pdf (explaining that one benefit of using a copyright notice is that usually an infringer’s assertion of innocent infringement to mitigate damages will be given no weight).0 Copy and distribute 126 1039 it 127 and any Derived Work. • • • • Leaving other people’s copyright notices in place. None. GNU General Public License. you may only recover direct damages up to the amount you paid for it (that is zero if you did not pay anything).
id. such as Cuba or North Korea).S. See GNU General Public License. at 198. U. at 199–200. at 198.(4)GOMULKIEWICZG3 12/1/2005 10:34 AM 1040 HOUSTON LAW REVIEW 134 [42:4 those called “consequential damages. supra note 46.13(e)(2)(ii) (requiring that encryption not be exported to embargoed countries. except it ends automatically if: • You do not abide by the “give back to the community” terms (your licensees get to keep their 136 rights if they abide). supra note 69. See id.” (The state or country where you live may not allow you to limit your liability in this way. . See id. • A patent holder prevents you from distributing the 137 software under the terms of the SimPL. the picture is a bit more complicated if the software contains encryption source code. § 734. § 7.F. 135 The SimPL continues perpetually. See id. export control regulations allow the unregulated export of “publicly available” software. However. 136. so this may not apply to you). 134. • Follow all export control laws. § 740.R. § 740. § 12. 137. at 467–68 (discussing the application of export control laws to FOSS). § 4. 135.3(b)(3) (2005). 15 C. See Wacha.13(e)(3) (requiring notification prior to publication of certain encryption source code).
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