Source: https://www.animallaw.info/article/detailed-discussion-dolphins-under-mmpa
Timestamp: 2018-01-24 05:13:33
Document Index: 380694954

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 1361', '§ 1375', '§ 1376', '§ 1376', '§ 1376', '§ 1375', '§ 1362', '§ 1361', '§ 1374', '§ 1374', '§ 1372', '§ 1374']

Detailed Discussion of Dolphins Under the MMPA | Animal Legal & Historical Center
Full Title Name: Detailed Discussion of Dolphins Under the MMPA
Jamie M. Woolsey Place of Publication: Michigan State University College of Law Publish Year: 2002 Primary Citation: Animal Legal & Historical Center 1 Country of Origin: United States
In the civilized world, there is the purse seine net, which was developed as a more efficient means of catching tuna and has proven equally deadly for dolphins. For unknown reasons, yellowfin tuna and dolphins swim together in the eastern Tropical Pacific ("ETP"), an area that extends from California to South America that covers roughly five to seven million square miles. Brower v. Daley , 93 F. Supp. 2d 1071 (N.D.C.A. 2000). Since dolphins are larger and more active on the ocean’s surface than tuna, yellowfin tuna can be found simply by searching for dolphins. Committee for Human Legislation v. Richardson , 414 F.Supp. 297 (D.D.C. 1976). Utilizing this fact, speedboats herd groups of dolphins into large purse seine nets. Id. The yellowfin tuna swim beneath the dolphins and both are trapped when the net is "pursed" around them. Id. Although most of the of the dolphins can escape by swimming from the top of the open net, some instead dive to the bottom of the net where their snouts become caught in the webbing. Id. Unable to surface and get air, the dolphins suffocate. Id. Others drown as a result of shock, physical injury, or the refusal to abandon the other dolphins that are entangled in the net. Id.
In 1971, Congress found that, intentional or not, 200 to 400 thousand dolphins per year were being killed as a consequence of commercial tuna fishing with purse seines. Id. at 4148. Commercial fisherman testified that they had gone to considerable lengths to permit dolphins to escape unharmed, occasionally jumping into the water to themselves untangle the trapped animals. Id. Hopeful of the newly developed techniques, the tuna industry represented to Congress that the excessive killings of dolphins would be stopped. Id. The House of Representatives took pains in consideration of the bill to see that the legitimate needs of the tuna industry were not ignored, while accepting the clear requirement that dolphins be given "every reasonable protection." Id.
B. The MMPA of 1972
P.L. 92-522, 86 Stat. 1027. See also 16 U.S.C. § 1361 , the MMPA as amended.
The MMPA of 1972 established both civil and criminal penalty provisions that are still in effect today. 16 U.S.C. § 1375 . A person who violates any provision of the MMPA, including a permit or regulation, may be assessed a civil penalty of $10,000 for each violation. Id. at 1375(a)(1). A person who knowingly violates any provision of the MMPA may be charged criminally. Upon conviction, a person may be fined up to $20,000 for each violation, imprisoned for up to one year, or both. Id. at 1375(b).
Under section 1376, any vessel subject to the jurisdiction of the United States is also subject to seizure and forfeiture of its entire cargo if it is employed in the unlawful taking of any marine mammal. 16 U.S.C. § 1376(a). A vessel can also be assessed a civil penalty in the amount of $25,000 for any unlawful taking. 16 U.S.C. § 1376(b). To encourage the public’s participation in enforcing the MMPA, the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized under the Act to pay up to $2,500 to any person who furnishes information which leads to the conviction for a violation of the MMPA. 16 U.S.C. § 1376(c).
C. Amendments to the Marine Mammal Protection Act
Reacting to lawsuits filed by the Kokechik Fishermen’s Association and several environmental groups, the MMPA Amendments of 1988 added a provision to the Act which provided for the issuance of a new 5-year Interim Exception for Commercial Fisheries. This new provision implemented a negotiated agreement between commercial fishing organizations and environmental groups, and created a 5-year period during which the nonintentional killing of marine mammals during most commercial fishing operations was permitted in exchange for an agreement by fishermen to carry observers and report all interactions with marine mammals during fishing operations. This statutory extension would have expired on October 1, 1993, but it was extended for an additional six months, until April 1, 1994. See Kokechik Fishermen’s Association v. Secretary of Commerce , 268 U.S. App. D.C. 116 (1988); see also S. Rep. 103-220, 1994 U.S.C.C.A.N. 518.
III. The MMPA Today
There are both civil and criminal penalty provisions under the MMPA. 16 U.S.C. § 1375 . A person who violates any provision of the MMPA, including a permit or regulation, may be assessed a civil penalty of $10,000 for each violation. Id. at 1375(a)(1). A person who knowingly violates any provision of the MMPA may be charged criminally. Upon conviction, a person may be fined up to $20,000 for each violation, imprisoned for up to one year, or both. Id. at 1375(b).
IV. Defining Key Terms under the MMPA
Many of the key terms in the MMPA, while seemingly unambiguous, take on additional and specific meanings under this statute. To better understand the statute’s definitional meanings, a brief listing of specific definitions and their meanings is appropriate.
"Taking" under the MMPA is defined in the statute to mean "to harass, hunt, capture, or kill, or attempt to harass, hunt, capture, or kill any marine mammal." 16 U.S.C. § 1362(11)A .
Perhaps the best-known analysis of "taking" under the MMPA is United States v. Hayashi , 22 F.3d 859 (9th Cir. 1994). In this case, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that a fisherman who shot at porpoises with a rifle did not constitute a taking under the MMPA.
Section 1371(a)(4)(A) as amended states that the prohibitions of the MMPA do not apply to the use of measures:
The 1994 Amendments also require the NMFS to publish a list of guidelines for use in safely deterring marine mammals and to prohibit deterrence measures that have a significant adverse impact on marine mammals. 60 F.R. 22345 . In May of 1995, the NMFS published a preliminary version of the guidelines and prohibitions, seeking public comment. Id. In 1998, the NMFS again invited public comment on deterrence regulations and guidelines and has yet to publish a final rule. 63 F.R. 9202 .
The deterrence measures proposed by the NMFS fall into three categories: passive, preventive, and reactive. 60 F.R. 22345-22346 . Passive deterrence measures are described as those that prevent a marine mammal from gaining access to property, people, or fishing gear. Id. Fixed barriers, fencing, or predator nets are included in this category and may be used if they do not increase the risk of entanglement, serious injury or death of a marine mammal. Id.
Despite the endorsement of a rather wide variety of deterrence measures, the NMFS does include a number of prohibited activities. Surprisingly, the prohibited activities include the action taken by the defendant in Hayashi . Firearms or any device used to propel an object including, crossbows, spearguns, bangsticks, archery gear, harpoons, javelins, and spears are prohibited. Id. The NMFS concluded that devices that propel projectiles cannot be used without having a significant adverse effect on the targeted marine mammal. Id. The use of explosives is also prohibited from use on dolphins and whales. The NMFS did not propose to prohibit their use on pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, or walruses), however, because found no evidence that seal bombs and light fireworks present a significant adverse impact to them or their environment. Id. (See id. for a discussion of studies comparing the use of explosives on dolphins and pinnipeds.) Finally, the NMFS proposes a prohibition on the use of translocation (the capture and relocation of wild marine mammals) and tainted bait, poisons or any other object intended to for consumption. Id. at 22347 (noting that the practice of feeding marine mammals in the wild is prohibited by regulation 50 CF.R. 216.3).
See also Mark A. Yaggi, United States v. Hayashi: Taking Aim at the Marine Mammal Protection Act, 14 Pace Envtl. L. Rev. 409, Fall 1996.
B. Harassment and Feeding
In 1991, the NMFS amended the definition of "take" to include "feeding or attempting to feed" as an example of "harassment" under the MMPA. 56 F.R. 11693 . The NMFS found that feeding populations of marine mammals is contrary to the intent and purpose of the MMPA because it disrupts their natural behavior and normal feeding patterns. In Strong v. United States , 5 F.3d 905 (5th Cir. 1993) the authority of the Secretary and the NMFS to promulgate this rule was challenged. The district court permanently enjoined enforcement of the regulation. Id. at 906. On appeal, the Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit upheld the regulation and vacated the injunction. Id.
Although the feeding prohibition became effective in 1991, recent prosecutions demonstrate that commercial tour boat businesses continue to feed wild dolphins and ignore the law. For example, a commercial business similar to the one in the Strong case was assessed civil penalties in the amount of $4,500 for taking tourists to feed wild dolphins. See In the Matter of Thomas E. Rainelli and Hathaway Boat Rentals, Inc. , 1999 NOAA Lexis 10 (1999). The respondent in this case warned a customer that they had to be "very careful of marine cops…" because it was illegal to feed dolphins. Despite this knowledge of the law, the respondent urged the customer to purchase frozen cigar minnows to feed dolphins. Id. The court found that both the boat operator and the owner of the vessel, though not present during the feeding, committed five violations of the MMPA. Id. Under NMFS regulations, the owner of the vessel provided a "platform from which feeding is conducted or supported" which made him liable as well. In addition to the fines imposed, the court also ordered the respondents to post a "No Dolphin Feeding" sign and poster on the counter and grounds of the boat rental location. Id.
The term ‘harassment’ means any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance which-
The NMFS states that it "considers a Level B harassment taking to have occurred if the marine mammal has a significant behavioral response in a biologically important behavior or activity." 66 F.R. 43442 , 43444. Examples of "significant behavioral responses" include animals either leaving an area of habitation for a period of time, or diverging significantly from their migratory path to avoid either an acoustic or a visual interference. Id. Non-significant behavioral responses are when only a few animals leave an area, but many animals are alerted to the disruption; or when marine mammals make minor course corrections that are not obvious to observers or directional plotting. Id.
There have been many difficulties in implementing and interpreting the amended definition of harassment. At a hearing in the House of Representatives, a representative from the NMFS explained these difficulties. She noted that the two-tiered definition is complex and is somewhat ambiguous. For example, scientists and photographers must obtain permits for Level B harassment, but activities that more clearly impact a marine mammal are not necessarily controlled. "On the Marine Mammal Protection Act" June 29, 1999, (statement of Penelope Dalton, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries). The term is presently being considered for further amendments for 2002. See "Marine Mammal Protection Act Reauthorization: Hearings Before the Committee on House Resources Subcommittee on Fisheries Conservation, Wildlife and Oceans," June 13, 2002. (speakers Dr. William T. Hogarth, Peter F. Worcester, and Andrew E. Wetzler).
Section 1372(c)
(c) It is unlawful to import into the United States any of the following:
The MMPA addresses not only the taking and killing of marine mammals by United States citizens, but also the importation of them. This reflects the congressional decision that a denial of import privileges is an effective method of protecting marine mammals in other parts of the world. Animal Welfare Institute v. Kreps , 561 F.2d 1002, 1010 (D.C. Cir. 1977). The NMFS is accorded the first opportunity to interpret the meaning of importation under the MMPA, and in doing so, has not required specific intent for violations of this provision. Marine Wonderland & Animal Park, Ltd., v. Kreps , 198 U.S. App. D.C. 5 (1979). Civil penalties have, therefore, been assessed in situations where persons have merely entered the territorial limits of the United States with marine mammals.
For example, in 1980, the NMFS initiated civil penalty proceedings against a Japanese citizen for the unlawful importation of four dolphins into the United States. In the Matter of: Akiko Kawahara , 2 O.R.W. 340, 1980 NOAA LEXIS 3. The principal issue in the case was whether a planned stopover of a few hours at Kennedy Airport constituted an "importation" within the meaning of the MMPA. Id. at 7. The court found that fact that the dolphins only landed in New York as a stopover to Tokyo was irrelevant. Id. at 12. It focused on the fact that the respondent entered the territorial limits of, and a place subject to, the jurisdiction of the United States. Id. A civil penalty was assessed in the amount of $7,500.
In a similar case to In the Matter of Akiko Kawahara , it was found that specific intent is not required for importation under the MMPA. In the Matter of Darcy Lynn Shawyer, William Jesse Roberts, John Holer, Marine Wonderland and Animal Park, Ltd ., 2 O.R.W. 301, 1980 NOAA LEXIS 2 (1980) an airplane carrying eight dolphins had to land in the United States on its way from Mexico to Canada due to bad weather. The court found that the route taken over the United States, the requirement to land for customs clearance purposes, or weather conditions was known or should have been foreseeable to all parties. The civil penalties assessed were over $10,000 to respondents.
As a matter of policy, the MMPA mandates that marine mammals should not be permitted to fall below their OSP level. 16 U.S.C. § 1361(1). Under agency regulations, a species is considered to have fallen below its OSP, and is depleted, if its population level is less than 60 percent of its estimated historic levels. See 58 F.R. 58285 , 45 F.R. 72178 and 42 F.R. 65448 . Determinations for depletion are made on the best available scientific data. 58 F.R. 58285 .
ii. The Secretary of Commerce Must Prohibit Killing of Depleted Dolphins
On November 1, 1993, the NMFS listed the northeastern offshore spotted dolphin as depleted in response to a 1991 petition filed by Environmental Solutions International, Greenpeace, and other organizations. Earth Island Institute v. Brown , 865 F.Supp. 1364, 1367 (D.C.N.C.A. 1994). The Secretary found that its population had diminished 77 percent from its historic population level of over 3 million in the 1950s to a stock level of only 23 percent of its OSP. Id. The plaintiffs in Earth Island Institute , therefore, sought to prohibit the Secretary from allowing the American Tuna Association ("ATA") to continue to set nets on, and kill, northeastern offshore spotted dolphins. Id. The defendants argued that killings of the northeastern offshore spotted dolphin were permissible because they had a general permit that exempted them from the taking prohibitions. Id.
iii. Depleted Species Under the MMPA
The following dolphins have been designated as depleted under the MMPA:
See http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/PR2/depleted.html .
The eastern spinner dolphin, the northeastern offshore spotted dolphin, and the coastal spotted dolphin are all dolphin stocks in the ETP (Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean). The eastern stock of spinner dolphins and the northeastern spotted dolphins are the primary targets of chase and encirclement by the tuna purse seine fishery in that area. NMFS scientists conducted abundance surveys for these dolphins and results from the surveys are available with the NMFS, along with Stock Assessment Reports. Since these species are designated as depleted, they receive heightened protection under the MMPA and the NMFS focuses its attention on guiding research and management actions to restore the health of the species.
V. Exemptions to the Taking Provision
A. The Exemption for Commercial Fisheries under the MMPA
The MMAP replaces the Interim Exception for Commercial Fishing, in effect from 1989 to August 1995. The information collected on marine mammal interactions with commercial fisheries collected under this program, as well as other sources, are intended to provide a basis for determining whether the incidental serious injury and mortality of marine mammals in commercial fishing operations has been reduced to insignificant levels approaching a zero mortality and serious injury rate. Id.
B. Other Exemptions- Scientific Research, Photography, and Small Take Permits
In addition to the exemption granted to commercial fisheries, exemptions to the MMPA moratorium on taking are granted for scientific research, enhancing the survival or recovery of a marine mammal species or stock; commercial or education photography; and public display. See 16 U.S.C. § 1374 . To participate in these activities, the Secretary issues permits or authorizations.
The 1994 Amendments established a new provision to allow marine mammals in the wild to be photographed for educational and commercial purposes. 16 U.S.C. § 1374(6) . These permits are limited to Level B Harassment and require the photographs be made available to the public. Id.
The legislative history of the MMPA reveals that Congress clearly intended judicial review to be available under the general federal jurisdictional statutes. Id. The district court, therefore, concluded that Congress intended to confer standing to challenge waiver regulations on the same categories of people to whom it gave standing to challenge permits. Id. Moreover, the court found the even if the provisions of the statute did not, the appellants also satisfied the three prerequisites for standing. (The Supreme Court reiterated the familiar three-part test for standing as revised in Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife , 504 U.S. 555 (1992). First, plaintiff must have suffered an injury in fact. Second, there must be a causal connection between the injury and the conduct complained of, the injury has to be fairly traceable to the challenged action of the defendant and not the result of a third party. Third, it must be ‘likely’ as opposed to merely ‘speculative’ that the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision. Lujan , at 560-561.)
In Citizens to End Animal Suffering and Exploitation v. The New England Aquarium , 836 F.Supp. 45 (D.C. Mass. 1993), the court held that animals do not have standing to bring suit under the MMPA. The suit in Citizens to End Animal Suffering , was originally brought by Kama, a dolphin, and various other animal welfare organizations to protest the transfer of Kama from the New England Aquarium to the Department of the Navy. Id. at 46
In considering standing under the MMPA, multiple courts have also held that economic interests are not within the "zone of interests" of the MMPA, the third prong to the test for standing. See Kanoa, Inc. v. Clinton , 1 F. Supp. 2d 1088 (1998); City of Sausalito v. O’Neill , 2002 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 12457. These cases have involved pure economic injury and not a showing that any harm would result to marine mammals protected under the statute. The cases discuss the importance of the maintaining the marine life population through resource management. Consequently, plaintiffs who do not demonstrate an interest in marine life population conservation or protection do not have standing. The United States Court for the District of Hawaii perhaps stated this premise best:
The primary purpose of the MMPA is to protect marine mammals; the Act was not intended as a ‘balancing Act’ between the interests of the fishing industry and the animals…The interest of the marine mammals come first under the statutory scheme, and the interests of the industry, as important as they are, must be served only after the protection of the animals is assured.
Kanoa, Inc ., at 1094.
C. Reach of the Act
The MMPA prohibitions are restricted by geographic scope. Except as expressly provided for by an international treaty, convention, or agreement to which the United States is a party, it is unlawful, "for any person or vessel . . . to take a marine mammal in waters or on lands under the jurisdiction of the United States." 16 U.S.C. § 1372 (a)(1) and 1372(a)(2)(A) . In United States v. Mitchell , 553 F.2d 996 (5th Cir. 1977), the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals held that the criminal prohibitions of the MMPA do not reach conduct on foreign territorial waters.
Referring to United States v. Bowman , 260 U.S. 94 (5th Cir. 1922), the Fifth Circuit found that the nature of the MMPA does not compel its application to foreign territories. The MMPA, it argued is a conservation statute, designed to preserve marine mammals. The nature of such a bill is based on the control that sovereign nations, such as the United States, have over the natural resources within their territories. It can exploit them or preserve them or establish a balance between exploitation and preservation. The court found that the basic purpose of the moratorium, prohibitions, and permit system therefore appears to be the protection of marine mammals only within the territory of the United States and on the high seas. Finally, the court noted that restricting the territorial scope of the Act would not greatly curtail the scope and usefulness of the statute nor frustrate its purpose. Mitchell , at 1003.
The court also found that the legislative scheme of the MMPA requires the State Department to pursue international controls by the usual methods of negotiation, treaty, and convention. Id. at 1005. Without a clearer expression from Congress to the contrary, the court found that it must presume that United States jurisdiction under the Act ceases at the territorial waters and boundaries of other states. Id.
VII. International Dolphin Protection
In the 1970s, United States vessels dominated the ETP. With the enactment of the MMPA, mortality from tuna fishing by the United States fleet began to decline and participation in the fishery by foreign vessels began to increase. By the mid 1980s foreign vessels dominated the ETP. To address the concerns regarding the increased mortality by foreign vessels, Congress amended the MMPA in 1984 and 1988 to tighten the importation requirements for tuna. In 1986, estimates showed that dolphin mortality from foreign fishing was over 110,000 for the year, while United States mortality was under 21,000. By 1990, the total dolphin mortality from foreign fishing was over 47,000, while United States associated dolphin mortality was down to 5,000. Within the next decade, Congress began to more actively target international agreements and importation restrictions to combat mortality by foreign nations. See "MMPA Bulletin," Issue No. 18, 1st Quarter 2000.
A. "Dolphin Safe" Labeling
The DPCIA did not actually require dolphin-safe labeling, but U.S. tuna canners instituted a voluntary dolphin-safe tuna campaign where they purchased only dolphin safe tuna for introduction to the U.S. market.
B. Mexico Brings a Case Against the United States under GATT
See www.wto.org for a case study on the Mexico etc. versus US: Tuna-Dolphin; "The Use and Abuse of Trade Leverage to Protect the Global Commons: What We Can Learn fro the Tuna-Dolphin Conflict," 12 Geo. Int’l Envtl. L. Rev. 1 (Fall, 1999); GATT Dispute Panel Report on U.S. Restrictions on Imports of Tuna (Sept. 3, 1991), 10 I.L.M. 1594 (1991).
C. International Dolphin Conservation Program
i. The La Jolla Agreement
In April 1992, nations fishing in the ETP, including the United States, negotiated a non-binding international agreement referred to as the "La Jolla Agreement." 33 I.L.M. 936, (1994). The ten nations party to the agreement were: Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Spain, the United States, Vanuatu, Venezuela. Id. The objectives of the agreement were:
By 1993, nations fishing in the ETP under the La Jolla Agreement had reduced dolphin mortality to less than 5,000 dolphins annually, six years ahead of the schedule established in the Agreement. 65 F.R. 30 . In October 1995, the success of the La Jolla Agreement led the United States, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, France, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Spain, Vanuata, and Venezuela to sign the Panama Declaration to strengthen and enhance the dolphin conservation. Id. at 31.
ii. The Panama Declaration
The Panama Declaration, signed October 4, 1995, was the result of the efforts made by five environmental organizations, the Center for Marine Conservation, Greenpeace International, World Wildlife Fund, National Wildlife Federation, and the Environmental Legal Defense Fund, who negotiated an initial draft with Mexico and the other nations in the ETP fishery. The Declaration formalized the La Jolla Agreement into a binding international agreement. Marine Mammal Annual Report, 1988 p. 37. The signing nations agreed that they would enter into the agreement, if the United States amended the provisions of the MMPA for those countries participating in the international dolphin conservation program. Id. The amendments to the MMPA were expected to lift the embargoes imposed under the MMPA, permit the sale of both dolphin-safe and non-dolphin safe tuna in the United States market, and change the definition of "dolphin-safe" to mean "tuna harvested without dolphin mortality," rather than tuna harvested without any dolphin encirclement. Defenders of Wildlife v. Hogarth , 177 F.Supp. 2d 1336 (Ct. Intl. Trade 2001) (citing the "Panama Declaration" at Annex 1.)
See also Chmael, George A. and Nancy E. Whiteman, "Caught in the Net of Environmental Law and Policy: Moral Outrage Versus Cool Analysis in the ETP Tuna-Dolphin Controversy," 6 U. Balt. J. Envtl. L. 163 (Fall, 1998).
D. The International Dolphin Conservation Program Act
About two months later, on May 7, 1999, the Secretary issued his Initial Findings required by the IDCPA. 64 F.R. 24590 . NMFS found that there was insufficient evidence that chase and encirclement by the tuna purse seine fishery was having a "significant adverse impact" on depleted dolphin stocks in the ETP. Id. Pursuant to the Initial Finding, the dolphin-safe label standard changed effective February 2, 2000 to permit the use of "dolphin-safe" labeling when purse seine nets are used, as long as no dolphins were killed or seriously injured during the particular set in which the tuna were caught. Id.
i. Courts Reject Government’s Attempt to Weaken "Dolphin-Safe" Label Standard
Based on the Secretary’s decision to weaken the dolphin-safe standard, David Brower, Earth Island Institute, The Humane Society of the United States, and other individuals and organizations challenged the finding as arbitrary, capricious, an abuse of discretion, and contrary to law. Brower v. Daley , 93 F. Supp. 2d. 1071 (D.C.N.C.A. 2000). As plaintiffs, they claimed that the Secretary failed to obtain and consider preliminary data from congressionally mandated stress research projects, and failed to determine, whether, on the basis of the best available scientific evidence, the use of purse seine nets were having a significant adverse impact on the depleted dolphin populations. Id. The District Court for the Northern District of California found that the Secretary’s Initial Finding was not in accordance with the law and was an abuse of discretion because the Secretary failed to properly consider these studies. Id. at 1089. The court concluded:
Indeed it would flout the statutory scheme to permit the Secretary to fail to conduct mandated research, and then invoke a lack of evidence as a justification for removing a form of protection for a depleted species, particularly given that the evidence presently available to the Secretary is all suggestive of a significant adverse impact.
The court granted the plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment and set aside the Secretary’s Initial Finding. Id. The Secretary appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. See Brower v. Evans , 257 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir. 2001).
ii. United States Court of International Trade Finds Against Environmental Groups
On January 3, 2000, the Secretary of Commerce published its Interim-Final rule to implement the IDCPA. 64 F.R. 31806 . Included within these regulations are standards by which the Secretary is authorized to lift the tuna embargoes, alter the dolphin-safe labeling standard, and establish an enforcement regime. Under the Final Rule requirements, the Secretary found that Mexico met the requirements of the MMPA and lifted the ban on imports of tuna from Mexico on April 12, 2002. Defenders of Wildlife , 177 F.Supp. at 1336. In Defenders of Wildlife , environmental organizations again sued. The groups contended that the Interim-Final Rule violated the MMPA, as amended by the IDCPA. Id. at 1344.
(Note: The plaintiffs in this case also asserted violations of the National Environmental Policy Act which were also dismissed.)
VIII. Dolphins in the Wild
In January of 2002, the NMFS concluded that the development of a proposed rule that would prevent harassment of marine mammals in the wild from the imposition of human activities might be warranted. 67 F.R. 4379 . It acknowledged that dolphins, as well as other marine mammals, in their natural habitat can be an educational experience. However, human interactions with wild marine mammals increase the risk of disturbing and/or injuring marine mammals. Id. at 4380. The NMFS has sought to reveal the threats that dolphins and other marine mammals are faced with today and thus have categorized these threats.
A. Vessel and Land-Based Interactions
Interactions with marine mammals have increased from land as well. Id. Seals and sea lions, for example, are closely approached by people for the purposes of posing with them for pictures, touching, petting, poking, throwing objects at them to elicit a reaction, or simply to closely observe them. Researchers monitoring the effects of human disturbance on wild marine mammals report boat strikes, disruption of behaviors and social groups, separation of mothers and young, and abandonment of resting areas. Id. In addition, there are significant public safety considerations for people as well. Id. People have been bitten or otherwise seriously injured while trying to pet, approach, feed, swim with, or interact with marine mammals. Id.
B. Swim-With-Dolphin" Activities
According to the NMFS, several of the programs in the southeast appear to be enabled by either feeding the dolphins or habituating them to human presence over time. Id. This feeding occurs despite the fact that the MMPA and NMFS regulations specifically prohibit it. See 50 C.F.R. 216.3, 56 F.R. 11693 . Even though most commercial operators in the southeast maintain they do not feed wild dolphins, the NMFS is concerned that swim-with-dolphin activities are facilitated by past or present efforts to feed and/or efforts to pursue dolphins for interaction, thereby continuing their habitation to humans. Id.
The swim-with-dolphin programs in Hawaii do not appear to the NMFS to involve the feeding of wild dolphins, but instead encroach on the sensitive habitat areas that dolphins use for resting and sheltering. Id. Spinner dolphins hunt in large groups at night in the deep waters offshore. During the day, they enter shallow coves and bays to rest, socialize, care for their young, and escape predators. Id. Several commercial operators and private citizens have discovered these resting areas and have made a practice of swimming with the dolphins. Id. The NMFS is especially concerned that these human activities are disturbing the behavior of the animals and that they may react by abandoning their historical resting areas. Id.
C. Feeding Wild Dolphins
The MMPA does not provide for a permit or other authorization process to view or interact with wild marine mammals, except for a specific purpose, such as scientific research. 67 F.R. at 4380 . Therefore, the NMFS mandates that interactions with wild marine mammals should not be attempted and viewing marine mammals must be conducted in a manned that does not harass the animals. Id. Officially, the NMFS states that it does not condone, authorize, or approve activities that closely interact with marine mammals, which includes swimming with, petting, or touching. Id. The NMFS believes that such interactions constitute "harassment" as defined in the MMPA since they involve acts of pursuit, torment, or annoyance that have the potential to injure or disrupt the behavioral patterns of wild marine mammals. Id.
Undoubtedly, there are situations where wild marine mammals approach people on their own. Each of the five NMFS Regions has, therefore, developed recommended viewing guidelines to educate the public. See NMFS Regional Wildlife Viewing Guidelines for Marine Mammals, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/MMWatch/MMViewing.html . To support these guidelines, the NMFS initiated a nationwide education and outreach program in 1997. A part of this program is the "Protect the Dolphins" campaign to address growing concerns about feeding and harassment activities. So far, these guidelines have relied on voluntary compliance by the public and commercial operators. 67 F.R. at. 4381 . As of yet, there are no final administrative rules regarding human activities directed at wild marine mammals. As the NMFS continues to monitor the growing body of scientific research regarding the effects of such interactions, it is likely that there will be a final rule issued by the Secretary soon.
See http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/MMWatch/protectdolphcamp.html to see the "Protect the Dolphins" Brochure.
IX. Dolphins in Captivity
See Dye, Lavonne "The Marine Mammal Protection Act: Maintaining the Commitment to Marine Mammal Conservation," 43 Case W. Res. 1411 (1993) for an in-depth discussion of the arguments for and against marine mammals in captivity.
A. Public Display Permits under the MMPA
Before the 1994 Amendments to the MMPA, NMFS was charged with specifying in its permits the methods of care and transportation that must be used during and after the capture of marine mammals. 66 F.R. 35209 , 35211. NMFS was responsible for including captive care requirements in permits issued to both the initial holders of captured or imported animals and to the recipients of those animals when they were transferred from one facility to another. Id. The 1994 Amendments eliminated NMFS’ jurisdiction over captive care and maintenance of marine mammals held for public display. This responsibility now belongs to the Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Animal Welfare Act ("AWA"). Id. Despite this transfer of responsibility, the NMFS still retains jurisdiction over marine mammals captured from the wild and first-time imports of marine mammals into the United States.
See 16 U.S.C. § 1374(c)(2)(A) .
According to the NMFS, there are no uniform "professionally recognized standards" established by the entire public display community. 66 F.R. at 35212. The Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums and the American Zoo and Aquarium Association, together, represent approximately 60 percent of the facilities that hold marine mammals for public display. After the 1994 Amendments, the NMFS asked the two organizations to prepare a list of standards. These standards include things like written education plans, cooperative programs with institutions of higher learning, reference libraries for staff members of a facility, and graphics and exhibits. 59 F.R. 50900 .
Id. The NMFS must also be notified within 15 days of any transport, purchase, sale or export of a marine mammal, and within 30 days after a birth, death, or escape in order to update and maintain the inventory. Id. at 1374(8)(B).
B. The Release of Captive Dolphins
In 1999, civil penalties in the amount of $59,500 were assessed for the release of two dolphins from captivity. In the Matter of: Richard O’Barry, Lloyd A. Good, III, Sugarloaf Dolphin Sanctuary, Inc., The Dolphin Project, Inc. , 1999 NOAA LEXIS 1 (1999). The dolphins were not prepared to survive in the wild and sustained life-threatening injuries as a result of their release. An administrative law judge found that the release of two dolphins without providing them with the necessary skills for survival resulted in harassment and injury to them, and therefore, constituted a violation of the MMPA. Id.
With the help of the Coast Guard, and the Florida Marine Patrol, the NMFS successfully rescued the dolphins and provided them with the veterinary care they so desperately needed. A veterinarian examined Luther and found him to be underweight, cut from boat propellers in thee places, dehydrated, and sleep deprived. Id. at 36. He found Luther’s condition to be fair and poor in terms of nutrition and felt that his condition would have deteriorated without intervention. Id. The doctor that examined Buck found that he was also significantly underweight and had several large infected lacerations on his body. He found Buck’s condition overall to be poor. A second veterinarian that examined the dolphins concluded that releasing the dolphins was inappropriate and should be considered inhumane. Id. at 38. Two other dolphins in the Sanctuary were seized and relocated immediately after the Secretary suspended the Sanctuary’s license. Id.
C. Stealing Dolphins from Captivity Is Not a Lesser of Two Evils
Hawaii v. Le Vasseur has been called the first case of animal liberation in the United States. See "Animal Liberation and the Law: Animals Board the Underground Railroad," Laura G. Kniaz, 43 Buffalo L. Rev. 765, Winter, 1995 (citing People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, History of American Animal Liberation Actions (Apr. 24, 1993)).
In 1977, Kenneth Le Vasseur and four or five other people removed two dolphins from the University of Hawaii laboratory and released them into the ocean. Hawaii v. Le Vasseur , 613 P.2d 1328, 1330 (1980). Le Vasseur had worked at the university laboratory for two years prior to the theft where he was responsible for feeding the dolphins, and repairing and cleaning their tanks. Id. Le Vasseur testified that his intention was to give the dolphins freedom of choice as to whether or not they returned to captivity. Id. at 1331. When the dolphins were freed, a message was left at the laboratory identifying the activists as the "Undersea Railroad." 43 Buffalo L. Rev. at 808.
See also Steven M. Wise, Drawing the Line, (Perseus Books, 2002) p. 35-40 for a discussion of Hawaii v. Le Vasseur and a follow up on the case and parties; see also http://www.whales.org.au/home.html for reports, stories, and views on dolphins and whales, including an article by Kenneth W. Le Vasseur on dolphins in captivity.
X. Proposed Amendments for 2002