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To the Lighthouse - Jud Rev and Imm in NZ - 3 6 09 | Supreme Courts | Judiciaries
To the Lighthouse - Jud Rev and Imm in NZ - 3 6 09
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TO THE LIGHTHOUSE: JUDICIAL REVIEW AND IMMIGRATION
BY JUSTICE SUSAN GLAZEBROOK
Immigration law throws into relief the fine balance between the courts and the
Executive when ascertaining the limits of grounds of judicial review of administrative
actions. This paper examines the expansion of the grounds of review as well as the
blurring of boundaries between the differing branches of government and also
between the key concepts of fact and law and between domestic and international law
that has occurred over the last decade.
New Zealanders like to think of themselves as a nation of voyagers. All of our
peoples, including our indigenous people, have travelling stories, both recent and
ancient. Many have family in what they still think of as their home countries.
Perhaps that is one reason why, even though we are a seabound and isolated nation,
Judge of the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. Paper written for the Supreme Court and Federal
Court Judges’ Conference held in Hobart from 24 to 28 January 2009. I am very grateful for the
invaluable assistance of former Court of Appeal law clerks Catherine Fleming and Jane Standage in the
research for, writing and illustration of this paper. I am also indebted to my current clerk, Natasha
Caldwell, for her proof-reading and for the helpful comments she has made in the course of that
exercise. The views expressed in this paper are not, however, to be taken as the views of the Court of
Appeal and any errors remain my own. As this is an unpublished conference paper, it would be
appreciated if permission could be obtained before it is cited.
we have struggled and continue to struggle to achieve justice in our immigration
procedures.2
Immigration law is an area that classically pits the rights of the State to control its
borders against the rights of individuals seeking to enter or remain in New Zealand.
As such, it throws into relief the fine balance between the courts, the traditional
guardians of the rights of individuals, and the Executive as it pursues the national
interest. This paper discusses how this relationship has developed under the auspices
of judicial review in the sphere of immigration law. The key themes that will be
explored are the expansion of the grounds of review and the blurring of borders that
has occurred between the key concepts of fact and law and domestic and international
law. The blurring of boundaries between the roles of the various players, including
the judiciary, will also be examined.
The rest of the paper is divided into six sections. After a general description of
judicial review in New Zealand, I explore each of the three main heads of review:
fairness, legality and reasonableness. The realm of fairness shows an increasing
concern on the part of the courts to secure the natural justice rights of immigrants.
The judicial concern for justice has been echoed in relation to the ground of legality,
although the ride has not been smooth. My particular focus under the heading of
legality is the evolution of the New Zealand courts’ understanding of human rights in
immigration, driven in particular by an increasing awareness of New Zealand’s
international obligations. I then turn to the issue of reasonableness and the problem of
variegated review, in particular as a mechanism to protect human rights. In the next
section of the paper I explore the intensive level of dialogue between the three
branches that has helped to shape our country’s approach to immigration. In the
conclusion I try very briefly to draw some of the threads together.
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEASCAPE
Hammond J’s recent description of judicial review as a lighthouse in the fog seems
particularly apt in the immigration context.3 It conjures up the image of a small boat
of migrants, struggling through treacherous waters towards the shores, with the light
of judicial review shining through the mist, showing whether they may pass the reef
or whether they must turn back. But the light provided by this precarious beam has
It could less charitably be said that precisely because New Zealand is so isolated and seabound it can
afford to strive for justice in this area.
Lab Tests Auckland Ltd v Auckland District Health Board [2008] NZCA 385, para 373 Hammond J.
not been steady over the years and it is still not clear what responsibility the
lighthouse-keeper has to rescue the shipwrecked.
As a small democracy, New Zealand faces particular problems in developing a
coherent theory of judicial review (and not just as it pertains to immigration). These
difficulties were outlined by Hammond J in his judgment in Lab Tests Auckland v
Auckland District Health Board.4 Because there is a limited number of cases that
come before the courts, there is less opportunity to develop the law. Indeed, as
Hammond J remarked: “There is … an intermittent and somewhat mad-headed chase
after the “latest case” on the part of the bar and commentators, and seminars sprout up
as if there has been a seismic shift when one case is decided.”5 This has the effect
that each individual case has a disproportionate impact on the law in this country. As
a result, it seems that progress occurs in occasional leaps and bounds, rather than at
the more sedate pace that is usually acceptable for those wearing judicial robes.
Judicial review in New Zealand is substantively uncharted (as our metaphor would
have it), tracing its roots to the English common law prerogative writs. A simplified
procedure for reviewing the exercise of statutory powers was introduced by the
Judicature Amendment Act 1972.6 That Act does not, however, attempt to set out the
grounds of review. Rather, it merely states that, on application for review, the High
Court may grant relief in relation to the exercise, refusal to exercise, or proposed or
purported exercise by any person of a statutory power.7 That relief may consist of
anything that the applicant would be entitled to in any proceedings for a writ or order
in the nature of mandamus, prohibition or certiorari, or for a declaration or
[2008] NZCA 385.
Ibid at para 396.
6 Statutory power is defined in s 3 of the Judicature Amendment Act 1972 as a power or right
conferred by a statute: to make any form of subordinate regulation or direction; to exercise a statutory
power of decision; to require a person to do or refrain from doing anything that he or she would not
otherwise be required by law to do or refrain from doing; or to do anything that would, but for such
power or right, be a breach of the legal rights of any person. This definition was extended in 1977 to
include the power to make any investigation or inquiry into the rights, powers, privileges, immunities,
duties, or liabilities of any person, and to encompass powers bestowed by the constitution or other
instrument of incorporation, rules, or bylaws of any body corporate.
While the view I have outlined in this paper describes the Judicature Amendment Act as procedural,
there is also a view that the Act substantively alters the underlying jurisdiction of the High Court: for
discussion see Jenny Cassie and Dean Knight “The Scope of Judicial Review: Who and What May be
Relevant” in Administrative Law (NZLS, August 2008) 72 – 77.
injunction.8 The exercise of non-statutory powers remains reviewable at common
The courts, therefore, have a great expanse before them upon which to chart the
borders of review. As Hammond J points out in Lab Tests, there has been no shortage
of attempts to sketch an enduring outline.10 It is probably fair to say that in New
Zealand the courts broadly follow the approach suggested extra-judicially by Lord
Cooke: “[T]he substantive principles of judicial review are simply that the decisionmaker must act in accordance with law, fairly and reasonably.”11 Australia’s Chief
Justice, French CJ, would add good faith to that list,12 a ground that would be
subsumed by lawfulness or fairness in New Zealand jurisprudence. Lord Bingham
has recently said that he would add only proportionality.13
I think it can now be said that the grounds of legality and fairness are relatively settled
in New Zealand, except at the borders. The jury is still out, however, on the ground of
proportionality and confusion continues to mount over what constitutes
reasonableness in various contexts. In particular, there is the question of whether we
should be making preparations for what Rodney Harrison QC has called a
Section 4(1) of the Judicature Amendment Act 1972. Note, under s 4(3) of that Act, the Court has a
discretion to refuse to grant relief. See generally, Philip A Joseph Constitutional and Administrative
Law in New Zealand (Thomson Brookers, Wellington, 3rd ed, 2007) 1093.
Mercury Energy Ltd v Electricity Corporation of NZ Ltd [1994] 2 NZLR 385, 388 (PC) Lord
Templeman. Last year the New Zealand Law Commission embarked on a review of prerogative writs,
suggesting that they may now be redundant: Review of Prerogative Writs (Issues Paper 9, August
2008). However, the project has now been put aside following widespread concern about its
Hammond J’s view of this is critical: “[G]rand theorem approaches fail to drill down far enough to
enable respectable advice to be given to parties who are supposed to abide by the law”: Lab Tests,
above n 3 para 378. He suggests a functional rather than doctrinal analysis. With regard to review of
decisions themselves, rather than the procedure or the reasoning followed, he tentatively suggests an
abuse of power notion as used by Sedley LJ and the development of distinct substantive principles in
relation to merit decisions: Lab Tests above n 3, para 386 and para 390 Hammond J. See also on this
topic Anthony Lester and Jeffrey Jowell “Beyond Wednesbury: Substantive Principles of
Administrative Law” [1987] PL 368.
Lord Cooke “The Struggle for Simplicity in Administrative Law” in Michael Taggart (ed) Judicial
Review of Administrative Action in the 1980s: Problems and Prospects (Oxford University Press,
Auckalnd, 1986) 5. This trichotomy has echoes of Lord Diplock’s three pronged approach to grounds
of review – illegality, procedural impropriety and irrationality – in Council for Civil Service Unions v
Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374, 410 (HL) Lord Diplock. South Africa’s constitution also
takes the same approach, s 33 stating: “Everyone has the right to administrative action that is lawful,
reasonable and procedurally fair.”
Robert French CJ “Administrative Law in Australia: Themes and Values” in Matthew Groves and
H.P Lee (eds) Australian Administrative Law: Fundamentals, Principles and Doctrines (Cambridge
University Press, New York, 2007) 15, 23.
Lord Bingham “What is the Law?”( Robin Cooke Lecture Victoria University of Wellington, 4
“Wednesburial”,14 as suggested by Lord Cooke in R(Daly) v Secretary of State for the
Home Department:15
I think that the day will come when it will be more widely recognised that
[Wednesbury] was an unfortunately retrogressive decision in English
administrative law, in so far as it suggested that there are degrees of
unreasonableness and that only a very extreme degree can bring an
administrative decision within the legitimate scope of judicial invalidation.
The depth of judicial review and the deference due to administrative
discretion vary with the subject matter. It may well be, however, that the law
can never be satisfied in any administrative field merely by a finding that the
decision under review is not capricious or absurd.
The next part of this paper is arranged in terms of Lord Cooke’s triptych. I begin, in a
somewhat unorthodox fashion, with fairness. This is because fairness is where
immigration first appeared on the horizon of judicial review.
Cooke J, as he then was, identified the use of the term “fairness” as a broad indicator
of the ideas encapsulated in the long-established concept of “natural justice”.16 The
two key principles of natural justice are that the parties be given adequate notice and
opportunity to be heard (audi alteram partem) and that the decision-maker be
disinterested and unbiased (nemo debet esse judex in propria sua causa). Natural
justice is a deceptively simple concept and a way for the courts to ensure that justice
is done, without usurping the difficult policy evaluations required of administrative
decision-makers. Natural justice (otherwise known as “fair play in action”17) was
firmly established in New Zealand in the wake of Ridge v Baldwin18 and Wiseman v
Borneman,19 and it was accepted that the concept’s application should not be limited
only to judicial or quasi-judicial bodies.20
However, the requirements of natural justice will vary with the power in question and
the circumstances in which it is exercised.21 The contemporary perception of the
Rodney Eric Harrison “The New Public Law: A New Zealand Perspective” (2003) 14 PLR 41, 56.
R(Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] 2 AC 532 at 549 (HL).
Daganayasi v Minister of Immigration [1980] 2 NZLR 130, 141 (CA) Cooke J.
Furnell v Whangarei High Schools Board [1973] 2 NZLR 705, 718 (PC) Lord Morris.
[1964] AC 40 (HL).
[1971] AC 297 (HL).
See Furnell above n 17, 718 Lord Morris.
Daganayasi above n 16, 141 Cooke J. See also Lab Tests above n 3, paras 57 – 58 Arnold and Ellen
27 22 Pagliara v Attorney-General [1974] 1 NZLR 86 (SC) and Tobias v May [1976] 1 NZLR 509 (SC). which sat above the lower Magistrates Courts. In Daganayasi v Minister of Immigration26 it was held that a decision by the Minister not to prevent deportation of the appellant. He states that the ombudsman reviewed revocation of permits much more effectively than the courts. the doctor had not been consulted and was not of that opinion.24 It was therefore not a breach of their rights if that licence was revoked without consultation. The reason was that the appellant had not had a chance to see or respond to a report by a medical referee which conveyed the impression that her child’s doctor had been fully consulted and agreed there was a low risk to the child. At this time. The Court found the decision invalid on the grounds of procedural unfairness and held that the prejudicial contents of the report should have been shown to the appellant so that she could have an opportunity to answer them. whose child had a rare metabolic disease. When the natural justice rights of a Fijian applicant for residence were interrogated in 1980. nevertheless. In 1980.circumstances of immigration saw natural justice review off to a rocky start in New Zealand’s immigration law. Discussed further below in section IVA. in part because of the accumulation of experience and more extensive procedures available to the ombudsman: “Administrative Law Developments in New Zealand as Seen through Immigration Law” in Grant Huscroft and Michael Taggart (eds) Inside and Outside Canadian Administrative Law (University of Toronto Press.25 But the 1980s proved a watershed. and District Courts were established to replace the Magistrates Courts. Daganayasi represented a fundamental shift in attitude from the cases of the 1970s. 25 Sir Kenneth Keith notes a contrast with the role of ombudsman at that time. but rather a reevaluation of the position of migrants. 137 – 140. the Supreme Court was renamed the High Court. 170 (CA) Lord Denning MR. The reasoning was that “aliens” had no right to be in the country. clear that the case of aliens is firmly retained under a different category. 2006) 134 – 137. 6 . following the Royal Commission on the Courts Report 1978. 24 Schmidt v Secretary of State for Home Affairs [1969] 2 Ch 149. 94 Quilliam J. 23 Ibid. Toronto. 27 Sir Kenneth Keith “Administrative Law Developments” above n 25. the New Zealand High Court was named the Supreme Court. In fact. except by licence of the Crown. 511 Quilliam J. applied in Pagliara above n 22. 26 Above n 16. It is.22 The Judge in Tobias v May stated:23 The audi alteram partem principle is now well recognised and established in its application to the decisions of administrative authorities as well as to judicial and quasi-judicial tribunals. the earlier decisions did not even warrant a mention. but it should be noted that the watershed was not an administrative law revolution. Even post-Ridge v Baldwin two decisions in the 1970s refused to enforce an immigrant’s right to be heard prior to deportation. was invalid.
para 87.29 The law has since been challenged to take another leap forward and recognise not only the procedural rights of the would-be immigrant. The humanitarian 7 . 29 Attorney-General v Udompun [2005] 3 NZLR 204 (CA) McGrath. Executive. or interests protected or recognised by law”. There was no attempt to make the possible argument that the Bill of Rights did not apply because the applicant in that case was at the relevant time undergoing immigration processing and had not been admitted to New Zealand. 31 [2008] NZCA 377 (CA).28 The Executive’s respect for the Bill of Rights in the immigration context is evidenced by the Crown’s acceptance in Attorney-General v Udompun that immigration officials are subject to the requirements of s 27 of the Bill of Rights when making decisions about the grant of permits at the border. That Act applies to acts done by the Legislature. paras 11 – 18 (CA) Glazebrook and Hammond JJ. and affirms a range of rights. the focus was on the “humanitarian interview”. As the children were born in New Zealand. and Judiciary. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2005 has now removed the right to citizenship by birth (jus soli) and children born in New Zealand after 1 January 2006 inherit the most favourable immigration status of either of their parents (jus sanguinus). In particular. 30 [2008] NZCA 291 (CA).32 The Huang case also related to the removal of parents with New Zealand born children where the parents’ applications for refugee status had been unsuccessful. William Young and O’Regan JJ. although it does not grant courts the power to override inconsistent legislation. A majority of the Court of Appeal has recently held that the Bill of Rights guarantee of natural justice is at least equal to that required under administrative law. Glazebrook. they were automatically New Zealand citizens. The issue was how the interests of the children should be taken into account in the decision-making process. Two recent Court of Appeal cases dealt with the removal from New Zealand of would-be immigrants who had children born in New Zealand: Ye v Minister of Immigration30 and Huang v Minister of Immigration. 33 I discuss the development of the humanitarian interview procedure further below in the context of the dialogue between the courts and the other branches of government (section VI(A)). obligations.33 a procedure that had been instituted by the immigration 28 Combined Beneficiaries Union Inc v Auckland City COGS Committee [2008] NZCA 423. 32 As citizens the children have “the right to be in New Zealand at any time”: s 3(1) Immigration Act 1987.In 1990. but also the procedural rights of citizen children. Section 27(1)(b) affirms a concurrent right to apply for judicial review of such a decision.31 The Ye case concerned two families of Chinese citizens who had been in New Zealand on temporary permits and had failed in their applications for refugee status. when considering whether the parents should be removed following the expiry of their temporary permits. natural justice rights gathered added force from the enactment of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (the Bill of Rights). Section 27(1)(a) of the Bill of Rights affirms the right of every person to “the observance of the principles of natural justice by any tribunal or other public authority which has the power to make a determination in respect of that person's rights.
38 The international law in question was art 12 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC). As soon as an immigrant is unlawfully in the country (that is. However. the Removal Review Authority’s decision is final and cannot be reconsidered (s 51). The fiveJudge court36 was split. the views of the child ought to be ascertained in the same way as required for overstayer children under s 141B of the Immigration Act 1987. 35 An amendment in 1999 meant that any appeal on humanitarian grounds to the Removal Review Authority (s 47) had to be instituted within 42 days of the person becoming unlawfully in New Zealand (that is. as soon as his or her permit expires) he or she is required to leave. 8 . This case is discussed in more detail below in section V(A)(b). However. however. when the temporary permit expires). as had previously been the case. while the Deportation Review Tribunal has the power to make orders quashing deportation orders (s 104). 38 Section 141B of the Immigration Act requires an overstayer child to be represented by a parent or responsible adult in proceedings relating to the child’s immigration status. Mine was the only judgment in Ye to address the children’s right to be heard (and the judgments in Huang did not mention the issue). resulting in three judgments. Subject to appeal to the High Court on a question of law.35 In Ye. 37 Chambers and Robertson JJ in Ye above n 30. but may appeal to a quasi-judicial tribunal.service in the wake of Tavita v Minister of Immigration34 to ensure that humanitarian considerations are taken into account immediately prior to removal. 36 The Court of Appeal usually sits as a panel of three Judges. the Removal Review Authority. They. while the parents’ interests had been considered on numerous occasions. their interview is not the only. the interests of the children had not been separately considered and. The responsible adult is required to attempt to elicit the views of the child and make them known (s 141C(c)) and due weight must be given to those views by the decision-maker (s 141D(b)). para 547 left open the question of whether citizen children had any right to be heard earlier in the process. In Ye above n 30 and Huang above n 31. took the view that no-one had any right to be heard at the time of removal. rather than subsequent to the making of a removal order. a major plank of the argument in that case was that the children had been denied their separate right to be heard in relation to their parents’ removal. That authority has jurisdiction to make a decision on humanitarian grounds (s 47). although the right to judicial review remains if exercised within three months of the impugned decision (s 146A). the parents’ appeal rights were either exhausted or had expired. any proceeding. In the case of the two families at issue.37 It was my view that the presumption of consistency with international law requires that. By s 130 an application may also be made to the Minister of Immigration for a special direction. which requires States to give children an opportunity to be heard in matters affecting them. 34 Tavita v Minister of Immigration [1994] 2 NZLR 257 (CA). there were a number of substantive arguments which I will deal with later. s58D Judicature Act 1908 provides that the Court must sit as a full Court of five Judges to hear and determine: cases that are considered to be of sufficient significance to warrant the consideration of a full Court. or even the primary. Further. for example before the Removal Review Authority. For example. when a citizen child’s parents are subject to a removal order. There are also other tribunals dealing with other matters. in particular. the Residence Review Board has the power to hear appeals against the refusal of a visa officer or an immigration officer to grant an application for a residence visa or a residence permit (s 18B). stage at which humanitarian considerations are taken into account. case or question referred by the Court for hearing and determination by a full Court and any appeal from a decision of the Courts Martial Appeal Court. I considered that the children had never been given the opportunity to exercise their right to be heard.
Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2) [2005] 1 NZLR 690 (CA) and Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2) [2006] 1 NZLR 289 (SC) concerned judicial review of the security risk certificate. The extent of any rights to a hearing is one issue in those appeals. on the basis of statutory criteria set out in the Resource Management Act 1991.status as “hei haizi”. para 178 Richardson J.39 the fact that they had never been to China and the length of time they had spent already in New Zealand. 2008) 180. Mr Zaoui was detained under s 128 of the 39 “Black children”. 190. 47 Dean R Knight “A Murky Methodology: Standards of Review in Administrative Law” in Claudia Geiringer and Dean R Knight (eds) Seeing the World Whole: Essays in Honour of Sir Kenneth Keith (Victoria University Press.45 the Supreme Court Judges held that this was a decision which should be carefully scrutinised. in order to ensure that it met the requirements of natural justice. 44 The relevant statutory criteria at the time of the authority’s decision required an application to be notified unless the consent authority was satisfied that the adverse effect on the environment for which consent was sought would be minor. In Discount Brands Ltd v Westfield (New Zealand) Ltd43 the Court took a relatively intrusive approach to review of a local council’s procedure in granting a resource consent. The United Nations Human Rights Committee has found that the length of time the family have spent in the host country is a significant factor to be taken into account in deportation decisions: see for example Winata v Australia (16 August 2001) CCPR/C/72/D/930/2000 and Sahid v New Zealand (11 April 2003) CCPR/C/77/D/893/1999. para 26 Elias CJ. Wellington. s 94(2)(a). paras 53-54 Keith J. and unless written approval had been obtained from every person whom the council is satisfied may be adversely affected by the granting of the resource consent s 94(2)(b).41 In another context.46 Keith J went so far that one commentator has described his approach as a “correctness standard”.47 The extent to which the Supreme Court is willing to take a proactive approach to procedural issues was particularly evident in the case of Mr Zaoui. 48 Relevantly. 42 The New Zealand Supreme Court was established in 2004 as New Zealand’s highest appellate Court pursuant to the enactment of the Supreme Court Act 2003. who had fled that country following a military coup.48 Upon arrival in New Zealand in December 2002. 46 Discount Brands above n 43. 43 Discount Brands Ltd v Westfield (New Zealand) Ltd [2005] 2 NZLR 597 (SC). a Member of Parliament in Algeria. para 116 Blanchard J. that is. children born in breach of China’s one child policy. 41 Discussed at n 161. 45 Discount Brands v Northcote Mainstreet Inc [2004] 3 NZLR 619 (CA).40 Both Ye and Huang are currently subject to appeal before the Supreme Court. At the time of the Court of Appeal judgment the children of the two families were aged between three and eleven years old. and Zaoui v Attorney-General [2004] 2 NZLR 339 (HC). That case involved the North Shore City Council’s decision not to notify publicly an application for resource consent.44 In contrast to the Court of Appeal’s application of a Wednesbury standard. the Supreme Court42 has shown itself willing take a hands-on approach where fair process rights are at stake. the decisions in Zaoui v Attorney-General [2005] 1 NZLR 666 (HC) and Zaoui v Attorney-General [2005] 1 NZLR 577 (CA and SC) addressed the issue of whether Mr Zaoui could be granted bail pending determination of his case (the Supreme Court ultimately granted bail). The Supreme Court replaced the Privy Council as New Zealand’s Court of final appeal. paras 147150 Tipping J. 40 9 .
In the High Court it was held that. Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT) were fulfilled. the Minister was required to conduct a sufficiently thorough inquiry into Mr Zaoui’s circumstances to ensure that New Zealand’s nonrefoulement obligations under the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel. In Zaoui v AttorneyGeneral (No 2). 51 The position of the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security was established under the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security Act 1996. if the certificate was confirmed. the reasoning upon which the Court relied places it more comfortably under the umbrella of legality. on 20 March 2003. and was only transferred to less onerous conditions following representations from his lawyers. the Court put a gloss on the statute. and is appointed under the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969. 288. but he was subsequently granted refugee status after an appeal to the Refugee Status Appeals Authority in August 2003. The RSAA is an independent quasi-judicial review body established in 1991 to determine appeals from decisions of the Refugee Status Branch of Immigration New Zealand. the Director of Security issued a security risk certificate under s 114D of the Immigration Act. 10 . para 171 (HC) Williams J. 54 The Director of Security serves as the Chief Executive of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service. However. and to ensure that complaints relating to that agency are properly investigated. The certificate could be relied upon to secure Mr Zaoui’s removal from New Zealand. indicating that Mr Zaoui was seen as a threat to national security. It held that the three-day time frame for removal in s 114K of the Immigration Act did not apply to such an inquiry. and I therefore propose to return to it in more detail below. For the first ten months he was held in conditions akin to solitary confinement in a high security prison.49 In the meantime. 50 Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2) [2006] 1 NZLR 289 (SC). 52 Claudia Geiringer “Zaoui revisited” [2005] NZLJ 285. declining refugee status. holding that. Mr Zaoui was entitled to a summary of the allegations against him. a final point is worth noting. on natural justice grounds. The Inspector-General is entrusted with assisting the Minister responsible for New Zealand’s intelligence and security agency to ensure that the activities of the agency complies with the law.Immigration Act. notwithstanding his refugee status.50 the Supreme Court was asked to assess a procedure proposed by the Inspector-General for Intelligence and Security51 to review the certificate that was issued declaring Mr Zaoui a security risk. However. One commentator has stated that: the Supreme Court in coming to that conclusion had “overridden or ignored the clear indications within the statutory scheme:”52 Although Zaoui (No 2) could be classed as a fairness issue. Mr Zaoui’s application for refugee status was initially declined.53 This was against the protests of the Director of Security54 that such a summary would prejudice the operations of 49 Refugee Appeal No 74540 1 August 2003. 53 Zaoui v Attorney-General [2004] 2 NZLR 339. The Court held that the Inspector-General’s role was statutorily limited to assessing the security criteria set out in s 144C of the Immigration Act 1987.
56 11 . para 72 (CA) Glazebrook J. which also included a hint of something more. as Cooke J (as he then was) stated that the appellant had “a legitimate expectation of a favourable decision.”58 Despite this indication of a judicial leaning towards the more expansive ground of substantive legitimate expectation.59 Even the notion of procedural legitimate expectation has not been much relied upon. 525 Lord Woolf. However.57 This approach was picked up in Daganayasi. ex parte Khan [1985] 1 All ER 40 (CA) and R v Liverpool Corporation. Ex Parte Liverpool Taxi Fleet Operators’ Association [1972] 2 QB 299. 60 Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Teoh (1995) 183 CLR 273 (HCA). Another interesting procedural ground with substantive tendencies is the idea of legitimate expectation. he was of the opinion that a fuller summary could have been provided to Mr Zaoui. It was stated that if. The paper’s discussion of my judgment in Ye relating to the children’s right to be heard could equally have been placed under the heading of “legality”. 308 (CA) Lord Denning MR. the ground has remained problematic in New Zealand (as it has in Australia). 59 NZ Maori Council v Attorney-General [1994] 1 NZLR (PC) 513. Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2) [2005] 1 NZLR 690. but the presumption of consistency with international law. after the Inspector-General had reviewed all of the classified material. as the basis for my view was not primarily the principles of natural justice. but both agreed with the Judge’s conclusion that the principles of fairness required that the memoranda and reports of the medical referee should have been disclosed to the appellant or her solicitor before the decision was made to allow her a reasonable opportunity of answering them – see 132 and 149 respectively. made no comment on this aspect of Cooke J’s judgment.61 it remains very much a 55 Zaoui (HC) above n 53. para 42 Williams J. legitimate expectation simply requires that the decision-maker adhere to the policy or procedure that has been advertised to those subject to it. 57 Attorney-General of Hong Kong v Ng Yuen Shiu [1983] 2 AC 629 (PC). In one manifestation. Although the discussion in Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Teoh60 has been picked up in New Zealand. or at least give those affected fair warning and an opportunity to respond to any proposed changes. 58 Above n 16 at 145. R v Home Secretary.56 This matter did not arise for consideration again in the Supreme Court. Richmond P and Richardson J. the Privy Council seems to have endorsed it.55 The matter was briefly raised again in the Court of Appeal. See discussion in Helen Aikman QC “The Scope of Judicial Review – Scalpel or Chainsaw?” in Judicial Review Intensive (NZLS September 2007) 18 – 19. then he should ensure that this was done. B Blurred borders The borders of procedural review are (of course) blurred. at least in the context of promises made by the government in relation to Treaty of Waitangi settlements. and the Court reinforced the High Court’s finding. both delivering separate judgments.the Security Intelligence Service.
In Ye. See for example Elika v Minister of Immigration [1996] 1 NZLR 741 (HC). traditionally a forbidden area for judges in judicial review. On the other hand. although my view on these matters was not shared by the other Judges. the product of bias. In Fiordland Venison the stability of the game industry could be viewed to be a factual matter. In that case the Court went so far as to grant a declaration that the appellant was entitled to a licence. On the one hand. I noted a range of factual matters that pertained to the interests of the children that had not been considered. 61 As noted by Stephen Gageler “The Impact of Migration Law on the Development of Australian Administrative Law” (Paper presented at the Supreme Court and Federal Court Judges Conference. 63 Wolf v Minister of Immigration [2004] NZAR 414. may be a result of the decision-maker’s breach of natural justice rights. or taking into account irrelevant considerations are often as much about fact as they are about law. or the effect of adherence to a pre-determined policy. This has the effect of blurring the borders between fact and law. In this manifestation. para 72 (HC) Wild J. there is a risk of the courts intruding into the merits of a decision. Arguments about leaving out relevant considerations. as with substantive legitimate expectation. In the leading case of Fiordland Venison Ltd v Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. Wild J in Wolf v Minister of Immigration held that the Deportation Review Tribunal had failed to take into account evidence on the “vital issue of the effect on the two children of their father’s deportation”63. the Minister’s decision to consider a criterion outside of those identified in the statute in a licensing decision was given short shrift by the Court of Appeal. Distinctions between grounds of review are also blurred in cases involving mandatory relevant considerations.background issue in the broad sweep of judicial review. failure to consider a relevant factor. Similarly.” rather than expressed by statute. 12 . Often this ground will shade into fairness considerations. Hobart. the omission could be a result of wilful blindness. a failure to take into account the correct considerations may amount to a substantive failing in the sense that it will be an error of law or render the decision unreasonable. even ones that are “implied. 62 Fiordland Venison Ltd v Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries [1978] 2 NZLR 341 (CA). New Zealand courts have not been shy to hold decisionmakers to relevant considerations. 24 to 28 January 2009). or the mistaken consideration of irrelevant factors. tending to operate in an alternative or backup capacity.62 The Court also noted that the Minister had failed to consider the relevant statutory consideration as to the stability of the game industry in the decision-making process. Moreover.
citing Secretary of State for Education and Science v Tameside Borough Council [1977] AC 1014. that it cannot be a mistake to adopt one of two differing views of the facts. It is not clear whether a mistake of fact is a ground of review of itself. paras 11-120 as being contrary to the Privy Council decision in Re Erebus Royal Commission. untechnical and prompt procedure”67 and is not well equipped with fact-finding processes. Cooke P. 66 The comment does. although it clearly operates as a factor under all three of the major heads of review. For example. 1030 (CA) Scarman LJ. 65 Above n 30. or it must be an established and recognised opinion. because the Minister had a mistaken impression of the risks to the child in that case. appear to accept a mistake of fact as a ground of review. the fact itself must either be established. 66 New Zealand Fishing Industry Assoication Inc v Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries [1988] 1 NZLR 544. The tendency of the New Zealand courts to see error of fact as an error going to substance or outcome rather than an error going to procedure is criticised in Woolf and others (eds) De Smith’s Judicial Review (6th ed Sweet and Maxwell 2007). noted that to jeopardise validity on the ground of mistake of fact. This arguably jeopardises the very nature of the review procedure. 67 Minister of Energy v Petrocorp Exploration Ltd [1989] 1 NZLR 348. If mistake of fact is indeed a separate ground of review in itself. Cooke J was of the view that Daganayasi could be decided on two separate grounds of review. 353 (CA) Cooke P. or on the grounds of the resulting mistake of fact. He said. 13 . paras 342 – 343 Hammond J. It also creates other issues. Judicial review is intended to be “a relatively simple. the failure of the immigration officer to realise that the children were most likely to remain in New Zealand if their mother was removed. for the Court. Here. 64 Richmond P and Richardson J declined to comment on the ground of mistake of fact – see at 132 and 149 respectively. 68 See comments in Lab Tests above n 3. 671 (PC) Lord Diplock.There are also cases where a decision-maker has operated on a mistaken factual premise. however. Cooke J argued that the Minister’s decision could be deemed invalid either on the grounds of failure to give the appellant a chance to be heard.64 The Hammond and Wilson JJ judgment in Ye could also be characterised as relying on mistake of fact – that is. para 404 Hammond and Wilson JJ. Air New Zealand v Mahon [1983] NZLR 662. 552 (CA) Cooke P.68 It appears to be a universal trend in judicial review cases for a myriad of factual matters to be put forward under one or the other heads of review.65 Mistake of fact was also argued in conjunction with a relevant consideration argument in New Zealand Fishing Industry Association Inc v Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. then this serves to blur the boundaries between law and fact even further. if either may reasonably be held.
the perimeter is. quoted in Bulk Gas above n 70 at 133 Cooke J. 75 Ibid. it is a matter for the courts to resolve “in fulfilment of their constitutional role as interpreters of the written law and expounders of the common law and rules of equity.71 marked the shift from traditional jurisdictional error to error of law. is subject to the rule of law. 72 Re Racal Communications Ltd [1981] AC 347 (HL).75 A The Rising Tide: International law and human rights It is a basic truth of our political system that every person. there is a presumption that this power is confined to answering the question as defined. I mentioned above that the swift movement of the law in relation to the natural justice rights of immigrants was driven by a change in the general attitude towards migrants. Faced with a privative clause. and more importantly. 74 [1999] 2 NZLR 164 (CA). 382 – 383 Lord Diplock.”73 This conclusion was restated definitively in Peters v Davidson. including the government. to discover where. Bulk Gas Users Group v Attorney-General [1983] NZLR 129 (CA). The Court specifically contrasted its approach with the different approach taken in Australia in Craig v State of South Australia (1995) 184 CLR 163 (HCA). But what about the rule of international law? The growth area in the judicial analysis of legality over the last thirty years has been the understanding of international legal obligations and this has been particularly so in the immigration arena. The modern understanding of substantive judicial review in New Zealand traces its roots to Bulk Gas Users Group v Attorney-General.70 Bulk Gas. If any doubt exists as to what the question may be. 180 – 181.74 the four-Judge majority stating that error of law was a ground in and of itself and commenting that the idea of jurisdictional error was now essentially redundant.IV LEGALITY Legality has traditionally been seen as the true basis of judicial review. para 363 Hammond J.69 Decisionmakers can only act on the basis of their lawful powers and it is the responsibility of the courts to police the perimeter. 73 Ibid. in fact. riding the wave of Anisminic Ltd v Foreign Compensation Commission.72 holding that when Parliament confers a power on an administrative authority to decide a particular question. 70 14 . Thought of previously as without rights or legitimate 69 Ibid. the judgment in Bulk Gas applied Lord Diplock’s statement in Re Racal Communications Ltd. 71 Anisminic Ltd v Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147 (HL).
Melissa Poole “International Instruments in Administrative Decisions: Mainstreaming International Law” (1999) 30 VUWLR 91. 2004) 175 – 176. the common law customary international law applies domestically regardless of whether there has been incorporation by a domestic lawmaker (although. as treaties are signed and ratified by the Executive. Ratified in 1973.81 Although New Zealand still describes itself as a dualist system82. one view is that their incorporation by courts is undemocratic (despite the more recent practice of putting some treaties before Parliament for consideration). 80 Michael Taggart “Rugby. a phenomenon described by Professor Taggart as the “double helix approach. at least where these affect individual rights.78 and UNCROC.83 However. 83 In New Zealand. Wellington. 78 Ratified in 1978. the Anti-apartheid Movement. New Zealand law treats international treaties as having to be specifically incorporated into domestic law before they have effect. 84 See discussion in Treasa Dunworth “The rising tide of customary international law: will New Zealand sink or swim?” (2004) 15 PLR 36 and Treasa Dunworth “Hidden Anxieties: Customary International Law in New Zealand” (2004) 2 NZJPIL 67. 79 Ratified in 1993. this is subject to legislative override). 221. For discussion see Susan Glazebrook “Filling the Gaps” in Rick Bigwood (ed) The Statute: Making and Meaning (Lexis Nexis.expectations. 107 and Lord Steyn “Democracy Through Law” in (New Zealand Centre for Public Law Occasional Paper-No 12I 2002) 8. 82 Dualism is the theory that the spheres of domestic and international law are separate and that international law must be incorporated into domestic law before it can have effect within a State.77 the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). the reality is that the relationship between international and domestic law is far from clear. The other view (to which I subscribe) is that it is not unreasonable to require the Executive to abide by obligations it has entered into. despite the absence of domestic legislation giving domestic legal effect to these treaties.84 76 Ratified in 1973. 81 For a comprehensive discussion of the increasing influence of international law on the judicial interpretation of domestic law provisions see Melissa Waters “Creeping Monism: The Judicial Trend Towards Interpretative Incorporation of Human Rights Treaties” (2007) 107 Columbia Law Review 628. See also Ben Keith “Seeing the World 77 15 . the position of the immigrant has changed dramatically with the increase in international human rights treaties including the Protocol to the Refugee Convention. Wellington. Waters has coined the phrase “creeping monism” to refer to the phenomenon whereby common law courts are abandoning their traditional dualist orientation to utilise unincorporated human rights instruments. Under a monist system the opposite is the case and international treaty law becomes national law at the time it is ratified by the State. and Administrative Law” in Rick Bigwood (ed) Public Interest Litigation (Lexis Nexis. like the common law. Treasa Dunworth “Public International Law” [2007] NZ Law Rev 217. 2006) 82.”80 The term “double helix” refers to the intertwining of the presumption of consistency with international obligations and the presumption of consistency with fundamental rights – in particular those contained in the Bill of Rights.76 the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD).79 These international conventions have been bolstered in New Zealand by the fundamental values of the common law and by the explicit legislative directions in the Bill of Rights.
When successive New Zealand governments refused to intervene in the New Zealand Ruby Football Union’s decision-making process. a strong presumption of consistency of statutes with international law. Lexis Nexis.88 a) Phase one: Cooke J dips his toe in the water (and finds it a bit cold) The presumption of consistency with international obligations had an inauspicious start89 in the New Zealand courts in the controversial context of the 1981 Springbok Tour. in particular citizen children. 87 See Lord Atkin’s classic statement of the Executive’s power in Attorney-General (Canada) v Cain. 84 . See Michael Taggart above n 80. 148 and 149. 16 . the anti-tour movement sought recourse to the courts. 88 Sir Kenneth Keith “Administrative Law Developments” above n 25. including unincorporated treaties. tracing its use in New Zealand back at least a hundred years: “ The Role of the Courts in New Zealand in Giving Effect to International Human Rights – with Some History” (1999) 29 VUWLR 27. and effectively put an end to the tour: Finnigan v New Zealand Rugby Football Union (No 1) [1985] 2 NZLR 159 (HC and CA) and Finnigan v New Zealand Rugby Football Union (No 2) [1985] 2 NZLR 181 (HC). 37. In Whole: Understanding the Citation of External Sources in Judicial Reasoning” in Claudia Geiringer and Dean R Knight above n 47.Further. See for example Huang above n 31. are considerations that occupy the minds of immigration officers and members of the judiciary alike. has arisen. 2003) 341 – 343. Ye above n 30 89 Or perhaps rebirth. para 34 Glazebrook J.86 The influence of international law has placed limitations on the traditional prerogative of the Executive to determine the fundamental questions as to who can transverse the borders of the state.87 There has also been a shift in focus and the rights of those seeking either refugee status or a permit to stay in New Zealand are now firmly within the spotlight of the courts. para 89 Glazebrook J and Zaoui (No 2) above n 56. deference. 546 (PC) Lord Atkin.91 where the decision of the Minister of Immigration to grant temporary permits to the South African rugby team members was under judicial review. 85 John F Burrows Statute Law in New Zealand (3 ed. Attorney General for Canada v Gilhula [1906] AC 542. 86 Michael Taggart “Proportionality. 91 Ashby v Minister of Immigration [1981] 1 NZLR 222 (CA).90 In Ashby v Minister of Immigration.98.85 The engrafting of international and other human rights law requirements onto discretions has been instrumental in breaking down the traditional dividing line between domestic and international law and between questions of law and the exercise of discretionary power. 90 The national obsession with rugby in both South Africa and New Zealand generated particular friction in New Zealand the 1970s and early 1980s as tours went ahead despite international boycotting of sporting contacts with South Africa during apartheid. 163. The rights and interests of family members. The 1985 tour was successfully stalled by a private law action brought under the constitution of the Rugby Union which resulted in an interim injunction preventing the All Black team from leaving New Zealand. and who can remain in New Zealand and under what conditions. Wednesbury” in NZLS Judicial Review Intensive (September 2007) 27-28. Sir Kenneth Keith has expounded the view that the presumption is much older. Wellington. the presumption was rejected by the Court of Appeal. See also Ye above n 30.
93 By contrast. 231 Richardson J. required to enable persons claiming refugee status to stay in New 92 Above n 34. Being unlawfully in New Zealand. 94 Ibid.95 Somers J demonstrated a similar reluctance to rely on the presumption of consistency. as it lacked a specific provision for detention pending determination of refugee status. Further. 229 Richardson J 95 Ibid.Ashby. the Immigration Act 1987 required that they be either released. stating that to rely on the presumption would “not be to interpret but to legislate. Richardson J held that the considerations that must be taken into account by decision-makers exercising the broad discretionary powers that were provided by statute ought not to be tampered with by the courts. Ashby above n 91. Relying on the fact that immigration policy “is a sensitive and often controversial political issue”. or removed from New Zealand within 28 days. but had not been granted security clearance by the New Zealand police and were therefore held in detention. Richardson J took a more reticent approach and held that s 14 of the Immigration Act 1964 was a clear and unambiguous discretion which left no room for interpretation in accordance with the international obligations under CERD. 225 – 226 Cooke J. Rather.94 The widely cast discretionary provision was the deciding factor for Richardson J. the seed of the presumption of consistency was sown. but noted there was a “deficiency” in the legislation. the determination of refugee status. New Zealand’s obligations under CERD did not reach that level of importance.”96 In a similar vein. rather than with a view to determining status. 93 17 .92 held that it is only when a statute expressly or by implication identifies a consideration as one to which regard must be had that the courts can intervene for failure to take it into account. 97 D v Minister of Immigration [1991] 2 NZLR 673 (CA). in the case of D v Minister of Immigration97 the Court did not feel it was able to give any effect to New Zealand’s international obligations under the Refugee Convention. In that case the appellants were Pakistanis who were seeking refugee status in New Zealand. the judgment contained a rather pointed suggestion that the government reconsider the legislation in question. 96 Ibid at 232 Somers J. Detention could only be with a view to removal. Despite the rejection of the ground. Cooke J (as he then was). who would later champion the international cause in Tavita. In his view. Cooke J stated that he would not exclude the possibility that a certain factor might be of such overwhelming or manifest importance that the courts might hold that Parliament could not possibly have meant to allow it to be ignored. despite being clearly aware of them. The Court held that the detention was lawful.
the discussion in the judgment was squarely focussed on the Minister’s argument that he was entitled to ignore international obligations in immigration decision-making.98 The outcome of that decision was a clear breach of the non-refoulement provisions in the Refugee Convention. the New Zealand legal system has become increasingly malleable with respect to international obligations. However.Zealand. the Court of Appeal adjourned the appeal so that an application could be made for reconsideration in light of the altered circumstances. the best interests of the child shall be a “primary consideration”. He had appealed to the Minister of Immigration to cancel the warrant on humanitarian grounds. prohibiting the Minister from requiring him to leave New Zealand. Cooke P. James C Hathaway “Leveraging Asylum” (Address to the New Zealand Legal Research Foundation Conference Human Rights at the Frontier: New Zealand’s Immigration Legislation – an International Human Rights Law Perspective Auckland. In fact. Ultimately.100 Over the following decade. Mr Tavita’s daughter was born in New Zealand. The obligation in question was that in art 3(1) of UNCROC which provides that in all public actions concerning children. there was a perceptible shift in the legal mood and the idea that international obligations had to be taken into account was endorsed in Tavita. In the High Court Mr Tavita brought an application for an interim order under s 8 of the Judicature Amendment Act 1972. McGechan J dismissed the application. 676 Cooke P. Professor Hathaway has recently described this case as a blot on New Zealand’s otherwise good record in refugee decisions. 99 18 .99 b) Phase two: Taking the plunge The application of international obligations in the immigration law context did not founder at Ashby and D. as it allowed the removal from New Zealand of refugee claimants. but made an interim order for a stay of removal pending appeal. would be unlikely to be carried out within the prescribed 28 day period. the Immigration Service sought to execute the removal warrant. Shortly after that decision. 100 Claudia Geiringer “International Law through the lens of Zaoui: Where is New Zealand at?” (2006) 17 PLR 300. and from removing him or causing him to be removed from New Zealand. Although the Court denied that it was making any decision on the extent to which international obligations were to be taken into account by domestic decision-makers. chastised the Minister of Immigration and 98 Ibid. some not so subtle hints regarding the significance of international obligations were given by the Court. but the Minister had declined to do so. Mr Tavita subsequently appealed the order refusing interim relief. The case concerned the execution of a warrant to remove Mr Tavita from New Zealand. 12 September 2008). for the Court. Two years later.
”105 The issue arose a third time in Rajan v Minister of Immigration. in accordance with UNCROC. When their permits were revoked. “the starting point must be the position of the person who is unlawfully in the country”. concluding that the concerns raised would be met in the consideration of the Deportation Review Tribunal. the couple applied for judicial review in the High Court as well as appealing to the Deportation Review Tribunal. Puli’uvea v Removal Review Authority. 103 Puli’uvea v Removal Review Authority (1996) 2 HRNZ 510 (CA). 517 Keith J. Cooke P made the prophetic statement that the law as to the bearing on domestic law of international human rights instruments was undergoing evolution. in the immigration context. The Court emphasised that. it was held that. the Court of Appeal handed down a judgment that further clarified the issue. it was clear that the Court’s commitment to international treaties was solidifying. As the warrant was cancelled on reconsideration. two years after Tavita. one born in Australia and one in New Zealand. In 1996.104 As in Tavita.”101 Importantly. Ibid. the Court observed that.commented that the Minister’s argument was “unattractive”. They had two children. 104 Ibid. “the rights of the family and the child are the starting point”. However. He was of the view that “legitimate criticism could extend to the New Zealand courts if they were to accept the argument that. 265 Cooke P. under the two international instruments relevant to that case (UNCROC and the ICCPR). 105 Ibid. 516 – 517 Keith J. 106 Rajan v Minister of Immigration [1996] 3 NZLR 543 (CA). the Court was not required to make any final determination on these issues. as it was stated that “the Court should strive to interpret legislation consistently with the treaty obligations of New Zealand. However. as it held that any such obligations had been adequately addressed in the decision-making process. 265 – 266 Cooke P.102 Moreover. 102 19 . because a domestic statute giving discretionary powers in general terms does not mention international human rights norms or obligations. however. the Court of Appeal shied away from making a binding determination. the Court avoided making a definite ruling on the question of international obligations. When the matter came on appeal. the Court did not hesitate to state that there was a presumption of 101 Tavita above n 34. the executive is necessarily free to ignore them. the child’s interests were to be considered as a but not the primary consideration.103 like Tavita. Rather. concerned overstayers who had New Zealand citizen children.106 where a Fijian couple had dishonestly obtained residence in Australia and then relied on their Australian residency permits to obtain residency in New Zealand.
its “very limited binding force”. including the best interests of the children. 46 Keith J. 111 Ibid. simple and strong with the sea – not with radios.112 The judgment stated:113 107 Ibid. and its “relative unimportance” compared to other international obligations (suggesting the presumption could have more force in cases where the international obligations in question were of more significance). applied in Wolf v Minister of Immigration above n 63 in which the High Court overturned a decision of the Deportation Review Tribunal on the basis that it had not correctly evaluated the interests of the children involved. 109 New Zealand Airline Pilots’ Association v Attorney-General [1997] 3 NZLR 269 (CA). An application for an extension of time to review the Minister’s decision was declined in the High Court and the Court of Appeal. 108 The high tide in New Zealand came several years after the wave crested in the UK with Brind v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1991] 1 All ER 720 (HL). the “indeterminacy” of the treaty obligation. It is religious to me. and so the Director’s ability to regulate the equipment carried was limited. Both courts considered the merits of the application were not strong because the Minister had considered the application. legislation should be read in a way which is consistent with New Zealand’s international obligations. having regard to the continued development of coastal State rights and the need to ensure safety on the high seas. however. issuing a search warrant in relation to the investigation of a plane crash.108 In New Zealand Airline Pilots’ Association v Attorney-General109 the issue was whether a judicial officer.”111 In a decision written by Keith J. had to have regard to the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation. Important international obligations were at stake again in Sellers v Maritime Safety Inspector. The commitment to international law evidenced in Rajan was. no information was put forward to show the children would have any particular difficulties if their parents took them to Fiji: Rajan v Minister of Immigration (2 May 2003) HC AK M465-PL03. 112 It has been noted that Keith J could equally have come to the opposite conclusion on the basis that the international law had evolved to the point where. 110 Sellers v Maritime Safety Inspector [1999] 2 NZLR 44 (CA). a State would be justified in 20 . the Court of Appeal found for Mr Sellers. The Court identified a series of factors that were relevant to the question as to whether the legislation in question could be interpreted consistently with the Convention. 551 Henry and Keith JJ. Mr Sellers protested “on religious grounds” against the Director’s requirement that he carry a radio: “[m]y maritime art is based on the mystery of the sea. In that case. both outside of the immigration context but necessary to note for our discussion. so far as its wording allows. being alone. The Rajan family’s case came before the courts again when the Minister refused to grant a character waiver that would allow them to qualify for work permits. the presumption of consistency reached a high-water mark in two Court of Appeal cases in the late 1990s. It held that the legislation in question could be read consistently with the international law of freedom of the high seas.110 This case concerned the Director of Maritime Safety’s power to issue guidelines in regards to the safety equipment that was to be carried by vessels departing from New Zealand. [2004] NZAR 615 (CA).statutory interpretation that. These factors included the clarity of the national statute.107 Following Rajan.
The review has to be undertaken by the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security (the Inspector-General). The Inspector-General made an interlocutory decision as to the manner in which he intended to review the certificate and the scope of review. 148.115 imposing regulation: Gerard van Bohemen “Commentary: Sir Ken’s Contribution to the Making of International Law – Observations from a Practitioner” in Claudia Geiringer and Dean R Knight above n 47. Mr Zaoui then applied for review of the certificate (s 114I) which had the effect of prohibiting his removal while the review process was under way (s 114H(3)). The Supreme Court judgment was one of a string of cases regarding Mr Zaoui.2 of the Refugee Convention. As noted above. 113 Above n 110. Mr Zaoui challenged that decision in the High Court. which in turn referred to both s 72 of the Act and art 33. or who.… for centuries national law in this area has been essentially governed by and derived from international law with the consequence that national law is to be read. the Minister of Immigration made a preliminary decision to rely upon it. 115 Discussed above at n 51. having been convicted by a final judgment of a particularly serious crime. who was.2. consistently with the related international law. Two main issues were at stake: first. granted refugee status in New Zealand. Article 33. if at all possible. The criteria for concluding that a threat existed was that in s 114C(6) of the Immigration Act. the Director of Security had issued a security risk certificate under s 114 D of the Immigration Act indicating that Mr Zaoui was seen as a threat to national security. 21 . states that protection may not be claimed by a refugee: whom there are reasonable grounds for regarding as a danger to the security of the country in which he is. This case represents a sophisticated strengthening of the presumption of consistency with international law via convergence with other common law principles and the Bill of Rights. c) Phase three: Things going swimmingly The landmark case in the Supreme Court of Zaoui v Attorney-General (No 2)114 represents the first and only judicial offering on the presumption of consistency from New Zealand’s highest court. 62 Keith J. 114 Above n 50. which would become central to the case. as noted earlier. Four days after the certificate was issued. constitutes a danger to the community of that country. whether the Director of Security was obliged to provide a summary of security information to Mr Zaoui. That will sometimes mean that the day-to-day (or at least year-to-year) meaning of national law may vary without formal change.
119 Ibid para 25 Anderson P. and William Young J agreed in part (although both writing separate judgments). Zaoui above n 56.119 Anderson P and I also held that art 33. I held that this statutory provision required that. The High Court and the Court of Appeal considered that it was appropriate to undertake such a review. 118 Ibid para 123 Glazebrook J. para 19 Anderson P. who would make the decision whether to remove Mr Zaoui from New Zealand if the security risk certificate was upheld. the Supreme Court seemed to implicitly accept this finding by noting that the Inspector General had yet to resume the process of review of the interlocutory decision.117 However.118 The Court was unanimous on those points. It was therefore not appropriate for him to take into account international human rights instruments. The issue as to whether judicial review was premature because of the blanket application of a ripeness doctrine was not raised in the Supreme Court. 22 . para 106 Glazebrook J. whether the Inspector-General was required to have regard to international human rights standards. In my judgment I concluded that the Inspector-General’s role was limited to determining whether the security criteria upon which the certificate relied were fulfilled. but only issues relating to security. paras 153 – 157 Glazebrook J. and in particular the Refugee Convention. refers to the Refugee Convention. However.2 of the Convention required a balancing of the seriousness of the risk to national security with the possible consequences to Mr Zaoui of confirming the security risk certificate. paras 112 – 117 Glazebrook J. 120 Ibid para 23 Anderson P. This meant that the Inspector-General was not to consider human rights considerations that might affect the decision as to whether to remove Mr Zaoui from New Zealand. 117 Ibid. focusing on the fact that s 114C(6) of the Immigration Act. It was argued that those considerations should be taken into account by the Minister of Immigration. which sets out the “relevant security criteria”. including the Refugee Convention. with which Anderson P agreed. there was an interesting issue as to whether the procedures could be reviewed at the interlocutory stage.116 The Crown submitted that it was not the Inspector-General’s role to consider issues relating to removal. See Zaoui above n 53. when determining whether there were reasonable grounds for regarding Mr Zaoui as a danger to the security of New Zealand. New Zealand’s obligations under the Refugee Convention had to be considered. based on credible evidence. I wrote the main judgment.and second. paras 67 – 73 Williams J.120 We concluded that the security criteria in s 114C(6) of the Immigration Act would be met only if there were objectively reasonable grounds. that Mr Zaoui constituted 116 In addition. In the Court of Appeal. Anderson P commented in his judgment that it was “unthinkable that the Legislature intended New Zealand’s state obligations in relation to the Convention to be read down by implication”. para 186 William Young J.
2. This meant. 122 23 . agreed with the Court of Appeal’s finding that it was not the Inspector-General’s role to look at the consequences of confirmation of the security risk certificate.121 William Young J preferred not to comment on the suggested balancing test in relation to meeting the security criteria. The threshold was high and had to involve a danger of substantial threatened harm to the security of New Zealand. 126 One of counsel’s arguments on this head. para 154 Glazebrook J. however. para 196 William Young J. 123 The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 states the rules of customary international law for the interpretation of treaties. We also took the view that there must be a real connection between Mr Zaoui and the identified danger and that an appreciable alleviation of that danger must be capable of being achieved through his deportation. 128 It thus turned to the decision-making process that would follow if the Inspector-General confirmed the security risk certificate. but that his role was only to assess the application of the security criteria. however. If the Minister then certified to the 121 Ibid. thought to present a threat. Following a careful analysis of art 33.127 The question then tackled by the Supreme Court was how these protections were to be implemented.124 It was only necessary that the person in question is.122 That balancing test was challenged by the Crown in the Supreme Court. held that. that the InspectorGeneral was obliged to consider the issue of torture.a danger to the security of New Zealand of such seriousness that it would justify sending a person back to persecution. para 26 Anderson P. See generally. 127 Zaoui (No 2) (SC) above n 50. 128 Ibid. using the interpretation techniques mandated by the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969. The Supreme Court. para 26 (CA) Keith J. Ibid. was that the Refugee Convention provision allowing refoulement was void (as being contrary to jus cogens) if there was a risk of torture. Fothergill v Monarch Airlines Ltd [1981] AC 251. The legislation provided that the Minister of Immigration would have three days to decide whether or not to rely on the certificate for deportation (s 114K). para 169 Glazebrook J.125 The Supreme Court. The Immigration Act would as a consequence incorporate the “amended” version of the Refugee Convention Treaty.282283 (HL) Lord Diplock and Edwards v United States of America [2002] 3 NZLR 222. and that the threatened harm is substantial. para 93 Keith J. paras 75 – 77 Keith J. 124 This approach is contrary to the view of Lauterpact and Bethlehem who argue that a requirement of proportionality is required under the Convention. See Ye above n 30.123 that Court concluded that no balancing test was intended under the Refugee Convention. while there was overwhelming support for the view that the prohibition against torture was jus cogens. on objectively reasonable grounds. so the argument went. which had not been advanced in the Court of Appeal.126 This did not stop the Supreme Court engrafting a number of procedural requirements for the Minister to adhere to before any refoulement could take place. there was no support for the proposition that the prohibition on refoulement to face torture had that status. 125 The argument that the Refugee Convention had no application was not renewed by the Crown in the Supreme Court.
and (c) The right to natural justice affirmed in s 27 of the Bill of Rights and found in the ICCPR would provide procedural protection under s 72.129 the CAT. does not apply in respect of the decision. the Governor-General could. have the right of access to the reason for the decision affecting that person. Section 72 was therefore to be read subject to the Bill of Rights. while having regard to the purpose stated in s 114A(f) that a decision can when necessary be taken quickly and effectively. the Supreme Court said. and that s 23 of the Official Information Act 1982. to prevent the Minister and the Governor-General from having regard to factors militating against deportation. order the deportation of that person (s 72). rather. para 92 Keith J. although there may be applicable provisions under that Act limiting the statement of reasons. by Order in Council. which provides that where a department or Minister of the Crown or organisation makes a decision or recommendation in respect of a person. and as a result major substantive and procedural requirements were engrafted onto s 72 in order to meet the obligations it entailed. 129 Section 9 of the Bill of Rights Act 1990 provides that everyone has the right not to be subjected to torture or to cruel. 132 Zaoui (No 2) (SC) above n 50. the general right to have reasons on request found in s 23 of the Official Information Act 1982 applies. should have adequate time to address the issues of fact and judgment involved”. in certain circumstances.131 The procedural aspects read in were:132 (a) There is no pressing prescriptive time requirement under s 72 for the Minister to make his decision. however. 24 . 130 See discussion at n 80 131 I note. that the Crown had throughout accepted that it was obliged to comply with the relevant international obligations protecting Mr Zaoui from return to torture or arbitrary execution. degrading. The “double helix”130 was working overtime. The Court stated that “those charged with the responsibility. and the ICCPR. There was nothing. 133 Section 114K(7) of the Immigration Act states that the Minister is not obliged to give reasons for his or her decision to rely on a security risk certificate. The substantive requirement was that a refugee could not be deported if it would mean that the deportee would be returned to a country where he or she would be in danger of torture or arbitrary deprivation of life. (b) The bar on the Minister’s obligation to give reasons when confirming the certificate133 does not apply to decisions under s 72. that person shall.Governor-General that the person in question was a threat to national security. or disproportionately severe treatment or punishment.
but also took it upon itself to exercise that jurisdiction. para 100.stuff. 25 .134 and Mr Zaoui remained in residence in New Zealand as a refugee.In the event. and its answer was an unequivocal yes. are recorded at http://www.pdf (last accessed 3 March 2009). 135 Zaoui v Attorney General [2005] 1 NZLR 577 (SC). This was despite the fact that the statute appeared to envisage that there should be detention during what was expected to be a relatively quick determination of the detainee’s status. para 44 Elias CJ.137 Another example of the two sides of the “double helix”138 combining to produce a doubly reinforced presumption of statutory interpretation was thus seen in the judgment. paras 44. Like the procedural aspects of the Zaoui litigation. the Court released Mr Zaoui on bail. 51 and 52 Elias CJ.co. but also to act directly to ensure that those rights are protected. 137 Ibid.2 “plainly contemplates that individuals who are detained should be entitled to challenge their detention” and bolstered it with the common law’s strong protection of the basic liberty of the individual. 138 See discussion above at n 80. Mid-way through the InspectorGeneral’s hearing. and ensures fulfilment of New Zealand’s international obligations under the Refugee Convention. 134 The undertakings that Mr Zaoui provided to the Director of Security. The Supreme Court’s view on this fissue was so strong that it not only held that jurisdiction existed to grant bail. that led to the withdrawal of the security risk certificate. 139 Zaoui above n 135. Mr Zaoui’s case never reached this stage of proceedings.136 The Court showed a willingness to engage with the Refugee Convention – determining that art 31.nz/stuff/asset/Undertakings. 136 Ibid. so the Supreme Court’s new procedures have not been tested. the security risk certificate was withdrawn as a result of a settlement reached between the parties. the Supreme Court’s judgment on the question of bail drew deeply on the fundamentals of the both the common law and international law.139 The bail decision shows a willingness on the part of the Court not only to impose substantive limitations where important rights are at stake. The Court said that clear statutory wording would be required to oust the inherent jurisdiction of the High Court because that inherent jurisdiction protects the fundamental right of the individual to be free from detention. After a further hearing that occurred shortly after the main bail judgment was handed down.135 The question for the Court was whether bail could be granted under the High Court’s inherent jurisdiction.
who now sits on the International Court of Justice. 15 from 1976 – 1985. 142 Ibid. Without doubt. I have outlined the procedural issue in Ye and Huang above. the children. One of the changes noted by Claudia Geiringer is the departure of one of New Zealand’s pre-eminent jurists. 141 Ibid. the decision to remove the parents could not stand.142 Two recent decisions of the Court of Appeal may show a developing uncertainty in the jurisprudence. 319. If they were to be taken to China with their parents. threatened with removal from New Zealand. I now return to the ongoing saga for a discussion of the substantive issues. Geiringer comments:141 It is probably no coincidence that the dramatic swell in references to international law in the New Zealand Law Reports in the period 1996-2005 documented above coincides almost exactly with the period of his Honour’s tenure on the Bench. Sir Kenneth Keith. In Ye. 20 from 1986 – 1995 but 63 from 1996 – 2005. If that were the case. 310. See also Ben Keith above n 84 at 163 – 179. As a secondary argument.140 However. it has been suggested that there are indications that the impetus of this evolution is waning. even if the test was that set out in Puli’uvea143 was followed. 143 Above n 103 26 . whose children are New Zealand citizens. it was submitted that. it was argued that the changing domestic and international views of children’s rights require their welfare and best interests to be the first and paramount consideration in any removal decision affecting their parents. with the brief reminder that we are concerned with Chinese parents. the influence of international law in New Zealand’s domestic setting has increased hugely. Given that Zaoui (No 2) was the last contribution of Sir Kenneth Keith to New Zealand’s jurisprudence.d) Phase four: Rocking the boat The evolution from Ashby to Zaoui in the immigration sphere demonstrates the courts taking up the mantle of the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms within their judicial review role. removing the parents could result only in a detrimental outcome for the children. Geiringer says that it is less clear whether the same approach will hold true with the current members of the Supreme Court. born in breach of China’s one child 140 In Claudia Geiringer’s article “International law through the lens of Zaoui” above n 100 at 309 she states that the phrase “international law” appears in only eight cases in the NZLR during the period 1966 – 1975.
weight is built into the Puli’uvea standard – of a “primary consideration”. 27 . Baragwanath J said that. para 130 Glazebrook J. that at High Court level Ms Ding. Under international law. however.145 As noted earlier. to be weighed against what is another fundamental of international law – the right to control borders.148 I rejected the 144 Ding v Minister of Immigration (2006) 25 FRNZ 568 (HC). para 88 Glazebrook J.146 The judgments then diverged.147 The best interests of the children were. However. The children were joined as plaintiffs to the judicial review proceedings in the High Court and the children themselves appealed against this decision. Their surname was Ye. 146 Ye above n 30. Baragwanath J focussed not on international obligations. 147 Ibid. the Judge felt he was bound by previous authority to apply the more limited Wednesbury review standard under which the Court was not authorised to consider the weight given by the decision-maker to the interests of the children.144 He considered that the domestic equivalent of the presumption of consistency – the principle of legality – required the Court to secure that duty. Further.policy. the best interests of the child are a primary (not the paramount) consideration. hence the change of name at Court of Appeal level. The Court was unanimous. could be subject to educational and welfare restrictions. para 280 Baragwnath J. I will return to the issue of assessing weight below in relation to the topic of intensity of review. however. on the first argument. and that it would not be contrary to the public interest to allow them to remain. In the High Court. If the children were to remain behind in New Zealand (the declared intention of at least one of the families). had brought judicial review proceedings. social and cultural rights) was likely if the parents were removed. I considered that the balance would not favour removal where a significant and sustained breach of a child’s basic human rights (including the child’s economic. were he free to do so. Section 47(3) states that appeals against deportation may only be brought where there are exceptional circumstances of a humanitarian nature that would make it unjust or unduly harsh for the person to be removed from the country. the domestic standard of paramountcy did not extend to the Immigration Act. the mother of the Ye children. I concluded that. paras 65 – 78 Glazebrook J. Note. as a matter of international law. 145 Ibid. there were three different judgments delivered in the Court of Appeal. It held that the test in Puli’uvea remained the correct test. As a guide. he would align the Puli’uvea test with the test provided by s 47 of the Immigration Act. but rather on what he said was a common law duty on the State to protect its citizens. they would be deprived of their parents at a young age. The Judge’s decision can thus be seen to represent an interesting manifestation of Professor Taggart’s “double helix” approach. 148 Ibid.
to review decisions that had been made earlier in the process. 154 Ye above n 30. based on the Supreme Court’s approach in Zaoui (No 2)153 of engrafting procedural requirements onto statutory wording to ensure that international obligations are properly considered. of that process. 151 Ye above n 30. including decisions by the Removal Review Authority.Crown’s argument that it was the parents’ choice whether or not to take their children with them. paras 123 and 133 Glazebrook J.151 I held the humanitarian interview process to be a legitimate way of taking into account New Zealand’s international law obligations. 28 . For discussion of the judicial articulation of citizenship rights in New Zealand see Doug Tennant “Citizenship of New Zealand” [2009] NZLJ 26. para 11 (HCA) Murphy J. rather than a “choice” forced on them by Crown action. 152 I also raised the possibility that the obligations under UNCROC had become customary international law obligations and thus directly applicable in New Zealand. and thus tacit approval. was necessary before removal. such as the humanitarian interview. paras 222 – 224 Glazebrook J.149 Like Baragwanath J. any updating information should be considered before any removal took place. 149 In the recent case of Minister of Immigration v Al Hosan [2008] NZCA 462 the Court considered the dilemma that arises where there are two or more options available to a family where one of the parents is to be removed from New Zealand – in that case the options for the wife and children were to accompany the father to Jordan or to remain in New Zealand without him. 482 – 483 (FCA) and Murphy J’s judgment in Pochi v Macphee (1982) 151 CLR 101. 153 Above n 50.152 even though there could be other ways of doing so. I also thought it clear that the 1999 amendments had been passed in knowledge of. although such rights played a different role in my analysis. Additionally. The Court stated that: “the fact that two unattractive options are available does not diminish their unattractiveness” and held that the decision-maker (the Deportation Review Tribunal) was required to take that into account: at [62]. Such a process was required to ensure that there were no humanitarian or international law impediments to any removal. at the time of removal.150 The children’s citizenship rights were thus to be separately identified and weighed when an immigration officer considered the best interests of the child. that a process which specifically addressed the situation of any children. I also considered. there could well be cases where humanitarian considerations had never been taken into account at any time prior to the commencement of the removal processes. From the legislative history. Lesser disadvantages to citizen children than those in the case of overstayer children could mean the parents should not be removed. I concluded that the child’s citizenship rights gave an absolute right to remain in New Zealand and therefore to enjoy all the advantages of citizenship. 150 In this I relied in part on Kaufusi v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1985) 70 ALR 476.154 While there was no need. I would have thus returned both cases to the Immigration Service for reconsideration. I considered the children’s citizenship rights to be an important factor in the equation.
Interestingly. para 229 and by Chambers and Robertson JJ. based on the statutory scheme after the 1999 amendments to the Immigration Act. ibid. not being mandatory. International law arguments came to the forefront again in Huang. para 421 Hammond and Wilson JJ. comment that they thought that the Immigration Service had “got it about right”. They rejected the other family’s application for judicial review on the basis that they could see no proper basis on which the Court could intervene on public law grounds. by default. Hammond and Wilson JJ. by the Removal Review Authority on a s 47 appeal would satisfy those obligations. para 586.155 This was on the basis that the decision-making had not taken into account that the children might be left in New Zealand after their mother’s removal. Nor was the opportunity to do so taken up in Huang – an example of the Executive demonstrating a firm commitment to their responsibilities under international law.158 They were of the opinion that the current legislation left no room for an humanitarian review at the time of removal. a most unusual order. and after amendment in 1999). They analysed the legislation in three periods (before and after amendment in 1991. both properly carried out and reasonably proximate. the Judges argued that if the procedure was undertaken. writing for both himself and Hammond J. However.By contrast. However. 29 . William Young P. and saw Tavita as specific to the first phase. bear the burden of ensuring adherence to New Zealand’s international 155 The voluntary nature of the reconsideration was questioned by me. directly considered the question of how New Zealand’s international obligations were to be satisfied. William Young P suggested the humanitarian interview would “assume greater significance”. They concluded. who noted that an order for the Immigration Service to reconsider if it thinks fit was. Following this approach.157 Chambers and Robertson JJ took a more extreme stance. 156 Ibid. 158 See Sir Kennth Keith “Administrative Law Developments” above n 25 for a full history. 157 Ibid. but only if the Immigration Service wished to do so. they did. this approach had not been advanced in argument by the Crown. however. that there was no power for any humanitarian review to occur prior to making a removal order. Hammond and Wilson JJ were of the view that although the humanitarian interview procedure was consistent with the legislative framework. and the interests as stake were adequately catered for by the other appeal and review procedures in the Immigration Act. which seems to represent somewhat of a rapprochement between the divergent approaches in Ye. they sent the case of one family back for reconsideration. it was reviewable.156 While they saw the humanitarian interview as an “optional extra”. This appears to mean that the humanitarian interview would. para 412. if for some reason there had not been such an assessment or circumstances had changed. it was not an obligatory requirement. He concluded that a determination.
159 Chambers J agreed with the President’s conclusions and recanted from his position in Ye. The second is a presumption of consistency model (whereby the courts assume. 162 Claudia Geiringer “Tavita and all that: confronting the confusion surrounding unincorporated treaties and administrative law” (2004) 21 NZULR 66. 161 [2008] NZSC 92 and [2008] NZSC 103.obligations.162 She identifies two conceptual models that the courts had been using. The first is the mandatory consideration model (whereby relevant unincorporated treaties are considered to be a mandatory consideration for executive decision-makers). what relief (if any) are the appellants entitled to? Reflections Ten years after Tavita the New Zealand courts’ approach to unincorporated treaties was discussed in an excellent article by Claudia Geiringer entitled “Tavita and all that”. para 100 Chambers J. accepting that “somehow or other. in particular a child who is a New Zealand citizen? (b) What processes of hearing and inquiry (if any) apply to such a decision? (c) What approach should the courts adopt to judicial review of such a decision? (d) In light of the Court’s answers to the foregoing questions. the Court held that the interests of the children had been taken into account in that case and thus the appeal was dismissed. The Supreme Court recently granted leave to appeal the decisions in Ye and Huang on the same grounds:161 B (a) What mandatory considerations and/or standard (if any) apply to a decision under the Immigration Act 1987 to order and/or to implement the removal from New Zealand of the overstayer parent(s) of a New Zealand-resident child. Ibid. para 53 William Young P and Hammond J. when interpreting legislation. the humanitarian interview process has become part of Immigration New Zealand’s procedure”.160 In result. 160 30 . that Parliament did not intend to legislate inconsistently with 159 Huang above n 31.
.164 She argues that the focus on the mandatory consideration model. para 67 William Young P and Hammond J. 31 . 67. was limiting the potential for review in an environment where the courts were still wary of assessing the “weight” a decisionmaker attached to particular considerations. 164 Above n 162. Wellington. 167 Above n 50. Although the context of the review was procedural in Zaoui (No 2)167 the Court effectively added both a procedural and substantive gloss on to the statute. the best interests of the child are not suggested to be the only consideration but merely a primary one. However. The courts thus. Geiringer’s comments therefore have force. resulting in “a remarkable degree of confusion”. in the context of the rights of children in immigration decisions. The Supreme Court. paras 86 – 90 Glazebrook J.165 In Huang the Court took the mandatory consideration approach combined with a limited intensity of review. The issue is exemplified in Ye and Huang. little or nothing short of express statutory wording would have sufficed to overcome the presumption that a broadly phrased Executive discretion is capable of being read consistently with domestic and international human rights law. 166 Huang above n 31. In Ye I expressed my view that in immigration matters there is no such conceptual distinction. it would seem. are directly applying international law. stating that “how conflicting considerations are weighed is for the decision-maker and not the Court”. could arguably be seen as taking a more robust approach. The Supreme Court’s approach provides a marked contrast to the more reticent approach to judicial review taken by the Court of Appeal in Ashby and shows that 163 Geiringer saw Tavita as exemplifying the mandatory consideration approach and Sellers as representing the presumption of consistency approach. by approaching the best interests of any children as a mandatory relevant consideration.166 For the time being at least. 168 Claudia Geiringer “Parsing Sir Kenneth Keith’s Taxonomy of Human Rights: A Commentary on Illingworth and Evans Case” in Rick Bigwood (ed) Public Interest Litigation: New Zealand Experience in International Perspective (Lexis Nexis. albeit in a different context. leading commentators to suggest that the Court is to play an “active role” in judicial review of these matters:168 In Zaoui.its international obligations). 165 Ye above n 30. Under international law. Intensity of review is discussed further below in section V. 2006) 182. I also noted that weight is built into the standard through the term “primary” and thus any assessment by the courts of consistency with international law has to take weight into account.163 Geiringer suggests that the two models have not been clearly distinguished by the courts.
given that the Crown had conceded it would not remove Mr Zaoui to face torture or arbitrary deprivation of life. it was rather more reluctant to engage with the scope of these obligations. reasonableness is a delicately shaded concept. preferring to defer to the views of international bodies such as the Human Rights Committee. also argues that. 171 Sir Kenneth Keith “Administrative Law Developments” above n 25. 173 Above n 135. the Zaoui bail decision173 does show the Supreme Court engaging with substantive human rights matters. she points out. Geiringer comments that Zaoui (No 2) demonstrates the principle of legality at its most potent and suggests that the more exigent the international obligation. Questions about intensity of review do not arise in the context of legality – the courts simply look to see whether the decision-maker has done what the law requires. however.broad statutory powers are now seen as prime candidates for keen judicial attention. 170 Ibid. 150. 24. 174 See David Goddard “Review for Error of Law – Some Comments” in NZLS Judicial Review Intensive (September 2007) 69 and Francis Cooke “Lest We Forget” in NZLS Judicial Review Intensive (September 2007) 88.170 There has also been an increase in cross-pollination of approaches from other jurisdictions. while the Supreme Court in Zaoui (No 2) may have been the champion of international obligation compliance in a procedural sense. Treasa Dunworth “Hidden Anxieties” above n 84. 370 –371 argue that one 32 . albeit in a context that is perhaps more traditionally seen as the province of the courts. however.169 This. This means that the inclination of courts to interpret a decision-maker’s powers in line with international obligations will vary according to the “potency and persuasiveness of the particular obligation and the egregiousness of the particular breach”.172 It should be noted. 314.174 As one Judge stated bluntly: “courts do not defer to 169 Claudia Geiringer “Ding v Minister of Immigration. In addition. that the content of the rights in question was not at issue in Zaoui (No 2). V REASONABLENESS: A RAINBOW IN THE FOG? While issues of legality are (or should be) black and white.171 Geiringer. is in accord with what Treasa Dunworth’s thesis described as the “pedigree approach” to the presumption of consistency. Geiringer contrasts the New Zealand Supreme Court’s reluctance to extend the status of “peremptory norm” beyond the bare prohibition of torture to encompass the consequentional protection against refoulement to torture with the Supreme Court of Canada’s refusal to follow international jurisprudence and to recognise an inherent non-refoulement protection when construing the right not to be subject to cruel and unusual treatment: Kindler v Canada (Minister of Justice) [1991] 2 SCR 779 (SC). the common law and Bill of Rights obligations. the greater the inclination of the courts to read in procedural and substantive requirements which accord with international law. 172 Claudia Geiringer “International law through the lens of Zaoui” above n 100. Ye v Minister of Immigration” (Paper for Legal Research Foundation conference: Human Rights at the Frontier Sept 2008) 23. due in large part to the importance of international law within this area. Anthony Lester and Jeffrey Jowell above n 10.
See for example the cases set out by Andrew Le Sueur. or the procedural aspects of decision-making.177 While the lure of strict Wednesbury review is that it purports to articulate an objective and narrow standard of reasonableness. 177 Associated Provincial Picture Houses v Wednesbury Corp [1948] 1 KB 223 (CA). Despite the limited nature of Wednesbury review. 178 Waitakere City Council v Lovelock [1997] 2 NZLR 385. 176 Dean R Knight “A Murky Methodology” above n 47.176 Traditionally. Jowell and Lester above n 10 at 372. such as the constitutional allocation of functions. been remarked that semantics were never capable of providing an objective test. and the nature of other controls on the decisionmaking process”. Not only is the concept of reasonableness almost impossible to measure objectively. 175 Lab Tests above n 3.179 Even a sharp reprimand from the of Wednesbury’s failings was that it did not distinguish between review on the basis of legality and on the basis of irrationality. Here. Lord Greene MR stated that a authority acts unreasonably if its decision is “so absurd that no sensible person could ever dream that it lay within the powers of the authority”. the extent to which the courts should review the decision-maker’s reasons is crucial.anything or anybody: the job of the courts is to decide what is lawful and what is not. functional suitability of decision-makers and courts to assess certain questions. 399 and 400 (CA) Thomas J. Hawkins v Minister of Justice [1991] 2 NZLR 530. 44 – 47. preferring to refer simply to a decision being “within the limits of reason”. under the guidance of Cooke P. and that. often referred to as deference. “The Rise and Ruin of Unreasonableness?” [2005] JR 32. it also raises difficult constitutional issues.178 A Variable intensity of review From the late 1980s. Any determination of reasonableness takes the courts beyond the role of simply policing the limits imposed by statute. para 366 Hammond J. it is interesting to note that intervention on the basis of Wednesbury unreasonableness appears to be much more common in the United Kingdom than in New Zealand: Lab Tests at above n 3.”175 However when it comes to reasonableness. 33 . The courts’ reluctance to step into the arena of reasonableness is understandable. 229. 139. into the forbidden arena of merits review. para 379 Hammond J. in practice. The problem of recognising constitutional roles. 534 (CA) Cooke P. 131-132 (CA) Cooke P. involves a “complex matrix of competing factors. it has. the New Zealand courts began to shift away from reliance on Wednesbury formula. the New Zealand courts have applied the Wednesbury review standard in the reasonableness area. however. judicial decisions do not necessarily reflect the severity of the test. relative expertise and competence. 179 See Webster v Auckland Harbour Board [1987] 2 NZLR 129.
whether the decision is so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could have arrived at it. the Court of Appeal noted that. lessening the opportunity for a full discussion of the principles. 184 Dean R Knight “Murky Methodology” above n 47. See Wellington City Council v Woolworths NZ Ltd (No 2) [1996] 2 NZLR 537 (CA) and Thomas J’s criticism of it in Waitakere City Council above n 178 at 402. In a slightly milder fashion. 403 Thomas J. 186 Ibid. For example.186 In Pring v Wanganui District Council. been some indications in the Court of Appeal of a judicial acceptance and desire to articulate the variability of standard of review. a situation described by one commentator as “curious and unsatisfying”. 182 See above n 14 and n 15. however. 185.183 The idea of variegated review. Such a vital decision surely need not be outrageous.182 The result has been a proliferation of terminology and theorising. This is despite the fact the concept still has not been definitively endorsed by the appellate courts. of course. As Thomas J commented in Waitakere City Council:185 It is incongruent that the Court should ask of an authority’s decision affecting. be because of the paucity of cases that have come before the courts. 185 Above n 178.184 This may. absurd or perverse before the Courts would be prepared to intervene. 181 34 . Richardson P considered that Woolworths (above n 150) must be taken as stating the law and did not enter into the discussion (at 397). para 373 Hammond J. say. it has been suggested that courts will undertake a more intensive level of review where human rights are at stake. is now attaining traction in this country.181 Academics in New Zealand and some members of the judiciary have again started to chip away at the dominance of Wednesbury unreasonableness. Blanchard J accepted that “a less-restrained approach” might be taken in the circumstances where judicial review is sought against another type of statutory body or against a local authority when it is performing a different function. 419 Blanchard J. There have. where individuals are directly affected by a decision. the life of an individual.Privy Council in Mercury Energy Ltd v Electricity Corporation of New Zealand180 only put a damper on things for a short while. prompting Hammond J’s recent description of judicial review in New Zealand as “stand[ing] somewhat in a fog of mushy dogma”. the Court will scrutinise what has occurred “with a less tolerant eye” than in the situation where there are broad 180 Above n 9. the intensity of which depends on the context and the subject matter. 183 Lab Tests above n 3.
these comments were made in the context of examining whether a legislative provision could be justified pursuant to the justification provided by s 5 of the Bill of Rights. 194 I am indebted to Professor Michael Taggart’s helpful spectrum which is appendixed to “Proportionality. 195 For example. 191 Section 5 of the Bill of Rights.197 Next on the spectrum come decisions that are reviewable only on the basis of fraud. 84 – 85). Parliament or the Executive may be better placed to decide certain questions”. does not recognise that there are areas in which the courts should never interfere but rather states that the courts may “recognise that in a particular case and in respect of a particular dispute. 198 For example the decision of a state-owned enterprise to enter into a commercial contract: Mercury Energy above n 9. all of the Judges applied more stringent tests than a pure Wednesbury standard. 192 [2007] 1 AC 100 (HL) Lord Hoffman. Reasonableness” above n 86. Deference. it has been noted that the categories of non-reviewable decisions are narrowing. 188 35 . See also table at Figure 1 in de Smith above n 66. 391 (PC) Lord Templeman.policy considerations that have a less direct impact. 197 Lord Steyn “Deference: A Tangled Story” (Judicial Studies Board Lecture Belfast 25 November 2004).195 However. Milroy v Attorney-General [2005] NZAR 562 (CA).188 While the invitation to deal with standard of review was not taken up by the Supreme Court in that case. for example decisions made during the legislative process. or corruption. 62 – 63 (also published in Michael Taggart “Administrative Law” [2006] NZ Law Rev 75. bad faith.194 Starting at the most restrictive end are decisions that are non-reviewable. 1 – 10. 11. in particular. 189 See discussion above n 46.086.198 These are closely followed by decisions that are only 187 [1999] NZRMA 519 (CA) para 7 Blanchard J.191 He referred to Lord Hoffman’s discussion in R (SB) v Governors of Denbigh High School192 as to the need for judges to find a balance between protecting rights and deferring to the Legislature where appropriate on democratic grounds. paras 113 – 119 Tipping J. para 50 Hammond J. 190 R v Hansen [2007] 3 NZLR 1 (SC). Of course these types of decisions are also subject to legality and natural justice review under the other heads. para 91 Arnold and Ellen France JJ. Note.189 The idea of a more intensive approach in relation to human rights (albeit in a different context) was also discussed by Tipping J in R v Hansen.193 Even though the idea of variable standards of review has not been fully articulated by the appellate courts. 193 R v Hansen above n 190. 196 Helen Aikman above n 59. variable standards have been applied in practice.190 in the context of defining reasonable limits on rights in a free and democratic society. It is worth briefly sketching the standards that have been applied. although natural justice will only apply to the extent that the context requires: Lab Tests above n 3.187 The Court of Appeal in Discount Brands also made comments to similar effect. Above n 45.196 Lord Steyn.
para 87 Hammond and Ellen France JJ. para 58 Hammond and Ellen France JJ. 545 Richardson P. 199 These decisions tend to be ones with a high policy content.201 An example of this low standard of review of expert bodies is the Supreme Court’s decision in Unison Networks Ltd v Commerce Commission. Tipping J described it as “par excellence a non-justiciable question”: para 28. would trigger the Commission’s power to investigate and take control of the company. Despite giving the Commission “a wide margin of appreciation” in the assessment.reviewable on the basis of patent (Wednesbury) unreasonableness. Unison was dissatisfied with the decision made and increased its prices above the thresholds put in place by the Commission. As Tipping J has put it. 201 On Council rating decisions see Woolworths above n 181 and Waitakere City Council above n 178. Unison brought judicial review proceedings against the Commerce Commission arguing that the thresholds were set in a manner that was inconsistent with the purpose and requirements of the legislation. 202 Unison Networks Ltd v Commerce Commission [2008] 1 NZLR 41.”200 Deference to the decision-making body may also be due on the basis of democratic principles (as in the case of council rating decisions) or expert specialisation (as in the case of electricity infrastructure).204 199 See Woolworths above n 181. para 27 Tipping J. 204 Ibid. if breached by an electricity line company. requiring assessment of a wide range of considerations and possible outcomes. Curtis v Minister of Defence [2002] 2 NZLR 744.203 the Court of Appeal found that one set of thresholds did breach the statutory purpose. 200 36 . The case related to a decision to disband the air combat force of the Royal New Zealand Air Force.202 The Commerce Commission was responsible for setting price thresholds which. and the interests of third parties would be affected. these types of decisions are ones “in respect of which there is no satisfactory legal yardstick by which the issue can be resolved. Submissions from the line companies had to be examined before setting these thresholds. On Electricity Commission decisions see Major Electricity Users' Group Inc v Electricity Commission [2008] NZCA 536. but declined to give relief on the basis that the regime had been in place for some time. 203 Unison Networks Ltd v Commerce Commission 19 December 2006 CA285/05.
Nichols & Co Inc v Stichting Lodestar [2008] 2 NZLR 141 (SC). Fisher J at 164 noted that on each occasion that the expression “substantive unfairness” was applied to a case that it would continue to be necessary to identify a more specific and principled administrative law basis for intervention.The Supreme Court took a deferential approach. 206 Unison above n 202.211 Similarly. McKay J at 654 accepted that unfairness could be a ground of judicial review. and that in some cases more weight might need to be given recognise human rights. a Court must come to its own view of the merits of the case. 211 Ibid. That case held that. 209 Thames Valley Electric Power Board v NZFP Pulp and Paper Ltd [1994] 2 NZLR 641 (CA). or has exercised the power in a way which cannot rationally be regarded as coming within the statutory purpose.208 The existence of such a ground was. on appeal. Wellington.207 A higher intensity of review has been applied in other cases. The weight to be given to the Commissioner of Trade Marks’ conclusions in that case was seen to be a matter of judgement but. See generally Mai Chen and Richard Harker “Commerce Amendment Act 2008” [2008] NZLJ 421. They are different exercises of the Court’s jurisdiction and require differing approaches: para 7. 1991) 349. even where that opinion is an assessment of fact and degree and entails a value judgment. Writing in 1991. it must act on its own view. 652 Cooke P. 210 Ibid. has materially misapplied the law. accepted by Cooke P in Thames Valley Electric Power Board v NZFP Pulp and Paper Ltd. para 55 Hammond and Ellen France JJ. the courts are unlikely to intervene unless the body exercising the power has acted in bad faith. meaning that both the substance and the process of a decision is open to review. 207 This could even be seen as arguably allowing the Commerce Commission to interpret its own legislation. 37 . suggesting that the substantive element had merged into other grounds of review. if the High Court held a different view from the decision-maker. The New Zealand courts have toyed with a more intense standard of review through the doctrine of substantive unfairness.205 It referred to the Commerce Commission’s expertise in the subject-matter and the broad and expansive powers it had been granted. in Pharmaceutical Management Agency Ltd v Rousse Uclaf Australia Pty Ltd the Court of Appeal seemed to suggest that there was life in the 205 This can be contrasted with the Supreme Court’s approach to specialist bodies on appeal. The Supreme Court said that those exercising general rights of appeal are entitled to judgment in accordance with the opinion of the appellate court. including the nature of the unfairness relied upon.”210 The Judge noted that substantive fairness was not a precise category. G D S Taylor noted that substantive fairness “appears to have passed its peak already”. This doctrine requires the Court to give consideration to the adequacy of the administrator’s reasons. 208 G D S Taylor Judicial Review: A New Zealand Perspective (Butterworths. that were designed to achieve economic objectives. 653 Cooke P.209 He noted that “the merit of the substantive unfairness ground is that it allows a measure of flexibility enabling redress for misuses of administrative authority which might otherwise go unchecked. set out in Austin. however.206 The Court then stated that. The Court drew attention to the fact that a general appeal cannot be treated as tantamount to judicial review. but that it did not follow that anything that could be described as unfair would suffice and that in each case the particular facts must be examined. or less weight to recognise legitimate administrative discretion. in the case where a body is given broad discretionary powers. and whether it was such to justify the intervention of the Court.
403 Thomas J. It also.214 For example. 216 Pharmaceutical Management Agency Ltd v Roussel Uclaf Australia Pty Ltd [1998] NZAR 58.217 It has had some judicial support. 444 (CA) Richardson P. See also Thompson v Treaty of Waitangi Fisheries Commission [2005] 2 NZLR 9. 214 Bugdaycay v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1987] AC 514. suffers from the fatal flaw that it does not tell a judge how hard to look in any particular case. Venning J in Wright v Attorney-General accepted that “in cases involving human rights a ‘hard look’ is appropriate”. 66 (CA) Blanchard J. but it appears to have been referring to an anxious scrutiny standard. that case referred used the concept. 217 Thompson above n 214. See also Pring above n 187. 531 (HL) Lord Bridge cited in Waitakere City Council above n 178. para 18 (CA) Laws LJ. The North American “hard look” concept is a standard under which the Court asks whether the authority has adequately reviewed all relevant factors and considerations and made a properly reasoned choice. Laws LJ held that this principle exists “entirely independent of our incorporation of the European Convention by the Human Rights Act 1998” and that the variation of the intensity of review “… will depend on the subject matter at hand. paras 214 – 219. Wednesbury” above n 86.216 The Court also used the terminology of “hard look” review (which is a North American concept). See also Lab Tests above n 3. 218 Professor Taggart points to Hammond J’s decisions in Thompson ibid and Hamilton City Hamilton City Council v Waikato Electricity Authority [1994] 1 NZLR 741. deference. but did not use the anxious scrutiny terminology. in his view. 759 (HC) Hammond J as supportive of hard look review (although I understand that Hammond J considers that Professor Taggart has not fully understood his approach). para 392 Hammond J. 219 Michael Taggart “Proportionality. Butler v AttorneyGeneral (now reported as [1999] NZAR 205 (CA)).215 It appears to have been endorsed by the Court of Appeal in Pharmaceutical Management Agency Ltd v Roussel Uclaf Australia Pty Ltd. and Waitakere City Council above n 178. para 78 (HL) Venning J. 215 Wright v Attorney-General [2006] NZAR 66. although Shortland refers to anxious scrutiny being used in a refugee case.218 but has been strongly criticised by Professor Taggart as an unnecessary and ill-adapted transplant from North America.notion of substantive unfairness: “The concept of substantive fairness … also requires further consideration. Keith and Tipping JJ. Note that. 16. The notion that intensity of review varies when fundamental human rights are jeopardised was recognised as a settled principle of the common law in R (Mahmood) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] 1 WLR 840. Sian Elias “ ‘Hard Look’ and the Judicial Function” (1996) 4 Waikato LR 1. 66 (CA) Blanchard J. para 12 (CA) Glazebrook and William Young JJ and Shortland vs Northland Health Ltd [1998] 1 NZLR 433. although limited to where human rights or fundamental values are at stake.”212 One of the grounds that has arguably usurped the potential of substantive unfairness is the “anxious scrutiny”213 test. The concept has been referred to and used in a series of New Zealand cases (at High Court level at least) to signal a greater intensity of review where important rights are at stake. Recently suggested by me in the case of Ye above n 30.219 212 [1998] NZAR 58. 213 38 . 63 – 65. and so in particular any interference by the action of a public body with a fundamental right will require substantial objective justification”: para 18. which has been deployed in the context of human rights. The law in this country applicable to situations of that kind will no doubt be developed on a case by case basis.
and (c) the means used to impair the right or freedom are no more than is necessary to accomplish the objective. 547-548. rather than leaving it to the claimant to show that the right has been unjustifiably limited. and not merely determine whether the decision is reasonable. 222 de Freitas v Permanent Secretary of Ministry of Agriculture. but provides a sequenced methodology to be used in assessing any limitation on rights. Thus.The anxious scrutiny standard dovetails with the governing presumption under the principle of legality that Parliament does not intend to legislate inconsistently with human rights. Lands and Housing [1999] 1 AC 69. (b) the measures designed to meet the legislative objective are rationally connected to it. 223 Daly ibid. a relatively new development which. Fisheries. 547-548 Lord Steyn and Smith and Grady v UK (2000) 29 EHRR 493. is yet to be embraced by the New Zealand courts. academic commentators in New Zealand have suggested the alternative of proportionality review. In Daly. while established in England. The Bill of Rights states that “the rights and freedoms contained in this Bill of Rights may be subject only to such reasonable 220 For the classic statement of the principle of legality see R v Home Secretary ex parte Simms [2000] 2 AC 115. 39 . 80 (PC) Lord Clyde cited in Daly above n 15.223 The test also has the effect of putting the onus on the decisionmaker to justify any imposition on the right in question. This form of review may thus require the Court to evaluate the relative weight of the relevant considerations. Lord Steyn noted that proportionality review differs from traditional review in that it may require the Court to assess the balance the decision-maker has struck. Proportionality review does not simply involve greater scrutiny where human rights are at stake. It should be noted that in New Zealand the Bill of Rights operates in a similar manner to require statutory consistency with human rights where possible (s 4). 221 Daly above n 15. 131 (HL) Lord Steyn. Such a test is not foreign to the New Zealand courts.221 Accordingly. 547-548. the standard shades into issues of legality as well as unreasonableness.220 B Proportionality Anxious scrutiny has been criticised as not going far enough to protect human rights. A Court must assess whether: 222 (a) the legislative objective is sufficiently important to justify limiting a fundamental right.
82. 228 Michael Taggart above n 86. para 64 (SC) Blanchard J. At the other is non-justiciability. 229 Isaac v Minister of Consumer Affairs [1990] 2 NZLR 606.limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society. This part of the rainbow should. at least for the time being. which advocates that proportionality is no more than a criterion to decide whether a decision meets the Wednesbury unreasonableness standard. 23. See also Waitakere City Council above n 178. 408 Thomas J and the discussion in Jason Varuhas “PowerCo v Commerce Commission: Developing Trends of Proportionality in New Zealand Administrative Law” (2006) 34 NZJPIL 339.227 Professor Taggart. deference. except where decisions do not lend themselves to the proportionality methodology. R v Oakes [1986] 1 SCR 103 (SC). He uses the analogy of a rainbow for assessing the appropriate standard of review in any particular case.”224 In assessing such limits. See also Taggart “Administrative Law” [2006] NZ Law Rev 75. in Professor Taggart’s view. 857. in his view. The merits end of the rainbow shades upwards into a proportionality methodology with its companion. deference (or respect). 225 40 .229 Thomas J noted in Waitakere City Council that “the close affinity of proportionality to 224 Section 5 New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. Wednesbury”. remain under the Wednesbury doctrine. 636 (HC) Tipping J. the proportionality standard is advanced as an approach that is more capable of responding to the sophisticated and nuanced issue of conflicts between the exercise of state power and fundamental rights than that of the traditional reasonableness review. The other part of the rainbow (leading down to nonjusticiability) relates to what he calls public wrongs. 227 See Lord Steyn’s judgment in Daly above n 15. in his article “Proportionality. 226 Philip A Joseph Constitutional and Administrative Law in New Zealand above n 8.228 has suggested a more nuanced approach. See R v Hansen [2007] 3 NZLR 1. At one end of the rainbow is a full merits review. There has been a reluctance to depart from the orthodox approach. The New Zealand courts have been cautious about adopting the proportionality approach in administrative law. which he defines as those situations where fundamental rights are not directly implicated. the New Zealand courts use the Supreme Court of Canada’s proportionality analysis in R v Oakes.226 Correctness and Wednesbury review could be retained as residual grounds. replace the Wednesbury unreasonableness standard in cases where fundamental rights and values are involved. In Professor Joseph’s view. This part of the rainbow should.225 Professor Joseph has suggested that the proportionality approach could do the work of the sliding reasonableness/substantive unfairness grounds.
I also argued that. Proportionality was rejected in that case. or would be subsumed into the Wednesbury test. 231 41 . because the fundamental rights of citizen children were at stake. the Judge said that it was uncertain whether proportionality would establish itself as a separate ground of review. paras 87 – 91 (HC) Baragwnath J.231 In 2008. which concerned property rights. looking more closely at the comments on intensity of review in Ye and Huang. at the least. 236 Zaoui (No 2) above n 50. a standard administrative law inquiry may in any event not be sufficient.230 In The Institute of Chartered Accountants of New Zealand v Bevan the Court of Appeal took a small step by endorsing proportionality in terms of penalties. 407 Thomas J. there were some positive signs towards a wider judicial acceptance of proportionality. I also expressed some support for Professor Taggart’s argument that the trend seen in the United Kingdom towards full proportionality 230 Ibid. No opinion was expressed on this point in the other judgments. but left open whether it is a distinct head of review. I stated that it must also be borne in mind that. any decisions which clearly do not accord the proper weight to the best interests of any child must be reviewable as errors of law – i.232 my judgment in Ye233 and Hammond J’s judgment in Lab Tests. since the standard in UNCROC has a in-built weight (“a primary consideration”). but it does not appear that this was necessarily intended to have any general application. under the legality rather than the fairness heading. as seen in Mihos v Attorney General.e. 232 Mihos v Attorney General [2008] NZAR 177.the concept of unreasonableness is plain to see” because any assessment of reasonableness requires an assessment of the relationship between the means and the end. 235 Huang above n 31. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of New Zealand v Bevan [2003] 1 NZLR 154.235 The idea of a proportionality test was also rejected by the Supreme Court in the context of the Refugee Convention in Zaoui (No 2). 237 The other judgments in Ye above n 30 did not discuss the appropriate standard of review in any detail but Hammond and Wilson JJ applied a standard administrative law approach. paras 304 – 305 Glazebrook J. 234 Lab Tests above n 3 para 391 Hammond J. para 55 (CA) Keith J. para 42 Keith J. even if understood as a reasonableness inquiry. paras 63 – 65 William Young P and Hammond J.236 C The jurisprudence charted so far In Ye. I suggested that. the “anxious scrutiny” standard was appropriate. However. given that weight is built in. 233 Ye above n 30.237 I argued that art 3 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCROC) had an in-built standard which required the decision-maker to consider the best interests of the child as a primary consideration.234 However doubt was expressed late in the year in Huang. but the possibility of its application where more important rights are at stake was left open.
241 Huang above n 31. para 64 William Young P and Hammond J. 522 Keith J. but the appellate courts have yet to articulate any integrated concept of a varying standard of review. 239 42 . This was applied in the immigration context by Randerson J in Kumar v Minister of Immigration (25 March 1999) HC AK M184/99. para 305 Glazebrook J. the Court of Appeal relied on the conclusion in Puli’uvea240 that the Court does not have the right to review the balance struck by the decisionmaker between the conflicting considerations and thus to specify the weight to be attached to different interests.246 The Supreme 238 Ibid. 245 Dean R Knight “A Murky Methodology” above n 47. but on common law principles. in Huang. paras 62 – 67 and Ye above n 30. 242 Above n 103. Pharmaceutical Management Agency Ltd v Roussel Uclaf Australia above n 216. Ibid.243 The Court in Huang rejected the proportionality argument on the basis that New Zealand’s legislative and human rights environment was very different to the England and European review standards that have been influenced by s 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 and also the European Convention on Human Rights. the Court in Huang rejected a variable standard in immigration cases.review should replace administrative law review where fundamental rights are at stake. the courts are applying different standards of review in order to respond to the requirements of the context. para 65 William Young P and Hammond J. 66 Blanchard J for examples of where the idea was mooted. but not enough momentum has gathered for the idea to become embedded in the fabric of the institution. paras 303 – 305 Glazebrook J. the humanitarian interview process is “far from an obvious candidate for an intense proportionality review exercise”. paras 303 – 305 Glazebrook J. In New Zealand Fishing Industry Association above n 66. However.239 By contrast. The Court also commented that.242 Therefore. See Huang above n 31. 245 The topic has been mooted obiter in the Court of Appeal. 134. para 18 (CA) Laws LJ. that decision-makers must be required to do more than simply “tick the box”. para 569 Chambers and Robertson JJ. 243 Above n 31. para 66 William Young P and Hammond J. 244 Ibid. it was stated that the heightened standard of review exercised in the United Kingdom was not mandated by the European Convention and the Human Rights Act 1998. 240 Above n 103. as a final checking process. as decisions that clearly did not accord weight to the best interests of the child must be reviewable as errors of law. in practice.241 Puli’uvea stated that the question was whether there was a reviewable error of law and that the Wednesbury unreasonableness standard is to apply.238 However. 246 Ye above n 30. I note that in R (Mahmood) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] 1 WLR 840.244 D Navigating the jurisprudence It is apparent that. I considered that even if the standard administrative law inquiry prevailed. 522 Cooke P suggested that the weight given to considerations might be relevant to the limits of reason.
The Courts. at least in the immigration context.Court. indeed perhaps impatience. Progressive Enterprises v North Shore City Council [2006] NZRMA 72 (HC) and Ding v Minister of Immigration [2006] FRNZ 568 (HC). and the Collaborative Enterprise” (2004) 15 KCLJ 321. Dean R Knight above n 41 at 123. for a sliding scale of review and clear guidance on its application is building in the High Court and from academic commentators.248 The Supreme Court’s decision to grant leave in both Ye and Huang has brought the issue of variegated review squarely before that Court. 322. By contrast. and Wild J in Wolf v Minister of Immigration above n 63. in its early cases.250 The dialogue that has developed between the courts. where human rights more generally are in issue.247 On the other hand. although separation of powers is a fundamental tenet of our constitutional composition. as seen with the Zaoui bail decision. Tupou v Removal Review Authority [2001] NZAR 696 (HC). 247 But see Austin Nichols above n 205 in the appeal context. The comments of the courts on immigration matters in New Zealand have been responded to in a very direct way by the Executive via the Immigration Service policies and operational instructions. Some striking examples are evident in the circumstances surrounding Tavita. has not articulated any general theory of judicial review. a restricted approach has been followed where the issues are economic. Parliament has also responded with legislation. there has been consultation and the decision-maker is a specialist body. 248 43 . as well as comments by other judges in B v Commissioner of Inland Revenue [2004] 2 NZLR 86 (HC) and A v Chief Executive of the Department of Labour (19 October 2005) HC AK CIV-2004-63. However. VI DECODING THE SIGNALS: THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE COURTS. Knight cites in particular the efforts of Baragwanath J (now of course on the Court of Appeal) in Ports of Auckland v Auckland City Council [1999] 1 NZLR 601 (HC). THE EXECUTIVE AND PARLIAMENT It has long been recognised that the three branches of government are in a symbiotic relationship and that. it is apparent that support. from a practical point of view the three branches are interdependent. It seems that we can look forward to another “mad-headed chase” and flourishing of seminars249 when the decision in those appeals is handed down. 250 Philip A Joseph “Parliament. the Court has taken an expansive approach where procedural rights are at stake and also. 249 See above n 5. which will lead to such guidance being given. See also Powerco Ltd v Commerce Commission (9 June 2006) HC WN CIV-2005-485-1066. Parliament and the Executive via the mechanism of judicial review in immigration and refugee matters has displayed this interdependence aptly.
His suggestion of using the test already legislated for in the Immigration Act. The Bill has been reinstated following the change of government (Reinstatement of Business. 257 Discussed in section IVA. 9 December 2008). See also CERD/C/NZL/CO/17 (2007) para 23. Its criticism of New Zealand for differential treatment of children unlawfully in New Zealand in relation to education has prompted inclusion in the Immigration Bill No 132-1 currently before Parliament of a clause allowing overstayer children to attend school: CRC Committee “Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties under Article 44 of the Convention Second Periodic Report of States Parties: New Zealand” (12 March 2003) CRC/C/93/Add.251 Mohebbi v Minister of Immigration. For more general discussion see Section VIC. New Zealand proposes to withdraw this reservation following enactment of the Immigration Bill currently before Parliament (see Appendix 2: Progress on UNCROC Work Programme www. 256 The procedure also has not been included in the Immigration Bill No 132-1. The procedure has never been legislated for. It was this procedure that presented something of a challenge to the courts in Ye and Huang. albeit in a different procedural context. These cases can be seen to represent the courts’ participation in the dialogue between the three branches. See for example the discussion of the ombudsman’s role in Sir Kenneth Keith “Administrative Law Developments” above n 25. the 251 Attorney-General v Refugee Council of New Zealand Inc [2003] 2 NZLR 577 (CA). however. Baragwanath J. is unlikely to be significantly hindered.4. and the humanitarian interview procedure255 was instituted to ensure compliance. through both responding to and motivating new developments in the overall operation of New Zealand’s immigration law and policy. the Immigration Service has taken a pro-active role in ensuring that New Zealand adheres to its international obligations in the immigration and refugee spheres. The United Nations Human Rights Committee has also had a role to play.nz (accessed 18 January 2008). 253 I should note that other organs of government are also part of this dialogue. shows the Court attempting both to respect the Legislature. 255 See discussion above at n 33. 252 [2003] NZAR 685 (HC). 44 . as it commands bipartisan support. See discussion in Susan Glazebrook. 130–132. despite a series of amendments to the Immigration Act. in the High Court decision in Ye. also show to an extent the blurring of roles among the three branches of government.256 but is provided for in the Operational Manual of the Immigration Service.253 They do.Attorney-General v Refugee Council of New Zealand Inc. and.252 and Zaoui (No 2). 2001 para 24(i).257 In the Court of Appeal. A The humanitarian interview The Court’s pointed comments in Tavita254 spurred the Executive into action and it appears that. and to amend its perceived shortcomings. since then. looked to the Legislature for the answer.myd.govt. In the wake of Tavita. the Immigration Service produced an entire brochure relating to the need for immigration officers to take into account international obligations. Natalie Baird and Sacha Holden “New Zealand: Country Report on Human Rights” (forthcoming in the VULWR). 254 Discussed in section IV.
the Judges said that it was “entirely sensible and appropriate”259. In fact.three way split marked a stark division in the Court’s understanding of the Executive’s actions. the Crown accepted the interview process as necessary. Chambers J resiled in that case from the position he had taken in Ye. 260 As I noted in my judgment in Ye above n 30 para 204. It was not until 1999 that the Refugee Convention was (partially) incorporated into the Immigration Act. For example. 261 Immigration Amendment Act 1999. but once such an interview was undertaken. I saw the interview itself (or something similar) as essential to ensure New Zealand met its international obligations.261 Prior to this partial incorporation. Taking the lead from both the Supreme Court’s approach in Zaoui. Ibid. made non-binding comments on what those Judges saw as the appropriate course of action. Chambers and Robertson JJ’s conclusion was that the procedure instigated by the Executive was illegitimate: “nothing could be further from the statutory purpose”. 259 45 . para 412 Hammond and Wilson JJ. while the humanitarian interview was not legally required. at least to gather any updating information before final removal. Fifty years later we are still working through our methods of implementation. the courts could subject it to scrutiny. Hammond and Wilson JJ’s conclusion in Ye that there was nothing requiring immigration officers to undertake the humanitarian interview. That judgment took a very hands off approach in the legal sense. The interpretations advanced in the judgments delivered by Wilson and Hammond JJ and Chambers and Robertson JJ were not advanced by the Immigration Service in Huang. In its argument in Huang the Immigration Service continued to proceed on the basis that the interview was a proper response to New Zealand’s international law obligations. B How to determine refugee status New Zealand ratified the Refugee Convention in 1960. By contrast. the government had discharged its obligations to refugee status claimants through processes established by the Executive.258 The Hammond and Wilson JJ approach presents its own interesting perspective on the intra-governmental relationship. D v Minister of 258 Ye above n 30 para 527 Chambers and Robertson JJ. and the surrounding legislative history. As noted above. but interestingly.260 Huang thus constitutes an example of the courts taking a lead from the Executive.
the Executive acceptance in Zaoui (No 2) that New Zealand is bound to offer such protection by its international obligations under the ICCPR and the Convention Against Torture. Both the High Court and Court of Appeal held that the provision included refugee 262 Singh v Refugee Status Appeals Authority [1994] NZAR 193 (HC). In 1999. As noted above. including giving statutory recognition to the Refugee Status Appeals Authority.264 It is possible that this development reflects. included a request for legislative attention. at least in part. The new part provided a comprehensive regime for making and determining claims for refugee status. it is worth also noting that what amounts to an expansion of the protection regime has been proposed in the current Immigration Bill. by adding Part IVA to the Immigration Act. Butler v Attorney-General [1999] NZAR 205 (CA). 14. the Court of Appeal in D v Minister of Immigration had pointed to a serious legislative deficiency in the detention and removal provisions as they applied to refugees. but are at risk of arbitrary deprivation of life.265 C Detention pending determination of a refugee claim The problem of whether. It is clear that the Legislature intends to take the lead in ensuring compliance with these obligations. Here. The unlegislated nature of the processes gave rise to difficulties that had to be confronted by the High Court in Singh v Refugee Status Appeals Authority262 and the Court of Appeal in Butler v Attorney-General. Parliament sought to clarify matters. 264 Cls 120 – 121. This provides a basic nonrefoulement protection for people who are not refugees. decided in 1997. 263 46 . That case concerned an executive operational instruction relating to the exercise of discretion pursuant to s 128(5) of the Immigration Act 1987 to detain persons who were refused a permit pending removal “on the first available craft”. the issue of detention of refugees came before the Court of Appeal again in Attorney-General v Refugee Council of New Zealand.Immigration seems to have prompted the establishment of the Refugee Status Appeals Authority in 1991 under the prerogative powers of the Executive. or cruel or degrading treatment if they are removed from New Zealand. After the 1999 revisions of the Immigration Act. torture. in particular in relation to the Refugee Status Appeals Authority.263 Butler. However it should be noted that the rights of children are not specifically addressed in the new Bill. when and how to detain refugee claimants has resulted in an extended exchange between the three branches. 265 See Select Committee Report.
I understand that the percentages declined significantly in the wake of the judgment. para 133 I noted that some 94 percent of refugee claimants had been detained in the period between 19 September 2001 and 3 January 2002. s 10. paras 20 and 27. as opposed to a penal detention centre. 269 Immigration Amendment Act 2002. paras 119 – 120 McGrath J and paras 287 – 288. The operational instruction listed situations in which a refugee claimant should be detained in a penal institution or at the Mangere Refugee Resettlement Centre. As this was a possibility that had not been advanced by the plaintiffs it was necessary to defer a final judgment to allow the Crown to make submissions. although the immediate turnaround was subject to s 129X’s prohibition on removing refugee claimants prior to determination of their claim. although s 128(5) of the Act did create a power to detain claimants for refugee status.270 On appeal. I suggested some alterations to the wording of the instruction to remove some of the issues that had concerned Baragwanath J in the High Court. To an extent the centre operates as an open detention facility. 270 Above n 216. There is a strong focus on the need to facilitate rights of access to legal representation. 268 Refugee Council of New Zealand Inc v Attorney-General (No 1) [2002] NZAR 717 (HC). they could apply to the District Court for bail under s 128A. That centre is operated as an administrative. the Court of Appeal unanimously held that the operational instruction was not unlawful.267 Prior to that. 47 . instead addressing only where the person should be detained.271 In my judgment. 271 Above n 251. Writing in three separate judgments. he had issued an interim judgment holding that. the Crown argued that this change should be used in the construction of the pre-amendment legislation. the Court opined that the instruction did not in fact fetter the discretion of officials. including refugee claimants.266 In the High Court. Residents can also reside in family groups.269 In an attempt to extend the dialogue. although the way it had been applied in practice did give that impression. They are expected to observe the rules of the centre but a statement of residents’ rights is also provided to the detainees. 267 Refugee Council of New Zealand Inc v Attorney-General (No 2) [2002] NZAR 769 (HC). Baragwanath J flatly rejected that possibility. Tipping. above n 251. 268 The Legislature acted quickly and a month after the delivery of Baragwanath J’s interim judgment it introduced an amendment to the Act which allowed for conditional release of certain detainees. Baragwanath J held that the operational instructions were unlawful because they appeared to fetter the discretion of officials to decide whether or not to detain a person. as persons can be granted permission to leave the centre and return at stipulated times. Most of these were adopted in the 266 In my judgment in the Court of Appeal.claimants. Anderson and Blanchard JJ. para 139.
htm at A16. in response to suggestions made in a single concurring judgment. 274 Ibid. The new Instructions also incorporated my suggestion that the decision of whether to detain an individual ought to be separated out from the decision of where the individual should be detained. and that its importance as a consideration declines after the initial period.273 This suggestion was incorporated into the Operations Instructions by ensuring that this factor was coupled with an assessment of the individual’s potential danger to the community. failed to obtain a permit. For example. I had also suggested that it ought to be made clear in the Instructions that difficulties in getting documents for the individual would not alone be sufficient to justify detention without the presence of other factors.immigration.NZIS Operations Instructions effective from 1 April 2004. He refused to sign the application that would allow him to obtain a new passport and Iran refused to grant a passport without 272 The Operations Instructions are available at http://www.nz/opsmanual/index.govt. and utilised every avenue to remain in New Zealand. the validity of which had been upheld by the Court of Appeal.272 The main alterations related to the criteria set out for detaining individuals at the Mangere Detention Centre.274 This was incorporated in the new Operations Instructions where it was stated that the absence of valid travel documents is just one factor which may be taken into consideration and that there is no predetermined view that an asylum claimant without valid travel documents should be treated as high risk. 273 Above n 251. another high profile case would prompt reassessment of detention proceedings in the Immigration Act. 275 Above n 252. This is a striking example of the Immigration Service’s commitment to meeting its obligations under international law. para 281 Glazebrook J. D Detention pending removal Shortly after the Court of Appeal’s judgment in Refugee Council was handed down.2 of the Operations Manual (last accessed 22 January 2009). 48 . I pointed out that the instruction ought to make clear that there should not be a presumption in favour of detention where identity is uncertain if no other factors suggest detention is necessary. What is remarkable about the Immigration Service’s response in this case is that it made alterations to a document. Mohebbi v Minister of Immigration275 concerned an Iranian who arrived in New Zealand without a passport. paras 281 and 283 Glazebrook J. including marrying a New Zealander despite already being married to another woman.
276 Parliament (and the general populace) was horrified. Taking that into account. and Mr Mohebbi was released. was charged with shooting a woman in her back yard. disagreed over the correct interpretation of the legislation. but 60(7) of the Immigration Act set a statutory limit on immigration detention of three months.277 An amendment was presented to the House in the form of a Supplementary Order Paper and the Immigration Amendment Act (No 2) 2003 was passed with an amendment to s 60. Auckland Remand Prison. Baragwanath J considered that the statute required an assessment as to whether detention was for an unreasonable period. who had been released from detention on the basis of that decision. Release was only permissible where there were exceptional circumstances. Chambers J held that there was no statutory authority for a longer detention. 278 Yadegary v Manager. this time in a difficult case involving an Iranian who refused to sign his passport documents on the grounds that as a Christian he feared persecution in Iran. but he considered that after 29 months of detention it had been reached in this case. along with the principle of legality and proportionality to imprisonment for criminal offending and contempt of court. Mr Yadegary had been in custody for 29 months when he was granted bail by the High Court on the grounds that the length of his detention constituted exceptional circumstances: Yadegary v Manager. 277 See (2 September 2005) 611 NZPD 8254. Custodial Services. The new legislation was shortly before the Court again. Five days after the judgment was handed down an Afghani immigrant. Mr Mohebbi was detained by the Immigration Service. O’Regan and Baragwanath JJ. but the two majority Judges. O’Regan J took the view that circumstances would be exceptional if the only method of removing Mr Yadegary was with his co-operation and detention with the purpose of coercion could not be expected to succeed.278 The Court of Appeal upheld that decision by a majority. Baragwanath J concluded that the length of detention now amounted to an exceptional circumstance. "Accused set free four days before woman shot" (10 September 2003) NZ Herald Auckland 1. 276 Patrick Gower. 49 . Custodial Services.the application. Auckland Remand Prison [2007] NZAR 436. He acknowledged that the point at which the purpose of coercion could be said to have failed was a matter on which views can reasonably differ. The new s 60(6) stated that a judge reviewing a warrant of commitment on an immigration case could not order the release of the detainee if the detainee could not be removed from the country by reason of his or her action or inaction.
We also recommend an amendment to exclude length of detention from the “exceptional circumstances” to be considered. There may be instances where the courts. placed decisive weight on the legislative history. a non-citizen who hinders their departure will be detained. If the individual does not have access to that information. In this context I am reluctant to construe the section on the basis that the legislature missed its mark. 282 Select Committee Report. 280 50 . See discussion above n 253. but it appears from the Select Committee report on the current Immigration Bill280 that it is not happy with the position post-Yadegary. E Special advocates In immigration matters there are times when the refusal of a permit. except in exceptional circumstances. We recommend an amendment to clause 285 to create a presumption that. 281 “Immigration Bill” reported from the Transport and Industrial Relations Committee (21 July 2008) at 28. and we recommend new clause 271A to clarify that the bill constitutes a code for the immigration detention of noncitizens. The Judge stated that.The third Judge. in considering a warrant of commitment application. 27. para 223. although Baragwanath J’s interpretation was available on the literal words of the section. The Select Committee report responds pointedly to the decision:281 … courts have determined that the length of time spent in detention itself constitutes “exceptional circumstances” under which a non-citizen may be released from detention. We consider that this power could be used to undermine the specific provisions for immigration detention and monitoring in the bill.”279 The Legislature’s response to this decision is still in the pipeline. This may result in non-citizens choosing to hinder their departure by “waiting out” time in detention in order to create an “exceptional circumstance” to justify their release. “[the Legislature] introduced s 60(6) on a particular assumption as to its effect. could exercise their inherent jurisdiction to grant bail to a non-citizen. The Select Committee report also responded negatively to the conclusion in the Zaoui bail case that the courts have inherent jurisdiction to grant bail:282 We note that the detention provisions in the bill have been developed to comply with the human rights standards in the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. or expulsion of an individual is decided on the basis of classified information. this offends against basic principles of due process 279 Ibid. William Young P.
289 Immigration Bill No. 290 The hazards of such an approach were recently demonstrated in Vilceanu v Minister of Immigration [2008] NZCA 486.290 283 The special advocate procedure has appeared in various manifestations but the basic concept is that a lawyer with high level security clearance is briefed by the defendant and is then allowed to see the classified information and make representations on behalf of the defendant. 132-2 cl 216(4). 287 John Ip above n 284. As a result. Parliament has not tried to remove judicial review rights.284 Under New Zealand’s new Immigration Bill. Despite having various appeal mechanisms. albeit these have been time limited. and the Deportation Review Tribunal (cl 193).285 The Bill sets out a special procedure that the Tribunal must follow where classified information is involved. amending or updating the summary of allegations. while there is a need to provide this summary. the Removal Review Authority. 132-2 cl 216. decisions involving classified information are to be made by the proposed Immigration and Protection Tribunal. para 22 where the Crown “brought the review proceedings for the not very 51 . 728. as in the Immigration Bill No 132-1 provision has been made for the creation of special advocates. 284 See John Ip “The Rise and Spread of the Special Advocate” [2008] Public Law 717. 730.283 This represents a statutory endorsement of the ad hoc procedure utilised during the Zaoui saga.287) However. the clause does not require the summary to list any documents or source material containing the classified information. detail the contents of any documents or other source material containing the classified information.286 (This clause tracks Williams J’s decision in the High Court prior to the drafting of this Bill where he held that Mr Zaoui ought to be provided with a summary of the allegations as it is a basic principle of natural justice.288 The special advocate is not to be involved in the process of approving.289 F Judicial review Another interesting point to note in this intra-governmental dialogue is the retention of the judicial review mechanism in immigration legislation. In that case the InspectorGeneral appointed two special advocates to examine classified security information and make submissions on Mr Zaoui’s behalf. The effect of this is to give litigants a choice as to the route by which they challenge the decision at stake. the Refugee Status Appeals Authority. or specify the source of any documents or other source material containing classified information. 285 This Tribunal will replace the Residence Review Board. New Zealand has followed the leads of both Canada and the United Kingdom.and natural justice. Usually there are restrictions on communications between advocate and client once the advocate has seen the classified information. Zaoui v Attorney-General [2004] 2 NZLR 339 at [172] (HC) 288 Immigration Bill No. 132-2 cl 216(6). The Tribunal must approve a summary of allegations and provide this to the appellant and the special advocate. 286 Immigration Bill No.
which confers on immigration officers the power to cancel a removal order. 52 .291 G Privative clauses Privative clauses are perhaps the ultimate in “dialogue” as they attempt to shut off the conversation altogether. It will be interesting for the future to see whether in the new environment of a “culture of justification” (see Michael Taggart “Proportionality. this shows a commitment to abiding by New Zealand’s international obligations. Wednesbury” above n 86. 597-598 on a possibly increased tendency on the part of the courts to require more fulsome justification of decisions and to review the adequacy of those reasons. See for example the comments in De Smith’s Judicial Review above n 66. 293 For discussion of the role of the Inspector-General see above n 51.It seems that Parliament has (in the general immigration arena) attempted to limit the availability of review by a less direct route. Here. and where a person does make such a request the immigration officer is under no obligation to consider the request. 50) a failure to give reasons might lead more readily to a view that a decision was or might be unreasonable as it has not been recorded that relevant factors have been taken into account in the decision-making process. 292 Philip A Joseph Constitutional and Administrative Law above n 178.” The Court gave short shrift to the argument that the review could be revived when the Crown was dissatisfied with the result on appeal.292 In the immigration sphere the courts’ attitude towards privative clauses has been recently demonstrated in the Zaoui litigation. the Immigration Service continues to undertake the humanitarian interview procedure and the reasons for the decision are recorded. Where privative clauses are included. principally by eliminating any requirement that reasons be given. 291 As I noted in Ye above n 30. a provision prohibiting review of any proceeding. See also William Wade and Christopher Forsyth Administrative Law (10 ed Oxford University Press. like their Australian counterparts. is a classic example. The formula in s 58. although the recording of reasons is probably also at least partly a requirement of internal operation purposes. Subsection (5) states that nothing in the section gives any person the right to apply for cancellation of a removal order. Once again. satisfactory purpose of obtaining for itself a right of appeal to [the Court of Appeal] should it be unsuccessful in the High Court. Deference. para 164. Despite this provision. Oxford. the New Zealand courts. 859 and discussion of Bulk Gas above n 70. have shown an intention not to be dissuaded easily. nor to give any reasons relating to any decision. 2004) 365 on the possible consequences of a failure to give reasons. report or finding of the Inspector-General293 was held not to prevent the court from considering the Inspector-General’s interlocutory decision as to the manner in which he intended to review the Director of Security’s decision to declare Mr Zaoui a security risk.
it is clear that. The courts’ role is complementary. The errors alleged in this case were material errors of law: the failure to provide a summary of the allegations against Mr Zaoui was a denial of natural justice. sometimes as the lighthouse keeper providing the life buoy for those who have fallen overboard. of course. as we have seen.Agreeing with the High Court. role to play in securing the rights of would be immigrants. the Executive has shown itself willing to implement them. the Court of Appeal unanimously found that this privative clause did not prevent review of material errors of law. This point was not in issue in the Supreme Court (see leave decision [2005] NZSC 5). Ibid.294 Both Anderson P and I emphasised the importance of judicial review where an individual’s rights were at stake. is a proposition I refuse to accept. It is the Executive that enters into international human rights agreements and. para 18 Anderson P. but it is undeniable that the beam from lighthouse has shone progressively brighter over the last fifty years. Although the New Zealand courts are cognisant that limits need to be placed on judicial review and acutely aware that a proper distinction between the various branches of government must be maintained. para 101 Glazebrook J. And. other times lighting the channel ahead for safe passage towards the coast. Likewise the Legislature has played an important role in providing for human rights and incorporating New Zealand’s international obligations into domestic law. or even the most important. let alone a power as relevant to personal liberty as the Inspector-General’s power of review. However. as these significant boundaries have become increasingly blurred. the courts do not have the only. which were considered to be jurisdictional errors. The strength of the Court’s view is evidenced by Anderson P’s statement:295 That the High Court must regard as impliedly excluded its supervision in respect of any statutory power. VII THE END OF THE VOYAGE As this review has shown. the question as to where these significant lines should be drawn remains inherently uncertain. 294 Zaoui (No 2) (CA) above n 56. to ensure its lawful exercise. the role of the judiciary in this fundamental exercise has changed from that of even ten or so years ago. 295 53 . and failure to have regard to the Refugee Convention (as mandated by the statute) a fundamental misconception of the Inspector-General’s task. the boat of voyagers I began with must brave an uncertain sea.
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