Source: https://casetext.com/case/cohen-v-battaglia-2
Timestamp: 2020-05-29 04:32:55
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Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 772', '§ 39', '§ 773', '§ 773', '§ 773', '§ 773', '§ 773', '§ 773', '§ 581', '§ 772', '§ 772', '§ 772', '§ 772', '§ 772', '§ 767', '§ 772', '§ 767', '§ 772', '§ 767', '§ 772', '§ 772']

Cohen v. Battaglia, 202 P.3d 87 | Casetext Search + Citator
But the panel nevertheless affirmed the dismissal on a different ground, i.e., § 772 of the Restatement…
First Nat'l Bank v. Cunningham
FNB argued that it was an in rem judgment and the judgment would be used only if the Cunninghams did not…
Date published: Mar 6, 2009
202 P.3d 87 (Kan. Ct. App. 2009)
41 Kan. App. 2d 386
In Cohen, the Supreme Court addressed the liability of Battaglia for statements that are true. The Court of Appeals' decision affirming the district court was reversed because the panel effectively made a factual determination by considering facts outside the pleadings, which is inappropriate on a motion to dismiss; factual issues cannot be resolved on a dispositive motion.
Summary of this case from First Nat'l Bank v. Cunningham
202 P.3d 87 (Kan.App. 2009) 41 Kan.App.2d 386 Barton J. COHEN, as trustee of the Barton J. Cohen Revocable Trust, and A. Baron Cass, III, as trustee of the A. Baron Cass Family Trust, u/t/a dated March 22, 1989, as amended, Appellants, v. Marion BATTAGLIA, Appellee. No. 99,793. Court of Appeals of Kansas. March 6, 2009
1. The Kansas Court of Appeals has appellate jurisdiction over a district court's final decision in any action, except in an action where a direct appeal to the Kansas Supreme Court is required by law. K.S.A.2008 Supp. 60-2102a(a)(4).
Barton J. Cohen, as trustee of the Barton J. Cohen revocable trust (the Cohen Trust), and A. Baron Cass, III, as trustee of the A. Baron Cass Family Trust under trust agreement dated March 22, 1989, as amended (the Cass Trust), appeal the dismissal of their claims of tortious interference with a contract and tortious interference with a prospective business advantage and relationship.
At the same time as the BAG transaction, BDC redeemed Battaglia's interest in BDC, paying Battaglia $419,809 in cash and issuing him a promissory note worth $1,259,434. By way of a " ‘ Pledge Agreement,’ " the note was secured by a 20% first priority security interest in BDC.
The promissory note provided that it would become due and payable in full if BDC or BAG were sold to an unrelated party. Pursuant to the pledge agreement, BDC further promised not to sell any portion of Battaglia's 20% security interest without Battaglia's consent. Once all of the obligations under the note were performed and the " ‘ [t]ermination date’ " of the agreement was reached, however, Battaglia's consent to the sale of his collateral was no longer required.
After being informed of the sale agreements, Battaglia demanded to know the purchase price and other details. Cohen refused on the basis that Battaglia was not a " ‘ seller’ " under the sale agreements, the transactions with Group 1 were confidential, and disclosure of the information might jeopardize the agreements. Battaglia disputed these assertions, arguing that, as the president of BAG and because of his security interest in BDC, he was entitled to copies of the contracts regarding the sale agreements. In response, counsel for Trustees and BAG countered that Battaglia was not entitled to see the documents relating to the sales agreements because Battaglia was neither a shareholder of BAG, a member of BDC, nor a director of either entity, and thus had no interest in either BAG or BDC except as the holder of a promissory note.
Battaglia knew that the closing with Group 1 was scheduled for January 16, 2007. On January 12, 2007, Louis C. Accurso, Battaglia's attorney, filed a civil action on behalf of Battaglia in the circuit court of Jackson County, Missouri, naming Cohen, the Cohen Trust, Cass, BAG, and BDC as defendants (the Missouri action). That same day, Accurso faxed to Group 1's general counsel a copy of the Missouri action with the following notation: " ‘ Please find enclosed a file-stamped copy of a lawsuit filed today on behalf of Marion Battaglia. If you have any questions or comments, please do not hesitate to contact me.’ "
At the time the Missouri action was filed, Group 1 had no ownership interest in BDC or BAG. Also, Group 1's general counsel was neither counsel for, nor a registered agent of, BDC or BAG. According to Trustees, Accurso's conduct in " [s]ending the letter and a copy of the Petition for the Missouri Action served no purpose except to interfere with the sale transactions."
At oral argument, Battaglia argued for the first time on appeal that the district court's dismissal of this cause of action without prejudice did not constitute a final judgment from which Trustees can appeal. Whether jurisdiction exists is a question of law over which an appellate court's scope of review is unlimited. Foster v. Kansas Dept. of Revenue, 281 Kan. 368, 369, 130 P.3d 560 (2006). Subject matter jurisdiction may be raised at any time, whether for the first time on appeal or even on the appellate court's own motion. Vorhees v. Baltazar,State v. Harp, 283 Kan. 389, 397, 153 P.3d 1227 (2007). If the record shows there is no jurisdiction for an appeal, the appeal must be dismissed. 283 Kan. 740, 746, 156 P.3d 1268 (2007).
Kansas appellate courts may only exercise jurisdiction over appeals from district court as allowed by statute and, therefore, do not have discretionary power to entertain appeals from all district court orders. Flores Rentals v. Flores, 283 Kan. 476, 480-81, 153 P.3d 523 (2007). K.S.A.2008 Supp. 60-2102a sets forth those orders and decisions of a district court over which this court has jurisdiction. K.S.A.2008 Supp. 60-2102a(a)(4) allows jurisdiction over " [a] final decision in any action, except in an action where a direct appeal to the supreme court is required by law." Trustees contend that the district court's dismissal without prejudice constituted a final judgment, while Battaglia asserts that it did not.
A final decision generally disposes of the entire merits of the case and leaves no further questions or the possibility of future directions or actions by the court. The term " ‘ final decision’ " is self-defining and refers to an order that definitely terminates a right or liability involved in an action or that grants or refuses a remedy as the final act in the case. Flores, 283 Kan. at 481-82, 153 P.3d 523.
However, in a 2004 unpublished opinion, a panel of this court determined there was sufficient finality for appellate jurisdiction where an action was involuntarily dismissed without prejudice, but the plaintiff claimed potential prejudice from the dismissal because a second lawsuit might not relate back and, therefore, could be subject to dismissal based on the statute of limitations. Nelson v. Kaw Valley Center, Inc., No. 90,510, 2004 WL 794472, unpublished opinion filed April 9, 2004. It seems reasonable to extrapolate and apply a rule from Nelson that where a case has been involuntarily dismissed without prejudice, there will be appellate jurisdiction of such dismissal only where the plaintiff contends that he or she will suffer some real prejudice from the dismissal. A dismissal without prejudice contemplates by its very nature the possibility of refiling an action that is exactly or substantially the same as the action dismissed. Judicial economy is not served by allowing an appeal from such a dismissal when a plaintiff does not show that he or she will be adversely affected by the dismissal.
Such a rule is similar to rules applied in other jurisdictions. See LeBlang Motors, Ltd. v. Subaru of America, Inc., 148 F.3d 680, 687 (7th Cir.1998) (An involuntary dismissal without prejudice was not a " ‘ final decision’ " for purposes of determining appellate jurisdiction unless plaintiff could not file another complaint.); B.C. Inv. Co. v. Throm, 650 P.2d 1333, 1335 (Colo.App.1982) (Dismissal of a complaint without prejudice is generally not a final and appealable order, unless circumstances indicate that the action cannot be saved, such as due to operation of a statute of limitations.); Chromalloy American v. Elyria Found., 955 S.W.2d 1, 4 (Mo.1997) (" [A] dismissal without prejudice that a plaintiff may cure by filing another suit in the same court is not a final judgment from which an appeal may be taken." ).
Upon appellate review of a district court's order granting a motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim, an appellate court is required to assume that the facts alleged by the plaintiff are true, along with any inferences reasonable to be drawn therefrom. The court must also decide whether those facts and inferences state a claim on the theories presented by the plaintiff and also on any other possible theory. McCormick v. Board of Shawnee County Comm'rs, 272 Kan. 627, Syl. ¶ 1, 35 P.3d 815 (2001), cert. denied 537 U.S. 841, 123 S.Ct. 170, 154 L.Ed.2d 65 (2002). Although the court must accept the plaintiff's description of what occurred, the court is not required to accept conclusory allegations on the legal effects of events the plaintiff has set out if these allegations do not reasonably follow from the description of what happened, or if these allegations are contradicted by the description itself. 272 Kan. 627, Syl. ¶ 10, 35 P.3d 815.
In their amended petition, Trustees alleged that, as a result of Accurso's actions on behalf of Battaglia, Group 1 " refused to close without altering the Sale Agreements." Trustees further alleged that they modified the sales agreements to comply with Group 1's demands, and the sales ultimately closed on schedule.
On appeal, Battaglia cites Pizza Management, Inc. v. Pizza Hut, Inc., 737 F.Supp. 1154, 1164 (D.Kan.1990), for the proposition that an action for interference with a contract does not extend to any adverse impact or increased burden, short of breach. Battaglia claims compliance with Group 1's demands merely caused an adverse impact or placed an increased burden on Trustees.
Battaglia's citation to Pizza Management is unpersuasive. In Hawkinson v. Bennett, 265 Kan. 564, 601, 962 P.2d 445 (1998), the defendants relied on Pizza Management and made virtually the same argument as Battaglia makes here, which our Supreme Court rejected. The Supreme Court noted that, under Kansas law, anticipatory repudiation is a breach of contract which authorizes the nonbreaching party to bring an immediate action. Hawkinson, 265 Kan. at 601, 962 P.2d 445.
Battaglia also argues that Trustees failed to allege that their business relationship was not continued. For support, Battaglia cites to a case from the Superior Court of Connecticut, Ekman v. McCarthy, 2001 WL 1868928 (2001) (unpublished opinion). In Ekman, the property manager of a condominium sent a letter to a prospective purchaser of a condominium unit warning that liability could be imposed on the prospective purchaser for nonconforming doors installed by the seller. As a result of this letter, which " almost killed the deal," the seller was required to place $3,000 in escrow to cover the cost of replacing the doors in case the property manager took action against the prospective purchasers. Slip op. at *1. The seller sued the property manager for tortious interference with business relations, but the court entered judgment for the property manager. After noting that the closing did in fact take place, the court ruled with no further analysis that the plaintiff had failed to establish any of the elements of tortious interference with a contract or business relations. Slip op. at *2. While Ekman clearly favors Battaglia, the court's analysis in that case is weak. The mere fact the sale closed may demonstrate the relationship between Group 1 and Trustees did not terminate, but that fact alone does not show that Trustees fully realized their expectancy of future economic benefit. Trustees alleged that they were required to pay substantial attorney fees and that the sale price was reduced as a result of Accurso's conduct. Therefore, we find Trustees adequately pled that Battaglia interfered with their business expectancy.
Turning to other jurisdictions, the court in Don King Productions, Inc. v. Douglas, 742 F.Supp. 741, 775 (S.D.N.Y.1990), cited New York law and held: " In a tortious interference action, a plaintiff is not required to prove that the defendant had perfect or precise knowledge of the terms and conditions of the contracts in issue. [Citation omitted.] It is enough that the defendant who interfered have ‘ [k]nowledge of the existence of the contract’ ...." A similar proposition of law was articulated in Kelly v. Galveston County, 520 S.W.2d 507, 513 (Tex.App.1975), where the court held: " It is not necessary that a defendant in a case of interference with contract rights have actual knowledge of the contract and its terms. It is enough that the defendant had facts from which a reasonable person would conclude the existence of a contract. [Citation omitted.]"
The only case to be found stating otherwise is Ebasco Services Inc. v. Pennsylvania Power & L. Co., 402 F.Supp. 421 (D.C.Pa.1975). According to Ebasco Services Inc., the Pennsylvania Supreme Court's decision in Klauder v. Cregar, 327 Pa. 1, 192 A. 667 (1937), " is explicit in requiring that the offending party have knowledge not only of the existence of the contractual relationship, but also of the terms of that contract which conferred upon the claimant the rights allegedly interfered with." 402 F.Supp. at 453. However, this characterization of the court's holding in Klauder is somewhat exaggerated. In Klauder, the plaintiff claimed the defendant maliciously interfered with a contract. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court held that the plaintiff had properly stated a cause of action against the defendant. 327 Pa. at 10, 192 A. 667. In reaching this conclusion, the court distinguished a similar case from Massachusetts in which a contrary result was reached. According to the court, the defendant in the Massachusetts case had no knowledge of the contract's specific terms, while in the present case the defendant possessed particular knowledge and could be held liable. 327 Pa. at 7, 192 A. 667.
Although the district court denied Battaglia's motion to dismiss based on the arguments set forth above, the court granted the motion to dismiss on grounds that the tortious interference claims were premature. Tortious interference with a contract seeks to preserve existing contracts, while tortious interference with a prospective business advantage or relationship seeks to protect future or potential contractual relations. Despite these differences, both torts are similar in that they are predicated on malicious conduct by the defendant. Burcham, 276 Kan. at 423-25, 77 P.3d 130.
To that end, the district court found-as a matter of law-that it was the filing of the Missouri lawsuit by Battaglia that made up the malicious conduct upon which Trustees based their claims. Relying on Eddy's Toyota of Wichita, Inc. v. Kmart Corp., 945 F.Supp. 220, 225 (D.Kan.1996), the district court went on to find that in order to prove tortious interference based on the filing of the Missouri lawsuit, Trustees would be required to establish the elements of a malicious prosecution claim, which includes a requirement that the lawsuit terminated in the plaintiffs' favor. Since the Missouri action had not yet terminated, the court concluded that Trustees' tortious interference claims were premature and thus could not survive dismissal.
" A rule of liberal construction applies when judging whether a claim has been stated." Montoy v. State, 275 Kan. 145, 148, 62 P.3d 228 (2003). Under this rule, a plaintiff is entitled to have the petition interpreted liberally in his or her favor with respect to any indefiniteness or uncertainty in its allegations and to have all inferences reasonably to be drawn therefrom resolved in his or her favor. See City of Andover v. Southwestern Bell Telephone, 37 Kan.App.2d 358, 362, 153 P.3d 561 (2007).
According to Trustees, their amended petition clearly specified that the soleSending the letter and a copy of the Petition for the basis of their claims was Accurso's conduct in faxing a copy of the Missouri action to Group 1. This is debatable. In their amended petition, Trustees alleged that Battaglia (through Accurso) filed the Missouri action and faxed a copy of that action to Group 1. In the very next paragraph, Trustees claimed: " Missouri Action served no purpose except to interfere with the sale transactions." (Emphasis added.) This italicized text certainly suggests that Trustees were relying on faxing as the tortious conduct. Notably, however, Trustees alleged later in the amended petition that " as a result of Battaglia's actions," " through the actions of Accurso," and " [a]s a result of Battaglia's wrongful conduct," Group 1 refused to close the sales agreements without altering them. If Trustees intended to forego the filing of the Missouri action as a basis of liability for their claims, they certainly could have done so more clearly. But, given we must liberally construe the petition to determine whether a claim has been stated, we find the petition sufficiently alleges faxing the lawsuit as a separate and distinct predicate act.
The district court held that " filing a lawsuit is deemed to give notice to the world of its existence. Under those circumstances, it is impossible for this Court to see how mailing a copy of the lawsuit would add anything." For insight as to what the district court meant by these words, we turn to statements made by the district court at the hearing on Battaglia's motion to dismiss:
" [T]he filing of the petition in Missouri imparts notice by operation of law. And so, I don't see how the sending of that letter does anything that the filing of the petition did not do. I understand how, as a practical matter, it may have caused the buyers to take some action, but as a legal matter, I can't see that the sending of the letter had any effect that the filing of the lawsuit did not have."
From this excerpt, it appears the district court concluded that, because filing the Missouri action made the lawsuit public information, Trustees would be unable to prove that, " but for" Accurso's conduct in faxing the lawsuit, Group 1 would have closed the deal as originally agreed.
Tortious interference with a prospective business advantage or relationship explicitly requires " but for" causation. To succeed on that claim, Trustees must prove that, except for the conduct of Battaglia, Trustees were reasonably certain to have continued the relationship or realized the expectancy with Group 1. See Burcham, 276 Kan. at 423, 77 P.3d 130. And, although tortious interference with a contract does not explicitly require " but for" causation, our Supreme Court has construed " but for" causation as an element of the tort. See Dickens v. Snodgrass, Dunlap & Co., 255 Kan. 164, 168-69, 872 P.2d 252 (1994) (adopting elements of tort as set forth in 45 Am.Jur.2d, Interference § 39, p. 314). Accordingly, both causes of action for tortious interference require a plaintiff to establish " but for" causation.
The question thus presented is whether Trustees sufficiently alleged " but for" causation in their amended petition. To that end, Trustees alleged several times that Group 1 refused to close the sales transactions as a result of Accurso's conduct. Given the conclusory nature of this allegation, however, and the failure to set forth any facts to support such an allegation, we find these allegations insufficient.
Apparently recognizing they failed to sufficiently allege " but for" causation in their amended petition, Trustees argue on appeal they were entitled to a reasonable inference that, but for Accurso's conduct in faxing a copy of the Missouri action to Group 1, Group 1 would have been ignorant of any lawsuits and would have had no incentive to breach its sales agreements with Trustees. Battaglia opposes any such inference.
First, Battaglia maintains the inference is " meaningless" because, if it were true, Trustees could " sue the paper boy who delivers a newspaper that reported on the filing of the lawsuit." We disagree. A lawsuit against the paper boy would only prevail if all the other elements of tortious interference with a contract and tortious interference with a prospective business advantage or relationship were proven, including knowledge and intent. See Burcham, 276 Kan. at 423-24, 77 P.3d 130. If such a lawsuit against a paper boy seems ridiculous, it is because a paper boy would not have the requisite knowledge of the contractual relations or business expectancy and the requisite intent to interfere, not because the information conveyed was public.
Battaglia's second argument against an inference of " but for" causation is that it conflicts with other allegations in Trustees' amended petition. Specifically, Battaglia points to the allegation that the Chicago Title Insurance Company would be handling the closing of the sale. According to Battaglia, the title company's report " would have shown all matters of public record, thereby dispelling any notion that Group 1 would not have been made aware of the lawsuit if [Accurso] had not mailed a copy to them." Again, we disagree. Trustees never alleged that a report would be made or what such a report would contain. Battaglia's argument consists of nothing but speculation and inferences drawn against Trustees' favor. As indicated earlier, all reasonable inferences must be drawn in Trustees' favor, not against it. See City of Andover, 37 Kan.App.2d at 362, 153 P.3d 561.
Moreover, an inference that Group 1 would have closed the sales agreements as originally structured but for Accurso's actions follows reasonably from Trustees' allegation that Group 1 failed to close the sales agreements as a result of Accurso's conduct. Accurso's alleged conduct included transmitting the fax. Taking Trustees' allegations and all reasonable inferences as true, we find the amended petition sufficiently alleged that, but for receiving the fax, Group 1 would have closed the deal without requiring the agreement to be modified. See McCormick, 272 Kan. 627, Syl. ¶ 10, 35 P.3d 815.
" One who, by asserting in good faith a legally protected interest of his own or threatening in good faith to protect the interest by appropriate means, intentionally causes a third person not to perform an existing contract or enter into a prospective contractual relation with another does not interfere improperly with the other's relation if the actor believes that his interest may otherwise be impaired or destroyed by the performance of the contract or transaction." Restatement (Second) of Torts § 773.
In other words, if a person believes that his or her interest will be destroyed by the performance of the contract, § 773 permits that person to intentionally interfere with the contract by asserting in good faith a legally protected interest or by threatening in good faith to protect the interest by appropriate means. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 773. Citing to this section as support for dismissal, the district court reasoned: " If threatening to file a good faith lawsuit is not grounds for a tortious interference case, and filing a good faith lawsuit is not grounds for a tortious interference claim, it is impossible for this Court to see how saying, ‘ Look, I have filed this lawsuit’ could be grounds either."
Notably, we are not persuaded by the court's reasoning. This is because § 773 protects only those actions which were taken in good faith and where the person believed the action was necessary to preserve a legally protected interest. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 773. In their amended petition, Trustees specifically alleged that Accurso's conduct in faxing a copy of the Missouri action to Group 1 " served no purpose except to interfere with the sale transactions." (Emphasis added.) Assuming that this allegation and all reasonable inferences are true, Accurso's conduct on behalf of Battaglia was taken neither in good faith nor for the purpose of preserving a legally protected interest. Accordingly, we conclude the district court's reliance on § 773 in dismissing Trustees' tortious interference claims was misplaced.
" One who intentionally causes a third person not to perform a contract or not to enter into a prospective contractual relation with another does not interfere improperly with the other's contractual relation, by giving the third person
" (a) truthful information, or
" (b) honest advice within the scope of a request for the advice."
" b. Truthful information. There is of course no liability for interference with a contract or with a prospective contractual relation on the part of one who merely gives truthful information to another. The interference in this instance is clearly not improper. This is true even though the facts are marshaled in such a way that they speak for themselves and the person to whom the information is given immediately recognizes them as a reason for breaking his contract or refusing to deal with another. It is also true whether or not the information is requested. Compare § 581A, on the effect of truth in an action for defamation."
Our research reveals that no Kansas state appellate court has cited to § 772(a). At least two panels of our court, however, appear to have considered and approved the general concept underlying this section of the Restatement without actually citing to it. In Taylor v. International Union of Electronic Workers, et al., 25 Kan.App.2d 671, 678, 968 P.2d 685 (1998), rev. deniedMeyer Land & Cattle Co. v. Lincoln County Conservation Dist., 267 Kan. 889 (1999), the plaintiff asserted claims of defamation and tortious interference with a prospective business relationship of a contract based on the defendant's communication of allegedly false and defamatory statements. The court held that the success of the plaintiff's case turned on whether the statements were true or false. According to the court, if the statements were true, " plaintiff [had] little to complain about." 25 Kan.App.2d at 678, 968 P.2d 685. This language was quoted with approval in 29 Kan.App.2d 746, 751, 31 P.3d 970 (2001), rev. denied 273 Kan. 1036 (2002), although that panel's analysis implied that liability for tortious interference could still be imposed if the defendant committed misconduct in conveying truthful information. As noted previously, § 772(a) does not permit any liability to be imposed if the breach resulted from the communication of truthful information. See Restatement (Second) of Torts § 772, comment b.
Notably, the United States District Court for the District of Kansas twice has held that § 772 applies in Kansas. See Old Colony Ventures I, Inc. v. SMWNPF Holdings, Inc., 1996 WL 707025, at *11-*12 (D.Kan.1996) (unpublished opinion); Green Const. Co. v. Black & Veach Engineers & Architects, 1990 WL 58780, at *4-*5 (D.Kan.1990) (unpublished opinion).
To determine whether the principle stated in § 772(a) should be recognized with this case, some context is necessary. As mentioned before, claims of tortious interference are predicated on malicious conduct by the defendant. See Burcham, 276 Kan. at 424-25, 77 P.3d 130. Thus, not all interference in present or future contractual relations is tortious. A person may be privileged or justified to interfere with contractual relations in certain situations. See Burcham, 276 Kan. at 425, 77 P.3d 130. In Turner v. Halliburton Co., 240 Kan. 1, 14, 722 P.2d 1106 (1986), our Supreme Court noted that the Restatement (Second) of Torts § 767 (1979) does not speak in terms of privilege or justification; rather, the Restatement refers to tortious conduct as " improper" and sets forth the following seven factors that should be considered in determining whether a defendant's conduct meets that description: (1) the nature of the defendant's conduct; (2) the defendant's motive; (3) the interests of the other with which the defendant's conduct interferes; (4) the interests sought to be advanced by the defendant; (5) the social interests in protecting the freedom of action of the defendant and the contractual interests of the other; (6) the proximity or remoteness of the defendant's conduct to the interference; and (7) the relations between the parties.
Simply put, we find the rule stated in § 772(a) should be adopted as the law in Kansas. In Turner our Supreme Court quoted the seven-factor test found under § 767. Turner, 240 Kan. at 14, 722 P.2d 1106. Since § 772 is a special application of § 767, our Supreme Court has, by implication, approved of § 772. Moreover, in Turner, our Supreme Court declared that " [o]ccasions privileged under the law of defamation are also occasions in which interference with contractual relations may be considered justified or privileged." 240 Kan. at 13, 722 P.2d 1106. Under the law of defamation, no liability exists for true statements. Ruebke v. Globe Communications Corp., 241 Kan. 595, 598, 738 P.2d 1246 (1987). Our Supreme Court's willingness to extend the principles of defamation law to claims for tortious interference strongly supports the conclusion that § 772(a) should be adopted as the law in Kansas.