Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/449/1109/240994/
Timestamp: 2018-03-23 01:16:01
Document Index: 630977574

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 102', '§ 101', '§ 102', '§ 102', '§ 102', '§ 102', '§ 101', '§ 102', '§ 101', '§ 102', '§ 104', '§ 105', '§ 105', 'art 29', 'art 30', '§ 102', '§ 1171', '§ 1171', '§ 1171']

Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. United States Atomic Energy Commission and United States of America, Respondents,baltimore Gas and Electric Company, Intervenor.calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. United States Atomic Energy Commission and United States of America, Respondents, 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971) :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › D.C. Circuit › 1971 › Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. United States Atomic Energy Co...
Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. United States Atomic Energy Commission and United States of America, Respondents,baltimore Gas and Electric Company, Intervenor.calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee, Inc., et al., Petitioners, v. United States Atomic Energy Commission and United States of America, Respondents, 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971)
U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit - 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971)
Decided July 23, 1971
NEPA, first of all, makes environmental protection a part of the mandate of every federal agency and department. The Atomic Energy Commission, for example, had continually asserted, prior to NEPA, that it had no statutory authority to concern itself with the adverse environmental effects of its actions.4 Now, however, its hands are no longer tied. It is not only permitted, but compelled, to take environmental values into account. Perhaps the greatest importance of NEPA is to require the Atomic Energy Commission and other agencies to consider environmental issues just as they consider other matters within their mandates. This compulsion is most plainly stated in Section 102. There, "Congress authorizes and directs that, to the fullest extent possible: (1) the policies, regulations, and public laws of the United States shall be interpreted and administered in accordance with the policies set forth in this Act * * *." Congress also "authorizes and directs" that "(2) all agencies of the Federal Government shall" follow certain rigorous procedures in considering environmental values.5 Senator Jackson, NEPA's principal sponsor, stated that " [n]o agency will [now] be able to maintain that it has no mandate or no requirement to consider the environmental consequences of its actions."6 He characterized the requirements of Section 102 as "action-forcing" and stated that " [o]therwise, these lofty declarations [in Section 101] are nothing more than that."7
Yet the statements of the two Senators occasionally indicate they were willing to go farther, to permit agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission to forego at least some NEPA procedures in consideration of water quality. Senator Jackson, for example, said, "The compromise worked out between the bills provides that the licensing agency will not have to make a detailed statement on water quality if the State or other appropriate agency has made a certification pursuant to [WQIA]."37 Perhaps Senator Jackson would have required some consideration and balancing of environmental costs — despite the lack of a formal detailed statement — but he did not spell out his views. No Senator, other than Senators Jackson and Muskie, addressed himself specifically to the problem during floor discussion. Nor did any member of the House of Representatives.38 The section-by-section analysis of NEPA submitted to the Senate clearly stated the overriding purpose of Section 104: that "no agency may substitute the procedures outlined in this Act for more restrictive and specific procedures established by law governing its activities."39 The report does not suggest there that NEPA procedures should be entirely abandoned, but rather that they should not be "substituted" for more specific standards. In one rather cryptic sentence, the analysis does muddy the waters somewhat, stating that " [i]t is the intention that where there is no more effective procedure already established, the procedure of this act will be followed."40 Notably, however, the sentence does not state that in the presence of "more effective procedures" the NEPA procedure will be abandoned entirely. It seems purposefully vague, quite possibly meaning that obedience to the certifications of standard setting agencies must alter, by supplementing, the normal "procedure of this act."
By refusing to consider requirement of alterations until construction is completed, the Commission may effectively foreclose the environmental protection desired by Congress. It may also foreclose rigorous consideration of environmental factors at the eventual operating license proceedings. If "irreversible and irretrievable commitment [s] of resources" have already been made, the license hearing (and any public intervention therein) may become a hollow exercise. This hardly amounts to consideration of environmental values "to the fullest extent possible."
Only once — in § 102(2) (B) — does the Act state, in terms, that federal agencies must give full "consideration" to environmental impact as part of their decision making processes. However, a requirement of consideration is clearly implicit in the substantive mandate of § 101, in the requirement of § 102(1) that all laws and regulations be "interpreted and administered" in accord with that mandate, and in the other specific procedural meassures compelled by § 102(2). The only circuit to interpret NEPA to date has said that " [t]his Act essentially states that every federal agency shall consider ecological factors when dealing with activities which may have an impact on man's environment." Zabel v. Tabb, 5 Cir., 430 F.2d 199, 211 (1970). Thus a purely mechanical compliance with the particular measures required in § 102 (2) (C) & (D) will not satisfy the Act if they do not amount to full good faith consideration of the environment. See text at page 1116 infra. The requirements of § 102(2) must not be read so narrowly as to erase the general import of §§ 101, 102(1) and 102(2) (A) & (B).
On April 23, 1971, the Council on Environmental Quality — established by NEPA — issued guidelines for federal agencies on compliance with the Act. 36 Fed. Reg. 7723 (April 23, 1971). The Council stated that " [t]he objective of section 102(2) (C) of the Act and of these guidelines is to build into the agency decision making process an appropriate and careful consideration of the environmental aspects of proposed action * * *." Id. at 7724.
The word "appropriate" in § 102(2) (B) cannot be interpreted to blunt the thrust of the whole Act or to give agencies broad discretion to downplay environmental factors in their decision making processes. The Act requires consideration "appropriate" to the problem of protecting our threatened environment, not consideration "appropriate" to the whims, habits or other particular concerns of federal agencies See Note 5 supra.
The Commission, arguing before this court, has mistakenly confused the two standards, using the § 101(b) language to suggest that it has broad discretion in performance of § 102 procedural duties. We stress the necessity to separate the two, substantive and procedural, standards See text at page 1128 infra.
Section 104 of NEPA provides that the Act does not eliminate any duties already imposed by other "specific statutory obligations." Only when such specific obligations conflict with NEPA do agencies have a right under § 104 and the "fullest extent possible" language to dilute their compliance with the full letter and spirit of the Act See text at page 1123 infra. Sections 103 and 105 also support the general interpretation that the "fullest extent possible" language exempts agencies from full compliance only when there is a conflict of statutory obligations. Section 103 provides for agency review of existing obligations in order to discover and, if possible, correct any conflicts. See text at pages 1020-1021 infra. And § 105 provides that " [t]he policies and goals set forth in this Act are supplementary to those set forth in existing authorizations of Federal agencies." The report of the House conferees states that § 105 "does not * * * obviate the requirement that the Federal agencies conduct their activities in accordance with the provisions of this bill unless to do so would clearly violate their existing statutory obligations." 115 Cong.Rev. (Part 29) at 39703. The section-by-section analysis by the Senate conferees makes exactly the same point in slightly different language. 115 Cong.Rec. (Part 30) at 40418. The guidelines published by the Council on Environmental Quality state that " [t]he phrase `to the fullest extent possible' * * * is meant to make clear that each agency of the Federal Government shall comply with the requirement unless existing law applicable to the agency's operations expressly prohibits or makes compliance impossible." 36 Fed. Reg. at 7724.
Texas Committee on Natural Resources v. United States, W.D. Tex., 1 Envir. Rpts — Cas. 1303, 1304 (1970). A few of the courts which have considered NEPA to date have made statements stressing the discretionary aspects of the Act See, e. g., Pennsylvania Environmental Council v. Bartlett, M.D. Pa., 315 F. Supp. 238 (1970); Bucklein v. Volpe, N.D. Cal., 2 Envir. Rpts — Cas. 1082, 1083 (1970). The Commission and intervenors rely upon these statements quite heavily. However, their reliance is misplaced, since the courts in question were not referring to the procedural duties created by NEPA. Rather, they were concerned with the Act's substantive goals or with such peripheral matters as retroactive application of the Act.
The general interpretation of NEPA which we outline in text at page 1112 supra is fully supported by the scholarly commentary. See, e. g., Donovan, The Federal Government and Environmental Control: Administrative Reform on the Executive Level, 12 B.C.Ind. & Com.L.Rev. 541 (1971); Hanks & Hanks, An Environmental Bill of Rights: The Citizen Suit and the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 24 Rutg. L.Rev. 231 (1970); Sive, Some Thoughts of an Environmental Lawyer in the Wilderness of Administrative Law, 70 Colum. L. Rev. 612, 643-650 (1970); Peterson, An Analysis of Title I of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 1 Envir.L.Rptr. 50035 (1971); Yannacone, National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 1 Envir.Law 8 (1970); Note, The National Environmental Policy Act: A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing?, 37 Brooklyn L.Rev. 139 (1970).
In Case No. 24,871, petitioners attack four aspects of the Commission's rules, which are outlined in text. In Case No. 24,839, they challenge a particular application of the rules in the granting of a particular construction permit — that for the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant. However, their challenge consists largely of an attack on the substance of one aspect of the rules also attacked in Case No. 24,871. Thus we are able to resolve both cases together, and our remand to the Commission for further rule making includes a remand for further consideration relating to the Calvert Cliffs Plant in Case No. 24,839 See Part V of this opinion, infra.
In recent years, the courts have become increasingly strict in requiring that federal agencies live up to their mandates to consider the public interest. They have become increasingly impatient with agencies which attempt to avoid or dilute their statutorily imposed role as protectors of public interest values beyond the narrow concerns of industries being regulated See, e. g., Udall v. FPC, 387 U.S. 428, 87 S. Ct. 1712, 18 L. Ed. 2d 869 (1967); Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. v. Ruckelshaus, 142 U.S.App.D.C. 74, 439 F.2d 584 (1971); Moss v. C. A. B., 139 U.S.App.D.C. 150, 430 F.2d 891 (1970); Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. v. U. S. Dept. of H. E. & W., 138 U.S.App.D.C. 381, 428 F.2d 1083 (1970). In commenting on the Atomic Energy Commission's pre-NEPA duty to consider health and safety matters, the Supreme Court said "the responsibility for safeguarding that health and safety belongs under the statute to the Commission." Power Reactor Development Co. v. International Union of Elec., Radio and Mach. Workers, 367 U.S. 396, 404, 81 S. Ct. 1529, 1533, 6 L. Ed. 2d 924 (1961). The Second Circuit has made the same point regarding the Federal Power Commission: "In this case, as in many others, the Commission has claimed to be the representative of the public interest. This role does not permit it to act as an umpire blandly calling balls and strikes for adversaries appearing before it; the right of the public must receive active and affirmative protection at the hands of the Commission." Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. FPC, 2 Cir., 354 F.2d 608, 620 (1965).
In some cases, the courts have had a difficult time determining whether particular federal actions were "taken" before or after January 1, 1970. But they have all started from the basic rule that any action taken after that date must comply with NEPA's procedural requirements See Note, Retroactive Application of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 69 Mich. L. Rev. 732 (1971), and cases cited therein. Clearly, any hearing held between January 1, 1970 and March 4, 1971 which culminates in the grant of a permit or license is a federal action taken after the Act's effective date.
One District Court has dealt with the problem of instant compliance with NEPA. It suggested another measure which agencies should take while in the process of developing rules. It said: "The NEPA does not require the impossible. Nor would it require, in effect, a moratorium on all projects which had an environmental impact while awaiting compliance with § 102(2) (B). It would suffice if the statement pointed out this deficiency. The decisionmakers could then determine whether any purpose would be served in delaying the project while awaiting the development of such criteria." Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. v. Corps of Engineers, E.D. Ark., 325 F. Supp. 749, 758 (1971). Apparently, the Atomic Energy Commission did not even go this far toward considering the lack of a NEPA public hearing as a basis for delaying projects between the Act's effective date and adoption of the rules.
The relevant portion is 33 U.S.C.A. § 1171 See Note 30 supra.
The relevant language in WQIA seems carefully to avoid any such restrictive implication. It provides that " [e]ach Federal agency * * * shall * * * insure compliance with applicable water quality standards * * *." 33 U.S.C.A. § 1171(a). It also provides that " [n]o license or permit shall be granted until the certification required by this section has been obtained or has been waived * * *. No license or permit shall be granted if certification has been denied * * *." 33 U.S.C.A. § 1171(b) (1). Nowhere does it indicate that certification must be the final and only protection against unjustified water pollution — a fully sufficient as well as a necessary condition for issuance of a federal license or permit
The courts which have held NEPA to be nonretroactive have not faced situations like the one before us here — situations where there are two, distinct stages of federal approval, one occurring before the Act's effective date and one after that date See Note, supra Note 25.