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1 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Training Module on the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) United Nations New York and Geneva, 2010
2 Note The symbols of United Nations documents are composed of capital letters combined with figures. Mention of such a symbol indicates a reference to a United Nations document. The views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat. The designations employed and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Secretariat concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. Material in this publication may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is requested, together with a reference to the document number. A copy of the publication containing the quotation or reprint should be sent to the UNCTAD secretariat at: Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland. For further information on the Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch and its activities, please contact: Ms. Mina Mashayekhi Head, Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch Division of International Trade in Goods and Services, and Commodities Tel: Fax: UNCTAD/DITC/TNCD/2008/3 UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION Copyright United Nations, 2010 All rights reserved Printed in Switzerland ISSN ii
3 Table of Contents Abbreviations... iv Acknowledgements... v Introduction... 1 Chapter I. Background... 3 Chapter II. Intellectual Property Rights A Brief Overview... 7 Chapter III. What is the Impact of IPRs on Development? Chapter IV. The TRIPS Agreement A Brief Overview Chapter V. The Continuous Evolution of the TRIPS Agreement References Annexes I. Relevant Web Pages II. Background Documents Page Boxes Tables 1. TRIPS in short Key IPR conventions prior to TRIPS IPRs and regionalism Flexibilities and pharmaceutical products: decisions for LDCs Core copyright industries TRIPS and the July 2008 Ministerial Meeting The Vienna Convention as an interpretative tool Subject matter and main fields of application of intellectual property rights Compulsory licences and government use in developing countries iii
4 Abbreviations CBD EC EMR FDI FTA GATT GDP GNP IPR LDC MFN R&D TRIPS UPOV WHO WTO Convention on Biological Diversity European Commission exclusive marketing rights foreign direct investment free trade agreement General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade gross domestic product gross national product intellectual property right least developed country most favoured nation research and development trade-related intellectual property rights International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants World Health Organization World Trade Organization iv
5 Acknowledgements This training module was prepared by Carlos Correa, Director of the Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on Industrial Property and Economics and of the Post-graduate Course on Intellectual Property at the Law Faculty, University of Buenos Aires, under the supervision of Mina Mashayekhi, Head, Trade Negotiations and Commercial Diplomacy Branch, with contributions from Elisabeth Tuerk. Christopher Corbet was responsible for formatting. The purpose of this training module is to inform trade experts and negotiators of developing countries about key aspects relating to intellectual property rights (IPRs) and more specifically, the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). This module is for information and training purposes only and does not intend to state the official negotiating positions of World Trade Organization (WTO) member States. It aims to provide training materials and inputs for developing country trainers, lectures and government officials involved in training and research tasks. v
7 Introduction Since the 1980s, the availability and enforcement of intellectual property rights (IPRs) have become a major issue in international economic negotiations and, in many cases, the subject of trade disputes between countries. Intellectual property allows for controlling the commercial exploitation of the results of scientific, technological and cultural creation. The ability to develop and use such results is a key factor of economic growth. The results of scientific, technological and cultural creation also have crucial importance for international competition, especially for the production and trade of technologyintensive goods and services: Knowledge is critical for development, because everything we do depends on knowledge. For countries in the vanguard of the world economy, the balance between knowledge and resources has shifted so far toward the former that knowledge has become perhaps the most important factor determining the standard of living more than land, than tools, than labour. Today s most technologically advanced economies are truly knowledgebased. (World Bank, 1998: 17) The international framework on IPRs, established by the TRIPS Agreement and an increasing number of regional trade agreements with IPR provisions, is likely to affect the conditions for access to and use of technology and, therefore, the patterns of industrial and technological development in developing countries. This module commences by providing background including a historical perspective on IPRs and the TRIPS Agreement. Then, chapter II offers a brief overview of different IPRs followed by chapter III, which discusses the interlinkages between IPRs and development. In so doing, chapter III looks at key aspects, including sector-specific impacts of IPRs, the impact of IPRs on gross domestic product (GDP) and the impact of IPRs on the private sector and on key public policy issues. Chapter IV provides a short description of the TRIPS Agreements and its main cross-cutting and IPR-specific provisions. Finally, chapter VI sketches out how the TRIPS Agreement evolves, most importantly through dispute settlement and the built-in agenda. 1
9 Chapter I. Background Intellectual property: allows for controlling the commercial exploitation of the results of scientific, technological and cultural creation. Technology has been recognized as an essential element in any developmental strategy (Commission for Intellectual Property Rights (CIPR), 2002). Although different technological packages are needed at different levels of development, it seems clear that even for mature sectors, the access to appropriate technical knowledge is key, not just to succeed in the marketplace, but also to survive in a context of trade and investment liberalization. The ability to develop and use the results of scientific, technological and cultural creation is a key factor of economic growth. The capabilities to develop science and technology are, however, very asymmetrically distributed in the world. Research and development (R&D) expenditures showed a steady increase since the 1970s in industrialized countries, with a growing participation of the private sector in total R&D. In many countries, half and more of R&D expenditures is funded or executed by private firms. Developing countries, however, only account for a small proportion of global expenditures on R&D. The deep asymmetry existing in the distribution of capabilities to generate new science and technology is illustrated by international patent registration. Industrialized countries hold 97 per cent of all patents worldwide (United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1999: 67 68). It should be borne in mind, however, that within the category of developing countries there are countries with sharp differences in their technological capabilities. Some of them (e.g. the Republic of Korea) invest heavily in R&D and have been able to enter into sophisticated technical fields, such as the production of semiconductors. During the 1980s, the expansion of trade in the framework of the globalization of the economy created strong demands by firms from developed countries for an expansion and universalization of IPR protection. These firms actively sought to ensure certain levels of IPR protection worldwide with a view to capturing the rents generated by the intangible components of traded products and services. The strengthening of IPRs was also seen as an important condition for foreign direct investment (FDI) and technology transfer. In 1994, a new and comprehensive treaty on IPRs was established within the WTO framework, adopted as an outcome of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). It is called the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights the TRIPS Agreement. It requires all WTO member countries to adopt in their laws minimum standards of protection for patents, trademarks, copyrights and other IPRs. It has substantially limited the freedom that countries enjoyed until then to design and implement their own intellectual property systems. TRIPS obliges all WTO members to establish minimum standards for most categories of IPRs. The adopted standards mirror to a great extent those in force in industrialized countries at the time of the negotiation of the agreement. Under the agreement s rules, most developing countries have been bound to amend their legislation in order to introduce higher standards of protection or extend it to new areas, such as software, biotechnology and integrated circuits. Importantly, according to article 1 of the TRIPS Agreement, members cannot be obliged to provide a higher level of protection than the one required in the minimum standard. 3
10 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement Minimum standards: members cannot provide a level of protection lower than the one set forth by those standards. The adoption of the TRIPS Agreement represented a major step towards the harmonization of certain aspects of the protection of IPRs. Complying with the TRIPS Agreement in these respects has posed a special challenge for developing countries and raised considerable concerns from different perspectives, notably with regard to access to technologies needed for development and access to drugs. However, WTO members have been left a certain amount of manoeuvre room to adopt, in certain cases, different approaches and legal solutions. The explicit aim of the agreement is to ensure that the protection and enforcement of IPRs contributes to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conductive to social and economic welfare, and to the balance of rights and obligations (article 7). The idea of balancing the benefits of title holders and the public should be a key concept in the design and implementation of IPR legislation. However, while substantive obligations and enforcement measures were stipulated with considerable detail, the main concerns and positions of developing countries, i.e. technology transfer and cooperation, capacity-building and the limitations to exclusive rights, were provided for in a rough, sometimes ambiguous, and non-binding manner. The new international framework on IPRs established by the TRIPS Agreement is likely to affect the conditions for access to and use of technology and, therefore, the patterns of industrial and technological growth in developing countries. Reverse engineering and other methods of imitative innovation will be restricted, thereby making technological catching up more difficult than before. Strengthened IPRs are also likely to increase the negotiating position of right holders to determine the royalties to be paid for needed technologies, in case they agree to part with them. IPR holders also exclude direct competition, and charge higher prices for their protected technologies and products. Hence, states need to enact or adequately enforce competition policies. Box 1. TRIPS in short TRIPS establishes a common set of standards for all countries, without differentiating on the basis of socio-economic and technological development. The obligations that the agreement sets forth to protect inventions include: recognizing patents for pharmaceuticals without distinction between imported and locally produced products; granting patent protection for at least 20 years from the date of application; limiting the scope of exemptions from patent rights; and effectively enforcing patent rights through administrative and judicial mechanisms. In the area of copyright, the protection of computer programs became mandatory. The agreement also makes it mandatory to protect secret know-how, trademarks, geographical indications, industrial designs and integrated circuits. Since most developing countries may be excluded from the benefits of protection for inventions because they lack the scientific infrastructure and the capital needed for R&D, they also need to devise IPR systems that fit their local conditions, to the extent allowed by their international obligations. This may be done by adopting protection for incremental innovations and by sui generis regimes for traditional knowledge, including plant varieties developed by farmers in the fields. 4
11 Chapter I. Background Options for a pro-development implementation of TRIPS obligations include adopting protection for incremental innovations and sui generis regimes for traditional knowledge, such as plant varieties developed by farmers in the fields. These considerations do not mean that patents cannot help stimulate local research and development. They do suggest, however, that strengthened IPRs will affect developing countries differently than technologically advanced ones. In the latter IPRs may lead to more innovation, in the former only to higher prices in many cases. The TRIPS Agreement does not impose uniform legal requirements upon WTO member countries. Countries must meet the minimum standards it calls for, but are left with considerable leeway within which to develop their own laws according to the characteristics of their legal systems, public health situations and development needs. In implementing the TRIPS provisions, they can adopt measures aimed at promoting social and economic welfare (article 7 of the agreement) and preventing the abuse of intellectual property rights (article 8.2). Articles 7 and 8 of TRIPS: two provisions crucial for realizing development benefits. Developing countries can also adopt measures that mitigate the impact of exclusive rights and thereby promote competition. This is the case, for instance, of the principle of international exhaustion, under which parallel imports can be allowed. These may apply, for example, to the import of products from the countries in which they are cheapest. This is not a means of denying the patentee s right to remuneration (which is received with the first sale of the product), but rather of ensuring that patents work to the mutual advantage of the producers and the users of technological knowledge. Another important measure to promote competition may be the so-called Bolar exception. This makes it possible to use an invention to conduct tests on a drug and obtain marketing approval for it before the expiry of the patent, so that a generic version of the drug can be marketed as soon as the patent expires. Argentina, Australia, Canada, Israel, the United States and many other countries have legalized this exception. In addition, article 31 of the TRIPS Agreement allows governments to issue compulsory licenses to address emergencies, counteract anti-competitive practices, for governmental use and in other cases determined by the national law, subject to the conditions (particularly with regard to the compensation of the patent holder) set forth by the agreement. In 2001 WTO members adopted by consensus an important declaration the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health that confirmed the flexibilities available to interpret and implement the TRIPS Agreement, particularly to protect public health. Pursuant to this declaration, a system has been adopted to facilitate the importation of drugs by countries with no or insufficient manufacturing capacity in pharmaceuticals. A revision of the agreement has been agreed upon in order to formally incorporate such a system, and it has been submitted for ratification. The 2001 Doha Declaration: a unique decision confirming the flexibilities available for WTO members. However, the free trade agreements (FTAs) promoted by a number of developed countries have significantly eroded the TRIPS flexibilities, particularly in the area of public health, through the adoption of TRIPS-plus provisions that, inter alia, may further limit access to drugs at affordable prices for the poor. 5
12 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement The Uruguay Round left open a number of issues (protection of biotechnological inventions, protection of geographical indications, disputes in cases of non-violation ) on which further negotiations were called for as part of the built-in agenda of the WTO. Little progress has been made on these issues, despite the interest of developing countries in clarifying, in particular, the relationship between the TRIPS Agreement and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Several proposals have been tabled to enhance the protection of geographical indications of agricultural products, with the support of some (but not all) developed and developing countries. In summary, the ways in which the TRIPS Agreement is implemented through national laws can have a significant impact on development and the attainment of public policies objectives, including in the area of health and food. Developing countries have some flexibility under the agreement, which they can use to design national laws that respond to public policy objectives. Other WTO members must respect this flexibility, and not use unilateral threats in order to obtain TRIPS-plus levels of protection. 6
13 Chapter II. Intellectual Property Rights A Brief Overview 1 Intellectual property is a category of property on intangibles that may be claimed by individuals, enterprises or other entities. The peculiar feature of this kind of property is that it relates to pieces of information that can be incorporated in tangible objects. Protection is conferred to ideas, technical solutions or other information that have been expressed in a legally admissible form, subject, in some cases, to registration and approval procedures. Intellectual property: a category of property on intangibles. Holders of IPRs include individuals, enterprises or other entities. Though the content of intellectual property is the information as such, IPRs are exercised generally as exclusive rights with respect to the products that carry the protected information. Thus, the owner of a patent can prevent the manufacture, use or sale of the protected product in the countries where the patent has been acquired. Those who create certain intangibles may, via the enforcement of such rights, regulate the use of the creation and the commercialization of the goods that contain them. Control over an intangible therefore translates itself into control over markets. IPRs are generally exclusive rights: the holder of an IPR over e.g. an invention can preclude others from doing certain acts (and obtaining attendant benefits) relating to the invention (ius excluendi). Intellectual property rights include the following categories: Copyright and related rights. Copyright protection is provided to authors of original works of authorship, including literary, artistic and scientific works. Copyright has also been extended to protect software and databases. Copyright protects the expression of an idea, not the idea itself. This means that, in principle, protection is only extended to the form in which an idea is expressed (e.g. the particular writing of instructions in a computer program), but not to the underlying concepts, methods and ideas. The owner of a copyright can generally prevent the unauthorized reproduction, distribution (including rental), sale and adaptation of the original work. Protection generally lasts for the life of the author plus at least 50 years, or for at least 50 years in case of works belonging to juridical persons. Neighbouring (or related) rights are accorded to phonogram producers, performers and broadcasting organizations. In some countries, the expressions of folklore are also subject to copyright protection. Trademarks. Trademarks are signs or symbols (including logos and names) registered by a manufacturer or merchant to identify goods and services. A valid trademark allows the owner to exclude imitations where this would mislead the public about the origin of a product. Protection is usually granted for ten years, and renewable as long as the trademark is actually used. The domain names used in cyberspace do not constitute trademarks per se, but may be used as signs for commercializing or promoting goods and services. 2 Geographical indications. These are signs or expressions used to indicate that a product or service originates in a country, region or specific place. There are different types of geographical indications. They are called appellations of origin when the characteristics of the product can be attributed exclusively or essentially to the natural and human factors of the place in which the product originates. 1 This section is partially based on South Centre (1997). 2 See on this subject the work done by WIPO at 7
14 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement Industrial designs. An industrial design protects the ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an industrial article. In some countries there is specific protection for industrial designs, while in others it coexists with or can be accumulated with copyright or trademark protection. The term of protection generally varies between five and 15 years (including renewal). Patents. Patents confer the exclusive right to make, use or sell an invention, generally for a period of 20 years (counted from the filing date). 3 In order to be patentable, an invention usually needs to meet the requirements of novelty, inventive step (or non-obviousness) and industrial applicability (or usefulness). Patents may be granted for processes and products. Patent-like protection is conferred for functional models and other minor innovations under utility models (see definition below). Layout designs of integrated circuits. The protection of the layout (or topography) of integrated circuits is a sui generis form of protection that allows the owner of the design to prevent the unauthorized reproduction and distribution of such designs. Reverse engineering is generally allowed. ( Reverse engineering is a method of evaluation of a product to understand its functional aspects and underlying ideas. This technique may be used to develop a similar product.) The duration of protection is shorter than under copyright (typically 10 years). Undisclosed information. Trade secrets protection covers confidential information of commercial value, including business information as well as know-how. Trade secrets are generally protected under the discipline of unfair competition. No exclusive rights are granted. Trade secrets are protected as long as the information has commercial value and is kept secret. This category also includes data submitted for the registration of pharmaceutical and agrochemical products. According to the TRIPS Agreement, they must be protected against disclosure and unfair commercial use. In some countries, the data cannot be relied on by national authorities to approve subsequent requests of market authorization for certain periods (five to 10 years). Breeders rights. This is a sui generis form of protection conferred on plant varieties that are new, stable, uniform and distinguishable. Exclusive rights include, in principle, the sale and distribution of the propagating materials. Breeders rights generally permit the use by other breeders of a protected variety as a basis for the development of a new variety (the breeder s exception ) and the re-use by farmers of seeds obtained from their own harvests (the farmer s privilege ). Utility models. This title protects the functional aspect of models and designs, generally in the mechanical field. Though novelty and inventiveness are generally required, the criteria for conferring protection are less strict than for patents. The term of protection also is shorter (typically up to 10 years). Databases. While protected under general copyright rules, some countries have adopted a sui generis regime for the protection of databases (even if not original), including the right to prevent the extraction of data. Unfair competition. The discipline of unfair competition, which has generally been deemed a chapter of industrial property, provides a remedy against acts of competition contrary to honest business practices, such as confusing or misleading the customer and discrediting the competitor. An act of unfair competition is defined as any act that a competitor or another market participant undertakes with the intention of directly exploiting another person s industrial or commercial achievement for his own business purposes without substantially 3 In some countries (e.g. the United States) the term of protection may be extended for an additional period in order to compensate the title holder for delays in patent examination or for the period required for the marketing approval of pharmaceuticals. 8
15 Chapter II. Intellectual Property Rights A Brief Overview departing from the original achievement (WIPO, 1994: 55). In some cases, the discipline of unfair competition supplements the protection of trademarks 4 and patents. Community rights on traditional knowledge. Some countries have developed or are in course of developing sui generis regimes for the protection of traditional knowledge on the basis of collective rights, including, for instance, the rights to participate in the benefits arising from the commercial exploitation of their knowledge. The TRIPS Agreement contains minimum standards on all the categories described above, except for the expressions of folklore, utility models, breeders rights 5 and community rights. The area of unfair competition is only dealt with in relation to undisclosed information. 4 In common law countries, the doctrine of passing off (misrepresenting of one s business goods or services as another s, to the latter s injury, generally by using a confusingly similar trademark or trade name) may also be applied. 5 However, under the TRIPS Agreement, members are obliged to protect plant varieties by means of patents, an effective sui generis regime, or a combination of both (article 27.3 (b)). 9
17 Chapter III. What is the Impact of IPRs on Development? The international framework on IPRs established by TRIPS and other agreements affects the conditions for access to and use of technology and, therefore, the patterns of industrial and technological development in developing countries. For example, reverse engineering and other methods of imitative innovation will be restricted, thereby making technological catching up more difficult than before. Strengthened IPRs are also likely to increase the negotiating position of right holders to determine the royalties to be paid for needed technologies, in case they agree to part with them. It is crucial for policymakers and affected stakeholders to carefully consider the implications of different IPRs on their country s economic, social and technological development. Important implications for policymakers to consider include the impact of IPRs on investment, local innovation transfer of technology, conservation and use of biodiversity, foreign trade and public health. This section aims to assist policymakers in this task. It commences with a short overview of different sectoral implications as they emanate from different IPRs, then reviews select studies on the potential contribution of IPRs to GDP. Thirdly, it offers some analysis of the economic value of IPRs for private sector actors and finally discusses key public policy issues that arise from select IPRs. 1. Sector-specific implications of IPRs The introduction or strengthening of IPRs resulting from the implementation of the TRIPS Agreement may have an important and varied impact on different industries. There is a sectoral dimension to IPRs: with the exception of trademarks, each type of IPR affects different sectors of the economy to varying degrees. Patents are most relevant to sectors where innovative capabilities exist or can be established. In countries with low investment in R&D, the patent system generally allows for the protection of foreign-made inventions, while few applications originate domestically. The use of the patent system may be promoted through awareness programmes addressed to local researchers and firms, including the diffusion of patent documents. Trademarks have an overriding impact across industries (except for producers of commodities). The acquisition and development of trademarks is extremely important in certain sectors for value creation in both domestic as well as international markets. The increased levels of protection for trademarks required by the TRIPS Agreement (arising from the enhanced protection of well-known trademarks and more effective enforcement measures, including at the border) put higher barriers to the manufacture and sale of counterfeiting products than before the adoption of the agreement. Copyright protection enables the extraction of economic value from the commercial exploitation of artistic and literary (including scientific) creations. The economic importance of copyright industries varies considerably among developing countries. Thus, the film and software industries are particularly strong in India, while Caribbean countries may benefit from the worldwide acceptance of their musical creations. In many developing countries, however, the main value generated by copyrighted works is likely to be associated with the distribution rather than the creation of such works. Geographical indications usually apply to wines, spirits and food products, but they may also identify handicrafts and other industrial articles. Some developing countries have advocated an enhanced protection for such indications in the Council of TRIPS. Some of these countries believe that their economies may benefit from an expansion of protection to the same level conferred under 11
18 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement the TRIPS Agreement to wines and spirits (Vivas Eugui, 2000). Careful assessment is needed, however, as the successful development of geographical indications requires considerable investment and coordination among producers. Industrial designs are particularly relevant for some consumer-oriented industries, such as clothing and automobiles. They may be an important means for increasing the value of products for domestic consumption and exports. Utility models are not subject to the rules of the TRIPS Agreement. They can be of particular importance for developing countries, since they protect minor innovations that predominate in the innovative process of such countries. However, only some developing countries have adopted this modality of protection. Undisclosed information/trade secrets may be of importance in many industries, particularly those where process innovation prevails, such as the chemical industry. Integrated circuits protection is particularly relevant for the countries that design and produce integrated circuits, although such protection may affect the importation of a wide range of industrial articles that incorporate semiconductors. Plant breeders rights are relevant to the commercial development of seeds. However, in many countries the production and distribution of commercial seeds play a marginal role, while the informal seed system (based on the production and exchange of farmers varieties) is the main channel for the diffusion of improved varieties. More than 80 per cent of crops cultivated in such countries are planted with seeds from the informal seed system. In sum, IPRs take very different forms and apply to a broad range of activities. The importance of various types of IPRs varies considerably according to the types of industries involved, their R&D intensity and the rate and nature of their innovative activities. Table 1 summarizes the subject matter of different categories of IPRs and indicates the main sectors and activities that are affected by their availability and enforcement. Table 1. Subject matter and main fields of application of intellectual property rights Patents Type of intellectual property right Subject matter Main fields Trademarks Copyright and related rights New, non-obvious, industrially applicable (useful) inventions Signs or symbols to identify goods and services Original works of authorship, artistic performances, broadcasting and phonograms production Chemicals, drugs, plastics, engines, turbines, electronics, industrial control and scientific equipment All industries Printing, entertainment (audio, video motion pictures), software, broadcasting Integrated circuits Original layout designs Microelectronics industry Breeders rights New, stable, homogeneous, distinguishable varieties Trade secrets Secret business information All industries Agriculture and food industry Industrial designs Ornamental designs Clothing, automobiles, electronics, etc. Geographical indications Geographical origin of goods and services Wines, spirits, cheese and other food products Utility models Functional models/designs Mechanical industry 12
19 Chapter III. What is the Impact of IPRs on Development? Table 1 suggests that, in terms of industrial and technological policies, the relevance of IPRs for a particular country is dependent on the type of goods and services that it produces and trades, and on the characteristics of its national innovation system. In assessing the economic impact of different forms of IPRs, consideration should be given to the benefits that producers and traders may derive from them, as well as to their impact on competition and consumer welfare. National policies should strike a balance between the benefits that accrue to right holders and the costs associated with protection, notably when IPRs are mostly in the hands of companies that do not produce locally. 2. IPRs and GDP an attempt to quantify the impact of IPRs on the national economy Given the pervasiveness of IPRs it is difficult to determine their impact on the generation of value added. Several methodologies have been developed in order to estimate the economic value of different types of IPRs for individual companies, as well as the importance of IPRs in terms of GDP. These methodologies have been mainly applied to copyrights and neighbouring rights. The value added by the production and commercialization of copyrights is easier to calculate than in the case of other IPRs, since the author s work is the very basis of some industries, which would not otherwise exist. 6 Some studies have also been carried out on the contribution of patents and trademarks to GDP. 7 An analysis of the contribution of copyrights to GNP (gross national product) was first undertaken in the United States at the end of the 1950s. According to the study, the industries based on copyrights accounted for a 2 per cent share of GNP. About twenty years later a new study indicated a 2.8 per cent share. In quantitative terms, the industries involved, taken together, were second only to the medical and health services, and ahead of agriculture, the automobile industry and electrical equipment. In a later study, in 1982, the percentage of GNP attributable to the copyright-based industries amounted to 4.6 per cent (Cohen Jehoram, 1989). In the case of Canada, copyright industries account for 4.5 per cent of the economy. 8 Some studies on the economic importance of copyright have also been conducted in developing countries. For instance, a study found that copyright-related industries have considerable importance in the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) member countries 9 and Chile. Such industries accounted for around 6 per cent of GDP. However, the most value added was from the distribution of imported copyrighted works rather than the local production thereof; significant trade deficits were also found (OMPI-Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 2002: 14). The assessment of the current impact of IPRs in terms of GNP may be an important indicator for public action on the matter, including the design of IPR legislation and participation in international negotiations. This kind of study, however, may only provide a static picture, and does not necessarily capture the dynamic effects of changes in IPR protection in various sectors. 6 The core group of copyright industries includes newspapers and magazines, publishing of books and related industries, radio and television, cable television, discs and tapes, plays, advertising, computer programs (software) and data processing. It also includes manufacturing, business practices, architecture and design, distribution (transport of goods, bookshops, record stores and other forms of wholesale or retail distribution of products protected by copyright) and copyright-related industries (production and technical assistance involving equipment used solely with copyright-protected material, for example, computers, radio and television equipment, and other listening or recording equipment). See OMPI-Universidad Estadual de Campinas (2002: 11). 7 Raymond, 1986; Silberston, 1987; Higgins and James, See The economic impact of Canadian copyright industries sectoral analysis, final report, submitted to the Copyright Policy Branch, Department of Canadian Heritage, 31 March 2006, 9 Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. 13
20 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement 3. IPRs and private sector the economic value of intellectual property for firms 10 The new emerging framework on IPRs is likely to affect the conditions for access to and use of technology and, therefore, the patterns of industrial and technological development in developing countries. Reverse engineering and other legitimate methods of imitative innovation will be restricted, thereby making technological catching up more difficult than before. Strengthened IPRs will most probably increase royalty payments required by technology holders, if they agree to transfer their technology at all. Local firms should pay adequate attention to the IPR situation of the processes that they employ as well as that of the products they manufacture, import or distribute. Companies operating in areas where IPRs are of particular importance (such as pharmaceuticals, clothing and audio-visual works) should obtain expert advise in order not be exposed to possible legal actions. The infringement of IPRs may lead to lengthy and costly litigation and, in some cases, criminal sanctions. At the same time, the use of IPRs generates value to its possessor. The various intangible assets embodied in intellectual property are of different value according to the activity sector in question. Moreover, the economic importance of IPRs varies when it is examined from an intrasectoral angle, depending on factors such as: (a) the type of product or service on offer; (b) the technological level and rate of innovation of the enterprise; (c) marketing strategies; and (d) conditions of demand. Within one and the same sector, then, there will be firms for which certain intangible assets have a greater (or lesser) value than for other enterprises in the same sector. Four methods for evaluating benefits for firms: price of the final product; market value approach; cost-based approach; and contribution to profits. There are many possible ways of evaluating the economic value of intellectual property for an enterprise. Insofar as it represents an asset, which may even be entered into the accounts as such, evaluating it is of particular importance, especially to assess the net worth of an enterprise or to carry out certain transactions (for example assignments, licenses, mergers and acquisitions) involving the rights in question. Price of the final product A series of studies on the economic value of intellectual property has sought to quantify its importance on the basis of the final value of the protected products or services, that is to say, the price that the consumer pays in the marketplace for the product or service. This provides an approximate, albeit rather rough, estimate of the value of the intangible asset linked to the product or service in question. In fact, prices depend on the costs of production, distribution and marketing, including advertising, and also on the firm s profit margin. The greater the firm s market power (depending on the number of other suppliers, product differentiation and the promotion and advertising undertaken) the greater the cost/benefit ratio is likely to be, though this does not necessarily reflect a greater value of the intellectual property. Conversely, an efficient producer who competes on the basis of price may charge a final price lower than that of his competitors, but this does not necessarily mean a smaller intellectual property content. In other words, the final price of the product that incorporates an intellectual property component is a poor indicator of the value of the intellectual property itself. 10 This section is substantially based on Correa (2000b). 14
21 Chapter III. What is the Impact of IPRs on Development? If this methodology is used in the case of commercially available products or services, it will also be necessary to introduce indicators that reflect the differences in the levels of per capita income and in the prices in different countries. The market value approach This approach is based on an examination of the price at which an IPR is exchanged within a context where the parties have freedom to contract (that is, where there is no compulsion to do so) and have reasonably full information, and where the price fixed is fair to both parties (i.e. the terms obtained do not give one party an advantage over the other) (Smith and Parr, 1994: ). For this method to be applied, there should ideally be an active market with a certain number of transactions that can be taken as a basis of reference, information must be accessible on the terms of such transactions and the values must be adjusted over a period of time with, in particular, adjustments made to allow for a lack of comparability between various transactions on intellectual property. In the examination of comparability, the following factors need to be taken into account: The sector in question, especially if the cases used for comparison cover various sectors; Different expectations of profitability that can be attributed to the IPRs, even within one and the same sector; Market share; R&D that may yield a product providing an alternative to competitors products; Barriers to entry (e.g. distribution chains); Expected growth of sales; The strength and coverage of legal protection (e.g. in response to applications for nullity by third parties); Expected remaining term of the right that is being evaluated. (Smith and Parr, 1994: ) The cost-based approach This method is based on the calculation of what would it cost to construct a replica of the asset in question. The replacement or reproduction cost is frequently used in the insurance sector for purposes of providing indemnification for a damage or loss incurred. The cost of an intellectual property asset may be calculated on the basis of an examination of the values corresponding to: (a) the original cost of acquisition; (b) the book value of the asset (if it has been recorded); and (c) an estimate of the investment that would be needed to attain a replica of the right in question (in terms of generating net profits). The cost of recreating the value of an intellectual property asset may be estimated by calculating the costs that would need to be incurred under the various appropriate headings, such as researchers salaries, overheads and advertising. With regard to works protected by copyright, in general it will be impossible to recreate a particular asset, given the unique nature of the works protected. In some cases (e.g. computer programs and architectural plans), however, it might be possible to produce substitutes that are functionally equivalent to existing assets. The cost-based approach may be based on an estimate of the historic cost, that is, on what has been invested in developing an intellectual property asset. In the case of a computer program or 15
22 Training Module on the TRIPS Agreement a design, for example, especially if a formal R&D project existed, it should be possible to calculate the costs corresponding to staff, inputs, prototypes, external services, administrative overheads, etc. Such costs must be calculated at constant prices, taking into account the retail price index in the relevant years or a similar index. It should be borne in mind that in a cost-based approach, cost is not equivalent to value. In fact, the cost tells us little about the profits that may actually be obtained from an asset. The cost of developing a new brand (to replace an existing one) may be higher or lower, depending on many different factors, than the profits that it may generate. That cost, when the enterprise is not just targeting the domestic market, may include legal investigations, testing with potential consumers and research on language, style and colour, not to mention the costs of launching and advertising the product. The cost-based method, although relatively simple to apply, does not take into account limitations such as possible future trends in the market and profitability, the possible useful life of the asset to be replaced and the risk involved in the activity in question. Contribution to profits Another approach to assessing the economic value of intellectual property is based on the calculation of the contribution made by various forms of intellectual property to a firm s profits (Smith and Parr, 1994). Intellectual property rights may be divided into active and passive rights. The former are those that generate a price differential ( premium price ) for the firm, and those that make it possible to reduce production costs (e.g. process inventions) and increase profits over and above normal profit levels in the industry in question. The passive IPRs are those that do not make a direct contribution to the increase in profits. One of the general methods proposed to measure the contribution that intellectual property makes to the profits of a firm consists in breaking down its assets into four elements: monetary assets (net working capital); tangible assets (buildings, machinery, etc.); intangible assets (skills and qualifications of the workforce, distribution networks, customers, contractual relations, etc.); and intellectual property (patents, copyright, trademarks, etc.). The method is based on the calculation of the weighted average cost of capital, defined as the minimum weighted rate of return that should be generated for each element so as to satisfy the expectations of investors. The application of this method depends on access to the firm s economic and financial data. The economic benefits are assessed free of interest payments, so as to reflect exclusively the profits gained from the firm s commercial operations. For the purposes of calculating the economic contribution of each element, in particular the contribution of intellectual property, a rate of return is assigned to each of the assets mentioned above. That means allocating a value to each kind of asset, taking as a basis the book (accountancy) value and calculating the excess profits defined as the residual capital flow value obtained over and above that attributable to the normal returns in the type of business in question. Obviously, various difficulties arise in the application of this method. Firstly, in most cases firms market a wide range of products and services that are affected in various ways by IPRs. Secondly, it is not easy to determine what the profit is and, therefore, the rate of normal return in any particular industry. Thirdly, it is also not easy to estimate the asset value of the intangible assets and the intellectual property as a basis for calculating the rate of return. 16
23 Chapter III. What is the Impact of IPRs on Development? 4. Public policy issues IPRs apply to a broad range of activities, with very different implications on economic growth and social and technological development. The impact of a particular IPR depends, amongst others, on the type of goods and services that it produces and trades, and on the characteristics of its national innovation system. The likely impact of an expanded and strengthened IPR regime includes impact on investment, local innovation transfer of technology, conservation and use of biodiversity, foreign trade and public health. The following will outline the potential impacts of IPRs on numerous public policy aspects. Investment The impact of IPRs on investment, particularly FDI, has been extensively addressed by the literature (Correa, 1995; Maskus, 2000 and 2005), but no conclusive evidence is available. While some have argued that stronger IPRs will foster FDI, it seems clear that the impact of changes in IPRs on investment flows will be heavily dependent on a number of other factors (such as market size, growth prospects, resource endowment, legal security and political environment) which, in many cases, have an overriding impact on investment decisions. Despite extensive work in literature, there is no conclusive evidence on the impact of IPRs on investment. Moreover, to the extent that all WTO member countries are bound by the TRIPS Agreement, the differences among various national IPRs systems will be considerably reduced and the existence of IPR protection is not likely to constitute a country-specific advantage. Hence, the possible impact of IPRs on the flow of investments should be assessed in light of local economic and political conditions, with regard in particular to the industrial structure and the areas where the availability or reinforcement of IPRs may have a positive or negative effect. The adoption of higher standards of IPRs may not create incentives for investment if other factors are not present. In some situations, the expansion or reinforcement of IPRs may lead to de-investment or lower investment prospects in industrial capabilities. Stronger protection may allow title holders to safely supply local markets through imports, without the need to undertake local production. Under secure IPRs, technology owners may prefer to promote the diffusion of their innovations through trade rather than through the transfer of technology or the establishment of subsidiaries in a foreign country. In fact, it was the expansion of trade that ultimately explained the reform of the intellectual property system sought by developed countries through the TRIPS Agreement. 11 Changes in investment flows may also alter in some cases the industrial structure in the country, for instance, by increasing the levels of concentration. This may, in turn, lead to a reduction of competition. Investment: policy issues Will the introduction/strengthening of IPRs stimulate new FDI? In which sectors? What kind of investment can be expected? (acquisition of existing firms/establishment of new industrial plants/development of distribution systems) Will expected FDI generate new industrial capacity? What will IPRs impact be on imports/exports and royalty and profit remittances? 11 See the United States position in GATT, in Patent & Licensing. 17 (6):