Source: http://slideflix.net/doc/1718494/central-bank--lender-of-last-resort-assistance--an-elusiv..
Timestamp: 2019-02-16 00:15:33
Document Index: 604204342

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 2', 'art 1', 'art 57', 'art 2', 'art 96', 'EWCA ', 'art 2', 'art1', 'arts 1', 'arts 33', 'art 33', 'art 33', 'art 339']

Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept?
Download Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept?
Central Bank, lender of last resort
assistance: An elusive concept?
J J de Jager*
B-Iuris LLM LLD
General Counsel, South African Reserve Bank, Advocate of the High Court of South
Sentrale Bank lener van laaste instansie hulpverlening: ’n Ontwykende begrip?
Hierdie artikel handel hoofsaaklik met die oënskynlik ontwykende begrip
van finansiële hulpverlening deur sentrale banke, in hul hoedanigheid as
leners van die laaste instansie, aan banke. Die grondslag van die funksie,
sowel as die rede vir die gebrek in die algemeen aan openbare inligting
aangaande die funksionering en beskikbaarheid daarvan word bespreek
teen die agtergrond van die besigheid van banke en die finansiële struktuur. Daar word verwys na wat aangemerk kan word as die klassieke teoretiese grondslag van sodanige hulp en hoe dit aanklank mag vind in die Republiek van Suid Afrika. Verder word gekyk na praktiese voorbeelde van
hoe dit toepassing vind in die Verenigde Koningkryk en in die Republiek
van Bulgarye. Praktiese probleme ondervind met die toepassing van die
funksie, streng ooreenkomstig die klassieke teorie, word uitgelig. Daarna
word gepoog om vas te stel of die begrip met duidelikheid omskryf kan
word, en of die omstandighede waaronder dit in die praktyk toepassing
mag vind met sekerheid aangemerk kan word.
This article deals predominantly with the ostensibly elusive concept of
lender of last resort financial assistance afforded by central banks to
banks. The basis for the existence of the measure, as well as the reason
behind the general lack of information regarding its availability and functionality is discussed against the background of the business of banks and
the financial system. Reference is made to what may be regarded as the
classical theoretical foundation of such assistance and how it may find
application in the Republic of South Africa (RSA). Examples are cited of
how it is applied in practice in the United Kingdom (UK) and the Republic
of Bulgaria. Practical problems with the application of such assistance,
strictly in accordance with the classical doctrine, are highlighted. Thereafter an endeavour will be made to determine if the concept may be clearly
* Extraordinary Professor, Department of Mercantile Law, University of Pretoria.
Views and opinions expressed are those of the writer and do not necessarily represent the views and opinions of the South African Reserve Bank.
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 229
defined and whether the circumstances in which it would find practical
application can be determined with certainty.
In monetary economies, finance is intimately bound to the unique services of money. Finance enables the efficient allocation of real economic
resources at any given time and especially across time. It contributes to
the performance of the real economy by facilitating the more efficient
management of the process of wealth accumulation for individuals, businesses, governments and nations. Finance also aids in the management
and diversification of both economic and financial risks. Society’s longterm economic prospects are therefore best served when households and
businesses voluntarily save part of their current income. Such a state of
affairs is normally facilitated when some reasonably safe institutional
mechanism exists whereby society’s savings may be collected and channelled into productive investments. Throughout the developed world the
single dominant class of institution that has emerged to play this crucial
role is the commercial bank and it has therefore been closely linked with
commerce and industry for many centuries.1
2 1 Role of Banks
Banks serve the special function of acting as the custodians of the general
public’s money in terms of multi-faceted contractual relationships. They
raise the largest portion of their funding by taking deposits from the
general public by means of contracts for liquid deposits.2 In order to
attract deposits, banks normally depend upon depositors who have a high
degree of confidence that their funds will be available on demand or when
they fall due. Therefore, confidence and trust play an essential role in
banking business. Whenever the confidence of depositors in the banking
system is undermined, society’s ability to collect and deploy its savings is
impaired and the principle means to economic growth, namely, intermediation by banks, is seriously jeopardised.3
1 Schinasi Safeguarding Financial Stability Theory and Practice (2006) 37; McDonough
“Future challenges for bankers and bank supervisors” 2000 32 BIS Review 3; The
Banking Council South African Banking Review (1997) 3; Llewellyn The New Economics of Banking (1999) 9; Bernanke “Non-monetary effects of the financial crisis
in the propagation of the great depression” (1983) Amercian Economic Review 257.
2 Malan, Pretorius & Du Toit Malan on Bills of Exchange, Cheques and Promissory
Notes (5ed) (2009) 295; Havenga, Havenga (Ed), Kelbrick, McGregor, Schulze &
Van der Linde General Principles of Commercial Law (6ed) (2007) 371. Corporate
and retail deposits from the general public in South Africa, as at 31 December
2008, amounted to R2 379 billion. This represents 63, 2% of the total funding of
the banking sector: BSD Annual Report 2008 (2009) 51; De Jager “Recognition of
the interest of bank depositors: the corporate governance dilemma (part 2)” 2002
TSAR 714.
3 McDonough “Sound Banking Systems” 2000 27 BIS Review 3; IMF Banking Soundness and Monetary Policy: Issues and Experiences in the Global Economy (1997) 251;
World Bank Financial Systems and Development (1990) 19; De Jager “Recognition
230 2010 De Jure
A bank’s economic function is the taking and managing of reasonable
financial risks within the financial system for which it is remunerated.
Finance and the financial system may be regarded primarily as a large
and dynamic network of financial contracts facilitating a vast diversity of
economic functions. As an important player in this market, a bank operates as a financial intermediary by placing itself between the ultimate
lender and the ultimate borrower and by transferring primary securities
into indirect securities. In the process, a bank offers contracts for liquid
deposits and uses the proceeds thereof to finance the acquisition of illiquid assets. Owing to their exposures to various risks, the values of these
illiquid assets are normally uncertain. The redemption values of the
deposit contracts are, however, independent from the performance of the
bank and the illiquid assets it acquired.4
2 2 Liquidity Risk
The unique service of converting immediately liquid liabilities into less
liquid loans, provided by banks to the community, unfortunately renders
these institutions particularly vulnerable to liquidity shortages. An important cause of a liquidity shortage with a bank is when an unusually large
number of depositors call upon it at the same time to demand repayment
of their deposits.5 Liquidity shortages with banks may also occur when
inter-bank and wholesale markets, for various reasons, suddenly and
unexpectedly freeze and stop functioning.6
In the event of serious liquidity shortages the absence of a proper secondary market where illiquid assets may be disposed of at reasonable
market prices may force banks that are experiencing a liquidity squeeze
to sell their assets at a loss. This problem is aggravated by the fact that
banks, owing to principles of bank confidentiality and secrecy, are prohibited from communicating privileged information about the quality of their
borrowers to their depositors and creditors or the secondary market. It
may render banks that are perfectly solvent, and who may hold sizable
liquid asset portfolios, unable to raise sufficient liquidity to meet their
demands and could cause them to fail. Although the failure of a single
bank may not necessarily be serious in itself, since the risk of failure
of the interests of bank depositors: The corporate governance dilemma (part 1)”
2002 TSAR 205.
4 Carter & Partington Applied Economics in Banking and Finance (1984) 43; Fourie,
Falkena & Kok The South African Financial System (1998) 78; George “Maintaining
Financial Stability” in SARB A Decade of Gerhard de Kock Memorial Lectures (1998)
78; Llewellyn supra at 9.
5 In banking terms this is usually described as a run on the bank. See Goodhart The
Evolution of Central Banks (1988) 61; Llewellyn The Economic Rational for Financial
Regulation (1999) 13 .
6 Kindleberger & Aliber Manias, Panics and Crashes: A History of Financial Crisis
(5ed) (2005) 8; Lastra Legal Foundations of International Monetary Stability (2006)
111; Falkena & Llewellyn The Economics of Banking: A Target-Instrument Approach
with Special Reference to South Africa (1999) 26; Bamber, Falkena, Llewellyn &
Store Financial Regulation in South Africa (2001) 83.
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 231
constitutes an intrinsic feature of market discipline,7 the danger always
exists that an initial bank failure may cause the failure of other healthy
banks and, ultimately, the failure of the whole financial system.8
The reason for this systemic risk may be ascribed, inter alia, to the fact
that banks normally have substantial direct exposures to one another
arising from their involvement in payment and settlement systems and
through inter-bank credit lines. Moreover, even in the absence of such
exposures, banks with similar business profiles to a failing bank may be
affected by a loss of confidence on the part of their depositors or other
creditors and experience a sudden and unexpected drain on their liquidity.9
2 3 Remedial Measures
Owing to this inherent potential instability, banks worldwide are generally
subjected to stringent formal regulation and supervision. The core objectives of regulation and supervision are usually to sustain systemic stability,
maintain the safety and soundness of such financial institutions and
protect the consumer. In order to ensure the confidence of the general
public in banks and the financial system, as well as to provide a measure
of protection of their deposits, regulatory authorities normally have as one
of their intermediate targets, acceptable risk exposures within institutions.
Minimum standards and prudential requirements are thus enforced in an
endeavour to ensure that the businesses of banks are conducted, inter
alia, in a transparent manner, by fit and proper management, within
acceptable risk parameters. These standards and requirements are
7 It is based on the presumption that the forces of the free market are a sufficient
cogent and adequate influence to discipline internal corporate activities and therefore ensure an acceptable measure of corporate efficiency and responsibility: Bradley & Schipani “The relevance of the duty of care standard in corporate governance” (1989) 75 Iowa Law Review 75; Bamber et al 1; Falkena & Llewellyn 5; De
Jager The Management of Banks in South Africa: Legal and Governance Principles
(LLD dissertation 2000 RAU) 392; Goodhart 57; Llewellyn 1999 21.
8 Noted historical systemic failures include the 1931–1933 massive financial crisis
that devastated the banking system in the US and even led to failures of banks in
European countries: World Bank at 28; the so called “Mexican Peso Crisis” that
started in Mexico in 1994 as well as the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997. In the latter
case the financial system failure started in Thailand and, due to contagion, it affected the financial systems of numerous countries in East Asia, resulting in international bailouts for Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea: Norton “The Asian financial crises” 1998 ABLASA 13; Kim “Bank restructuring in Korea” in BIS Bank
Restructuring in Practice (1999) 143. The said crisis in East Asia provides a vivid
illustration of a full-scale collapse of markets caused by systemic bank failures. See
also Lee “Daewoo’s domino effect” 1999 149 Banker 59; De Juan “Clearing the
decks: Experiences in banking crisis resolution” 1998 1 Journal of International
Banking Regulation 167; Schinasi 13; Kindleberger & Aliber 16.
9 Herring & Wachter Real Estate Booms and Banking Busts – An International Perspective (1990) 16; Oditah Special Report: Insolvency of Banks: Managing the Risks
(1996) xi; Fourie et al 78; Doyle Practice of Banking (1972) 26; George 78; Schinasi
184; De Jager part 2 2002 TSAR 714.
232 2010 De Jure
predominantly aimed at correcting identified market imperfections and
failures.10
Notwithstanding the ex ante nature and intensity of their regulation and
supervision, it is generally acknowledged that banks may still fail.11 Accordingly, certain ex post preventative and remedial measures have been
introduced through the years, aimed at proverbially steering the rocky
boat [bank] through stormy seas [markets] into calmer waters.12 The
lender of last resort, associated with central banks, may be regarded as
3 Lender of Last Resort
The phrase “lender of last resort” (LOLR), evidently owes its origin to Sir
Francis Barings, who in 1797 referred to the Bank of England (BOE) in this
context as the source from which all banks could obtain liquidity in times
of crisis.13 Central banks, by their very nature, are deeply involved in
systemic risk management and acknowledge that a close correlation
exists between monetary and financial stability. Increased market volatility often results in financial instability, which in turn results in institutional
distress, increased credit risks and increased insolvencies in general. It
may later result in systemic distress and ultimately in greater demands for
liquidity through LOLR facilities afforded by central banks. Therefore,
irrespective of the role, if any, assigned to a central bank with respect to
the prudential regulation and supervision of financial institutions, the
central bank always constitutes a dominant agency responsible for the
stability of the payment system, liquidity assistance to markets and
banks, as well as systemic stability.14
LOLR assistance is therefore distinct from, and should not be confused
with, the normal operations of a central bank through its general discount
and accommodation window. The latter central bank operations entail the
refinancing of the operational liquidity requirements of banks through
repurchase agreements and other facilities such as the averaging of cash
10 Bamber et al 17; Falkena & Llewellyn 2; Malan “Legal aspects of the regulation of
financial institutions” 1989 TSAR 553; McDonough 2000 27 BIS Review 3; Pyle
“Bank Risk Management: Theory” in Galai, Ruthenberg, Sarnat & Schreiber Risk
Management and Regulation in Banking (1997) 7; De Jager 423; Llewellyn 1999 9 &
11 Supervisors generally strive to promote and enhance the safety and soundness of
banks. They are generally not in a position to guarantee the safety and soundness
of such institutions. See Van Greuning The Implementation of a Risk-based Approach
to Bank Supervision as a Micro-economic Component of Monetary Policy (D Com dissertation 1993 UP) 101; Kindleberger & Aliber 2.
12 Lastra 110.
13 Humphrey & Keleher “The lender of last resort: A historical perspective” 1984 4
Cato Journal 275; Lastra 113; Kindleberger & Aliber 196.
14 Bamber et al 102; Lewellyn “Institutional Structure of Financial Regulation and
Supervision: The Basic Issues” in Carmichael, Fleming & Llewellyn Aligning Financial Supervisory Structures with Country Needs (2004) 25 .
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 233
reserves or marginal lending.15 Discount and accommodation window
operations involving central banks constitute important mechanisms by
means of which banks manage their day-to-day liquidity requirements in
the normal course of business. In contradistinction, LOLR assistance is
generally described as the mechanism by means of which a central bank,
which has the ability to produce high powered money, supports banks
facing liquidity difficulties to create enough base money to off-set public
desire to switch into cash during a crisis. It aims to restore confidence,
thereby re-establishing credibility in a bank, banks or the market and
endeavours to prevent legal insolvency, fire sales and the calling up of
loans. LOLR assistance is normally provided when central banks fear that
a loss of confidence in the system could prompt a systemic failure. It is
entirely at the discretion of the central bank and whenever the failure is
deemed isolated or may be easily contained, central banks may elect not
to provide any assistance.16
Central bank independence and autonomy is based on the premise,
inter alia, that the State is tasked with ensuring a sound financial system
in a country and LOLR assistance involves public funds. The fiscal authority of a country is therefore almost invariably involved in the process of
the granting of LOLR assistance by its central bank, especially whenever
such lending is for an extended period, or forms part of an overall crisis
management strategy to address the liquidity of banks in the market.17
3 1 Classical Doctrine
The classic theoretical foundation of the LOLR doctrine can be traced back
to Henry Thornton, who in 1802 was responsible for defining its principles. He suggested that the provision of liquidity to the market was the
best way of containing a panic.18 These principles were later elaborated
upon and refined by Walther Bagehot. Both Thornton and Bagehot contended that the LOLR responsibility was owed to the market and the
entire financial system and not to specific institutions. It was aimed at
restoring confidence and re-establishing credibility in a bank or banks.
LOLR assistance should therefore be provided in circumstances where a
central bank feared that the loss of confidence in the system could prompt
even solvent institutions to fail.19
15 De Kock Central Banking (4ed) (1973) 146; SARB Report on the Operations of the
South African Reserve Bank for the year Ended 31 March 2003 (2003) 90; Brealey,
Clark, Goodhart, Healy, Hoggarth, Llewellyn, Shu, Sinclair & Soussa Financial Stability and Central Banks: A Global Perspective (2001) 170.
16 Davis “The lender of last resort and liquidity provision – How much of a departure
is the sub-prime crisis?” Paper presented at a Conference entitled “Regulatory Response to the Financial Crisis”, London School of Economics, 19 Jan 2009 5; Lastra
114; Goodhart 96; Brealy et al 2.
17 Any extended lending or recapitalisation of potentially insolvent banks in a
systemic crisis becomes the responsibility of the fiscal authority: Lastra 116. See
also Davis 2 & 9; Brealey et al 170.
18 Thornton addressed LOLR in a paper published in 1802 titled “An enquiry into the
nature and effects of the paper credit of Great Britian”: Lastra 114.
19 Bagehot addressed LOLR in a paper published in 1873 titled “Lombard Street. A
description of the money market”: Humphrey “The classical concept of the Lender
234 2010 De Jure
In accordance with the classic doctrine, a central bank should, by
means of LOLR support, prevent temporarily illiquid but solvent banks
from failing. The lending should thus, by nature, be short-term. The
central bank, within its capacity as the only ultimate source of legal tender, should not limit its lending but lend as much money as may be
necessary to resolve the issue. The lending must, however, be at a high
rate of interest. Whether this includes penal rates is uncertain. LOLR
should be extended to any bank with good collateral, valued at pre-crisis
prices. Moreover, a central bank should make its willingness to extend
such loans to banks, known well in advance. 20
The above doctrine is purported to have three major advantages. Firstly,
as loans are granted only to solvent institutions, the central bank is not
confronted with the moral hazard of bailing out institutions that do not
deserve such assistance. Secondly, since the financial assistance involves
secured lending, the balance sheet of the central bank involved is not
necessarily adversely affected. Thirdly, because the lending involved is
short-term, the inflationary consequences of LOLR assistance are limited.21
3 2 Scant Public Information
The banking fraternity is well known for its adherence to principles of
confidentiality and secrecy. In terms thereof, subject to certain recognised
exceptions, banks are under a duty to respect the financial and personal
privacy of their customers and not to injure their creditworthiness or
personal integrity by disclosing confidential information to third parties or
in the public domain.22 These principles may be applied mutatis mutandis
to central banks and the various entities that they serve.23 Disclosure by a
central bank to the general public of details regarding LOLR assistance
afforded to a particular bank has the potential of adversely affecting public
confidence in that institution. It could result in a run on the bank by
depositors anxious to withdraw their deposits, which would most likely
either exacerbate any existing liquidity problem that the bank may be
experiencing, or may rekindle a crisis of this nature that had in the past
of Last Resort” 1975 61(1) Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond Economic Review 2.
See also Lastra 114.
Lastra 114; Kindleberger & Aliber 196. Charles Goodhart maintains that Bagehot’s
proposal that LOLR lending be at “high” rates is incorrectly translated into “penalty” rates: Goodhart “Myths about the lender of last resort” 1999 2(3) International
Finance 339.
Bamber et al 107.
Malan et al 310; Tournier v National Provincial and Union Bank of England [1924] 1
KB 461; Sasfin (Pty) Ltd v Beukes 1989 (1) SA 1 (A); Cywilnat (Pty) Ltd v Densam
(Pty) Ltd 1989 (3) SA 59 (W); Faul Grondslae van die Beskerming van die Bankgeheim
(1991) 459; Meiring “Bankgeheimenis en die bank se eie belang” 1991 3 SA Merc
LJ 107; Scott “Can a banker cede his claims against his customers?” 1989 1 SA
Merc LJ 248; Itzikowitz “Banker and Customer: The banker’s duty of secrecy” 1989
18 Businessman’s Law 255.
See for example s 33 of the South African Reserve Bank Act, 90 of 1989.
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 235
been experienced by the bank and redressed by means of earlier LOLR
assistance.24
Since a bank normally has as its ultimate objective the maximisation of
profits, its lending activities may be regarded as the outcome of expected
profit calculations, subject to the constraint that the risk that its capital
may be depleted by these activities be no greater than some measure of
probability. Accordingly, the management of a bank needs to take lending
decisions to maximise expected profits subject to the constraint that the
probability that end-of-period asset values may fall short of its liabilities
not exceed a specified reasonable probability.25 Risks taken by management should at all times be reasonably measured against the probability
of loss, which requires informed decision-making by bona fide, duly
authorised and adequately qualified managers exercising due care and
skill. At the same time, situations must be avoided where management
may utilise a bank’s intermediary function and corporate personality to
frustrate sound legal and commercial principles. This, in turn, requires
that a structure be in place, aimed at reducing the severity and variability
of losses in order to protect banks, their depositors and the financial
system against the adverse consequences of unreasonable and outrageous
risks.26
Once the impression is created that LOLR assistance may be readily
available to all kinds of banks in distress, it may easily give rise to false
assurances and unreasonable expectations. LOLR might erroneously be
regarded as a form of insurance against bad banking decisions, which
could encourage more of the same. This could give rise to the moral
hazard that the business of a bank may, by the application of irresponsible, careless or imprudent management practices be conducted in disregard of sound commercial and legal principles. It could potentially result
in a bank in distress, in the belief that it could rely on being bailed out by
the central bank, making desperate and unsound business decisions.
Behaviour of this nature could also induce other sound banks to behave in
a similar fashion, thereby increasing the potential for turbulence and
instability in the market. Moreover, it could lead to a reduction in the
incentive for banks to hold adequate liquidity, thereby passing that risk on
to the central bank.27
In view of the above considerations, central banks do not as a rule
report in the public domain on specific LOLR support provided to
designated banks. In general, they rarely provide finer detail and closer
24 As demonstrated by the facts in Northern Rock, where the bank experienced a run
on it following upon a BBC broadcast to the general public that Northern Rock had
sought and was to be provided with LOLR assistance by the Bank of England: SRM
Global Master Fund LP; RAB Special Situations (Master) Fund Ltd and Dennis Grainger
& Others v The Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury, an unreported judgment
delivered on 28 July 2009 under the Neutral Citation Number: [2009] EWCA Civ
788, par 13.
25 Herring & Wachter 7.
26 Davis 7; De Jager part 2 (2002) TSAR 716.
27 Davis 7.
236 2010 De Jure
guidelines regarding the concept in the public domain. Similarly, the laws
relating to many central banks worldwide provide scant guidance with
regard to the issue of LOLR operations.28
4 Local Position
The South African Reserve Bank (SARB), in terms of the Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa Act (Constitution)29 read with the South
African Reserve Bank Act (SARB Act), functions as the central bank of the
RSA.30 The SARB constitutes one of the central banks worldwide in respect
of which scant information regarding LOLR is available in the public
domain since neither the Constitution, nor the SARB Act explicitly deals
with the issue. Nevertheless, it should not be construed as meaning that
the Bank is unfamiliar with the doctrine, since central banks worldwide
share more or less the same outlook on monetary and banking matters.31
Banks and markets in the RSA also share close similarities with other
banks and markets throughout the world and are, in general, subject
mutatis mutandis to the same influences, forces, risks and failures.32 The
Bank is therefore capable of providing financial support to a bank or
banks whenever exceptional circumstances justify central bank assistance
In general, with regard to loans, the SARB Act determines that unsecured loans and advances may be granted by the Bank only –33
(a) to Government;
(b) to a company formed in terms of the Companies Act34 for purposes of
manufacturing banknotes or coins;
(c) with the approval of its board, to any company formed in terms of
the Companies Act in which the SARB has acquired shares, if in the
opinion of the board the acquisition of the company was conducive
to the attainment of any of the objects of the SARB Act; or
(d) to an officer or employee of the SARB for purposes of purchasing a
motor vehicle or a dwelling.
It is therefore evident that potential LOLR assistance by the SARB to banks
must be in the form of secured loans or advances, unless the shares in the
28 Lastra 115.
29 Act 108 of 1996 s 223.
30 Malan et al 257; Bekink & Botha “The role of a modern central bank in managing
Consumer bankruptcies and corporate failures: A South African public law angle of
incidence” 2009 SA Merc LJ 75.
31 De Kock 2.
32 Examples of failed banks in the RSA are: Pretoria Bank, Prima Bank, Islamic Bank,
Cape Investment Bank, Alphabank, New Republic Bank, FBC Fidelity Bank and,
most recently, Saambou Bank. See also Bezuidenhout “The South African Case” in
Carmichael, Fleming & Llewellyn Aligning Financial Supervisory Structures with
Country Needs (2004) 115.
33 S10(1)(f).
34 Act 61 of 1973.
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 237
relevant bank are taken over by the SARB in circumstances as envisaged
in (c), above. Since the SARB is a non-profit public institution with a public
interest role, any LOLR assistance will typically be at the eventual cost of
the taxpaying general public.35 Of any surplus remaining at the end of a
financial year of the Bank, after provision has been made for bad and
doubtful debts, a depreciation in assets, gratuities or other pension benefits for its officers and employees, all other items usually provided for by
bankers and the payment to shareholders of a dividend of ten per cent
per annum on their shares, one tenth is allocated to the reserves of the
SARB and the rest to Government.36
Owing to the scarcity of public information with regard to the application
of LOLR assistance in the RSA, and since central banks worldwide tend to
share the same outlook on banking matters, it could be of significance
that note be taken of public information in respect of the application of
LOLR assistance in jurisdictions other than the RSA. In this regard, the UK
and the Republic of Bulgaria constitute noteworthy jurisdictions in respect
of which public information of the nature under discussion is available.
The importance of the UK lies not only in the fact that its central bank was
the first bank of issue to assume the position of a central bank and to
develop what are generally recognised as the fundamentals of the art of
central banking, but also in that country’s historical association with the
establishment of the SARB.37 The Republic of Bulgaria, in turn, is like the
RSA, classified as an emerging market and its central bank qualifies as
one of the oldest central banks in the world.38
5 1 UK
The Bank of England (BOE), the central bank of the UK, functions in terms
of the Bank of England Act 1998. Since its functions under the Banking
Act 1987 were transferred to the Financial Services Authority (FSA),39 the
FSA functions, inter alia, as the official regulator of banks registered in
35 De Jager “The South African Reserve Bank: An evaluation of the origin, evolution
and status of a central bank (Part1)” 2006 SA Merc LJ 168; Lastra 116; Davis 2 & 9;
Brealey et al 170.
36 SARB Act s 24. The Bank is also subject to the tax levied by Government on
37 De Kock 2; SARB A Short Historical Review Issued in Commemoration of the Bank’s
Fiftieth Anniversary (1921 – 1971) (1971) 12; Gerhard de Kock A History of the
South African Reserve Bank (1920 – 52) (1954) 13.
38 See More Downgrades on the Horizon – Emerging Markets Monitor available at
http://www.emergingmarketsmonitor.com (accessed 2010-01-12); the Bulgarian
Central Bank was established on 25 January 1879: see Bulgarian National Bank
Website available at http://www.bnb.bg/aboutUs/index.htm (accessed 2010-01-12).
39 In terms of section 21(a)(i) of the Bank of England Act 1998; Blair, Cranston, Ryan
& Taylor Blackstone’s Guide to the Bank of England Act 1998 (1998) 68; De Jager
2000 569.
238 2010 De Jure
terms of the Banking Act.40 The BOE, the FSA and the Treasury, jointly
known as the “Tripartite Authorities”, by means of a memorandum of
understanding (MOU) set procedures in terms of which LOLR assistance
would be provided by the BOE.41
Late in July 2007 global financial markets became severely disrupted in
the UK, partly because of concerns about the value of financial products
which had been created based on mortgage loans made in the sub-prime
sector of the United States housing market (US sub-prime crisis). It led to
the virtual closing down of wholesale money markets in the UK and
resulted in severe liquidity problems, inter alia, for Northern Rock plc (NR
– a bank registered in terms of the Banking Act), the fifth largest UK
mortgage lender and the eight largest UK bank by market capitalisation.
As a result of the acute credit shortage experienced by NR it was unable
to raise liquidity. Despite its assets exceeding its liabilities and it being
solvent in balance sheet terms, NR became unable to meet its debts as
and when they fell due. It alerted the FSA on 13 August 2007 and LOLR
assistance was subsequently provided by the BOE as envisaged in terms
of the MOU between the Tripartite Authorities. NR was eventually nationalised on 22 February 2008, when its entire share capital was transferred
to the Treasury Solicitor as nominee of the Treasury in terms of legislation.
As part of the nationalisation scheme, the compensation payable to
shareholders of NR was assessed on the basis of the position that they
would have been in had no LOLR support been provided to it. As it appeared that they would get virtually nothing for their shares, aggrieved
shareholders of NR unsuccessfully approached the High Court in the UK
for a judicial review of the basis of the assessment.42 On appeal of that
judgment by the shareholders, the UK Court of Appeal referred with
40 Since 1 June 1998, in terms of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000: Blair
et al 40.
41 The relevant provisions of the MOU read as follows: “14. In exceptional circumstances, there may be a need for an operation which goes beyond the Bank’s published framework for operations in the money market. Such a support operation is
expected to happen very rarely and would normally only be undertaken in the
case of a genuine threat to the stability of the financial system to avoid a serious
disturbance in the UK economy. If the Bank or the FSA identified a situation where
such a support operation might become necessary, they would immediately inform the other authorities and invoke the co-ordination framework outlined in
paragraph 16 below. Ultimate responsibility for authorisation of support operations
in exceptional circumstances rests with the Chancellor. Thereafter they would
keep the Treasury informed about the developing situation, as far as circumstances allowed. 15. In any such exceptional circumstances, the authorities’ main
aim would be to reduce the risk of a serious problem causing wider financial or
economic disruption. In acting to do this, they would seek to minimise both moral
hazard in the private sector and financial risk to the taxpayer arising from any
42 Divisional Court, Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court [2009] EWHC Adm
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 239
approval to the following principles of LOLR assistance as previously
elucidated by Lord Eddie George, a former Governor of the BOE:43
(a) LOLR assistance, in whatever form, was directed at safeguarding the
financial system (thereby preventing damage to the wider economy)
and not aimed at protecting the institution itself.
(b) All options to find a commercial solution would first be explored
before the commitment of central bank funds. Major shareholders
would be called upon to provide financial support. In the absence
thereof, the bank in distress would be encouraged to attempt to find
(c) Central banks were not in the business of providing public support to
private shareholders. Whenever support was provided, a central bank
would attempt to structure it in such a manner that any losses first
fall on the shareholders and that any benefits accrue to the central
bank. Any support provided by the central bank would be on terms
that are as penal as the central bank may make them, without precipitating the collapse of the bank that the central bank is attempting
(d) Since the aim is to provide liquidity, in normal circumstances, the
BOE will not support a bank that is insolvent.
(e) The BOE seeks a clear exit. The bank in question may be required to
run down or restructure its operations, under surveillance of the central bank, to the point where it could do without central bank support
within a given period. An advantage of making central bank support
as unattractive as possible was that it encouraged this process. The
aim was to protect the system, not to maintain unviable banking and
so to unnecessarily interfere in the market process.
In respect of the LOLR provided by the BOE to NR, the Court of Appeal
held that the above principles were adhered to strictly and exclusively for
the protection of the banking system (and thus the general economy) as a
whole, and not at all for the protection of the stricken institution (NR).44
The LOLR assistance was always intended as a short-term operation and
the exit chosen was the nationalisation of the company. This decision by
the authorities to take the company into public ownership was ruled by
the Court of Appeal as a strategic exercise of government policy intended
to preserve, for the sake of the national economy the benefits won by the
LOLR operation at the least cost to the tax payer.45
The Court of Appeal held that the correct method of assessing shareholders’ value was on the basis of the position that shareholders would
have been in if no LOLR had been provided. Otherwise, shareholders
would have received more favourable treatment and the LOLR assistance
would have been the source of this benefit. That would not have been
43 SRM Global Master Fund LP; RAB Special Situations (Master) Fund Ltd and Dennis
Grainger & Others v The Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury supra par 8.
44 Idem par 9.
45 Idem par 61.
240 2010 De Jure
consistent with a governing principle of LOLR, namely its deployment
only in the interest of the financial system as a whole. Furthermore, the
Court of Appeal held that such a practice would or might potentially in the
future encourage the very moral hazard, of an institution in trouble making poor decisions based on the belief that it will be bailed out by the
State, which the LOLR scheme was carefully constructed to avoid.46 The
appeal was consequently dismissed.47
5 2 Republic of Bulgaria (“Bulgaria”)
The Bulgarian National Bank (BNB) functions as the central bank of Bulgaria in terms of the Law on the Bulgarian National Bank 1997 (BNB Act).
It is managed by a Governing Council consisting of a Governor, three
Deputy Governors and three other members. The BNB consists of three
basic departments, namely an Issue Department, a Banking Department
and a Banking Supervision Department, each headed by a Deputy Governor.48
Article 20(2) of the BNB Act determines that whenever any systemic
risk arises in respect of the banking system, the Banking Department shall
perform the LOLR function. Such LOLR assistance may be extended under
the following general conditions:49
(a) In the event of a liquidity risk affecting the stability of the banking
(b) assistance may be provided only to solvent banks experiencing an
acute need for liquidity that cannot be obtained from other sources;
(c) only against collateral of liquid assets; and
(d) maturity of the loans shall not exceed three months.
The amount of LOLR assistance available for the provision of assistance
may not be more than the lev50 equivalent of the amount whereby the
gross international reserves exceed the total amount of the monetary
liabilities of the BNB.51 Collateral against which the BNB will extend LOLR
assistance consists of monetary gold, foreign currency (Euro, US dollars or
Swiss francs), paper or book-entry liquid securities issued by the Government of Bulgaria or guaranteed by it, and prime-rate liquid securities
issued by foreign governments and central banks, or guaranteed by them.
The total value of the assets rendered by the bank in distress as security, assessed at their market value, is required to cover a minimum of
125 percent of the LOLR amount provided as assistance by the BNB to the
Idem par 62.
Idem par 86.
BNB Act arts 1, 10, 11 & 19.
BNB Act arts 33(1) & (2); Atanassova “Some aspects of the legal relations between
the central bank and the commercial banks in Bulgaria” in Kluwer Legal Issues in
Banking Field (2009) 146.
50 Bulgaria’s official currency.
51 BNB Act art 33(3).
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 241
bank in distress.52 At any stage, if the value of the collateral becomes
inadequate, the BNB may give the relevant bank three days to rectify the
situation. In the event of any failure by the bank to redress the situation,
the BNB may, without interference by a court of law, call up the loan and
proceed with its collection (including the sale of the collateral). This applies mutatis mutandis to any default by the bank in question in repayment of the loan.53
Banks lie at the centre of modern economies and therefore policies and
measures applied to them by the relevant authorities may have farreaching implications, both politically and economically. Often measures
implemented by such authorities must be decided on the spur of the
moment, sometimes at the height of a crisis.54 Since the core business of
banks is based on confidentiality and various persons involved may have
the incentive to provide distorted or incorrect information, decisions of
the authorities could almost invariably be guided by imperfect information.55 Moreover, LOLR assistance to banks normally involves the balancing of short-term concerns such as the avoidance or stifling of bank runs
and the redressing of liquidity crunches, with longer term concerns, such
as the limitation of moral hazard and the fostering of a robust banking
system with well functioning banks.56
Despite a number of differences, a measure of conformity evidently
exists with regard to the application of the LOLR principle in general, as
evidenced by the approaches of the UK and Bulgaria in their application of
the LOLR doctrine. Similarities in the approach of both countries with the
principles of LOLR assistance as embraced in the classical doctrine confirm that this doctrine could in general be considered as the ideal in
respect of the rendering of LOLR assistance to banks in circumstances of
inordinate liquidity stress.57
Banks however, unfortunately do not always function in ideal circumstances and a number of factors may complicate the strict implementation of the principles of LOLR assistance as embraced in the classic doctrine. Some of the important complications experienced relate to the
requirements that LOLR assistance should be –
(a) afforded to solvent banks only
Owing to the imperfect nature of financial information, the solvency of a
bank may be virtually impossible to determine, in the midst of a crisis,
52 Atanassova 152; BNB Act art 33(1).
53 Atanassova 154.
54 Circumstances that are apparently often ignored by lawyers when they, in the
quiet, orderly and dignified ambience of a court, endeavour to dissect, secondguess and question the decisions of the regulatory authorities taken in respect of a
failed bank during a stormy period of financial crisis and turmoil.
55 BIS Bank Restructuring in Practice (1999) 7.
56 Idem 8.
57 Bamber et al 107; Lastra 114.
242 2010 De Jure
with certainty. In times of crisis, the value of bank assets may be subject
to sudden and drastic downward adjustments and it is normally difficult
to assess their true value. It is therefore usually difficult to distinguish
illiquid and insolvent banks from the rest. This unfortunate situation is
further complicated by the fact that a bank that may initially be solvent
but illiquid can rapidly become insolvent.58 Accordingly, central banks
display a tendency of providing LOLR assistance even to insolvent banks
with liquidity problems whenever such banks are regarded as systemically
important enough to pose a risk to the financial system if they should fail.
It is known as the “too big to fail” concept. Moreover, in times of a systemic crisis, a central bank may need to provide uniform support to all
banks short of liquidity, even if they are suspected to be insolvent, in
order to protect the payment system and macro-economy.59 In such
times, judgment on the systemic importance of banks may even be
suspended and liquidity assistance could form part of an overall crisis
management strategy involving the central bank, the supervisors and the
fiscal authorities.60
(b) at a high interest rate
The imposition of penalty rates by central banks on banks may impact
negatively on the solvency of such banks and could precipitate their
collapse.61 Furthermore, a stigma may be associated with banks accessing
penalty rate facilities which may increase the risk of runs on them. Largescale interventions by central banks in markets at penalty rates may
worsen inter-bank market tensions, resulting in a negative impact on
liquidity.62
(c) against good collateral provided by the receiving bank
Central bank assistance is normally considered after banks were unsuccessful in gaining liquidity support and all market sources of funds were
exhausted. Accordingly, when the stage of LOLR assistance is reached, a
bank may already have encumbered, or disposed of all its most marketable assets. This, coupled with the difficulty in a crisis to determine the
true value of assets, may result in an absence of good collateral being
available to cover the exposure of a central bank loan with complete
certainty. Under similar circumstances, central banks respond to a loss of
market liquidity by easing and reducing collateral standards and accepting
virtually any available assets of the banks as security.63 In a systemic
market crisis, solvency and collateral requirements may even be relaxed
by means of a guarantee in favour of the central bank issued by government.64
58 Goodhart regards the suggestion that it is possible to distinguish between illiquidity
and insolvency as a myth: Goodhart 339. See also Lastra 116.
59 Davis 7; Bamber et al 108; Lastra 116; Brealey et al 172.
60 Davis 9.
61 Brealey et al 170; Bamber et al 108.
62 Davis 18.
63 Kindleburger & Aliber 207; Davis 18.
64 Davis 9.
Central Bank, lender of last resort assistance: An elusive concept? 243
(d) short-term
Practice has shown that banks normally find it difficult to redeem LOLR
loans, which could inevitably lead to an extension of their repayment
terms.65 In times of financial crisis the funding of risks interacts with
market liquidity risk and LOLR assistance needs to be extended for longer
maturities. When liquidity problems were being experienced during the
US sub-prime crisis, the LOLR policies of central banks were adapted to
not merely fund the liquidity requirement of banks but also market liquidity.66 Moreover, in the event of a bank failing despite LOLR assistance, the
subsequent unwinding and possible restructuring of the institution, with
the intervention of the regulatory authorities, could last a considerable
period of time. Depending on the nature of the exit strategy followed in
respect of the bank, it could result in the relevant central bank’s loan not
being repaid, either in part or in full; or being repaid over an extended
period of time. In times of a serious market crisis, fiscal authorities may
need to bear the cost of bank recapitalisation.67
(e) made widely known
As indicated above, central banks normally do not widely advocate any
supposed willingness on their part to afford LOLR assistance to banks.68 In
respect of specific LOLR assistance to banks, it is acknowledged that
confidentiality with regard to such operations helps to prevent knowledge
of the specific LOLR operations from giving rise to panic, a rise in borrowing costs or a loss of reputation on the part of the banks receiving the
financial assistance.69 In the wake of such adverse circumstances, banks
may be unwilling to access LOLR assistance for fear of reputational risk
and thereby worsen an already tight liquidity situation in the market.70
Situations may therefore arise where the strict application of the classical principles of LOLR support may defeat the ends they were designed to
The proper management of a bank in a liquidity crisis may be considered
one of the most difficult tasks to confront central banks, regulatory authorities and policymakers. Depending on the extent of the challenge, one
or more of a diversity of approaches may need to be followed to adequately address a particular liquidity problem. Although the classical
doctrine may to some extent constitute the conventional wisdom on
LOLR, practice has shown that it does not serve as an absolute blue-print
for all financial assistance of this nature. Since the central bank and other
relevant national authorities of a country are, in principle, better placed to
Bamber et al 108.
Davis 12.
See par 3.2 supra.
Davis 8.
IMF Containing Systemic Risks and Restoring Financial Sector Soundness (2008) 12.
244 2010 De Jure
evaluate and address their local needs in a liquidity crisis, the possibility
of LOLR assistance to a bank or banks needs to be considered by them on
a case by case basis.71 Depending on the particular circumstances, it could
involve the possible adaptation or relaxation of, or a deviation from
acknowledged principles of LOLR assistance to suit the peculiar challenges
presented by the crisis.
Some countries, like the RSA, elect not to publicly set specific rules and
procedures in respect of potential LOLR assistance to banks, but rather
leave the application thereof in the discretion of their relevant authorities.
In such circumstances, the moral hazard commensurate with LOLR assistance is reduced by the uncertainty created by the authorities with regard
to access to such facilities, since it prevents the market from taking for
granted that the central bank would readily provide assistance of this
nature. Other countries, like Bulgaria, elect to provide for LOLR assistance
in terms of set rules and legal prescriptions.72 Despite the benefit of legal
certainty that prescriptions and set rules in respect of LOLR assistance are
likely to provide, they could increase moral hazard, and, as indicated
above, in certain circumstances may serve as legal impediments to effectively resolving a financial crisis. In practice, the more stringent, encompassing and prescriptive rules are, the less flexibility the regulatory authorities are afforded to address peculiar issues pertaining to inordinate
liquidity shortages experienced by banks in times of crisis.
Whatever the situation may be, central banks, in circumstances where
banks experience inordinate liquidity shortages, are undoubtedly guided
by cardinal rules pertaining to potential LOLR assistance, based to some
extent on the classical doctrine. However, past events have indicated that
when these rules cannot easily be broken, there may be frequent trouble
in a crisis of this nature.73
71 SRM Global Master Fund LP and Others par 57.
72 Bamber et al 107. See the examples of the UK (par 5.1) and Bulgaria (par 5.2)
73 Kindleberger & Aliber 205; Davis 9.
PRESS RELEASE Changes to the Quarterly Statistical Digest Tables
5 Must-have Tech Competencies in