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1 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized2 Printed in The volume is a product of the Ministry of National Education and World Bank staff and consultants. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement of acceptance of such boundaries.3 April 2009 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Authors Fasli Jalal Muchlas Samani Mae Chu Chang Ritchie Stevenson Andrew B Ragatz Siwage D Negara4 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements This publication was prepared by a core Government team headed by Prof. Dr. Fasli Jalal (Director General for Higher Education), working in close cooperation with Dr. Muchlas Samani (Director for Higher Education Personnel). Dr Baedhowi (Director General of PMPTK) and his PMPTK team contributed significantly by providing current data on the implementation of teacher certification; by supplying documentation on the monitoring and evaluation of the initiative; by discussing the potential impact on the relevant agencies; and by providing the outputs from a workshop conducted to analyze earlier drafts of the material used in the publication. Prof. Dr. Conny Semiawan and Prof. Dr. T. Raka Joni also contributed significantly to the writing of the document. Contributing authors of the document are Fasli Jalal (Director General of Higher Education); Muchlas Samani (Director of Personnel in Higher Education); Ritchie Stevenson (Education Specialist); Mae Chu Chang (Lead Educator, EASHD), Siwage Dharma Negara (Research Analyst); and Andy Ragatz (Education Specialist, EASHD). Members of the workshop team provided valuable critical comments and input. The workshop team included: Prof. Dr. Conny Semiawan (UNJ); Prof. Dr. T. Raka Joni (UM); Prof. Dr. Utomo Dananjaya (Univ. Paramadina); Drs. Achmad Dasuki MM (PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Zamroni (UNY); Dr. Aos Santosa Hamijaya (UNRAM); Ahmad Rizali; M.Sc. (CBE); Prof. Dr. Anita Lie (Univ. Widya Mandala); Prof. Dr. Mohamad Nur (UNESA); Dr. Siskandar (Ses. Balitbang Diknas); Prof. Dr. Paulina Panen (UT); Prof. Dr. Astim Riyanto; SH. (UPI); Prof. Dr. Aziz Wahab (UPI); Dr. Sumarna Suryapranata(PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Aljufri B. Syarif (UNP); Prof. Dr. Sukamto (UNY); Prof. Dr. Soedijarto (UNJ); Prof. Dr. Hamid Hasan (UPI); Prof. Dr. Sudjarwo (Univ. Lampung); Dr. Abas Gozali (UIN Jakarta); Prof. Dr. Mulyani Nurhadi (UNY); Ir. Giri Suryaatmana (PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Toho Cholik Mutohir; MA (UNESA); Prof. Dr. Sutjipto (UNJ); Dr. Unifah Rosyidi (Univ. PGRI); Dian Wahyuni (PMPTK); Dr. Hendarman (Dikti); Maria Widiani (PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Nizam (Dikti); Rahayu Retno Sunami (Dikti); Santi Ambarukmi (PMPTK); Adi Rahmat (UPI); Ahman (UPI); Prof. Dr. Anna Suhaenah S. (UNJ); Dr. Azmi (UNP); Badrun Karto Wagiran (UNY); Buchary (PGRI); Furqon Hidayatullah (Univ Sebelas Maret); Haris Anwar Syafrudie (UM); Suyud (UNY); Dandan Chen (World Bank); Ari SP (World Bank). The World Bank provided technical and financial support to the Government of Indonesia team under the overall supervision of Mae Chu Chang (Coordinator of Human Development Unit and Lead Educator) and Susiana Iskandar (Senior Education Specialist). The preparation and publication of this report is funded by the Dutch Education Support Program from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Neil Baumgart (Professor Emeritus, University of Western Sydney) contributed valuable input by providing a critical review of the document. ii5 Table of Contents Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations vii Executive Summary 1 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia 5 1. Student achievement 5 2. The quality of teachers 6 3. Teacher salaries 9 4. Teacher workload Teacher management after decentralization 13 Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement A shift to quality Teacher education before the reform era: Coping with the expansion of education Emergence of the LPTK Yogyakarta State University: An example of transition from IKIP to University The origin of school cluster based in-service training Changes brought by the Teacher Law 24 Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Selection of teachers and the place of certification Scope of the Teacher Law Teacher competencies mandated by the Law Developing teacher competency standards The value of competency standards An international example of a teaching standards framework Draft Indicators Developed by the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK Continuous professional development to enhance teacher competency Minimum service standards (MSS) for education Progress in developing statements of standards Moving from standards to teacher profiles Re-design of teacher training courses using the teacher competency standards The need for higher standards in teacher management The need for higher standards in classroom teaching The need for higher standards in in-service training and continuing professional education of teachers Keeping the focus on quality in teaching 57 Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Evidence of need to improve the quality of teachers What the Law requires for certification Certification for in-service (incumbent) teachers History of development of the certification process 62 (a) Using a consensus-building process to finalize the model 62 (b) Comparison of proposed certification Models 63 (c) The Round Table Model of 15 March (d) Testing the Model through the five Pilot Study districts 68 (e) Developing the teacher certification instruments in (f ) Developing and using a classroom performance assessment instrument 72 (g) Selecting and training teacher classroom performance assessors 73 (h) Operational arrangements for the 2006 teacher certification model (Model 1) 74 iii6 Table of Contents (i) The status of Model 1 and the transition to Model 2 76 (j) Modified approach of the draft Regulation of 30 March (k) Removal of the Equivalency Examination from the original model Current status and operation of the certification process 82 (a) The Teacher Self-Appraisal and Portfolio instrument of Model 2 82 (b) Determining the annual quota of teachers for certification 87 (c) Use of the PLPG program for teachers who fail the certification process 88 (d) Evaluation and implementation of the current process The certification process for pre-service teachers: PPG (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) Quality Improvements anticipated from Teacher Certification 93 Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers The scope of the upgrade issue Upgrade training pathways Provision of scholarships for upgrading Preparation of teachers by the LPTK Distance learning provision of the Open University HYLITE Program a distance-learning innovation by the LPTK An example of a modular approach to teacher upgrade DBE District support in the upgrade of teachers Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) Elements of good teaching practice for inclusion in teacher upgrade programs Activities included in the BERMUTU modular training packages for teacher upgrade Incorporating best practice teaching and learning activities in the BERMUTU subject modules Continuous professional development (CPD) adopted as a concept Balancing quantity against quality 127 Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification The task Implementation structures and the inter-relationships of the agencies involved Strengthening the capacity of the LPTK (teacher training universities) Strengthening the capacity of school-cluster teacher working groups (KKG and MGMP) Strengthening the capacity of the national training agencies (P4TK) and the provincial quality assurance (LPMP) agencies Strengthening the role of the school supervisor Strengthening the role of the principal Strengthening capacity at the district level Support from BEC-TF and SISWA How BERMUTU and SISWA will support teacher certification and quality improvement Strengthening schools and teacher in-service training with the BOS program 164 Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification Funding the process Estimated Costs by Category Key Variables Influencing Cost Mechanisms to Control Certification Costs Concluding Comment 180 Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions Developing good policy The policy agenda 182 A. Policies related to a teacher s career 183 iv7 Table of Contents B. Policies related to school organisation 193 C. Policies related to teacher management The need for an integrated policy framework 203 References 205 List of Tables Table 1.1 Score Performance Of Indonesian Eighth-Grade Students In Mathematics And Science According To TIMSS 6 Table 1.2 Score Performance of Indonesian 15-Year-Old Students in Science, Reading, and Mathematics According to PISA Table 1.3 Numbers Of Teachers By Academic Qualification And Status In Indonesia, Table 1.4 Teacher Candidates Score Performance by Subject 9 Table 1.5 Comparison of Teacher Salaries across Countries by Level of Education (in US Dollars) 10 Table 1.6 Comparison of 2008 And 2009 State Budget in Trillion IDR 11 Table 1.7 Gross Salary of Teachers According to their Civil Service Status 11 Table 1.8 Primary Teacher Absence Rate in Public Schools Table 1.9 Primary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours 13 Table 1.10 Junior Secondary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours 13 Table 1.11 Teacher Management Functions for Public Schools (except Madrasahs) before and after the Decentralization Era 15 Table 2.1 The Evolution of Pre Service Teacher Education Institutions since Independence 19 Table 2.2 Number of Teachers by Type of Educational Level and Age Distribution, Table 3.1 Teacher Education Progression Pipeline: Summary of Filters Used 30 Table 3.2 Competencies Required by Principals of Schools and Madrasahs 40 Table 3.3 International Example of a Teaching Standards Framework 42 Table 3.4 Sample of Rectors Draft Requirements for Teacher Competency 44 Table 3.5 Minimum Service Standards for Elementary Education (Article 3) 46 Table 3.6 Minimum Service Standards for Junior Secondary Education 47 Table 3.7 Example of Competency Standards for Classroom Teacher Graduates of S1 PGSD 49 Table 4.1 Comparing Four Teacher Certification Models Proposed 63 Table 4.2 Summary of Certification Requirements for Teacher Groups 78 Table 4.3 Design of the Teacher Portfolio Instrument 83 Table 4.4 Grouping the Portfolio Elements 85 Table 4.5 Cumulative Targets for Teacher Certification Program to Table 4.6 Guidelines for Developing PLPG Courses for Elementary School Teachers 89 Table 4.7 Professional Training Course Requirements for Pre-Service Teachers 92 Table 5.1 Level of Teacher Training Needed 95 Table 5.2 Scholarship Targets for Teacher Training Program 99 Table 5.3 Five Stages of Training in DBE Table 5.4 Cross-Cutting Themes in the DBE 2 Training Packages 107 Table 5.5 Structure of a DBE 2 Training Package 108 Table 5.6 Three Types of Credits in Teacher Upgrade to S1/D4 113 Table 5.7 Adapting the Portfolio Form to determine Advanced Standing for RPL 115 Table 5.8 Action Plan for Developing Advanced Standing Policy 118 Table 5.9 Progress to December 2008 in development of the RPL Process 119 Table 5.10 BERMUTU Training Program for Delivery through Teacher Working Groups (KKG/MGMP) 122 Table 5.11 Modules under Development for BERMUTU Districts 124 v8 Table of Contents Table 5.12 Sample Module on Subject Knowledge Problems in Primary Mathematics 125 Table 5.13 Structure to Accommodate Target Output Priorities 125 Table 7.1 Sharing the Costs Associated with Certification 168 Table 7.2 Estimated cost of the Teacher Certification Process by Year 170 Table 7.3 Quota of teachers undergoing Certification and Associated Professional Allowance Costs 171 Table 7.4 Estimated Upgrading costs 172 Table 7.5 Comparison of Costs Associated with Certification 173 Table 8.1 Teacher Induction Programs in APEC Member Countries 189 Table 8.2 Teacher Profiles and Continuous Professional Development 192 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Numbers of Primary School Teachers Appointed, Figure 2.1 Strategy for Accelerating Teacher Professionalism 26 Figure 4.1 Diagram of the Round Table Consensus Model of 15 March and its Task Requirements BERMUTU (Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading) 67 Figure 4.2 Management Structure for Pilot Study 70 Figure 4.3 Planned Steps for Certification using Model 1 in Figure 4.4 Using an Equivalency Examination for Determining RPL 82 Figure 4.5 Current Process of Teacher Certification for In-Service Teachers by Portfolio Assessment 90 Figure 4.6 Entry process for post-graduate teacher professional education 92 Figure 5.1 A Suggested Model for Negotiation of Advanced Standing and RPL 116 Figure 6.1 Agencies involved in the Teacher Certification process 130 Figure 6.2 Teachers by Qualification in Indonesia Figure 6.3 Mathematics teachers qualifications: Indonesia and Singapore (TIMSS 2003) 133 Figure 6.4 Teacher Opinion of the three biggest benefits of KKG-MGMP activities 138 Figure 6.5 Skill Level Needed in LPMP by Position 144 Figure 6.6 Perception of the Competencies of School Supervisors 148 Figure 7.1 Increase in amount to be spent on teacher allowances (real terms in 2006 prices) 171 Figure 7.2 Comparison of upgrading and assessment costs to professional allowance costs 173 Figure 7.3 Distribution of Teachers by Education Attainment 174 Figure7.4 Percent of Teachers by Number of Teaching Periods 178 Figure 8.1 The Role of Policy Development 182 Figure 8.2 Using the probationary year for induction training 188 Figure 8.3 A Framework for the Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of Teachers, Principals and School Supervisors 193 Figure 8.4 Typical Performance Appraisal Cycle 200 List of Boxes Box 7.1 Estimated Number of Teachers Required Based on Student Projections 175 vi9 Abbreviations Abbreviations BALITBANG Research and Development Agency within Ministry of National Education BAN-PT National Board of Accreditation for Higher Education BAPPENAS National Planning Agency BEP Basic Education Program (AusAID) BERMUTU Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading BINDIKLAT Directorate of Education Personnel Development (within PMPTK) BOS The grant to schools provided by the central government BSNP National Education Standards Agency CAR Classroom Action Research CLCC Creating Learning Communities for Children CPD Continuous Professional Development DAK Specific Allocation Fund distributed to districts DAU General Allocation Fund distributed to districts DBE2 Decentralized Basic Education program of USAID for classroom teacher improvement D1, 2, 3, 4 Post-secondary diploma (1-year), (2-year), (3-year), (4-year) DIKTI Directorate General of Higher Education DIPA Integrated Budget (Recurrent and Investment) FKIP Faculty of Teacher Education within universities GOI Government of Indonesia GTT Non-permanent school-hired teachers (Guru Tidak Tetap) GTY Permanent school-hired teachers in private schools (Guru Tetap Yayasan) HEI Higher Education Institution (university, institute, school of higher learning, academy, or polytechnic) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association IDR Indonesian Rupiah IKIP Teacher and Education Studies Institute KKG Teacher Working Group (Kelompok Kerja Guru) KKKS Primary Principal Working Group KKPS Primary School Supervisor Working Group LPMP Institute for Educational Quality Assurance a provincial agency (Lembaga Penjamin Mutu Pendidikan) LPTK Teacher training institutions a generic name for HEI s producing teachers MBE Managing Basic Education a USAID school management modular course MGMP Secondary Subject Teacher Forum MKKS Secondary Principal Working Group MKPS Secondary School Supervisor Working Group MONE Ministry of National Education M&E Monitoring and Evaluation NUPTK Unique identification number for teachers and teaching personnel (Nomor Unik Pendidik and Tenaga Kependidikan) NISN National main number for each student (Nomor Induk Siswa Nasional) OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PAKEM Active, Creative, Joyful, and Effective Learning PGSD LPTK course to upgrade elementary teachers to S1 (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar) vii10 Abbreviations PGSMTP PGSLTA PISA PMPTK PNS PLPG PROFESI PPG PP P4TK QITEP RENSTRA RPL S1 S2 S3 SBM SD SKS SMA SMP SPG STKIP STR TENDIK TIMMS TOR UT UU Teacher training college for junior secondary school teachers (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Menengah Tingkat Pertama) Teacher training college for senior secondary school teachers (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Atas) Program for International Student Assessment Directorate General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel (Peningkatan Mutu Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan) Civil servant (Pegawai Negeri Sipil) 90-hour course undertaken by teachers failing the portfolio certification test (Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru) Directorate of Education Profession (within PMPTK) Post-graduate professional course of one or two semesters to gain certification (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah) Center for Development and Empowerment of Teachers and Education Personnel (a national agency) (Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidkan) Directorate General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel (also termed PMPTK) 5-year Strategic Plan Recognition of Prior Learning Degree equivalent to Bachelor s Degree Degree equivalent to Master s Degree Degree equivalent to PhD School Based Management Primary school (Sekolah Dasar) Credit points gained by university study or its equivalent Senior secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Atas) Junior Secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Pertama) Teacher training secondary school (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, now discontinued) School of Higher Learning of Teacher Education (Sekolah Tinggi Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan) Student-Teacher Ratio Directorate of Non-Teaching Personnel (within PMPTK) Third International Mathematics and Science Study Terms of Reference Open University (Universitas Terbuka) National Law (Undang-Undang) viii11 Executive Summary This publication outlines the manner in which the teacher certification process mandated by the Law on Teachers and Lecturers, Number 14, 2005, (hereinafter termed the Teacher Law) was developed and is currently being implemented. It is an historical record of the events which took place over the three years from December 2005 to December 2008 and the impact of these events on education agencies and structures in Indonesia. The enactment of the Teacher Law took place against a backdrop of concern for the quality of education in Indonesia and in a context in which the roles of a number of teacher training agencies and structures were under review. Because of its comprehensive nature, the Law will have a significant impact on many of these agencies and many of the policies currently in place. The manner in which these future polices may develop is addressed. Certification has been adopted as a requirement for both in-service and pre-service teachers, and is designed to establish a quality benchmark for all teachers, including government and non-government teachers. It will provide a public guarantee of the standards of training and competency required from teachers. Such comprehensive and wide reaching changes in the administration of the education system of a nation such as Indonesia has implications for the development of education systems elsewhere in the world. Already the initiative has generated research activity related to the employment and deployment of teachers; a video-study of teacher classroom performance; an in-depth review of the local school cluster-based in-service training structures; and a comprehensive study of the impact of certification on teacher motivation and student learning. External and internal studies to monitor and evaluate the progress of the certification process have been commissioned by the National Education Ministry and a number of recommendations have been adopted. Further studies are planned. 112 Executive Summary This document examines the status of teachers at the time of the introduction of the Teacher Law: their quality, salary levels and other available incentives. To some extent, it describes a poorly paid and ineffectively managed teaching service, both at the district and school level. The TIMMS and PISA shows evidence of poor overall student performance, which has implications regarding the quality of teaching. Attempts in the past to deal with this situation through salary increases, professional development courses, improvement in training, promotion possibilities, and other strategies are examined but found to have largely failed to achieve their goals, partly because they have been conceived and implemented in a piecemeal fashion. Only the Teacher Law has attempted to address the issue comprehensively by linking a varied range of strategies to the powerful incentive of a significant salary increase. The Teacher Law has been designed to harness a number of strategies to improve the quality and welfare of teachers. Defining the competencies which are required of all teachers, the Law expands on the need to incorporate these into the standards for teachers and underlines the role of agencies such as the BSNP in defining these. The teacher certification process is outlined in the Law, with the specifics being left to the Regulations. The upgrading of qualifications as a prerequisite for eligibility is established clearly. Similarly, the specific conditions under which teachers are eligible to receive the professional allowance and the functional and special (locality) allowance are clearly defined. In short, the Teacher Law provides a comprehensive, clearly defined package of reforms that establishes an ambitious agenda for improving the national education system. The implementation of the process has been assigned to the administrators of the Ministry of National Education, who were charged with achieving a consensus from a multitude of ideas and options presented by a range of pressure groups with disparate interests. Nevertheless, this consensus was reached, and instruments to achieve the defined goals were designed and tested. Whilst the initial certification process was postponed at the end of 2006 while the instruments were re-designed, the first batch of 200,000 teachers undertook the process leading to certification in September Remedial activities for those who initially failed began in December of that year. The second batch of 200,000 teachers is undertaking the process in October With 65% of the total number of 2.7 million teachers not meeting the requirement to have at least fouryears training, the process of upgrading training facilities and processes is a critical element of the scheme. In fact, it represents the area with the greatest potential for achieving an improvement in the quality of in-service teachers. This is an area where a range of training options and other useful initiatives are now becoming available. These include the expanded use of distance learning by the education faculties of the universities (LPTK); learning modules for use at the local level through the school cluster teacher working groups (KKG/MGMP); recognition of prior learning in the Indonesia context; and university accreditation of local cluster-based training. In this process, the strength and commitment of supporting agencies has played a significant role. The BERMUTU program, funded jointly by the World Bank, the Dutch Education Support Program Trust Fund and the Government of Indonesia, has been instrumental in providing the resources to support the implementing agencies in a number of critical areas. The role of the LPTK has been strengthened by funding to enable revision of university teacher training courses; their expansion to four-year training courses at the primary level; and adoption of newer, more effective training methodologies. A range of modular learning materials and funding to support courses conducted by the local school cluster working groups of teachers, principals and supervisors will be made available. Districts in the BERMUTU program are being encouraged to contribute funds in a partnership to activate local school and teacher networks and to conduct district forums to develop and implement best practice teaching techniques. Principals have a more active role in reporting on teachers work for their certification portfolios. They will 213 Executive Summary receive skills training to achieve greater accountability and more effective learning at the local level. When fully implemented, the professional allowance paid to certified teachers will result in the absorption of a significantly greater proportion of the national education budget on teacher remuneration that previously. Budgetary constraints have required phasing strategies and the use of a quota system over ten years to ensure the financial viability of the system. The projected size of the teacher workforce and uncertainties in the data gathering process make cost projections difficult. A number of options for managing the costs associated with the changed system are examined. The Teacher Law also raises significant issues regarding future government policies regarding the management of the teaching service. Many existing policies will be re-defined and modified to foster the development of a higher level of professionalism amongst the teaching corps. One such policy will revolve around the concept of continuous professional development (CPD), which will be linked to salary increments and promotional opportunities. Teacher profiling and a move towards a system of promotion based on merit is a further possibility. Use of a teacher performance appraisal scheme to link the teaching objectives of schools to individual teacher performance agreements will be designed under the BERMUTU program. Proposals to link this scheme with salary increments and performance pay will be considered. In the future, principals will be required to focus on instructional leadership. They will be expected to take a far more active role in the classroom to promote best practice and to ensure all teaching is directed towards facilitating the improvement of student achievement levels. Exciting future possibilities include principals providing induction training for probationary teachers and writing a performance report on them at the end of their first year as a contribution to their certification. In many ways the Teacher Law has been a ground-breaking achievement for the Indonesia government. The manner in which it is implemented and what it achieves over the next ten years will be watched with great interest. The Teacher Law has the potential to dramatically improve the quality of education received by future generations of Indonesian children. Jakarta April14 15 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia 1. Student achievement The quality of education plays a crucial role in determining a nation s competitiveness. Thus, most societies and governments have promoted strategies to improve the quality of education. Indonesia, in particular, has acknowledged the importance of improving the quality of its education system in order to supply the country with highly competitive human resources. Despite its awareness of the importance of the quality of the national education system and despite the strategies it has undertaken to improve it, the Indonesian government remains concerned about the standard of achievement of the nation s students. According to the results of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the performance of Indonesian eighth-grade students in both fields is quite poor. Compared to the international average, Indonesian students level of performance is below the international average in the fields of both mathematics and science. In terms of performance in mathematics, Indonesian students ranked 34 out of 45 countries surveyed in In 2007, this position dropped to 36 out of 49 countries surveyed. In science, Indonesian students were ranked 36 out of 45 countries surveyed in 2003, although the position improved slightly to 35 out of 49 countries in 2007 (see Table 1.1). 516 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.1 Score Performance Of Indonesian Eighth-Grade Students In Mathematics And Science According To TIMSS Mathematics Science Indonesia (34/45) 397 (36/49) (36/45) 427 (35/49) Top achiever Lowest achiever International average Note: Number in brackets indicates the nation s rank worldwide The poor performance of Indonesian students was confirmed by the 2006 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). PISA assesses the performance of 15-year old students in science, reading and mathematics. From 57 countries surveyed, Indonesia ranked 52 for science, 48 for reading and 51 for mathematics (see Table 1.2). Furthermore, the scores achieved by Indonesian students are low compared to the median scores of the international students achievement in the three subjects, i.e. science, reading and mathematics. Table 1.2 Score Performance of Indonesian 15-Year-Old Students in Science, Reading, and Mathematics According to PISA 2006 Science Reading Mathematics Indonesia 393 (52/57) 393 (48/56) 391 (51/57) Top achiever Lowest achiever Median Note: Number in brackets indicates the nation s rank worldwide Despite the generally poor performance of Indonesian students, a small number of Indonesian students has achieved remarkable results in the international mathematics and science Olympiads 1. In reality, however, the majority of Indonesian students perform poorly compared to their international counterparts an issue which has become the ultimate concern of the state. 2. The quality of teachers In view of students low academic achievement, the government of Indonesia has introduced a number of reforms into the education sector. After the end of the New Order government, two significant pieces of legislation provided the legal foundation for much of this education reform; a) the 2003 Education Law (Law No. 20/2003 on the National Education System) and; b) the 2005 Teacher and Lecturer Law (Law No. 14/2005 on Teachers and Lecturers). Both these laws were intended to facilitate improved management of the national education system. Amongst many other components of the education system, they both acknowledges the crucial role of teachers in ensuring the success of the reform of the education system. In view of this, the focus of national education reform requires change to education policies and strategies, particularly regarding the areas of teacher management and development. 1 At the 2007 International Mathematics and Science Olympiad (IMSO) for elementary schools, which was held in Jakarta, November 12-17, Indonesia recorded a remarkable achievement by winning six out of 11 gold medals. Indonesia also won eight silver and 12 bronze medals and was awarded the Best Experiment and Best Overall in Mathematics and Best Theory in Science in the competition. This achievement is remarkable since Indonesia had only managed to get one gold medal during the 2006 IMSO. 617 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia If one accepts the premise that quality teachers produce quality students, then the poor achievements of students can be attributed to the poor quality of teachers in Indonesia 2. Thus, students poor performance in both TIMSS and PISA presumably reflects an inadequate standard of teaching throughout Indonesian schools. These results suggest that the Indonesian teaching system has failed to provide sufficient value added to students learning processes and outcomes. In particular, teachers have failed to perform their principal role of nurturing and improving students learning capacity. As a consequence, Indonesian students learning outcomes have fallen behind those in other neighboring nations. Arguably, the achievement of Indonesian students may reflect the lower quality of teachers in Indonesia relative to other countries. Statistics from the Ministry of National Education (MONE, 2008) indicate that teachers in Indonesia have a relatively lower level of academic qualification than those in neighboring nations. More than 60 percent of the total 2.78 million teachers have not reach the level of academic qualification of a four-year bachelor s degree (S1/D4). In this group of teachers, the majority have either a D2 (two-year diploma) or a senior secondary certificate qualification. Most teachers from this group (about 70 percent) teach in the primary schools (see Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Numbers Of Teachers By Academic Qualification And Status In Indonesia, 2006 Academic Qualification Level of Schooling D1 D2 D3 Bachelor PhD <= Senior Master Sec Degree Total Kindergarden 110,742 9,440 32,382 3,097 18, ,429 Civil servant 19, , , ,235 Non civil servant 90,765 8,670 26,427 2,761 13, ,194 Primary School 417,389 11, ,034 23, ,074 1, ,250,032 Civil servant 266,331 7, ,119 15, ,090 1, ,160 Non civil servant 151,058 4,316 83,915 8,513 54, ,872 Junior Second. 39,133 36,202 37,446 72, ,319 3, ,206 Civil servant 16,060 29,327 25,785 51, ,388 2, ,875 Non civil servant 23,073 6,875 11,661 21, , ,331 Special Need 1, , , ,154 Civil servant , , ,675 Non civil servant 1, , , ,479 Senior Second 6,301 1,200 4,082 22, ,753 3, ,433 Civil servant 2, ,071 13, ,752 2, ,518 Non civil servant 4, ,011 9,111 88, ,915 Voc. School 5,172 1,341 2,842 23, ,764 1, ,761 Civil servant ,429 40,282 1, ,732 Non civil servant 4,272 1,111 2,008 14,513 80, ,029 Primary Islamic 94,755 23,580 45,933 9,086 31, ,774 Islamic School Civil servant 4,478 4,480 18,267 2,358 6, ,625 Non civil servant 90,277 19,100 27,666 6,728 24, ,149 2 Baumgart, Neil, 2007, Teacher Quality and Professional Standards, paper presented at the East Asia and Pacific Regional Workshop, Developing and Managing Teachers for Better Education Outcomes, in Beijing, China, July 9-13, This paper cites a study by Leigh, A., Estimating Teacher Effectiveness from Two Year Changes in Students Test Scores, paper presented at the Economics of Teacher Quality Conference, Australian National University, 5 February Also available online at rsss.anu.edu.au/documents/tqpanel.pdf 718 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Academic Qualification Level of Schooling D1 D2 D3 Bachelor PhD <= Senior Master Sec Degree Total Junior Second. 37,045 10,722 13,554 22,559 95, ,809 Islamic School Civil servant ,615 5,670 16, ,714 Non civil servant 36,159 10,101 11,939 16,889 78, ,095 Senior Second. 10,090 2,164 3,215 10,290 65,635 1, ,723 Islamic School Civil servant ,291 13, ,938 Non civil servant 9,846 2,101 3,078 8,999 52, ,785 TOTAL 722,293 96, , ,404 1,032,349 11, ,783,321 Civil servant 311,509 43, , , ,579 8, ,528,472 Non civil servant 410,784 53, ,749 89, ,770 3, ,254,849 Source: Directorate of Teacher Profession, Ministry of National Education (MONE). Contrary to other professions in Indonesia, the level of education of teachers does not have a positive correlation with the level of earnings. Analysis of the Labor Force Survey (Sakernas) in 2004 found that teachers with relatively low educational levels are comparatively overpaid 3. In contrast, teachers with relatively higher educational levels are underpaid compared to other types of occupations. This suggests there is a lack of incentive for teachers to upgrade their academic qualification. Also, the teaching profession is relatively more attractive for people with a lower educational background. This fact is reflected by the statistics from MONE (2008), which show that about 1.7 million teachers of the total 2.78 million teachers nationally have a level of education below S1/D4 (a four year diploma) qualification. In addition, according to a World Bank (2008) study, compared to other occupations with an equivalent education level, teachers earn relatively low incomes. In other words, there is not a sufficient financial incentive to attract the best and the brightest candidates into the teaching profession. The relatively low quality of teacher candidates in Indonesia is further underlined by the results of the national civil service teacher s examination, which was conducted by the Directorate of Teaching Force before the decentralization of the education system took place 4. Table 1.4 shows the results of national civil service teachers examinations in 2004, when there were approximately 1 million applicants competing for 64,000 positions as civil service teachers. The results show that on average, teachers examination scores were low in the subjects that were going to be required to teach. However, the range between the highest and lowest scores was very wide, indicating the existence of a wide quality differential amongst teacher candidates. 3 Arze del Granado, F. J., Fengler, W., Ragatz, A., Yavuz, E., 2007, Investing in Indonesia s Education: Allocation, Equity, and Efficiency of Public Expenditures, World Bank and the Royal Government of the Netherlands Joint Publication, p.23 4 It is important to note that before decentralization in education sector took place, the teacher examination was undertaken by the central government. However, after decentralization, districts took responsibility for the teacher examination. 819 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.4 Teacher Candidates Score Performance by Subject No Subject Examination No. of Standard Average Questions Deviation Low High 1. General test for kinder-garden/ Primary teacher 2. General test for other teachers Scholastic test Kindergarten Teacher Primary Teacher Physical Education for PE Civics History Indonesia Language English Language Physical Education for JSE Mathematics Physics Biology Chemistry Economics Sociology Geography Art Special Need Education Sources: This table is from the Center for Education Evaluation - Balitbang, Table 1.4 shows the results of the national civil service examinations that were taken in At that time, there were about 1 million applicants competing for 64,000 positions as civil service teachers. After the reforms of 1990, primary school teachers were required to have at least a 2-year post secondary diploma (D2); junior secondary school teachers to have at least a 3-year post secondary diploma (D3); and senior secondary school teachers to have at least a 4-year post secondary diploma (D4/S1). Prior to this, teacher training was conducted by institutions such as SPG (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, a senior vocational secondary school specializing in teacher training) of through two year diploma programs. Most of the institutions offering this training did not meet the standard set by IKIP (later LPTK) and graduates usually did not meet minimum standards of competency. In a later section, the impact of decentralization on the process of teacher training programs and competency will be discussed. Thus, the low quality of teacher candidates can be attributed to the weaknesses of the national teacher training system. Teachers with lower ability often lack either the ability or the motivation to upgrade their skills and qualifications. As a consequence, such teachers face difficulty in keeping abreast of the rapid development of knowledge in science and technology and other subjects. Again, this failure to update skills and qualifications will have an adverse effect on teaching quality and ultimately on student learning outcomes. 3. Teacher salaries In the period between Independence in 1945 until the early 1970s, the teaching profession was regarded as highly prestigious. In this period, only high-performing students were selected for entry into teacher training programs. The top graduates of the primary schools received a government scholarship to continue to secondary school (Sekolah Guru B, abbreviated to SGB). At the same time the top graduates from the junior secondary schools would receive a government scholarship to continue to upper 920 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia secondary school (Sekolah Guru A, abbreviated to SGA). These graduates from the SGB and SGA programs were then directly appointed as primary school teachers. Similar B1 and B2 programs were structured to educate top graduates from the upper secondary schools to become high school teachers. However, the quality of the teachers began to decline with the expansion of the primary school (SD Inpres) program. In order to meet the surge in demand for teachers created by the rapid increase in the number of primary schools, quality was sacrificed for quantity. In general, recruitment into these programs became less selective and the average ability of teachers fell. Consequently, the prestige of teachers also fell. Teachers salaries have declined in real terms when compared to national average salaries in inverse proportion to the number of teachers inducted into the profession and there has been less incentive for the brighter students to enter the teaching service (See Table 1.5). Figure 1.1 Numbers of Primary School Teachers Appointed, , , , , , , ,000 91,050 80,000 75,000 60,000 50,000 60,000 60,000 50,000 50,000 58,840 40,000 18,000 20, ,050 21,000 16,800 14,000 10,000 10,000 10,150 8,000 8,000 5,160 4,100 4,100 5, / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /1999 Source: MONE, Table 1.5 Comparison of Teacher Salaries across Countries by Level of Education (in US Dollars) Country Year Primary School Junior Secondary School Starting Top Starting Top Salary Salary Salary Salary Argentina Chile India 2002/ Indonesia 2004/ Malaysia Paraguay Philippines 2004/ Sri Lanka Thailand 2004/ Uruguay WEI average OECD average Source: World Education Indicators 2007, Table 5.h.i., p Senior Secondary School Starting Top Salary Salary View more
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