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Matched Legal Cases: ['art 3', 'art 3274', 'art 3', 'art 3', 'art.\n14', 'art\n14', 'art 1', 'art 2', 'art 1', 'art 2', 'art 3274', 'art 3274', 'art5011', 'art5011', 'art5011']

P. 1Bridge Team ManagementBridge Team Management|Views: 660|Likes: 10Published by AlexPilot; Ciencia nautica;PraticagemPilot; Ciencia nautica;PraticagemMore info:Categories:Types, Books - Non-fictionPublished by: Alex on Dec 21, 2010Copyright:Attribution Non-commercialAvailability:Read on Scribd mobile: iPhone, iPad and Android.download as PDF, TXT or read online from ScribdFlag for inappropriate content|Add to collectionSee moreSee lesshttps://www.scribd.com/doc/45755372/Bridge-Team-Management06/23/2013pdftextoriginalSectionsFigure 4 COURSE ALTERATIONS AND WHEEL OVER POSITIONSFigure 6 ABORTS AND CONTINGENCIESRange of LightsFigure 8 NATURAL TRANSIT, CLEARING MARKS AND HEAD MARKSMaster's ApprovalEXECUTING THE PASSAGE/VOYAGE PLANTacticsMONITORING THE SHIP'S PROGRESSCross Track ErrorTraining and CoachingNAVIGATING WITH A PILOT ON BOARDNAVIGATING WITH INTEGRATED BRIDGE AND
ELECfRONIC CHART SYSTEMSECDIS references and publicationsDefinitionsFurther reading
by Captain A.J. SwiftFNI
including a new section on Electronic Navigation
by Captain T.]. Bailey FNI
Cover: LNG Carrier TV MUBARAZ passing through Singapore Strait eastbound
photo: Jalens
Mr. C.]. Parker OBE FNI
Secretary, The Nautical Institute 1973-2003
by Captain AJ. Swift FNI
First published in 1993 by The Nautical Institute
202 Lambeth Road, London, SE1 7LQ, England
Telephone: +44 (0)207928 1351
Fax: +44 (0)207 401 2817
Publications e-mail: pubs@nautinst.org
Worldwide web site: http://www.nautinst.org
Copyright © The Nautical Institute 2004
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except for the quotation of brief
passages in reviews.
Although great care has been taken with the writing and production of this volume, neither The
Nautical Institute nor the authors can accept any responsibility for errors, omissions or their
This book has been prepared to address the subject of bridge team management. This should
not, however, be taken to mean that this document deals comprehensively with all of the concerns
which will need to be addressed or even, where a particular matter is addressed, that this document
sets out the only definitive view for all situations.
ISBN 1870077 66 0
The opinions expressed are those of the authors only and are not necessarily to be taken as the
policies or views of any organisation with which they have any connection.
Readers should make themselves aware of any local, national or international changes to bylaws,
legislation, statutory and administrative requirements that have been introduced which might affect
Typesetting and layout byJ A Hepworth
1 Ropers Court, Lavenham, Suffolk, CO 10 9PU, England
Printed by O'Sullivan Printing
Trident Way, Brent Road, Southall, Middlesex, UB2 5LF
By Mr. C. J. Parker OBE FNI Secretary, The Nautical Institute 1973-2003
I was pleased to be asked by:the author to write the foreword to the second edition of Bridge Team
Management because the book exemplifies the professional approach to navigation. In this book the
task comes first and that task is to ensure the safe and timely arrival of ships. To achieve this, all
members of the bridge team including the pilot, when carried, need to share the same sense of
The practice of navigating safely in coastal waters and port approaches has a number of
components which include competence, planning, teamwork, control and flexibility. The task is to
ensure that the ship, when navigating close to land, will be kept in safe water allowing for currents,
tidal influences, under keel clearance, wind and changes in visibility. Additionally provision needs
to be made for contingences.
The realisation that people can make mistakes is an essential part of developing good
procedures. This point is however difficult to articulate in legislation because the regulator provides
instruments which specify requirements to be followed, but which cannot in themselves prevent
In the IMO, the STCW95 Convention lays down well-considered standards for safe
navigation. Similarly IMO has produced useful guidelines in Part B chapter VIII that are quoted
and discussed in this book. These two major instruments provide a framework for developing
international training standards and good operational procedures.
Similarly, merchant-shipping legislation makes the master responsible for the safety of the
ship but pilotage legislation in compulsory areas specifies that the pilot takes charge. These two
requirements are incompatible at face value. Certainly such pilotage law serves to make it an
offence not to carry a pilot in a compulsory area, but this does not provide a meaningful solution to
this age-old problem.
The answer of course is to share a common sense of purpose based upon professional values,
which are described so well in this book. That is why I also urge pilots to adopt these standards and
training methods so that good practices are reinforced and communication improved.
Bridge Team Management provides that extra professional dimension which puts the guidance
and regulations into context. For example the subject of error chains informs the reader that there
are many activities, which can lead to mistakes. These can include equipment which was not set up
correctly, mistaken identity, misread information, errors in calculations and misunderstandings.
The essence of Captain Swift's book is that navigational safety has to be managed and the
techniques of organization, leadership and teamwork need to be applied if the ship is at all times to
demonstrate reliable performance. Good management ensures that the potential activities, which
might lead to error cliains, are crosschecked before they can adversely affect the ship's progress.
This crosschecking can only be done, however, against a pre-considered plan.
These management principles need to be applied equally to modern technology. The new
section in this updated second edition by Captain Bailey exp1ains how electronic charts can provide
enhanced navigational performance and he demonstrates how to set up and operate electronic
navigational systems safely.
He also points out that electronic charts are held on very large databases and that the modem
navigator requires proficient computer skills to ensure that at all times the most appropriate
information is displayed. Captain Bailey makes an overwhelming case that navigators using these
systems should be fully trained in their use.
Irrespective of the navigational methods used, Captain Swift states categorically that it is
necessary to prepare a passage plan, for if there is no plan there can be no bridge organisation and
individuals will be left isolated as there is no basis for communication and consequently little
awareness when something might go wrong.
Good planning leads to good teamwork, which enhances meaningful communication and
ultimately provides a sense of achievement. The greatest risk that a ship can be exposed to is a
navigational accident. Bridge Team Management demonstrates how to ensure that ships make their
safe and timely arrivals to the satisfaction of all. This book is an excellent example of professional
The author, Captain A.J. Swift FNI first went to sea in 1952, as an apprentice, now termed cadet,
with the Bank Line Ltd., of London. He then served 18years at sea, including five years in command
of general cargo ships, before joining the Navigation Department of BruneI Technical College,
Bristol, teaching masters and mates for certificates of competency.
He then transferred to the Simulator Section at Warsash Maritime Centre in 1980, and
specialised in the use of simulation to reinforce bridge team management. In common with the
other members of the section, he kept his practical experience updated by regularly returning to
sea in an observing role on vessels of all types and by riding with pilots in major British ports.
Since retiring in 1999 he has continued to conduct seminars in bridge team management, in
conjunction with the West of England P&I Club and others and has given lectures in many European
ports, particularly Greece, a series in Korea and Turkey and recently inJapan.
Despite the improvements in all technical aspects of the industry, the proliferation of serious
marine disasters in recent years indicates that bridge team management is a subject that still needs
to be improved at sea. There are many publications showing what needs to be done but almost
none showing how it should be done.
The first edition of Bridge Team Management was produced in 1993, by The Nautical Institute
and has become established as the definitive guide to the subject. However, the introduction of
electronic navigation systems and recent publications by IMO have shown that it is necessary to
update it. So a second edition has been written.
This book has been developed to give meaning to the convention, standards and resolutions prepared
by the International Maritime Organization and I wish to acknowledge the valuable work undertaken
at the intergovernmental level to provide the essential international framework for bridge operational
The principles of the International Chamber of Shipping Bridge Procedures Guide have been
used as a basis for shipping company practice, whilst the texts and notices issued by the UK
Department of Transport have provided essential guidance in the compilation of this volume.
Over the years, fleet managers and superintendents from companies all over the world have
discussed their requirements and been instrumental in measuring performance from which it has
been possible to assess the effectiveness of the methods chosen.
A book like this cannot be conceived without the accumulated experience of over 3,000
officers attending training courses who have, in their own way, either directly or indirectly,
contributed to my understanding of bridge management. To all these people and organisations I
owe particular thanks, for without their professional commitment this book is unlikely to have
When preparing the text for the second edition I would like to thank Mr. Clive Burnell-
Jones, Marine Manager Northrop Grumann Sperry Marine Systems and Captain Christopher
Thompson, Simulator Manager at South Shields Marine and Technical College, who allowed me
to participate in their training programmes to gain a wider appreciation of technological
developments and the potential of new bridge equipment.
I am very grateful to Captain Trevor Bailey for his practical and informative section on
navigating with electronic charts. He has first hand experience with these systems and is also a
I also wish to thank my former colleagues at the Simulation Section ofthe Maritime Operations
Centre, Southampton Institute of Higher Education, Warsash, where I was a member of the team
from 1980-1999, for their support in the production of this book, with special thanks to Roy
Stanbrook MNI.
Background to the Maritime Operations Centre
Since 1985 the College of Maritime Studies, which had its origins as far back as 1850, initially
as a University College School of Navigation in the early 20th century, is now part of the
Southampton Institute of Higher Education. Established in Warsash just outside Southampton in
1946, the School of Navigation has changed through the decades to meet the changing needs of a
national and international industry without losing sight of its mission: 'to provide the maritime and
shipping industries with high quality training, consultancy and research services.'
Today, the Maritime Operations Centre continues to provide those services with highly
experienced staff, most of whom have held command and with state of the art technology in the
form of sophisticated ship's bridge, radar, VTS, machinery space and cargo handling simulators.
Bridge Team Training, using ship's bridge simulators, has been conducted at Warsash since 1977.
In addition to bridge team management training, ship handling courses for pilots, masters and
senior officers are conducted with the use of accurately scaled models operating on a 13 hectare
lake with appropriate canal, channels, SBM and jetty facilities.
In addition to training and assessment courses, the ship's bridge simulators are also used for
port design and accident investigation studies as well as government funded research projects,
thereby making a significant contribution to the enhancement of safety of life at sea aId effective
THE BRIDGE OPERATIONS PROGRAMME
This message appeared in the first edition of Bridge Team Management,
and is reproduced here as it is still applicable.
W. A. O'Neil
Whenever a ship puts to sea, the master and navigating officers have a duty both in public and
commercial law to navigate competently at all times. Upon their actions depend the successful
outcome of the voyage, safety at sea and protection of the marine environment.
The International Maritime Organization recognises the essential requirement that all
watchkeeping officers must be properly trained. This training needs to be initiated ashore and
before watchkeeping officers are qualified to take a navigational watch, they need to be proficient
in such disciplines as navigation, the application of the rules to avoid collisions and seamanship.
IMO has resolved to revise the STCW Convention through an accelerated process and together
with the on-board training proposed in this programme will represent a major contribution to the
improvement of standards that is so important.
Itis, however, at sea on the bridge of ships that watchkeepers have to work together and
make decisions. Once they have been trained, good practices need to be continually refreshed and
that is why I am strongly supporting these measures by The Nautical Institute and Videotel Marine
International to provide leadership, encouragement and positive advice through the Bridge
Operations Programme (see page 110).
Each part of the programme has been designed to reinforce the application of practices and
principles developed in IMO, industry codes and shipboard routines. The programme starts with
the trainee, ends with the master whilst involving the pilot. In so doing, owners and managers are
also reminded that they have obligations too. They have to provide the means of keeping charts up
to date, equipment functional and the standards of training appropriate to the responsibilities that
watchkeeping entails.
Above all, this imaginative programme demonstrates the level ofknowledge and skills applied
in pursuit of safe ship operation. We come to appreciate that watchkeeping is very responsible
work and that supporting the human element demands long term commitment, which is likely to
be most effective if it provides a common sense of purpose amongst the bridge team.
Watchkeeping officers, through their diligence and professionalism, provide a highly valued
service to society. This contribution is recognised by IMO and, in launching this project, I wish to
pay tribute to the world's seafarers and those organisations which are working with us to enhance
safe ship operations.
immediate past Secretary-General of the IMO
Training and Coaching - Well Being - Morale
Error Chains:
Indications of Error Chain Development - Ambiguity - Distraction -
Inadequacy and Confusion - Communications Breakdown - Improper
Con or Lookout - Non Compliance with Passage Plan - Procedural Violation
Casualties and their Causes:
Lack of Double Watches - Insufficient Personnel - Calling the Master -
Lookouts - Manning the Wheel - Autopilot Changeover - Reducing Speed
Groundings and their Causes:
Planned Track - Track Monitoring - Track Regain - Double Check Fixing -
Visual Fixing - Echo Sounder - Light Identification - Decision Corroboration
Safe Navigation - The Overview
2 Passage Appraisal
Sources of Information - Ocean Passages - Coastal Passages
3 Passage Planning
No-go Areas - Margins of Safety - Safe Water - Ocean Tracks - Coastal Tracks-
Chart Change - Distance Off - Deviation from Track - Under-keel Clearance-
Tidal Window - Stream Allowance - Course Alteration - Wheel Over -
Parallel Indexing - ARPA Mapping - Waypoints - Aborts - Contingencies-
Position Fixing - Primary and Secondary Fixing - Conspicuous Objects -
Landfall Lights - Fix Frequency &Regularity - Additional Information -
Reporting Points - Anchor Clearance - Pilot Boarding - Tug Engagement -
Transits - Compass Error - Leading Lines - Clearing Marks - Clearing Bearings
Range of Lights:
Geographical - Luminous - Nominal - Landfall Lights - Extreme Range
Echo Sounder - Overcrowding -Planning Book - Conning Notes
Masters Approval:
Plan Changes - AIS
4 Executing the Passage/Voyage Plan
ETA for Tide - ETA for Daylight - Traffic Conditions - ETA at Destination -
Tidal Stream &Current - Plan Modification
Briefing - Fatigue
for Voyage - of Bridge
5 Monitoring the Ship'S Progress
Method - Visual Bearings - Frequency - Regularity - EP - Soundings
Under-keel Clearance - Waypoints - Transits - Leading Lines - Natural Leading
Lines - Clearing Marks &Bearings - Dipping Distances - Light Sectors
7 Navigating with a pilot on board
Planning - Master/Pilot Information Exchange - Responsibility - Monitoring
8 Navigating with integrated bridge and electronic chart systems
(by Captain T.]. Bailey FNI)
Training requirements and recommendations - The ISM Code and training
requirements - The need for type specific training - Requirements of Electronic
Chart Display and Information Systems - Precautions for IBS operators - Typical
IBS configurations with ECDIS - Electronic charts - ECDIS accuracy - Passage
ECDIS References and Publications
9 Guidance on keeping a navigational watch with reference
to STCW95 Code Part B Chapter VIII Part 3-1with commentary
10IMO Resolution A 893(21)Passage Planning with commentary
I Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed
as defined in STCW'95 Code Section A-VIII12
II Upkeep of the chart outfit
Glossary of abbreviations and words
1 No-Go Areas
2 Margins of Safety
3 Charted Tracks
4 Course Alterations and Wheel Over Positions
5 Parallel Indexing
6 Aborts and Contingencies
7 Leading Lines
8 Natural Transit, Clearing Marks and Head Marks
9 Clearing Bearings
Note: Figures 1to 6 and 8 to 9 are Crown copyright.
Reproduced from Admiralty Chart 3274 with the permission of the Hydrographer of the Navy
10 Information flowbetween the Conning Officer, OOW, Additional Officer,
Lookout and Helmsman
11 A typical integrated bridge system
12 Navigational sensors in an IBS
13 Extract from BA2045 in RCDS format
14 Extract from S-57chart (Vectorformat) ofthe same area
15 Planning sheet display
16 Extract from BA2045 in RCDS format - showing an extract from a voyage plan
17 Extract from BA777in RCDS format
18 Extract from S-57chart (vectorformat) - showing a 'Caution Area' for power cables
19 Voyageplan safetyzone
20 Voyageplan safetyzone
Note: Figures 11,15, 19and 20 are reproduced with the permission of Northrop Grumann Sperry Marine
Note: Figures 13,14,and 16to 18are reproduced with the permission of Northrop Grumann Sperry Marine and the
In times gone past a commercial voyage was considered to be an adventure. Today, fortunately,
most commercial voyages are not adventures, merely the routine of safely and successfully
completing the voyage and delivering the cargo.
Sometimes though, this is not the case. Voyages are not always completed, cargoes not always
delivered. Non completion of the voyage and non delivery of the cargo always comes as a shock to
the mariners concerned, the shipowners, the charterers, the shipper and the public in general. We
expect cargoes to be delivered on time and ships to go safely about their business. We forget that,
even in this day and age, although ships have reliable powerful engines and the latest technology
helping the mariner, the voyage is still a risk and the ship and its crew still subject to the vagaries of
Non completion of voyages though may not just be the result of a hostile environment. The
majority of incidents at sea are the result of human error. In many of these cases information which
could have prevented the incident occurring was available but was either unappreciated or not
Most accidents occur because there is no system in operation to detect and consequently
prevent one person making a mistake, a mistake of the type all human beings are liable to commit.
This book is designed to make the voyage safer by explaining how to carry out the different
aspects of bridge team management.
It is now some ten years since The Nautical Institute published the original edition of Bridge
Team Management. The ideas in that edition had been largely developed through the author working
at the Simulator Section of the Maritime Operations Centre of the Southampton Institute of Higher
Although the first edition has been accepted throughout the world, as the definitive book on
the subject, the world's shipping still does not necessarily follow team management and passage
planning. But the world authorities are now catching up with the industry in realising that both
management and planning are absolutely necessary in promoting safer shipping practice, indeed
IMO has now come out with recommendations on both subjects.
This edition sets out in chapters 9 and 10 to put the IMO recommendations into plain
seafaring English, following the format used in the first edition. The 1M0recommendation is on
the left-hand side of each page and its meaning alongside it.
5.14 '¥~mb~rs of/'the nayigationarwatcMshould~at all ti)Jte~;~e prepared' to re~ond efficiently'
ah·dle'ffectiM.e1y'to..:Chang~s'incircumstances.Lvlf) STC\%B~VIII Part 3:1 (Guidance.on keeping
asafetnagigational watch),
IMO STCW 95 B-VIII Part 3.l concludes with the above statement, making it quite clear
that no matter how well a voyage may have been planned and conducted and no matter how well
the team may have worked together, everything can change.
This is the time when team work and planning really come into their own, as any officer,
including the most junior one in the team, may have to make decisions th/athe knows are reallv
beyond his capability.
However if the ship is operating under a good system of bridge team management and the
passage plan has been carefully drawn up, even the most junior and inexperienced officer will
have a substantial fund of knowledge to back up his actions. He will know that the decisions he has
to make will be safe and will apply the knowledge he already has to the system he has been
The original book Bridge Team Management was written before the IMO decided that it too
had to produce a resolution on the subject. Bridge Team Management has been well received throughout
the world and is proving to be the basis for most ship's passage planning and bridge resource
This, the second edition, seeks to explain the IMO's statements, confirming what so many of
us already know and work to. Italso brings the subject up to date with a new section on electronic
One of the requirements for manning and running a ship is to have the highest calibre
personnel and the latest equipment This must still be the wish of every shipmaster and officer but,
faced with today's harsh economic realities, is often not possible. Frequently, bridge teams will
consist of groups of mixed ability personnel working with outdated equipment. Nevertheless to
achieve the successful c pletion of the voyage it is the concern of all ships' officers to make the
best possible use of availab resources, both human and material. Each member of the team has a
The title "Team Management" is the interaction required within the team for such a system
to work. It does not refer to an act of management by one person but to a continuous acceptance
and understanding by each of the team members that they all have to fulfil the roles to which they
To consistently achieve good results there are a number of factors that need to be addressed.
Firstly those concerning technical knowledge and skills and then the requirements of the more
traditional man management or "people" skills involved in the development of human resources.
In looking at the technical skills, consideration must be given to the techniques involved in preparing
for and conducting the proposed voyage (passage planning).
The skills concerning the development of human resources are covered in depth in other
publications. The smooth and efficient running of any bridge team depends upon the basic principles
of good communication and man management. With current ship manning policies these skills
must be developed on board to overcome cultural boundaries as well as those of a more traditional
hierarchical rank structure.
The ability to do ajob well depends, to some extent, on the quality of the training a person
has received. A poorly motivated trainer will often produce a poorly motivated trainee. We all
spend a great part of our lives either imparting knowledge to others or learning such knowledge.
This starts when we are very young and continues, no matter what our chosen vocation, throughout
our lives. Proportionally, very little of this is conducted in the formal atmosphere of a learning
establishment, most learning taking place at mother's knee or in the workplace. As such we are all
teachers and we should not be reluctant to pass on knowledge when required.
The methods of passing on knowledge are many and various. They may be split into two
main groups - training and coaching. These differ slightly in concept. Training a person involves
instructing them in the execution of various tasks or procedures to a required standard. Coaching,
however, involves the development of existing abilities through delegation and monitoring. Itis a
fine line between delegation for coaching purposes and abrogation of one's own responsibilities!
Care should be taken to avoid delegating at too early a stage of development. Ifthe trainee is
2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
unprepared for the task, the effects can be devastating. They can become demoralised and confidence
Training requirements for bridge tasks do not always lend themselves to direct training
methods except perhaps in the case of very inexperienced personnel or for new concepts. The
method of "Sit next to Nelly and she will show you" is not always appropriate because it is a drain
on already stretched human resources. This is where the concept of coaching is appropriate. As
with any coaching situation it is essential to maintain the supervision of the trainee and supply
sufficient feedback on the progress being made. Lack of feedback prevents the trainee from
understanding how to improve.
The development of a team from a selection of individuals may take a great deal of effort.
Not all members will start with the same baseline of knowledge. Once the team is functioning, the
flow of information will increase as a direct result of the newly found confidence of its members.
All team members should be kept fully aware of what is expected of them and their performance
of their job frequently monitored and feedback given. One of the primary functions of the team is
the provision of a system of checking and cross checking decisions that will directly or indirectly
affect the passage of the ship.
The efficient team member will be both mentally and physically fit. Watchkeeping is often
seen as being a passive role and in certain low-key situations this may be the case. The watchkeeper
can then be considered to be in a situation requiring only the maintenance of the present unstressed
situation. This role can change dramatically when risk develops, requiring more forceful action to
prevent a situation arising, not merely responding to factors that may be getting out of control.
This type of reaction requires both physical and mental well being of a high standard.
A demoralised team, or even demoralised members of a team, is not going to produce the
high standards required ensuring the continuous safety of the ship. Morale depends upon a large
number of factors. But good teamwork and effective operation will be achieved.if the team members
are clear as to their role in the team, can see the results of their own efforts, have theirown deficiencies
carefully corrected and are given credit when it is due.
Maritime incidents or disasters are seldom the result of a single event, they are almost
invariably the result of a series of non-serious incidents: the culmination of an error chain.
Situational awareness, i.e. knowing what is happening in and around the ship, helps the
OOW or other watchkeeper to recognise that an error chain is developing and to take action,
based upon this recognition, to break the error chain.
Indications of error chain
Certain signs, apparent to members of a bridge team will
indicate that an error chain is developing. This does not necessarily
mean that an incident is about to happen, but that the passage is not
being conducted as planned and that certain elements of situational
awareness may be lacking. The ship is being put at unnecessary risk
and action must be taken to break the error chain.
Ambiguity may be easily definable or may be a subtle
indication that things are not going as expected. In the event that
two independent and separate position fixing systems do not agree,
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 3
Ambiguity {cont.)
(gO Radar fix and GPS positions may not be the same; something is
obviously wrong with one of the fixes and an ambiguity exists.
Immediate action is required to correct this ambiguity and determine
which one of the fixes is correct.
A more subtle ambiguity may occur if the echo sounder
reading does not agree with the charted depth shown. The less
conscientious OOW may just accept this fact, another may not be
satisfied and will try to determine why there is a difference between
the anticipated and actual sounding.
Ambiguity may exist in that two team members do not agree
on a point of action. Ambiguity exists; of itself it may not be
dangerous, but it does mean that there is a difference and the cause
of this difference needs to be understood. One of the team members
may be losing, or has lost his situational awareness and an error
chain may be developing.
The OOW may be aware that certain pre-agreed decisions,
e.g. night orders, company procedures etc. are not being followed.
Again ambiguity exists, he must ask himself why has there been
deviation from the accepted procedures?
Ambiguity may be a result of inexperience or lack of training.
The junior officer may feel that he is not in a position to voice his
doubts. This should not be the case. Every member of a well
constructed and well briefed team will feel confident that his doubts
or fears can be expressed without his being reprimanded for what
may tum out to be, in one instance an unwarranted worry, in another
a very pertinent and relevant remark identifying a real hazard.
Distraction, the full attention of a person upon one event to
the exclusion of others or concentration upon what is often an
irrelevancy can be an indication that situational awareness is
beginning to break down, even if only for a restricted period.
Distraction can be caused by an excessive workload, stress or fatigue,
emergency conditions or, all too often, inattention to detail. It can
also be caused by an unexpected, though not threatening event,
such as a VHF call, which can take the full attention of a person to
the exclusion of other more urgent needs. In such an event, a senior
officer, e.g. a pilot having the con, may have to be made aware of
Inadequacy and confusion
Inadequacy and confusion must not be mistaken for the
confusion of a junior officer who just does not have the experience
or knowledge to cope with a complex situation. Such a situation
arises with even senior officers in disaster circumstances and needs
to be noted and corrected before it can become dangerous.
Breakdown in communications can occur in several ways. It
may be that members of a team simply do not understand one
another due to being from different backgrounds or even different
parts of the same country. Merely practising communications in their
everyday life can easily rectify such differences.
4 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Improper con or lookout
Further difficulties may occur in trying to understand a pilot
of a different cultural background. Rectification in this case will not
lend itselfto practice, but can only develop with experience. However
such a situation should have been allowed for at the planning stage
Other difficulties may occur in trying to understand a person
using the radio in a shore station, or on another ship. Patience and
perseverance are the only methods to rectify this situation.
Itis not always clear who actually has the control of the ship.
This can occur in several ways. The arrival of the master, on the
bridge, does not necessarily transfer the con to him. In fact until he
states otherwise the con remains with the OOW. The easiest way to
clarify this situation is for the OOW to make a log book entry to the
effect that the master has taken the con, otherwise it may be assumed
that it remains with the OOW. This procedure is recommended in
A similar situation can arise when it is not clear who has the
con when there is a pilot on board. Normally the master will have
the con when making the pilot station and should quite clearly state
when the pilot takes the con, thus clarifying the situation to all
concerned. This too can be clarified by the OOW making a log
entry to this effect.
A lookout who is unclear about his duties is usually a result of
Non-compliance with the passage plan may result from the
improper con noted above, and is another indication that situational
awareness is breaking down. Unjustified departure from a clearly
defined and understood passage plan must be recognised as a
breakdown of situational awareness. As an example, the OOW of a
ship that is proceeding in the wrong lane of a Traffic Separation
Scheme must ask himself why am I doing this? The ship will be off
the planned track and it is in direct violation of the International
Rules. Ifthe OOW is both deviating from track and ignoring the
Rules then it is likely that he is not fully aware of the position of the
Any indication of any of the above requires action on the part
of the person becoming aware of it. He must either correct the fault,
particularly if it is his own responsibility or draw the attention of
other individuals, or even the whole team, to the error.
Procedural violations will occur similarly to that of not
complying with the passage plan. Again the question has to be asked,
"why are we doing it this way?" Ifthe question cannot be easily
answered then the OOW or watchstander must be doubly careful.
fGE TEAMMANAGEMENT0
Casualties and their causes
At the International Safety Conference (INTASAFCON III) held in Norway in 1975it was
agreed that two principal factors seemed to be the main causes of collisions and groundings namely:
1 Weaknesses in bridge organisation and the result of such weaknesses.
2 Failure to keep a good lookout.
Such casualties may have been avoided by: -
Setting double watches in
personnel are available in
Precise instructions for
Posting look-outs
An established drill for
changing overfrom
regarding reducing speed
in the event of reduced
Too often it is considered adequate to proceed in a more
complex situation with the same bridge manning levels as if the
ship were deep sea with less immediate potential hazards.
Additional personnel are often required to prepare equipment
or to be available under certain circumstances. However if calling
them is left too late they may not become available until the ship is
in the situation that they could have helped prevent.
Too often the master is called after a situation has irredeemably
deteriorated. Ifthe OOW is unclear as to when he should call the
master then his indecision may lead to his not calling the master. If
the OOW is any doubt whatsoever then he should call him.
The OOW may consider that he alone can keep the look out
in addition to his own duties. However not posting a lookout may
cause him to neglect other important duties.
An unmanned wheel requires the OOW to monitor and
correct the steering. This too may cause him to overlook other duties.
Modern steering gear can usually be changed easily from one
system to another. However major incidents are on record where
lack of awareness of the precise steering system currently in
operation, or a lack of knowledge of how to change from one system
to the other, has led to disaster.
A busy OOW may not realise that the visibility has
deteriorated, particularly at night. Even when he has realised that
the situation has deteriorated he may not appreciate the increase in
workload and may consider that he can still cope. Precise instructions
in night or standing orders will prevent this situation arising
Groundings and their causes
The following features have been noticeable as causes of grounding:
Failure to pre-plan a track
Frequently it is not considered necessary to plan a track and
show it on the chart. This may be because the mariners concerned
feel that they know the area sufficiently well or because there is a
6 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
-= = ~~--~= --~= -~= =
monitor the vessel's
progress along the planned
Failure to take immediate
action to regain track
having deviated from it
Failure to cross checkfixes
by comparing one means
Failure to use visual ftxing
Failure to use the echo
sounder when making a
landfall or navigating in
Failure to correctly identify
important navigational
decisions are independently
checked by another officer
pilot on the bridge. There is however little point in planning and
then not showing the track on the chart.
Although a planned track is shown on the chart OOW s may
not always constantly and regularly fix the ship. This may lead to
the OOW not being aware that the ship is deviating from track,
perhaps towards danger.
Even when aware that deviation from track is occurring, the
attitude may be that it doesn't really matter because there is enough
safe water, when this is not actually the case. Ships are never planned
to go aground, so compliance with the planned track will ensure
Ifonly one method of fixing is used when the ship is in
constrained waters, mis-identification of a navigation mark or faulty
electronic information, left unchecked and unobserved, can leave
the OOW with a false sense of security.
Electronic position fixing may sometimes be more accurate
or convenient but electronic fixes do not necessarily relate the ship's
position to navigational hazards. Ignoring visual fixing may lead to
the OOW becoming unaware of his situation.
Except when alongside or threatened by another ship, the
nearest danger is inevitably vertically below. Although it cannot be
considered to be a position fix, observation and appreciation of the
under keel clearance will often warn the observer of approaching
danger or that the ship is not in the position that it should be.
An observer may convince himself that he sees the light he is
looking for, not the light he is actually looking at. This mis-
identification can lead to subsequent error or confusion.
By their very nature human beings are liable to make errors.
It is essential that such human errors cannot occur without being
noticed and corrected. An integral part of the navigational plan and
bridge organisation must be to constantly double check and minimise
the risk of such errors going unnoticed.
Many ofthe instances cited above occur because the OOW does not appreciate the complexity
of his role in a deteriorating situation This may be because such responsibilities have not been
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 7
SAFE NAVIGATI~E
An efficient bridge organisation will include procedures that: -
1 Eliminate the risk that an error on the part of one person may result in a disastrous situation.
2 Emphasise the necessity to maintain a good visual lookout and to carry out collision avoidance
3 Encourage the use of all means of establishing the ship's position so that in the case of one
method becoming unreliable others are immediately available.
4 Make use of passage planning and navigational systems which allow continuous monitoring
and detection of deviation from track when in coastal waters.
5 Ensure that all instrument errors are known and correctly applied.
6 Accept a pilot as a valuable addition to a bridge team.
These procedures can only be achieved by each member of the bridge team appreciating
that he has a vital part to play in the safe navigation of the ship. Each member will also realise that
safety depends upon all personnel playing their part to the utmost of their ability.
Each team member must appreciate that the safety of the ship should never depend upon
the decision of one person only. All decisions and orders must be carefully checked and their
execution monitored. Junior team members and watchstanders must never hesitate to question a
decision if they consider that such decision is not in the best interests of the ship. Careful briefing
and explanation of the responsibilities required of each member will help to accomplish this.
Voyages of whatever length can be broken down into two major stages.
Included in PREPARATION are:
EXECUTION of the voyage includes:
8 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Before any voyage can be embarked upon or, indeed, any project undertaken, those controlling
the venture need to have an understanding of the risks involved. The appraisal stage of passage
planning examines these risks.Ifalternatives are available, the risks are evaluated and a compromise
solution is reached whereby the level of risk is balanced against commercial expediency. The
appraisal could be considered to be the most important part of passage planning as it is at this stage
that all pertinent information is gathered and the firm foundation for the plan is built. The urge to
commence planning as soon as possible should be resisted. Time allocated to appraisal will pay
The master's decision on the overall conduct of the passage will be based upon an appraisal
of the available information. Such appraisal will be made by considering the information from
sources including but not limited to:
1 Chart Catalogue.
2 Navigational Charts.
3 Ocean Passages for the World.
4 Routeing Charts or Pilot Charts.
5 Sailing Directions and Pilot Books.
6 Light Lists.
7 Tide Tables.
8 Tidal Stream Atlases.
9 Notices to Mariners.
10 Routeing Information.
11 Radio Signal Information (inc. VTS and Pilot service).
12 Climatic Information.
13 Load Line Chart.
14 Distance Tables.
15 Electronic Navigational Systems Information.
16 Radio and Local Navigational Warnings.
17 Draught of Vessel.
18 Navigational Terms.
19 Owner's and other unpublished sources.
20 Personal Experience.
21 Mariner's Handbook.
22 Guide to Port Entry.
23 Nautical Almanac.
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 9
Not all such sources will be necessary for all passages and voyages, but the list gives a quick
check on what information is necessary for most. Experience will show the planner just what is
required for the passage he is planning.
These items are discussed in detail below. Only British and American catalogue numbers
are quoted. Other, similar, publications may be available from other national sources.
1 Chart Catalogue
Published annually by the Hydrographer of the Navy (British)
as NP 131 and by the Defence Mapping Agency (U.S.) as
CATP2V01 U *
Many merchant ships carry British charts published by the
Hydrographer of the Navy. However there are areas of the world
where the mariner may well be advised to consider using locally
published or other charts as well. British Admiralty policy is to chart
all British home and most Commonwealth and some Middle Eastern
waters on a scale sufficient for safe navigation. Elsewhere the policy
is to publish such charts as will enable the mariner to cross the oceans
and proceed along the coasts to reach the approaches to ports. Along
many coasts not covered in detail by British charts the mariner may
find it better to use the charts of the Hydrographic Office of the
Both US. and Canadian regulations require that vessels in
their waters must carry and use the appropriate national charts. This
means that the vessel's chart outfit needs to be checked to ensure
the charts meet the requirements of the regulations.
Approximately 50 countries are listed as having established
hydrographic offices publishing charts of their national waters.
Addresses of the agents appointed by such offices may be obtained
from "The Catalogue of Agents for the Sale of Charts", published
4 Quai Antoine 1er, BP 445, MC98011, Monaco Cedex
Tel. +377 93 10 81 00
International standard chart symbols and abbreviations allow
foreign charts to be used with little difficulty but care must be taken
to establish the chart datum used.
3 Ocean Passsages of the
Published by the Hydrographer of the Navy (British) as NP
136. It contains information on planning ocean passages,
oceanography and currents.
* British and American Hydrographic Office publication numbers are subject to change and need to be
10 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
4 Routeing Charts and
5 Sailing Directions and
6 List of Lights and Fog
7 Tide Tables
8 Tidal Stream Atlases
9 Notices to Mariners
Routeing Charts are published by the Hydrographer of the
Navy (British) as Charts Nos. 5124-8. Similar charts are published
by the Defence Mapping Agency (USA) as Atlases NVPUB105-9,
PILOT16 and PILOT55.
Both series give monthly information on ocean routeing,
currents, winds and ice limits and various meteorological
British Pilot Books are published in 74 volumes by the
Hydrographer of the Navy and give worldwide coverage. Sailing
Directions are published by the Defence Mapping Agency (USA)
in the series SDPUB 121-200.
Some of these latter books are referred to as Planning Guides,
giving information essentially the same as the British Ocean Passages
for the World, others as "Enroute", giving similar information to the
British Pilot Books.
Published by the Hydrographer to the Navy (British) in eleven
volumes (NP74-84) giving worldwide coverage. The British Navy
also publishes Light Lists as CD-ROMs.
The US Coast Guard publishes seven volumes of Light Lists,
(COMDTMI65021-7) giving details ofall US coastal lights, including
the Great Lakes. DMA publications LLPUB 110-6 cover the rest of
Published by the Hydrographer ofthe Navy (British), annually,
in three volumes, covering the world.
Tidal times and heights may be readily obtained by using a
computer programme published by the British Admiralty (SHM-
159A)
The US National Ocean Service (NOSPBTT) also publishes
worldwide Tide Tables.
Published by the Hydrographer of the Navy (British), these
atlases cover certain areas of Northwest Europe and Hong Kong.
Tidal Current Tables covering the Atlantic coast of North
America and the Pacific Coast of North America and Asia are
published by the US National Ocean Service, Tidal Current Charts
are published by the US National Ocean Service for four major US
Notices to Mariners are published in Weekly Editions by both
the British and US Hydrographic Authorities, enabling ships to keep
their charts and other publications up to date.
Also available as CD-ROMs for updating electronic charts.
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 11
10 Ship's Routeing
12 Climatic Information
13 Load Line Chart
14 Distance Tables
15 Electronic Navigation
Systems Handbooks
Published by IMO, this publication gives information on all
routeing, traffic separation schemes, deep-water routes and areas to
be avoided that have been adopted by IMO. Routeing information
is also shown on charts and is included in the sailing directions.
The (British) Admiralty Lists of Radio Signals consists of twelve
volumes of text and diagrams covering the following:-
NP281(1) Vol. 1 Part 1 Coast Radio Stations, Europe, Africa
and Asia (excluding the Far East).
NP281 (2) Vol. 1 Part 2 Coast Radio Stations, Oceania, the
Americas and the Far East.
NP282 Vol. 2 Radio Aids to Navigation, Satellite Navigation
Systems, Legal Time, Radio Time Signals, and Electronic
Position Fixing Systems.
NP283(1) Vol.3 Part 1 Maritime Safety Information Services:
Europe, Africa and Asia (excluding the Far East).
NP283(2) Vol.3 Part 2 Maritime Safety Information Services:
Oceania, the Americas and the Far East.
NP284 Vol.4 Meteorological Observation Stations.
NP285 Vol.5 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
(GMDSS).
Similar information is available in US DMA publication
RAPUBll7.
Climatic information is available from a variety of sources
including the Pilot Books, Pilot Charts and Ocean Passages for the World
already mentioned. The UK Met. Office book Meteorology for Mariners
gives further general information. Climatic information needs to be
always updated by the latest Weather Information.
Load Line Rules are mandatory and the load line zones are
shown in Ocean Passages for the World or BA Chart D6083
Both Ocean and Coastal Distance Tables are available from a
variety of sources including British Admiralty (NP350) and US DMA
publications NVPUB151 and NOSSPBPORTSDIST
Such information must be available and will prove necessary
should the prime source of electronic information fail. Information
required will depend upon the systems in use on the particular ship
and should have been supplied with the equipment.
12 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
16 Radio and Local
17 Draught of ShiP
18 Navigational Terms
19 Owner's and other
20 Personal Experience
21 The Mariner's
22 Guide to Port Entry
23 Nautical Almanac
The latest information available on changes to navigation aids
etc. will be obtained from radio (including NAVTEX) and local
warnings and must always be made available to those responsible
for appraisal and planning. Local information is often available from
the Harbour Authority.
For information on the World Wide Navigational Services and
the transmitting stations see Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol. 3.
The anticipated draught and trim of the ship at different stages
of the passage will need to be known in order to calculate the under
keel clearance when in shallow water. The extreme height of the
ship above the waterline, known as the air draught will also be
required if there are low overhead clearances
All watch keepers and others involved with safe navigation,
including shore personnel, need to have a clear understanding of
navigational terms. ISO 19018 covers these requirements when this
volume was being prepared.
Supplementary information from the vessel's owners and
charterers should be consulted, when available, as should reports
from other vessels, information from agents and Port Authority
handbooks and regulations.
The personal experiences of crew members that have been to
the anticipated ports and areas can prove of value.
Published by the Hydrographer to the Navy (British), this book
contains information of general interest to the mariner.
Published by Lloyd's of London Press and Portguides, these
books often give information not available from other sources.
Necessary for determining times of sunset and sunrise and
assists in position fixing when electronic systems fail.
Having collected together all the relevant information the master, in consultation with his
officers, will be able to make an overall appraisal of the passage.
The passage may be a transocean route in which case the first
consideration will need to be the distance between ports, the
availability of bunkers and stores etc.
A great circle is the shortest distance but other considerations
will need to be taken into account.
Meteorological conditions will need to be considered and it
may well prove advantageous to use one of the weather routeing
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 13
services. Although the recommended route may be longer in distance
it may well prove shorter in time and the ship suffer less damage.
Ocean currents may be used to advantage, favourable ones giving
the ship a better overall speed, offsetting the disadvantage of taking
a longer route.
Weather systems also need to be considered, e.g. a ship in the
Far East in summer needs plenty of sea room if it is liable to be
involved in a tropical revolving storm and a passage in high latitudes
may require ice conditions to be considered. Irrespective of the
advantages of using a preferred track, the Load Line Rules must
always be obeyed. In certain circumstances, often political or for
safety purposes, a ship may need to keep clear of specified areas.
The ship owner and the charterers may have certain conditions
that the planner will have to take into account. Specified under keel
clearances may have to be observed as may distances off grounding
areas or land and the owners may have areas of the world they
prefer not to use, such as certain straits in some of the archipelagos.
Some charterers may specify that the ship must remain within certain
latitudes or that a given speed needs to be maintained. The master,
of course, will have the final authority over such matters and should
specify any such conditions before the planning starts.
The first consideration at the appraisal stage will be to
determine the distance that tracks should be laid off coastlines and
dangers. When the ship is passing through areas where IMO traffic
separation and routeing schemes are in operation such routeing will
have to be followed. In some coastal areas minimum distances off
for all, or specified vessels, may be determined by the relevant state.
Shipping companies or charterers may also specify minimum
distance off dangers or land.
In archipelagos, it will be necessary to determine which straits
and passages are to be used and whether or not pilotage is required.
Under certain circumstances it may be preferable to divert around
Having made his appraisal of the intended voyage/passage,
whether it is a short coastal passage or a major trans-ocean voyage,
the master will determine his strategy and delegate one of his officers
to plan the voyage. On most ships this will be the second mate, on
some a designated navigating officer, whilst on others the master
may prefer to do his own planning. Irrespective of who does the
actual planning, it has to be to the requirements of the master who
carries the final responsibility for the plan.
The plan needs to include all eventualities and contingencies.
Passage plans are often made from pilot station to pilot station but
IMO Resolution A.285(VIII), Annex A (v) states:
'''D.espite the duties and ..obllgaticns oPal pilot, his presence on
board-does not relieve the officer in charge of-the watch from
his duties-and obligations for'the safety of the-ship."
14 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Navigational hazard notes
This makes it quite clear that it is necessary to plan from berth to
berth even though itisanticipated that there willbe apilot conducting
the vessel at certain stages of the voyage.
The bridge team needs to be able to verify that corrections
are up to date and all relevant navigational warnings have been
noted. Charts containing corrections do not necessarily indicate
whether they are the most up to date available. A notebook entry
enables this detail to be verified (seeAnnex II).
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 15
Planning may be considered in two stages:
1 Ocean and open waters.
2 Coastal and estuarial waters.
Though, at times, these two stages will merge and overlap.
Collect together all the charts for the intended voyage, putting
them into the correct order. Charts not absolutely necessary for the
voyage but which are adjacent to the area to be traversed should be
included, as should very large scale charts, e.g. port plans on the
coastal part of the voyage. Although it may not be necessary to
actually use such charts, they may include information that will prove
of use during the voyage. Ensure that all charts and publications
have been corrected to the latest Notice to Mariners available and
that any authentic Nav warnings etc. received from any source are
also included (see Annex II). Similar corrections may also have to
be made during the voyage after the plan has been completed and
the plan having to be subsequently modified.
Coastal and estuarial charts should be examined, and all areas
where the ship CANNOT go must be carefully shown by highlighting
or cross hatching, care being taken to not obliterate information
such as a navigation mark or a conspicuous object. Areas so marked
are to be considered as no-go areas. In waters where the tidal range
may not be very large, no-go areas will include all charted depths of
less than the ship's draught plus a safety margin. Such areas will
vary according to the ship's draught so will not necessarily be the
same for both inward and outward passages. In general the line
determining "no-go" will be not less than draught + 10%, though
this will need to be modified according to the prevailing
circumstances. Draught + 10% may well prove adequate in areas
where the sea is smooth but will require a considerably higher figure
if the ship is liable to pitch, roll or squat.
In'confined.waters, wh'ere t~e tid'a'1'iieight may have.atlaqge-
of'~ i
J. ~".
irifluence.jsuch n'?igo ar\eas WIll varx .accbr(lm'~, to thestime 'of'
"passage. 9Initially. amare~s,·and ,daI}g~rs'sh9~ng' charted .depths.
df~lef; ~t,h~n the fdr~1:l.gI\~,.~I~s the:safe'~y margin ;shoulCl :~e
co~siQe~ealr:~7go,(houg~ s~cn n,~.golar.e'!.sr.naybe subsequently'
.ame'n'd'ep when the ac'tual tirrre of pass,age\ls kno~n.'S,ud~ areas'
w.m need 'tal betcarefully mclrked sh~wing Ihetimes.and state of
tide at ~hich th'e,y..are saf~
Figure 1 shows no go areas for a ship on a draught of 9·1
metres, approximating to the 10metre contour, no allowance being
made for tidal height.
16 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
.... ,..'.
• 10,..
c:»__1L.
-:--\
.;; \"
"'-(0\
~--r--r----fL---,------,-,,----'-"-----I-"--i--
T-, ",
tt=""",~="=====,;;:,,,~·,====±====±===~r""'l"1
Figure 1 NO-GO AREAS
Assuming ship on maximum draught 9· 7 metres
Crown copyright. Reproduced from Admiralty Chart 3274 with the permission of the Hydrographer of the Navy.
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 17
Before tracks are marked on the chart the clearing distance
from the no-go areas needs to be considered. When a fix is plotted
on a chart it invariably represents the position of a certain part of
the ship's bridge at the time of the fix. With large ships, although the
plotted fix at a certain time may be outside a no-go area, it ispossible
that another part of the ship may already be in it - with disastrous
results. A safety margin is required around the no-go areas at a
distance that, in the worst probable circumstances, the part of the
ship being navigated (the bridge) will not pass. On occasion, the
margins of safety can be readily monitored by eye, e.g. using buoys
marking the safe limits of a channel or easily identified clearing
Among the factors which need to be taken into account when
deciding on the size of this "Margin of Safety" are:-
1 The dimensions of the ship.
2 The accuracy of the navigational systems to be used.
3 Tidal streams.
4 The manoeuvring characteristics of the ship.
The Margins of Safety should be chosen so that they can be
readily monitored. To achieve this they need to be related to one of
the navigation systems in use (e.g. clearing bearings related to a
headmark or Parallel Indexes).
Margins of Safety will show how far the ship can deviate from
track, yet stillremain in safe water (see below). As a general rule the
Margin of Safety will ensure that the ship remains in waters of a
depth greater than draught + 20%. It is stressed that this is only a
general rule. Circumstances may dictate that the 20% clearance will
need to be considerably increased, e.g:
1 When the survey is old or unreliable.
2 In situations where the ship is pitching or rolling.
3 When there is a possibility that the ship may be experiencing
4 When the ship may have increased the draught by passing
Areas where the ship may safely deviate are considered to be Safe
Water and the limits of this safe water are bounded by the Margins
18 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
:;!:~'(
(r,/
.....r.'!!Il
,.. t··
,:;:)
\:::..
-,·_~_'I-
--= .-'-\_,_,.-----r"'-,---,----,--"'-,----,--.---,- ,-.--1- -,
Figure 2 MARGINS OF SAFETY
(for definition of Clearing Bearings see below)
Crown copyright. Reproducedftom Admiralty Chart 3274 with the permission afthe Hydrographer of the Navy.
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 19
Ocean and Open Water
Coastal and Estuarial
ITack Consideration
Distance Off Danger
Ocean and Open Water tracks should first be drawn on small-
scale charts, according to the decisions made at the appraisal stage
regarding the route to be taken. Great circle and composite great
circle tracks will have to be calculated or obtained from the GPS or
from great circle charts. Rhumb lines may be drawn straight onto
the Mercator chart, but all tracks will have to conform to the limits
determined at the appraisal stage.
Coastal and Estuarial Tracks will also be constrained by the
decisions made at the appraisal stage and should be first drawn on
the small scale charts covering large portions of the coastline,
preferably from the departure port approaches to the arrival port.
This will depend upon proximity of the ports and the charts of the
area. In many cases more than one chart will have to be used. These
first tracks will form the basis of the plan and from them may be
obtained distances and steaming times and when the departure time
is known, the ETAs at the various waypoints en route can be
The true direction of the track should be shown close to the
track on the chart. This will not necessarily be the course steered to
make this track; it only indicates the direction to make good. The
course to steer will depend upon various factors at the time of making
the passage, e.g. tidal set and drift, leeway, etc.
When completed, these tracks should be transferred to and
drawn on the large-scale charts of the area to be traversed. Transfer
of a track from one chart to another must be done with great care.
To ensure that no mistakes are made, it is good practice to
double check this operation by using a range and bearing of the
transfer position from a readily identifiable object e.g. a light common
to both charts. This can be further confirmed on both charts by
checking the latitude and longitude of the transfer position.
It should be quite clearly shown on a chart the position where
it is required to transfer to the next chart, giving the next chart's
As a general rule there is nothing to be gained by closely
approaching a danger other than to reduce passage distance and
consequently, steaming time. When it does become necessary to
approach a danger there are general minimum rules that need to be
followed. The ship has always to remain in safe water (see page 19)
and keep sufficiently far off a danger to minimise the possibility of
grounding in the event of a machinery breakdown or navigational
Itis not possible to lay down hard and fast rules regarding the
distance off a danger that a ship should maintain. Itwill depend on:-
20 THE NAUTICAL iN§Ti'rU'r~
Deviation from Track
1 The draught of the ship relative to the depth of water.
2 The weather conditions prevailing; a strong onshore wind or
the likely onset of fog or rain will need an increase in distance
3 The direction and rate of the tidal stream or current.
4 The volume of traffic.
S The age and reliability of the survey from which the
information shown on the chart has been derived.
6 The availability of safe water.
The following guidelines will help in determining just how far
to pass off dangers.
Where the coast is steep to and offshore soundings increase
quickly the minimum passing distance should be 1'/2 -2 miles. Where
the coast shelves and offshore soundings increase gradually, the track
should ensure that adequate under-keel clearances are maintained.
Vessel's draught less than 3 metres - pass outside S metre
Vessel's draught 3-6 metres - pass outside 10 metre contour.
Vessel's draught 6-10 metres - pass outside 20 metre contour.
Vessels with a draught of more than 10 metres must ensure
that there is sufficient under-keel clearance, exercising due
caution within the 200 metre line.
Irrespective of the safe under-keel clearance, a ship in a
situation where the nearest navigational danger is to starboard must
allow sufficient distance to allow an adequate alteration of course to
starboard for traffic avoidance.
Owners', charterers' and national regulations regarding
offshore distances must also be observed.
Ideally the ship will follow the planned track but under certain
circumstances it may be necessary to deviate from such track, e.g.
having to alter for another ship. Even so, such deviation from track
should be limited so that the ship does not enter areas where it may
be at risk or closely approaching the margins of safety.
In certain circumstances a ship may be required to navigate
in areas with a reduced under-keel clearance (UKC). It is important
that the reduced UKC has been planned for and clearly shown. In
cases where the UKC is less than 10% of the deepest draught, or
other such percentage as was agreed at the appraisal stage, then it is
essential that the OOW is aware of such reduced UKC. He also
needs to be aware that speed may have to be reduced in order to
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 21
38 X .
Track chosen as a com prom ise
between best use of available
water and ease of m onitoring with
Headm arks and Transits
\_Io..
--z':\--"':', '-"'___~
1:1,\
'.;: \
I'((l!!~= ~= ,.±= = = ~~= = = ~'_~= = = = _~= = = ~
Figure 3 CHARTED TRACKS
22 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
Stream Allowance
CourseAlterations and
reduce squat w~th ~tsconsequent redud~on ~n draught ~uch
information needs to be shown on the chart.
In tidal areas adequate UKC may only be attainable during
the period that the tide has achieved a given height. Outside that
period the area must be considered no-go. Such a safe period, called
the Tidal Window, must be clearly shown so that the OOW is in no
doubt as to whether or not it is safe for the ship to proceed.
In open sea situations track correction is often made after the
ship has been set off track by the tidal stream and/or current. Such
correction may be adequate in offshore situations, where the ship is
not close to danger, but as the planned track approaches the coast it
is better to make tidal and current correction prior to its taking effect.
Current information, set and rate is often available on the chart
though more detailed information is given in Ocean Passages for the
World,Routeing Charts and Pilot Books (see Appraisal sections 3,4
& 5). Currents vary according to their location and the season and
may be influenced by changes in meteorological conditions.
Tidal information is available from Charts, Tide Tables and
Tidal Atlases, further local information being available in Pilot Books
(see Appraisal sections 5, 7 & 8.) Tidal streams vary according to
the time ofhigh water and the phase ofthe moon (neaps and springs)
and can be influenced by local meteorological conditions.
When the actual time of transit of a given area is known the
Tidal Heights and Streams can be calculated and due allowance
made for these streams in order to calculate the course to steer to
achieve a planned track. As well as adjusting these allowances, as
the tidal stream varies according to location and time, the OOW
must still carefully monitor the ship's position and adjust the course
steered to maintain the planned track.
In the open sea and offshore coastal waters when navigating
on small scale large area charts, course alterations will usually
coincide with the planned track intersections. This will not be the
case in confined waters when navigating with large scale charts and
where the margins of safety may be so close as to require the ship to
commence altering course at the wheel over position, some distance
before the track intersection in order to achieve the new planned
Usually the pilot using his judgement, based upon his
experience, will determine such wheel over. However, ship's officers,
not having such experience should determine such wheel over
positions from the ship's manoeuvring data and mark them on the
chart. Suitable visual and radar cues should then be chosen to
determine when the ship is at the wheel over position. The best cues
for large alterations of course consist of Parallel Indexes or visual
bearings parallel to the new track, whereas for small alterations a
near beam bearing is often better.
BRIDGE TEAM MANAGEMENT 23
Even when the pilot has the con the wheel over position should
be shown on the chart so that the OOW will be aware of its
imminence and importance. Itis also part of the ship's officers'
monitoring of the pilot.
Figure 4 shows the wheel over position using two separate methods of monitoring. At the
course alteration from 032° to 012°, the wheel over position is achieved when Thorn Island is
ahead at 1.31 miles (known as the dead range). At the course alteration from 012° to 000° the wheel
over position is achieved when the Southern Edge of Rat Island bears 096°.
Parallel Indexing (PI) is a useful method of monitoring cross
track tendency in both poor and good visibility. It is good practice
to inconspicuously mark the planned PIon the chart at the planning
stage. Like any radar technique, it is advisable to practice using PIs
extensively in good visibility before placing total reliance on them
when thick weather makes visual navigation methods impossible.
This simple and effective method of continuously monitoring
the ship's progress is carried out by observing the movement of the
echo of a radar conspicuous navigation mark with respect to track
lines previously prepared on a reflection plotter or by using ARPA
index lines. It is most effective when the radar is in the North up,
relative motion mode ship centred.
A fixed radar target, such as a lighthouse or a headland, will
apparently track past the own ship, depicted as being at the centre
of the screen, on a line parallel and opposite to the ship's ground
track. Any cross track tendency, such as may be caused by a tidal
stream, will become apparent by the target moving off the parallel
The parallel index may also be used to monitor other events,
e.g. a wheel over position. In this case the range and bearing of the
target at the wheel over point and the new track is marked on the
PI. This also allows for a distance countdown to be made and the
new track can be subsequently monitored
ARPA Mapping
Many modern ARPAs have the facility to generate synthetic
maps that can be stored in a retrieval system. In some instances,
such maps may be stabilised through an electronic navigational
system, but such facilities should be used in addition to and not to
the exclusion of other systems.
A waypoint is a position shown on the chart where a planned
change of status will occur. It will often be a change of course but
may also be an event such as:-
1 End or beginning of sea passage.
2 Change of speed.
3 Pilot embarkation point.
4 Anchor stations, etc.
24 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE
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