Source: http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7
Timestamp: 2016-10-22 21:14:48
Document Index: 715711170

Matched Legal Cases: ['art, 170', '§ 1201', '§ 1201', '§ 1201', '§ 1201', '§ 1201', '§ 2', 'art, 170', '§ 1201', '§ 1201', '§ 12', 'art. 6', 'art. 6']

Brief of Amici Curiae Computer & Communications Industry Association and Open Source & Industry Alliance in Support of Internet Gateway, et al. and Urging Reversal | Davidson & Associates, Inc. D.B.A. Blizzard Entertainment, et al., v Internet Gateway, Inc., et al., | Electronic Frontier Foundation - JDSupra
Davidson & Associates, Inc. D.B.A. Blizzard Entertainment, et al., v Internet Gateway, Inc., et al., Brief of Amici Curiae Computer & Communications Industry Association and Open Source & Industry Alliance in Support of Internet Gateway, et al. and Urging Reversal
At issue in this case was whether three software programmers who created the BnetD game server -- which interoperates with Blizzard video games online -- were in violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) and Blizzard Games' end user license agreement (EULA). BnetD was an open source program that let gamers play popular Blizzard titles like Warcraft with other gamers on servers that don't belong to Blizzard's Battle.net service. Blizzard argued that the programmers who wrote BnetD violated the DMCA's anti-circumvention provisions and that the programmers also violated several parts of Blizzard's EULA, including a section on reverse engineering. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) and the firm of Day Casebeer Madrid & Batchelder served as counsel for defendants, arguing that programmers should be allowed to create free software designed to work with commercial products because it benefited consumers and helped promote innovation. The 8th Circuit Court of Appeals disagreed, holding that reverse engineering and emulating the Blizzard software were illegal. This ruling has been widely criticized as making it impossible to create new programs that interoperate with older ones and squeezing consumer choice out of the marketplace by essentially allowing companies to outlaw competitors' products that interact with their own. This is the amici curiae brief of computer & communications industry association and open source & industry alliance in support of internet gateway, et al urging reversal.
Download PDF dc-399877 No. 04-3654 _____________________________________________ In The United States Court of Appeals For The Eighth Circuit _____________________________________________ DAVIDSON & ASSOCIATES, INC., ET AL., Plaintiffs-Appellees, v. INTERNET GATEWAY, ET AL., Defendants-Appellants. _____________________________________________ Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri (No. 4:02-CV-498 CAS) _____________________________________________ BRIEF OF AMICI CURIAE COMPUTER & COMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION AND OPEN SOURCE & INDUSTRY ALLIANCE IN SUPPORT OF INTERNET GATEWAY, ET AL. AND URGING REVERSAL Jonathan Band Matthew Schruers MORRISON & FOERSTER LLP 2000 Pennsylvania Avenue NW Suite 5500 Washington, DC 20006 (202) 887-1500 Counsel for Amici Curiae January 24, 2005 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-i-CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT 1. Pursuant to Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 26.1 and Eighth Circuit Rule 26.1A, amicus curiae Computer & Communications Industry Association (“CCIA”) states that it is a non-profit trade association and as such has no parent corporation nor any issued stock or partnership shares. 2. Pursuant to Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 26.1 and Eighth Circuit Rule 26.1A, amicus curiae Open Source & Industry Alliance (“OSAIA”) states that it is a non-profit trade association which is a fully independent subsidiary of CCIA. OSAIA has no issued stock or partnership shares. /s/Jonathan Band_____________ Jonathan Band Counsel for Amici Curiae Date: January 24, 2005 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-ii-TABLE OF CONTENTS Page(s) CORPORATE DISCLOSURE STATEMENT.......................................... i TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................... ii TABLE OF AUTHORITIES.................................................................... iii INTEREST OF AMICI ..............................................................................1 ARGUMENT .............................................................................................3 I. INTEROPERABILITY IS CRITICAL TO COMPETITION AND INNOVATION IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY ............5 II. JURISDICTIONS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD HAVE ADOPTED EXCEPTIONS PERMITTING SOFTWARE REVERSE ENGINEERING..........................................................10 III. SECTION 1201(f) OF THE DMCA PERMITS CIRCUMVENTION FOR THE PURPOSE OF ACHIEVING INTEROPERABILITY ..........................................12 IV. THE DISTRICT COURT ERRED IN REJECTING THE SECTION 1201(f) DEFENSE .......................................................18 A. An Independently Created Computer Program Can Perform The Same Function As Another Program .............18 B. Appellants Did Not Infringe Copyright...............................22 C. The Sole Purpose For Circumvention Was To Enable Interoperability.....................................................................24 V. CONCLUSION..............................................................................25 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-iii-TABLE OF AUTHORITIES Page(s) CASES Alcatel U.S.A., Inc. v. DGI Techs., 166 F.3d 772 (5th Cir. 1999) .................................................................................... 11 Applied Innovations, Inc. v. Regents of Univ. of Minnesota, 876 F.2d 626 (8th Cir. 1989) .............................................................. 20 Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 975 F.2d 832 (Fed. Cir. 1992)................................................................................... 11 Bateman v. Mnemonics, Inc., 79 F.3d 1532 (11th Cir. 1996) .................... 11 Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc., 489 U.S. 141 (1989) ...... 10 Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569 (1994) .......................... 8 Chamberlain Group, Inc. v. Skylink Techs., Inc., 381 F.3d 1178 (Fed. Cir. 2004) .................................................................................... 2 Computer Assocs. Int’l v. Altai, Inc., 982 F.2d 693 (2d Cir. 1992) ............. 8 Davidson & Assocs., v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164 (E.D. Mo. 2004) .......................................... 4, 18 DSC Communications Corp. v. DGI Techs., 81 F.3d 597 (5th Cir. 1996) .................................................................................... 11 DSC Communications Corp. v. DGI Techs., 898 F. Supp. 1183 (N.D. Tex. 1995), aff’d, 81 F.3d 597 (5th Cir. 1996)......................... 11 DSC Communications Corp. v. Pulse Communications, Inc., 976 F. Supp. 359 (E.D. Va. 1997), aff’d in part, rev’d in part, and vacated in part, 170 F.3d 1354 (Fed. Cir. 1999)......................... 11 Feist Publ’ns Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., 499 U.S. 340 (1991)................ 20 Gates Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indus., 9 F.3d 823 (10th Cir. 1993) ................................................................ 24 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-iv-Kewanee Oil Co., v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470 (1974)........................... 10 Lexmark Int’l, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 387 F.3d 522 (6th Cir. 2004) ..........................................2, 9, 15-17, 20 Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int’l, Inc., 49 F.3d 807 (1st Cir. 1995), aff’d by an equally divided Court, 516 U.S. 233 (1996) .................. 7, 8 Mitel, Inc. v. Iqtel, Inc., 124 F.3d 1366 (10th Cir. 1997)............................. 8 Sega Enterprises, Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992) ............................................................................. passim Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp., 203 F.3d 596 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 871 (2000) ..... 1, 11, 24 Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417 (1984) ........................................................................... 23 United States v. Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d 34 (D.C. Cir. 2001) ................. 9 West Publishing Co. v. Mead Data Central, Inc., 799 F.2d 1219 (8th Cir. 1986) ................................................................................... 20 STATUTES 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a).......................................................................... 3, 14, 15 17 U.S.C. § 1201(b).................................................................................... 14 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f) ............................................................................. passim OTHER AUTHORITIES Act No. 6357, Jan. 16, 2001 (Korea) ......................................................... 12 Jonathan Band & Masanobu Katoh, Interfaces on Trial (1995)...... 9, 12, 22 Jonathan Band & Taro Isshiki, Peace at Last? Executive and Legislative Branch Endorsement of Recent Software Copyright Case Law, Computer Lawyer, Feb. 1999 ............................................. 9 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-v-Jonathan Band and Taro Isshiki, The New Anti-Circumvention Provisions of the Copyright Act: A Flawed First Step, Cyberspace Lawyer (February 1999) .................................................................................. 22 Jeanette Bozo, Bristol Has June 1 Date for Microsoft Lawsuit, InfoWorld Daily News, Jan. 4, 1999 .................................................... 9 Dan L. Burk, Anticircumvention Misuse, 50 UCLA L. Rev. 1095 (2003).................................................................................................... 6 Copyright (Amendment) Bill of 1998 (Sing.)............................................ 12 Copyright Amendment (Computer Programs) Bill of 1999 (Austl.) ......... 12 Council Directive 91/250/EEC on the Legal Protection of Software Programs (May 14, 1991), O.J. No. L122/42,44 (May 17, 1991) ............................................................................. 12, 22 Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies, 68 Fed. Reg. 62,011 (Oct. 31, 2003).................................................................................... 17 Paul Goldstein, Copyright (2d ed. 1998)...................................................... 9 Peter S. Menell, An Analysis of the Scope of Copyright Protection for Application Programs, 41 Stan. L. Rev. 1045 (1989) .................... 7 Melville B. Nimmer & David Nimmer, Nimmer on Copyright (Matthew Bender & Co. 2004)........................................................... 21 Ord. No. 92 of 1997 (H.K.) ........................................................................ 12 President’s Information Infrastructure Task Force, Global Infrastructure: Agenda for Cooperation (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1995)............... 7 Recommendation of the Register of Copyrights, Rulemaking on Exemptions from Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies (Docket No. RM 2002-4, Oct. 27, 2003).............................................. 15, 16, 21 Republic Act 8293 of 1996 (Phil.) ............................................................. 12 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7-vi-Richard Wolffe, FTC says Intel Lawsuit ‘Vital to Stop Abuse’, Financial Post, June 18, 1998 ............................................................... 9 S. Rep. No. 105-190 (1998) ........................................................... 14, 15, 21 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c71 dc-399877 INTEREST OF AMICI Computer & Communications Industry Association (CCIA) members participate in many sectors of the computer and telecommunications industry and range in size from small entrepreneurial firms to the largest in the industry.1 CCIA members believe that computer programs deserve effective intellectual property protection to give developers sufficient incentive to create new programs. At the same time, CCIA is concerned that improper extension of intellectual property law will impede innovation and inhibit fair competition in the computer industry. CCIA has long supported interpreting the intellectual property laws to permit the development of interoperable products. CCIA filed an amicus brief with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Sega Enterprises, Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1992), which held that the reverse engineering technique known as disassembly was a fair use as a matter of law when it was the only way to obtain functional elements such as the information necessary for achieving interoperability. CCIA also filed an amicus brief with that court in Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. v. Connectix Corp., 203 F.3d 596 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 831 (2000), which affirmed its earlier holding in Sega. Additionally, when Congress was considering the Digital Millennium Copyright 1 CCIA’s current roster of members is available at www.ccianet.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=Members_List&file=index Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c72 dc-399877 Act (DMCA), CCIA advocated the inclusion of an exception permitting circumvention of technological protection measures for the purpose of achieving interoperability. Finally, CCIA filed amicus briefs in Chamberlain Group, Inc. v. Skylink Technologies., Inc., 381 F.3d 1178 (Fed. Cir. 2004) and Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 387 F.3d 522 (6th Cir. 2004), arguing that the DMCA’s interoperability exception, 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f), permitted the circumvention at issue in both cases. Open Source & Industry Alliance (OSAIA) members are dedicated to the creation, use and sustainability of open source software.2 OSAIA members believe that open source software fosters competition and expands user choice, which is vitally important to innovation. CCIA, OSAIA, and their members do not have a direct financial interest in the outcome of this litigation. However, in rejecting the application of the interoperability exception to Appellants’ circumvention of Blizzard’s technological protections for the purpose of developing a competing open source program, the district court improperly applied Section 1201(f). This improper application, if repeated by other courts, could have serious anticompetitive consequences for CCIA and OSAIA members and the information technology industry as a whole. 2 OSAIA’s current roster of members is available at www.osaia.org/members/OSAIAmembers.html Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c73 dc-399877 Amici respectfully submit that correctly understood, Section 1201(f) offers a defense to Blizzard’s DMCA claims. Filed concurrently with this brief, pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 29(b), is a Motion for Leave to File Brief of Amici Curiae CCIA and OSAIA in Support of Internet Gateway et al. and Urging Reversal. ARGUMENT This case concerns computer games. But computer games are computer programs, and the interoperability and DMCA issues here are no different from those that arise with software that perform critical business and governmental functions. In this case, Blizzard attempts to use Section 1201 of the DMCA to thwart competition between its Battle.net online gaming service and Appellants’ open source bnetd project. Blizzard argues that in order to permit Blizzard games to interact with the bnetd program, Appellants programmed the bnetd program to circumvent a technological protection measure in the Blizzard games that allowed Blizzard game owners to access their games’ Battle.net mode only in conjunction with the Blizzard Battle.net server. Blizzard asserts that by developing, operating, and distributing the bnetd program, Appellants violated 17 U.S.C. §§ 1201(a)(1) and (2). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c74 dc-399877 Congress anticipated that companies would attempt to employ the DMCA in the anticompetitive manner that Blizzard proposes. Accordingly, Congress crafted an exception in Section 1201(f) for the express purpose of permitting the circumvention necessary to achieve interoperability between two software components. The district court rejected the defense on the grounds that “defendants’ actions extended into the realm of copyright infringement ....” Davidson & Assocs., v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164, 1185 (E.D. Mo. 2004). However, the district court failed to identify any infringing acts by the Appellants. Moreover, the district court stated that the bnetd program was not “an independently created computer program” eligible for the Section 1201(f) defense because it “was intended as a functional alternative to the Battle.net service.” Id. at 32. The district court erred in finding that the bnetd program was not an independently created computer program simply because it served as a functional alternative to Battle.net. This brief first addresses the importance of interoperability to the computer industry. It then explains how jurisdictions throughout the United States and around the world have specifically permitted reverse engineering, a process essential to the development of interoperable products. Next, the brief discusses the Section 1201(f) exception inserted by Congress into the DMCA to promote Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c75 dc-399877 interoperability. Finally, the brief demonstrates that the district court misapplied Section 1201(f) to the facts of this case. CCIA and OSAIA appreciate that Blizzard is concerned that the bnetd program, by bypassing the CD Key authentication system in Blizzard games, might encourage the infringement of Blizzard games by providing a forum for gamers with infringing games to play in the Battle.net mode. But from a policy perspective, this risk of infringement must be weighed against the social utility of providing competitive choices to owners of legitimate copies of Blizzard games. As the district court found, Appellants created the bnetd program out of frustration with the Battle.net server, including its insufficient capacity and the presence of cheating gamers, user profanity, and advertising. Section 1201(f) reflects the balance Congress struck between the risk of infringement and the value of interoperability. The district court’s decision upset this balance, which should be restored by this Court. I. INTEROPERABILITY IS CRITICAL TO COMPETITION AND INNOVATION IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY In most copyright industries, there is little relation between intellectual property protection and competition. A legitimate film producer, for example, has no justification and little motivation for copying from another film (except in certain special cases, such as parody). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c76 dc-399877 Computer products, however, are different. Unlike a film or novel, which stands by itself, a computer product can function only in conjunction with hardware and other software. For example, an application program, such as a word processor, must work together with an operating system in order to perform its task; otherwise, it is a useless set of magnetic impulses. Two computer products can work together—interoperate—only if they conform to the same set of rules, or interface specifications. If a company could exercise proprietary control over the interface specifications implemented by its products, that company could determine which products made by other firms – if any – could interoperate with its software. And should that company have a dominant position in a particular market, it could use its control over interoperability to expand its dominant position into adjacent markets.3 Moreover, such authority would extend the rights under copyright beyond what is necessary to protect the original expressive elements that have traditionally been offered protection under American copyright law, and it would override limitations on copyright crafted to protect the public good. 3 Dan L. Burk, Anticircumvention Misuse, 50 UCLA L. Rev. 1095, 1113, 1133 (2003). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c77 dc-399877 Such a broad monopoly would have serious implications for consumer welfare.4 In the absence of competition during the effective lifespan of the product, the first developer would have little incentive to develop more innovative and less costly products. These negative consequences would be compounded by the fact that the personal computer revolution and the emergence of the Internet have produced an overwhelming need for interconnection between different elements of computer systems. Within a given large corporation, literally thousands of personal computers and workstations scattered across the globe need to interact with each other and with the company’s mainframes. Moreover, with the advent of the Internet, users around the world need to exchange vast quantities of data through their computers.5 Prohibiting competitors from accessing the de facto standard interface specifications would lock users into a particular operating system or network software environment, and would inhibit the transfer of data between users with different computing environments. See Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int’l, Inc., 49 F.3d 807, 821 (1st Cir. 1995), aff’d by an equally divided Court, 516 U.S. 233 (1996)(J. Boudin, concurring). 4 See, e.g., Peter S. Menell, An Analysis of the Scope of Copyright Protection for Application Programs, 41 Stan. L. Rev. 1045, 1082, 1097 n.281 (1989). 5 See President’s Information Infrastructure Task Force, Global Information Infrastructure: Agenda for Cooperation (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., Feb. 1995) at 14-16. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c78 dc-399877 It should be stressed that interoperable products often are not mere “clones” that offer only the same functionality as the products of the first comer, but at a lower price. Even interoperable products that offer similar functionality as the original product typically offer additional features not found in the first comer’s products. Thus, they compete with the first comer’s products not only in terms of price (indeed, sometimes the interoperable products may be more expensive), but also in terms of innovation. Furthermore, many products that interoperate with other computer products do not mimic the functionality of the original product at all, but fulfill entirely different purposes or needs. In many cases – such as with a computer operating system and applications – these new products rely on the underlying program as a platform. In these respects, interoperable developers’ use of preexisting interface specifications is a transformative use of the sort accredited by the Supreme Court in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569 (1994). In short, in the computer industry, overly broad intellectual property protection directly restricts competition and innovation. For this reason, U.S. courts in recent years have held that interface specifications fall on the idea (or unprotected) side of copyright’s idea/expression dichotomy.6 Significantly, the U.S. government took this position in its case against Microsoft.7 6 See, e.g., Computer Assocs. Int’l v. Altai, Inc., 982 F.2d 693 (2d Cir. 1992); Sega, 977 F.2d at 1524-25; Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int’l, Inc., 49 F.3d 807 (1st Cir. 1995), aff’d by an equally divided Court, 516 U.S. 233 (1996); Mitel, Inc. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c79 dc-399877 But even though the interface specifications are not protected by copyright, a company seeking to interoperate must still learn what those interface specifications are. Because computer programs typically are distributed to the public in a form readable only by computers, a program’s interface specifications usually are not readily apparent. In some instances, the developer of the program may be willing to provide the interface information to other companies. All too often, however, developers are not willing to provide the information, or the information they provide is tardy or incomplete.8 In these cases, the companies seeking to develop interoperable products have no choice but to perform painstaking research on the original program to discern the interface specifications. This research, known as reverse engineering, is a v. Iqtel, Inc., 124 F.3d 1366 (10th Cir. 1997); Lexmark Int’l, Inc. v. Static Control Components Inc., 387 F.3d 522, 536 (6th Cir. 2004); Jonathan Band & Masanobu Katoh, Interfaces on Trial, 131-146 (1995); 1 Paul Goldstein, Copyright § 2.15.2.1-2.15.2.2 (2d ed. 1998). 7 Jonathan Band & Taro Isshiki, Peace at Last? Executive and Legislative Branch Endorsement of Recent Software Copyright Case Law, Computer Lawyer, Feb. 1999 at 1. Additionally, the D.C. Circuit condemned in harsh terms Microsoft’s attempt to justify anticompetitive actions by asserting its right to use its intellectual property as it saw fit, so long as those rights were lawfully obtained. United States v. Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d 34, 63 (D.C. Cir. 2001)(per curiam) (“That is no more correct than the proposition that use of one’s personal property, such as a baseball bat, cannot give rise to tort liability.”) 8 Jeanette Bozo, Bristol Has June 1 Date for Microsoft Lawsuit, InfoWorld Daily News, Jan. 4, 1999; Richard Wolffe, FTC says Intel Lawsuit ‘Vital to Stop Abuse’, Financial Post, June 18, 1998, at 19. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c710 dc-399877 basic tool of software product development. Without reverse engineering, interoperability can be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. II. JURISDICTIONS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD HAVE ADOPTED EXCEPTIONS PERMITTING SOFTWARE REVERSE ENGINEERING The U.S. Supreme Court has long recognized that there is nothing inherently wrong with studying a competitor’s product to understand how it works and to figure out how to make a better product. Thus, in Kewanee Oil Co. v. Bicron Corp., 416 U.S. 470, 476 (1974), the Court stated that “trade secret law … does not offer protection against discovery by fair and honest means, such as … by socalled reverse engineering, that is by starting with a known product and working backward to divine the process which aided in its development or manufacture.” The Court has also recognized the benefits of reverse engineering: “Reverse engineering … often leads to significant advances in technology.” Bonito Boats, Inc., v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc., 489 U.S. 141, 160 (1989). Further, the Court has noted that “the competitive reality of reverse engineering may act as a spur to the inventor, creating an incentive to develop inventions that meet the rigorous requirements of patentability.” Id. Copyright law, however, has the potential of raising obstacles to software reverse engineering. Because of the nature of computer technology, software reverse engineering almost always requires the making of a reproduction or Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c711 dc-399877 derivative work. For example, the reverse engineering method known as disassembly involves “translating” the publicly distributed, computer readable program into a higher level, human readable form. In another method referred to as black box reverse engineering, an engineer observes a program’s behavior and interaction with its environment while executing the program on a computer.9 The computer automatically copies the program into the computer’s random access memory (RAM) in order to run it. Since the Ninth Circuit’s 1992 decision in Sega v. Accolade, no less than five U.S. courts have permitted reproduction during the course of software reverse engineering under the “fair use doctrine.”10 Other courts have prevented enforcement under a copyright misuse theory.11 9 Engineers refer to this method as black box reverse engineering because the externally visible characteristics of the program are observed without looking into the program itself; the actual contents of the program remain unknown. 10 Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., 975 F.2d 832 (Fed. Cir. 1992); Bateman v. Mnemonics, Inc., 79 F.3d 1532 (11th Cir. 1996); DSC Communications Corp. v. DGI Techs., 898 F. Supp. 1183 (N.D. Tex. 1995), aff’d, 81 F.3d 597 (5th Cir. 1996); DSC Communications Corp. v. Pulse Communications, Inc., 976 F. Supp. 359 (E.D. Va. 1997), aff’d in part, rev’d in part, and vacated in part, 170 F.3d 1354 (Fed. Cir. 1999); Sony Computer Entm’t, Inc. v. Connectix Corp., 203 F.3d 596 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 531 U.S. 871 (2000). 11 DSC Communications Corp. v. DGI Techs., 81 F.3d 597 (5th Cir. 1996); Alcatel U.S.A., Inc. v. DGI Techs., 166 F.3d 772 (5th Cir. 1999). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c712 dc-399877 Similarly, the 1991 European Union Software Directive contains a specific exception for software reverse engineering.12 The Directive has been implemented by all the member states of the European Union, including the newest members in Eastern and Central Europe.13 Thus, both the United States and the European Union have recognized the central role reverse engineering plays in maintaining legitimate competition in the computer industry. Pacific Rim countries share this recognition. Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Korea, and the Philippines have all amended their copyright laws to permit software reverse engineering.14 III. SECTION 1201(f) OF THE DMCA PERMITS CIRCUMVENTION FOR THE PURPOSE OF ACHIEVING INTEROPERABILITY Section 1201 of the DMCA, passed by Congress in October, 1998, implements the provisions of the World Intellectual Property Organization Internet Treaties relating to technological protection measures. Specifically, Section 1201 restricts the development, distribution, and use of technologies that circumvent other technologies that protect an author’s copyrights. While the DMCA was 12 Council Directive 91/250/EEC on the Legal Protection of Software Programs, Articles 5 and 6 (May 14, 1991), O.J. No. L122/42,44 (May 17, 1991) (hereinafter “EU Software Directive”). 13 See Interfaces on Trial, supra note 4, at 258-62. 14 Ord. No. 92 of 1997 (H.K.); Copyright (Amendment) Bill of 1998 (Sing.); Republic Act 8293 of 1996 (Phil.); Copyright Amendment (Computer Programs) Bill of 1999 (Austl.); Act No. 6357, Jan. 16, 2001 (Korea). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c713 dc-399877 pending before Congress, developers of interoperable computer products, including CCIA, explained to Congress that the act of reverse engineering – the uncovering of the interface specifications – could require the circumvention of a technological protection measure. Moreover, the incorporation of these specifications in competitive products could run afoul of the DMCA’s prohibition on the manufacture and distribution of circumvention technologies. This would particularly be the case when a company placed a software “lock” on a program that prevented access to the program, and the competitor circumvented that software lock to achieve interoperability. Thus, Section 1201 could prevent a developer of interoperable products from exercising his fair use privileges recognized in Sega and its progeny. Accordingly, Congress created an exception to Section 1201 explicitly directed at the development of interoperable products. Section 1201(f) allows software developers to circumvent technological protection measures in a lawfully obtained computer program in order to identify the elements necessary to achieve interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs. A person may engage in this circumvention only if the elements necessary to achieve interoperability are not readily available and the reverse engineering is otherwise permitted under the copyright law.15 Furthermore, a 15 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(1). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c714 dc-399877 person may develop, distribute, and employ the means to circumvent technological protection measures for the purpose of achieving interoperability.16 Section 1201(f), therefore, provides a complete defense to Section 1201 liability to qualifying developers of interoperable products. It also provides a defense to users of these products.17 The Senate Judiciary Committee report on the DMCA explains the policy underlying Section 1201(f). It states that this exception was “intended to allow legitimate software developers to continue engaging in certain activities for the purpose of achieving interoperability to the extent permitted by law prior to the enactment of this chapter.”18 The Committee evidently understood that if a company placed on its program a technological measure that prevented interoperability, a legal prohibition on circumventing that technological protection could preclude other companies from developing products capable of operating in that company’s computing environment. Citing Sega, the Committee states that “[t]he objective is to ensure that the effect of current case law interpreting the Copyright Act is not changed by enactment of this legislation for certain acts of 16 17 U.S.C. § 1201(f)(2) and (3). 17 Section 1201(f) provides an exception to all the prohibitions of Section 1201: Section 1201(a)(1)’s prohibition on the circumvention of access controls, Section 1201(a)(2)’s prohibition on the manufacture and distribution of devices which circumvent access controls, and Section 1201(b)’s prohibition on the manufacture and distribution of devices which circumvent copy controls. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c715 dc-399877 identification and analysis done in respect of computer programs.”19 The Committee concludes by noting that “[t]he purpose of this section is to foster competition and innovation in the computer and software industry.”20 The Copyright Office recently affirmed that Section 1201(f)(3) permits software developers to provide consumers with the means of circumventing technological protection measures for the purpose of achieving software interoperability. While Lexmark v. Static Control Components was pending before the Sixth Circuit, Static Control Components (SCC) requested the Librarian of Congress to grant an exemption from Section 1201(a)(1) pursuant to the triennial rulemaking procedure established by Section 1201(a)(1)(C) and (D). Specifically, SCC asked for an exemption that would permit two embedded programs to interoperate so that the hardware in which they are embedded can interoperate.21 The Copyright Office concluded that an exemption was not necessary; Section 1201(f)(3) permitted the incorporation of interface information in products for the purpose of achieving interoperability. Not only does Section 1201(f) permit 18 S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 32 (1998). 19 Id. 20 Id. 21 Recommendation of the Register of Copyrights, Rulemaking on Exemptions from Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies, at 172 (Docket No. RM 2002-4, Oct. 27, 2003), available at http://www.copyright.gov/1201/docs/registers-recommendation.pdf. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c716 dc-399877 achieving interoperability by the reverse engineer, the Office determined, but Section 1201(f) also has the effect of “enabling competitive choices in the marketplace.”22 The Office observed that SCC’s “goal was not merely to privately circumvent, but rather to facilitate the distribution of competitive toner cartridges to others”23 – a goal embraced by 1201(f)(3): if reverse engineering to achieve interoperability is conducted under the statutory exemption, a competitor may not only reverse engineer a computer program in order to create an independently interoperable computer program, but may also make the information or means of interoperability available to others if the sole purpose is the enabling of interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs, to the extent that doing so is a noninfringing use....24 Thus, the Copyright Office determined that Congress “comprehensively addressed the important concern of interoperability for competition and functionality,”25 and therefore no exemption was necessary. Acting upon the Office’s recommendations, the Librarian of Congress declined to establish an exemption for remanufacturers seeking to achieve interoperability, because the “existing exemption in section 1201(f) addresses the 22 Id. at 178. 23 Id. at 180-81. 24 Id. at 181. 25 Id. at 183. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c717 dc-399877 concerns of remanufacturers, making an exemption under section 1201(a)(1)(D) unnecessary.”26 This past October, the Sixth Circuit reversed the lower court’s issuance of a preliminary injunction in Lexmark v. Static Control Components. The Sixth Circuit found that Lexmark was unlikely to prevail on its DMCA claim because Lexmark did not employ technological protection measures that effectively controlled all forms of access to its Printer Engine Program. Additionally, the Sixth Circuit addressed SCC’s Section 1201(f)(3) defense because it could become relevant at the permanent injunction phase of the case. The Sixth Circuit disagreed with the lower court’s conclusion that the defense did not apply. Specifically, the Sixth Circuit found evidence in the record that SCC’s chips contained independently created programs. Further, the court rejected Lexmark’s argument that the independently created programs had to exist prior to the reverse engineering necessary to achieving interoperability. Lexmark, 387 F.3d 522, at 550-551. 26 Exemption to Prohibition on Circumvention of Copyright Protection Systems for Access Control Technologies, 68 Fed. Reg. 62,011, at 62,017 (Oct. 31, 2003). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c718 dc-399877 IV. THE DISTRICT COURT ERRED IN REJECTING THE SECTION 1201(f) DEFENSE. Just as the SCC chip allows owners of Lexmark printers to circumvent the technological protection in the Printer Engine Program so that the printer owners can use competing toner cartridges instead of Lexmark cartridges, so too the bnetd program allows owners of Blizzard games to circumvent the technological protection in the games so that the gamers can play their games in the Battle.net mode on a bnetd server rather than the Battle.net server. The development and distribution of this circumvention technology in the bnetd program falls squarely within the Section 1201(f) exception. Nonetheless, the lower court rejected the application of the defense. Although the district court’s reasoning is obscure, it appears to have offered three flawed justifications for this rejection. A. An Independently Created Computer Program Can Perform The Same Function As Another Program. First, the district court stated that Appellants are not eligible for the 1201(f) safe harbor because the bnetd program is not an “independently created computer program.” Davidson & Assocs., 334 F. Supp. 2d at 1185. The district court observed that “the bnetd program was intended as a functional alternative to the Battle.net service. Once game play starts there are no differences between Battle.net and the bnetd emulator from the standpoint of a user who is actually playing the game.” Id. In other words, the district court concluded that the bnetd Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c719 dc-399877 program is not “independently created” because it has the same functionality as Battle.net. The district court evidently believed that a program is independently created only if it is developed in a complete vacuum, without any reference to other programs. The district court misconstrued the meaning of the term “independently created.” Although Section 1201(f) does not define “independently created computer program,” the context of its usage makes clear that it means a noninfringing program developed by an entity different from the entity that wrote the programs with which it seeks to interoperate. Both Sections 1201(f)(2) and (f)(3) provide that circumvention is permitted “for the purpose of enabling interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs.” This clause makes sense only if “independently created” means that the developer of that program were different from the developer of the “other programs.” If the programs at issue were developed by the same entity or by business partners, any circumvention would be performed with authorization, rendering the exception unnecessary. This interpretation is supported by the Sixth Circuit’s decision in Lexmark. Lexmark argued that the interoperability exception applied only if the independently created program existed prior to the reverse engineering that enabled the interoperability. The Sixth Circuit dismissed this contention, holding Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c720 dc-399877 instead that the program could be developed after the reverse engineering and at the same time as the element that enabled the interoperability; the program “just must be ‘independently’ created.” Lexmark, 387 F.3d at 551. Interpreting “independently created” to mean ‘created by a separate entity’ is consistent with that term’s usage in copyright jurisprudence. The term “independently created” has frequently been used to describe the ‘origin’ element of copyright’s originality requirement. As the Supreme Court stated in its landmark opinion on the subject, “Original, as the term is used in copyright, means only that the work was independently created by the author (as opposed to copied from other works), and that it possesses at least some minimal degree of creativity.” Feist Publ’ns Inc. v. Rural Tel. Serv. Co., 499 U.S. 340, 345 (1991). See also Applied Innovations, Inc. v. Regents of Univ. of Minnesota, 876 F.2d 626, 635 (8th Cir. 1989)(“The standard for ‘originality’ is minimal. It is not necessary that the work be novel or unique, but only that the work have its origin with the author --that it be independently created. Little more is involved in this requirement than a ‘prohibition of actual copying.’” (quoting West Publishing Co. v. Mead Data Central, Inc., 799 F.2d 1219, 1223 (8th Cir. 1986)).27 27 In the DMCA context, “the independently created program” typically is written by the defendant who allegedly circumvented a technological measure or trafficks in a circumvention technology. By contrast, in the traditional copyright context, independent creation usually refers to the plaintiff’s authorship. Although in all contexts the “independently created” work must not infringe, in the DMCA Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c721 dc-399877 The “prohibition on actual copying” refers to the copying of protected expression, not unprotected elements. Thus, in the Section 1201(f) context, Nimmer observes that the “independently created computer program” should be “a new and original work, in that it may not infringe the original computer program.” 3 Melville B. Nimmer & David Nimmer, Nimmer on Copyright § 12A.04[B][1] (Matthew Bender & Co. 2004). Here, the district court dismissed the copyright infringement claims with prejudice. In any event, a program would still be independently created if its developer copied only unprotected ideas, e.g., the functionality, of another program, and performed all the detailed design and coding himself. The notion that an “independently created” program can have the same functionality as a preexisting program is supported by both the legislative history and the Copyright Office’s interpretation of Section 1201(f). As noted above, the Senate Judiciary Committee declared that “[t]he purpose of this section is to foster competition and innovation in the computer and software industry.”28 The Copyright Office similarly recognized that a goal of Section 1201(f) was “enabling context the essential characteristic of independent creation is that “independently created computer program” and the “other programs” have different sources, which gives rise to the need to achieve interoperability. 28 S. Rep. No. 105-190, at 32 (1998). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c722 dc-399877 competitive choices in the marketplace.”29 A competitive program by definition offers much of the same functionality as the program with which it competes; if it performed a different function, it would not be competitive.30 Denying the protection of the Section 1201(f) safe harbor to developers of functionally similar but expressively different programs would significantly limit the utility of Section 1201(f). It would also frustrate Congress’ intent of fostering competition in the computer and software industries. B. Appellants Did Not Infringe Copyright. The district court’s second justification for rejecting the Section 1201(f) defense was its finding “that defendants’ actions extended into the realm of copyright infringement....” The court explained that because the bnetd program does not determine whether a particular game’s CD Key is valid, it permits infringing copies of Blizzard games to run on the bnetd program. Moreover, by 29 Recommendation of the Register of Copyrights, supra note 21, at 178. 30 The term “independently created computer program,” like much of the language of Section 1201(f), was derived from Article 6 of the EU Software Directive. See Jonathan Band and Taro Isshiki, The New Anti-Circumvention Provisions of the Copyright Act: A Flawed First Step, Cyberspace Lawyer (February 1999) at 4. Article 6 permits the reverse engineering technique decompilation for the purpose of achieving “the interoperability of an independently created computer program with other programs.” EU Software Directive, supra note 12, art. 6(1). The independently created program could compete, i.e., have the same functionality, as the target of the decompilation. See Interfaces on Trial at 239-40, 253-54. However, the independently created program could not be “substantially similar in its expression” to the target program. EU Software Directive art. 6(2)(c). Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c723 dc-399877 allowing free distribution of the program software, the Appellants foster the proliferation of servers on which infringing games can run. The district court failed to recognize that Appellants aren’t making the copies of the Blizzard games; the gamers are. Moreover, Appellants aren’t contributing to this infringement; at most they provide another venue for the infringing copies to be used after the infringement has occurred.31 But even if Appellants were infringing or contributing to the infringement of Blizzard’s copyright, that would not affect the availability of the Section 1201(f) defense with respect to bnetd. Under Sections 1201(f)(2) and (3), a person make develop, employ, and make available to others a technological means of circumventing a protection for purposes of achieving interoperability, so long as the development, employment, or distribution of the technology does not constitute infringement. There is no evidence that the bnetd program itself infringes any Blizzard copyright. To be sure, the district court opinion could be read to suggest that the program infringes Blizzard’s copyright because it has the same functionality as Battle.net. But such a suggestion would be incorrect as a matter of copyright law. It is well established that a program’s function falls on the idea side 31 Even if the bnetd program did somehow contribute to infringement, such contribution would be excused pursuant to the Supreme Court’s decision in Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417, 442 (1984) because the program is capable of substantial noninfringing uses. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c724 dc-399877 of the idea/expression dichotomy, and thus is unprotected by copyright.32 The bnetd program could infringe the copyright in Battle.net only if it copied enough expressive elements of Battle.net so as to be substantially similar in expression, and the copying was not a privileged fair use. Accordingly, the district court wrongly concluded that Appellants’ “actions extended into the realm of copyright infringement.”33 C. The Sole Purpose For Circumvention Was To Enable Interoperability. The district court’s third justification for rejecting the 1201(f) defense was that “the sole purpose of the bnetd program was not to enable interoperability.” Rather, Appellants’ “purpose in developing the bnetd server was to avoid the anticircumvention restrictions of the game and to avoid the restricted access to Battle.net.” This reasoning is completely circular. By avoiding the anticircumvention restrictions of the game, the bnetd program afforded gamers 32 Gates Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indus., 9 F.3d 823, 836 (10th Cir. 1993) (“the main purpose or function of a program will always be an unprotectable idea”); Sony Computer Entm’t, Inc. v. Connectix Corp., 203 F.3d 596, 602-03 (9th Cir. 2000) (“object code of a program may be copyrighted as expression… but it also contains ideas and performs functions that are not entitled to copyright protection.”) 33 Nothing in Section 1201(f) suggests that a license prohibition on circumvention would prevent application of the Section 1201(f) defense. To the contrary, Section 1201(f) might well preempt any license prohibition on circumvention for the reasons set forth in Appellants’ brief and the brief amicus curiae of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c725 dc-399877 another online gaming service with which they could interoperate. The circumvention enabled the interoperability, which is precisely the point of Section 1201(f). V. CONCLUSION Interoperability is critical to competition in the information technology industry. In turn, reverse engineering and subsequent use of the interface specifications learned through reverse engineering are critical to achieving interoperability. Congress inserted Section 1201(f) into the DMCA to insure that the prohibition of circumvention of technological protection measures did not interfere with interoperability. In contrast to the court below, this Court should not interpret and apply the interoperability exception in a manner that frustrates Congress’s intent. Therefore, CCIA and OSAIA respectfully request the Court to reverse the district court’s decision. Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c726 dc-399877 Respectfully submitted, /s/Jonathan Band_______________ Jonathan Band Matthew Schruers MORRISON & FOERSTER LLP 2000 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Suite 5500 Washington, D.C. 20006 (202) 887-1500 Dated: January 24, 2005 Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7dc-399877 CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE Pursuant to Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(7)(B) and (C), and Eighth Cir. R. 28A(c), I hereby certify that this brief uses the proportionally-spaced 14-point typeface “Times New Roman,” and therefore complies with Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(5). This document was composed in Microsoft Word 2002 SP3. This brief contains 5,490 words, excluding the parts exempted by Fed. R. App. R. 37(a)(7)(B)(iii), and therefore complies with the type-volume limitation of Fed. R. App. P. 32(a)(7)(B). Pursuant to Eighth Cir. R. 28A(d), I certify that the 3.5” floppy diskette that is being filed concurrently with this brief contains the same document in a searchable *.pdf format, and is virus free. /s/Matthew Schruers_______________ Matthew Schruers Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7dc-399877 CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE I hereby certify that on this 24th day of January, 2005, I caused two (2) copies of the foregoing Brief Amici Curiae of CCIA and OSAIA in Support of Internet Gateway et al. and Urging Reversal, and an electronic copy in .pdf format on a 3.5” floppy diskette to be served via the overnight service of the United Parcel Service (UPS) on: Stephen Howard Rovak Kirill Y. Abramov SONNENSCHEIN NATH & ROSENTHAL One Metropolitan Square Suite 3000 St. Louis, MO 63102 Robert M. Galvin Paul S. Grewal Richard C. Lin DAY CASEBEER MADRID & BATCHELDER LLP 20300 Stevens Creek Boulevard, Suite 400 Cupertino, CA 95014 Matthew Braunel Mark Sableman THOMPSON COBURN LLP One US Bank Plaza St. Louis, MO 63101-1611 Jason M. Schultz ELECTRONIC FRONTIER FOUNDATION 454 Shotwell Street San Francisco, CA 94110 (415) 436-9333 I further certify that the original and ten (10) hard copies, and an electronic copy in .pdf format on a 3.5” floppy diskette have been sent by UPS overnight to: Clerk of the Court U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit Thomas F. Eagleton Courthouse Room 24.329 111 South Tenth Street St. Louis, Missouri /s/Matthew Schruers_______________ Matthew Schruers Document hosted at http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.aspx?fid=1c73e415-24c7-49af-87b8-8e80cfebc6c7