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⭐AGREEMENTS TO INDEMNIFY & GENERAL LIABILITY INSURANCE:
AGREEMENTS TO INDEMNIFY & GENERAL LIABILITY INSURANCE:
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1 AGREEMENTS TO INDEMNIFY & GENERAL LIABILITY INSURANCE: A Fifty State Survey WEINBERG WHEELER H U D G I N S G U N N & D I A L2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 Alabama 4 Alaska 7 Arizona 12 Arkansas 15 California 19 Damages arising out of bodily injury or death to persons. 22 Damage to property. 22 Any other damage or expense arising under either (a) or (b). 22 Colorado 23 Connecticut 26 Delaware 29 Florida 32 Georgia 36 Hawaii 42 Idaho 45 Illinois 47 Indiana 52 Iowa 59 Kansas 65 Kentucky 68 Louisiana 69 Maine 72 Maryland 77 Massachusetts 81 Michigan 89 Minnesota 91 Mississippi 94 Missouri 97 Montana 100 Nebraska 104 Nevada 107 New Hampshire 109 New Jersey 111 New Mexico 115 New York 1183 North Carolina 122 North Dakota 124 Ohio 126 Oklahoma 130 Oregon 132 Pennsylvania 139 Rhode Island 143 South Carolina 146 South Dakota 150 Tennessee 153 Texas 157 Utah 161 Vermont 165 Virginia 168 Washington 171 West Virginia 175 Wisconsin 177 Wyoming 1804 INTRODUCTION Indemnity is compensation given to make another whole from a loss already sustained. It generally contemplates reimbursement by one person or entity of the entire amount of the loss or damage sustained by another. Indemnity takes two forms common law and contractual. While this survey is limited to contractual indemnity, it is important to note that many states have looked to the law relating to common law indemnity in developing that state s jurisprudence respecting contractual indemnity. Common law indemnity is the shifting of responsibility for damage or injury from one tortfeasor to another tortfeasor. 1 It has been referred to as an extreme form of contribution, 2 which reflects that this form of indemnity initially arose as a judicial means of avoiding the harsh result of the now substantially abrogated rule prohibiting contribution among joint tortfeasors. 3 The circumstances under which this form of indemnity will lie varies widely depending upon the applicable state law. 4 Contractual indemnity, on the other hand, is that which is voluntarily given to a person or entity to prevent his suffering damage. 5 It is security or protection against hurt or loss or damage. 6 This form of indemnity is created by express contract or agreement and is a promise to safeguard another from existing or future loss or liability, or both. 7 This form of indemnity may arise where the indemnitor and indemnitee are both mutually culpable, but the parties have contractually agreed that the risk of such culpability will be born entirely by one and not both. In other words, contractual indemnity may result from the agreement of one to answer for a legal obligation which would otherwise rest with another. It is this contractually created indemnity which is the subject of this survey because of its potential implications on another form of contractual indemnity: the liability insurance policy. The existence 1 Galliher v. Holloway, 474 N.E.2d 797, 803 (Ill. App. 1985). Common law indemnity is also referred to as equitable or implied indemnity. 2 Slattery v. Marra Bros. Inc., 186 F.2d 134, 138 (2d Cir. 1950). In contrast to indemnification, contribution involves only partial reimbursement of one who has discharged a common liability. Braye v. Acher-Daniel-Midlands Co., 659 N.E.2d 430, 433 (Ill. App. 1995). While contribution involves partial reimbursement of one which has discharged a common liability, indemnity requires reimbursement of the entire amount of liability. Mullen v. Cogdell, 643 N.E.2d 390, 400 (Ind. App. 1994). One involves the sharing of a loss; the other the shifting of the entire loss. McClesky v. Noble Corp., 577 P.2d 830, 833 (Kan. App. 1978). The distinction between contribution and indemnity is that contribution asks another to share in debt, while indemnity would require another to pay it all. Marshall v. Casey, 532 N.E.2d 1121, 1123 (Ill. App. 1989). 3 RESTATEMENT (SECOND) OF TORTS 886B; National Serv. Indus., Inc. v. B.W. Norton Mfg. Co., 937 P.2d 551 (Utah App. 1997). 4 A survey of the differing standards and application of common law indemnity is beyond the scope of this survey. 5 Keesler v. City of Peekskill, 152 N.Y.S.2d 919, 920 (1955); New Jersey v. Connolly, 72 A. 363, 364 (N. J. 1909). 6 Eggers v. Centrifugal & Mechanical Indus., Inc., 440 S.W.2d 512, 515 (Mo. App. 1969). 7 Dresser Indus., Inc. v. Page Petroleum, Inc., 853 S.W.2d 505, 508 (Tex. 1993).5 and application of an agreement by one to indemnify another where a policy of liability insurance potentially covers a loss implicates many issues, two of which are paramount. The first such issue arises where a person or entity obtains for its benefit a liability insurance policy which will indemnify the insured for its liability for damages, and the insured in turn agrees to indemnify a third party for its liability for damages. What is the effect of the insured s agreement to indemnify a third party on the insurer s agreement to indemnify the insured pursuant to the liability insurance policy? Must the insurer indemnify the insured for its indemnification of the third party? While the standard Commercial General Liability Policy 8 contains an exclusion for contractually assumed liability, 9 the policy restores coverage for liability assumed in an insured contract, 10 a defined term under the policy. 11 Included within the definition of insured contract is that part of any... contract or agreement under which [the insured] assume[s] the tort liability of another. 12 If an insured s agreement to indemnify a third party constitutes the assumption of the third party s tort liability, then loss or damage flowing from this assumed obligation is not excluded from coverage. Since the insurer may not have contemplated exposure or obtained premium for this risk, the enforceability of the insured s agreement to indemnify is critical. To the extent the insured s indemnity obligation is unenforceable pursuant to the applicable 8 See ISO Forms CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG ; CG The exclusion reads: This insurance does not apply to:... Bodily injury or property damage for which the insured is obligated to pay damages by reason of the assumption of liability in a contract or agreement In the 1985 and 1986 ISO Forms, the exception provides: This exclusion does not apply to liability for damages: (1) Assumed in a contract or agreement that is an insured contract; or (2) That the insured would have in the absence of the contract or agreement. (Exclusion b.(1) and (2)). In the 1988 and 1993 ISO Forms, the exception provides: This exclusion does not apply to liability for damages: (1) Assumed in a contract or agreement that is an insured contract, provided the bodily injury or property damage occurs subsequent to the execution of the contract or agreement; or (2) That the insured would have in the absence of the contract or agreement. (Exclusion b.(1) and (2)). In the 1996, 1998, 2001 ad 2004 ISO Forms, subsections b.(1) and b.(2) are inverted, but are otherwise the same. 11 In the 1985 and 1986 ISO Forms, Insured Contract means, among other things, That part of any other contract or agreement pertaining to your business under which you assume the tort liability of another to pay damages because of bodily injury or property damage to a third person or organization, if the contract or agreement is made prior to the bodily injury or property damage. Tort liability means a liability that would be imposed by law in the absence of any contract or agreement. In the 1988, 1993, 1996, 1998, 2001 ad 2004 ISO Forms, Insured Contract means, among other things, That part of any other contract or agreement pertaining to your business (including an indemnification of a municipality in connection with work performed for a municipality) under which you assume the tort liability of another party to pay for bodily injury or property damage to a third person or organization. Tort liability means a liability that would be imposed by law in the absence of any contract or agreement. The parenthetical reference in the 1988 Form appears as a separate item in the definition of insured contract in the 1985 Form. 12 See n. 11.6 state law, 13 the insured s obligation is negated and the insurer s risk removed. But is this the outcome under a particular state s law? Even where an insured agrees to an otherwise unenforceable indemnity, the indemnity may be upheld if the agreement envisions the purchase of insurance for the loss, since this may be read as an agreement to look solely to insurance in the event of loss, rather than to the indemnifying party. Beyond the foregoing, an insured may agree to indemnify a third party for loss or damage, and also include the indemnitee as an additional insured under the very liability policy arguably bound to respond to the insured s agreement to indemnify. Under these circumstances, whether the insured contract exception to the exclusion for contractually assumed liability applies likely is never reached because status as an additional insured obligates the insurer directly to the indemnitee/third party to the extent of the coverage. What is the outcome, however, where the insured s indemnity obligation extends to limited circumstances or only to a certain monetary limit and the coverage of the liability policy is greater? Is the insurer s obligation to the third party/indemnitee/additional insured limited to the amount of the insured s obligation to indemnify, or is the insurer exposed to the full extent of the dollar amount of coverage stated in the policy? The second important manner in which the presence of indemnity may implicate an insurer s ultimate risk arises where a person or entity obtains for its benefit a policy of liability insurance and the insured is the beneficiary of an agreement by a third party to indemnify the insured for its liability for damages. The indemnity flowing from a third party to the insured is significant since the insured s right to indemnity from the third party may afford the insurer a means of recouping any payment made by the insurer on behalf of the insured because of a legal liability of the insured. 14 The general question presented is consequently simple: Is the indemnity agreement enforceable and what is its impact on the insurance obligation? This is the context of the present survey. A uniform format is followed in each of the state summaries. A preliminary discussion of indemnity agreements appears under Section I, entitled General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Section II identifies statutory or judicially created exceptions to the general rules applicable to contracts of indemnity, entitled Exceptions to General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Section III addresses the extent to which an insured s agreement to indemnify a third party constitutes an insured contract under the state law, negating the exclusion for contractually assumed liability to the extent of the indemnity, and is entitled Indemnity Agreements as Insured Contracts. Section IV addresses the interplay between an insured s agreement to indemnify a third party which is combined with a 13 Indemnity agreements are likewise unenforceable under provisions of federal law. Prohibited indemnity agreements include agreements tending to interfere with interstate commerce. See Gordon Leasing Co. v. Navajo Freightlines, 326 A.2d 114 (City Court 1974), and agreements to indemnify involving towage contracts. See Bisso v. Inland Waterways Corp. 349 U.S. 85, 75 S. Ct. 629, 99 L.Ed. 911 (1955). This list is not exhaustive and the extent to which an indemnity agreement is violative of federal law is beyond the scope of this survey. 14 An insurer may also potentially recover on a theory of contribution or indemnity in the absence of a written indemnity, but such actions are typically limited to the applicable state s law regarding joint tortfeasor liability.7 reference to first or third party insurance, and is entitled Operation of An Agreement to Indemnify Referring to or Requiring Insurance. While this is principally a survey of the intersection between general liability insurance and an insured s separate agreement to indemnify, the discussion of relevant case law is not always limited to general liability policies where discussion and analysis of other policy forms is relevant to the subject matter of this survey. ALABAMA I General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Express contracts of indemnity are enforceable under Alabama law. 15 If the parties to an agreement knowingly, evenhandedly, and for valid consideration intelligently enter into an agreement whereby one party agrees to indemnify the other, 16 the agreement will be enforced if expressed in clear and unequivocal language. 17 The same rule applies to indemnity against the indemnitee s own wrongs. 18 While talismanic language is not a necessity, the intention to indemnify for the indemnitee s own negligence must be clear from the instrument. 19 The language must clearly and unequivocally contemplate indemnification for the sole negligence of the indemnitee. 20 Applying this rule, an agreement to indemnify providing that it shall apply regardless of the cause and even in the event of the sole, gross or concurrent negligence of [indemnitee] was enforceable and did not run afoul of public policy notwithstanding that the indemnitor had no control over the activity giving rise to the claim. 21 The potential inequity of such an outcome is tempered by the recognition that an indemnitor can expressly exclude liability for the sole negligence of the indemnitee by the clear and unambiguous terms of an indemnity provision. 22 An agreement to hold harmless another from all damage suits and claims was held to give rise to the duty to indemnify. 23 However, an agreement to indemnify 15 See Royal Ins. Co. v. Whitaker Construction Corp., 824 So. 2d 747, 751 (Ala. 2002); Nationwide Mutual Ins. Co. v. Hale, 643 So. 2d 551, 555 (Ala. 1994); Industrial Tile, Inc. v. Stewart, 388 So. 2d 171, 175 (Ala. 1980). 16 Stewart, 388 So. 2d at ; Whitaker, 824 So. 2d at Humana Medical Corp. v. Bagby Elevator Company, 653 So. 2d 972, 975 (Ala. 1995). 20 See Mobil Oil Corp. v. Schlumberger, 598 So. 2d 1341, 1346 (Ala. 1992). 21 at See McDevitt & Street Co. v. Mosher Steel Co., 574 So. 2d 794 (Ala. 1991) (citing with approval Stewart and acknowledging the validity of an indemnity provision that disclaims the duty to indemnify when the negligent act is caused by the sole negligence of a party indemnified hereunder ). 23 Hall, 643 So. 2d at8 and hold harmless from all liability, claims, lawsuits and demands was held to be ambiguous and not read as indemnifying the indemnitee for its own negligence. 24 II Exceptions to General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Agreements that purport to indemnify another for the other s intentional conduct are void as a matter of public policy. 25 This appears to be the only significant prohibition on the general rule that express contracts of indemnity are enforceable under Alabama law. In all other circumstances, the Alabama courts strive to effectuate the bargained for intent of the parties which contract for indemnity. Therefore, any other limitations on the scope of the indemnity must arise out of the terms and conditions of the indemnity agreement and are subject to the rule articulated in Industrial Tile. While Alabama still adheres to a rule precluding contribution or common law indemnity between tortfeasors, 26 where one tortfeasor agrees in writing to indemnify another tortfeasor, even for claims based on the other s own negligence, the agreement is enforceable. 27 III Indemnity Agreements as Insured Contracts. Where a liability insurance policy excludes coverage for injury or damage which the insured assumed in a contract or agreement, but contains an exception for insured contracts, defined by the policy as including the insured s assumption of tort liability of another, this exception extends to an insured s agreement to indemnify another. 28 An agreement to indemnify is an insured contract within the meaning of the liability insurance policy where the definition includes the assumption of tort liability of another Brown Mechanical Contractors, Inc. v. Centennial Ins. Co., 431 So. 2d 932, (Ala. 1983). 25 City of Montgomery v. JYD Intern., Inc., 534 So. 2d 592, 594 (Ala. 1988); see also Price Williams Assoc., Inc. v. Nelson, 631 So. 2d 1016, 1019 (Ala. 1994); Pruet v. Dugger-Holmes & Assoc., 162 So. 2d 613, 615 (Ala. 1964). The decision in Titan Indemnity Company v. Riley, 679 So. 2d 701 (Ala. 1996), arguably raises a question as to the viability of even this exception to the general rule. In Titan, the court found that Alabama public policy does not prohibit the enforcement of a contract in which an insurer agrees to pay for injuries suffered by third parties as a result of intentional acts of the insured. Titan, 679 So. 2d at 707. However, the ruling should be read as limited to policies of insurance, since the statement was based on Burnham Shoes, Inc. v. West American Insurance, Co., 504 So. 2d 238 (Ala. 1987) (overruled on other grounds), in which it was held that an insurer could not avoid an obligation to defend a suit alleging intentional misconduct on public policy grounds where the insurance policy expressly provided for the defense of claims alleging intentional acts. Burnham, 504 So. 2d at 241. Titan applies this same reasoning to enforce an insurer s contractual duty to indemnify an insured for its intentional acts, suggesting the court did not consider the difference between the duty to defend and the duty to indemnify. Titan, 679 So. 2d at 707, 26 Bagby Elevator Co., 653 So. 2d at 974; Parker v. Mauldin, 353 So. 2d 1375, 1377 (Ala. 1977). 27 Crigler v. Salac, 438 So. 2d 1375, (Ala. 1983). 28 See Townsend Ford, Inc. v. Auto-Owners Ins. Co., 656 So. 2d 360, 364 (Ala. 1995). 299 IV Operation of An Agreement to Indemnify Referring to or Requiring Insurance. Where a contractual agreement to indemnify a third party requires the purchase of insurance, the indemnitor s direct liability to the indemnitee extends only to the limits of the coverage, but the insurer s indirect liability to the indemnitee is not limited by the limits of the indemnity. 30 In Alfa v. Nationwide, the owner of an apartment building contracted with a property manager and contractually indemnified the manager for liability arising out of the indemnitee s managerial duties. The owner was furthermore required to obtain insurance sufficient to cover claims against the manager to the same extent as owner in the event of damage or injury. 31 A fire resulted in the death of a tenant and suit was initiated against the owner and manager. The owner s insurer refused to defend or indemnify the manager. The manager settled the claim against him for $250, and the owner s insurer paid the full amount of the policy limits of $300, in settlement of the claims against the owner. The manager sought recovery against the owner and insurer for the refusal to defend and indemnify, and the court determined the manager s liability should be covered on a pro rata basis by his own insurer and the insurer of owner. 33 On remand, the remaining portion of the settlement satisfied by the manager s liability policy was held to be the individual liability of the owner pursuant to his agreement to indemnify the manager, which ultimately became an obligation of the insurer pursuant to the exception to the exclusion for contractually assumed liability arising in the event of an insured s indemnification of another. On later appeal, the court held that the indemnity and insurance provisions were to be read together and implied that the indemnification of the manager by the owner was limited to the extent of the coverage obtained by the owner for the benefit of the manager. 34 That is, the owner s obligation to indemnify, and the insurer s obligation to cover the owner for the indemnity, ended at the outer boundaries of the insurance coverage. The court did not address directly the situation where the coverage extends further than the indemnity liability. However, the court implied that where the insurer agrees to provide coverage for the indemnity liability of its insured, the coverage rather than the indemnity governs the limits of liability. 35 This implication is given credence by the distinction between a contractual obligation to indemnify and a contractual obligation to procure insurance. 36 Under an agreement to indemnify, the promisor assumes liability for all injuries and 30 See Alfa Mut. Ins. Co. v. Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co., 684 So. 2d 1295, 1301 (Ala. 1996) The settlement was actually paid by the manager s own liability insurer which then pursued a subrogation action against the owner and the other insurer. at at at at See Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. v. J.M. Tull Metals Co., 629 So. 2d 633, 639 (Ala. 1993).10 damages upon the occurrence of a contingency. In contrast, an agreement to obtain insurance involves the promisor s agreement to obtain or purchase insurance coverage, regardless of whether a contingency occurs. 37 If an indemnitor s liability insurance policy names an indemnitee as an additional insured, the insurer s coverage obligation to the indemnitee is determined by the insurance policy, not the underlying indemnity agreement. 38 In Nationwide, the court segregated the owner s duty to indemnify (and therefore, the insurer s duty to provide coverage for the indemnity liability) from the insurer s separate duty to provide coverage to the manager as an additional insured. 39 The court found that the owner s liability policy conferred upon the insurer the status of primary insurer to the manager, named as an additional insured under the policy. 40 Therefore, the manager was entitled to all the attendant benefits, e.g., the right to be indemnified and the right to be defended, that the policy bestows upon a primary insured. 41 Presumably, coverage of the indemnitee is independent of any duty of indemnification owed the indemnitee under a contractual agreement and can therefore far exceed the limits of the indemnity. ALASKA I General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Absent an applicable statutory prohibition, Alaska courts will construe a contractural indemnity provision to effectuate the objectively reasonable expectations of the parties. 42 With regard to an indemnification agreement which purports to indemnify a party for its own negligence, the interpretation of such a clause varies depending upon the nature of the contract. In the case of commercial contracts, the more general rule that indemnity clauses are to be strictly construed, has been rejected. 43 Instead, when interpreting an indemnity in a commercial contract indemnifying a party for its own negligence, courts apply the reasonable construction rule. 44 Under this rule of interpretation, the unambiguous language of an indemnity clause as reasonably construed should be See Nationwide, 643 So. 2d at at at The policy upon which the court premised its decision does not use the term additional insured. Rather, the manager is listed as a party who is also an insured. at 559. However, there is no discernible distinction between the status of the manager as an additional insured or as a party also entitled to insurance under the policy. 41 at 563; see also Haisten v. Audubon Indem. Co., 642 So. 2d 404 (Ala. 1994) (holding that the insurer owed coverage to an additional insured/indemnitee either directly as an additional insured or indirectly through a recovery against the insured/indemnitor). 42 Duty Free Shoppers Limited v. State, 777 P.2d 649, 652 (Alaska 1989). 43 Stephan & Sons v. Municipality of Anchorage, 629 P.2d 71, 74 (Alaska 1981). 44 Manson-Osberg Co. v. State, 552 P.2d 654, 659 (Alaska 1976).11 given effect even if it does not contain words specifying indemnity for the indemnitee s own negligence. 45 Other than certain statutory restrictions set forth below, there is no public policy impediment to an indemnitor undertaking to indemnify the indemnitee for the indemnitee s own negligence. 46 For example, a broad interpretation was given to an indemnity agreement which provided that a contractor must indemnify and save harmless the State from all claims brought because of injuries received by any person on account of the operations of the contractor. 47 The indemnity was held to apply to injuries occurring as a result of the State s own negligence. 48 Similarly, an agreement which indemnified a subcontractor for all claims arising out of, in connection with, or incident to the subcontractor s performance of its duties was determined to include claims based on the subcontractor s own negligence. 49 An express indemnity clause is enforceable in an action for indemnity against an injured party s employer, despite the general workmen s compensation bar. 50 II Exceptions to General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Alaska Statute, Section provides: A provision, clause, covenant, or agreement contained in, collateral to, or affecting a construction contract that purports to indemnify the promisee against liability... from the sole negligence or willful misconduct of the promisee or the promisee s agents, servants or independent contractors who are directly responsible to the promisee, is against public policy and is void and unenforceable. In the context of AS , willful misconduct means volitional action taken either with a knowledge that serious injury to another will probably result, or with wanton and reckless disregard of the possible results. 51 The purpose behind this statute is to promote the public policy that all wronged persons should have a remedy for injuries suffered as a result of another person s negligence. 52 As used in AS , the word indemnity has been read to mean exempt, and thus, the statute has been construed to restrict limitation of liability Burgess Construction Co, v. State, 614 P.2d 1380, 1382 (Alaska 1980) at (noting that most modern authorities hold that similar indemnity clauses are effective to shift responsibility for an accident where the indemnitee is negligent and the indemnitor is not). 49 CJM Construction, Inc. v. Chandler Pluming & Heating, Inc., 708 P.2d 60, 64 (Alaska 1985). 50 Manson-Osberg Co. v. State, 552 P.2d 654 (Alaska 1976). 51 Aetna Casualty & Surety Co. v. Marion Equipment Co., 894 P.2d 664 (Alaska 1995). 52 City of Dillingham v. CH2M Hill Northwest, Inc., 873 P.2d 1271, 1276 (Alaska 1994).12 clauses as well as indemnity agreements. 53 Additionally, the statute has been read broadly to apply to indemnification clauses contained in leases of construction equipment, as such an agreement has been found to be contained in, collateral to, or affecting a construction contract. 54 Indemnification clauses in construction contracts which could potentially encompass claims caused by the indemnitee s sole negligence or willful misconduct are not void simply because they could be read broadly. AS does not invalidate an indemnity clause merely because there is a theoretical possibility that the clause could be applied to indemnify the indemnitee for conduct governed by the statute. 55 Instead, the statute only applies to invalidate an indemnity clause if the clause is actually applied, as between the parties, to indemnify an indemnitee for the indemnitee s own sole negligence or willful misconduct. 56 In addition to the restrictions placed on indemnity agreements in AS , a public duty exception, generally applicable to public utilities and common carriers, has also been recognized. 57 Two principles underlie this public duty exception: (1) the exception applies to entities that must guard against negligence at all times, since indemnity agreements would create improper incentives for them to breach a duty owed to the public; and (2) public service entities should not be able to impose liability on those they are supposed to serve, since the recipients of the public service would have no choice but to accept that liability. 58 III Indemnity Agreements as Insured Contracts. The Supreme Court of Alaska has recognized that an agreement to indemnify another is within the definition of liability assumed in a contract, but has not determined whether agreeing to indemnify another for the other s tort liability meets the definition in the standard general liability policy excepting from the exclusion an insured contract. 59 An Alaska federal court acknowledged the policy exception and implied that an agreement to indemnify one for tort liability may fall within the definition of insured contract, but could not determine the scope of the indemnity agreement on the evidence before it at Aetna, supra. 55 Hoffman Construction Co. of Alaska v. U.S. Fabrication & Erection, Inc., 32 P.3d 346, 358 (Alaska 2001). 56 Rogers & Babler v. State, 713 P.2d 795, 798 (Alaska 1986). 57 Burgess supra, at 1381; Kuhn v. State of Alaska 692 P.2d 261 (1984). 58 Burgess supra, at Olympic, Inc. v. Providence Washington Insurance Co. of Alaska, 648 P.2d 1008 (Alaska 1982) (referring to incidental contracts as an exception to contractual liability exclusion); Alaska National Insurance Co. v. Industrial Indemnity Co., 757 P.2d 1052 (Alaska 1988). 60 United States v. CNA Fin. Corp., 168 F. Supp. 2d 1109 (D. Alaska 2001).13 IV Operation of An Agreement to Indemnify Referring to or Requiring Insurance. Alaska courts generally recognize that parties are allowed to freely negotiate the allocation of tort liability regardless of fault so long as the contract terms are not unconscionable. 61 Where one party is responsible for procuring full insurance for both parties, that intent must be stated in express terms. 62 In such a case, that party becomes responsible for the total risk of loss by affirmatively undertaking the duty to provide full insurance coverage for the mutual benefit of the parties. 63 Additional insured endorsements purporting to afford broader coverage than the named insured s underlying agreement to indemnify or obtain insurance coverage are broadly construed. In State v. Underwriters at Lloyds, London, 64 a lease between an airline and airport required the airline to indemnify the airport and to maintain insurance to protect the airport against comprehensive public liability, products liability and property damage. However, the insurance procured by the airline provided coverage that was broader than that called for in the lease. 65 The court held that [t]he obligation of a liability insurer is contractual and is generally determined by the terms of the policy. 66 Finding nothing in the policy between the parties which limited its coverage to the minimums required under the lease, and no legal doctrine to support such a limitation, the court found that the airline s insurer was responsible for the full coverage in the policy with the airline, although this was greater than the airline s agreement to indemnify. 67 Where an additional insured endorsement in a policy identifies all subcontractors of the named insured as additional insureds, but only with regard to the subcontractors property interest, it has been held that an insurer cannot seek subrogation against those subcontractors for any claim of negligence, even if such a claim is beyond the scope of the subcontractor s property interest. 68 In such a case, because a subcontractor has been identified as an additional insured, the insurer has no right to enforce a contractual indemnity agreement between its insured and the subcontractor. 69 In subrogation actions, an insurer cannot recover its losses from a negligent third party if that party is an additional insured under the applicable policy. 70 The language in the policy limiting coverage will not prevent courts from 61 Dressler Industries, Inc. v. Foss Launch and Tug Co., 560 P.2d 393, 395 (Alaska 1977) (holding that in the bailment context, an agreement to purchase insurance for the benefit of both parties is sufficient to shift the risk of loss for the bailed goods) P.2d 396 (Alaska 1988) at Baugh-Belarde Construction Co. v. College Utilities Corp., 561 P.2d 1211 (Alaska 1977) Graham v. Rockman, 504 P.2d 1351 (Alaska 1972).14 viewing subcontractors as insureds in order to prevent them from being liable in subrogation claims. 71 For example, although the policy may limit coverage for the subcontractor only as regards [their] property, or as their interests may appear, the subcontractor is still protected from subrogation claims for damages beyond this coverage. 72 However, in cases where the insured has entered into an indemnification agreement with a third party that is not named as an additional insured under the named insured s policy, the insurer may recover amounts paid under that policy pursuant to the indemnification agreement. 73 In so doing, the court looks to and applies the plain language of the indemnification clause. 74 In Alaska Insurance Co. v. RCA Alaska Communications, Inc., 75 it was held that a party could be an implied additional or co-insured and could still obtain the benefit of the named insured s coverage. In RCA, a fire destroyed a building which RCA rented from Bachner, the owner. 76 The written lease between the parties provided that the owner would maintain insurance which would provide protection against all risks, including fire. 77 Bachner s insurer paid for the fire loss, and then commenced a subrogation action against RCA, contending that RCA had negligently caused the fire. 78 The court held that RCA was an implied co-insured and reasoned that it would contradict the reasonable expectations of a commercial tenant to allow the landlord s insurer to proceed against it after the landlord had contracted in the lease to provided fire insurance on the leased premises In these circumstances, it would be undesirable as a matter of public policy to permit the risk of loss from a fire negligently caused by a tenant to fall upon the tenant rather than the landlord s insurer. 80 The Alaska courts have not discussed whether an agreement to procure insurance to cover an indemnity obligation runs afoul of AS The general approach taken by courts seems to imply that indemnity agreements would not be subject to the statute if they provide that the indemnitor will procure insurance sufficient to cover the risk involved, though this issue has not been specifically addressed. 71 Baugh-Belarde Construction Co., supra, at 1213 (holding that the builder s risk policy protected each insured party against his own negligence, whether the property lost belonged to him or to some other insured party) United Airlines, Inc. v. State Farm & Casualty, Co., 51 P.3d 928 (2002) P.2d 1216 (Alaska 1981). 76 at at at at15 ARIZONA I General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. A party may contractually relieve itself from liability to another for damages or ordinary negligence via a contract for indemnity. 81 The duty to indemnify is determined by the contract itself rather than common law principles when parties expressly agree to indemnity in a contract. 82 An agreement to indemnify another for the other party s own negligent acts does not violate public policy. 83 However, indemnity of this nature is strictly construed and not enforced unless the indemnitor s obligation to protect the indemnitee against its own negligence is expressed in clear and unequivocal terms. 84 Where an indemnity provision is silent as to its application to the negligence of the indemnitee a general indemnity provision 85 an indemnitee is entitled to indemnification for a loss resulting in part from an indemnitee s passive negligence, but not active negligence. 86 One example of a general indemnity provision is an agreement... to indemnify and hold indemnitee harmless from... any and all claims, liabilities,... and causes of action arising out or in connection with any accident or injury... caused in whole or in part by the act, neglect, fault of or omission of any duty incurred by indemnitee Active negligence exists where an indemnitee has personally participated in an affirmative act of negligence, was connected with negligent acts or omissions by knowledge or acquiescence, or has failed to perform a precise duty the indemnitee has agreed to perform, whereas passive negligence is mere nonfeasance, such as the failure to discover a dangerous condition, perform a duty imposed by law, or take adequate precautions against certain hazards inherent in employment. 88 While courts ordinarily follow the rule that a party will not be indemnified for its own active negligence under a general indemnity agreement, 89 mechanical application of this rule should be avoided in determining the parties intent with 81 See Schweber Electronics v. National Semiconductor Corp., 850 P.2d 119 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1992). 82 INA Ins Co. of N. America v. Valley Forge Ins. Co., 722 P.2d 975, 979 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1986); Grubb & Ellis Mgmt. Services, Inc., 2006 Ariz. App. Lexis 86, *8 (July 27, 2006). 83 Washington Elementary School Dist. No. 6 v. Baglino Corp., 817 P.2d 3, 6 (Ariz. 1991). 84, citing Pioneer Roofing Co. v. Mardian Constr. Co., 733 P.2d 652, 671 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1986) , citing Pioneer Roofing, 733 P.2d at See generally Cunningham v. Goettl Air Conditioning, Inc., 980 P.2d 489 (Ariz. 1999). 88, citing Estes Co. v. Aztech Constr., Inc., 677 P.2d 939 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1983). 89 Washington Elementary, 817 P.2d at 6.16 respect to indemnification as provided in the contract itself. 90 Relying exclusively on the active/passive distinction in determining whether an indemnity agreement applies in a given case may prevent an agreement from being enforced as the parties intended. 91 Contractual indemnity provisions can also be construed as a limited form indemnity agreement, an intermediate form indemnity agreement or a broad form indemnity agreement: The limited form indemnity obligates the indemnitor to save and hold harmless the indemnitee only for the indemnitor s own negligence. The intermediate form indemnity obligates the indemnitor to hold harmless the indemnitee for all liability except that which arises out of the indemnitee s sole negligence. The broad form indemnity requires the indemnitor to save and hold harmless the indemnitee from all liabilities arising from the project, regardless of which party s negligence introduces the liability. 92 II Exceptions to General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. In certain circumstances, however, courts will void as against public policy intermediate and broad form indemnity provisions, depending on the type of contract at issue. For example, in construction contracts involving private (i.e. non-public entities), Ariz. Rev. Stat voids as against public policy indemnity provisions that attempt to indemnify an indemnitee for its sole negligence. This statute provides, in relevant part, as follows: a. A covenant, clause or understanding in, collateral to or affecting a construction contract or architect-engineer professional service contract that purports to indemnify, to hold harmless or to defend the promisee from or against liability for loss or damage resulting from the sole negligence of the promisee or the promisee s agents, employees or indemnitee is against the public policy of this state is void. b. Notwithstanding Subsection a, a contractor who is responsible for the performance of a construction contract may fully indemnify a person for whose account the construction contract is not being performed and who, as an accommodation, enters into an agreement with the contractor that permits the contractor to enter on or adjacent to its property to perform the construction contract for others. c. This Section applies to all contracts entered into between private parties. This Section does not apply to: (1) Agreements to which this state or a political subdivision of this state is a party, including intergovernmental agreements and agreements governed by Sections Connecticut Insurance LJ 169, 179.17 and (2) Agreements entered by agricultural improvement districts under Title 48, Chapter Accordingly, in the private construction context, a broad form indemnity provision as defined above is void as a matter of public policy. In the case of government construction contracts, a similar, but even less permissive statute applies. Ariz. Rev. Stat provides, in relevant part, as follows: a. A covenant, clause or understanding in, collateral to or affecting a construction contract or subcontract or architect-engineer professional service contract or subcontract that purports to indemnify, to hold harmless or to defend the promisee of, for or against liability for loss or damages resulting from the negligence of the promisee or the promisee s agents, employees or indemnitee is against the public policy of this state and is void. b. Notwithstanding Subsection a, a contractor who is responsible for the performance of a construction contract or subcontract may fully indemnify a person, firm, corporation, state or other agency for whose account the construction contract or subcontract is not being performed and who, as an accommodation, enters into an agreement with the contractor that permits the contractor to enter on or adjacent to its property to perform the construction contract or subcontract for others. 94 In the public construction context, therefore, both broad form and intermediate form indemnity provisions are void as a matter of public policy. Again, these statutory exceptions to the general rules of indemnity apply only in the construction context. Further, when applying either of these statutes, a distinction must be made as to whether the contract involves a public or private construction project. III Indemnity Agreements as Insured Contracts. It does not appear that the Arizona courts have addressed the extent to which an agreement to assume the tort liability of another via an indemnity agreement is an insured contract within the meaning of the exception to the exclusion for contractually assumed liability in the form CGL policy. IV Operation of An Agreement to Indemnify Referring to or Requiring Insurance. An agreement to procure insurance coupled with an indemnity provision does not automatically extend insurance coverage to the indemnitee unless some other basis for providing coverage exists, i.e. actually naming the indemnitee as an insured under the policy or endorsing the indemnitee as an additional insured. Stated differently, the mere fact that an insurance provision is included within an indemnity 93 Ariz. Rev. Stat (2004). 94 Ariz. Rev. Stat (2004).18 provision does not elevate the indemnitee to the level of an insured under the indemnitor s policy. 95 In some circumstances, however, the parties to a contract will agree to waive their respective rights against one another, including the right of indemnification, and instead look to the insurance procured by one or both of the parties in order to cover a particular type of loss. 96 Such waiver of subrogation clauses arise as an example in construction contracts where the contractor agrees to indemnify an owner for losses occasioned by the negligence or partial negligence of the contractor. That same contract, however, may also include a provision providing that the owner will procure insurance for a particular type of loss, most commonly fire damage. Regardless of its duty to indemnify, if the contractor s negligence results in the specific type of covered loss, the courts will look to the insurance of the owner to cover the loss. 97 A waiver of subrogation is useful in such projects because it avoids disruption and disputes among the parties to the project. It thus eliminates the need for lawsuits, and yet protects the contracting parties from loss by bringing all property damage under the all risks builder s property insurance. 98 As such, the courts may read an indemnification provision that refers to or requires the procurement of a specific type of insurance as a loss shifting mechanism designed to impose liability solely on the insurer, rather than the parties to the contract in the event of an occurrence of the specific loss. As in other jurisdictions, the controlling provision may not be the one that refers to indemnity, but rather the one that refers to insurance. ARKANSAS I General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Arkansas courts apply the same rules of interpretation to indemnity agreements as apply to contracts generally. 99 In construing a contract, the courts must endeavor to give meaning and effect to every word and may discard words as surplusage only when the intention of the parties clearly makes them such. 100 If, however, there is no ambiguity in the language of the contract, then there is no need to resort to rules of construction. 101 Like any contract, the interpretation of an indemnity agreement See United States Fid. & Guar. Co. v. Farrar s Plumbing & Heating Co., Inc., 762 P.2d 641 (Ariz. Ct. App. 1988); Fire Ins. Exch. V. Thunderbird Masonry, Inc., 868 P.2d 948, (Ariz. Ct. App. 1988). 97, citing Tokio Marine & Fire Ins. Co. v. Employers Ins. Of Wausau, 786 F.2d 101, 104 (2 nd Cir. 1986). 98 Tokio Marine, 786 F.2d at Pickens-Bond Const. Co. v. North Little Rock Elec. Co., 459 S.W.2d 549 (Ark. 1970); Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Murphy Exploration & Prod. Co., 2004 Ark. LEXIS 142 (Ark. Mar. 4, 2004). 100 Pickens-Bond, supra. 101 Nabholz Constr. Corp. v. Graham, 892 S.W.2d 456 (Ark. 1995). See also Ark. Kraft Corp. v. Boyed Sanders Constr. Co., 764 S.W.2d 452 (Ark. 1989)19 is to be determined by the court as a question of law, except where the meaning of the language depends on disputed extrinsic evidence. 102 Contracts indemnifying one for his own negligence are enforceable, 103 however, they require clear and unequivocal language. 104 Agreements to indemnify an indemnitee against its own negligence are generally disfavored, closely scrutinized, strictly construed against the indemnitee and in favor of the indemnitor, and will not be upheld unless expressed in such clear and unequivocal terms that no other meaning can be ascribed. 105 The rules of strict construction do not apply to the interpretation of indemnification agreements entered into by business entities in the context of free and understanding negotiation, 106 nor do they apply where the language of the agreement is unambiguous such that no rules of construction are necessary to ascertain the contract s meaning. 107 Any ambiguity in the contract will preclude a finding of indemnification for the indemnitee s own negligence, but even an unambiguous agreement can fall short of reaching the indemnitee s own negligence. The language of an indemnity agreement can be unambiguous and still not spell out in clear, unequivocal, unmistakable terms the indemnitor s intention to obligate itself to indemnify for the indemnitee s negligence. 108 While no particular words are required, the liability of an indemnitor for the negligence of an indemnitee is an extraordinary obligation to assume, and an intention to so indemnify must be spelled out in unmistakable terms. 109 Even with these strict rules of construction, broadly worded indemnity agreements may extend to indemnification for the indemnitee s own negligence, and the indemnity agreement will be limited only to the extent the indemnitee is the sole proximate cause of the injury. For example, an agreement which required the indemnitor to indemnify from whatever cause to property or persons used or employed on or in connection with his work,.... was considered broad and sweeping enough as to clearly and unequivocally show the indemnitor s intention to cover the negligence of the indemnitee. 110 This was not sufficient, however, to require indemnity for injuries for which the indemnitee s negligence was the sole proximate cause East-Harding, Inc. v. Horace A. Piazza & Assocs., 91 S.W.3d 547 (Ark. Ct. App. 2002). 103 Nabholz, supra. 104 Potlatch Corp. v. Missouri Pac. R.R., 902 S.W.2d 217 (Ark. 1995). 105 Potlatch, supra. See also Paul Hardeman, Inc. v. J.I. Hass Co., 439 S.W.2d 281 (Ark. 1969). 106 Potlatch, supra. 107 Pickens-Bond, supra. 108 Arkansas Kraft, supra Pickens-Bond, supra. 11120 In contrast, where an agreement specifically refers to the indemnitee s own negligence, an even broader reading is warranted, and the indemnity agreement will be enforced even if the indemnitee s negligence is the sole proximate cause of the injury. 112 Indemnity will typically only reach indemnification for tort liability, and absent express language to the contrary, an indemnity agreement will not cover indemnification for the indemnitee s contractual liabilities. 113 Additionally, as many of the indemnification cases arise in the construction context, a slightly different analysis may apply in cases involving other types of indemnity agreements. 114 The context in which indemnity agreements arise may affect the interpretation of what obligations an indemnitor undertook by the agreement. 115 For example, in an oil and gas lease, since the lessee is under a duty to restore the land after drilling, an indemnification agreement in such a lease must account for that duty, and a successor lessee who agrees to indemnify a predecessor lessee should know that its indemnity obligation will cover surface damage caused by its predecessor. 116 Although claims for tort-based or common-law indemnity are barred by the workers compensation act, there is an exception to the exclusivity of the Workers Compensation remedy when there is a contract or special relation capable of carrying with it an implied obligation to indemnify. 117 Thus, an express contract for indemnity will support a claim against the employer of an injured party. 118 II Exceptions to General Rules of Contractual Indemnity. Unlike the rule in many states, there is no statutory prohibition on indemnity agreements in the construction context, and the law on indemnity agreements has been developed through cases in which a subcontractor agreed to indemnify a general contractor. 119 Generally such contracts are upheld against the contention that they violate public policy, but the language must be clear, unequivocal and certain. 120 The general rule is that [s]ubject to public policy considerations a party may voluntarily agree to hold another harmless against loss by whatever cause it might be 112 Ross v. Smith, 315 F. Supp (E.D. Ark. 970). 113 Weaver-Bailey Contractors, Inc. v. Fiske-Carter Constr. Co., 657 S.W.2d 209 (Ark. Ct. App. 1983). 114 See e.g. Chevron, supra Mosley Machinery Co. v. Gray Supply Co., 833 S.W.2d 772 (Ark. 1992); see also Cherry v. Tanda, Inc., 940 S.W.2d 457 (Ark. 1997). 118 C & L Rural Elec. Coop. Corp. v. Kincaid, 256 S.W.2d 337 (Ark. 1953). 119 See Nabholz, supra. 120 Elk Corp. of Arkansas v. Builders Transport, Inc., 862 F.2d 663 (8 th Cir. 1988). View more
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