Source: http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/terrorism.htm
Timestamp: 2014-03-10 22:38:31
Document Index: 751012051

Matched Legal Cases: ['EWCA ', 'EWCA ', 'Art. 1', 'UKHL ', 'EWCA ', 'art. 1', 'art. 1', 'art. 1', 'UKHL ', 'art. 6', 'Application No. 8282']

GlobaLex - A Research Guide to Cases and Materials on Terrorism
Tools / Globalex / A Research Guide to Cases and
Materials on Terrorism
Compiled by Andrew Grossman Andrew Grossman is a retired U.S.
Foreign Service Officer who served in Seoul, Abidjan, London, Tehran, Algiers
and Geneva. He holds the degrees of B.A. in Economics (Clark), LL.B.
(Columbia), M.A. in L.I.S. (University College London) and of Licenci� en droit
europ�en et international, Ma�tre & Docteur en droit (Louvain-la-Neuve) and
is a member of the New York and District of Columbia Bars. He lives in London,
of nationality, bankruptcy and tax. Among his publications are "Conflict
of Laws in the Discharge of Debts in Bankruptcy", 5 Int'l Insolvency
Rev. 1 (1996), "Nationality and the Unrecognized State", 50 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 849
(2001), "Birthright citizenship as nationality of convenience", Proceedings, Council of Europe, Third
Conference on Nationality, Strasbourg, Oct. 11-12, 2004; and "'Islamic land': Group Rights,
National Identity and Law", 3 UCLA J. Islamic & Near E.L. 53
(2004). His previous work in this series is "Finding the Law: the Micro-States and Small
Jurisdictions of Europe". He recently completed research into conflicts
in the cross-border enforcement of tax claims and has begun a project analyzing
the limits of national autonomy in matters of nationality under European law.
sources of information: comprehensive sites, archives, lists International organizations NGOs, private research organizations, universities Other databases Government-sponsored sites RELEVANT
ASPECTS OF THE LAW Criminal (Penal) Law Case Law: Selected Opinions Previous terrorist cases, reports Prosecution in the USA based on violation of a
foreign statute (not necessarily terrorism-related) On-line articles and other materials Specific instances: Membership in a proscribed organization Organized crime Crimes against foreign missions and
internationally protected persons Particular Human Rights Issues; unintended
consequences General Law review articles Signals interception, wiretaps Other newspaper articles Extradition Case Law: Selected Opinions Documents Extrajudicial extraction: kidnapping, rendition Treaty and convention issues Current cases Status
and immigration, including deportation issues and refugee law Documents
Newspaper article Bibliography Law review articles Case Law: Selected Opinions Charity,
foundation, eco-terrorism issues "Animal rights", anti-abortion,
eco-terrorism, quasi-charity terrorism Laws and legal instruments: Specimen cases Charities: Eco-terrorism and animal rights: Anti-abortion: Money
laundering and the financial support of terrorism Case law Selected statutes and international materials Newspaper articles Reports and documents Some law review articles; book Other crimes Smuggling, tax evasion, racketeering: Counterfeiting Bank robbery, kidnapping
Treason Case Law: Selected Opinions
Statute law Passive
support of terrorists and terrorism Some articles Case law Libel cases, and their limitations On apologists for terrorism "State
Terrorism" Nuremberg Trials and the Eichmann Case
Libya International Tribunals Other "universal jurisdiction" cases and
issues United States cases UK cases Afghan, Iraqi, Geneva Convention issues Religion and
Cases: militia and radical Christian sects;
religious-based provocation Other reports and articles A few newspaper articles: Medical
preparedness and bio-terrorism Cases
addressing some miscellaneous legal issues Counter-terrorism
and Human Rights European Union: Relevance
of the Law of War, the Geneva Conventions Other Statutes and bills; legislative projects;
commentaries Government, academic and scholarly reference
sites, archives
Articles, Documents: skeptical, contrary and
A bibliographic survey of the law relating to terrorism -- even one
that tries to avoid advocacy and argument, and perhaps even more so on account
of that -- exposes its author to criticism more than anything over definition
and criteria for inclusion. Terrorism itself is a moving target: laws
addressing it written by a fearful Establishment, its history written by the
victors. Terrorist acts can be undertaken for all sorts of reasons or,
conceptually at least, for none at all other than to promote anarchy or to
express hatred. A purely criminal undertaking (as in extortion) is the least
likely to threaten the wider public (such crime tends to be local or limited to
particular ethnic groups) and it is also the easiest to deal with. Terrorist
acts commonly arise out of grievance and frustration, real or imagined:
religious, political, economic, personal. Terrorism, or the threat of
terrorism, can involve weapons of mass destruction, or it can consist of
measures of murder and mayhem, repression and intimidation directed at
individuals, at a group or class, or at all the inhabitants of a region or
state. While a dozen or more sectors of the law are pertinent to terrorism --
some as cause, some as effect, some as impediment and some as punishment --
historically no law has been more successful than the mere passage of time in
bringing it to an end. Terrorism and its companion, civil unrest, either bring
revolutionary change and are then sanctified in a new national myth[1], or they fail and grievances either
continue to fester or are overtaken by events. It can come as no surprise that the political Establishment focuses on
terrorism occurring at home, or targeting our friends. When it is by elements
of one friendly state against others of our friends (Irish republicans against
British and Irish nationalists; ethnic Greeks and ethnic Turks; Orthodox Slavs
and Catholic Slavs) one may perhaps side with the group most like oneself. As
in Monty Python's "The News for Parrots"[2] a mishap may be seen as tragic only to
the extent that it has an impact on ourselves, our group, our class.
Motivation, expectation and allegiance may be such that there is no obvious
solution: "justice" and "compromise" may prove mutually
exclusive in a way ill understood by outsiders. Compromise and sacrifice may be
unacceptable to those who, because they have wealth and prospects have the most
to lose and also the most political influence.[3]
If those charged with combating terrorism fail to appreciate the real limits of
their power, or if use the notion of a "war against terrorism"
chiefly as a political expedient, the situation they claim to defuse may
instead be worsened. Most sovereignty, if one goes back in time far enough,
derives from conquest: under modern notions of international law conquest does
not afford good title to land, but how many decades or centuries back must
one's claim lie in order to be beyond repudiation? The application of legal
norms -- of the law -- to terrorism is itself an expedient: and that's
certainly true to the extent that the law's actors are not there to "do
justice" but rather "to play the game according to the rules".[4] It is, however, of the essence of the
rule of law that those ruled by it accept its decisions.[5]
One would do well to keep in mind the power of claims to vested
interests and the ability of those who profit from them, however indirectly to
garner support, to delay change and to prolong iniquity. But even an
objectively fair offer in compromise may not put an end to facts and myths that
draw support, active and tacit, for extremist solutions. There are few ethnic
groups whose status and location are not the result of colonization, voluntary
or forced movement and war. The treaties concluding the First World War, and
the ensuing resettlements[6], the
dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[7] and
the creation of states and zones of influence, lie behind many recent European
and Middle East conflicts. Whether such historical facts will stimulate and
support terrorism many years later depends on the existence of a survivor class
from among the losing side, of a historical record, of myths, and of a culture
that will sustain anger and violent action. Western Europe, the United States and what is known as the "Old
Commonwealth" deem themselves, and are demanded by others, to be
pluralistic nations. Mazzini's unity of nation and commonality of nationality
commonality of language, territory, ethnicity, culture, religion and history[8] would violate modern notion of human
rights -- but only in those developed nations[9],
target regions for migration by members of other cultures, mainly family
members of previous migrants. The result is a bouleversement of what used to be
known as "allegiance"[10]
(carried over into America and crystallized in the XIVth Amendment
and discussed further below), and fears of a developing "fifth
column". We have, however, been there before: quite apart from lessons of
the Indian wars and of the civil rights movement, the Sedition Act[11], the language laws[12], the German American Bund cases[13], the Chinese exclusion[14] and Japanese internment[15] and expatriation[16] and the Communist cases[17] showed our fear of the
"other", and our ability to postulate that this other threatened the
well-being of the State. Civil and human rights to dissent, to associate, to
sympathize with the enemy, real or perceived, have strengthened in the
intervening years. The claim of the State to undivided loyalty of those who owe
it "permanent"[18] and
"temporary"[19]
allegiance has weakened concomitantly. The aim of "official" -- i.e., sovereign, terrorism by those
who have in law a monopoly of coercive force -- is that "shock and
awe": the intimidation of all others by "benign terror". It is
not clear that a modern, liberal state can accomplish this the way totalitarian
and imperial rulers did. One aim of private, political terrorism is to provoke
officialdom to outrageous response and thereby to procure external support.
Gandhian passive resistance may not be intended to provoke violent response[20]; but if it does, the State, or the
Establishment, has lost: Mississippi Burning[21].
It may be assumed that public suicides such as the 1981 Northern Irish death
fasts[22], the
self-immolations in Vietnam[23] and
suicide-murders, as in Israel[24],
Iraq[25],
Afghanistan[26] have
as their goal public unease and political destabilization. Mass random killings
may aim to provoke disproportionate responses[27]
and, gain perversely moral high ground. Once in power terrorists may become
"statesmen", be forgiven their crimes and have the opportunity to rewrite
history books to make of themselves national heroes.[28] Victims may be marginalized, their
private rights and interests subordinated to political and diplomatic
expediency. The criminal law may be marginalized by pardon or by refusal to
prosecute, as has happened in Northern Ireland. "Truth and
reconciliation" through public witnessing[29]
happens only sometimes. Old animosities and remembrances of terror may be
revived as new myths to support revived rivalries and justify genocide, as
happened in the course of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Or they may be denied,
suppressed as a matter of official policy: Armenians and Kurds in Turkey; the
civil unrest in Cyprus, 1960-1974. Past and present terrorism may be ignored by
other states -- allies and commercial partners of the perpetrators -- when it
suits their political and economic interests. Generations that follow the
beneficiaries of past terrorism have vested interests that are not easily
ignored: children do not, as a rule, inherit the debts of their ancestors. In
short, the law is secondary to politics and to diplomacy, pragmatism and
expedience. Our investigation of case law will, therefore, be less than fully
satisfying: these cases concern in fact countries where terrorism is, put in
geographic and demographic scale, not a genuine threat to the political, social
or economic system. And that is true however much of a public shame and
political issue it has become, however much disquiet it may have spawned.
Compare, for example, the cost of natural disasters and human error or
negligence: the tsunami[30],
hurricane Katrina[31],
Chernobyl[32].
The point of this survey is not so much to list sources -- many of
these could be found with a search engine and legal database; others by using
some of the better bibliographic sites listed here. It is rather to provide
some assistance in planning research and in formulating issues to address -- to
examine the range of issues and provide links, first to sources that are
considered reliable and unbiased, then to specimen law cases[33] and scholarly articles and, finally, to
opinions and arguments not otherwise adumbrated which, even if they are in
support of a particular agenda are coherent, plausible and forthright in their
advocacy or apologia. Collected here are many of the major court cases
involving terrorism and terrorists of the modern era, as well as a sampling of
issues related to terrorism. Whatever the researcher's focus he or she might well begin by reading
the Grotius lecture delivered at the British Institute of International and
Comparative Law on November 13, 2003 by Judge Gilbert Guillaume.[34]
of the relatively short life of many Web sites and links and the limited
access to Anglo-American case law by students and researchers in other areas
of the world, all the cases cited and many of the articles listed have been
archived and should be accessible for some years. Many cases cited within
those archived have also been archived and are linked. If access to an
outside link is broken readers should try accessing them at Archive.org or
searching for the document by title and document name in a search engine such
as Goggle, Yahoo, Lawcrawler or a meta-search engine such as Dogpile.com or
Mamma.com.
General sources of information: comprehensive
sites, archives, lists
International Committee of the Red Cross, 360
documents under "terrorism" International Organization for Migration, 137
documents under "terrorism"
and 3523 documents found under
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 299
documents under "terrorism" NGOs, private research organizations,
Research Center"
(in French with some English)
Society of International Law, Resources on Terrorism
ASIL Electronic
Counter-Espionage, Counter-Terrorism (Australian site; many archived
documents and articles) Crisis Group
Resources Program (incl. "Terrorism Resources") Federation of American Scientists, Terrorism: Background and Threat
Assessments Foundation
for Defense of Democracies, Washington D.C.[35] especially: Overview of
Hoover Institution publications on
terrorism; Adam Garfinkle ed., A Practical Guide to Winning the War on Terrorism
(2004) (PDF 20 sections, 230 p.)
Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore International Peace Academy, New York Jamestown
Foundation[36]
Janes Insurgency and Terrorism Centre (registration or
Jurist Kentucky Virtual Library, Political Science & Law: Terrorism
Legal Journals Index (UK): 284 articles
mentioning "terrorism" and "international law" MIPT "Terrorism knowledge base"
NYU Center on Law and Security "Terrorist
Trial Report Card" (PDF 232 Kb.)
St. Mary's School of Law (San Antonio),
"Terrorism legal resources" (under construction Feb. 2006) Syracuse
University, TRAC Reports (Federal law enforcement and spending)
University of Washington School of Law, Gallagher Library, Law review
Findlaw: "War on Terror"; "War on Terror: Cases"; "Terrorism";
Jura (Germany), Terrorismusgesetz (in
Legalday.com (searchable
UK database of newspaper articles, cases, press releases)
Terrorisme.net: collected materials relevant to terrorism (in
FOIA database, 710 hits for "terrorism"
Congressional Research Service, Terrorism and National Security, Issues
and Trends (PDF 112 Kb.) (see below for other CRS publications)
Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Terror communiqu�s
(incl. specific terrorist cases, arrests, convictions)
Other GAO reports U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, "A
Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-first Century" U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of the Inspector
General, Report on the Mayfield case (PDF 82.3 Mb.); Dan Eggen, "Patriot Act Partly Blamed in Madrid Case",
Washington Post, Mar. 11, 2006. P. A04 U.S. Government Accountability Office, principal
It is not the aim to set out here all the possible crimes
that may be charged in connection with a terrorist act, plot or campaign
especially since new laws are being enacted in response to new outrages and so
any such effort would be chasing a moving target. Existing law addresses arson,
sabotage, murder and attempted murder, genocide, civil rights offenses, weapons
offenses, conspiracy. New laws cover membership in and aid to scheduled
organizations, but the list of such organizations is subject to administrative
change and for the accused to prove termination of involvement with a
newly-listed entity may be difficult. The full text of published opinions in major recent U.S.
prosecutions may be accessed below. Within each opinion there are further links
where judgments in cited cases are available online. Additional cases have been
included below either for their notoriety or for their explanatory value.
Sections that follow address legal issues peripheral to terrorism. Most of the
case law here is from the USA the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The researcher
may want to search the European Court of Human Rights database
and some of the country-specific sites listed below. Some non-US jurisprudence
can be examined indirectly by looking at the US, UK and Canadian cases
appearing in the sections on extradition and on refugee law.
Terrorism tends to be cyclical. Researchers will do well
to start with the early sedition acts and review the concept of allegiance as
it has changed over two centuries. For the USA, the obligations of allegiance
are, besides loyalty: payment of taxes, fulfillment of military service upon
conscription, and provision of information upon subpoena[38]. Case Law: Selected Opinions
Center for National Security Studies v. U.S. Department of Justice, 331 F.3d 918 (Nov. 18, 2002) (secrecy
with regard to the identity of persons detained following 9/11 attacks)
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 243 F.Supp.2d 527 (E.D.Va. 2002), 296 F.3d 278 (4th Cir. 2002), both
reversed by: 316 F.3d 450 (4th Cir. 2003); judgment
vacated by: 542 U.S. 547 (2004); on remand: 378 F.3d 426 (4th Cir. 2004) (nationality issue, enemy
Humanitarian Law Project v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, 393 F.3d 902 (9th Cir. 2004); on remand 380 F.Supp.2d 1134 (C.D. Cal. 2005) (statutory definition of
People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran v. Albright, 182 F.3d 17 (D.C. Cir. 1999)
(designation as terrorist organization)
United States v. Faris, 388 F.2d 452 (4th Cir. 2004), vacated and remanded, 125 S.Ct. 1637 (2004), conviction and sentence affirmed, 2005 U.S. App. LEXIS 29066, 2005 WL 3556095
(4th Cir. 2005)
United States v. Fortier, 242 F.3d 1224 (10th Cir. 2001) and see: Ralph Blumenthal, "Release of Oklahoma City
Bombing Figure Kindles Fears", N.Y. Times, Jan. 19, 2006
United States v. Salimeh, 152 F.3d 88 (2d Cir. 1998), 261 F.3d 271 (2d Cir. 2001) United States v. Sattar, 272 F.Supp.2d 348 (S.D.N.Y.2003); United States v. Sattar, 314 F.Supp.2d 279 (S.D.N.Y.2004); United States v. Sattar, 395 F.Supp.2d 79 (S.D.N.Y. 2005) (conviction of lawyer
for Rahman); further documents on Lynne Stewart site and on Cryptome.org
In re Application under s. 83.28 of the Criminal
Code, [2004] 2
S.C.R. 248 (Can.) (sabotage of Air India Flight 182)
R. v. Ribic,
2003 FCA 246, 185 C.C.C. (3d) 129 (F.C.A. 2003) (Canadian citizen
prosecuted for terrorist activities in support of ethnic Serbs in Bosnia)
R (ex rel. Kurdistan Workers' Party) v Home Secretary, [2002] EWHC Admin 644 (Eng.) (defining
"terrorism" and "terrorist organization"
R (Gillian) v Comr of Police of Metropolis, [2004] EWCA Civ. 1067, [2005] Q.B. 388 (C.A.) (random
stop-and-search by police for "articles of terrorism")
Averill v. United Kingdom [2000] E.C.H.R. 212, European Court of Human
Rights: rights of persons (particularly those charged with terrorist offenses)
"Police Break Up Suspected Bomb Plot in
Brooklyn", New York Times report, Aug. 1, 1997
"Suspects in Bomb Plot Took Two Paths From
the West Bank", New York Times report, Aug. 3, 1997 (Planners
of subway bombing, "more aimless than ardent", not part of any broad
organized conspiracy)
of the Front de Lib�ration de Qu�bec (in French)
Discussion: Movimiento Independentista Revolucionario Armado (MIRA) New York Times, May 21,
2002: FBI director warns "Suicide Attacks Certain in U.S."
Puerto Rico: United States v. Rodriguez, 803 F2d 318
(7th Cir. 1986) (FALN)
Quebec: R. v. Vallieres, [1970] 4 C.C.C. 69 (Que. Q.B.
App. 1969) (murder)
R. v. Cossette-Trudel, 11 C.R. (3d) 1, 52 C.C.C. (2d) 352 (Que. C.S.P. 1979)
(kidnapping of foreign diplomat; sentencing issues)
UN Documents, Decolonization Committee, Reports of
the Rapporteur United States v. Rosado, 728 F.2d 89 (2d Cir. 1984) (due process issues; citing other cases)
USDOJ, Bombs in Brooklyn: "How the Two Illegal Aliens Arrested for Plotting to Bomb the New
York Subway Entered and Remained in the United States" (March
Prosecution in the USA based on
violation of a foreign statute (not necessarily terrorism-related)
United States v. McNab, 331 F.3d 1228 (11th Cir. 2003) (criminal conviction in the U.S. based on a
determination by the U.S. court that defendant violated a law of another
United States v. Miller, 26 F.Supp.2d 415 (N.D.N.Y. 1998) (Canadian
customs and excise fraud; money laundering)
United States v. Pasquantino, 336 F.3d 321 (4th Cir. 2003, aff'd 544 U.S. --- (Apr. 26, 2005) (Canadian customs and excise
fraud, alcohol)
United States v. Trapilo, 130 F.3d 547 (2d Cir. 1997) (Canadian customs and excise fraud,
Compare: United States v. Bean, 537 U.S. 7 (2002) (denial of firearms license based on
Mexican conviction, reversing 253 F.3d 234 (5th Cir. 2001)) On-line articles and other materials
Library of Congress Research Studies: "Terrorism and Crime" Max-Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law, Web
T. O'Connor, North Carolina
Wesleyan College, "The Criminology Of Terrorism: History, Law,
Definitions, Typologies"
Religious incitement and its
theological background: see Tim Rutton, "Drawn into a Religious Conflict",
Los Angeles Times, Feb. 4, 2006 U.S. Department of Justice, Criminal Resource
Manual 9-91.100: Providing "material support" for
How a terrorism issue can and will be dealt with is
dependent upon political and diplomatic issues: whether the incident or
movement represents a domestic threat or a threat to trade, investment or other
vital national interests. Executive and legislative action may or may be
logical and proportionate. Terrorism that is far away and unlikely to impinge
on domestic interests[39]
escapes the popular imagination, whereas a single terrorist act close to home
may unleash irrational fear and disproportionate response. Product tampering is
tampering by way of extortion, in general Mercury in Israeli oranges (PDF
1.4 Mb) (PLO)
Cyanide in Chilean grapes (PDF 588
Kb) (Manuel Rodriguez
Patriotic Front and Leftist Revolutionary Front)
far removed from this sort of terrorism is public panic over disease, however
remote the actual danger of infection at the time: BSE, avian influenza,
smallpox, anthrax. The political search for a scapegoat and a plausible solution
are well illustrated by the anthrax cases; but these also demonstrate the
propensity of the press to fan hysteria and, indeed, to spur the authorities to
action that may be out of proportion to facts and to risk: Hatfill v. New York Times Co., 415 F.3d 320 (4th Cir. 2005). See also Pennekamp v. Florida, 328 U.S. 331 (1946) (reversing contempt conviction of
newspaper editor and publisher following publication of editorials critical of
the administration of justice in local courts; citing Campbell v. New York, 186 Misc. 586, 62 N.Y.S.2d 638 (Ct.Cl. 1946) as a
quintessential miscarriage of justice case.). The recruitment of public fear
and outrage seems to blur the meaning and significance of "reasonable
doubt" and make miscarriage of justice more likely; once obtained, the
fact that affirmance of a conviction serves to underpin the reputation and
integrity of the legal system and the positions of those in power hinders
serious consideration of justice.[40]
In the United States, the assumption is that executive clemency can be used to
resolve the tragedy of miscarriage of justice. Such a remedy is, however, made
uncertain by the opposition of some prosecutors to the reopening of cases even
for the examination of existing DNA evidence, and the obstacles standing in the
way of clemency proceedings and to appeals.[41]
On prosecutorial misconduct, see, e.g., Jerry Markon and Timothy Dwyer, "Federal Witnesses Banned in 9/11 Trial",
Washington Post, Mar. 15, 2006, p. A01.
risk of radiological terrorism is undiminished: Leah Litman, "Cleaning House -- Dirty Bombs and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty", 25 Harv. Intl'l Rev. #1092 (2003)
Testimony of Dr. Henry Kelly,
President, Federation of American Scientists, before the Senate Committee on
Foreign Relations, March 6, 2002
The Goi�nia (Brazil) incident
Jeffrey Goldbert, "The Ghost of Purim Past" N.Y. Times, Mar. 14, 2006
(Iranian threat against Israel).
that have been used as instruments of terror include sarin: Council on Foreign Relations analysis
court judgments thus far on ricin-related incidents have bordered on the
bizarre: United States v. Mettetal, 2005 WL 310804 (D.C. W.Va.) and related
references cited and linked within that document. The case of Mohammed Meguerba and other
Algerians acquitted of a ricin plot in Britain has been before the courts
again in relation to orders for their deportation: R. v. Bourgass, [2005] EWCA Crim. 1943, [2005] All E.R. (D)
254 (Jul.);
more on Bourgass. Nigel
Morris. "Algerian cleared of 'ricin plot' fears
torture at home", Independent, Feb. 25, 2006. Compare: Special Immigration Appeals
Commission, K v. Home Secretary (July 12,
2004); Matter of Applications for Bail
Popular imagination, and the political establishment close
behind, have on occasion given human and constitutional rights little priority
when they perceive a threat to the status quo, to vested interests, or to
society and the State. Aside from immigration, naturalization and deportation
cases see: In re the
Canadian Citizenship Act and in re Jensen, [1976] 2 F.C. 665, 67 D.L.R. (3d) 514 (Jehovah's
Witness's refusal to swear oath) and In re Petition for Naturalization No. 8314
Mahmoud Kassas,
788 F.Supp. 993 (M.D. Tenn. 1992) (naturalization refused to petitioner who
would not "bear arms against an Islamic country") Membership, or deemed membership, in specific subversive
organizations has often had severe consequences under immigration law and, more
recently, anti-terrorism law. R v Z (A-G for NI's Reference), [2005] 2 A.C. 645 (IRA and similar organizations)
Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 350 U.S. 497 (1955) (supremacy of federal
sedition act over state law)
Schneiderman v. United States, 320 U.S. 118 (1943) (denaturalization of
United States v. Baeker, 55 F.Supp. 403 (E.D. Mich. 1944) (German-American
Political terrorists, such as the IRA and offshoots, and
the Protestant militias of Northern Ireland, are addressed elsewhere.
Nonpolitical criminal gangs are mentioned here for the sake of completeness.
The kidnapping for ransom by terrorist and insurgent groups of individuals,
especially foreigners (as in Iraq and Colombia), is scarcely new.
Specimen cases discussing
terrorism in the context of organized crime:
European Community v. RJR Nabisco, Inc., 150 F.Supp.2d 456 (E.D.N.Y. 2001) (citing other
cases, with links), aff'd 424 F.3d. 175 (2d Cir. 2005) (whether an action in civil
RICO can lie against persons complicit in smuggling and tax evasion). For
additional discussion of Supreme Court jurisprudence and imitations on the
scope of civil RICO see, e.g., Illinois Department of Revenue v. Phillips, 771 F.2d 312
(7th Cir. 1985) and CIB Bank v. Esmail, 2004 WL 3119027
United States v. Bonanno Organized Crime
Family, 879
F.2d 20
(2d Cir. 1989) United States v. Escobar, 842 F.Supp. 1519 (E.D.N.Y. 1994) (Colombian drug
David E. Kaplan, "Paying For Terror: How jihadist groups
are using organized-crime tactics--and profits--to finance attacks on
targets around the globe", U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 5,
1005 Ethnic gangs, preying largely, or initially, on their own ethnic
group but expanding overseas following deportations and beyond their
ethnicity at home, constitute a particular source of terrorism. Thus, "Mara Salvatrucha",
MS-13: Wikipedia; Dan Eggen, "Customs Jails 1,000 Suspected Gang
Members", Washington Post, Aug. 2, 2005, p. A02. The group
loyalty issue, transcending national borders and displacing allegiance to
the State, has certain similarities to that in religious-based aggression
and terrorism. See: United States v. Rivera, 412 F.3d 562
(4th Cir. 2005) (murder convictions affirmed); Lopez-Soto v. Ashcroft, 383 F.3d 228 (4th Cir. 2004)
(asylum refused)
Jamestown Foundation, "Tangled Webs: Terrorist and Organized
Crime Groups" (Jan. 2006)
Library of Congress, "Nations hospitable to organized crime
and terrorism" (Oct. 2003)
Library of Congress, "Terrorist and Organized Crime Groups in
the Tri-Border Area" (South America) (Jul. 2003)
Crimes against foreign missions and
Demonstrations, sometimes violent, against foreign
missions have been a mainstay of popular protests. It is said that the takeover
of the American Embassy in Tehran on November 4, 1979 was unexpected even by
the demonstrators who succeeded in overrunning it.[42] There had been a similar
demonstration only days before which had been diffused by the local police.
Perhaps, like Master Sergeant Samuel K. Doe when he overran the presidential
palace in Monrovia on April 12, 1980[43],
their success was accidental, attributable to security errors and failings. As
with many crimes, happenstance is a major element of terrorist
"success". It is easy for any government and any law enforcement
agency to claim "progress" in combating terrorism because so many
conspiracies fail or are diffused in the course of planning or in the early
stages of execution and before even coming to official notice. Those that
succeed can have unintended, or at least unexpected, consequences, no less than
in the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914.[44] Cited below are a few
notable documents and recent judgments regarding crimes on internationally
protected persons. The Erdos case (below) and the 1974 kidnapping and
death of U.S. vice consul John S. Patterson, for which Bobby Joe Keesee[45] was convicted of conspiracy
and served time in prison, increased U.S. pressure for additional domestic and
international legal protections for diplomatic and consular staff.
Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons (1977) 19 U.S.C. � 1116, Murder or
manslaughter of foreign officials, official guests, or internationally
United States v. Bin Laden, 93 F.Supp.2d 484 (S.D.N.Y. 2000), 109 F.Supp.2d 211 (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (bombing of U.S. embassies
in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam; related opinions are cited and linked within
these two)
United States v. Erdos, 474 F.2d 157 (1973); Jordan J. Paust, Non-Extraterritoriality of
"Special Territorial Jurisdiction" of the United States: Forgotten
History and The Errors of Erdos, 24 Yale J. Int'l L. 305 (1999)
(kidnapping of foreign diplomat by FLQ)
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in
Tehran (United States v. Iran), ICJ, (1979)
See also the case of the "November 17"
Greek anarchist-terrorists[46] who
assassinated foreign diplomats.
Particular Human Rights Issues;
The tension found in the law of refugee status (see below)
is also found here: whether a terrorist or a supporter of an organization that
conducts terrorist activities should be granted rights that he or she would not
allow to others. Taking this issue further is the question of the right of an
entire people or nation to vote into office via a democratic election a government
that scorns democracy and will violate of human rights, engage in state or
state-sponsored terrorism, end democracy and perhaps install a theocratic
state.[47]
Past interference by foreign governments in the affairs of other countries,
Iran and Chile for example, have not been happy ones. A few cases relevant to
this issue appear on this page; the researcher may also want to review the International Court of Justice Web site. The application of anti-terrorist law in situations not
obviously considered by the legislature during its passage has a parallel in
the wide-ranging use of RICO and tax evasion charges to combat not only
organized crime but small-scale drug smuggling and evasion of foreign customs
duty and excise taxes, discussed elsewhere on this page. Other current
administrative and executive issues include the centralization of power in the
Executive; eavesdropping on domestic, or partly domestic, communications; and
"racial profiling" as a counter-terrorism law-enforcement tool. These
issues may be researched in newspaper databases. General
Office of the United Nations Commissioner for
Amnesty International USA, "War on Terror" Source Watch, Center for Media and
Democracy, "War on Terrorism"
William Burke-White, "The Future of Law: Protecting the Rights of
Civilians", 24 Harv. Int'l Rev. (2002)
School, Center on Law and Security, Publications
International Law, (vol. 14, 2003), Symposium: 'A War Against Terrorism', Table of Contents and
links to full text of all articles
In re Sealed Case No. 02-001, 310 F.3d 717 (Intel. Surveillance Ct. of Review
Symposium webcast, Case Western Reserve
University, Frederick K. Cox International Law Center Council on Foreign Relations
webcast, "The Law of War in the War on Terrorism"
James Bamford, "The Agency That Could Be Big Brother", N.Y. Times,
Wikipedia: GCHQ Wiretaps and dissent: "In 1971, stolen FBI files exposed the government's domestic spying
Los Angeles Times, Mar. 8, 2006
Suzanne Goldenberg, "Terrorism law used on Vegas 'vice
lord'", Guardian, Nov. 7, 2003 Michelle Garcia, "N.Y. Using Terrorism Law to Prosecute Street
Gang", Washington Post, Feb. 1, 2003, p. A03 Walter Pincus and Dan Eggen,
"325,000 Names on Terrorism List", Washington Post,
Feb. 15, 2006, p. A01
The Guardian: Special
report, attack on London, "The terrorist who wasn't",
Mar. 8, 2006 (de Menezes case -- problem of pressure on the police resulting in
tragic errors) - With links to other reporting on the London bombing and other
It is an irony of refugee law that persecuted dissenters
are entitled to protection both from the enemies and the friends of the state
of refuge[48],
subject only to Art. 1(f) and 33 of the 1950 Refugee Convention[49]. The Doherty case and
others involving prison escapees and Irish republicans wanted for violent
crimes led to a revision of the U.S.-U.K. extradition treaty that sharply
limited grounds for refusing extradition. This treaty, not yet ratified by the
United States but effectively implemented by Britain, can have perverse
results, as in the Bermingham, Mulgrew & Darby case. There a
decision by the British authorities not to prosecute the accused for
their actions in the U.K. while employed by a U.K. Bank made them subject to
extradition to the United States[50]. See also the Feb. 24, 2006
judgment in the Norris case, below.
In re Castioni,
[1891] 1 Q.B. 149 (offense of a political character)
In re Meunier,
[1894] 2 Q.B. 415 (offense of a political character)
R (Al-Fawwaz) v Brixton Prison Governor, [2001] UKHL 69, [2002] 1 A.C. 556 R. v. Home Secretary, Ex p. Puttick, [1981] Q.B. 767 (naturalization issue; marriage under
fictitious name of former terrorist); also [1980] Fam. 1 Nadarajah v. Gonzalez, 2006 U.S. App. LEXIS 6615, 2006 WL
686385 (9th
Cir.) (Tamil Tigers)
INS v Doherty,
502 U.S. 314 (1992), reversing 908 F.2d 1108 (2d Cir. 1990) (IRA)
United States v. Demjanjuk, 612 F.Supp. 544 (N.D. Ohio 1985); United States v. Demjanjuk, 367 F.3d 623 (6th Cir. 2004); United States v. Demjanjuk, 128 Fed.Appx. 496 (6th Cir. 2005) (Nazi
death camp guard)
Ahani v. Canada, [2002] 1 S.C.R. 72 (Iranian terrorist), and
Human Rights Committee: CCPR/C/80/D/1051/2002
(June 15, 2004), (2004) 11
I.H.R.R. 941; (2004) 39 E.H.R.R. SE12; Human Rights International
Suresh v. Minister of Citizenship and Immigration, [2000] 2 F.C. 592, reversed [2002] 1 S.C.R. 3
(Tamil Tigers)
United States v. Dynar, [1997] 2 S.C.R. 462 (extradition to USA for
alleged money laundering offense committed in Canada)
Zaoui v. Attorney-General, [2004] 2 N.Z.L.R. 33 (Dec. 19, 2003); Attorney-General v. Zaoui, [2004] N.Z.C.A. 244
(Sept. 30. 2004); Zaoui v. Attorney-General, [2005] N.Z.S.C. 38
(June 21, 2005) (PDF
324 Kb.) (risk
to suspected supporter of terror of torture or of cruel, inhuman or degrading
treatment or punishment if deported)
specialty, forbidding trial for a crime not specified in the extradition
documents, see US-UK extradition treaty (PDF 4Kb.); Justice (UK human rights charity) briefing
(PDF 4 kb.); Liberty briefing (PDF 4 kb.); (US) Foreign Affairs Manual, 7 FAM 1600 (PDF
168 Kb.)
Also: cases and documents cited and linked at United States v. Keesee, 121 F.3d 718 (9th Cir. 1997) (crimes for which defendant
was not extradited may be considered in sentencing). On Bobby Joe Keesee, see: "Diplomat's Seizure Linked to ex-POW" (PDF 24 Kb.),
N.Y. Times, June 9, 1974, p. 8; "Body of U.S. Aide is Believed Found in North Mexico"
(PDF 36 Kb.), N.Y. Times, July 10, 1974, p. 5; "Keesee pleads guilty to federal charges in skyjacking of
businessman's plane" Amarillo Globe News, Nov. 2, 1999; other articles
Extrajudicial extraction: kidnapping,
These are extraordinary cases and their outcome seems to
depend on diplomatic and political considerations, especially given the lack of
legal redress under Ker, Frisbee and Alvarez-Machain
(extrajudicial seizures) as well as cases denying Constitutional protection to
aliens abroad. The case of U.S. citizen (and military deserter) Ronald Anderson
illustrates this: his seizure and frog-marching into the USA from the Canadian
side of the border was serendipitously (in the days before camcorders) recorded
on 8mm film and widely broadcast, generating Canadian pressure for his release.
"U.S. Returns Deserter to Canada",
Washington Post, Aug. 31, 1974, p. A13
and see "Narcotic Agent Held on Canada's
Charges" (PDF 32 Kb.), New York Times, Feb. 16, 1930, p. 14
(PDF 30.6 Kb.). Political and diplomatic
questions aside, U.S. law enforceable by the courts is represented by a series
Arar v. Ashcroft, --- F.Supp.2d ---, 2006 WL 346439 (E.D.N.Y. 2006) (Canadian
citizen in transit at JFK Airport, New York rendered to Syria and there
tortured); and see N.Y. Times editorial, Feb. 26, 2006, "A Judicial Green Light for Torture". Collier v. Vaccaro, 51 F.2d 17 (4th Cir. 1931) (Canadian charges of murder, kidnap and
larceny against informer working with U.S. narcotics agent)
Elmaghraby v. Ashcroft, 2005 WL 2375202 (E.D.N.Y.), and see Nina Bernstein, "U.S. Is Settling Detainee's Suit in 9/11 Sweep", N.Y. Times, Feb. 28, 2006 Frisbie v. Collins, 342 U.S. 519 (1952); and see Aaron Schwabach and S.A. Patchett,
"Doctrine or Dictum: The Ker-Frisbie Doctrine and Official Abductions
Which Breach International Law", 25 U. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev. 19 (1993)
Jaffe v. Snow,
610 So.2d 482 (Fla. 5th Dist. 1992) and related Canadian proceedings including Jaffe v. Miller, 1994 CarswellOnt 2871 (Ont. Gen.
Div.1994) (Florida bounty hunter extradited and jailed in Canada for
kidnapping); Jaffe v. Smith, 825 F.2d 304 (11th Cir. 1986) (forcible
repatriation by bounty hunter no obstacle to trial in U.S.)
United States v. Alvarez-Machain, 504 U.S. 655 (1992); Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692 (2004); comment, Duke Law School, United States v. Alvarez-Machain & Sosa v.
Alvarez-Machain; Jonathan A. Bush, How Did We Get Here? Foreign Abduction After Alvarez-Machain,
45 Stan L. Rev. 939 (1993) (PDF 148 Kb.)
United States v. Awadallah, 202 F.Supp.2d 17 (S.D.N.Y. 2002) (perjury, 9/11
testimony; Constitutional issues, discussing Toscanino)
United States v. Toscanino, 500 F.2d 267 (2d Cir. 1974) (unlawful
eavesdropping, kidnapping and torture by American agents in Uruguay; holding
largely discredited by subsequent case law and rejected in other circuits: see
citing references) Compare the UK rule: In re Schmidt, [1995] A.C. 339 and Reg. v. Horseferry Rd. Ct., Ex p. Bennett, [1994] 1 A.C. 42. There it is a
question of the degree of official misconduct that determines whether the court
shall stay prosecution when normal extradition arrangements have been bypassed.
With respect to the USA convention matters concern chiefly
the death penalty and US courts' definition of "political crime". The
latter led to a more expansive extradition treaty with the UK that
(notwithstanding that it has not yet been ratified by the United States) has
allowed extradition to the US of persons indicted for actions performed in the
UK with effects in the USA, in cases where the UK authorities have chosen not
US-UK Extradition Treaty, 2003 (PDF 32
ECHR: Soering v. United Kingdom, 1989 ECHR 14 Canada: Canadian Charter of Human Rights: Reference re Ng
Extradition, [1991] 2 S.C.R. 858
United States v. Burns, [2001] 1 S.C.R. 283 UK: Bohning v. United States, [2005] All E.R. (D) 241 (Oct) (double jeopardy (ne
bis in idem; but note the "two sovereign" issue:
And compare: Coumas v. Superior Court, 31 Cal. 2d 682, 192 P.2d 449
(1948) (state constitutional bar); People v. Mackle, 241 Mich. App. 583; 617 N.W.2d 339 (Ct. App. 2000) (prosecution in Canada
followed by extradition and prosecution in Michigan).
rights may be abrogated by Congress: United States v. Dion, 476 U.S. 734 (1986)
R. (Norris) v. Home Secretary, [2006] EWCA Crim. 280; Nikki Tait, "Businessman loses first round in extradition plea",
Financial Times, Feb. 25, 2006, p. 3; Ian Norris accused of price-fixing; Cleary Gottlieb note on an earlier
District Court decision, June 2005 (PDF 143 Kb.) Bermingham, Mulgrew &
Darby case,
mentioned above[51]
Zoe Brennen, "Snatched by the American courts",
Times (London), Mar. 19, 2006, p. 5-2 Status and immigration, including
deportation issues and refugee law
One may see in the current context of a "war on
terror"[52]
(as in past crises of "clear and present danger"[53]) not only preventive
measures and new criminal sanctions but the tightening of public surveillance
and of control of status. Thanks to the capabilities of modern computerization
these changes may, unlike past wartime measures, be irreversible. It has been a
hallmark of Common Law countries that citizens are not required to carry
identity documents and need not register their addresses with the local
authorities.[54]
The parliamentary debate in Britain over the proposal to introduce national
identity cards[55],
and that in the United States over security in the issuance of driving licenses[56], a quasi-identity card[57], have highlighted the issue.
A further inevitable response to the terrorist threat from
abroad is to tighten border controls and visa issuance, with unintended
consequences for the innocent.[58]
There may be a limit: member states of the European Union, the European
Economic Area and Switzerland are bound by treaty to allow unrestricted entry
of nationals of other member states (except for reasons of national security,
health and public policy, strictly construed).[59]
The USA, Canada and Mexico have lesser mutual entry obligations under NAFTA.
There may also be pressure to abrogate through legislation the grant of
nationality by jus soli -- birthright citizenship[60] -- although the need for a
constitutional amendment makes that a daunting proposition in the United
States.[61]
Almost alone[62]
among human-rights oriented legal instruments and likely due to the factual
context in which the Convention was conceived, the Refugee Convention makes its
protection (the grant of refugee status) dependent upon prior conduct
compatible with the preservation of human rights and "the purposes and
principles of the United Nations" (Refugee Convention, art. 1(f) and 33
(unworthiness))
paper, "Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Bill:
Parts IV and V: Immigration, Asylum, Race and Religion" (PDF
376 Kb.)
(131 listed as of Jan. 17, 2006)
Congressional Research Service, Terrorist Grounds for Exclusion of Aliens
(PDF 92 Kb.) UK Home
Office: "terrorist behavior" justifying exclusion UK Terrorism
bill details International refugee instruments
Convention (1951) and Protocol (1967) Relating to
UNHCR documentation: REFWORLD documentation search
1997 testimony of INS General Counsel on
terrorists, asylum and deportation (PDF 64 Kb.)
Celia W. Duger, "Asylum Rules Protect Both U.S. Allies and
Adversaries, I.N.S. Says", N.Y. Times, Aug. 5, 1997 Bibliography
Wiedemann, "Naturalisation and International Terrorism
under German Law" Course documents, Prof. R. A. Boswell,
UC Hastings College of the Law Guy Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in
International Law (2d Ed. 1998)
James C. Hathaway, The Law of Refugee
Status (1991)
listed at the Gallagher Law Library site, see:
Theresa Sidebotham,
"Immigration Policies and the War on Terrorism", 32 Denv. J. Int'l L.
& Pol'y 539 (2004)
Chadwick M. Graham, Note:
"Defeating an Invisible Enemy: The Western Superpowers' Efforts to Combat
Terrorism by Fighting Illegal Immigration", 14 Transnat'l L. &
Contemp. Probs. 281 (2004)
Rene Bruin and Kees Wouters,
"Terrorism and the Non-derogability of
Non-refoulement", 15 Int'l J. Refugee L. 5 (2003)
LAIC Hot Topics 42: Terrorism (2003) Case Law: Selected Opinions
A v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2004 E.W.C.A. Civ. 1123,
[2004] All E.R. (D) 62 (Aug.) (addresses the 1951 Refugee Convention art. 1(f)
issue; also admissibility of confessions under torture)
In re M.,
[1994] 1 A.C. 377 ("[T]he argument that there is no
power to enforce the law by injunction or contempt proceedings against a
minister in his official capacity would, if upheld, establish the proposition
that the executive obey the law as a matter of grace and not as a matter of
necessity, a proposition which would reverse the result of the Civil
War.") And see Ian Ward, "The Story of M: A Cautionary Tale from the
United Kingdom", 6 Int'l J. Refugee L. 194 (1994)
R v Immigration Appeal Tribunal ex parte 'B', CO/1852/87, [1989] Imm. A.R.
166 (effect of political activity in host country on asylum claim;
anti-Khomeini Iranian)
Secretary of State for the Home Department v.
Rehman, [2001]
U.K.H.L. 47, [2003] 1 A.C. 153 (deference to executive in
matters of national security)
Jean v. Nelson,
(1985) (Haitian asylum seeker)
United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy[63], 338 U.S. 537 (1950) ("Whatever the procedure authorized by
Congress is, it is due process as far as an alien denied entry is concerned.")
Ahani v. Canada, 7 Imm. L.R. (3d) 1, 77 C.R.R. (2d) 144 (F.C.A. 2000)
(incarceration with view to deportation of former member of Iranian government
agency engaging in terrorist activities)
Pushpanathan v. Minister of Citizenship and
Immigration, [1998]
1 S.C.R. 982
(drugs trafficker; asylum claimant; discussion of art. 1(f) issues) Ward v. Attorney General of Canada, [1993] 2 S.C.R. 689 (IRA)
See also: extradition cases, above. These and other cases concerned with immigration and
security issues are listed and discussed on the McGill University Law Faculty Equity/Access
Research Group site.
Charity, foundation, eco-terrorism
There are two separate issues here: entities that may or
may not register as 501(c)(3) charitable and 501(d) religious
organizations that support, directly or indirectly, terrorist
activity abroad; and domestic extremist organizations that initiate and support
violence for political aims, typically animal rights and environmental issues.
Various Muslim charities have been before the courts in the recent past and
some reported cases are included here; see also "money laundering"
Debra Morris, "Charities and Terrorism", 5
Int'l J. of Not-for-Profit Law (2002)
anti-abortion, eco-terrorism, quasi-charity terrorism
News (UK animal rights online magazine)
Kevin Kjonaas T. O'Connor, North Carolina
Wesleyan College, "History of Eco-terrorism"
E.O. 13224: "Blocking property and prohibiting
transactions with persons who commit, threaten to commit. or support
terrorism" (PDF 404 Kb.)
UK: Serious Organized Crime and Police Act 2005,
2005 chapter 15; as applicable to demonstrations and protests see R. (Haw) v. Home Secretary, [2005] EWHC 2061, [2006] 2 W.L.R. 50 (D.C.) (Brian Haw's protest in Parliament Square[64]; see Parliamentsquare.org.uk)
IRS: Chief Counsel Memorandum on foreign charities (PDF 64 Kb.) Specimen cases
Hewitt v. Grunwald, [2004] EWHC 2959 (QB), [2004] All E.R. (D) 366 (Dec.) (defamation case,
trustees of "Interpal", said to support Palestinian terrorism,
against Board of Deputies of British Jews)
R. v. Belmar,
27 C.C.C. (3d) 142 (B.C. C.A. 1986) (Environmental terrorists)
Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd v. Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty, [2003] All E.R. (D) 280 (Jun.) United States v. Kjonaas, D. N.J., Case # 3:04-cr-00373-AET-2, Docket; CNN report; Times (London) account; from PACER: verdict; proposed jury instructions Anti-abortion:
Planned Parenthood of the Columbia/Willamette Inc. v. American Coalition
of Life Activists, 422
F.3d 949
(9thCir. 2005)
Money laundering and the financial
"Money laundering" is an expansive term that may
be attached to the handling of money in connection with any sort of offense.
Much of the support of low-level terrorist activity in the Middle East, and the
financing of the 9/11 attacks in the USA, has been financed by such crimes as
small-scale credit card and check fraud and excise tax evasion (tobacco
trafficking[65]). Case law
United States v. Abu Marzook, 2006 WL 250008 (N.D. Ill.); United States v. Marzook, 383 F.Sup.2d 1056 (N.D. Ill. 2005) (Hamas) (over 100
reported cases deal in some way with membership in, cooperation with or
financing of Hamas)
United States v. Hammoud, 381 F.3d 316 (4th Cir. 2004); 405 F.3d 1034 (4th Cir. 2005)
(Hizballah)
United States v. Talebnejad, 342 F.Supp.2d 346 (D. Md. 2004) (hawala
Arr�t du 12 d�cembre 2005 (Switzerland)
Selected statutes and international
UK: Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 and Money Laundering
Regulations 2003: HM Revenue & Customs explanation (with links
to the statutory and regulatory texts
Monaco: Law No. 1253 of Jul. 12, 2002 modifying
Law No. 1162 of Jul 7, 1993 on participation of financial entities in the fight
against money laundering USA: 18 U.S.C. � 1956 Laundering of monetary
Moneylaundering.com library of U.S. laws and
regulations UN Security Council Resolution 1373
International Criminal Court; Wikipedia article Newspaper articles
Peter Slavin, "Cash Flow to Hamas Is More Restricted,
Deeper Underground", Washington Post, Feb. 19, 2006, p. A23
David Rose and Will Pavia, "Bank red tape stops British cash reaching
quake victims" Times, Oct. 14, 2005
Salah case (Hamas funding): "Palestinian human rights lawyer testifies in Hamas trial in
U.S.", Ha'aretz Daily, Mar. 15, 2006
"An Anti-Money Laundering Strategy for the
Inland Revenue" (PDF 192 Kb.)
Asian Development Bank, "Manual on Countering Money Laundering and
the Financing of Terrorism" Cains Advocates Ltd., Isle of Man money laundering legislation
(PDF 60 Kb.)
Commission, Anti-Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing
Crown Prosecution Service, Money Laundering Offences FATF "Typologies Report, 2003/2004"
(PDF 188 Kb.)
GAO, Investigations of Terrorist Financing, Money Laundering and Other
Financial Crimes (PDF 116 Kb.)
HM Treasury Anti-Money Laundering Strategy,
Oct. 2004 (PDF 948 Kb.)
IBRD, "Anti-Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of
IMF, "Suppressing the Financing of Terrorism"
IRS, "Examples of Money Laundering Investigations,
2005" (annual report; others searchable on IRS site)
OECD Financial Action Task Force documents (site search; about 170 hits on Jan. 27, 2006) OECD Financial Action Task Force on Money
U.S. Treasury, Anti-Terrorist Financing Guidelines, Federal Register, pp.
73063-73067 (Dec. 8, 2005) (PDF 76 kb.)
UN Office on Drugs and Crime, UNODC Legal Library (drug control and related financial
transaction legislation)
France, National Police, "La lutte contre le financement du
terrorisme" (in French)
Poursuite des acte de terrorisme,
Lexinter (in
Juan Manuel Rodr�guez C�rcamo, State
attorney, Government of Spain, "La Prevenci�n de la Financiaci�n del
Terrorismo" Derecho Internacional, Oct. 2004 (PDF 140 Kb.) (in Spanish)
Illicit funds transmission,
typically by non-bank money transfer services including Western Union Financial Services, Inc.
(subsidiary of First Data Corp.), MoneyGram International, Inc., PayPal (PayPal
Inc. and PayPal (Europe) Ltd., subsidiaries of eBay, Inc.) and hawalas
Paul Schaafsma, "Financial Engineers Need to be Patriots
Too", Financial Engineering News "Legal Factors in
Finance" (2005) Some law review articles; book
Rachel Ehrenfeld, Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed and How to
Stop It (2003) FrontPage Magazine discussion
Ehrenfeld v. Salim A Bin Mahfouz, 2005 WL 696769
Eric J. Gouvin, "Bringing Out the
Big Guns: The USA PATRIOT Act, Money Laundering, and the War on
Terrorism", 55 Baylor L. Rev. 955 (2003) Todd M. Hinnen, "The Cyber-front in
the War on Terrorism: Curbing Terrorist Use of the Internet", 5 Colum.
Sci. & Tech. L. Rev. 5 (2004)
Megan Roberts, "Big Brother Isn't
Just Watching You, He's Also Wasting Your Tax Payer Dollars: An Analysis of the
Anti-Money Laundering Provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act", 56 Rutgers L.
Rev. 573 (2004)
Jeffrey P. Taft, "Internet-based
Payment Systems: An Overview of the Regulatory and Compliance Issues", 56
Consumer Fin. L.Q. 42 (2002)
Counterfeiting: (1) Of currency by one sovereign of the
currency of another (viz: North Korea and Nazi Germany):
The Wall Street Journal, "North Korea's Counterfeit Goods
Targeted" June 1, 2005 Wikipedia: "Superdollar"
(2) Of intellectual property on behalf
of terrorists:
"Interpol warns of link between
counterfeiting and terrorism" Interpol memo
Hedieh Nasheri, Intellectual
Property Theft, Organized Crime, and Terrorism, 4 Int'l J. of Comp. Criminology
48 (2004) (obtainable from Ingenta Connect), reprinted in Jay
Albanese, ed. Transnational Crime (2005)
United States v. Melendez-Carrion, 820 F.2d 56 (2d Cir. 1987) (Wells Fargo robbery, Puerto Rican
terrorists; bail issues)
RICO and money laundering laws can and
are used in creative fashion to deal with terrorism and other
conspiracies: United States v. Hammoud, 381 F.3d 316
(4th Cir. 2004) (Hizballah)
Corruption: Transparency
International Stanley E. Morris, "Following the money trail: where corruption
meets terrorism", TI Newsletter, Sept. 2002 (PDF 4 Kb.) And see: Foreign Corrupt Practices Act
CRS Report to Congress ABA explanation Treason
The issue is the threat, real or imagined, of violent overthrow of the
existing order. Underlying the modern problem is the erosion of the claim by
the State to allegiance[66]:
permanent in the case of its nationals, temporary in the case of non-national
residents. The allowance of dual nationality implies a recognition of conflict
of allegiances. This is probably inevitable with the end of unity of the family
in matters of nationality and domicile, and an independent right of women to
retain their nationality and to transmit it to offspring born in wedlock.
Modern views of civil and human rights make it difficult for the State to
demand a primacy of loyalty and to inhibit sympathy for foreign and dissident
states, ethnicities and groups. It also calls into question any demand for
primacy of the loyalty of its expatriates from foreign governments.[67] In
the past, members of particular sects deemed threatening to the State's
interests and primacy, have encountered hostility and discrimination: Jehovah's
Witnesses[68],
Amish[69],
Seventh-day Adventists[70],
Scientologists[71].
Wikipedia, List of convicted or accused traitors,
R. v. Casement,
(Treason Act, 1351)
R. v. Joyce,
[1946] A.C. 347
("Lord Haw Haw")
Compare: Fujizawa v. Acheson, 85 F. Supp. 674 (S.D. Cal. 1949) D'Aquino v. United States, 180 F.2d 271 (9th Cir. 1950), 192 F.2d 338 (9th Cir. 1951) ("Tokyo Rose")
Co-operative Committee on Japanese Canadians v. Att-Gen., [1947] A.C. 87 (expulsion of native-born,
Canadian-citizen Japanese-Canadians)
Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) (subsequently resolved by agreement and banishment, a reminder
of the Kawakita case)
Riel v. The Queen, Ex p. Riel, (1885) 10 App. Cas. 675 (Canadian m�tis)
A v. Home Secretary (No. 2), [2005] UKHL 71,
[2005] 3 W.L.R. 1249, reversing [2005] 1 WLR 414 (suspicion of terrorism; risk of torture
if expelled)
Prosecution for disclosure
of official secrets.
R. v. Shayler,
[2003] 1 A.C. 247
"The modern treason statute is 18 U.S.C. � 2381; it basically tracks
the language of the constitutional provision. Other provisions of Title 18
criminalize various acts of war-making and adherence to the enemy. See, e.g., � 32 (destruction of aircraft or
aircraft facilities), � 2332a (use of weapons of mass
destruction), � 2332b (acts of terrorism
transcending national boundaries), � 2339A (providing material support to
terrorists), � 2339B (providing material
[*561] support to certain terrorist organizations), � 2382 (misprision of treason), � 2383 (rebellion or insurrection), � 2384 (seditious conspiracy), � 2390 (enlistment to serve in armed
hostility against the United States). See also 31 CFR � 595.204 (2003) (prohibiting
the "making or receiving of any contribution of funds, goods, or
services" to terrorists); 50 U.S.C. � 1705(b) (criminalizing
violations of 31 CFR � 595.204). The only other
citizen other than Hamdi known to be imprisoned in connection with military
hostilities in Afghanistan against the United States was subjected to criminal
process and convicted upon a guilty plea. See United States v. Lindh, 212 F. Supp. 2d 541 (ED Va. 2002) (denying motions for
dismissal); [Katharine] Seelye, ['Threats and Responses: The American in the
Taliban',] N. Y. Times, Oct. 5, 2002, p. A1, col. 5." Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. at 560-61
Note: Jose Padilla has since been
prosecuted as a civilian
Slate Passive support of terrorists and
Early treason cases addressed the disloyalty of
individuals owing allegiance, permanent or temporary, to the sovereign or the
republic by fact of birth or presence respectively. Post-World War II cases
punished treasonous propaganda and abuse of Allied war prisoners by persons
owing allegiance to Allied states. At least since the Vietnam War, however,
overt criticism of one's own country's war-making has been impossible of
prosecution in the West. The issue has become more complex as massive
immigration followed by "family reunification" of spouses and
offspring has led to the formation of communities with solidarity -- to varying
degrees -- to the culture and state of origin.[73]
The fear of "fifth column" support of the enemy was behind the
German-American Bund cases and the internment of Japanese. But such fears merge
easily with fear and loathing of the "other" and blatant racism.[74] In the recent past, it has
morphed -- in the Balkans and in parts of Africa -- to ethnic cleansing,
genocide and murder. There is an alternative or supplementary motivation, one
that was seen in Hitler's Reich too: economic advantage and the seizure of
property. In the Middle East and North Africa, as earlier with massive
population movement, it has led to the transportation or expulsion of ethnic
groups with or without compensation. It has also led, less dramatically but no
less measurably, to the erosion of minority populations in some countries and
regions.[75]
This issue includes within it to a certain degree the
charities and quasi-charities (more fully covered in the section above on
financial support of terrorism) which funnel money from the ethnic communities
in the West and from philosophic supporters of the aims of foreign groups which
may be disposed to violence. The difference between the threat posed by al
Qaeda, the Salafists[76]
and their sympathizers is demographic: no other minority in the West can mobilize
comparable numbers both abroad (in Asia and Africa) and locally (in Europe, the
Americas and Australia). The Muslim Diaspora can be called upon to demonstrate
solidarity over specific issues, and for funds.[77]. The incident over the
caricatures of Mohammed published first in Denmark and then elsewhere is
illustrative.[78]
The lack of symmetry between the expectations of and demands for by many
Muslims of Western respect for theirs, and their own disdain for Western,
values, norms and symbols should be unsurprising.[79] Other violent groups, too,
find solidarity in Westernized migrant communities abroad, some of whom may
deem those members of their faith who practice a more orthodox and literal
version of it to be worthy of respect and support.[80] It is impossible to know how
widespread such support for the more religiously observant may be[81] although litigation
following the closure by U.S. authorities of certain Muslim charities provides
at least anecdotal information. The Israeli peace movement has provided some
details of the funding of West Bank settlements and of "violence-prone
settlers".[82]
The most unfortunate source of passive support for
terrorism is an unreasoned enmity and a schadenfreude based on no
greater logic than "the enemy of my enemy is my friend".[83] On the other hand,
Christopher Harmon (below) reminds us that "most terrorist groups come to
an end".
Christopher C. Harmon "How al-Qaeda May End",
(Heritage Foundation, May 2004)
Daniel Byman, "Passive Sponsors of Terrorism",
47 Survival (Brookings, 2005)
(explained in Byman, "Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor
Terrorism" (2005)
Democracy and Islamism: F. Gregory Gause
III, "Can Democracy Stop Terrorism?", Foreign Affairs, Sept/Oct. 2005
Library of Congress, The Psychology and Sociology of Terrorism
(Sept. 1999) (PDF 1.4 Mb.)
Paul K. Davis & Brian
Michael Jenkins, "Deterrence & Influence in Counterterrorism,"
A collateral issue is that
of apologetics and of propaganda support for terrorists, past and present.
Holocaust denial is a crime in some countries. Statutes are being enacted
and prosecutions attempted for giving encouragement to terrorists and "aid
and comfort to the enemy".
"Abu Hamza al-Masri convicted"
United States v. Al-Arian, 329 F.Supp.2d 1294 (M.D.Fla. 2004) (ruling on
gov't motion on scienter)
Case comments: "Al Arian acquitted" (Miami
Tampa Tribune, Al Arian special reports Campus Watch: collection of articles on Campus anti-Zionism and
anti-Semitism, including the Al Arian case
Eric Boehlert, "The prime-time smearing of Sami
Al-Arian" Salon.com (2002)
The issue is retaliation for an accusation of involvement
in or support of terrorism. United Kingdom courts are particularly hospitable
to plaintiffs in libel cases. In addition to the cases where organizations have
sought to avoid classification as supporters of terrorism, there is potential
for litigation over published allegations, or over expressions of an
essentially political nature, as in the cases below. In the USA, First
Amendment rights as explained in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964) severely limit in
the United States the scope of actions in defamation and for enforcement of
foreign libel judgments. An alternative form of intimidation, SLAPP suits, has
achieved a certain notoriety there.[84]
The cases here cited have a nasty political, but not a genuine terrorism,
aspect. Defamation, leafleting and the haranguing of clientele are not on the
plane of economic sabotage, violence and threats of physical harm (see
"eco-terrorism", above). Legislation against revisionism (Holocaust
denial and the like) appealing to violent nationalist extremists raises yet
further issues regarding the proper way to deal with incipient domestic terror.
Bachchan v. India Abroad Publications, Ltd., 154 Misc.2d 228, 585 N.Y.S.2d 661 (Sup.Ct. N.Y. Co. 1992) (First
Amendment issues)
Cassel & Co. Ltd. v. Broome, [1972] A.C. 1027 Irving v. Penguin Books, [2000] All E R. (D) 523 and see, regarding Irving's 2006 conviction and imprisonment in Austria: Roger
Boyes, "Backlash at jailing of historian who denied
Holocaust", Times, Feb. 21, 2006; Brian Wilson, "Is David Irving any different from a racist skinhead?",
Scotland on Sunday, Feb. 26, 2006
The classic libel case may be -- for the
record length of its trial, for its triviality and for its misspent judicial
resources[85] -- McDonald's Corp. v. Steel and Morris, Queen's Bench, June 19, 1997,
abridged judgment; Court
of Appeal, Mar. 31, 1999 judgment. Judgments and transcripts also at
John Vidal, McLibel: Burger Culture on Trial (1997). European Court of Human
Rights judgment: Steel and Morris v. United Kingdom, ECHR, Case No. 68416/01
(finding violations of art. 6(1) and 10 of the Convention); summary and analysis More on the conflict between
globalization and culture and the involvement of legal systems:
Robert Wai, "Countering, Branding, Dealing: Using Social Rights in and around
the international trade regime", 14 Eur. J. Int'l L. 35 (2003) Benjamin R. Barber, "Jihad vs. McWorld", Atlantic Monthly, Mar. 1992
(and his 1995 book of the same title)
Ted Honderich, "The Right to Terrorism"
(anti-American, anti-Semitic bias leads to apologia)
On the (UK) Terrorism Bill and
provisions against "glorifying terrorism":
Political analysis: Wikipedia article Politics.co.uk Newspaper report: Philip
Webster and Greg Hurst, "Blair wins fight to ban glorifying of
terrorism", Times, Feb. 16, 2006, p. 1, and editorial (leader) "Glorifying nonsense: Vague proposals
inevitably make for bad law"
Cuba and other hostile
countries: This is a politically and diplomatically difficult subject.
Pragmatism and expedience can be seen in official the relationship over time to
the governments of enemy and former enemy states, and to free-lance activists,
to mercenaries and to incendiary propaganda. See, e.g., on Luis Posada
Carriles: Tim Winer, "Case of Cuban Exile Could Test the U.S.
Definition of Terrorist" and Wikipedia; Posada is mentioned in United States v. Campa, 419 F.3d 1219 (11th Cir. 2005), vacated and en banc
hearing ordered, 429 F.3d 1011 (11th Cir. 2005).
See also the Neutrality
Act of 1937 "State Terrorism"
This is a title easily and conveniently applied to the acts, the
failure to act and the inability to act of feared or despised pariah states and
governments (as in "axis of evil"). It is as easily used by the
accused as by the accusers.[86] The
term is thus weakened by its extensive use for propaganda purposes by left and
right and it has appeared in few legal judgments. It encompasses governments
that rule by terrorizing their own citizens[87]
and is distinguishable from the more banal "state-sponsored
terrorism" undertaken by non-governmental parties with the connivance or
support of the state. Just as the inverse of "terrorist" is
"freedom fighter", the inverse of defense against terrorism, or
defense of the status quo and vested interests, is bound to also to attract the
"state terrorism" label for some. The more so as one of the aims of
terrorism is to provoke violent response, and perhaps over-reaction, from the
authorities of the target state. The term is probably more political than
legal, and for our purposes ought to be restricted to events and situations of
the sort that have come before tribunals, domestic and international and
international bodies. The Nuremburg and Tokyo trials, the International
Criminal Tribunal, the ICTY and other tribunals charged with prosecuting perpetrators
of particular atrocities, the UN and domestic cases seeking asylum and refugee
status, punishment of foreign officials or recompense for wrongful death,
torture, injury and loss constitute relevant case law. Military action in
defense of empire and other displays of overwhelming power to intimidate others
either by way of reprisal or to protect of paramount national interests have
yielded uncountable instances of the deliberate use of terror or the toleration
of terror by state actors or by members of one ethnic group against another.
Genocide is just one example.
Terror, domestic or cross-border, may be unleashed by dysfunctional
government or by the venality of rulers as an instrument of policy or by
inability to govern: the Khmer Republic, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Bosnia,
Afghanistan, Iraq, Ivory Coast, Sudan, Somalia, Rwanda, Haiti and, arguably,
Zimbabwe at various times are examples, in no particular order. Non-state
actors like the Lord's Resistance Army in
Uganda and warlords in a number of other countries are subsets of the
foregoing. To a greater or lesser extent, such terror will have overseas
implications, economic, political and demographic.
Scott Atran, "Strategic Blunder: Confounding Rogue States
and Terrorist Networks" (Feb. 2004) (PDF 212 Kb.)
Commission, Commentaries to Draft Articles on Responsibilities
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (Nov. 2001) (PDF 1.3
Report: U.S. Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act
(Apr. 2001) (PDF 276 Kb.)
Pelin Turgot, "Senior general 'stoked Kurdish conflict to
keep Turkey out of EU'", Independent, Mar. 9, 2006
Nuremburg Trial, 6 F.R.D. 69 (1946) Attorney-General of the
Government of Israel v. Eichmann, 36 ILR. 5 (1961)
Green, The Eichmann
Case, 23 Modern Law Review 507 (1960)
Harry Mulisch et al,
Criminal Case 40/61, the Trial of Adolf Eichmann: An Eyewitness Account (2005)
Palace Library bibliography
In 1992 the United Nations
Security Council condemned Libyan involvement in international terrorism
(Resolutions 731 and 748) (discussion in: Gaddafi v. Telegraph Group Ltd, [2000] EMLR 431)
Bernhard Graefrath, Leave to the Court What Belongs to the Court: The Libyan Case,
4 Eur. J. Int. L. 184 (1994)
Univ. of Syracuse, timeline American Society of International
Law, Insight (March 1998)
Global Policy Forum on an international tribunal
for Cambodia American Society of International Law, EISIL resources "Bringing the wicked to the dock",
Economist, Mar. 11, 2006, p. 22
Other "universal jurisdiction"
General: ASIL Insight, "World Court Orders Belgium to Cancel an Arrest Warrant Issued
Against the Congolese Foreign Minister"
ASIL Insight: "U.S. Courts Rule on Absolute Immunity and
Inviolability of Foreign Heads of State: The Cases against Robert Mugabe and
Jiang Zemin" ACLU "Civil Liberties Report" (PDF 20 Kb.)
ABA Standing Committee on Law and National Security (PDF 148
Amnesty International Wikipedia article Conal Urquhart, "Israel scorns 'anti-semitic little
Belgium'", Guardian, Feb. 14,
2003 ICJ:
(U.S. - Iran) (France - Congo) (Belgium - Congo) (genocide)
Comment, Cath. Univ. of Leuven,
Institute of International Law, Working Paper No. 25 (Jan. 2003) (PDF
108 Kb.)
Price v. Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, 389 F.3d 192 (D.C. Cir. 2004) Chile: Letelier v. Republic of Chile, 488 F.Supp. 665
(D.D.C. 1980); 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. 1984)
Iran: Flatow v. Islamic Republic of Iran, 999 F.Supp. 1 (D.D.C. 1998) (but
compare: Glenn Kessler, "Administration Blocks Ex-Hostages' Bid for
Damages From Iran", Washington Post,
Mar. 19, 2006, p. A01)
PLO (a "liberation
organization", subsequently (as Palestinian Authority) a government with
state-like qualities for some purposes: Klinghoffer v. S.N.C. Achille Lauro, 937 F.2d 44 (2d Cir. 1991))
United States v. Moussaoui, 65 Fed.Appx. 881 (4th Cir. 2003); 382 F.3d 453 (4th Cir. 2004) (classified testimony, access to
incarcerated combatant witnesses; includes list of case citing this case
through March 2005); indictment; order barring Government use of aviation-related
evidence; and see, on start of Moussaoui trial, Jerry Markon, "The Man Who Wasn't There on 9/11",
Washington Post, Mar. 4, 2006, p. A01; Jerry Markon and Timothy Dwyer, "Federal Witnesses Banned in 9/11 Trial",
Washington Post, Mar. 15, 2006, p. A01; Stephen Labaton and Matthew L. Wald, "Lawyer Thrust Into Spotlight After Misstep
in Terror Case", N.Y. Times, Mar. 15, 2006.
In re Pan American World Airways, [1992] Q.B. 854 R. v. Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, Ex p., Pinochet
[2000] 1 A.C. 61; [2000] 1 A.C. 147; SOSIG
bibliography on the Pinochet case Belgian case against Ariel Sharon:
Procureur g�n�ral c/ Sharon (in French)
Human Rights Watch American
Society of International Law ECOSOC Human Rights Commission, Situation of Detainees at Guant�namo Bay
(PDF 348 Kb.)
Letter from 260 physicians to The Lancet, 367 Lancet 811
(2006) (force-feeding)
Con Coughlin, "Trapped in a legal no-man's land",
Daily Telegraph, Feb. 17, 2006 Kim Sengupta, "Voices from Guant�namo",
Independent, Mar. 6, 2006
Richard Norton-Taylor and
Suzanne Goldenberg, "Judge's anger at US torture",
Guardian, Feb. 17, 2006[88]
Wiki News on
Australian/British prisoner: David Hicks gets British Citizenship
Criticism by lawyer for
prisoners: "American Gulag", Los Angeles
Times, Feb. 26, 2006
George B. Micklum, "MI5, Camp Delta, and the story that shames
Britain", Independent, Mar. 16, 2006
Camp Nama: Eric Schmitt and Carolyn
Marshall, "In Secret Unit's 'Black Room,' a Grim
Portrait of U.S. Abuse", N.Y. Times, Mar. 19, 2006
The historical link between religion and aggression is notorious,
reaching back to antiquity and continuing to the present. Indeed, modern
concepts of human rights and refugee law stem from the World War II and the
Cold War eras. Extremists of all kinds have conducted, incited, or supported
terrorist acts, but most are isolated atrocities by individuals and small
groups, or assassinations, although a martyr may later be made icon of a
particular terrorist movement: Baruch Goldstein[89] and uncountable numbers of suicide
bombers, particularly Palestinians who have attacked or died attempting to
attack Israeli targets. Religion may be only one element of ethnicity in
regional terrorism, as with the Tamil Tigers[90]. Within Islam,
murderous hostility simmers between the major divisions, Shia and Sunni[91] and against
minor sects such as the Ahmadis, deemed heretics in Pakistan and denied there
the status of Muslims.[92]
A compilation of articles on religious
radicalism in South Asia.
While the United States has been threatened from within, notably by
millenarian and neo-Christian militia groups[93],
it is the 9/11 hijacking-murders (New York, Washington, Pennsylvania) (and in
England the 7/7 London bombing-murders[94])
by radical Muslims that have generated the most fear. There is a theoretical,
doctrinal underpinning to this Islamic radicalism which can be traced to the
Muslim Brotherhood[95] and
the writings of Sayyid Qutb[96]
which castigate the Islamic civil state as well as the west for "jahiliyyah"
(ignorance of divine guidance) -- justifying jihad. Qutb rejects civil
sovereignty and nationality, all sovereignty belonging to Allah; a rejection
taken further by others who demand a return to the Muslim Caliphate[97]. The Deoband school (of which the
Taliban are representative but naive[98]) has
taken such integrist teachings to extremes.[99]
Cases: militia and radical Christian
sects; religious-based provocation
Westboro Baptist Church v. Patton, 32 Kan.App.2d 941, 93 P.3d 718 (2004) (tax exemption claim of wildly
anti-gay, anti-Semitic Church that celebrates natural and terrorist disasters
as "just punishment"); details on church's
Web site Other reports and articles
On religious extremists in Britain: New
York Times OpEd, Jul. 8, 2005, "Our Ally, Our Problem" CRS, "Islamic Extremism in Europe"
"Made in America Wahhabism",
Los Angeles Times, Mar. 8, 2005
Religious extremism driving out
modernism: John M. Broder, "For Muslim Who Says Violence Destroys Islam, Violent Threats",
N.Y. Times, Mar. 11, 2006
The asymmetry of the demands of Islamists and some other Muslims
regarding religious-based issues, and law in the USA and Europe arise first in
the reservations regarding human rights, and the Arab Charter of Human Rights, and, in
2006, in the matter of the cartoons of Muhammad published first in Denmark and
then in many other countries. But dual standards are nothing new, and as law
ago as UNCTAD, representatives of African and Asian nations justified them by
pointing out that it was the West that had (1) enunciated the standards and (2)
declared that it was observing them. There is a particular problem with titled
officials of revealed religions who claim exclusivity for their faiths:
ecumenism is both modern and liberal. A few newspaper articles:
Anthony Shadid and Kevin Sullivan, "Anatomy of the Cartoon Protest
Movement", Washington Post, Feb. 16, 2006, p. A01
Daniel Howden et al., "How a meeting of leaders
in Mecca set off the cartoon wars around the world", Independent, Feb. 10, 2006
"How Liberal Britain Let Hate Flourish",
Times, Feb. 12, 2006
and an earlier article on sectarian
conflict in Denmark
Compare the Voltaire incident in France:
Andrew Higgins, "Blame It on Voltaire: Muslims Ask French To
Cancel 1741 Play", Wall Street J., Mar. 6, 2006, p. 1
Wolfgang Palaver,
Katholisch-Theologische Fakult�tder Universit�t Innsbruck, "Terrorismus:
Wesensmerkmale, Entstehung, Religion"
A hostile retort to Islamic revisionism:
Andrew G. Bostom, "Eurabia's Morass Elicits Mythical
'Solutions'"
Some of the issues are discussed by this
author's article, "'Islamic Land': Group Rights, National Identity and
Law", at 3 UCLA J. Islamic & Near E. L. 53 (2004) (Westlaw citation: 3 UCLAJINEL 53; Lexis
citation: 3 JINEL 53)
Manning and Goldfrank, Preparing for Terrorism: Tools for Evaluating the Metropolitan Medical
Response System Program (2002)
Cases addressing some miscellaneous legal
Int'l Peace Academy, Human Rights, the United
Nations and the Struggle Against Terrorism (2003) (PDF 216 Kb.)
UNHCR, Terrorism and human rights Inter-American Commission on Human Rights University of Minnesota Human Rights Library
AIDH List of human rights instruments (in
Carters (Orangeville, ON law firm), Anti-Terrorism
Law Resources European
ICRC: Especially
"International humanitarian law and
terrorism" Relevance of the Law of War, the Geneva
Kenneth Roth, "The Law of War in the War on Terror",
Foreign Affairs, Jan-Feb. 2004
John Yoo, "Behind the 'Torture Memos'",
Mercury News, Jan. 2, 2005
Alexis Markels, "Will Terrorism Rewrite the Laws of
War?", NPR, Dec. 6, 2005
Daniel Moon, "The Geneva Conventions, POWs, and the War on Terrorism",
1 Strategic Insights (Sept. 2002)
of War Project, Washington, DC
Washington, DC, Memorandum on the Geneva Conventions (significance
for safety of U.S. troops)
Anthony Dwarkin, "Rethinking the Geneva Conventions",
Global Policy Forum, Jan. 30, 2003
Statutes and bills; legislative
projects; commentaries
(selection based on on-line availability and
provided as examples, not an exhaustive survey)
Parliamentary Library, advice and
analysis (PDF 308 Kb.)
Wikipedia Democratic
Audit of Australia documents Christopher Michaelson, "Australia's Antiterrorism Laws Lack Adequate
Oversight Mechanisms" (PDF 40 Kb.)
Jenny Hocking, The Anti-Terrorism Bill (No 2) 2005: When
scrutiny, secrecy and security collide (40 Kb.)
Michael Kirby, "Terrorism and the Democratic Response: A
Tribute to the European Court of Human Rights" New South Wales
La Belgique mieux arm�e dans la lutte contre le
terrorisme Un projet de loi �antiterroriste� h�tif et
liberticide Terrorisme: un projet de loi controvers�
Anti-terrorism activities Anti-Defamation League Germany
University of Kassel, Peace research Die Zeit, Politik (in German)
Projet de loi relatif � la lutte contre le
terrorisme Expos� des motifs Rapport par Alain Marsaud Amendements d�pos�s sur le texte No. 2615
Dossier l�gislatif (http://www.senat.fr/dossierleg/ppl03-365.html)
Loi autorisant la ratification de la convention internationale pour la
r�pression du financement du terrorisme "Loi relative � la lutte contre le terrorisme
et portant dispositions diverses relatives � la s�curit� et aux contr�les
frontaliers" Communiqu� commun LDH, SM, SAF, DELIS, IRIS,
Antivideo-IDF - Nov. 23, 2005 Liberty & Security comment
Human Rights Watch comment Rapport d'information (PDF 548 Kb.)
Decision No. 86-213 DC,
Sept. 3, 1986, "Loi relative � la lutte contre le
terrorisme et aux atteintes � la s�ret� de l'Etat" Advocate General's opinion Analyzed here
Comparison of French and Irish counter-terrorism
Revue de l'actualit� juridique fran�aise Germany
Gibt es Recht in Terrorismus (lecture,
Leipzig Univ., Oct. 19, 2003) (PDF 120 Kb.)
Die internationale Bek�mpfung des Terrorismus mit
Mitteln des Rechts: Erich Kussbach, P�ter P�zm�ny Catholic
Terrorism as a Challenge for National
and International Law - Security versus Liberty?, (Hrsg.) Ch. Walter, S.
V�neky, V. R�ben, F. Schorkopf, Beitr�ge zum ausl�ndischen �ffentlichen Recht
und V�lkerrecht, Bd. 169. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg 2003.
Philippines Anti-Terrorism Bill "United Nations, the International Rule of Law and Terrorism"
(PDF 148 Kb.)
Philippines Terrorism: The role of militant
Islamic converts (International Crisis Group, Dec. 2005) (PDF 1.3
Anti-Terrorism Bill, 2000 Spain
Ley Org�nica 4/2003, de 21 de mayo,
complementaria de la Ley de prevenci�n y bloqueo de la financiaci�n del
Derechos (bills, international instruments; in Spanish) El Mundo, Madrid train bombing, March 11, 2004
Terrorism Bill (text) Terrorism Bill (as amended) Statewatch, Parliamentary human rights papers (PDF
260 Kb.)
Prevention of Terrorism Bill, briefing papers Prevention of Terrorism Bill, explanatory notes Law Society, briefings Cryptome, archived documents Amnesty International, Briefing on the Terrorism Bill Human Rights Watch, Terrorism Bill 2005
Liberty, terrorism Wikipedia, Terrorism Bill 2005 "Public Whip" Parliamentary voting data
SOSIG, Terrorism Bill SOSIG, Departments of Defense United States
Thomas, terror legislation Public Law No: 107-56, 115 Stat. 271, USA PATRIOT
Act, H.R. 3162 Epic, terrorism Epic, USA PATRIOT Act ACLU, terrorism law Terrorism risk insurance act of 2002 Cornell Law School, LII Backgrounder on Terrorism Law Government, academic and scholarly reference sites,
On the conflation of the
Iraq war and terrorism:
L'empire contre Iraq, Le Monde Diplomatique
dossier ("La menace terroriste") (in French)
Sadat, Terrorism and the Rule of Law
(abstract; UN issues)
"Find Articles" Questia GPO Bookstore Library of Congress: Thomas "Resource Shelf" US
Mission to the United Nations WORLDLII Peace Palace Library, The Hague International Committee of the Red Cross
Biblioteca Jur�dica Virtual (in
Congressional Research Service, Report RL32223, Foreign Terrorist Organizations, Feb. 6, 2004
(PDF 396 Kb.)
Congressional Research Service, Issue Brief IB95112, "Terrorism, the Future,
and U.S. Foreign Policy", Nov. 2, 2001 (PDF 168 Kb.)
Other CRS Reports Congressional Research Service: Gary
Price, GWU, archive CRS, State
CRS, Federation
of American Scientists archive U.S. Department of State, 2001 Report on Foreign Terrorist Organizations
U.S. Department of State, Patterns
of Global Terrorism -- "Bad data forces change in terrorism
report" U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy of the United States of
America 2004 (PDF 460 Kb.)
9/11 responses UK: Legislation against terrorism: a consultation
paper (Dec. 1998)
Henry C. Lieu, World Order, "Failed States and Terrorism",
Asia Times, Feb. 2004
(anti-immigration lobby group)
Abraham D. Sofaer, former
Legal Advisor, U.S. Department of State, Hoover Institution Newsletter, Winter
2002, "Time to stop playing games with
terrorists" ("It requires a shift from responding to
terrorist attacks as ordinary crimes to using military force wherever and
whenever necessary to prevent attacks.") See also "On the Necessity of Pre-emption" 14 Eur. J. Int'l
L. 109 (2003)
Simon Chesterman, "Just War or Just Peace After September
11", 37 J. Int'l L. & Politics 281 (2005) (PDF 104 Kb.)
Review of Benjamin and Simon, "Are We Safer?", N.Y.
Rev. of Books, Mar. 9, 2006
William Blum, Rogue State (2000), excerpts from book;
and Communications Centre Middle East
Media and Research Institute Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, Palestine
1916-1999 Gershom Gorenberg, "Israel's Tragedy Foretold",
N.Y. Times, Mar. 10, 2006 (legal issues regarding West Bank settlements)
selected newspaper accounts of terrorist-related political and legal
activity that have informed the research for this project since April 2005
(few of which are cited in the text above) have been indexed and linked.
[1] See the writings of Ernest Gellner
and Benedict Anderson.
[2] "The News For
Parrots" [3] Yoav Gelber,
Palestine 1948 War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee
Problem, at 298-302 (2001). The European -- and Israeli -- expectation is
compromise and concession; the Palestinian is "justice" without
regard to compromise or counterclaim and this without regard to issues of
[4] Michael Herz, "'Do Justice!': Variations of a Thrice-Told Tale", 82
Va. L. Rev. 111 (1996).
[5] N.Y. Times editorial, "The Judges Made Them Do It",
Apr. 6, 2005; Gina Holland, "Ginsburg Reveals Details of Threat", Washington
Post/AP, Mar. 15, 2006; Washington Post, Charles Lane, "Ginsburg Faults GOP Critics, Cites a Threat From 'Fringe'",
Washington Post, Mar. 17, 2006, p. A03.
[6] On this see Stelio S�f�riad�s,
"L'�change des populations", 25 Rec. des cours 307 (1928-IV).
[7] Jean S. Saba, L'Islam et la
nationalit� (1931); Paul Ghali, Les Nationalit�s d�tach�es de l'Empire Ottoman
� la suite de la Guerre (1934); Abdelouahed Belkeziz, La Nationalit� dans les
Etats arabes (1963); Bruce Maddy-Weitzman, The Crystallization of the Arab
State System, 1945-1954 (1993). [8] "The Rise and Fall
of Mazzinian Nationalism on the Italian Peninsula"; Wikipedia, "Religious Nationalism"
[9] Shall "human rights" be a relative norm notwithstanding the
contrary presumption of the Universal Declaration?. Compare the
draft Arab Charter of Human Rights [10] F. T. Piggott, "The 'Ligeance of the King'", The Nineteenth Century
and After, No. 464, Oct. 1915, p. 729.
[11] Law of July 14, 1798, 1 Stat. 597;
e.g., United States v. Callender, 25 F.Cas 239
(C.C.D.Va. 1800) (No. 14,709).
[12] Prohibiting the
teaching of foreign languages in primary schools; see Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923); Bartels v. Iowa, 262 U.S. 404 (1923).
[16] Co-operative Committee on Japanese Canadians v. Attorney-General for
Canada, [1947] A.C.
[18] United States v. Kawakita, 96 F. Supp. 824; aff'd 190 F.2d 506 (9th Cir. 1951), 343 U.S. 717 (1952) [19] The Pizarro,
15 U.S. 227 (1817), Inglis v. Sailors' Snug Harbor, 28 U.S. (3 Pet.) 99 (1830).
[20] "Gandhi's
words" MKGandhi.org
Wikiquote [21] Jurist
University of Missouri-Kansas City Law School "Famous Trials" FBI, "Mississippi Burning" Court TV [22] Irish
Hunger Strikes Commemorative Project [23] See Frances FitzGerald, Fire in
the Lake (1972).
[24] Israel Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, Terrorism British National Archives, 11 documents concerning Irgun
[27] An erosion of human,
civil and even political rights may be counted among these.
[28] Menahem Begin (and
see: Jean Shaoul, "Terrorism and the Origins of Israel"
(Al Jazeera; repeating an essay that appears on numerous anti-Zionist and
anti-Israel Web sites)); Yassir Arafat (but see: "The Nobel After Arafat"); Gerry Adams; Nelson Mandela (Umkhonto we Sizwe; see also Wikipedia's account).
[29] South Africa, Truth and
Reconciliation Commission [30] Tsunamis.com; also Geology.about.com.
[32] Wikipedia; Richard Garwin, Council of Foreign Relations, letter
to APS Forum on Physics and Society, vol. 28, Jan. 1999
[33] The issues decided by
cited judgments may be peripheral to terrorism as a research subject; they are
included for illustrative purposes. Few decisions address the definition of
"terrorism" as such, and indeed black-letter law can only punish
specific acts and deeds. See Humanitarian Law Project v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, 380 F.Supp.2d 1134 (C.D. Cal. 2005). 18 U.S.C. � 23339B(g)(6) provides:
"'terrorist
organization' means an organization designated as a terrorist organization
Nationality Act": in other words, an organization so designated from time
to time by the Secretary of State.
[34] Published at 53 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 537 (2004). [35] Apparently nonpartisan,
but with a stated agenda "to support the defense of democratic societies under assault by
terrorism and Militant Islamism."
"about events and trends in those societies
which are strategically or tactically important to the United States" [37] See, on the reliability
of Wikipedia entries, "Wikipedia under the microscope over accuracy",
Independent, Mar. 13, 2006; "Anonymous Source Is Not the Same as Open Source",
N.Y. Times, Mar. 13, 2006
[38] Blackmer v. United States, 284 U.S. 421, 437 (1932) (Writ of
certiorari; fines imposed on a U.S. citizen resident in France for
disobeying a subpoena to testify in a criminal case). For background on Henry
Blackmer, see "Cripple Creek History". The
case attracted substantial contemporary interest in France, and a book: Albert
Gouffre de Lapradelle, Affaire Henry M. Blackmer extradition (1929).
[39] But see the Letelier v. Republic of Chile cases, 488 F.Supp. 665
(D.C.D.C. 1980); 502 F.Supp. 259 (D.C.D.C. 1980); 748 F.2d 790 (2d Cir. 1984) (F.S.I.A. issues). [40] Bob Woffinden,
Miscarriages of Justice (1987); Jessica Blanc and Erc Jenses, The Exonerated.
Referred to in the latter play is the convictions of Sonia Jacobs (Jacobs v. Singletary, 952 F.2d 1282 (11th Cir. 1992)). See also Northwestern Law School Center on Wrongful
Convictions [41] Adam Liptak, "Serving Life, With No Chance of
Redemption", N.Y. Times, Oct. 5, 2005; Adam Liptak, "To More Inmates, Life Term Means Dying Behind Bars",
N.Y. Times, Oct. 2, 2005.
[42] The author was
petroleum attach� ("regional resources officer") at the U.S. Embassy
in Tehran on Nov. 4, 1979 but fortuitously escaped being taken hostage. There
had been a similar demonstration a few days earlier which was defused.
Classified exchanges between the Embassy and Washington on the issue of giving
the Shah a visa were included by the Embassy attackers among many purloined
cables published as "Documents from the nest of spies".
[44] "The Assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand" [45] Bobby Joe Keesee biography
[46] DEBKAfile, "Murder Gun
Betrays Greek Terror Group after 27 Years" "Terror suspect says he murdered British envoy" Scotsman, July 19, 2002, [47] Shibley Telhami, "In the Mideast, the Third Way Is a Myth",
Washington Post, Feb. 17, 2006, p. A19 [48] Celia W. Dugger, "Asylum Rules Protect Both U.S. Allied and
Adversaries, I.N.S. Says", New York Times, Aug. 5, 1997
[49] See below, "Status
and Immigration". [50] Stephen Howard, "Three win Enron Trial Extradition
Reprieve". The defendants are
mentioned in In re Enron Corp. Securities, Derivatives and
"ERISA" Litigation, 2005 WL 3504860.
[52] "War" must be
in the figurative sense, since the "enemy" remains undefined except
in the imagination. This creates a problem in purporting to apply (or not) the
laws of war. There is, in any case, an asymmetry and a risk of the
"war" degenerating into a typical colonial conflict. In Padilla v. Rumsfeld, 352 F.3d 695 (2d Cir. 2003) the
Second Circuit had to address whether the President has "inherent
power" to detain a suspected or presumed enemy combatant "for the
duration of armed conflict". That the conflict is with a non-sovereign
enemy without corporate existence or centralized power structure was not
addressed, but the possibility of its indefinite duration was.
[53] Words used by Mr.
Justice Holmes in Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47
(1919) and in 107 U.S. Supreme Court judgments since then.
[54] For purposes of
comparison, the European Commission Web site shows the registration requirements for each member state
[56] And, potentially, the
insurance coverage of unlicensed drivers. The misrepresentation issue is
addressed in a few cases including Perez v. Ohio Casualty Ins. Co., 2005 WL 2363828 (N.J. Super.) and State Farm Ins. Co. v. Sabato, 767 A.2d 485 (N.J. Super. 2001).
[57] About.com [58] Nina Bernstein, "Seized With Heavy Hand at Border, For
Paperwork Errors", N.Y. Times, Feb. 10, 2006 [59] See a string of
European Court of Justice cases severely limiting the right of member states to
exclude European citizens, notably R. v. Pieck, [1980] E.C.R. 2171 (lack of residence
permit) and Van Duyn v. Home Office, [1974] E.C.R. 1337
(staff member of Church of Scientology), Adoui & Cornuaille v. Belgium, [1982] E.C.R. 1665
[60] See the writer's
paper on this subject, submitted to the Council of Europe Conference
on Nationality in October 2004. [61] Already the exercise of
family reunification claims have been hindered: the
issuance of K (fianc�(e)) visas and immigrant visas for spouses and immediate
family are subject to strict conditions and some delay. USCIS "How do I bring my fianc�(e) to the United States?"
(with links to relevant U.S. Code and C.F.R. provisions)
[62] The Convention Relating
to the Status of Stateless Persons copies it nearly verbatim.
[63] Reported in N.Y.
Times: March 27, 1951, pp. 1, 18; Nov. 2, p. 11; Nov. 3, pp. 1 & 5; 4
Nov., p. 42; Ellen Raphael Knauff, The Ellen Knauff Story (1952),
includes the text of the Board's 29 Aug. 1951 judgment in Case No. A-6937471
and the Attorney General's decision of Nov. 2 approving the grant of immigrant
status leading to naturalisation.
[64] The issue here may be
more serious than many would assume. Assimilating in-your-face dissent and
eccentricity to support of terrorism, or using laws, deliberately vague and
open-ended and designed to thwart terror against passive dissenters, may deny
the government a consensus for measures necessarily questionable in terms of
human rights because they are aimed at presumed planners of terrorist acts and
their supporters. Compare the more general issue of suppressing public dissent
in the presence of policymakers, e.g. the January 31, 2006 Cindy Sheehan
T-shirt incident: CNN report; Sheehan (Truthout)
[65] The following
trafficking cases were motivated by greed, not terrorism: United States v. Trapilo, 130 F.3d 547 (2d Cir. 1997) ("We therefore hold that a scheme to
defraud the Canadian government of tax revenue is cognizable under the federal
wire fraud statute, 18 U.S.C. �� 1343, and reverse the order of the district
court that dismissed the indictment alleging a money-laundering conspiracy in
violation of 18 U.S.C. �� 1956"); similarly, United States v. Pasquantino, 336 F.3d 321 (4th Cir. 2003); contra,
United States v. Boots, 80 F.3d 580 (1st Cir. 1996), cert. denied 519 U.S. 905 (1996).
[66] For background see
Clive Parry, British Nationality Law and the History of Naturalisation
[67] Speech of President
Mohammad Khatami to Iranian-Americans at the United Nations, 20 Sept. 1998,
reported by Associated Press, 20 Sept. at 16.25 EDT.
[68] B. (R.) v. Children's Aid, [1995] 1 S.C.R. 315
(transfusion for infant); Re Jensen,
(1976) 67 D.L.R.(3d) 514, 69 I.L.R. 194 (naturalisation oath); Roncarelli v. Duplessis, [1959] S.C.R. 121 (use of public facilities); Watch
Tower Bible and Tract Society v. Mount Roskill Borough, [1959] N.Z.L.R.
1236 (S.Ct.) (reversing finding of "subversive"); Walsh v. Lord Advocate,
[1956] 1 W.L.R. 1002 (H.L.) (conscription); Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses v. Commonwealth, [1943] 67 C.L.R. 116
(H.C. Australia) (prejudicial to conduct of war).
[70] Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398 (1963) (refusal to work on the Sabbath); Prais v. Council, [1976] E.C.R. 1589 (recruitment
examination held on a Saturday).
[71] Van Duyn v. Home Office, [1974] E.C.R. 1337,
upon reference in [1974] 1 W.L.R. 1107 (Ch. Div.); Hubbard v. Vosper, [1972] 2 Q.B. 84; Church of the New Faith v. Commissioner for Pay-roll Tax,
(1983) 49 A.L.R. 65 (H.C. Australia); Church of Scientology v. Sweden,
ECHR, 14 July 1980, R. & D., vol. 21, p. 109, Application No. 8282/78.
[72] But see also Kawakita (Hayashi) v. Lorenz, 271 P.2d 18 (Cal. 1954) (dismissal of
claim for fraudulent disposal of Kawakita family property during their
internment).
[74] Thus: Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as
Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (1995) [75] Robert Fisk, "Exodus: Christians of the Arab World Flee
Their Biblical Homeland", Independent, Sept. 24, 1997, p. 11
[77] Tara Lewelling, "Exploring Muslim Diaspora Communities in
Europe through a Social Movement Lens: Some Initial Thoughts",
4 Strategic Insights (May 2005Naval Postgraduate School, Center for
Contemporary Conflict, (PDF 80Kb.)
[78] Francis Elliott et
al., "The Two Faces of Islam UK",
Independent, Feb. 12, 2006 [79] See the references
under "Relgioin and Terrorism".
[80] Thus: The Kach movement
of Rabbi Meyer Kahane, Jewish Virtual Library; Center for Defense Information India: B. Raman, "Terrorism: India's Unending War",
Rediff, April 4, 2003
and see: "Moneylaundering and the
financial support of terrorism" above. The support of extremist Islamic
centers abroad by sometimes outwardly "moderate" Saudi donors is well
known: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, "Subversion from within: Saudi funding of
extremist groups in the United States"; Aspen Institute Berlin,
Interview with Irshad Manji, Steven
Emerson and Gilles Kepel (undated, probably 2005).
[81] Yoginder Sikand,
Pakistan, Islam and Indian media stereotypes, Daily Times (Pakistan), Feb. 3,
[82] "Coalition
for Justice in Hawaiian Gardens & Jerusalem" [83] Samuel Brittan reviewing Samuel P. Hungtington, The Clash of
Civilizations (2002). See also Niall
Ferguson, "The crash of civilizations",
Los Angeles Times, Feb. 27, 2006 and Huntington, "The Clash of Civilizations?",
Foreign Affairs, Summer 1993.
[84] George W. Pring and
Penelope Canan, SLAPPs: Getting Sued for Speaking Out (1996). Several
bibliographies and analyses can be found with a search engine.
[85] The case may hold
lessons for those charged with distinguishing harmless propaganda from
incipient terrorism. One remarkable point of the judgment was that McDonalds
(who seemed to be claiming that it was being terrorized by defamatory
leafleting) was libeled because they were said to be depleting the rain
forests when in fact their agricultural demands are affecting Latin
American forests. The defendants speak the language of anarchists, but
only the plaintiffs seem to have seen them as terrorists. This writer attended
part of the trial.
[86] "'[T]he proposals contained in this draft shall be binding [when]
... State terrorism against Libya shall end, there shall be a halt to threats
and provocations against it'", quoting a letter from representatives of
the Libyan Government, in Smith v. Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, 886 F.Supp. 306, 314
(E.D.N.Y. 1995).
[87] "Europe's last dictatorship? Just grin and bear it",
Economist, Mar. 20, 2006. When this writer was at the National
Library of Belarus in Minsk on a legal documentation project some
years ago, he was astonished to find missing from the law library shelves
certain numbers of the second series of the Official Gazette. He was advised
that these had been suppressed by the Presidency. There are a few, but not
many, governments that enforce unpublished laws and regulations.
[88] Mr. Justice Lawrence Collins, mentioned in this and the following
article, is the general editor of Dicey & Morris on the Conflict of Laws
and writer of many books and articles on private international law,
pre-judgment remedies, European law and other legal subjects, including,
recently, "Comity in Modern Private International Law", in James
Fawcett, ed., Reform and Development of Private International Law, Essays in
Honour of Sir Peter North 89 (2002). Not addressed in that article is the
denial of comity to the ruling of a court in a terrorist state or corrupt legal
system: Bank Melli Iran v. Pahlavi, 58 F.3d 1406
(Iran); Roxas v. Marcos, 89 Haw. 91, 969 P.2d 1209 (1998)
(Philippines); cf. Muduroglu Ltd.
v. T.C Ziraat Bankasi, [1986] Q.B. 1226 (Ct. App.) (Libya; forum
non conveniens); Bridgeway Corp. v. Citibank, 201 F.3d 134
(2d Cir. 2000) (Liberia; civil war, corruption); Rockwell Int'l Systems, Inc. v. Citibank, N.A., 719 F.2d 583
(2d Cir. 1983) (letter of credit case; post-revolutionary Iranian judicial
system incapable of affording an adequate remedy); Corporacion Salvadorena de Calzado, S.A. v. Injection Corp., 533 F.Supp. 290
(S.D.Fla. 1982) (due process; failure to abide by procedural rules of
Salvadoran law).
[89] Wikipedia, "Baruch Goldstein"; cf.
the fringe Jewish
[91] South Asia Analysis
Group, "Massacres of Shias in Iraq and
Pakistan" [92] Newspaper articles
archived on an Ahmadiyya-sponsored site; Pervez Amir Ali Hoodbhoy, "How Islam Lost Its Way",
Washington Post, Dec. 30, 2001
[93] Air University resources Anti-Defamation League appraisal [94] See CNN's archived reports [95] Ewen MacAskill, "UK to build ties with banned Islamist
group", Guardian, Feb. 17, 2006.
[96] Northfield Mount Hermon
School, Ted Thornton, "Sayyid Qutb"; Wikipedia; Ashland University Ashbrook Center, "The Thought of Sayyid Qutb";
Milestones ("Ma'alim fi'l Tariq") (1965) (and at several other Internet
[97] USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts [98] Chip Brown, "The Freshman", N.Y. Times
Magazine, Feb. 26, 2006 (former Taliban ambassador/spokesman now a freshman at