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Change Institute April 2009 Communities and Local Government: London
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4 Language Intra and Inter Community Dynamics 9.3 Women 9.1 Intergenerational issues 9.1 Objectives of the research 2.8 Civil Society and civic engagement Introduction 2. religion and language 1.7 Media and links with country of origin 1.6 Integration and cohesion 1.2 Report structure Methodology 3.4 Cohesion and integration 5 5 5 6 6 8 9 9 10 12 12 13 14 14 17 18 20 23 26 29 31 31 32 33 35 36 36 37 38 39 41 41 41 43 43 44 44 45
10 Media 10.3 Socio economic situation 1.3 Religion 8.2 Ethnicity 8.2 Young people 9.4 Business and commerce
.2 Analysis of data 3.3 Political links 11.1 Perceptions of the media in the UK 10.Contents | 3
1 Executive Summary 1.4 Identity. young people and the role of women in the community 1.1 Identity 8.3 Limitations of the research Country History Migration History and Trends Community Demography and Key Locations Socio economic situation Key characteristics 8.2 Media consumption 11 Links with country of origin 11.2 Remittances 11.1 Project phases 3.1 Introduction and context 1.1 Travel 11.5 Intergenerational dynamics.2 Migration and England’s Nigerian Muslim population 1.
5 Civic engagement and relationships with local authorities 12.1 Brief overview 12.2 Types of organisations and services 12.1 Recommendations 14 Glossary 15 Bibliography
46 46 46 47 48 48 50 51 52 54 56
.4 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
12 Civil Society 12.6 Community issues and capacity building needs 13 Conclusions 13.3 Key organisations 12.4 Key influencers 12.
Since the country and migration contexts are important we have briefly detailed the relevant parts of these. After the collapse of the petroleum boom in the early 1980s. England and Wales: Great Britain. socio economic situations.000 applications per year. We recommend that this research is understood as a starting point rather than an end-point. What is evident is that the diversity of these communities warrants further research and particularly a greater need for understanding of England’s diverse Muslim communities at both local and central government levels. The primary goal of the research was to detail the main population and community locations. the findings from these studies sometimes offer first insights rather than firm conclusions about the respective communities.Executive Summary | 5
1. This report focuses on the Nigerian Muslim community in England and as such those interviewed and involved in focus groups were based in England. While the research and analysis was approached in a rigorous manner.
1. Thus the report refers to whichever of these is the most relevant in the context. This report details the research findings for the Nigerian Muslim community. and the United Kingdom. and most returned to Nigeria immediately after completing their studies. An overarching objective for the project was to identify how government could best engage and work in partnership with specific communities. Individual reports for the other twelve communities covered by the study as well as a separate report synthesising the overall research findings are available from Communities and Local Government. language use. and intra-community and intra-generational dynamics. and asylum applications to the UK peaked in the mid 1990s during a period of repressive military dictatorship under General Sani Abacha. However. Nigerians started seeking employment opportunities in other countries including the UK. for this reason we felt it beneficial to look at other areas such as identity. and there was an increasing tendency for Nigerian migrants to settle permanently in European countries. identify denominations and religious practices. For many of these communities. Hence. and identify the strengths of links with the country of origin.
.2 Migration and England’s Nigerian Muslim population
Before Nigeria’s independence in 1960. These now remain consistent at around 1. the scope is broad and the population in question is sizeable. there was little existing research specific to the community. France and other countries in the West to access higher education.1 Introduction and context
This report is one of thirteen reports on England’s Muslim ethnic communities resulting from a six-month research project commissioned by the Cohesion Directorate of Communities and Local Government in order to understand the diversity of England’s Muslim population and enhance its engagement and partnership with Muslim civil society. some of the existing research and data on the community refers to England. USA. many Nigerians travelled to the United Kingdom. Political instability over the years has also resulted in many seeking asylum.
there is little data or information available on these businesses in London.000 but the actual number could be far higher. Anecdotal evidence from respondents suggests that there may be many thousands of undocumented Nigerian migrants working illegally in London. However. with women being thought to be particularly affected due to prejudices based on their colour. this does not include undocumented migrants and UK citizens of Nigerian descent.000 Nigerian born residents in the UK in 2006. religion. The majority are Yorubas. dress and accent. 6. pp. in part because of the small scale and highly scattered nature of these businesses. For example.6 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
The Nigerian community is one of the largest and most rapidly growing African communities in the UK. Edo. up from 87. The Muslim population is a minority within the Nigerian born population.
Oyètádé A. the common perception and promotion of stereotypes of all Nigerians as fraudsters and criminals is also thought to have a negative effect on people’s employment opportunities. However. Also a large proportion of Nigerian Muslims. representing 9 per cent of the total Nigerian born population in the 2001 Census.
1. Paradoxically.
1. Boroughs such as Lewisham and Southwark have a flourishing trade in ‘Nollywood’ films with the setting up of video film clubs off the back of a thriving Nigerian film industry. Current estimates indicate that there were 146.1 The respondents mainly mentioned only Yoruba and Hausa/Fulani as the main ethnic groups in the UK. A best estimate of the Nigerian Muslim population is 12-14. However. with one or two references to Auchi. and Efik. The Nigerian population as a whole is widely dispersed across London and other parts of the country.3 Socio economic situation
There is limited socio economic data available on the Nigerian Muslim population in England. Vol. religion and language
Nigerian Muslim communities in the UK are mainly made up of Hausas from northern Nigeria and Yorubas from Southern Nigeria. In addition. Ishan. the difficulties in finding mainstream employment may be a driving factor in the development of a thriving business and commercial sector within the Nigerian community. followed by Hausa and Ibo. and Nupe. The little data that does exist for the Nigerian community as a whole suggests that the majority are well educated and many hold professional jobs in London and the surrounding counties.4 Identity. and many of the shops are Yoruba owned. together with some smaller groups of Oyo. are reported to find themselves either in menial jobs or unemployed. many in the Muslim community are still reported to be suffering high levels of unemployment and discrimination. 69-92.000 in 2001.. many of whom are highly qualified. No. Peckham has become known within the community as ‘the Yoruba heartland’ in the past ten years. (1993). ‘The Yorùbá Community in London’. 1.
. African Languages and Cultures.
language and religion informs the congregational delineation in places of worship to some extent. 1993. and hence many retreat into what they see as a strong and positive Muslim identity. but do not feel or care about the impact on themselves of British culture and values to the same extent as young people do. identities in the community are dynamic and can change according to specific social contexts. Efik. By choosing English over a Nigerian language. and Igbo. Evidence from interviews and focus groups suggests that the interplay of ethnicity.
Oyètádé. For many Nigerian Muslims. Ishan.2 Like many of the other communities in this research. Arabic. British born Nigerians are perceived as being in danger of losing a part of their heritage. Whist religious identity is extremely important. There is a distinct generational difference about how people define their identity.’ Nigerians in the UK speak a range of languages including. and virtually all respondents made reference to their religion as key to their self image in one way or another. Respondents suggest that increased hostility and a perceived lack of support or welcome from wider society makes it difficult for many to feel British. In the wider group context where Nigerians of different religious background socially interact. along with a few followers of the Qadiriyah and Tijjaniya Sufi orders. which reflects practice in Nigeria. religion is central to their interpretations and discussions about identity. religious affiliation is often diluted and becomes less important. there was a shared concern among first generation Nigerian Muslims about the use of English and the lack of understanding of their mother tongue by British born Nigerians. though there are also some who follow the Shafi’i and Hanafi legal schools. Yoruba. and a Muslim at a church as both know the correct etiquette and prayers related to the two faiths. and the research suggests that Nigerian young people are predominantly coming to define themselves as primarily ‘black-British. For British born young people however the issue is more complex as they try to make sense of their multiple identities – British/Nigerian or Muslim/black. Edo. culture and identity. There are also small numbers of Shia Muslims in the UK. though not as much as it does in some other communities.Executive Summary | 7
The majority of the Nigerian Muslims in the UK are Sunni and generally follow the Maliki legal school. Older people are generally comfortable about living in Britain. history. and it was suggested by some respondents that it is commonplace for a Christian to pray at a mosque.
. The self awareness about their Muslim identity has been greatly heightened within the community post 9/11. Hausa. Inter-religious marriages within Nigerian families are also common. English.
there are still several barriers to women’s full participation in the community. there is not a perception that the second generation is becoming more concerned with religiosity. particularly in the area of sexual relationships and marriage. and there is a continued practice of deference to parents and elders.
. Women are traditionally seen as playing a leading role in the family. The changing expectations and choices of Muslim women as a result of migration was an issue highlighted as being of key concern to families. This coupled with a lack of knowledge about their own faith amongst many young British-Nigerian Muslims is thought to contribute to their growing feelings of alienation. unlike some other communities. there are others that lack support and are quite isolated from the wider community. The research indicates a high level of concern about educational under attainment and youth unemployment and the detrimental impact this is having on young people who see themselves as British. despite the prominent role that many women play. Some respondents suggested that there is a growing religious awareness among women and that this is evident in new ways of expressing their identity and religious practice. African and Muslim identities are compounded by the additional need to navigate cultural differences. However. particularly males.5 Intergenerational dynamics. as they negotiate their identities in the public domain. who hold the responsibility or ‘guardianship’ that for the young generation as a whole. For British-born Nigerian Muslims. Family is seen as vital to the Nigerian community. lifestyle. young people and the role of women in the community
There are a wide range of views on the relationship between British born Nigerian Muslims and those born in Nigeria. Religion plays an important role in determining the role.8 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
1. not just for their own immediate or extended family. women are also active in community organisations and events. Also whilst many are actively involved in community events. However. and for having the primary responsibility for the education of children. opportunities and expectations placed on women and young girls. However. Many parents worry about their children growing up in a non Islamic environment and feel that negative behaviours in wider society are having a detrimental impact on young people. but who are becoming increasingly demoralised because they are not doing as well as their white counterparts. problems have arisen as a result of the process of migration and the changed environment that the community finds itself in. the challenges of resolving a British identity with their Nigerian. There are concerns about the growing communication barriers between parents and children based on the different cultural backgrounds and environments that the generations have been brought up within. but the majority of respondents suggested that the relationship between the generations is strong and one of mutual respect. In addition to this. values and experiences between themselves and their parents and elders.
Firstly. Emotional and financial links between the community and their country of origin or heritage remain high.6 Integration and cohesion
Three clear themes concerning integration and cohesion emerged amongst the respondents. satellite and other broadcast media. particularly first generation migrants.7 Media and links with country of origin
Almost every respondent felt that the media portrays Muslims and Islam in a negative way. A significant proportion of those that travel to Nigeria regularly include second and third generation British Nigerians.Executive Summary | 9
Despite some women achieving high levels of education and being successful at setting up and running their own businesses. or for political or business purposes. gender. particularly as education and self-determination among women is highly regarded in the community.
. many fear that in the current UK climate. and religion are perceived as severely restricting their employment opportunities. ethnicity and language. Whilst generally believed to be a positive process. further efforts need to be made by the government to combat racism and the rise of perceived injustices towards Muslims. and those who find themselves unable to work due to such barriers have found the situation to be very demoralising. ‘integration’ means that wider society expects them to give up their religion and the important values that inform their identity. Secondly. respondents felt that for integration to be successful. There is also a perception that the growing hostility from the ‘host’ community particularly affects the second generation. integration processes are seen as not having been very successful. including of those who see themselves primarily as British Nigerians. whereas younger Nigerians are more likely to access information via the web.
1. the perceived growth in hostility in the UK in terms of religious and racial issues is seen as having undermined the ‘British identity’ of Nigerians. and that this is fuelling tensions and hatred towards Muslims. but for most Nigerians. The combined effects of race. many Nigerian women are said to face difficulties accessing work within the formal employment sector. There is considerable frustration about the way in which Muslims are portrayed. the UK is now home. Peace TV and Islam channel for religious coverage and news about the Muslim world. Media consumption within the Nigerian Muslim community is extremely varied and includes most of the mainstream UK TV and press as well as countless Nigerian internet. news and sport as well as advertising various services including cultural and entertainment services to meet the needs of the African Diaspora. and also about the way in which ‘Muslim’ is used as a label to group all Muslim peoples together with little recognition of differences in culture. However.
1. African satellite channels in London focus on entertainment. hopes and aspirations. Older generations are more likely to listen to the radio. maintain a high level of contact with their home country. Thirdly. Most people also favour Al Jazeera. With a rise in stop and search of young Muslims. migration. British Nigerians. young black people are perceived as being constantly harassed by the police. Most people travel regularly to visit family.
but types and level of funding currently accessed does not allow for provision of the level of support needed for volunteers. such as national or state level interest groups including business associations. coupled with a general lack of contact and communication between government and the community. have also acted as catalysts for the development of audio-visual media within many African countries. There are numerous Nigerian faith orientated organisations in the UK that provide a number of services for different ethno-linguistic Nigerian groups. Low levels of engagement and a lack of knowledge about how to work with local authorities was felt to be due to the fact that the majority of organisations are run by volunteers. and many people in the UK are affiliated to political parties back home. The lack of understanding about the work of community organisations and lack of funding for faith organisations to undertake social action. if not all. regional and national levels is minimal and respondents indicated that public authorities only prefer to engage with larger well known organisations. and others based on gender. The rapid fall in the cost of communications has spawned significant markets within the community and there are many outlets that specialise in communication services as well as serving as niche remittance agencies. of these civil society organisations are run voluntarily or with limited funding. especially Nigeria.10 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Remittance by hand is a common practice amongst Nigerians and remittances are seen as a means of relieving poverty amongst relatives as well as planning for the longer term. Many Nigerians also maintain an active interest in the politics of Nigeria. religion. Most.
. It was suggested that this perception could be challenged if the government made more of an effort to reach out to communities and showed some sincerity of purpose in addressing community issues. political and cultural activities. Many organisations are staffed by those who lack formal training on management and leadership or who are not able to spend the necessary time to conduct administration duties. was felt by respondents to be creating further barriers. It was suggested that the best way to address capacity building issues was for volunteers to have education and skills training.8 Civil Society and civic engagement
UK-based Nigerian diaspora organisations draw on a variety of constituencies. associations of particular ethnic groups. Technological developments. Government and associated bodies are viewed with a mixture of scepticism and sometimes fear by some in the community. Most respondents working in community organisations felt that it is important to have paid staff in place as this would begin the process of enabling organisations to create meaningful and long-lasting relationships with authorities and communities. coupled with the increased purchasing power of diaspora populations. Engagement between the community and public authorities on the local. Some do not have offices and are juggling working voluntarily with other commitments.
management training and making funding applications • Proactive approaches by government and local authorities to address anti-Muslim sentiment in society and the mainstream media. crime and alienation • Support and funding for the establishment of youth and women’s organisations. depression and other mental health problems. including funding and training in key areas namely. lack of employment opportunities. as well as for umbrella organisations that are able to develop a collective community voice for engagement with public authorities • Capacity building for existing community organisations. as a well as recognition and support for those faith organisations in the community that are proactively addressing issues the challenges facing young people in relation to educational underachievement. Other recommendations: • Further research into some of the less visible problems facing the community including. domestic violence and fostering • Provision of clear guidance for faith based communities on government policy and funding streams related to faith based social action.
.Executive Summary | 11
Specific recommendations arising from community respondents include: • The provision of mainstream funding for Islamic supplementary schools for the Nigerian community. business skills.
Middle Eastern and other Asian countries of origin. along with separate synthesis and technical reports. particularly relating to some of the specific smaller communities of African.12 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Communities and Local Government recognises that there is a need to enhance its understanding and knowledge of the diverse Muslim ethnic populations in England. Reports have been provided under separate covers for each diaspora community. As such. The thirteen ethnic Muslim communities that the Cohesion Directorate was seeking more information about were those originating from: • Afghanistan • Algeria • Bangladesh • Egypt • India • Iran • Iraq • Morocco • Nigeria • Pakistan • Saudi Arabia • Somalia • Turkey. Communities and Local Government commissioned The Change Institute (CI) to deliver the research project ‘Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities’ (UMEC).1 Objectives of the research
There were four objectives for the research: • Mapping: Develop population maps for each ethnic community outlining the spread of the population and identification of high density clusters • Identification of denominations and pathways: Collect information on the grassroots institutions/key individuals working with ethnic communities and the breakdown of these ethnic communities by denomination/sect/clan
it should be noted a comprehensive socio economic description or analysis of the community was outside the scope of this study. We also took the view that the migration and history of each community’s country of origin was important and often offered potential explanations for the location. These objectives translated into six key questions that the study needed to address: 1. However. Also to collect information on the relative strengths and weaknesses of civil society infrastructure for each ethnic community. and development of the diaspora communities in the UK. Sections 8 to 12 draw primarily on the qualitative research corroborated by secondary sources where these are available. Sections 6 and 7 are primarily based on quantitative secondary data.Introduction | 13
• Identifying strength of links and capacity of ethnic communities: Collect information on the strength of links between each ethnic community and country of origin (including influential institutions/individuals/media channels/religious influences). Finally. What are the latest estimated sizes and demographic make-up of the key ethnic communities? 3.
2. highlighting where capacities need to be developed • Identifying how Government can best engage with ethnic communities: Develop recommendations on the ways in which Communities and Local Government can best engage with and understand Muslim ethnic communities in England. How developed is the level of social infrastructure for each group? During the course of the desktop research and fieldwork. social and cultural characteristics. What are the strength of links between the ethnic communities and country of origin? 6. including recommendations on avenues of communications and delivery to these communities.
. including political. How can Communities and Local Government best engage with them? 5. Which denominations and/or other internal groupings do these ethnic groups belong to? 4. Where are the key ethnic groups of the Muslim population located? 2. intra-community dynamics. we obtained data on other facets of the community such as socio economic position and intra-community dynamics. In order to provide additional context to users of the report we have included this information where it was felt this would be valuable to the reader. Section 13 draws together specific recommendations arising from the research.2 Report structure
The report is structured to address the key research questions set out previously.
While quantitative data about the size. Data collection consisted of two phases which were consistent across each community. we conducted 15 interviews with local government and voluntary services stakeholders across England to discuss their existing experiences of working in partnership with and supporting Muslim civil society organisations across all the Muslim ethnic communities that we researched.14 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
The research questions represented a broad area of inquiry and analysis.
3. the study primarily focused on enabling the Communities and Local Government to ‘know’ these communities in depth. and in identifying key gaps in the existing knowledge base. Annual Population Survey. To fulfil these research requirements. two with Nigerian community). including the Census. The main method for data collection on population characteristics was through a comprehensive review of a broad range of secondary data sources. the methodology developed needed to combine documentary research with processes of consultation and dialogue. This initial literature review assisted in developing a detailed picture of data currently available in the public domain. PHASE 1 ACTIVITY Population mapping METHOD Review of: • Existing literature • National data sources • Local data sources and consultations with local authority. other public bodies and community representatives. twelve with Nigerian community) Focus groups (30 total. location and other demographic features of the priority communities was a key research need. It also helped in identifying key locations for each diaspora to be targeted in the community research which followed as well as identifying key stakeholders and community respondents. output of migration and population think tanks and academic research centres. Community interviews (205 total.1 Project phases
Phase 1: Population mapping The first phase consisted of collecting mainly secondary quantitative data but also some primary qualitative data about locations of Muslim ethnic populations and known civil society organisations. These were conducted to cover all thirteen communities in this study.
Methodology | 15
Robust and up-to-date population data is difficult to obtain outside of the 2001 Census but we were able to obtain some anecdotal information from local authorities and community groups about migration since 2001. However, the 2001 Census data still informs the baseline of the population figures quoted in this study. This data has been supplemented where possible by a limited amount of additional local authority information or other sources where reliable estimates have been made. In relation to Nigerian Muslims specifically, there is little specific research on the population in England or the UK. We are reliant on information from respondents and from a small amount of existing sources. Phase 2: Qualitative data collection Qualitative data collection has been undertaken primarily through 12 one-to-one interviews with key respondents (‘those who might be expected to know’), and two focus groups with individuals from the Nigerian community. This phase of the research was carried out between April and July 2008.
3.1.1 In-depth interviews
The interviews assisted in developing an overview of national and local contexts: the make-up of diaspora communities, key issues concerning violent extremism including perceptions, experiences and activities, current initiatives in place to counter this and existing civil society structures and development needs. The interviews also assisted in identification of further key contacts for the one-to-one and focus group research and covered a range of topics including: • Key data sources • Denominations and pathways • Key influencers and institutions • Key issues and needs for the specific diaspora • Links with countries of origin • Civil society structures and capacity needs • Current levels of contact and key barriers to engagement with public authorities • Media consumption • Appropriate communication channels for engagement and involvement. The majority of interviews were conducted face-to-face and some by telephone where necessary. Respondents were chosen on the basis that they offered a range of different types of knowledge and perspectives on community issues and dynamics.
16 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Selection of respondents involved drawing up a ‘long list’ of key contacts in each community in consultation with community interviewers, expert advisers and contacts made during the first phase of research. Shortlists were produced to ensure that there was adequate female and youth representation and a regional spread that reflected the distribution of the community in England. Additional names were added on the basis of subsequent recommendations made. Interviews for the Nigerian community research were conducted by a researcher from the Nigerian community. The researcher was already familiar with many of the civil society organisations in the Nigerian community. This added legitimacy to the process of enquiry that was critical in opening up discussion and enabled us to gather rich and sometimes controversial data. The profile of the twelve respondents was as follows: • Five were women and seven were men • Their occupations included four community organisation manager/coordinators, four professionals who are active on community boards and committees, one education worker, one student society leader, one journalist and one writer • Three were in the age range 20-29 years, four in the range 30-39, four in the range 40-49 and one was over 60 years old. A quality control process was used by CI to ensure consistency and quality across each community. This involved: • Piloting: Each community researcher was required to carry out two/three pilot interviews in each community to refine approaches and questions where necessary. This included a detailed discussion with each researcher following the pilot interviews, with expert adviser involvement where necessary, as well as a review of the interview field notes to ensure that relevant data was being picked up by researchers • Each community researcher was assigned to a member of the core research team who reviewed field notes on an ongoing basis, and regular internal team meetings were held to share findings and ensure consistency across the project.
In addition to the individual interviews, we conducted two focus groups that allowed for collective insights to be generated on community needs and issues, including challenges and practical ways forward. These explored partnership issues, civil society infrastructure and capacity development needs, media and communications. While these focus groups were limited in number, they provided a rich and often diverse set of views that complemented the data gathered in the one-to-one interviews.
Methodology | 17
Focus groups were designed to include a mix of participants from different community networks and different occupational backgrounds who might be expected to hold a wide range of views. Participants were recruited by the core research team through local community organisations and CI networks. One male and one female focus group was conducted which were attended by individuals over 35 years of age. The focus groups were conducted in London in July 2008. Location Group (Female) Group (Male) 1 London 2 London Born in the UK 2 1 Born outside of the UK 6 7 Age range 35+ 35+
Language translation was required for some members of the female focus group. Groups were facilitated by CI directors and analysts, with additional support from community researchers. This report uses selective quotes from the interviews and focus groups to illustrate key recurring themes and issues arising during the qualitative data collection. Where necessary they have been carefully edited for ease of reading, or understanding what was meant.
Data analysis involved generating understandable patterns by comparing what different respondents/focus groups said about specific themes or questions. The central question was whether the data and information and the range of views expressed led to the same conclusions. Findings were validated by triangulation of all data and information collected in both project phases so far as possible, and by critical internal reflection and review within the CI team. The analytical process involved reviewing field notes to develop emerging themes in line with the analytical framework, which was done in collaboration with the field researchers; regular internal meetings to discuss findings from all communities; dedicated internal workshops on the communities to finalise analysis; reviews from expert advisers; feedback from ‘community reviewers’ and a formal peer review process.
3. the study does not claim to provide an analysis of the Nigerian population as a whole. particularly in focus group discussions when respondents felt they had limited time to ensure that their voices got heard. as well as specific challenges in relation to some of these communities. and most importantly. and the comments of other respondents • Many aspects of the topic guide were designed to identify the key needs and challenges facing the community.3 Hence the research tended to generate data on problem areas and challenges. knowledge of the current political and social context for these communities.18 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Intercultural understanding of responses and non-responses was also essential in considerations of the data generated. we were reflexive in our approach. critically reflecting on the role and influence that our own research intervention may be having on key respondents and focus groups. This may not reflect many of the positive and optimistic views of respondents. silences and body language were often as important as what was said. available from Communities and Local Government. and might be noted or recorded.3 Limitations of the research
Data analysis represents both general and particular challenges in the current social and political context. We have analysed views and comments in the context of existing data. A set of commonly held assumptions and understandings in any cultural group may mean that some things are simply left unsaid – because they are commonly understood in the group and do not require articulation.
. In this context in particular there will often be a distinction between what is said. using critical judgment and being conscious of the need to interpret with integrity in relation to what we were seeing and hearing. respondents were often aware that the discussions may come across as negative in tone. and were quick to try and balance this by highlighting perceived positive aspects of both their communities and their lives in the UK. Finally. These include: • The sample sizes for each community were relatively small and respondents were not intended to be a representative sample of the relevant communities • Because the interviews were not based on a random sample. In addition literal translation or interpretation may simply misrepresent or miss the significance of what is being articulated. However. A good example of potential misinterpretation that came up many times was body language indicating discomfort and unwillingness to pursue a particular line of enquiry. We have endeavoured to set out the ‘best’ story (in terms of explanatory power) in the context of what is already known about why some of our respondents might express negative feelings
The topic guide is included in the Technical Report. nor was this the intention of the study. In looking for meaning. and what is meant.
which may have influenced their responses (eg representing their community as having few or no problems.
The showcard is included in the Technical Report. intra-community dynamics and links with country of origin. duties. gender roles. both positive and negative. identity and differences • The researchers’ analytical response to these difficulties was to be critically attuned to who was speaking. both real and perceived. available from Communities and Local Government.4 They were informed that this research would potentially be used to inform a publication that would enter the public domain and would cover aspects such as religion. changing attitudes among the young (both in liberal and more radical directions) and the levels of integration or tensions within and across communities). the politicisation of the research field meant that all respondents were conscious of being part of a community under public and government scrutiny. discrimination. hesitancy and caution in some responses. Hence the viewpoints of the selected respondents may not necessarily be representative of other Nigerians. to negotiations about roles. or conversely.Methodology | 19
• In the current context. so this report is predominantly about Nigerians living in London where the bulk of the Nigerian Muslim population resides. including difficulties in getting interviews with particular types of respondents. as having many or major needs and/or issues with public authorities) • This also created a number of practical difficulties in research terms. Additionally. We are conscious of the dynamism and the rapid changes taking place in some communities. meant that respondents were often sceptical about the use of the information that they were providing. In phase one of the study an examination of literature revealed a real lack of documentation on Nigerian Muslims in the UK so it was difficult to identify obvious ‘community leaders’ or representatives that would be widely seen as such among Nigerians in the UK. and relationships with country of origin. A climate of some scepticism within Muslim communities. Researchers were aware that there are dynamic and charged debates and movement taking place within these communities on a whole range of issues ranging from religion. perceptions of ethnic and religious identity. This awareness underpinned the analysis of the data and the conclusions drawn from responses received. and a closing off of some lines of questioning in relation to religion. only one interview was conducted with a Nigerian outside of London. its expression and orientation in the context of being Muslim minorities living in a non-Muslim society. Respondents were made aware of the purposes of the research through a ‘showcard’ that explained the research as well as possible uses of the research. challenges and changes taking place in these communities (eg intergenerational relationships. For all these reasons. and to judge their comments in the light of this context. their location in the community. the research should be viewed as a ‘snapshot’ in time rather than reflective of the full complexity or range of issues. the interests that they may have. and awareness of government interest in ‘what is happening’ on the ground. gender relations. Many will have had agendas (for positive as well as negative reasons) when asked about issues for their communities.
With 140 million people. and one of the ten most populous countries in the world. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa.6
Nigerian National Census 2006. Helen Chapin Metz (ed) (1992). Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. The greatest expansion of Islam in Nigeria dates from the nineteenth century after the creation of the Sokoto Caliphate between 1804-08. initially in the northern regions and then to the southwestern parts. The spread of Islam began in the ninth century onwards. Crown Copyright material reproduced with the permission of the Controller HMSO. it has been most strongly influenced by three regionally dominant ethnic groups: the Hausa in the north. Nigeria: A Country Study.20 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
4 Country History
© Crown copyright 2009. and whilst home to hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups. the Yoruba in the west. which brought together most of the northern region and adjacent parts of Niger and Cameroon under a single Islamic government.
. and the Igbo in the east.5 The history of Nigeria stretches back several millennia.
9 Paul Lubek. with a constitution that provided for a substantial measure of selfgovernment for the regions. He remained the president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria until April 2007.
. left over one million dead. Yoruba (southwest) and Ibo (southeast). The new government faces severe challenges in rebuilding national unity and economic prosperity. including the Ogoni activist Ken Saro Wiwa. The Igbo attempted to secede from the federation by declaring the independent Republic of Biafra. International Migration and National Development: Viewpoints and Policy Initiatives in Countries of Origin: The Case of Nigeria. This was the first time that there had been a civilian-to-civilian transfer of power without subsequent military interference in the country’s 47 year post independence history.Country History | 21
Having been a British Protectorate since 1914. western. Hein de Has (2006). unemployment and the competition for land. The Globality of Islam. the Netherlands. and eastern).9 The north exhibits a more fundamental form of Islam whereas in the south Muslims are seen as being more liberal in their outlook. a report prepared for Radboud University. The ensuing civil war which lasted until 1970. Inter-faith violence is said to be rooted in poverty. Nijmegen and the Directorate General for International Co-operation (DGIS) Ministry of Foreign Affairs. modern day Nigeria gained independence in 1960 as a federation of three regions (northern. The largest ethnic groups remain the Hausa-Fulani (north). Ronnie Lipschutz & Erik Weeks (2003). from the outset the country was beset by regional ethnic and religious tensions. many were arrested and sentenced to death. and left the country with a legacy of ethnic and inter-religious conflict. The imposition of Islamic Shariah law in several states has embedded divisions and caused thousands of Christians to flee.7 Its most notorious military dictatorship took control of the country in 1993 under the then Defence Minister Sani Abacha. resulting in a military coup in 1966 that installed the first of a series of military governments. However. During his rule. economic stagnation and a damaged democratic infrastructure. Sharia as a Nigerian Self-Determination Movement. Political instability and corrupt governments over the years have led to the squandering of the country’s oil revenues. when further elections brought the current President Alhaji Umaru Musa YarAdua to power as head of the People’s Democratic Party. with a major divide running between the predominantly Muslim north and the predominantly Christian south.8 The Yoruba in the south are estimated to be 50 per cent Muslim and 50 per cent Christian. Nigeria is made up of 36 states and has more than 250 different ethnic and linguistic groups.
Ibid. QEH Working Papers. Since then Nigeria has experienced successive cycles of civilian rule and military coups d’états. Civilian rule returned finally in 1999 with the election of Olusegun Obasanjo (a former military head of state).
with cumulative investment of several billion pounds by Shell. have benefited from the oil wealth. British Gas and Centrica in the oil and gas sector. Cadbury.12 As well as trade and investment. GlaxoSmithKline. from £35million in 2003-04 to £100million in 2007-08. However. For example President Obasanjo held the Chair of the African Union (AU) for 2005-06. Despite these continuing problems. It has a strong bilateral relationship with the UK and is the UK’s second largest market in sub-Saharan Africa after South Africa.gov.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni. Nigeria is the predominant power in West Africa and has taken the lead in conflict resolution in several West African civil wars.2 million barrels per day. Other large British companies active in Nigeria include Guinness.gov.
. Nigeria’s GDP per capita remains low and few Nigerians.13
Foreign and Commonwealth Office: www. Unilever. and in 2006 oil accounted for just over one fifth of GDP.html 12 UK Trade and Investment: https://www. despite Nigeria’s oil wealth.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria CIA World Factbook: https://www. The UK is also one of the largest investors in Nigeria.fco. British-American Tobacco. 85 per cent of government revenue and over 90 per cent of export earnings.10 Parts of the country suffer from extreme poverty. including those in oil-producing areas.11 The north remains significantly poorer than the South and environmental unrest and trade in stolen oil has led to considerable violence and unrest in the oil rich regions of the Niger delta.22 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Nigeria is the world’s 11th largest producer of oil with a current output of 2. the UK through the Department for International Development (DfID) has substantially increased its bilateral development assistance in Nigeria. British Airways and Virgin Atlantic. with over 70 million people living on less than US$1/day.uktradeinvest.uk/ukti/nigeria 13 Foreign and Commonwealth Office website. It also plays a leading role on the wider African stage.cia.
Korea. is small. The severe economic difficulties. 15 Ibid. France and other countries in the West to access higher education. A turning point in this pattern of migration and return came with the collapse of the petroleum boom in the early 1980s. increased poverty and political instability that have plagued many African countries in the last two decades have resulted in the large-scale migration of Africans to Europe and the United States. Japan. 2005. many Nigerians travelled to the United Kingdom. This has made Nigerian migrants more vulnerable to exploitation and marginalisation. 17 Nwajiuba. as a proportion of the total emigrants. and many who were not necessarily looking to study outside the country also began to leave. the Nigerian diaspora is found in the United States. resulting in the phenomenon of a massive ‘brain drain’. particularly since 1996. and Brazil. the numbers. 1 per cent to the United States of America. despite increased restrictions and controls on immigration in Europe. However.14 Subsequently. Migrants are now more likely to be undocumented and their travel itineraries tend to be longer and more perilous. 2006.Migration History and Trends | 23
5 Migration History and Trends
Before Nigeria’s independence in 1960. 18 Hein de Has. and another one per cent to Asia. ‘International migration and livelihoods in southeastern Nigerian’.18
Chinedum Nwajiuba. England. The SAPs contributed to the significant illegal immigration of young Africans into Europe. 2006. Nigerians started seeking employment opportunities in other countries.15 Outside of Africa. October 2005. During this period there was a pattern of returning to Nigeria immediately after completing studies. 16 Hein de Has. 2 per cent migrate to Europe.
. USA. Canada. Ireland. No.16 The population of Nigerian migrants abroad has been continuously rising17 and there is an increasing tendency for Nigerian migrants to settle permanently. 50. USA. Saudi Arabia. the state introduction of structural adjustment programmes (SAP) and the attendant economic hardships faced by many Nigerians. Global Migration Perspectives.
with peaks in 1999 and in 2003. coinciding with the peak period of repression under the military dictatorship of General Sani Abacha. when democracy was restored. coinciding with the two election victories of Obasanjo (see Chart 2). it has remained consistent around 1. it is not clear whether there is any direct correlation between these factors.000 per year. Since 1999. However. which peaked in 1995. Chart 2: Nigerian grants of settlement 1991-2006 (Source: Home Office)
9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1991 1996 2001 2006
.24 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Chart 1 illustrates the trend of asylum applications by Nigerians to the UK. Chart 1: Asylum applications by Nigerians 1984-2006 (Source: Home Office)
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Grants of settlement show a steady increase.
000 per year since 1996 (see Chart 3). from an average of 667 per year between 1980-1995 to just over 5. Chart 3: Acquisition of citizenship by Nigerians 1980-2006 (Source: Home Office)
.Migration History and Trends | 25
Citizenship acquisition among the Nigerian born population has also dramatically increased.
000 as the lowest figure. According to Labour Force Survey (LFS) estimates. with higher end estimates ranging between 50. and is the largest community after White British. particularly Thamesmead. including the fact that many Nigerians are undocumented. Greenwich Council. Abbey Wood.000-70. stating that there was no possible way of giving a correct figure for various reasons. However. the largest for any group in the borough.26 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
6 Community Demography and Key Locations
2001 Census: Nigerian Muslims by Country of Birth in England: 7. A small amount of additional data about recent Nigerian migration was available from a number of local authority sources. According to a 2007 report on New Communities in Greenwich. Approximately half of the respondents were unwilling to estimate the figures of Nigerian Muslims living in the country.20 the Nigerian community in the Borough is estimated to number between 10-12. Of those that did attempt an estimate.000 Nigerian Muslims. 21 Ibid. New Communities in Greenwich.000. The Case of Nigeria. According to the report. If these statistics are correct then Greenwich has some 800 – 1. there were 146. most cited 10. representing nine per cent of the total Nigerian born population in the 2001 Census. making it the second largest number in a local authority area when compared to 2001 Census data. Glyndon and Woolwich.000 in 2001.000 Nigerian born residents in the UK in 2006. The report shows a 70 per cent increase between 2003 and 2006 of Nigerian pupils in Greenwich schools.21 The largest communities live in the north and north east of the Borough. 2006 20 Social Inclusion and Justice Division Greenwich Council (2007).19 The Nigerian Muslim population is a minority within the Nigerian born population in the UK. 84 per cent of Greenwich residents born in Nigeria are Christian. up from 87. which suggests that up to 16 per cent are Muslim. this figure does not include undocumented migrants and UK citizens of Nigerian descent.484
The Nigerian community is one of the largest and most rapidly growing African communities in the UK.000 (4-5 per cent of the Borough’s total population).
International Migration and National Development: Viewpoints and Policy Initiatives in Countries of Origin.
. Hein de Has.
1% 0.4% 0.484 84% 4% 3% 3% 2% 1% 1% 1% 1% 100% 9% 7% 8% 6% 8% 7% 7% 6% 8% 9% 1.2% 0.0% 0.484 Nigerian Muslims recorded in the Census are concentrated in London. commissioned table C0644) GO Region Nigerian% of total % of Nigeria born born NigerianNigerian Muslims as Muslims born Muslim population % of total population that is Muslim in England Muslim population London South East North West East of England West Midlands Yorkshire and the Humber East Midlands South West North East Total 6.268 311 232 195 135 105 103 90 45 7.Community Demography and Key Locations | 27
As Table 1 shows.1% 0.4% 0.5%
Figure 1: Distribution of Nigerian born Muslim population in London (Source: Census 2001)
.1% 0.2% 0. Table 1: Number and percentage of Nigerian born Muslims in each government office region (Source: Census 2001.3% 0. with very small numbers distributed across other parts of the country. the majority of the 7.
all of them in London.4% 0.2% 1.
.423 5. This aligns with comments by respondents who noted that the Nigerian population is relatively unsegregated by faith. although there is no official data available to corroborate this view. the highest concentrations are in Southwark. and Newham. Table 2 lists the ten local authorities in England.6% 0. commissioned table C0644) Local Authority Nigerianborn Muslim population 1.297 3.2% 1.6 per cent Muslim). there is little variation across local authorities in the percentage of the Nigerian born population that is Muslim.2% 3. followed by Hackney. Leyton and Rainham.9% 1.6% 2.4% 4.779
2001 Census.2%
Southwark Hackney Lambeth Newham Lewisham Greenwich Brent Westminster Barnet Islington
10.7% 3. Table 2: Local authorities in England with largest Nigerian born Muslim population (Source: Census 2001.633 6.753 1.673 6. According to 2001 census data. The only exception among ten boroughs with the largest number of Nigerian born Muslims is Westminster (19.2 per cent of the total Nigerian Muslim population in England. As the table shows.22 Information from respondents for this study suggests that due to cheaper house prices some Nigerian Muslims have also moved further out to Stratford. Lambeth.299 2.070 1.28 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Twenty four of the 25 local authorities with the largest Nigerian Muslim populations are in London and collectively represent 81.121 5.280 683 665 393 373 317 306 254 223 167 Nigerianborn population % of Nigerians who are Muslim 12% 10% 11% 7% 7% 8% 10% 19% 8% 9% Nigeria born Muslims as % of total Muslim population 7.918 3. with the largest Nigerian Muslim populations and sets out the proportion of the overall Nigerian born population in each local authority that are Muslim.
male.Socio economic situation | 29
7 Socio economic situation
There is limited socio economic data available on the Nigerian Muslim population in England. Recent changes to the UK’s immigration policies. Even the educated amongst us are doing menial jobs. while many qualified Nigerians with legal status were also having difficulty finding employment because of what many felt were racial and religious factors. Many expressed a concern about discrimination in the labour market.
. Hein de Has. 61 per cent of Nigerianborn migrants who arrived in the UK prior to 1990 are employed and 10 per cent are unemployed. such as the 1999 Immigration and Asylum Act and the 2002 Nationality. crime and document forgery. Focus group participant.23 According to this report. though anecdotal. While these figures are for the entire Nigerian born population they are commensurate with the responses. Many respondents felt very uncomfortable about the perceived media focus on trafficking. Percentage refers to working age population. our religion and our perceived status as fraudsters. High levels of unemployment amongst British-born Nigerians and new migrants were a particular cause for concern for male focus group participants and interviewees. others point out that racism in general. The following words of one male focus group respondent capture the widespread frustration of many in the community about the barriers they face in accessing employment: For Nigerians in London there is not a glass ceiling as we are not even able to get our foot into the door. Beyond Black and White. Respondents cited many examples of negative perceptions about Nigerians which they feel affect their employment prospects.25
Sarah Kyambi (2005). Anecdotal evidence from respondents suggests that there may be many thousands of Nigerian migrants working illegally in London. from interviewees and focus group participants who noted that most Nigerian Muslims are well educated and many hold professional jobs in London and the surrounding counties. Immigration and Asylum Act. 2006. have been identified as contributing to an increase in the number of undocumented Nigerians working in London.24 Examples were given of qualified but undocumented Nigerian people in the country working illegally for as little as two pounds an hour. our accents. 15 per cent of new Nigerian migrants are in full-time education compared to the 5 per cent national average and 37 per cent are educated to degree level or equivalent level. Beyond this specific stereotype faced by Nigerians. These include negative perceptions of the Nigerian accent and the stereotypical image of Nigerians as ‘fraudsters’. IPPR’s Beyond Black and White provides data from the LFS of new and established Nigerian born migrants. For those Nigerians who arrived prior to 1990. IPPR. We are discriminated against for the colour of our skin. 51 per cent are educated to degree level or equivalent level. and Islamophobia in particular also lead to high levels of discrimination in employment. which they feel obscures the fact that the vast majority of Nigerian migrants are not criminals. For settled migrants who arrived after 1990 the figures are 73 per cent and 5 per cent respectively. which they suggested may be driving some Nigerians to work illegally.
27 For example. which is reflected in the number of Nigerian shops on the Heathway. April 2008. ‘The Security of Africans Beyond Borders: Migration. but it is difficult to delineate business ownership by nationality from the report.
. the difficulties in finding mainstream employment may be a driving factor in the development of a thriving business and commercial sector within the Nigerian community. the person who interviewed me commented on my dress. Issue 6. often claiming that this would impede their work if they were to be employed. More recent migration has seen Nigerians settling in Dagenham. London. and many of the shops are Yoruba owned. ‘Sound of the Suburbs’. Some respondents thought that the majority of these businesses are Muslim owned. but still I cannot find work here. Peckham has become known within the community as ‘the Yoruba heartland’ in the past ten years. The Guardian. International Affairs. However.30 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Most respondents commented on discrimination specifically on the grounds of their faith. many of which are thought to be established and owned by Nigerian women.
Nigerian community respondent: Female. in part because of the small scale and highly scattered nature of these businesses.26 Paradoxically. The one interview I did have. 30s.000 businesses in London are owned by black Africans and are concentrated in the capital’s poorest boroughs. Remittances and London’s Transnational Entrepreneurs’. it is difficult to identify for certain whether a particular faith community dominates the business sector. Boroughs such as Lewisham and Southwark have a flourishing trade in ‘Nollywood’ films with the setting up of video film clubs off the back of a thriving Nigerian film industry. One report suggests that over 3.28 There are also a growing number of African enterprises across the Borough of Islington. ranging from a lack of facilities for prayer whilst at work. David Styan. Huq Rupa. pages 1171-1191. as Yorubas include both Muslim and Christian members within wider families and groups. However. Volume 83. there is little data or information available on these businesses in London. to employers commenting in interviews upon women’s clothing and head covering. Another female respondent described personal difficulties in the labour market: It is difficult to get work here. I have a PhD from an English University and I taught at a university in Nigeria.
As such. Whilst religious identity is extremely important. 40s. This has impacted on people in one of two ways. and nor does it accord with the more common assertion of the strength of Muslim identity stressed by the majority of the respondents. inter-religious and inter-ethnic marriages are common.29
Nigerian community respondent: Male.1 Identity
For most of the respondents. and virtually all respondents made reference to their religion as key to their self image in one way or another. London. Secondly. Moreover. this view was not widely expressed. there is a great deal of discussion within the community about what it means to be Muslim and to comply with Islamic values in the midst of a non-Muslim culture and society. As one older respondent explained: The main issue is that we consider ourselves as Muslims of Nigerian origin first and then as British Muslims. The first is that self awareness about Muslim identity has been greatly heightened within the community post 9/11. religious affiliation is often diluted and becomes less important. or it has led others to more positively identify themselves as part of a global ummah. a characteristic of the community highlighted by a small number of respondents is the relative flexibility that the younger generation has in choosing which religion to follow. and many Nigerian households are composed of individuals with distinct religious-ethnic affiliations. In the wider group context where Nigerians of different religious background interact. identities in the community are dynamic and can change according to specific social contexts. The increased hostility and negative representations of Muslims following the event has led some to recoil into the shell of Muslim identity as one person put it.Key characteristics | 31
8 Key characteristics
8. Older people are generally comfortable about living in Britain. There is a distinct generational difference about how people define their identity.
. religion was central to their interpretations and discussions about identity. but do not feel or care about the impact on themselves of British culture and values to the same extent as young people do. However. Respondents suggest that this hostility and perceived lack of support or welcome from wider society makes it difficult for them to feel British. and hence many retreat into what they see as a strong and positive Muslim identity. Their views suggest that there are two principles themes around which community debates concerning religion and identity coalesce.
On the contrary. 6.32 The majority of respondents mentioned only Yoruba and Hausa/Fulani as the main ethnic groups in the UK. They also suggest that there is considerable social mixing with non-Nigerian Muslims as well as Nigerian Christians. Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology. and that a shared sense of being Muslims tends to ensure that the different groups freely socialise and intermingle on non-ethnic lines. and Efik. Ishan.’ For British-born Nigerian Muslims. Vol. 1. there was no suggestion from respondents that younger people are becoming more concerned with religiosity. with one or two references to Auchi. African and Muslim identities are compounded by the additional need to navigate cultural differences. the challenges of resolving a British identity with their Nigerian. Whilst there is undoubtedly a greater focus on faith across all generations within the community. These dominant groups make up just over half the population of Nigeria. London: University Press. However. there were one or two respondents who did not agree with this view.2 Ethnicity
In Nigeria there are up to three hundred ethnicities formed by common cultural values and shared languages.
Ugbana Okpu (1977). Oyètádé A. For some. African Languages and Cultures. Ethnic Minority Problems in Nigerian Politics: 1960-1965. pp. Edo. the tensions lie in the perception amongst older people that the changing identity of the young is closely related to adopting what they see as the negative traits of the surrounding society. Attempts at ethnic labelling are not easy. ‘The Yorùbá Community in London’. values and experiences between themselves and their parents and elders. there is a general consensus that within the hundreds of ethnicities in Nigeria. there are three primary ones. and Nupe. and the Yoruba in the southwest.30 However. the Ibo in the southeast.31 The majority of Nigerians in the UK are Yorubas. confused as they are by intermarriage and intermingling.. together with some smaller groups of Oyo.
8.32 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
For British born young people however the issue is more complex as they try to negotiate their multiple identities – British/Nigerian or Muslim/black. respondents overwhelmingly suggested that Nigerian young people are predominantly coming to define themselves as primarily ‘black-British. Stockholm: LiberTryck AB. No. The majority of respondents were of the view that ethnicity does not play a significant role in Muslim community interactions. 69-92. which causes an element of inter-ethnic rivalry and plays a role in organisations and their formation. unlike in other Muslim communities included in this study. followed by Hausa and Ibo. (1993). the HausaFulani who are concentrated in the north. They suggested that there are distinct social and cultural differences between the Yorubas and Hausas. Thomas Hodgkin (1960).
After his death. Nigeria was identified as a potential case for the study of and development of ChristianMuslim inter-faith dialogue. the groups are sometimes not easily distinguishable outside of external symbols of religious practice.37 Evidence from interviews and focus groups suggests that the interplay of ethnicity. West Africa and northern Nigeria. Bahrain. Christians are the dominant Nigerian faith community in England. Egypt. Nigerian Muslims and Christians co-habit in the same areas in the UK with little segregation along religious lines.Key characteristics | 33
8. Predominant in North Africa. Malik was known to have used ‘ray’ (personal opinion) and ‘qiyas’ (analogy). 36 The Qadiri Order was founded by Shaykh Abd al-Qadir al-Gilani (d. an Algerian Berber (d. The Qadiri Order has spread to many places. It has spread from Algeria to the south of the Sahara and into western and central Sudan. A distinguishing feature of the Maliki school is its reliance on the practice of the Companions in Medina as a source of law. 37 Ahmadiyyas are not considered as Muslims by some. wives. Chechen and Ferghana in the [former] Soviet Union. it is characterised by strong emphasis on hadith. with significant presence in Upper Egypt. Nigerian communities are also unique in maintaining successful inter-religious relationships. 1815). 1166) from Gilan in Persia. Senegal. as well as being represented in Europe and North America. including Syria.33 Inter-religious marriages within Nigerian families are common. the Congo. The rest were either unsure of what the main Muslim denominations in the community are. Hausa do not
Archbishop of Canterbury’s Listening Initiative in Christian-Muslim Relations 2001-2004.com/58spmr 34 School of law attributed to Malik ibn Anas al-Asbahi in the eighth century in the Arabian Peninsula. language and religion informs the congregational delineation in places of worship to some extent. or were of the view that there are no denominations in Islam. Some respondents did refer to a few smaller Muslim religious groups that are represented in the UK. and in the Caucasus. and it was suggested by some respondents that it is commonplace for a Christian to pray at a mosque. United Arab Emirates. though not as much as it does in some other communities. and Kuwait. many doctrines are attributed to early Muslims such as the Prophet Muhammad. Report available at: www. Sudan. but are also attended by Hausa and other Nigerians. For the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Listening Initiative in Christian-Muslim Relations. relatives. Most of these latter were also of the view that it is predominantly educated and young people that are not concerned with different denominations by way of emphasising its unifying and non-divisive nature. About half of the respondents stated that the majority of Nigerian Muslims in the UK are Sunni following the Maliki School of Islamic jurisprudence. The most often mentioned were the Sufi orders of Tijaniyah35 and Qadiriyah36 and a couple of respondents also mentioned that there is small Ahmadiya community in the UK. Turkey. primarily because of their belief that the Prophet Mohammad is not the last prophet. with only 9 per cent of the Nigerian community identifying itself as Muslim.
. Originally referred to as the ‘School of Hejaz’ or the ‘School of Medina’. Source: The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Some mosques such as the Old Kent Road Mosque in south London have a predominantly Yoruba presence.tinyurl. and a Muslim at a church as both know the correct etiquette and prayers related to the two faiths. and as a consequence. and Companions.3 Religion
According to the 2001 Census. who eventually settled in Baghdad in Iraq. Additionally.34 and that there is a small minority of Shi’a Muslims. Mauritania and Tanzania. some parts of Africa such as Cameroun. 35 The Tijani Order was founded by Shaykh Abbas Ahmad ibn at-Tijani. his Sufi Order was propagated by his sons.
The other well-known Nigerian mosque is at Kennington Road. the interests of the poor. and Hausas can also be alienated by the language used to conduct the ‘khutbha’ (sermon).34 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
have a separate mosque and are more inclined than the Yoruba to pray in whichever mosque is close to them regardless of ethnic make-up. 2003. the gender bias in its enforcement. However. Lipschutz & Weeks. These focus on the interpretation of Shariah. North London. or come from the same area and form the majority in the mosque or organisation. Some respondents hoped that through this the Hausa culture and language will be passed on to young people growing up in London. rather than intra-community tensions or conflicts. but which are convenient due to their location. Nigerians also worship at the Muslim Welfare House. In April 2001. which have been of interest to the community in the UK. many of those attending the Conference wanted Shariah implemented in Nigeria as they believed that it would help counteract growing levels of poverty. Sharia as a Nigerian Self-Determination Movement. the absence of codified law and the levels of corruption in Nigeria. the lack of preparation. London. it was reported that some Nigerian Hausas are organising to create places of worship in privately rented spaces where Hausa children can be taught by teachers who speak Hausa. the Nigeria Muslim Forum (UK) sponsored an international conference in London entitled “The Restoration of Shariah in Nigeria . Intellectuals amongst the Nigerian Muslim diaspora have not publicly opposed the idea of restoring Shariah law.38 The Old Kent Road Mosque does attempt to address the language issue. corruption and human rights abuses.The Benefits and Challenges”. The Globality of Islam. As one respondent explained: Ethnicity can play a role where people share the same language. There have been ongoing debates in Nigeria about restoring Shariah law.
. and other mosques that are not traditionally ‘Nigerian’. Where ethnicity does play a role in mosque attendance is a result of language use and community interests. but many mosques are informal set-ups where people club together to rent a house and set up a mosque. hunger. Lubek. and often prayers are conducted in English or partly in Arabic to ensure comprehension by all those attending. 30s. the ignorance of judges and ‘vigilante’ police (hizbah). but have expressed some criticisms. the main consideration being whether it is Sunni or Shia.
Nigerian community respondent: Male. On occasion the service can focus on regional concerns of interest to the majority Yoruba.39 However.
language interplays with ethnicity and religion in the attendance and constituency of mosques. Ishan. In the words of one male respondent: I try to speak in Hausa to my children but they prefer English. their identity. London. Efik. and that the chosen language for debate or discussion can change dependent on the group in question. along with many other minority languages.1993. English. For example one respondent noted that in mosque services: Usually the khutba (sermon) is in Arabic. Adamawa Fulfulde. Central Kanuri. British born Nigerians are perceived as being in danger of losing a part of their heritage. Efik. Arabic.40 As already noted. but depending on the audience the Imam may use English or Yoruba to conduct the khutbha. 42 Nigerian community respondent: Male.Key characteristics | 35
8. In London. When a people lose their language they lose so much of their history. Nigerians speak a range of languages including. Nigerian community respondent: Male. culture and identity. and their culture. and English. The official languages of Nigeria are Edo. Igbo.4 Language
There are about 500 languages spoken in Nigeria today. and Igbo. history. 40s. They try to speak with us in Hausa but amongst themselves they speak English and all other types of English slang. Hausa. However. there was a shared concern among first generation Nigerian Muslims about the use of English and the lack of understanding of their mother tongue by British born Nigerians. London.41 Like many of the other communities in this research. Edo.
. Hausa. 40s. Yoruba. focus group participants felt that the community understands language challenges. By choosing English over a Nigerian language. Idoma. Yoruba.42
Oyètádé.
Family is seen as vital to the Nigerian community. These events are seen as being spaces where people of all generations participate and interact. Most children growing up here believe that they should be allowed to choose to marry anyone they like. and there is a continued practice of deference to parents and elders. The youth don’t understand their parent’s background. One respondent (an Imam) suggested that parents find it more tolerable for boys to marry outside than girls. but the majority of respondents felt that the relationship between the generations is strong and one of mutual respect. male. Marriage is one area where there can be serious conflicts if parents have a preference for their children to marry someone from their own religion. Within the community there are regular social. don’t listen to them. and therefore. country and home town. who are growing up in a completely different society to the one in which they did.
. Parents born and brought up in Nigeria find it difficult to inculcate the values and ethics of their native heritage to young people. particularly males. and that this is evidenced by the growing levels of knife and gun crime amongst youth. as expressed by this female focus group participant: There is a big communication gap. cultural and religious events held throughout the year. but many parents feel that they cannot discipline them in traditional ways because of the risk of interference from welfare officers. both locally and nationally. are less disciplined in comparison to young people back home. The focus groups highlighted a common perception that Nigerian youth in the UK. However. There are concerns about the growing communication barriers between parents and children. At the same time they expressed frustration that government approaches have not worked. which are not based necessarily on the lack of a shared language. not just for their own immediate or extended family. A number of respondents referred to the responsibility or ‘guardianship’ that elders have for the young generation as a whole. These cultural differences between parents and children can give rise to many problems and negative impacts. as they negotiate their identities in the public domain.43 Many parents worry about their children growing up in a non Islamic environment and feel that negative behaviours in wider society are having a detrimental impact on young people. most respondents also highlighted problems that have arisen as a result of the process of migration and the changed environment that the community finds itself in. but on the different cultural backgrounds and environments that the generations have been brought up within.
Focus group participant.1 Intergenerational issues
There are a wide range of views on the relationship between British born Nigerian Muslims and those born in Nigeria.36 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
9 Intra and Inter Community Dynamics
9. Cultural differences can also have a significant impact on the issue of life choices that young people make.
9. For many parents. there are pressures that many face in accommodating the need to work with spending enough time with their children. and though established by adults. With a growing number of Islamic centres the number of juvenile delinquents has gone down. sporting.
Nigerian community respondent: Male. the rate of crime has gone down and that there are fewer problems amongst the young men. There are fewer young people on the streets. and stealing. educational and social activities. A large part of the community is also concentrated in some of the most deprived areas of London. in the UK parents are largely left to raise children on their own without the wider support and community influence. most respondents expressed concerns about educational attainment and youth unemployment and the detrimental impact this is having on young people who see themselves as British. but who are becoming increasingly demoralised because they are not doing as well as their white counterparts.44 The lack of knowledge about their own faith amongst many young British-Nigerian Muslims is thought to contribute to their growing feelings of alienation. These organisations provide a range of religious. the most negative aspect of this is the impact this has on their ability to play a more proactive role in their children’s education. graffiti. This in turn has led to fears of rising levels of crime and young boys getting involved in petty crime. London. many are led by young people themselves. but also leave them vulnerable to negative influences from western culture and their peers from other backgrounds. respondents felt that young people are opting out and wasting their time just hanging around with friends. 40s.2 Young people
Apart from concerns about inter-generational tensions. Without the opportunities for work and progress.Intra and Inter Community Dynamics | 37
The change in environment between Nigeria and Britain has also had a significant impact on community lifestyles and family structures. They feel that this not only affects children’s levels of achievement in mainstream secular schools.
. Additionally. Male focus group participants indicated that as a result of such interventions. Whereas in Nigeria the whole extended family and community had a contribution to make towards children’s upbringing. In the words of one such respondent: Several years ago when there was a lack of Islamic centres there was a higher amount of juvenile delinquency. A number of mosques have established youth forums/clubs and there are also many secular supplementary schools and youth clubs in existence. and most respondents felt it was important for young people to have access to Islamic teaching. not as an add-on but as a central part of their lives. There have been various community led responses to these challenges. Some of those who raised this issue felt that there should be access to public funds for Islamic schools.
Their main issues are education. Apart from being active in Muslim organisations they also form their own women-only organisations where they share experiences and support each other. They also patronise other conventional/public social provisions for dealing with children and young people’s behavioral issues. One Hausa respondent explained: They are trying to educate themselves. opportunities and expectations placed on women and young girls.46
Nigerian community respondent: Female.
9. there are others that lack support and are quite isolated from the wider community. women are also very active in community organisations and events. Religion plays an important role in determining the role. as well as a move towards reading of the Quran by themselves. lifestyle. It is important to stress that this is only a perception that has been picked up during the study.38 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Another fear strongly expressed by respondents in focus groups with regards to young people relate to the welfare of children arising out of the lack of appropriate fostering arrangements. One female respondent explained the multiple roles that women play as follows: Women are highly respected in the community and take very active roles. disciplines and practices that might be helpful for them are being undermined.3 Women
Women are traditionally seen as playing a leading role in the family.45 Other respondents however suggested that despite the prominent role that many women play. They don’t know how to read the Quran or how to perform their prayers. Additionally. and that as a consequence. They don’t know Arabic and they don’t know the hadith so they are teaching themselves. Not many know about the religion. they are more likely to be Yoruba than Hausa women. and for having the primary responsibility for the education of children. 40s. Outward expressions of religiosity are said to have become more prominent. This lack of support. whilst many events for children are organised and managed by women. the Nigerian Muslim culture. London. particularly during social and educational events. employment and the upbringing of the young. One of the manifestations of this has been an increase in the wearing the ‘Hijab’ and traditional headdress in public. Nigerian community respondent: Male. Some respondents suggested that there is a growing religious awareness among women and that this is evident in new ways of expressing their identity and religious practice. especially amongst Hausa women in the UK. In addition to this. 30s. London. external friendship networks or access to counselling services can lead to high levels of depression for many. and where women do worship at a mosque. usually through religious education. Respondents suggested that many Nigerian children of Muslim heritage are being placed with non-Muslim foster parents. and that it requires more detailed research in order to determine the scale and nature of the problem highlighted. Respondents noted that the majority of women are expected to pray at home rather than at the mosque.
. there are still several barriers to women’s full participation in the community.
London. which are making parents urge marriage at a relatively young age for girls out of the fear about young girls having boyfriends before marriage: Parents are fearful for the safety of their daughters. The emerging patterns among young people are seen as reflecting western cultural mores. police actions and the media are perceived to be continuing to demonise and marginalise Muslims and black communities. gender.
Nigerian community respondent: Male. Some also expressed confusion about what integration means. and those who find themselves unable to work due to such barriers have found the situation to be very demoralising. but that integration can only go so far when the wider society (including government).Intra and Inter Community Dynamics | 39
The changing expectations and choices of Muslim women as a result of migration was an issue highlighted by some respondents as being of key concern to families. this is something all parents worry about. and girls seem to fall under the pressures of their peers…but this isn’t something that only Nigerian Muslim parents worry about. Muslim women have said that future employees made comments on their dress. suggesting that it would impede their work.
. particularly in the area of sexual relationships and marriage. further efforts need to be made by the government to combat racism and the rise of perceived injustices towards Muslims. The combined effects of race. Many women shared the view expressed by this respondent: In interviews women have been discriminated against for covering the head. Most respondents were of the view that the second generation of British Nigerians is integrated to a high degree.47 Despite some women achieving high levels of education and being successful at setting up and running their own businesses. many Nigerian women are said to face difficulties accessing work within the formal employment sector. the perceived growth in hostility in the UK in terms of religious and racial issues is seen as having undermined the ‘British identity’ of Nigerians. Thirdly. Secondly. hopes and aspirations. and religion are perceived as severely restricting their employment opportunities. Such interviews have not been successful. integration processes were seen as not having been very successful. respondents felt that for integration to be successful. Firstly. Whilst generally believed to be a positive process. Focus group participant. female.4 Cohesion and integration
Three clear themes concerning integration and cohesion emerged amongst the respondents. they feared that in the current UK climate. migration. ‘integration’ means that wider society expects them to give up their religion and the important values that inform their identity. Chastity is very important to Nigerian parents. 40s. particularly as education and self-determination among women is highly regarded in the community.48
male. With a rise in stop and search of young Muslims. We are reduced to being ‘Muslims’ in a stereotypical way and associated with terrorism. This is also said to be increasing the level of fear young people in the community have about expressing their identity in public.51
Focus group participant. ethnicity and language. Most cultural practices within the community are informed by religion and vice versa. resulting in the two being seen interchangeably: There is an unwritten rule in the Nigerian community and Nigerian Muslim community. Especially since 9/11 and 7/7. many people find solace and comfort in their shared Muslim identity. we were Africans or Nigerians. It is a rallying point and we seek to preserve our cultural future. there was frustration among respondents about the way in which Muslims are portrayed. They fear being imprisoned because they are Muslim and because they are black. It makes us all feel uncomfortable.
. We are proud of our culture. London. Nigerian community respondent: Male. and also about the way in which ‘Muslim’ is used as a label to group all Muslim peoples together with little recognition of differences in culture. including of those who see themselves primarily as British Nigerians. and identified religion as a factor that allows the community to stay together rather than fragment in the face of all the difficulties it faces. people are unfriendly to our community and don’t take time to understand how we are feeling. The male focus group participants in particular expressed strong passions in relation to Islam. 51 Focus group participant. Prior to the attacks we had not been seen like this. One male focus group respondent noted: One of the main challenges is that we see ‘society’ as being hostile to us as Muslims.40 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
In the light of the socio-political context in the UK post-9/11. One community worker expressed this as follows: People are becoming fearful of what would happen to them if they stick their neck out and embrace their culture.49 There is also a perception that the growing hostility from the ‘host’ community particularly affects the second generation.50 Some respondents suggested that in response to these issues. male. young black people are perceived as being constantly harassed by the police. They didn’t want the government to know what their views are because they are afraid that anything they say or think will be manipulated against them. It was difficult to get young people to speak to you (about the research).
10. as well as in other African regions. If a Muslim is caught doing something like the Muslims in Forest Gate. Initially student run. 53 Nigerian community respondent: Male. though the morning news was cited as being listened to primarily by politicians and civil servants. It was suggested by respondents that almost every Hausa in Britain listens to the service.2 Media consumption
Media consumption within the Nigerian Muslim community is extremely varied and includes most of the mainstream UK TV and press as well as countless internet. Cameroon. 54 Nigerian community respondent: Female. but when it comes to Muslims they will take whatever the police say and work with it. According to one respondent: From the age of nine I was listening to BBC Hausa. Only one out of the twelve respondents felt that the media reports news involving Muslims fairly. BBC Hausa broadcasts current affairs programmes. Often a Hausa person is seen carrying a radio on his shoulder listening to BBC Hausa. 30s. One respondent captured the general sentiments when he stated: The UK media is biased they are just pro-government. and where ‘stringers’ (freelance journalists) are available. satellite and other broadcast media. it is now an established part of Hausa culture. Mr Abdulkahar was shot during the raid and a significant investigation was undertaken by the Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC). Most felt that the media gives a negative image of Islam and Muslims. fuelling tensions and hatred towards Muslims. They tend to jump to conclusions when it comes to issues concerning Muslims.54
The consultee is referring to the incident in June 2006 when Mohammad Abdulkahar and Abul Koyair were arrested in Forest Gate and alleged to be making home-made chemical weapons. news on polls from around the world particularly West Africa. it is one of the most significant events with respect to the relationship between authorities and Muslim communities since the London Underground bombings in July 2007. and many African based radio stations record the programmes for transmission at a later date. pro-foreign policy. BBC Hausa broadcast in Hausa is the bible for Hausa people and many believe the content to be truthful.1 Perceptions of the media in the UK
Almost every respondent felt that the media portrayed Muslims and Islam in a negative way. London. Now often referred to as ‘the Forest Gate incident’. For example if a Muslim is involved they will not want to know the whole facts. provides news from Ghana. The majority of people in Nigeria do not have the funds to buy a newspaper and so many prefer to listen to the radio.53
10. They are eager to use the word Islamic with every suspect who is a Muslim whilst they don’t do the same with people of other faiths. The final report called for the Metropolitan police to apologise to the two families involved but stopped short of calling for prosecutions.52 normally the media would investigate. London. 20s. China and the USA. With the advent of FM it has been able to partner with FM stations across Africa.
. BBC Hausa plays a central role in informing the Hausa and wider African communities about what is happening in the north of Nigeria.
seen as a broad ‘infotainment channel’. This popular online radio channel is primarily aimed at Yorubas. OGBC2 FM Radio transmits music. A.com • www. The site has a contemporary western feel which is attracting many men and women from the younger generation. Its appeal reaches across audiences.
.nigeriaworld. news and drama online. music and topical discussions. Youtube is reported to have created a huge following amongst the younger Nigerian audience as they upload and create their own news. Older generations are more likely to listen to the radio. African satellite channels in London focus on entertainment. is one of the largest providers of entertainment to black and ethnic minority audiences across the UK.arewa-online. Most people also favour Al Jazeera. there is an increasing engagement with the political system via the Internet.gamji.com • www. According to one research study on the Nigerian diaspora.com: a popular site for news on culture and politics • www.nigeriamasterweb. BEN TV.nigerianews. ‘Nigerian diaspora and the virtual construction of identity’.com • www.nigeriavillagesquare.saharareports.com • www. Passion TV. Print media includes The Trumpet Newspaper and over 20 magazines. and using the Internet as a mediating space. news and sport as well as advertising various services including cultural and entertainment services to meet the needs of the African Diaspora. whereas younger Nigerians are more likely to access information via the web.amanaonline. AIT Moviestar. particularly newsgroups and websites. The channel provides news.elendureports.com • www.com.55 Websites popular for many Nigerians include: • www.com • www. Peace TV and Islam channel for religious coverage and news about the Muslim world. Text of paper prepared for the Institute of Communications Studies (ICS) post-graduate conference holding 18.com: A mixture of current affairs. Other sites mentioned were: • www. OBE and African International TV were cited as media outlets consumed by the vast majority of Nigerians.
Gabriel Abiodun Adeniyi. BEN TV. University of Leeds. It is cited as being one of the premier Nigerian radio stations in the UK. NTA. G.05.2007. Institute of Communications Studies.42 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
N Power radio is a live internet radio transmission from London. Most of the major Nigerian newspapers can be accessed online. education. (2007). culture and music. ranging from the younger generation through to more mature viewing audiences.
They had always thought they would return but now this becomes unlikely as their kids are born here. Others also visit for political or business purposes or to establish homes over a period of time.workpermit.56
11. However. male. In 2005 Britain imposed a ban on entry visas for young Nigerians aged between 18-30 who intended to visit the UK for the first time.1 Travel
British Nigerians. Many go back to visit family occasionally. maintain a high level of contact with their home country. Mouloud birth of the Prophet Mohammed and National or Independence Day. Recently however. Male focus group members spoke about how their feelings and relationship towards Nigeria and the UK have changed: I remember when people first arrived they thought they were going to be going back so they went down to Tottenham Court Road and bought Multi-region TVs and DVDs – now people have stopped doing that (laughs). Work Permit.com/
. in 2006 UK visa restrictions on young Nigerians were lifted. call cards. The proliferation of mobile telephones. For many it can be a soul searching experience.com. ‘UK visa restriction on young Nigerians to be lifted’. travel to and from Nigeria has received significant coverage in the media as a result of travel policy changes and a number of controversial deportation cases that resulted in a collective response from the Nigerian community. particularly first generation migrants. www. an exploration of heritage and roots that contributes to the ongoing process of identity redefinition. telephone booths and the internet has helped to maintain and enhance links with their country of origin or heritage.
Focus group participant. the UK is now home.Links with country of origin | 43
11 Links with country of origin
Respondents generally felt that for many Nigerians. Even older Nigerians see the UK as their ‘second’ if not first home. Popular times for travel to Nigeria include public holidays such as Christmas and the Islamic celebrations of Id al Fitr and Id al Kabir.57 Such restrictions have left some Nigerians suspicious of the immigration system and others have been directly affected by it. whilst others regard a visit to Nigeria as an annual obligation. A significant proportion of those that travel to Nigeria regularly include second and third generation British Nigerians. citing a heavy workload and a large incidence of absconders.
and every two-three years (50.60 Many Nigerians in Nigeria perceive a difference in the living standards of emigrants who have higher standards of living and economic mobility. It aims to provide a platform for Nigerian Professionals in the diaspora to instill ethical consciousness and civic responsibility that will enhance the socio economic advancement of Nigerians and humanity in general. The Independent.3 per cent). Respondents saw remittances as relieving poverty amongst relatives as well as planning for the longer term and maintaining their roots in both social and material terms. 26 April 2008. which fuels a desire to migrate to the UK. and that many people in the UK are affiliated to political parties back home.000 Nigerians have backed a call to boycott British Airways unless it apologises to 136 passengers who were ordered off a flight to Lagos after they complained about the forced deportation of a man on board. who called on the Nigerian government to intervene.2 Remittances
Remittance by hand is a common practice amongst Nigerians.7 per cent). 61 Nwajiuba.58 The incident created outrage among expatriate Nigerians in the UK. This led to the British High Commissioner to Nigeria being summoned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to be warned that Nigeria expects its citizens to be treated with dignity. Relatives in Europe and United States may provide the means to meet over 50 per cent of family needs in Nigeria. which makes it difficult for the Nigerian government to reach out to diaspora groups overseas.0 per cent).C. with some remitting money to their families every few months (11. ‘A world of casual racism’ exposed at BA’.62 Despite this.3 Political links
One of the key issues of concern for respondents was a general feeling of distrust amongst Nigerian migrants towards the Nigerian state. More than 1. 2006.
‘Nigerians call for boycott of BA after deportation’. yearly (31. 60 Hein de Has. 21 April 2008. The frequency of remittance varies. 2005.org.nidoamericas. It enables money to be handed over directly and avoids a proportion being lost to a money transfer organisation. most respondents suggested that Nigerians maintain an active interest in the politics of Nigeria.44 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Another issue picked up by respondents related to the recent forced removal of a Nigerian passenger on board a BA flight to Nigeria on 27 March 2008. www. Money may be invested in homes or businesses in order to secure a potential livelihood and living spaces for Nigerians if they decide to live ‘back home’ in Nigeria. D. Nigerians in Diaspora Organization (NIDO) in the Americas is a non-profit organisation with a main office in Washington. which lacks a firm connection with the very active development of associations of Nigerians abroad.61
11. This is seen as the result of years of repression and neglect and is visible in the Nigerians in Diaspora Organisation (NIDO) initiative.59
11. The Independent. 62 Established in 2000.
Technological developments.63
Styan. through various agencies.
11. has spawned significant markets within the community and there are many outlets that specialise in communication services as well as serving as niche remittance agencies. coupled with the increased purchasing power of diaspora populations. also appears to be making efforts at engaging Nigerian Muslim leaders as illustrated by the recent visits of the All Party Parliamentary Group to Nigeria to meet with Islamic groups and organisations.4 Business and commerce
Examples of the range of trade include specialised goods such as foodstuffs. 2007.
.Links with country of origin | 45
The UK government. The rapid fall in the cost of communications. including internet. as well as the reciprocal visit of Sultan Abubakar Sa’ad and Shaikh Qaribullah Nasiru Kabara to the UK. London is reputed to be the largest external market for Nigeria’s booming DVD-based Nollywood film industry. especially Nigeria. pre-paid phonecard and mobile phone services. have also acted as catalysts for the development of audio-visual media within many African countries. to a myriad of travel and forwarding services.
of these organisations are run voluntarily or with limited funding. involvement in dawa (proselytising) activities in Nigeria. 65 Hein de Has. contribution to finances. many were open to all Nigerians and reported reaching out to different parts of the community. The organisations also provide a number of other services such as legal. another language spoken by many Nigerian Muslims. such as national or state level interest groups including business associations.65
12. Other organisations focus on educational or charitable activities such as organising lectures and discussions. beyond such particular interest groups.64 It also showed that UK-based Nigerian diaspora organisations draw on a variety of constituencies. While a number of Muslim specific organisations were identified. educational youth and women’s development organisations. informing them where other people from different backgrounds are in London. matchmaking and marriage counselling. religion. associations of particular ethnic groups.1 Brief overview
A study by Van Hear et al highlighted the diversity of Nigerians living in the UK and their organisations. Most.2 Types of organisations and services
As the population of Nigerians in the UK has increased so has the number of community based organisations. or providing channels for sending back charitable funds to Nigeria raised by the community in the UK. and the collection and distribution of Zakatul-Fitr (obligatory alms-giving during the Holy month of Ramadan) in Nigeria. political.46 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
. Policy and Society (COMPAS). Many organisations were set up to offer support services to newcomers such as helping them to find accommodation. the forum runs a number of programmes that cater for the Nigerian Muslim community such as: promoting the educational growth of Nigerian Muslims. and others based on gender.
Nicholas Van Hear. The types of organisations found include: religious. Nigerians (and Ghanaians) in the UK figure prominently in pan-African diaspora development organisations. political and cultural activities. Furthermore. Frank Pieke and Steven Vertovec (2004). It also has a list of a number of notable Nigerian Shuyukh (religious scholars) to which UK Nigerians can refer to for theological and practical advice on day to day issues. A report by the ESRC Centre on Migration. A good example is that of the Nigerian Muslim Forum (NMF) that has available on its website free downloadable PDF versions of the Holy Quran in both Hausa and Yoruba. arranging reception programmes for new students. There are numerous Nigerian faith orientated organisations in the UK that provide a number of services for different ethno-linguistic Nigerian groups. The contribution of UK-based diasporas to development and poverty reduction. 2006. if not all. It also provides a section of the Quran in Fulfulde. University of Oxford for DfID. and also where they can meet people at gatherings and during celebrations such as Eid. Van Hear et al also reported that.
Civil Society | 47
12. Remember Saro-Wiwa: Remember Saro-Wiwa is a coalition of UK-based organisations and individuals encompassing the arts and literature. The Nigerian Muslim Forum (NMF): The Nigerian Muslim Forum offers Islamic activities. the Forum offers advice and guidance to new students and visitors to the UK. Xn Foundation: The Xn Foundation was founded in May 2006. AREWA Association: is a non-religious association that aims is to bring people of northern Nigeria together in order to promote unity. It organises study circles for male and female members of the community and holds national events three times a year. Their aim is to work with others to create harmony in Nigeria.000. the arts and a programme on awareness and intervention for the disabled.
. It is a pan-African and British organisation that draws together a wide body of people that includes an active membership of young Nigerians from the UK. It currently represents about 45 different associations and 18 other affiliate/associate members with a membership of 28. and young people who come from differing social. Its projects include education. rehabilitation. human rights and environmental and development issues. Council of Nigerian Muslim Organisations (CNMO): An umbrella organisation of Nigerian Muslim Organisations in the UK. economic.3 Key organisations
A number of organisations important to the Nigerian Muslim community were mentioned by respondents: Central Association of Nigerians in the UK (CANUK): the Central Association of Nigerians in the United Kingdom (CANUK) is an umbrella body of all Nigerian Associations in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. health. cultural and religious backgrounds. Membership is from different youth organisations. It also collects things like hospital equipment to send to places where it is needed in northern Nigeria. Muslim Association of Nigeria (MAN): the Association was established to aid Muslims of Nigerian origin resident in the UK. and provides support for those in need in Nigeria. and create a platform so that young Nigerians can reach their full potential. In terms of services. It was also set up to advance the Islamic faith and work to alleviate poverty and distress. Its mission is to enable the development of the disabled. The Nigerian Youth League: The Nigerian Youth League is currently established in London with its satellite office in Abuja Nigeria.
an international organisation of Nigerian professionals which is based in the UK • NASFAT. London.5 Civic engagement and relationships with local authorities
All 12 respondents reported that engagement with public authorities on the local. especially those that have influence in the community. The assumption that the main Muslim organisations like the Muslim Council of Britain and the British Muslim Forum represent Muslim communities is a problem because smaller organisations like ours do not get any attention. either locally or nationally. Nigerian Muslim respondents were more likely to name specific individuals in the community with high standing.
12. These views are summed up by this respondent from a Nigerian Muslim organisation: I do not think our organisation has any direct contact with public authorities.
12. Other key influencers also included individuals who had political significance in Nigeria.4 Key influencers
While many other ethnic communities listed organsations as influential. There might be indirect contact through individual members. but has an international membership • Islamic Awareness Forum in London which is co-hosting the Inaugural Nigerian Muslim Conference with the Nigerian Muslim forum in December 2008 • Al-Huda Islamic Academy based in Leicester. Often these individuals were linked with or ran Nigerian Muslim organisations. academics and religious scholars. A religious organisation based in Nigeria. regional and national levels is minimal and that public authorities only prefer to engage with larger well known organisations.66
Nigerian community respondent: Male.
. journalists and individuals working in the media.48 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Other organisations mentioned by various respondents include: • Foundation for Good Governance in Nigeria (FGGN). 40s.
Some respondents felt this perception could be challenged if the government made more of an effort to reach out to communities and showed some sincerity of purpose in addressing community issues. English newspapers. To allay fears and try to be seen as more just. special programming and positive images of Nigerians as ways of engaging the community. was felt by respondents to be creating further barriers. It was important for the majority of respondents that a genuine dialogue is set up which provides a space for the community to express its opinions.
. Two respondents spoke about visits from the Metropolitan police and the Fire Services. Ten of the twelve respondents suggested that the best way to implement dialogue and partnership working would be through umbrella and other key community organisations. friendly noises about the Muslim community and indicate that they are ready to listen to what the community has to say. 40s.Civil Society | 49
An issue raised by several respondents was how government and associated bodies are viewed with a mixture of scepticism and sometimes fear by some in the community. In the words of one respondent: The ball is in the court of the authorities. let the law take its course with Muslims. but are hindered in accessing public fund because they are perceived by authorities as purely religious establishments. though one of them suggested that visits from any public authority are usually viewed with scepticism. respondents also mentioned the importance of partnerships between public authorities. many religious organisations in the community provide a range of social welfare services with a positive impact. Another issue raised by a community worker who works for a number of organisations concerns government policy of not funding religious organisations. concerns. In addition to the use of media outlets such as Islam channel. London. They can indicate that they want to meet the community. In the absence of a strong civil society structure. and religious values.
Nigerian community respondent: Male. organisations and religious leaders as a way to engage with Nigerian communities. They can also make reconciliatory noises.67 A lack of understanding about the work of community organisations and how to engage with them. coupled with the general lack of contact and communication between government and the community.
such as training and education. London. however currently the types and level of funding accessed cannot give the level of support needed to volunteers. One respondent suggested that staff need technical and professional support and continued backing from government and other umbrella NGOs. and the lack of funding means that the organisation is far less effective. Some do not have offices and are juggling working voluntarily with other commitments.
. Whoever works there does so voluntarily with no pay. One respondent explained the dilemma facing most organisations: Our organisation doesn’t have an office to operate from.6 Community issues and capacity building needs
Low levels of engagement and a lack of knowledge about how to work with local authorities was felt to be due to the fact that the majority of organisations are run by volunteers. The lack of an office. We have no access to the government so we are not recognised as representing anything. Most respondents working in community organisations felt that it is important to have paid staff in place as this would begin the process of enabling organisations to create meaningful and long-lasting relationships with authorities and communities. Many organisations are staffed by those who lack formal training on management and leadership or who are not able to spend the necessary time to conduct administration duties. If you are able to sort out the financial aspects of an organisation you are able to do a lot of things.
Nigerian community respondent: Male.50 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
12. 40s. people working as volunteers.68 It was felt by respondents that the best way to address capacity building issues was for volunteers to have education and skills training.
. anecdotal evidence suggests that there are large numbers of undocumented Nigerian migrants in the UK. but like other new communities are also beginning to suffer the effects of educational underachievement. unemployment and depression can meet or seek advice and support. this is likely to be a low estimate. Although the community is served by a strong civil society infrastructure. unemployed or working illegally. Many women are highly qualified and successful in education and employment. In addition to the documented sources. high unemployment.
This figure is estimated using Labour Force Survey data and the Census average of ethnicity. most of the existing organisations are not able to adequately support the needs of women.69 Religious identity is extremely important to Nigerian Muslims and this cuts across ethnic and linguistic differences. Muslim and non-Muslim alike are beginning to develop a distinctly British identity. and that it is the largest growing African group in the UK. A modest estimate of the current Nigerian Muslim population in the UK is in the region of 12-14. Nine per cent of Nigerian born migrants are Muslim according to the 2001 Census. Since this is based on country of birth data and because of potential illegal immigration. with Nigerians of most backgrounds sharing places of worship within the community.Conclusions | 51
Figures for the Nigerian population overall vary considerably depending upon the sources consulted. There are also good relationships between Nigerian Muslims and Christians and it is common to find the two communities living peacefully in the UK and inter-mixing as well as inter-marrying.000. The primary reasons for this are thought to be racism and religious prejudice. However. There is no neutral space where Nigerian women who are facing a number of challenges that range from violence. To date this has not been seen to lead young people towards greater religiosity or religious extremism. A younger generation of Nigerians. as well as a high level of attendance at mosques set up by other older established Muslim communities. the Muslim minority is considered to be less active than its Christian counterparts in both commerce and civil society organisations. What can be said for certain is that the population is widely dispersed across London and other parts of the country. overall the community suffers high levels of unemployment and discrimination. exposure to drugs and criminality and a more general alienation from mainstream society. and many women play an active role in community events. raising children alone. but there is still a high level of marginalisation both within the community and in wider society. A large proportion of Nigerian Muslims. many of whom are highly qualified find themselves either in menial jobs. Whilst many are successful in education and employment.
13. The UMEC Summary report provides detailed recommendations for engagement with and development of Muslim civil society organisations. Many areas were highlighted as community concerns but require further enquiry to draw firm conclusions. as well as for umbrella organisations that are able to develop a collective community voice for engagement with public authorities • Capacity building for existing community organisations. foreign policy decisions and perceived negative actions towards Muslim communities in the UK by the police and other agencies. crime and alienation • Support and funding for the establishment of youth and women’s organisations. Within the UK however. including funding and training in key areas namely. along with many of the other reports in this study. Specific recommendations arising from community respondents include: • The provision of mainstream funding for Islamic supplementary schools for the Nigerian community. particularly the vast majority who live in London. Nigerian Muslim organisations feel over-shadowed by larger organisations such as the Muslim Council of Britain which most respondents do not see as not representative of Muslim Nigerians.1 Recommendations
This research has provided many insights into the Nigerian Muslim community in England. should be seen as a starting point in the process of understanding England’s diverse Muslim and ethnic minority communities in greater detail rather than the final word. lack of employment opportunities. political engagement is minimal and dependent upon the levels of outreach and engagement different local authorities practice with regard to ethnic minority communities in their areas. as well as recognition and support for those faith organisations in the community that are proactively addressing issues the challenges facing young people in relation to educational underachievement. In addition.52 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Travel and other links with Nigeria are strong and a main focus of interest for many Nigerians remains the political climate in their country of origin. management training and making funding applications • Proactive approaches by government and local authorities to address anti-Muslim sentiment in society and the mainstream media. This is the first report of its kind on the Nigerian Muslim community in England and. business skills. The following specific recommendations for public authorities are in relation to responding to the Nigerian Muslim community.
. The majority of civil society organisations in the community receive no public funding and rely on volunteers and voluntary contributions for their survival. Relationships with the government and other authorities are problematic due to a general scepticism and fear of governments stimulated by the UK government’s role in the war in Iraq.
Conclusions | 53
Other recommendations: • Further research into some of the less visible problems facing the community including. domestic violence and fostering • Provision of clear guidance for faith based communities on government policy and funding streams related to faith based social action.
. depression and other mental health problems.
including Syria. Sunni: Muslims who emphasise the importance of the actions and customs of Muhammad and the first generations of Muslims. Predominant in North Africa. Maliki School: School of law attributed to Malik ibn Anas al-Asbahi in the eighth century in the Arabian Peninsula. law and spirituality. GDP: Gross domestic product. See also Sufi. including the Tijaniyah and Qadiriyah. Mauritania and Tanzania. Chechen and Ferghana in the [former] Soviet Union. The Qadiri Order has spread to many places. Khutbha: Sermon.‘ı. Sudan. who eventually settled in Baghdad in Iraq. United Arab Emirates. some parts of Africa such as Cameroun. Muhammad’s cousin Alı. Turkey. There are a number of Sufi orders or ‘paths’ (tariqas). Shi’a: Muslims who believe that succession to the political and religious leadership of the Muslim community should be hereditary through Muhammad’s daughter Fatimah and her husband. Approximately 15 per cent of all Muslims are Shi’as. they do believe that they are divinely inspired and infallible. Sufi/Sufism: Spiritual aspect of Islam. About 85 percent of all Muslims are Sunnı-s. Sufi has a range of meanings deriving from different aspects of the word’s etymology but generally refers to those who are interested in inner knowledge and practice towards spiritual awakening and enlightenment. 1166) from Gilan in Persia. and Kuwait. It is often considered to be God’s will for humanity. an authoritative source of guidance for Muslims. with significant presence in Upper Egypt. Although Shi’as do not believe that these successors (imams) are prophets. in contrast to Shı. especially as presented in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet.beliefs. the Congo. Hadith: Reports of the Prophet Muhammad’s deeds and sayings.54 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Dawa: Proselytising. providing the basis for Islamic law as defined by Muslim scholars over the centuries. Bahrain. and in the Caucasus. viewing as legitimate the establishment of the caliphate. many which developed between the 9th and 12th centuries. Shariah: ‘Shariah’ literally means the path that leads to the well of water. SAP: Structural adjustment programmes. It is the path to Islam – including Islamic theology ethics.
. Qadiriyah: Sufi order founded by Shaykh Abd al-Qadir al-Gilani (d.
an Algerian Berber (d. 1815). Ummah: Community of (Muslim) believers.
.Glossary | 55
Tijaniyah: Sufi order founded by Shaykh Abbas Ahmad ibn at-Tijani. See also Sufi.
University of Oxford for DfID
. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress De Has.. the Netherlands Hodgkin.56 | Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities – The Nigerian Muslim Community in England
Adeniyi. QEH Working Papers Okpu. Nijmegen and the Directorate General for International Co-operation (DGIS) Ministry of Foreign Affairs. University of Leeds Chapin Metz. H. Lipschutz. E. a report prepared for Radboud University. Policy and Society (COMPAS). Styan. Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology. Ugbana (1977). ‘The Yorùbá Community in London’. Remittances and London’s Transnational Entrepreneurs’. International Affairs. The issues of ‘trust’ or ‘mistrust’ in research with refugees: choices. Institute of Communications Studies.05. Ethnic Minority Problems in Nigerian Politics: 1960-1965. (ed) (1992). Frank Pieke and Steven Vertovec (2004). Vol. No. ‘The Security of Africans Beyond Borders: Migration. (2003).2007. (2006).. & Weeks. (1960). International Migration and National Development: Viewpoints and Policy Initiatives in Countries of Origin: The Case of Nigeria. New Issues in Refugee Research. R. 69-92 Social Inclusion and Justice Division Greenwich Council (2007). (1993). Volume 83. T. G. caveats and considerations for researchers. (2007). Greenwich Council. T. The Globality of Islam. D. IPPR Lubek. A. Stockholm: LiberTryck AB Oyètádé.. Text of paper prepared for the Institute of Communications Studies (ICS) post-graduate conference holding 18. Issue 6.. ‘Nigerian diaspora and the virtual construction of identity’. S. New Communities in Greenwich. London: University Press Hynes. Nigeria: A Country Study. (2005). African Languages and Cultures. pp. UNHCR Kyambi. H. P. A report by the ESRC Centre on Migration. Sharia as a Nigerian Self-Determination Movement. A. (2003). 6. Beyond Black and White. The contribution of UK-based diasporas to development and poverty reduction. pages 1171-1191 Van Hear. 1. N.
Bibliography | 57
Price: £25 ISBN 978-1-4098-1191-6
. It has been commissioned by the Department for Communities and Local Government to enhance the understanding of the diversity of England’s Muslim population and as an effective route to engagement. It is one of a series of thirteen reports on different Muslim communities in England.This report presents a picture of the Nigerian Muslim community in England.
Affidavit Against Zazi Shrukrijumah Rauf SomaliThe Xinjiang Class- Education, Integration, And the Uyghurs_JMMA
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