Source: https://edinburghtrams.info/road_accidents_pre-determined_liability/italy
Timestamp: 2018-10-19 23:20:16
Document Index: 205734251

Matched Legal Cases: ['Art. 230', 'Art 182', 'Art.182', 'Art. 170', 'Art 162', 'Art 182', 'Art 2048', 'Art. 2054', 'Art 2054', 'Art. 2054', 'CJEU ', 'Art 2947', 'Art 162', 'Art 2048', 'Art. 2054', 'Art 2054', 'Art 2947']

Edinburgh Trams Club - ItalyIn Italy a clear difference is made between a cyclist and a bicyclist.A cyclist is someone who uses a racing bicycle and will probably be using the bike for sporting and fitness reasons.A bicyclist would be someone likely to be seen on a raised handlebar type of bike being used in urban settings. It is recognized in Italy and other European countries that the lower positioning of the rider on a racing bike is not suited to urban road traffic.No self respecting Italian would be seen riding around busy city streets in a leotard or lycra! TRAINING: New Highway Code", Decree legisl. April 30, 1992 n. 285, as amended. (Citation : Automobile Club D’Italia)Art. 230 Codice Stradale (the Italian Highway Code) refers to compulsory road safety education:1. In order to promote the training of young people's driving behaviour and traffic safety and movement, as well as to promote and encourage the use of bicycles as a means of transport, the Minister for Education, University 'and research, by decree, to be issued in consultation with the Ministers of infrastructure and transport, interior and environment and protection of sea and land, after consultation with the State and the cities Conference 'and local governments, making use of' Automobile Club of Italy, prepares special programs, accompanied by the related financial plan, to be carried out as an activity mandatory in schools of all levels, including artistic education institutions and kindergartens, which concern inter awareness of road safety principles as well as the roads, the relative signs, the general rules for the conduct of the vehicles, with particular reference to the use of bicycles, and user behaviour rules, with particular reference to information on risks resulting from the assumption of psychotropic substances, drugs and alcohol.2. The Minister of 'education, university and scientific research with its order, governing the modalities of the aforementioned programs in schools, with the help of members of the Police Corps municipal, and its experienced staff included in these public and private institutions; the order may provide for the establishment of special courses for teachers who cooperate in the implementation of the programs. The possibly necessary expenditures are found as part of the regular budgetary allocations of the same government.3. The Minister of Infrastructure and Transport annually prepares an informative program on road safety, subjecting it to the competent parliamentary committees to which reports on the results obtained. There exists additional requirements in Art 182 of the Italian Codice Stradale (our best translation)Art.182 Ciculation of cycles.1 Cyclist must only proceed in a single line in all case where traffic conditions require, and never more than two side by side. 2 Cyclists must have free use of their arms and hands and hold the handlebar by at least one hand; they must be able at any time to see freely in front, to the two sides and fulfill with the maximum freedom, readiness and ease the necessary maneuvers.3 For cyclists it is prohibited to tow anything, except as allowed by these rules, lead animals and be towed by another vehicle.4 Cyclist must dismount and steer by hand when, for the traffic conditions, or are a hindrance or danger to pedestrians. In this case they become similar to pedestrians and must use the common diligence and common prudence.5 It is forbidden to carry passengers on the cycle unless it is purpose built and equipped. It is allowed to transport a child under eight, properly secured with the equipment referred to in Article 68, para 5. 6 The transportation of good and animals is regulated by Art. 170.7 The cyclist must use cycle lanes where they exist, in the manner stipulated in the regulations.8 The cycling outside of towns between half an hour after sunset and half an hour before sunrise, and also whilst using a tunnel, the cyclist must wear a reflective hi-vis vest or braces, referred to in Art 162-ter 1 para 4.9 Anyone violating provision of these Article are subject to administrative sanctions for payment of a sum Euro 23 to Euro 92 (as revised) As can be seen, the obligations for Cyclists under Art 182 can be summarised as follows: (italy-cycling-guide.info)The headlight of the bicycle must be white or yellow.The bike must be fitted with yellow coloured reflectors on the sides or pedals.The bicycle must be fitted with independent brakes and have a fitted bell which is audible from 30 meters.The cyclist must wear a reflective vest or reflective braces (similar to those that Italians are required to keep in the car in case of emergency or accidents).Cyclist must wear the reflective vest or reflective braces in tunnels, and whilst in a built up area at night. Night means 30 minutes after sunset until 30 minutes before sunrise. It is forbidden to carry passengers on a bike except specially built and equipped. A passenger, carried by an adult is permitted, provided he is a child up to the age of eight, and is properly secured with the equipment. Front seat only – child passenger must be in front on a seat).Cycling is forbidden on the motorways (Autostrade) and the main suburban road (Strade Extraurbane Principali). This limits the roadways a cyclist may use and ensures that cyclist do not use busy motorised intercity roadways. Failure to comply results in a sanction (fine) which ranges from 23 to 92 Euro.These legal requirements are pretty similar to those in other European countries. The major difference from here is the requirement to be seen, with hi-vis vests, reflective sides of a bicycle, and the carrying of a passenger which must always be where the cyclist can see them i.e. in front of them. The rider of a bicycle can be as much a victim as responsible for an accident. (rivista-ciclismo-in-bici/notizia) An example is the rider hits a pedestrian who is using a pedestrian crossing causing serious injury to the rider who fails to give priority to a passenger car, whose driver to avoid the collision swerves and hits other vehicle and people. In such case, the rider will answer for any injury in the same way the driver of a motor vehicle and will have to compensate for the damage caused, from their own resources if not insured.Cyclists are not obliged to be insured. A parent is legally responsible for the acts of their minor children if living with them as laid out in Art 2048 of the Civil Code. ( italiantortlaw.altervista)They are jointly and severally liable with the minor child. A possible defence would be to provide evidence of adequate training and supervision.There are forms of pre-determined liability systems in Italy which are contained in 2054 of the Civil Code; “probatiodiabolica”.Civil Code at articles 2043 lex aquilia, 2056 and 2059. (101professionisti notizia)The Civil Code -In examining some basic articles of the Civil Code which, directly or indirectly, concern liability in damages from circulation.A guide to road accidents, which covers some basics of the Civil Code which, directly or indirectly, concern liability in damages from circulation.Circulation of vehiclesBefore examining in detail it is good to clarify the meaning that the law intends to assign to certain terms used. In the first place, speaking of "vehicle" refers to any means to mechanical traction, animal or human (and therefore also to bicycles, carriages, sledges ...) provided they do not slide on rails.Another concept that should be pointed out is that of "movement" that leads, in common sense, to a moving vehicle.The code on the contrary gives it a wider meaning also including vehicles briefly stopped (not the vehicle regularly parked).1st paragraph: "The driver of a vehicle on rails is obliged to compensate for the damage caused to persons or property by use of the vehicle, unless it can prove that he had done everything possible to avoid the damage." The first subparagraph shall propose the hypothesis that the movement of a vehicle causes damage to a pedestrian or things by setting up a "presumption of guilt" for the driver. Such presumption is technically defined "juris-off".In practice: the driver is held responsible for the damaging, but can negate this by providing evidence that they have done everything possible in that place and at that time to avoid the damage.2nd paragraph. "In the event of a collision between vehicles it is presumed, until proven otherwise, that each driver has equal liability for causing the damage sustained by individual vehicles." As in the previous paragraph, we are faced with a presumption of guilt. But if neither of the drivers fail to provide such evidence, proving to have kept a correct conduct, both are considered equally responsible and, therefore, each bear one half of the damage caused as a result of the accident. This is not to be understood as it might seem that everyone must repair their vehicle, but that the damage of the two cars will be added together and divided by 50%.3rd paragraph "The owner of the vehicle, or in place of the tenant or buyer with a retention of title, is jointly liable with the driver, unless it can prove that the vehicle was used without consent"The situation envisaged is that in which the damage is caused by a person other than the owner.For this case, the third paragraph of Art. 2054 establishes the principle of joint and several liability between the driver and the vehicle owner. This means that only one of them will be obliged to compensate for the damage.The choice is with the injured party, who has the right to choose whether to take action against the driver or to the owner (also taking into account the importance of their assets) to obtain compensation for the damage suffered; payment of one of them releases the other. Which of the two has fulfilled the damaged compensation may then seek (recourse) to the joint and several co-obligor to get half of what it paid.For the owner of the vehicle it is not easy to avoid this serious presumption of joint and several liability. The release test is in fact to show that the circulation of the vehicle was against his will.But it is not sufficient proof that he has denied consent. The owner must also demonstrate that they have taken all possible precautions to prevent the vehicle being used without his knowledge.4th paragraph "In any case, the persons mentioned in the preceding paragraphs shall be liable for damage caused by defects in construction or maintenance of vehicle defect". In practical terms Italy does not operate strict liability but has a form of pre-determining liability in certain circumstances and subject to certain formulae. (laleggepertutti notizia)Italian law does provide certain area where liability is imposed regardless of fault (resposabilita oggettiva).These shift the requirement for proof to the defendant in an array of situations and through various formulae, effectuating a presumption of liability.Once the claimant establishes the other elements of his case, the defendant will be held strictly liable unless he can exonerate himself according to the formulae prescribed by the various provisions.The claimant always has the requirement to demonstrate that his case falls within one of the proscribed areas subject to pre-determined liability.Article 2047 – Injury caused by a person lacking capacityArticle 2048 – Liability of parents, guardians, teachers and masters of apprenticesArticle 2049 – Liability of employers and masters Article 2050 - Liability arising from exercise of dangerous activitiesArticle 2051 – Damage caused by things in custody: everyone is liable for injuries caused by things in his custody, unless he proves that the injuries were the result of a fortuitous eventArticle 2052 – Damage caused by animalsArticle 2053 –Collapse of buildingsArticle 2054 – Circulation of vehicles The main item dealing with Road Accidents is Art 2054.Whilst it is possible to defend alleging contributory negligence, any defence is interpreted quite narrowly by the courts. The second paragraph of Art. 2054 provides that in case of collision between vehicles, it is assumed the contributory negligence at 50% among drivers of vehicles for the damage caused to each other (“are equally responsible," reads the article. 2054). Liability can be tested in certain circumstances. In the absence of proof of liability of the pedestrian, the cause of the event must be the sole responsibility of the driver of the vehicle.A rider of a bicycle must comply with the Highway Code, and in the case of an accident with no evidence on actual liability, the presumption is that both parties are 50% responsible. It is a myth believed by many that those who ride a bike which is involved in an accident with a car will always be right: this is absolutely a false belief. Some even believe that as a bicycle is a means of transport without motor power that it does not require to comply with the Highway Code.The law in Italy, in fact, establishes rules of conduct and it is important to consider the rider of the pedal cycle.For example, the cyclist must comply with the one-way or double traffic systems, cannot travel against the traffic, not to do a U-turn, must give way to those coming from the right, cannot pass through a red light, cannot cycle at night without reflective jacket, must walk at times, and that bike lanes must be sued where they exist. This means that in the case of an accident involving a bicycle, it is still necessary to consider the rider has complied with all the rules of the road. (laleggepertutti notizia)What happens, though, if it is not clear how the accident happened and where responsibility lies?What occurs if neither part involved in an accident can demonstrate compliance with all the signs and road standards?Then it is necessary to consider contributory negligence. In practical terms this manes that in accidents with bicycles the rule already in force for accidents involving two cars: which is that in the event of a collision it is presumed, until proven otherwise, that each driver has 50% responsibilityWhat this means is that a cyclist who wants to receive damages for being hit by a car must not only prove the fact, that the accident caused the damage or injury, but also that they complied will all the rules of the road and legislation, and prove that these were not observed by the motorist. Failure to do so will result in the presumption of equal responsibility. The Italian judicial system uses tables to identify and quantify the extent of the injury and the compensation that will be awarded. These table provide for less disagreements and a quicker settlement. Concern was raised that the amounts in these tables were sometimes below what a court might award in a non pre-determined liability situation.The following case was reported in February 2014. (Bloomsbury)Petillo and Petillo v Unipol Assicurazioni SpA, Case C-371/12 - Court of Justice European UnionThis was a preliminary reference from an Italian Court seeking clarification from the CJEU on whether European legislation prohibited national legislation from limiting the amount of compensation payable for non-material damage resulting from minor physical injuries arising from road traffic accidents.In Italy compensation to victims for such non-material damage is calculated in accordance with certain assessment criteria and limits the discretion of the court to provide compensation in excess of the guidelines.If the injury to the victim was sustained otherwise than by a car accident, the amount of compensation would be a greater sum.The court said that the obligation to require compulsory insurance is distinct from the amount of compensation to be paid, which is a matter governed by national law.The relevant directives (Council Directive 72/166/EEC, Council Directive 84/5/EEC and Directive 2005/14/EC) did not have the objective of harmonising civil liability rules throughout Member States, it said.The court considered that the limits under the Italian legislation did not appear to be inconsistent with the fixed minimum amounts of cover required by the directives.It held that Italian legislation did not exclude or disproportionately limit a victim’s right to compensation, taking into account that the scheme governs minor injuries and that compensation is proportionate to the seriousness and the duration of the injury.Moreover, the amount of compensation can by adjusted upwards by the national court by up to a fifth.It concluded that EU legislation did not preclude the operation of such a scheme.Compensation is lower following a road traffic than in other incidents. This is partly to do with pre-determined liability and the use of set formulae for compensation.Art 2947 deal with limitation.A two year limitation period exists for compensation. The law presumes that a right not exercised for a certain period of time was abandoned and considered extinct. This avoids continuing uncertainty in the legal system. “…the right to compensation for damage caused by the movement of vehicles of all kinds will expire after two years...”﻿Torino
In Italy a clear difference is made between a cyclist and a bicyclist.
A cyclist is someone who uses a racing bicycle and will probably be using the bike for sporting and fitness reasons.
A bicyclist would be someone likely to be seen on a raised handlebar type of bike being used in urban settings.
It is recognized in Italy and other European countries that the lower positioning of the rider on a racing bike is not suited to urban road traffic.
No self respecting Italian would be seen riding around busy city streets in a leotard or lycra!
New Highway Code", Decree legisl. April 30, 1992 n. 285, as amended. (Citation : Automobile Club D’Italia)
8 The cycling outside of towns between half an hour after sunset and half an hour before sunrise, and also whilst using a tunnel, the cyclist must wear a reflective hi-vis vest or braces, referred to in Art 162-ter 1 para 4.
9 Anyone violating provision of these Article are subject to administrative sanctions for payment of a sum Euro 23 to Euro 92 (as revised)
The headlight of the bicycle must be white or yellow.
The bike must be fitted with yellow coloured reflectors on the sides or pedals.
The bicycle must be fitted with independent brakes and have a fitted bell which is audible from 30 meters.
The cyclist must wear a reflective vest or reflective braces (similar to those that Italians are required to keep in the car in case of emergency or accidents).
It is forbidden to carry passengers on a bike except specially built and equipped. A passenger, carried by an adult is permitted, provided he is a child up to the age of eight, and is properly secured with the equipment. Front seat only – child passenger must be in front on a seat).
Failure to comply results in a sanction (fine) which ranges from 23 to 92 Euro.
These legal requirements are pretty similar to those in other European countries. The major difference from here is the requirement to be seen, with hi-vis vests, reflective sides of a bicycle, and the carrying of a passenger which must always be where the cyclist can see them i.e. in front of them.
The rider of a bicycle can be as much a victim as responsible for an accident. (rivista-ciclismo-in-bici/notizia)
An example is the rider hits a pedestrian who is using a pedestrian crossing causing serious injury to the rider who fails to give priority to a passenger car, whose driver to avoid the collision swerves and hits other vehicle and people. In such case, the rider will answer for any injury in the same way the driver of a motor vehicle and will have to compensate for the damage caused, from their own resources if not insured.
Cyclists are not obliged to be insured.
A parent is legally responsible for the acts of their minor children if living with them as laid out in Art 2048 of the Civil Code. ( italiantortlaw.altervista)They are jointly and severally liable with the minor child. A possible defence would be to provide evidence of adequate training and supervision.
There are forms of pre-determined liability systems in Italy which are contained in 2054 of the Civil Code; “probatiodiabolica”.
Civil Code at articles 2043 lex aquilia, 2056 and 2059. (101professionisti notizia)
The Civil Code -
In examining some basic articles of the Civil Code which, directly or indirectly, concern liability in damages from circulation.
A guide to road accidents, which covers some basics of the Civil Code which, directly or indirectly, concern liability in damages from circulation.
1st paragraph: "The driver of a vehicle on rails is obliged to compensate for the damage caused to persons or property by use of the vehicle, unless it can prove that he had done everything possible to avoid the damage."
The first subparagraph shall propose the hypothesis that the movement of a vehicle causes damage to a pedestrian or things by setting up a "presumption of guilt" for the driver. Such presumption is technically defined "juris-off".
In practice: the driver is held responsible for the damaging, but can negate this by providing evidence that they have done everything possible in that place and at that time to avoid the damage.
3rd paragraph "The owner of the vehicle, or in place of the tenant or buyer with a retention of title, is jointly liable with the driver, unless it can prove that the vehicle was used without consent"The situation envisaged is that in which the damage is caused by a person other than the owner.
For this case, the third paragraph of Art. 2054 establishes the principle of joint and several liability between the driver and the vehicle owner. This means that only one of them will be obliged to compensate for the damage.The choice is with the injured party, who has the right to choose whether to take action against the driver or to the owner (also taking into account the importance of their assets) to obtain compensation for the damage suffered; payment of one of them releases the other. Which of the two has fulfilled the damaged compensation may then seek (recourse) to the joint and several co-obligor to get half of what it paid.
For the owner of the vehicle it is not easy to avoid this serious presumption of joint and several liability. The release test is in fact to show that the circulation of the vehicle was against his will.
But it is not sufficient proof that he has denied consent. The owner must also demonstrate that they have taken all possible precautions to prevent the vehicle being used without his knowledge.4th paragraph "In any case, the persons mentioned in the preceding paragraphs shall be liable for damage caused by defects in construction or maintenance of vehicle defect".
In practical terms Italy does not operate strict liability but has a form of pre-determining liability in certain circumstances and subject to certain formulae. (laleggepertutti notizia)
Italian law does provide certain area where liability is imposed regardless of fault (resposabilita oggettiva).
These shift the requirement for proof to the defendant in an array of situations and through various formulae, effectuating a presumption of liability.
Once the claimant establishes the other elements of his case, the defendant will be held strictly liable unless he can exonerate himself according to the formulae prescribed by the various provisions.
The claimant always has the requirement to demonstrate that his case falls within one of the proscribed areas subject to pre-determined liability.
Article 2047 – Injury caused by a person lacking capacity
Article 2048 – Liability of parents, guardians, teachers and masters of apprentices
The main item dealing with Road Accidents is Art 2054.
Whilst it is possible to defend alleging contributory negligence, any defence is interpreted quite narrowly by the courts.
Liability can be tested in certain circumstances. In the absence of proof of liability of the pedestrian, the cause of the event must be the sole responsibility of the driver of the vehicle.
A rider of a bicycle must comply with the Highway Code, and in the case of an accident with no evidence on actual liability, the presumption is that both parties are 50% responsible. I
t is a myth believed by many that those who ride a bike which is involved in an accident with a car will always be right: this is absolutely a false belief. Some even believe that as a bicycle is a means of transport without motor power that it does not require to comply with the Highway Code.
In practical terms this manes that in accidents with bicycles the rule already in force for accidents involving two cars: which is that in the event of a collision it is presumed, until proven otherwise, that each driver has 50% responsibility
What this means is that a cyclist who wants to receive damages for being hit by a car must not only prove the fact, that the accident caused the damage or injury, but also that they complied will all the rules of the road and legislation, and prove that these were not observed by the motorist. Failure to do so will result in the presumption of equal responsibility.
The Italian judicial system uses tables to identify and quantify the extent of the injury and the compensation that will be awarded. These table provide for less disagreements and a quicker settlement. Concern was raised that the amounts in these tables were sometimes below what a court might award in a non pre-determined liability situation.
The following case was reported in February 2014. (Bloomsbury)Petillo and Petillo v Unipol Assicurazioni SpA, Case C-371/12 - Court of Justice European Union
If the injury to the victim was sustained otherwise than by a car accident, the amount of compensation would be a greater sum.
The court said that the obligation to require compulsory insurance is distinct from the amount of compensation to be paid, which is a matter governed by national law.
The relevant directives (Council Directive 72/166/EEC, Council Directive 84/5/EEC and Directive 2005/14/EC) did not have the objective of harmonising civil liability rules throughout Member States, it said.
The court considered that the limits under the Italian legislation did not appear to be inconsistent with the fixed minimum amounts of cover required by the directives.
It held that Italian legislation did not exclude or disproportionately limit a victim’s right to compensation, taking into account that the scheme governs minor injuries and that compensation is proportionate to the seriousness and the duration of the injury.
It concluded that EU legislation did not preclude the operation of such a scheme.Compensation is lower following a road traffic than in other incidents. This is partly to do with pre-determined liability and the use of set formulae for compensation.Art 2947 deal with limitation.
A two year limitation period exists for compensation. The law presumes that a right not exercised for a certain period of time was abandoned and considered extinct. This avoids continuing uncertainty in the legal system. “…the right to compensation for damage caused by the movement of vehicles of all kinds will expire after two years...”﻿
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