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Revements, Seawalls and Bulkheads, Part 1 - [PDF Document]
Design of Revetments, Seawalls and BulkheadsRef:Shore Protection Manual, USACE, 1984
EM 1110-2-1614, Design of Revetments, Seawalls and Bulkheads, USACE, 1995
Breakwaters, Jetties, Bulkheads and Seawalls, Pile Buck, 1992
Coastal, Estuarial and Harbour Engineers' Reference Book, M.B. Abbot and W.A. Price, 1994, (Chapter 27)
Definitions and Descriptions of Bank Protection and Earth Retention Structures
Shoreline Form and Composition
Seasonal Variations of Shoreline Profiles
Conditions for Protective Measures
Design Wave Estimation, Wave Height and Stability Considerations
Height of Protection; Wave Runup & Overtopping
Equations for Armoring and Riprap
Reserve Stability
Material Hazards and Problems
Bank protection and earth retention structures differ from breakwaters mainly in that they are constructed against land. Therefore, the earth pressure is a main design concern. These structures could be vertical, such as bulkheads, or sloped, such as revetment, levees and dikes. Seawalls may be vertical, but may also be curved, sloped or stepped.
primarily designed to resist wave action along high value coastal property
either gravity- or pile-supported structures
variety of face shapes (figures 1)
Curved Face - designed to accommodate the impact and runup of large waves while directing the flow away from the land being protected. Flow strikes the wall ( forced along the curving face ( falls harmlessly back to the ground, or it is recurved to splash back seaward. Large wave forces must be resisted and redirected. This requires a massive structure with an adequate foundation and sturdy toe protection.
Stepped Face - designed to limit wave runup and overtopping. They are generally less massive than curved-face seawalls, but the general design requirements for structural stability are the same for this kind of structure.
Combination - incorporates the advantages of both curved and stepped face seawalls.
Rubble - essentially a rubble breakwater that is placed directly on the beach. The rough surface tends to absorb and dissipate wave energy with a minimum of wave reflection and scour.
Figure 1, Seawall Alternatives
facing of erosion resistant material, such as stone or concrete
built to protect a scarp, embankment, or other shoreline feature against erosion
major components: armor layer, filter, and toe (see figure 2)
armor layer provides the basic protection against wave action
filter layer supports the armor, allows water to pass through the structure and prevents the underlying soil from being washed through the armor
toe protection prevents displacement of the seaward edge of the revetment
Figure 2, Typical revetment
retaining walls which hold or prevent backfill from sliding
provide protection against light-to-moderate wave action
used to protect eroding bluffs by retaining soil at the toe and increasing stability, or by protecting the toe from erosion and undercutting
used for reclamation projects, where a fill is needed seaward of the existing shore
used in marinas and other structures where deep water is needed directly at the shore.
Figure 3, Sheet-pile bulkhead
Design Considerations (excerpts from EM 1110-2-1614, USACE, 1995)
A. Shoreline UseSome structures are better suited than others for particular shoreline uses. Revetments of randomly placed stone may hinder access to a beach, while smooth revetments built with concrete blocks generally present little difficulty for walkers. Seawalls and bulkheads can also create an access problem that may require the building of stairs. Bulkheads are required, however, where some depth of water is needed directly at the shore, such as for use by boaters.
B. Shoreline Form and Composition1. Bluff shorelines. Bluff shorelines that are composed of cohesive or granular materials may fail because of scour at the toe or because of slope instabilities aggravated by poor drainage conditions, infiltration, and reduction of effective stresses due to seepage forces. Cantilevered or anchored bulkheads can protect against toe scour and, being embedded, can be used under some conditions to prevent sliding along subsurface critical failure planes. The most obvious limiting factor is the height of the bluff, which determines the magnitude of the earth pressures that must be resisted, and, to some extent, the depth of the critical failure surface. Care must be taken in design to ascertain the relative importance of toe scour and other factors leading to slope instability. Gravity bulkheads and seawalls can provide toe protection for bluffs but have limited applicability where other slope stability problems are present. Exceptions occur in cases where full height retention is provided for low bluffs and where the retained soil behind a bulkhead at the toe of a higher bluff can provide sufficient weight to help counter-balance the active thrust of the bluff materials.
2. Beach shorelines.
Revetments, seawalls, and bulkheads can all be used to protect backshore developments along beach shorelines. An important consideration is whether wave reflections may erode the fronting beach (i.e. sloped faces absorb more wave energy than vertical walls).
C. Seasonal Variations of Shoreline ProfilesBeach recession in winter and growth in summer can be estimated by periodic site inspections and by computed variations in seasonal beach profiles. The extent of winter beach profile lowering will be a contributing factor in determining the type and extent of needed toe protection.
D. Conditions for Protective MeasuresStructures must withstand the greatest conditions for which damage prevention is claimed in the project plan. All elements must perform satisfactorily (no damage exceeding ordinary maintenance) up to this condition, or it must be shown that an appropriate allowance has been made for deterioration (damage prevention adjusted accordingly and rehabilitation costs mortised if indicated). As a minimum, the design must successfully withstand conditions which have a 50 percent probability of being exceeded during the projects economic life. In addition, failure of the project during probable maximum conditions should not result in a catastrophe (i.e. loss of life or inordinate loss of property/money).
E. Design Water LevelsThe maximum water level is needed to estimate the maximum breaking wave height at the structure, the amount of runup to be expected, and the required crest elevation of the structure. Minimum expected water levels play an important role in anticipating the amount of toe scour that may occur and the depth to which the armor layer should extend. Consideration are:
1. Astronomical tides
2. Wind setup and pressure effects
4. Lake level effects, including regulatory works controls
F. Design Wave Estimation, Wave Height and Stability ConsiderationsWave heights and periods should be chosen to produce the most critical combination of forces on a structure with due consideration of the economic life, structural integrity and hazard for events that may exceed the design conditions. Wave characteristics may be based on an analysis of wave gauge records, visual observations of wave action, published wave hindcasts, wave forecasts or the maximum breaking wave at the site. Wave characteristics derived from such methods may be for deepwater locations and must be transformed to the structure site using refraction and diffraction techniques as described in the SPM. Wave analyses may have to be performed for extreme high and low design water levels and for one or more intermediate levels to determine the critical design conditions.
Available wave information is frequently given as the energy-based height of the zeroth moment, Hmo. In deep water, Hs and Hmo are about equal; however, they may be significantly different in shallow water due to shoaling (Thompson and Vincent 1985). The following equation may be used to equate Hs from energy-based wave parameters (Hughes and Borgman 1987):
where Tp is the period of the peak energy density of the wave spectrum and co and c1 are regression coefficients equal to 0.00089 and 0.834, respectively. described in the SPM. A conservative value of Hs may be obtained by using 0.00136 for co, which gives a reasonable upper envelope for the data in Hughes and Borgman.
This equation should not be used when or there is substantial breaking. In shallow water, Hs is estimated from deepwater conditions using the irregular wave shoaling and breaking model of Goda (1975, 1985) which is available as part of the Automated Coastal Engineering System (ACES) package (Leenknecht et al. 1989). Goda (1985) recommends for the design of rubble structures that if the depth is less than one-half the deepwater significant wave height, then design should be based on the significant wave height at a depth equal to one-half the significant deepwater wave height.
Wave period for spectral wave conditions is typically given as perio
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