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“Snipers in the Minaret―What Is the Rule” | Geneva Conventions | Treaty
“Snipers in the Minaret―What Is the Rule”
“Snipers in the Minaret―What Is the Rule?
” The Law of War and the Protection of Cultural Property: A Complex Equation Geoffrey S. Corn International Law Advisor Office of The Judge Advocate General International and Operational Law Division On 2 January 2005, the Washington Post ran an article entitled “For U.S. Solders, A Frustrating and Fulfilling Mission.”1 That article included a photograph with the following caption: “U.S. Army snipers took over the top of this nearly 1,200 year-old spiral minaret at a Samarra mosque after the streets below became the scene of frequent attacks by insurgents in the restless city.”2 The article also stated that: Soldiers occupy this vantage point 24 hours a day, working in pairs for 12 hours at a time. An intersection below had become the scene of almost incessant attacks, and American commanders decided that placing snipers with .50-caliber rifles and powerful scopes in this circle of stone 10 feet in diameter, 180 feet above the ground, could deter insurgents.3 The characterization of this operational vantage point as a 1,200 year old minaret or mosque clearly raises concerns that this object falls within the category of cultural property. Assuming this minaret does in fact satisfy the definition of protected cultural property, was its use as a vantage point improper? The initial answer appears to be “no.” In fact, the use may very well have been permissible. The equation that must be used to reach that answer is complex, and reflects the challenge of the source, scope, and effect of law of war-related proscriptions in the current operational environment. The purpose of this article is to use this incident to illustrate several of the legal issues related to determining the appropriate “rule of decision” for the employment of means and methods of warfare within the context of current combat operations. The Legal Equation The minaret incident highlights a number of operational law issues, almost all of which transcend analysis of this specific issue. These issues include the impact of the status of the conflict on the analysis of applicable rules of decision; the impact of Department of Defense (DOD) policy4 related to the law of war on the same issue; domestic legal principles related to the applicability of treaty obligations;5 and ultimately, the specific law of war rules related to the use of religious and cultural property for military purposes.6 Each of these issues is addressed below. Impact of Conflict Status on Legal Analysis Perhaps the most complex issue related to analysis of this situation is determining the applicable law of war obligations. Resolution of this issue requires determining whether the conduct occurred during the course of an armed conflict within the
Josh White, For U.S. Soldiers, A Frustrating and Fulfilling Mission, WASH. POST, Jan. 2, 2005, at A12. Id. Id.
See U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 5100.77, DOD LAW OF WAR PROGRAM (8 Dec. 1998) [hereinafter DOD DIR. 5100.77]; see also CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF, INSTR. 5810.01B, IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DoD LAW OF WAR PROGRAM (25 Mar. 2002) [hereinafter CJCS INSTR. 5810.01B].
See generally THE RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF THE FOREIGN RELATIONS LAW OF THE UNITED STATES §§ 301-26 (2005) [hereinafter THE RESTATEMENT].
See generally U. S. DEP’T OF ARMY, FIELD MANUAL 27-10, THE LAW OF LAND WARFARE (July 1956) [hereinafter FM 27-10]; Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, May 14, 1954, S. Treaty Doc. No. 106-1, 249 U.N.T.S. 215 [hereinafter the Cultural Property Convention]; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, adopted June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3 [hereinafter Protocol I]; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, adopted, June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609 [hereinafter Protocol II]; COMMENTARY ON THE ADDITIONAL PROTOCOLS OF 8 JUNE 1977 TO THE GENEVA CONVENTIONS OF 12 AUGUST 1949 (Yves Sandoz et al. eds., 1987) [hereinafter PROTOCOL COMMENTARY].
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at art.N. these operations were not directed against the armed forces of Iraq. See Iraqi Interim Government. supra note 7. 1949.”) (emphasis added). 6 U. at 14-16. 2. supra note 6. and if so.” this requirement became a factual impossibility. it did. art. III GENEVA CONVENTION RELATIVE TO THE TREATMENT OF PRISONERS OF WAR 23 (Jean S.meaning of international law.S. and the absence of conflict between the armed forces of Iraq and Coalition forces. The sine quo non of an international armed conflict is a dispute between two States. and Coalition forces continued to perform many of the military functions associated with that occupation.S.S. 75 U. 14 Because the new governing authority for Iraq was not opposed to U. 287 [hereinafter GC]. art. 135 [hereinafter GPW]. forces were not considered to have been operating under the authority of the State of Iraq.org/pathtodemo.12 While this shift in authority had minimal impact on the nature of the operations conducted by U.14 Instead. See Iraqi Interim Government.7 These determinations will dictate whether.T.10 either as a result of conflict or belligerent occupation.. 351-353. 3516.15 No matter how similar the tasks and missions may be to those conducted during belligerent occupation. 2. 1949.S. The initial phases of Operation Iraqi Freedom clearly involved hostilities between the armed forces of the United States and Iraq. and if so. at 9 (“As the customary law of war applies to cases of international armed conflict and to forcible occupation of enemy territory generally as well as to declared war in its strict sense. and coalition forces—U. at art. 2. the law of war is applicable to the situation.S. or even against militia groups or volunteer groups forming a part of those armed forces. 2. 6 U.9 Before that date. 75 U.S.S.T. supra note 9. there was a general consensus that military operations in Iraq qualified as an international armed conflict consistent with the standard reflected in Common Article 2 of the Geneva Conventions.S. even though U. See id. Thus. August 12. 25.T. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded.T. from a formal legal perspective. 10 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field. result in removing military operations in Iraq from the rubric of international armed conflict. Pictet ed. During these phases. 2. Once sovereignty was assumed by a government with which the United States had no “dispute. 11 12 13 See GWS. and termination of belligerent occupation). 2. the nature of that conflict. GPW. supra note 10. paras. the restoration of Iraqi sovereignty.T. 3316. 85 [hereinafter GWS Sea]. forces. 15 The internationally accepted definition of occupation requires territory to be placed under the functional control of a hostile armed force. supra note 10. at http://www.N. August 12. once sovereignty over Iraq was passed to the interim government—a government supporting the continued presence of U. See COMMENTARY. the period of belligerent occupation. Path to Democracy. as a matter of law. 8 9 Id. and remain. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. are the decisive factors in analyzing the nature of the conflict in Iraq. 1960) [hereinafter GPW COMMENTARY] (“Any difference arising between two States and leading to the intervention of members of the armed forces is an armed conflict within the meaning of Article 2”). 3217. and if so.T. and multi-national forces in Iraq.8 The question of whether military operations in Iraq qualify as an armed conflict under international law.S. at art. See FM 27-10.N.S. 1949. directed against armed dissident groups opposed to both the presence of Coalition forces in Iraq and the Iraqi government.htm (last visited Feb. they were.13 Although U.iraqigovernment. supra note 10. 6 U. paras. or a State and a recognized belligerent entity with all the indicia of statehood.S. whether that armed conflict is an international armed conflict has become far more complex since the establishment of the interim government of Iraq on 28 June 2004. A period of belligerent occupation followed the conclusion of major combat operations. GC.S. see also FM 27-10. 2. see also DINSTEIN. what provision of that law provides the relevant rule of decision. supra note 6.16 7 See YORAM DINSTEIN.11 The establishment of the interim Iraqi government marked a restoration of Iraqi sovereign authority and a termination of belligerent occupation. 6 U. a declaration of war is not an essential condition of the application of this body of law. 1949.T. 31 [hereinafter GWS]. arguably.S.S. WAR AND LAW SINCE 1945. the transfer of sovereignty back to an Iraqi government ostensibly terminated.N. August 12. 16 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 29 . 2005) [hereinafter Iraqi Interim Government]. THE CONDUCT OF HOSTILITIES UNDER THE LAW OF INTERNATIONAL ARMED CONFLICT 14-16 (2004). art. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Civilian Persons in Time of War.S. 75 U. see also GEOFFREY BEST. 351-61 (discussing the existence. at 242 (1994).S. and coalition forces were no longer considered “hostile” to the State of Iraq. and multi-national forces continued (and continue) to conduct combat operations in Iraq. elements opposing U. operations. In addition. 3114. August 12. 75 U. art. the full range of law of war provisions applied to the conduct of military operations by U. and Shipwrecked Members at Sea. maintenance. Sick.T.
at 15. acting within a determinate territory and having the means of respecting and ensuring respect for the Convention. . renders analysis of the nature of the conflict extremely difficult. within the meaning of international law. is a question of fact which must be resolved by the parties to the conflict. ostensibly devoted not to any change of government in Iraq. but take place within the confines of a single country. and arguably not even when the Protocol II’s triggering standard for internal armed conflict was developed. Speaking generally.M. INT’L L. armed dissident groups.. contrary to what might be thought. Derek Jinks. POST. 28 YALE J. that the scope of application of the Article must be as wide as possible. and embodied in the national legislation of the States in question. supra note 6. rebellion. IT-94-1-AR72.L. at A6. .17 it leads to the question of whether an armed conflict continues in Iraq. Wanted Rebel Vows Loyalty to bin Laden. This situation appears to fall within the rubric of a conflict not of an international character to which Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions refers. or even plain banditry . nor does it increase in the slightest the authority of the rebel party. 2003) (analyzing the meaning of Common Article 3 and non-international armed conflict within the context of the Global War on Terror). 18 See generally GPW COMMENTARY. See PROTOCOL COMMENTARY. long before the Convention was signed . There can be no drawbacks in this. and multi-national forces continue to conduct large scale military operations against highly organized. at A16. Oct.21 Further complicating the analysis is the United States’ characterization of the fight against terrorism as a “Global War.” What is meant by “armed conflict not of an international character”? The expression is so general. reprinted in 35 I. an authority responsible for its acts. however. Oct. 19 20 21 GPW COMMENTARY. Decision on Defense Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Oct. although in no way obligatory. It is. in short. at 1347-56. whether it qualifies for any law of war regulation. but does not fulfill any of the above conditions? We do not subscribe to this view. does not in any way limit the right of a State to put down rebellion. Case No. 2004. which were already recognized as essential in all civilized countries. that many of the delegations feared that it might be taken to cover any act committed by force of arms―any form of anarchy. It seems logically and factually justified to conclude that armed conflict. 22 Following the attacks of 9/11. 2004. Ultimately. WASH. TIMES. Web Sites Say. and at what point it terminates. these different conditions. constitute convenient criteria. 1 (Winter. relatively well accepted that different types of armed conflicts can exist in the same territory during the same timeframe.. 2. includes certain characteristics that were not contemplated at the time Common Article 3 was developed. We think. supra note 13.conflicts. September 11 and the Laws of War. and is not addressed in either the relevant law of war treaties or International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) commentaries thereto. and if so. N.18 Reference to the ICRC commentary to the Geneva Conventions supports this conclusion: “Cases of armed conflict. Congress passed a resolution authorizing the use of military force in the war against terrorist organizations. 32 (1996).Y. 18. which reflects the customary international law standard for triggering the law of war applicable to such conflicts. they are as follows: (1) That the Party in revolt against the de jure Government possesses an organized military force. See DINSTEIN. on the contrary. see also Prosecutor v.”22 invoking the inherent right of self-defense reflected in Article 51 of the Charter of the United 17 Whether continued resistance by armed groups formerly associated with an enemy government after a friendly government assumes control of a nation. the participation in the ongoing conflict of members of international terrorist groups. supra note 7. and we therefore think it well to give a list drawn from the various amendments discussed. It merely demands respect for certain rules. since the Article in its reduced form. at 35-37 (emphasis added). Zarqawi Is Said to Swear Allegiance to Bin Laden. the United States. This difficulty is exacerbated by the links between these groups and transnational terrorist organizations such as al Qaeda. however. so vague. supra note 13. The regular armed forces of Iraq. it must be recognized that the conflicts referred to in Article 3 are armed conflicts. 1995). but simply to killing Coalition forces and destabilizing Iraq. Dexter Filkins. through a process considered legitimate by the international community (unlike the imposition of a “puppet” regime) results in a continuation of the period if international armed conflict is a novel issue. Walter Pincus.If the conclusion that the situation in Iraq no longer qualifies as an international armed conflict is valid. at 61. .19 The situation in Iraq. Does this mean that Article 3 is not applicable in cases where armed strife breaks out in a country. with ‘armed forces’ on either side engaged in ‘hostilities’ -. . which are in many respects similar to an international war. continues in Iraq. (2) That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military and in possession of a part of the national territory. That Resolution states in part: 30 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 .20 Specifically. the question of whether an international armed conflict continues in Iraq. . Tadic. 19.
259 (Apr. regulated by what might be regarded as original fundamental principles of the law of war. J. In the opinion of this author. it is the “armed conflict” nature of military operations that distinguish them—and the law that regulates them—from law enforcement activities. 115 Stat. 2001.” In addition. however.26 policy established by the executive branch is always subject to modification. as was noted in such a pointed manner by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida in United States v. This “basic principle” concept was clearly strained during the years between the first and second World Wars. the Court thinks not. Id.even necessary -.27 The President is authorized to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations. Articles 2. L. Self Defense and the Rule of Law. organizations or persons.” See GPW COMMENTARY. it seems appropriate -. Doc. in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations. Id. 4370th mtg.25 Nonetheless. 24 25 26 27 See Oscar Schachter. organizations. as indicated in the ICRC Commentary. committed.C. 107-40. 212-15 (1998). See GPW COMMENTARY. and 5 of Geneva III establish the standard for determining who is a POW. In the opinion of this author. 791 (1992). From a policy perspective. both permissive and restrictive. or persons he determines planned. As that same commentary indicates. Presidential War Power: Do the Courts Offer Any Answers?. Perhaps. 1368.C. however. and the U. at 22 (emphasizing that the obligations triggered by Article 2 were focused on inter-state relations). The government has thus far obviated the need for a formal determination of General Noriega's status. application of DOD policy related to the law of war renders this issue somewhat irrelevant due to the requirement to treat all armed conflicts as “international” for the purpose of law of war applicability. which uses language normally associated with congressional authorizations traditionally regarded as “functional equivalents” to a declaration of war. 157 MIL. and they were constrained by the basic principle of humanity.N. 4385th mtg. The government's position provides no assurances that the government will not at some point in the future decide that Noriega is not a POW. At no time was it agreed that he was. at 794. U. The rejection of “war” as a trigger for the law of war in favor of “armed conflict” was an attempt to prevent what might best be described as “bad faith avoidance” of compliance with the customary standards related to the jus in bello. at 28-35. Corn. supra note 13. and therefore determining binding legal standards is never truly obviated by a policy-based application of those standards. a prisoner of war. 1373. While they clearly serve as triggers for application of the treaty provisions of the treaties they relate to. 83 AM. The qualifier of “international” was. This theory is based on the belief that the historic trigger for basic law of war principles was the international legal analogue of what was traditionally characterized as war..S. however. even Common Article 2 appears to have been a response to a failure of the traditional expectation that armed forces engaged in “war” between states would acknowledge applicability of the law of war. SCOR. See generally Major Geoffrey S. they carried with them the fundamental principles of the law of war. as a matter of historical custom.N... Russia. Because of the issues presented in connection with the General's further confinement and treatment.24 These unusual aspects of the conflict in Iraq point to two potentially divergent conclusions: that the terrorist nature of the enemy removes the conflict from the realm of law of war regulation altogether. or harbored such organizations or persons. at 19-23.Nations23―a right normally associated with conflict between sovereign states. Noriega. During this period. when armed forces engaged in such armed conflict. S/RES/1368 (2001). 224. an effort to emphasize that specific provisions of the Geneva Conventions were triggered by armed conflicts conducted under state authority. war against them. 224 (2001). No. L. Supp. There is no geographic limitation to this authorization. Must this determination await some kind of formal complaint by Defendant or a lawsuit presented on his behalf? In view of the issues presently raised by Defendant. to suggest that Common Article 3 was “necessary” to ensure compliance with basic principles during such conflicts.. On a number of occasions as the case developed. It is clear that the global war on terror (GWOT) has strained traditional application of the Common Article 2 and Common Article 3 triggers for law of war application. supra note 13. Indeed. U. Res. Authorization for the Use of Military Force. counsel for the government advised that General Noriega was being and would continue to be afforded all of the benefits of the Geneva Convention. which was simply “armed conflict. This would seem to be just the type of situation Geneva III was designed to protect against. 180. there is no indication that the original U. these articles have been misinterpreted as the exclusive triggers for law of war application. GPW COMMENTARY. at 36. INT’L L. or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11. S/RES/1373 (2001). 56th Sess. 23 See S. providing authority to take all measures not forbidden by international law necessary to achieve the prompt submission of their opponents.N. Common Article 3 might instead be legitimately viewed as a fail-safe to provide the international community a basis to demand compliance with such principles when armed forces refuse to comply with the customary standards of conduct related to any military operation involving the use of force. supra note 13. these provisions might be better understood as a layer of regulation augmenting JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 31 . place military operations into the category of international armed conflict. and therefore not entitled to the protections of Geneva III. authorized. and China challenged the customary expectation that forces engaged in armed conflict would conduct themselves in accordance with basic principles of the law of war. 4. Pub. See infra notes 30-34 and accompanying text. It is somewhat misleading. This perceived failure of international law to provide effective regulation for non-international armed conflicts was the primary motivation underlying the creation of Common Article 3. See GPW COMMENTARY.S. supra note 13.N. (footnotes omitted). or that the international character of the same terrorist organizations.to address the issue of Defendant's status. see also S. as understood in historical context. in fact. the conflict against Al Qaeda is simply an armed conflict. Res. 56th Sess. REV. 808 F. as will be discussed below. 1989). they invoked the principle of military necessity. Doc. U. whereas law is not. U. SCOR. characterization of operations in Iraq as falling into the category of international armed conflict has been “downgraded. As a result. brutal internal conflicts in Spain.
U. involved substantial trans-national aspects in the form of arm.). When such operations also satisfy the criteria of Common Article 2. With regard to the trigger of Common Article 3. in order to emphasize the unique nature of the armed conflict ongoing against trans-national terrorist organizations. it is critical to note that the source of this “triggering” standard for the baseline principle of humane treatment (and. however. and even voluntary participation programs executed by Germany and Italy (on behalf of the Nationalists) and the Soviet Union (on behalf of the Republicans). Id. but take place within the confines of a single country. The actual provision it seeks to explain is written in much broader terms. within the category of conflicts regulated by the principles reflected in Common Article 3. This excerpt from the Commentary clearly refers to what is traditionally regarded as “internal” armed conflicts. Virtually every non-international armed conflict that has occurred during the later half of the twentieth century involved trans-national characteristics―ranging from the use of adjacent territories for safe-haven to the receipt of active logistics. reflect a purely internal nature of such trans-national armed conflicts. and U. 1986 I. See Lieutenant Colonel Yair M. however. . art. thereby serving as an unjustified basis for intrusion into state sovereignty. 2000) (analyzing the impact of the Spanish Civil War on the development of Common Article 3). in the two seminal international tribunal cases analyzing the relationship between internal and international armed conflicts. even the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939. supra note 10.77. supra note 4. no matter how that conflict is characterized. and due to the expanding nature of such operations within the broader context of the GWOT. and command and control support obtained from neighboring states. which served as a major motivation for the development of Common Article 3. 166 MIL. Instead. Lootsteen. 5100. In so doing. It is interesting to consider the relationship of this theory with the traditional policy of the United States regarding the law of war. this “trans national” qualifier is more a reflection of the nature of the operations and not essential for triggering basic law of war principles. law of war policy could be asserted as evidence of a customary norm of international law). need not be treated as dispositive. reprinted in 35 I. at 23. The GPW Commentary notes that there is no objective set of criteria for determining the existence of an armed conflict not of an international character. characterizing the GWOT as a “trans-national” armed conflict seems justified by a careful analysis of the underlying humanitarian rationale of Common Article 3. 109 (Dec. This reference. This does not. This historical context and jurisprudence is relevant because it demonstrates that the concept of non-international armed conflict has always involved a de facto trans-national character.” Instead. Indeed. however. REV. as such conflicts require a dispute between two entities satisfying the accepted criteria for statehood. the issue of external involvement and sponsorship was addressed and determined not to transform these conflicts from non-international to international. 3 (emphasis added). which is also manifested by the suggestion that Common Article 3 would only apply when “the party in revolt has an organized military force under responsible command.S. Common Article 3 imposes upon the parties to a “conflict not of an international character.” It is important to emphasize that with the “armed conflict” theory outlined above. It is reasonable to consider this quotation as a reflection of the historical context in which the provision was drafted. In contrast. because it reflects a recognition that the nature of such conflicts falls outside the accepted definition of an international armed conflict for purposes of determining the scope and extent of law of war regulations. these principles become augmented by the provisions of the conventions triggered by such a conflict. This policy has been the foundation for law of war application during every phase of the GWOT. as reflected in Common Article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions. See DOD DIR. in short. by inference. Case No. Tadic. the history of armed conflicts since 1949. practice with regard to the scope of Common Article 3. 32 (1996). From a pragmatic perspective. operations falling within the traditional definition of internal armed conflict would unquestionably be regulated by the substance of that article. 159 MIL. Bullman. military necessity) that should apply to any armed conflict (dispute requiring the intervention of armed forces). it must be recognized that the conflicts referred to in Article 3 are armed conflicts. . Nonetheless.C.the fundamental principles of the law of war triggered by any armed conflict. train. with armed forces on either side engaged in hostilities – conflicts. REP. The Commentary. See GPW COMMENTARY. at 36. It is the armed conflict nature of the operations that results in application of these basic principles. For purposes of determining the scope of regulation. Additionally. and distinguish it from the traditionally acknowledged categories of “international” armed conflict and “internal” armed conflict―it might be useful to adopt the characterization of “trans-national armed conflict. does not use the phrase “internal armed conflict. The plain 32 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 . and has the means of respecting the GC. L. and GC.” See GWS. often intended to provide interpretive flexibility. however. 152 (1999) (analyzing the potential that the U. It has been the longstanding policy of the DOD to treat any armed conflict as the trigger for application of the law of war. failure to satisfy the Common Article 3 trigger—even when armed forces were engaged in conflict operations (such as operations conducted against non-state actors operating outside the territory of the state targeting those actors)— would not undermine application of the same basic principles. at 35.S. are redundant with the basic principles of humanity triggered by any armed conflict. however. The basic principles reflected in Common Article 3.L. and the fundamental purpose of the law of armed conflict. the humanitarian rational underlying application of baseline standards to military operations not involving two opposing state entities. A Dangerous Guessing Game Disguised as an Enlightened Policy: United States Law of War Obligations During Military Operations Other Than War. the following considerations are useful: the interpretive guidance provided by the ICRC Commentary. REV. and therefore the substantive effect of such a conclusion would be de minimis. See Military and Paramilitary Activities (Nicar. L. which are in many respects similar to an international war. Perhaps this “policy” is actually a reflection of an underlying norm of customary international law. What seems clear from the ICRC Commentary is that the drafters were attempting to respond to the need to ensure some international legal regulation of activities that rose to the level of “armed conflicts.J. a practice not uncommon with provisions of multi-lateral treaties. such conflicts fall. IT-94-1-AR72. equip. states: Speaking generally. Common Article 3 reads as follows: “In the case of armed conflict not of an international character . it is essential to carefully assess the customary meaning of the term “conflicts not of an international character” for purpose of determining applicable provisions of the law of war. supra note 13. whenever an armed force engages in conflict operations.” Id. even though that character has not been sufficient to transform such conflicts into international armed conflicts). the application of the “armed conflict” triggering criteria emphasized in the ICRC Commentary to Common Article 3 is relevant exclusively to determining the scope of law of war regulation.S. supra note 13. The Concept of Belligerency in International Law. at 37. and reflects the basic proposition that armed conflict equals application of basic principles of the law of war. see also Major Timothy E. v. GPW. training. Decision on Defense Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Oct.M. See GPW COMMENTARY. 1995). In determining the validity of this category of armed conflicts. 14 (June 27). fundamental principles of military necessity and humanity are triggered by those operations. while mitigating fears that Common Article 3 would be applied to internal events that did not rise to the level of conflicts. As a result.” an obligation to treat all persons not participating or no longer participating in the conflict humanely. In short. GWS Sea. see also Prosecutor v. 2. operating within a determinate territory. as a matter of customary international law.” even if such conflicts did not take on a “international” character.
While this language refers to “traditionally defined” non-international armed conflicts. as they result from the usages established among civilized peoples. and has the effect of excluding many internal conflicts in which dissident armed groups occupy no significant territory but conduct sporadic guerilla operations over a wide area. is most instructive on the applicability of international regulation to any given military operation. it was the almost “self evident” legitimacy of requiring such limited humanitarian respect in such conflicts that served as the logical basis for the international regulation of events solely within the sphere of state sovereignty. 1956). The emergence of trans-national. 2277. This interpretive aid indicates that the nature of the military activities.S. This position seems logical considering the quasi trans-national nature of many “internal” armed conflicts that occurred during this period (e. 36 Stat. without altering the field of applicability. 317 INT’L REV. Id. While conflict with such groups was obviously not the object of United States concern at the time this position was asserted. 1st Sess.g. the Russian diplomat responsible for first proposing the language during the first World Peace Conference in The Hague in 1899. an expanded definition of what qualifies as such a conflict: The final text of Protocol II did not meet all the desires of the United States and other western delegations. 27-1. 226 (July 8). military operations conducted by the United States against non-state trans-national terrorist elements are simply “armed conflicts. and Relating to the Protections of Victims of Non International Armed Conflicts. and not the locale. DEP’T OF ARMY. the fundamental goal of ensuring a baseline of humanitarian regulation of armed conflict falling somewhere below the threshold of Common Article 2 should be restricted to conflicts totally confined to the internal territory of a nation state. Instead. he recommended its ratification. PAM. should. Letter of Transmittal from President Ronald Reagan. highly organized and well equipped groups espousing a goal of waging “war” against democratic nations is primarily a post Cold War phenomenon. and not the locale of the opposition group. In particular. Indeed. Id. 1907. individuals effected by conflict remain under the protection of the principles of humanity. The ICRC United States position regarding the scope provision of Protocol II reflects support for a broad application of these protections.” Accordingly. It is improper to conclude. T. This focus seems to transcend operations that were historically considered purely “internal. the pragmatic nature of the U. With certain declarations. 1. See Protocol II. President Reagan transmitted Protocol II to the Senate for its advice and consent. On 29 January 1987. with a clear intent to exclude only “non-conflict” internal matters from this scope of coverage. 2. and understandings.meaning of the term “not of an international character. In this regard. 539 [hereinafter Hague IV]. in accordance with customary international law. See Letter of Transmittal supra. such operations trigger the basic principles of military necessity (and the customary standards of means and methods applicable to noninternational armed conflicts) and humanity (the principles reflected in Common Article 3 and GP II) as a matter of customary international law.S. supra note 6. TREATIES GOVERNING LAND WARFARE. 1996 I. The continuing validity of this clause in the analysis of protections applicable during armed conflicts was most recently confirmed by the International Court of Justice in the advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons. in determining whether to classify an operation as a “common article 3 conflict. the inhabitants and the belligerents remain under the protection and the rule of the principles of the law of nations. (Dec. Treaty Doc. [I]n cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them. ratification be subject to an understanding declaring that the United States will apply the Protocol to all conflicts covered by Article 3 common to the 1949 Conventions (and only such conflicts) which will include all non-international armed conflicts as traditionally defined (but not internal disturbances. guide its interpretation. See Hague Convention No. It is clear from a review of the ICRC Commentary that the desire to interject some limited humanitarian regulation into a realm of activities historically shielded from international regulation served as the motivating drive behind inclusion of Common Article 3 into the four Conventions.. at III (1987) [hereinafter Letter of Transmittal]). We are therefore recommending that the U. it was the desire to inject law of war application to any situation rising above the threshold of domestic law enforcement activity and into the realm of military armed conflict that justifies the recognition of the trans-national armed conflict standard. at 35-37. and the derivative need to provide for some limited international regulation when operations rise to the level of military conflict. it also clearly represents U. Vietnam. Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons.S.” which was first included in the Preamble of the Hague Convention of 1899 and has been replicated in subsequent law of war treaties and statutes. at 36. The purpose of Protocol II was to supplement. JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 33 . and by implication. Oct. and the dictates of the public conscience. opposition to narrowly defining the scope of Common Article 3 and Protocol II. In summary. The “Martens Clause” took its name from Fyodor Martens.” United States practice with regard to the scope of Common Article 3 also tends to support a broad application of this baseline standard of conflict regulation. Common Article 3 for the protection of victims of conflicts not of an international character. the Protocol only applies to internal conflicts in which dissident armed groups are under responsible command and exercise control over such a part of the national territory as to carry out sustained and concerted military operations. at 38-41. from the laws of humanity.. There is absolutely no indication that the drafters of Common Article 3 considered conflicts between the regular armed forces of a state and a transnational non-state actor entity. however. however.J. This principle is reflected in the “Martens” Clause. reprinted in U.C.” and provides a logical analytical justification for determining when the limited law of war regulation associated with Common Article 3 should be applied to military operations. at art. No. In this respect. see also Rupert Ticehurst. policy reflected in this position supports expanding the definition of “traditional” to encompass such hostile groups. it is useful to consider what is often regarded as the most effective “interpretive aid” provided by the ICRC Commentary: that the line between an internal disturbance immune from international regulation and a conflict requiring international regulation is crossed when “the legal government is obliged to resort to the regular military forces to combat the party in revolt. Nicaragua.. 18. It would therefore appear consistent with this history to embrace a scope of application that focused on the nature of the activities. S. Afghanistan.” Id. that because the contextual motivation for this monumental development in the regulation of armed conflict was “internal” conflicts. El Salvador). This is a narrower scope than we would have desired.S. Defining what constitutes a “traditional” non-international armed conflict today differs substantially from how that term would have been defined in 1986.S. riots and sporadic acts of violence). Common Article 3 can be regarded as somewhat of an extension of the principle that absent applicable treaty provisions. OF THE RED CROSS 125-34 (1997). There is also no doubt that Common Article 3 was motivated by a perceived need to interject some limited humanitarian regulation into the realm of “internal” conflicts..” and the object and purpose of this treaty provision. 100th Cong. pmbl. The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict. Protocol II Additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. reservations. IV Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land.
It is not uncommon for practitioners to assert that this policy mandate requires compliance with only the “principles and spirit” of the law of war. Effects-Based Lawyering: Legal Consequences of the United States’ Response to 9/11. See U. While following the principles and spirit of the law of war is without doubt required during all military operations. Analyzing Applicability of Law of War Treaties Whether applicable as a matter of law.77. it seems improper to derive an “implied” authority for subordinate commands to do so. these armed conflicts are best characterized as trans-national armed conflicts. the policy would require U. 5100. and treaties signed by the United States. any operation that is considered by the United States to fall within the rubric of “armed conflict” triggers application of the law of war as if such application was required as a matter of law.S. a legitimate question related to this policy is whether deviation is ever justified.77. See Lieutenant Colonel Paul E.31 As is often the case with “simple” mandates. (Feb.01B. this determination requires an understanding of the distinction between treaties ratified by the United States. as the proponent of the policy mandate. 5100. the undeniable “armed conflict” aspect of these operations require analysis of not only the applicability of the law of war as a matter of law. Id. however. forces in Iraq requires analysis of DOD policy―specifically the DOD policy related to compliance with the law of war established in DOD Directive 5100. Kantwill & Major Sean M. The forthcoming revision to this directive will not in any way alter this conclusion. Watts. 28 29 30 31 DOD DIR. or any higher competent command. retain the authority to direct or authorize deviation from this broad mandate. what level of authority is empowered to authorize such deviation. DOD DIR. Id.a. supra note 4.S. DIR. 28 FORDHAM INT’L L. comply with all rules derived from the law of war considered by the United States applicable to such conflicts. Whether international. Indeed. The plain language of the directive. and accordingly. While the Chairman. or as a matter of policy. and multi-national forces are engaged in an “armed conflict” of some character. In this situation.77.1.One aspect of military operations in Iraq seems undeniable― the U. however. This distinction is the result of the disparate status of the two primary treaties Pragmatically.77. Whether this truism is applicable to this policy mandate has been the subject of substantial debate within the community of operational law specialists. 5100.S. 4. it would appear that no commander is empowered to authorize deviation from compliance with the entire body of the law of war. 5.29 The simple policy mandate of that directive—that the armed forces of the United States will comply with the law of war during all conflicts. In relation to the specific issue raised by the use of the minaret. 2005).28 Impact of DOD Policy on Legal Analysis Any analysis of applicable rules related to the conduct of military operations by U. and if so. this basic mandate would purport to obviate the need to determine whether the conflict in Iraq qualified as “international. and will in fact elevate the requirement to comply with the law of war during all armed conflicts from a service component responsibility to an explicit statement of DOD policy. even during a conflict not triggering such broad application as a matter of law. para. para. Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) implementing instruction expressly allows for “competent authority” to authorize deviation from the required application of law of war “principles” during non-conflict operations. 5810.33 there is no analogous deviation provision during armed conflicts. a characterization that reflects the global nature of such operations. 34 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 . DOD LAW OF WAR PROGRAM (revised version pending publication). supra note 4. Thus.” or some hybrid category such as “trans national. a determination of which provisions of the law of war are considered binding by the United States is still required. 33 32 CJCS INSTR.32 Because unlike legal mandates. While it seems logical to conclude that the CJCS.3. supra note 4. or hybrid such as trans-national. but pending ratification. the devil is in the details. but also as a matter of policy through the conduit of the DOD Law of War Program. internal. it was the almost inevitable uncertainty related to determining the legal character of such armed conflicts that motivated a policy mandate requiring full compliance with the law of war during any armed conflict as the default standard for the armed forces of the United States. DEP’T OF DEFENSE. forces to treat all operations as if they were being conducted during the course of an international armed conflict.” Instead.” “internal.J. no matter how those conflicts are characterized30—is directly applicable to military operations in Iraq.S. policy is more easily subject to authorized deviation. renders this position patently erroneous.
1. VI. and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare was signed by the United States in 1925. 106 . the United States has signed. A/CONF. Prt. supra note 42. 46 47 48 Treaties and the Senate. e. but not yet ratified.35 While the United States is a party to Hague IV (the provisions of which are generally regarded as customary international law). See THE RESTATEMENT. 875 (1969). 1969.L.S. the Hague Protocol. art.39 It was not. In contrast to the Hague IV. supra note 6. 34 35 36 37 38 See Hague Convention IV.I. § 115.37 no such statute exists. 2001) [hereinafter Treaties and the Senate]. ironically. 679 (1969). FM 27-10..L. the Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use of Asphyxiating. See. and indeed. but never ratified.. supra note 5. the Cultural Property Convention. No. §§ 301-26. at III (1999) [hereinafter Cultural Property Letter of Transmittal]. 44 45 43 See THE RESTATEMENT. Thus. as a matter of domestic law. U. and as a matter of international law. 106th Cong. and international law.36 and therefore must be regarded as the “supreme law of the land. supra note 6.34 and the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.S. 106-71.S. S. this principle of customary international law imposes an obligation on states that have expressed intent to be bound to a treaty through signature to refrain from any activity that might defeat the “object and purpose” of that treaty for the period of time ratification is pending.46 Known as the “object and purpose” rule. For example. jurisprudence related to the law of treaties does allow for a later in time statutory contradiction to this treaty. the Cultural Property Convention falls into an authoritative “twilight zone” under traditional doctrines of the relationship between U. 1954. however.M. 1956 with Accompanying Report from the Department of State on the Convention and the Hague Protocol. every statutory and policy reference to the subject matter of the law of war has confirmed the binding nature of this treaty. and Entered Into Force on August 7. the United States is not a party to the treaty. CONST..47 This “Article 18” obligation is terminated only when a signatory state has taken appropriate steps to demonstrate a clear intention not to become a party to the treaty. at 116-21.45 which. is a treaty that itself has been signed by the United States. 8 I. See generally THE RESTATEMENT.S.39/27 (1969). A). at 23-4. 39 See Letter of Transmittal from President William Clinton. Having been ratified by the United States. Cultural Property Convention. 1st Sess. ANNOTATED SUPPLEMENT TO THE COMMANDER'S HANDBOOK ON THE LAW OF NAVAL OPERATIONS 5-10 (1997) (rev. (2d Sess. 22. reprinted in 63 A. Concluded on May 14.g. Poisonous or Other Gases. after receiving the requisite advice and consent of the Senate.38 (The customary international law status of the provisions of this treaty provide an additional basis for concluding the United States is bound to them). Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. supra note 27.48 This is normally understood as requiring some action at the international level. but is not ratified. UN Doc. supra note 5. supra note 5.40 and as of this date.43 As a result. Hague IV falls within the scope of the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution.44 This doctrine is reflected in Article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. §§ 301-26.J. Therefore.” While U.41 A signed treaty that is pending advice and consent and subsequent ratification for a long time period is not uncommon in United States treaty practice. JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 35 . transmitted to the Senate for advice and consent until January 1999. Id. S.42 nor among other states in the community of nations. to the Senate for Ratification of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed conflict (The Convention) and for Accession. The Cultural Property Convention was signed by the United States on 14 May 1954. at art. Treaty Doc. advice and consent has not been granted. U. See Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role of the United States Senate. this treaty is signed by the United States. DEP'T OF THE NAVY. but not ratified until 1975. 40 41 42 Id. 106th Cong.addressing the use of cultural property: Hague IV and Annexed Regulations. customary international law has developed a doctrine to address the question of the force and effect of treaties pending ratification. the treaty does not fall under the auspices of the Supremacy Clause. opened for signature May 23. Id.
Art. supra note 6. While this might appear to satisfy the requirement to demonstrate U. See Protocol I.” See Letter of Transmittal. In contrast. at 25. Release from this obligation would appear to require some international declaration of similar content. 42 A. intent not to become a party to the treaty. The property of municipalities. The Legal Regime for Protecting Cultural Property During Armed Conflict. necessitates by implication a requirement to ascertain those law of war obligations considered by the United States to be binding as a matter of law. policies related to military operations). see also Captain Joshua E. as far as possible. the prima facie issue of what the United States considers to be the applicable rules of the law of war triggered by the policy mandate of the DOD Law of War Program must be resolved. Protocol II. See generally Protection of Cultural Property During Expeditionary Operations Other Than War. and neither has been ratified. works of art and science. ARMY LAW. It is also possible that the Senate might question the constitutionality of carrying out treaty obligations pursuant to this rule of international law prior to the treaty receiving the requisite constitutional advice and consent from the Senate. the Executive Branch informed the Senate that it did not intend to submit the treaty for advice and consent because it was considered “fatally flawed. Hague IV does include an apparently absolute prohibition on the use of religious property during belligerent occupation. customary international law would appear to require the United States to refrain from activities that defeat the “object and purpose” of that treaty. buildings dedicated to religion. Kastenberg. art. it does not expressly prohibit the use of such objects for military purposes. Furthermore.S. is forbidden. 56.54 49 This principle of international law is also presumptively applicable to the two Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions. even when State property. the President reinforced the executive branch’s desire that the United States become a party to this treaty. or charitable purposes. supra note 27. which shall be notified to the enemy beforehand. which operate to protect cultural and religious property through Article 27. the passage of time since signature. supra note 6. with subsequent requests by the Executive Branch for the Senate to complete this action. the “as far as possible” caveat suggests a “military necessity” exception to this general prohibition. There is simply nothing in Hague IV that. and other evidence that the U. intent not to become a party to this treaty. TJAGSA Practice Note: International and Operational Law Note. See Treaties and the Senate. Both treaties were signed by the United States. historic monuments.F. categorically prohibits the method in which this minaret was used. at 113-14.S.49 The United States has taken no action to manifest its intent not to become a party to the Cultural Property Convention. art. shall be treated as private property. 50 51 See Cultural Property Letter of Transmittal.” In order to execute this obligation. 277 (1997). 36 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 . On the contrary. Rules Applicable to This Incident51 Pursuant to DOD policy. provided they are not being used at the time for military purposes. at III. 30.S. unlike Protocol I. charity and education. hospitals. domestic validity of compliance is enhanced proportionally to the degree to which the subject matter is associated with the President’s Article II authority. supra note 39. 56. and should be made the subject of legal proceedings. L.52 There is no dispute that the provisions of Hague IV. science. supra note 27. through the conduit of the DOD Law of War Program.such as submitting a formal diplomatic note to the treaty depository. fall within this category of applicable rules.53 While this provision reflects a general goal of protecting religious and cultural objects. The Hague IV requires the following: In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps must be taken to spare. the armed forces of the United States must comply with the law of war in Iraq regardless of the actual characterization of the conflict as “international” or “non-international. as recently as 1999. It is the duty of the besieged to indicate the presence of such buildings or places by distinctive and visible signs. 1999. Thus. although it is plausible that the cumulative effect of the Letter of Transmittal. United States signature created a prima facie presumption that the object and purpose rule is applicable to those treaties. there appears to be little doubt that the United States remains obligated under the object and purpose rule vis à vis Protocol II. REV. Such association seems extremely close with regard to a treaty regulating the conduct of military operations. that of institutions dedicated to religion. however. It is true that with regard to Protocol I. All seizure of. Protocol II has been submitted by the Executive Branch for advice and consent. at art. 52 A policy mandate to comply with the “law of war” during all conflicts. and places where the sick and wounded are collected. the arts and sciences.. supra note 42. 53 54 Hague IV. historic monuments. does not consider itself bound to this treaty (military manuals and an absence to any reference to provisions of Protocol I in ICRC U. destruction or willful damage done to institutions of this character. In such a situation. sufficiently demonstrate U. Mar. Id.S. the purely domestic nature of this action renders such a conclusion questionable. no matter how characterized.50 As a result.
groups of buildings which. it is reasonable to presume that this rule was based on an expectation that the occupation would be generally unopposed. Hague IV. Pursuant to Article 9 of the Convention. (c) centres containing a large amount of cultural property as defined in sub-paragraphs (a) and (b). As will be explained below. some of which specifically address the issue of the treatment of religious property of cultural heritage. In the opinion of this author. however. but instead applies to such religious property the general prohibition against the destruction of property in occupied territory. manuscripts. art. For the purposes of the present Convention. 4(2). it is critical to distinguish the protection afforded cultural property as defined in Article 1 of the Cultural Property Convention from property granted the status of “special protection” in accordance with Article 8 of that Convention. it is located in the occupation section of Hague IV. should be interpreted as controlling even if they purport to contradict the unqualified prohibition of the Hague IV. In fact. art. is not dispositive to the issue presented herein. 59 60 61 62 Id. art. the key consideration in analyzing the permissibility of such use would be the legitimacy of the conclusion that no other feasible alternate was available to achieve the important military objective. this rule must be considered within the context of subsequent treaty provisions developed for the specific purpose of protecting cultural property during armed conflict. books and other objects of artistic. Id. in the event of armed conflict. is prohibited with no military necessity exception. irrespective of origin or ownership: (a) movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people. however. First. such as monuments of architecture. Within this context.62 Reference to 55 56 57 58 See GC. This rule must be interpreted within the context of rules developed at the beginning of the last century for control and temporary administration of enemy territory during belligerent occupation. although the “implied” military necessity exception noted above continues to have analytical impact. art or history. 54. large libraries and depositories of archives. Cultural Property Convention. 4(1). Certainly. archaeological sites. the protection of friendly forces or the local population from threats posed by dissident or hostile elements during a period of occupation qualify as such a purpose.Article 56. works of art. which provides that “[T]he obligations mentioned in paragraph 1 of the present Article may be waived only in cases where military necessity imperatively requires such a waiver. a situation clearly distinguishable from that in Iraq. absent imperative military necessity. historical or archaeological interest. does not include any provision mandating special protection for religious property. use of cultural property as an observation position appears consistent with the principles reflected in the Cultural Property Convention if such use is the only feasible means available for the commander to achieve a valid military objective. Article 4 of the Cultural Property Convention imposes the following obligation on the parties to a conflict: [r]espect cultural property58 situated within their own territory as well as within the territory of other High Contracting Parties by refraining from any use of the property and its immediate surroundings or of the appliances in use for its protection for purposes which are likely to expose it to destruction or damage in the event of armed conflict. and far more significant. these rules did not adopt a distinct framework for such protection during belligerent occupation.59 This obligation.56 These later in time treaty provisions. 1. Second. is qualified by the subsequent section.” or military use of surrounding areas. at art. JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 37 . whether religious or secular. the term "cultural property" shall cover. See id. are of historical or artistic interest. the Geneva Convention for the Treatment of Civilians in Time of War of 1949. military use of property granted “special protection.57 Reference to the provisions of these other law of war treaties does appear to provide a more precise rule of decision. supra note 27. (b) buildings whose main and effective purpose is to preserve or exhibit the movable cultural property defined in sub-paragraph (a) such as museums. and by refraining from any act of hostility directed against such property. the movable cultural property defined in subparagraph (a).55 the most comprehensive source of authority for the conduct of belligerent occupation.”60 Thus. supra note 6. as a whole. as well as scientific collections and important collections of books or archives or of reproductions of the property defined above.61 With regard to this imperative military necessity qualifier. Id. to be known as "centres containing monuments”. and refuges intended to shelter. supra note 10. art. Cultural property is defined in the Convention as follows: Article 1. Id. 9.
64 65 66 67 68 Interview with Mr. a port or railway station of relative importance or a main line of communication. 4. of centres containing monuments and other immovable cultural property of very great importance. Article 53 applies. 8. If any cultural property mentioned in paragraph I of the present Article is situated near an important military objective as defined in the said paragraph. 16. If one of the Parties is not bound by the Convention. Protocol I.this article often mistakenly leads to the conclusion that cultural property. if it is so constructed that. 1. Protocol I. it may nevertheless be placed under special protection if the High Contracting Party asking for that protection undertakes. whatever its location. art. in the vicinity of such cultural property. or the presence. railway station or aerodrome. even in transit. in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention and under the conditions provided for in the Regulations for the execution of the Convention. A centre containing monuments shall be deemed to be used for military purposes whenever it is used for the movement of military personnel or material. in all probability. however. the stationing of military personnel. while neither Protocol I nor II expressly provide for an imperative military necessity exception to the prohibition against the use of cultural property in support of the military effort.C. is absolutely immune from military use. at 640 (emphasis added). an aerodrome. (May 19. For example. This entry shall only be made. art. 2. Article 53 of Protocol I (applicable to international armed conflict) prohibits use in support of the military effort of all “places of worship which constitute the cultural or spiritual heritage of the people.68 Thus. but that the protection and respect for cultural objects should be confirmed.67 According to the International Committee of the Red Cross Commentary to this article: The protection laid down in this article is accorded “without prejudice” to the provisions of other relevant international instruments. shall not be deemed to be used for military purposes. of police forces normally responsible for the maintenance of public order. 6. for example. Moreover.64 The constraint against military use of religious property of cultural heritage is more categorical in Protocols I and II to the Geneva Conventions. 53. it will not be damaged by bombs. 8. art. such use should only be made under conditions of imperative military necessity. in the case of a port. 53. Special protection is granted to cultural property by its entry in the "International Register of Cultural Property under Special Protection". The guarding of cultural property mentioned in paragraph I above by armed custodians specially empowered to do so. While. D. supra note 6. 38 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 . Id. W. and of other relevant international instruments”.”65 Article 16 of Protocol II (applicable to non-international armed conflict) reflects an analogous prohibition. this means that in case of a contradiction between this article and a rule of the 1954 Convention the latter is applicable. In that event. Hays Parks. art. such diversion shall be prepared in time of peace. as noted above. only the Vatican has been so designated. in the event of armed conflict. though of course only insofar as the Parties concerned are bound by that Convention. establishment engaged upon work of national defence. (b) are not used for military purposes. supra note 6. 2004). 5. Protocol II.66 Both of these articles. See PROTOCOL COMMENTARY. begin with the following introductory language: “[W]ithout prejudice to the provisions of the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict of 14 May 1954. if the application of such an exception is appropriate in 63 According to Article 8: Granting of Special Protection Art. There may be placed under special protection a limited number of refuges intended to shelter movable cultural property in the event of armed conflict. supra note 6.63 As of the date of this article. broadcasting station. supra note 6. Department of Defense Office of General Counsel. such as. From the beginning of the discussions regarding Article 53 it was agreed that there was no need to revise the existing rules on the subject. to make no use of the objective and particularly. or the production of war material are carried on within the centre. Article 53 applies even if all the Parties concerned are bound by another international instrument insofar as it supplements the rules of that instrument. in Washington. the unqualified immunity provided by Article 9 is applicable only to property designated with “special protection” as defined in Article 8 of the Convention. as defined in Article 1 of the Convention. A refuge for movable cultural property may also be placed under special protection. to divert all traffic therefrom. It was therefore necessary to state at the beginning of the article that it did not modify the relevant existing instruments. The same shall apply whenever activities directly connected with military operations. provided thatthey: (a) are situated at an adequate distance from any large industrial centre or from any important military objective constituting a vulnerable point. 3.
71 As noted above.74 at the time Protocol I was drafted the United States regarded many of the articles as either a reflection of existing customary international law Int’l Comm. or codify a pre-existing customary obligation. 2005). Instead. Protection of Cultural Property During Expeditionary Operations Other Than War. & POL’Y 419.72 As with many provisions of law of war treaties that have not been ratified by the United States. COMP.70 There is no clear definition of the scope and extent of this “Article 18” obligation. or subsequently evolved into.org/Web/eng/siteeng0. U. 74 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 39 . 11 TULSA J. 73 According to FM 27-10: 4. The Treaty on Treaties. 465 (1970). ARMY LAW. Custom: Although some of the law of war has note been incorporated in any treaty or convention which the United States is a party. & INT'L L. legal advisors are often called upon to asses whether the provision was at the time of drafting. at http://www. Lawmaking Treaties (or Conventions). Mar.nsf/htmlall/party_main_ treaties/$File/IHL_and_other_related_Treaties. See Andrea Cunning.73 Whether the collective effect of these treaty provisions justifies a conclusion that the general obligation to refrain from military use of cultural property—subject to an imperative military necessity exception— amounts to a customary international law norm is subject to debate. the most oft cited of which is the “Matheson” statement. Kearney & Robert E.. and in fact the use would have been consistent with the obligations imposed by the treaty had it been binding at the time. thereby defeating the basic purpose of that treaty. para. J. Matheson. The Safeguarding of Cultural Property in Times of War & Peace. 64 AM. a good faith assessment of the activity in question must be engaged in to determine if such activity appears to be a flagrant derogation from the essence of the treaty. and is implicated by the “object and purpose” rule reflected in Article 18 of the Vienna Convention. INT’L L. See Michael J. This treaty. reconciling the use of the minaret in this situation with the principles reflected in the Cultural Property Convention requires a precise understanding of the distinction between generally protected cultural property and specially protected cultural property. In such a situation.accordance with the provisions of the Cultural Property Convention. INT’L L. If this presumption is valid. according to various sources. the United States is bound to comply not with the particular article of the treaty.69 The principles reflected in the provisions of the Cultural Property Convention seem most relevant for analysis of the use of this property based on both the subject of the treaty and the fact that the United States has signed this treaty and appears to remain committed to ratification. 1999. For example. Remarks in Session One: The United States Position on the Relation of Customary International Law to the 1977 Protocols Additional to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Suffice to say that it is a well accepted principle of international law that the provision of a treaty can create a new obligation that subsequently “ripens” into a customary obligation. this body of unwritten or customary law is firmly established by the custom of nations and well defined by recognized authorities on international law. by its terms. 2003). Recall also that the United States is not a party to either Protocol I or II. 425 (1987).pdf [hereinafter Listing of States party] (listing States party to Protocol I and Protocol II). at 25. but with the principle reflected in that article. J. applies to both international and non-international armed conflict. 2 AM. see also TJAGSA Practice Note: International and Operational Law Note. 70 71 72 69 See id. Sources The law of war is derived from two principle sources: a. supra note 6. the authority of that treaty would trump the unqualified prohibition reflected in the Protocols. A comprehensive discussion of the relationship between treaty law and customary international law is beyond the scope of this article. The use of the minaret in this situation was presumptively based on a determination of imperative military necessity. 4. of the Red Cross. such as the Hague and Geneva Conventions. Dalton. States Party to the Main Treaties (June 15. See Richard D. although it is generally accepted that it certainly does not require full treaty compliance. However. if the presumption is invalid—if some feasible alternate to the use of the minaret had been available to the commander—it is difficult to reconcile the unnecessary transformation of the minaret into a valid and highly significant military objective for an opponent as being consistent with the fundamental purpose of the Cultural Property Convention. there is no reason to conclude that the use violated the object and purpose of the treaty. See FM 27-10. 211 (Fall.icrc. customary international law. b.
912 (Oct.77 Third. supra note 27. See Prosecutor v. Furthermore. J. arguendo. or through the conclusion that Article 53 of Protocol I related to the use of cultural property for military purposes reflects a principle of customary international law. there is a strong argument to support the conclusion that regardless of the characterization of the conflict in Iraq.75 Subsequent practice also suggests that some articles of Protocol I may have ripened into customary international law. While use of the vantage point offered by such a structure was undoubtedly intended to enhance the effectiveness of the operation.M. See supra notes 34-42. The U. forces in the referenced article fell within the definition of cultural property. forces through either operation of the object and purpose rule derived from the international law of treaties. and remains the subject of executive branch ratification efforts. however.S. or as a positive development in the law of war that has subsequently ripened into a customary obligation. Thus. however. Second. See supra note 6.76 There is no explicit United States position on whether the rules related to the military use of cultural property reflected in the treaties analyzed above fall into the category of customary international law. regardless of the characterization of the conflict in Iraq. In so doing. This prohibition has arguably attained customary international law status. there is no indication that the United States included Article 53 of Protocol I among those articles of Protocol I considered so fatally flawed that they required rejection of the entire Protocol. 81 AM. the basic concept of an extremely proscribed military use of cultural property is reflected not only in the Cultural Property Convention. Instead. as noted above. 2. First.S. the prohibition against the military use of cultural property absent such a justification does not allow for a general military necessity based exception. Conclusion Assuming.77 As noted above.77. Decision on Defense Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction (Oct. Accordingly.S. or through operation of DOD Directive 5100. reprinted in 35 I. see also Hans-Peter Gasser. 1995). or positive developments in the law of war. 40 JULY 2005 THE ARMY LAWYER • DA PAM 27-50-386 . for such a conclusion. and accompanying text. supporting the conclusion that it is considered a fundamental norm of the law of war. Instead. INT’L L. the Cultural Property Convention was signed by the United States. 1987). that the minaret used by U.obligations. 77 78 79 See Letter of Transmittal. either as a reflection of a customary obligation that existed at the time they were drafted. 32 (1996). it is hoped that this article will contribute to the ability of judge advocates to address similar issues during future operations. this reported incident was relied upon to illustrate the variety of considerations associated with such an issue.L. There is ample implied support.79 Furthermore. this article was not intended to simply address the question of whether use of this minaret was or was not consistent with the law of war. Decision Not to Ratify Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions on the Protection of War Victims: An Appeal for Ratification by the United States. appears to be binding on U. such use would be improper absent imperative military necessity. 75 76 Id. and at a minimum. both these treaties expressly extend this principle into the realm of non-international armed conflict. the extremely limited justification for the military use of cultural property appears to fall under the auspices of the “comply with the law of war” mandate of DOD Directive 5100. Tadic. Case No. IT-94-1-AR72. the use was permissible based only on a determination of imperative military necessity. the concept of imperative necessity suggests that no other feasible alternative be available for achieving what is presumptively an important military objective. this prohibition is applicable as a matter of international law. but also in Protocol II78—a treaty signed by the United States and also subject to executive branch ratification efforts. either through operation of the “object and purpose” rule as it relates to the Cultural Property Convention. The combination of the Cultural Property Convention and the effort to reinforce the protection of cultural property reflected in Protocol’s I and II provide substantial indication that this prohibition is applicable in both international and internal conflict as a customary international law principle applicable to all conflicts. and perhaps of most significant.
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