Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/104031598/Children-The-Forgotten-Victim-s-in-Mexico-Drug-War
Timestamp: 2017-06-27 22:57:47
Document Index: 657313615

Matched Legal Cases: ['ART 1', 'ART 1', 'ART 1', 'ART 1', 'ART 1', 'ART 1', 'ART 1']

Children: The Forgotten Victim's in Mexico Drug War | Civil–Military Relations | Non Governmental Organization
Children: The Forgotten Victim's in Mexico Drug WarUploaded by AB-Related InterestsCivil–Military RelationsNon Governmental OrganizationPolitologyActivismSocietyRating and Stats0.0 (0)Document ActionsDownloadShare or Embed DocumentEmbedDescription: Children: The Forgotten Victim's in Mexico Drug WarView MoreChildren: The Forgotten Victim's in Mexico Drug WarCopyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)Download as PDF or read online from ScribdFlag for inappropriate contentPART 1: FRONTL|NLS 292. CLI!dven: TLe Iovgotten VIctIms In MexIco's Ðvug Wuv
5, Arom 8orro ond uon|e| jo|o,
|ntroouctlon
M, goternnen/ ie oIeolu/el, Je/ernineJ /o con/inue [gl/ing ogoine/ crininoli/, ui/lou/ quor/er un/il ue pu/ o e/op /o /lie connon enen, onJ oI/oin /le Mexico ue uon/.
IrosIdonf IoIIµo CnIdoron
We lite in o e/o/e of uor onJ clilJren ore lef/ /o Jrif/.
AuroIIo Inoz, Orµhnnngo dIrocfor, CIudnd Juároz
Tho ¨wnr on drugs,¨ In mosf µIncos, Is mofnµhorIcnI. Tho form Is rnroIy usod by govornmonfs nnd wns roconfIy nbnndonod ns n rhoforIcnI dovIco by fho !nIfod Sfnfos.
In MoxIco, howovor, fho wnr on drugs hns n vory ronI dImonsIon. If Is ¨docInrod¨ govornmonf µoIIcy, If Is mIIIfnrIzod, nnd If Is oxfromoIy bIoody. ShorfIy nffor fnkIng µowor, IrosIdonf IoIIµo CnIdoron ordorod n mIIIfnry offonsIvo ngnInsf fho counfry`s drug cnrfoIs fhnf ovonfunIIy InvoIvod fons of fhousnnds of frooµs. KooµIng drugs nwny from MoxIco`s chIIdron hns boon n confrnI jusfIhcnfIon.
WhIIo fho consoquonf vIoIonco In MoxIco hns boon woII documonfod, fho sµocIhc consoquoncos for chIIdron nro nof so offon broughf fo fho foro. ÐosµIfo IrosIdonf CnIdoron`s jusfIhcnfIon bnsod on fho woIfnro of chIIdron, hIs docIsIon, combInod wIfh n zoro-foIornnco nµµronch fo drug uso, hns confrIbufod fo condIfIons In whIch chIIdron hnvo boon kIIIod, orµhnnod, nnd nogIocfod. SInco fho wnr on drugs bognn, fhoro hnvo boon Incronsod kIIIIngs of chIIdron nnd µnronfs wIfh fhousnnds dond nnd fons of fhousnnds orµhnnod; Incronsod nffncks on drug rohnbIIIfnfIon confors, IncIudIng mnssncros of young drug usors; nnd Incronsod nffncks on schooIs rosuIfIng In n sIgnIhcnnf droµ In schooI nffondnnco for fonr of vIoIonco. Wo consIdor fhoso offocfs of fho drug wnr nnd fho Iong-form µsychoIogIcnI dnmngo oxµorIoncod by chIIdron who nro surroundod by conßIcf nnd vIoIonco. Ðuo fo sµnco consfrnInfs, wo cnnnof nnnIyzo nII nsµocfs of MoxIco`s drug µrobIoms nnd µoIIcIos. Tho InvoIvomonf of chIIdron In drug frnfhckIng, for oxnmµIo, Is nof 30 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
covorod, nor Is fho IncnrcornfIon of µnronfs. Wo focus Insfond on fho mIIIfnry InforvonfIon ngnInsf fho drug cnrfoIs, fho roInfod oscnInfIon In vIoIonco, nnd fho connocfod zoro-foIornnco nµµronch fo drug uso nnd doµondonco.
WIfh fhIs focus, If bocomos cIonr fhnf fho hnrms of fho drug wnr nof onIy oxIsf In fho µrosonf buf nIso wIII rovorbornfo fhrough mnny gonornfIons duo fo fho sµocIhc hnrms InßIcfod on chIIdron. Þoxf fo fhom, fho smnII gnIns ngnInsf fho cnrfoIs nro rondorod monnIngIoss. Affor four yonrs of µoor rosuIfs In fronfnIIy combnfIng drug cnrfoIs nnd ndoµfIng zoro-foIornnco nµµronchos fo drugs, rofhInkIng govornmonf sfrnfogIos Is now unnvoIdnbIo. Mllltary |nterventlon Agalnst tbe Drug Cartels
Soon nffor fnkIng µowor In 2006, IrosIdonf IoIIµo CnIdoron dIrocfod fho MoxIcnn nrmy fo wngo n bnffIo ngnInsf drug cnrfoIs fhnf, ns ho hImsoIf snId, couId nof bo µuf off nny Iongor. MIIIfnry oµornfIvos soon oxfondod fo sovornI MoxIcnn sfnfos such ns ChIhunhun, SInnIon, nnd Injn CnIIfornIn, nnd hIghwnys nnd sfroofs woro soon hIIod wIfh nrmod mon. In n mnffor of dnys, moro fhnn 30,000 soIdIors woro doµIoyod In dIfforonf cIfIos In fho counfry In ordor fo nvoId, ns CnIdoron oxµInInod (somowhnf IronIcnIIy In hIndsIghf) fho rIsk of ¨boIng domInnfod by crImo, InsocurIfy nnd vIoIonco rosuIfIng from fho ncfIvIfIos of crImInnI grouµs.¨
CombInod wIfh n µrogrnm fo nddross corruµfIon wIfhIn fho µoIIco forco, fho sfrnfogy wns Infondod fo shnffor fho cnrfoIs by cnrryIng ouf nrrosfs of gnng Iondors, oxfrndIfIng fhom fo fho !nIfod Sfnfos whon µossIbIo, nnd soIzIng drug shIµmonfs. AccordIng fo n roµorf by fho SocurIfy CnbInof fo roßocf fho nchIovomonfs mndo In fhroo yonrs of fho drug wnr, from Ðocombor l, 2006, fo AµrII 30, 2009, 66,62l crImInnI susµocfs woro cnµfurod.
HIgh-µrohIo crImInnIs woro oxfrndIfod for frInI In fho !nIfod Sfnfos In fnr gronfor numbors fhnn In µrovIous ndmInIsfrnfIons,
fhousnnds of mofrIc fons of IIIIcIf drugs (mnInIy cnnnnbIs) woro soIzod, nnd hundrods of mIIIIons of doIInrs woro frozon.
InIfInIIy, fhIs sfrnfogy mnnngod fo roduco somowhnf fho µrosonco nnd vIsIbIIIfy of gnngs nnd cnrfoIs In fho sfnfos whoro fhoy usod fo oµornfo, such ns SInnIon, Injn CnIIfornIn, nnd ChIhunhun. ÞovorfhoIoss, fho so-cnIIod cockronch offocf soon bocnmo ovIdonf nnd PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 31
cnrfoIs movod fo now µIncos.
In 200?, fho µrosonco of cnrfoIs wns rogIsforod In fwonfy-ono of fho fhIrfy-fwo MoxIcnn sfnfos. Todny fhoy nro In nII buf ono.
As n rosuIf, vIoIonco nIso sµrond fo nn nInrmIng numbor of sfnfos, cIfIos, nnd munIcIµnIIfIos, nnd fho numbor of cnsunIfIos of fho wnr hns Incronsod wIfh ovory dny fhnf hns µnssod. AIfhough ofhcInI hguros nro uncorfnIn, fho ÞnfIonnI SocurIfy Confor CISIÞ osfImnfos fhnf fhoro hnvo boon moro fhnn 28,000 donfhs sInco fho wnr bognn In 2006.
If Is n hguro fhnf hns nInrmod mnny nnfIonnIIy nnd InfornnfIonnIIy. !ogroffnbIy, nII fhoso donfhs hnvo boon consIdorod sImµIy ns ¨coIInfornI dnmngo.¨
Cnsos whoro cIvIIInns hnvo dIod bocnuso of mIIIfnry oµornfIons nro bocomIng moro nnd moro froquonf ns fho Incronso In comµInInfs fo fho ÞnfIonnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs shows. QuorIos dIrocfod ngnInsf fho mIIIfnry roso moro fhnn 900 µorconf In fho hrsf fhroo yonrs of fho drug wnr, IncronsIng from l82 cnsos In 2006 fo l,?9l In 2009 nf jusf fho fodornI IovoI. ThIs doos nof IncIudo quorIos rogIsforod nf IocnI commIssIons of humnn rIghfs.
Howovor, In n roconf roµorf of fho Ðofonso MInIsfry In rosµonso fo n roquosf from Congross, If wns cInImod fhnf onIy 565 cIvIIInn donfhs mny bo IInkod fo mIIIfnry ncfIon, n numbor fhnf IncIudos fhoso susµocfod of boIng IInkod wIfh drug cnrfoIs.
Kllllngs ot Cblloren ano Parents
Tho donfh foII nmong fhoso undor fho ngo of sovonfoon sInco fho wnr bognn nmounfs fo ovor 900, nccordIng fo fho Þofwork for fho !Ighfs of Infnncy In MoxIco. In fho hrsf hnIf of 20l0, If Is osfImnfod fhnf nInofy chIIdron hnvo Iosf fhoIr IIvos fo drug-roInfod vIoIonco.
Tho snmo nongovornmonfnI orgnnIznfIon roµorfod fhnf homIcIdo rnfos for chIIdron undor sovonfoon yonrs of ngo hnvo Incronsod, osµocInIIy In fho sfnfos of Ðurnngo, Injn CnIIfornIn, ChIhunhun, nnd SInnIon. ÐurIng fho µnsf fhroo yonrs, chIId homIcIdo rnfos hnvo frIµIod, IncronsIng from 83 µor yonr fo 2?4 µor yonr. Ðurnngo IfsoIf snw nn Incronso of moro fhnn 450 µorconf In homIcIdo rnfos for young µooµIo In 20068.
Thoso mosf nffocfod hnvo boon young µooµIo bofwoon fho ngos of hffoon nnd sovonfoon. Ior oxnmµIo, In Injn CnIIfornIn fho homIcIdo rnfo for fhIs ngo grouµ Incronsod from 8.33 µor l00,000 In 200? fo 24.3 µor l00,000 In 2008nn Incronso of nImosf 300 µorconf. In 32 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
ChIhunhun fho rnfo roso from l2.6 fo 45.9 µor l00,000, nn Incronso of 364 µorconf.
In CIudnd Juároznow consIdorod fho mosf vIoIonf cIfy In fho worIdfrom Soµfombor 2009 fo Iobrunry 20l0, fhroo dIfforonf mnssncros fook µInco wIfh nf Ionsf forfy-hvo young µooµIo ngod bofwoon hffoon nnd nInofoon boIng kIIIod. If Is osfImnfod fhnf 30 µorconf of fho 4,500 homIcIdos commIffod In Juároz from 200? fo 2008 InvoIvod young µooµIo undor fho ngo of nInofoon. Iuf CIudnd Juároz Is nof fho onIy cIfy whoro mnssncros of young µooµIo hnvo occurrod. In Ðurnngo, nn nrmod grouµ In fho munIcIµnIIfy of IuobIo Þuovo gunnod down fon chIIdron nnd young µooµIo bofwoon fho ngos of oIghf nnd fwonfy-ono nffor fhoy hnd rocoIvod schoInrshIµ nwnrds nf nn ofhcInI coromony.
In TIjunnn, fhroo sfudonfs (fwo boys nnd n gIrI) nII ngod sIxfoon, dIod on fhoIr wny bnck from schooI whon unknown gunmon nffnckod fhom wIfh hIgh-µoworod wonµons.
In Torroon, hvo young µooµIo bofwoon sovonfoon nnd nInofoon woro found sfnckod In fho bnck of n µIckuµ fruck wIfh fho ongIno runnIng. AII of fhom woro gnggod, hnd buIIof wounds, nnd sIgns of forfuro. AccordIng fo somo noIghbors, shofs woro honrd nf nround hvo In fho mornIng, fhough µoIIco nnd mIIIfnry forcos dId nof nrrIvo unfII nImosf fwo hours Infor.
Tho kIIIIngs hnvo IncIudod cnsos whoro chIIdron hnvo dIod nf mIIIfnry chockµoInfs, such ns fhnf of fho AImnnzn boys, kIIIod by nrmy forcos on AµrII 3, 20l0, on n hIghwny In fho sfnfo of TnmnuIIµns. AccordIng fo sfnfomonfs mndo by CynfhIn SnInznr, mofhor of fho fwo brofhors, fho fnmIIy wns on fhoIr wny fo fho bonch fo sµond fho hoIIdnys whon fhoy µnssod fhrough n mIIIfnry chockµoInf. Thoy roducod fhoIr sµood nnd soIdIors nIIowod fhom fhrough fo confInuo fhoIr journoy. Howovor, n fow mofors down fho rond, soIdIors oµonod hro, kIIIIng Irynn nnd MnrfIn AImnnzn, ngod hvo nnd nIno.
ThIs cnso rosuIfod In n rocommondnfIon from fho ÞnfIonnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs fo fho mIIIfnry forcos. WhIIo fho ofhcInI vorsIon gIvon by fho mIIIfnry nnd ovon by fho MInIsfry of InforIor nrguod fhnf fho fnmIIy wns cnughf In crosshro bofwoon fho mIIIfnry nnd drug cnrfoIs, fho ÞnfIonnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs rojocfod fhIs nnd concIudod fhnf fho vnn In whIch fho fwo chIIdron nnd oIovon ofhor µooµIo woro frnvoIIng wns In fncf undor dIrocf nffnck from fho mIIIfnry.
A couµIo of monfhs Infor, nufhorIfIos nccoµfod fhIs vorsIon, buf no ono hns yof boon chnrgod or IndIcfod for fho nIIogod crImos nor hns n fuII nnd crodIbIo InvosfIgnfIon boon conducfod.
PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 33
ThIs wns nof nn IsoInfod cnso. SInco 2006, mIIIfnry chockµoInfs hnvo boon wIdoIy usod In fho drug wnr. In Juno 200?, fwo womon nnd fhroo chIIdron, ngod fwo, four, nnd sovon, woro shof nnd kIIIod whon fhoy fnIIod fo sfoµ nf n mIIIfnry chockµoInf InvoIvod In ¨fho µormnnonf cnmµnIgn ngnInsf drug frnfhckIng.¨
Moro roconfIy, n chIId of hffoon nnd hIs fnfhor dIod nffor boIng shof by soIdIors In fho cIfy of Monforroy. Tho mIIIfnry nrguod fhnf fho vohIcIo mIssod n chockµoInf, whIIo ofhor roInfIvos who survIvod fho nffnck docInrod fhoy woro shof nf wIfhouf hnvIng boon gIvon nny IndIcnfIon fo sfoµ.
VIoIonco In MoxIco hns hnd myrInd ImµIIcnfIons for socIofy nnd sµocIhcnIIy for chIId dovoIoµmonf nnd woII-boIng.
If hns, for oxnmµIo, orodod nduIfs` cnµncIfIos fo cnro for, nurfuro, nnd µrofocf chIIdron. If Is Imµorfnnf fo nofo fhnf mnny of fho 28,000 who hnvo boon kIIIod sInco fho wnr on drugs bognn woro µnronfs. WhIIo noIfhor MoxIco`s govornmonf nor fho vnrIous nongovornmonfnI orgnnIznfIons workIng In fhIs nron kooµ frnck of fho numbor of chIIdron who hnvo Iosf ono or bofh µnronfs In fho wnr, If Is osfImnfod fhnf fons of fhousnnds of chIIdron nro orµhnnod dIrocfIy bocnuso of fho drug wnr.
Humnn rIghfs Inwyor nnd InvosfIgnfor for fho ChIhunhn IocnI commIssIon for humnn rIghfs, Cusfnvo do In !osn HIckorson, hns nnnIyzod fhoso numbors nnd concIudod fhnf, bnsod on dnfn fhnf MoxIcnn mon ngod oIghfoon fo fhIrfy-hvo hnvo on nvorngo l.? chIIdron, In CIudnd Juároz nIono, fho wnr hns Ioff moro fhnn 8,500 orµhnns.
IxfondIng fhIs hguro fo fho nnfIonnI IovoI, n fofnI of 50,000 drug wnr orµhnns Is µossIbIo.
Tho growIng foII of chIIdron Ioff orµhnnod bocnuso of fho wnr Is dnmngIng nof onIy fo fhom buf nIso fo fho counfry`s socInI nofwork. Covornmonf ofhcInIs nf nII fho dIfforonf IovoIs hnvo Ignorod fho µrobIom, nnd fnIIod fo fnko Info nccounf fho fufuro rnmIhcnfIons. IducnfIon nnd onfry Info fho Inbor mnrkof, for oxnmµIo, mny bo moro dIfhcuIf for fhoso chIIdron. Ior somo fhIs mny bo nn nddIfIonnI fncfor µushIng fhom fownrd fho drug frndo whoro omµIoymonf Is nII buf nssurod. ¨Thoro Is nn oµµorfunIfy cosf from fhoso hundrods of fhousnnds of youfhs In MoxIco who nro oIfhor orµhnnod or µnrf of crImInnI gnngs,¨ snId Idunrdo IuscngIIn, nn oxµorf on nrmod conßIcf nnd MoxIco`s drug frndo. ¨Thoso nro µooµIo who nro growIng uµ wIfh hIgh IovoIs of doµrIvnfIon, In dysfuncfIonnI fnmIIIos, wIfh soxunI nbuso, nnd fhoso rIsk fncfors shouId bo nddrossod.¨
34 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
Young Drug Users: Zero-Tolerance, Stlgma, ano vlolence
Anofhor gonI of fho CnIdoron ndmInIsfrnfIon`s drug wnr wns fo µrovonf fho uso of drugs, whIch fho govornmonf nrguod hnd nInrmIngIy Incronsod In roconf yonrs.
WhIIo fhIs nrgumonf wns on fho rIghf frnck, fho govornmonf`s zoro-foIornnco rosµonso, InvoIvIng fho crImInnIIznfIon of drug usors nnd IImIfod fronfmonf oµfIons, hns boon dooµIy ßnwod. ArfIcIo 4 of fho MoxIcnn ConsfIfufIon µrovIdos for unIvorsnI nccoss fo honIfh sorvIcos, buf fhIs Is fnr from fho cnso for µooµIo who uso drugs. WhIIo fhIs shouId IncIudo unIvorsnI nccoss fo fronfmonf oµfIons, IncIudIng nccoss fo mofhndono nnd buµronorµhIno ns subsfIfufIon fhornµy, µubIIc fundIng of syrIngo oxchnngo µrogrnms, nnd fho nvnIInbIIIfy of nnIoxono for fho fronfmonf of oµInfo ovordoso, such sorvIcos nro scnrco nnd hnmµorod by n Inck of socurIfy, crImInnI Inws, nnd drug-roInfod sfIgmn. Somo yonrs ngo, fhoro wns onIy ono µubIIcIy fundod mofhndono µrogrnm cIInIc In fho counfry, Iocnfod In CIudnd Juároz, nnd fodny onIy fwo mofhndono cIInIcs nro funcfIonIng In nII of MoxIcobofh Iocnfod In fho norfhorn cIfIos of TIjunnn nnd CIudnd Juároz, whoro uso of InjocfnbIo drugs Is moro common nnd horoIn doµondonco hns Incronsod In roconf yonrs. AccordIng fo sfnfIsfIcs µrovIdod by fho HonIfh MInIsfry In 2008 (ÞnfIonnI Ðrug AddIcfIon Survoy), fhoro woro moro fhnn 5,000 horoIn usors In Juározwhoro mosf drug usors nro bofwoon fho ngos of fwoIvo nnd sovonfoon.
ÐosµIfo fhIs, fow offorfs nro boIng ImµIomonfod oIfhor by fho govornmonf or by cIvII socIofy fo hoIµ hII fho gnµs In sorvIcos.
In nddIfIon, fho crImInnIIznfIon of drug usors by fho fodornI govornmonf hns ncfod ns n sIgnIhcnnf bnrrIor fo honIfh µoIIcIos, confrIbufIng fo µubIIc sfIgmnfIznfIon, nnd drIvIng fhom nwny from sorvIcos. Tho ÞnfIonnI Ðrug AddIcfIon Survoy nIso sfnfos fhnf onIy l6 µorconf of µrobIomnfIc drug usors sook fronfmonf.
MonnwhIIo, nIfhough drug uso nmong young µooµIo Is n consIsfonf jusfIhcnfIon for fho offonsIvo ngnInsf fho cnrfoIs, nddIcfIon rnfos confInuo fo rIso, IncIudIng nmong oIomonfnry nnd hIgh schooI sfudonfs.
MoxIcnn socIofy, howovor, soos IIffIo nood fo µrofocf fho humnn rIghfs of drug usors nnd µooµIo nffocfod by drug uso. !oconfIy, wIdosµrond sfIgmn nnd nognfIvo µubIIc nffIfudos fownrd drug usors combInod wIfh fho drug wnr hnvo mndo vIoIonco ngnInsf fhIs µnrfIcuInr communIfy n vnIId µoIIfIcnI sfnfomonf. KIIIIngs of young drug nddIcfs ns dIrocf fnrgofs sfnrfod In CIudnd Juároz, buf dIsnµµonrnncos, PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 35
leton/onee,
kIdnnµµIngs nnd kIIIIngs quIckIy oxµnndod fo fho whoIo counfry. ThIs Is n IIffIo-known µhonomonon buf If Is IncronsIngIy soon ns cnrfoIs ongngIng In n form of ¨socInI cIonnsIng.¨
Tho nInrm wns rnIsod onIy roconfIy whon nInofoon young drug usors woro gunnod down by nn nrmod commnndo who onforod n rohnbIIIfnfIon confor In Juároz. Mnny of fho vIcfIms woro youngor fhnn sIxfoon.
ThIs mnssncro, howovor, wns In fncf fho hffh roµorfod nffnck on rohnbIIIfnfIon confors cIoso fo fho norfhorn MoxIcnn bordor sInco Augusf 2008, whon fwo AIcohoI nnd Ðrug AddIcfIon InfogrnfIon Confors woro nffnckod, nnd fon young drug usors woro kIIIod. In 2009, fwo ofhor nffncks woro roµorfod, ono on Juno 6 nf fho Ðoconvn TrndIcIon confor, whoro nn Inforn wns Injurod by gunhro nnd fhon dIod nf fho IocnI hosµIfnI; fho ofhor ono wns on Mny 3l, whon hvo mon woro murdorod In fho rohnbIIIfnfIon confor !n vIdn sIn AdIccIonos.
In CIudnd Juároz, fhoro woro nf Ionsf forfy-sIx kIIIIngs of young µooµIo nf dIfforonf fronfmonf confors durIng 2009.
Tho govornmonf`s nogIocf of drug doµondonco nnd fronfmonf Is ovIdonf In fho fncf fhnf fhoro Is no roguInfIon of rohnbIIIfnfIon cIInIcs. Mnny now funcfIon ns ¨fronfs¨ for crImInnI gnngs, nnd oµornfo ns confors for rocruIfmonf or dIsfrIbufIon.
As oxµInInod by ChIhunhun`s µubIIc socurIfy mInIsfor, ¨rohnb confors hnvo bocomo n nosf for crImInnI grouµs fo rocruIf young µooµIo ngod sovonfoon fo fwonfy-
fhroo yonrs, consIdorod 'dIsµosnbIo` bocnuso If fhoy nro dofnInod or dIo fhoy cnn bo quIckIy roµIncod.¨
ÐosµIfo fho cruoIfy of fho kIIIIngs nf fho confors, fho govornmonf roncfIon Is fo ImmodInfoIy nrguo fhnf fho vIcfIms woro dIrocfIy IInkod fo orgnnIzod crImo, ovorshndowIng nny duo dIIIgonco roquIrod fo µrofocf vuInornbIo young µooµIo from hnrm. Ior oxnmµIo, on fho snmo dny fhnf fon young µooµIo woro mnssncrod nf n rohnb confor In Junroz on Soµfombor l?, 2009, ChIhunhun`s Covornor Joso !oyos Inozn nrguod ¨If Is no coIncIdonco, fhoro Is n cIonr mofIvnfIon: ovoryfhIng Is hnµµonIng In fho confoxf of n wnr bofwoon dIfforonf crImInnIs. Ðoµondonf drug usors nf fho cIInIc boIong fo ono grouµ or nnofhor.¨
Jusf n fow dnys onrIIor, nf fho rohnb confor II AIIvInno, nIso In CIudnd Juároz, hIf mon forcod fwonfy-fwo young drug usors fo form n row ngnInsf fho wnII boforo shoofIng wIfh AK-4? rIßos, kIIIIng oIghfoon of fhom, mnny undor ngo sIxfoon who hnd nrrIvod jusf wooks onrIIor. Affor fho shoofIng, fho sfnfo nffornoy docInrod, ¨fho mofIvo for fhoso crImos Is oxformInnfIon bofwoon crImInnI grouµs.¨
36 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
Humnn rIghfs dofondors hnvo quosfIonod fho nufhorIfIos` rosµonsos fo fhoso cruoI ncfs. Cusfnvo do In !osn, nn InvosfIgnfor nf fho IocnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs, crIfIcIzod fho govornmonf rosµonso for µuffIng fho bInmo on chIIdron. Ho nddod fhnf ¨fho roIo of nufhorIfIos Is nof fo dIscrImInnfo bofwoon good nnd bnd µooµIo who dIo; fhIs onIy rovonIs fho uffor confomµf for fhoso who hnvo fnIIon Info drug nddIcfIon.¨
ConNlct ano Psycbologlcal Damage
If Is Imµorfnnf fo fnko Info nccounf fho Iong-form µsychoIogIcnI dnmngo fo chIIdron nssocInfod wIfh hIgh IovoIs of vIoIonco nnd fho rosuIfnnf bronkdown In fnmIIy, communIfy, nnd socInI sfrucfuros. Thnf dnmngo Is woII known nnd documonfod from ofhor conßIcf zonos In fho worId, nnd somo of fhoso counfrIos nro sfIII sfruggIIng wIfh fho hnrmfuI offocfs on chIIdron mnny yonrs nffor fho conßIcf ondod.
ConßIcf nnd vIoIonco hnvo dIrocf consoquoncos for fho IndIvIdunI chIId, ImmodInfo fnmIIy, nnd communIfy fhnf cnn bo dovnsfnfIng, buf whIIo fho Iong-form corrosIvo offocfs of fho bronkdown of socInI nnd µoIIfIcnI sfrucfuros mny fnko fho sovorosf foII, fhoy nro bnroIy sµokon of. In nddIfIon fo undorsfnndIng fho dnmngo fo chIIdron`s dovoIoµmonfnI µrocossos cnusod by oxµosuro fo ongoIng nrmod vIoIonco, If Is ossonfInI fo undorsfnnd how fho mnInfonnnco of fnmIIy nnd communIfy norms In nddIfIon fo funcfIonIng sfnfo sfrucfuros
such ns oducnfIon nnd honIfh sorvIcoscnn mIfIgnfo fho dIro sIfunfIon In whIch chIIdron hnd fhomsoIvos whon fhoy IIvo In communIfIos oxµosod fo vIoIonco.
Thoro Is no doubf fhnf oxµosuro fo vIoIonco, doµrIvnfIon, fonr, nnd sfross nffocfs chIIdron`s dovoIoµmonf ovon boforo bIrfh.
If Is woII documonfod fhnf IndIvIdunI dovoIoµmonf Is chnrncforIzod by fho InforµIny of onvIronmonfnI nnd bIoIogIcnI fncfors from fho oufsof. Ior oxnmµIo, ovIdonco from nouroIogIcnI rosonrch rovonIs fhnf, In uforo, fho wIrIng of fho brnIn Is nffocfod by oxfornnI fncfors such ns ndoqunfo nufrIfIon nnd IovoIs of mnfornnI sfross, whIch, In µrognnncy, mny nffocf fho unborn Infnnf`s brnIn dovoIoµmonf. In ossonco, oxµosuro fo sfross hormonos boforo bIrfh cnn µofonfInIIy Iond fo Iongor form bohnvIornI dIsordors such ns hyµorncfIvIfy nnd nffonfIon dohcIf dIsordor In fho young chIId, whIch In furn cnn bo µrocursors of nggrossIvo bohnvIor, PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 37
mnkIng If moro IIkoIy fhnf cycIos of vIoIonco nro roµroducod from ono gonornfIon fo nnofhor.
Inch chIId Is dIfforonf, nnd mnny vnrInbIos such ns ngo, cuIfurnI norms, gondor, nnd IndIvIdunI fomµornmonf wIII modInfo how chIIdron oxµorIonco fho fhronf or ronIIfy of vIoIonco. ÞonofhoIoss, rosonrch drnws ouf cIusfors of fyµIcnI roncfIons of chIIdron oxµorIoncIng Ioss nnd frnumn. Whon fncod wIfh fho donfh or mnImIng of n fnmIIy or communIfy mombor, chIIdron`s roncfIons wIII vnry fromondousIy, nnd wIII doµond on fho nbIIIfy of fho fnmIIy nnd communIfy fo µrovIdo ronssurnnco nnd oxµInnnfIon. Howovor, roncfIons fo ongoIng vIoIonco mny IncIudo Incronsod nnxIofy, whIch mnnIfosfs fhrough omofIonnI nnd µhysIcnI wIfhdrnwnI (o.g., oIocfIvo mufIsm or InnbIIIfy fo ongngo In ovorydny fnsks such ns wnshIng) or domonsfrnfIons of nggrossIon. ChIIdron mny nIso hnd If dIfhcuIf fo soµnrnfo from fnmIIy mombors for fonr of whnf wIII hnµµon durIng soµnrnfIon, fhoroby mnkIng nffondnnco nf onrIy chIIdhood sorvIcos or schooI vory dIfhcuIf. Somo chIIdron rogross fo onrIIor sfngos nnd mny, for Insfnnco, fnIk or bohnvo IIko n much youngor chIId. Iod woffIng Is nnofhor common oxnmµIo of rogrossIvo bohnvIor. Ofhor chIIdron bocomo hyµorvIgIInnf, fooIIng If Is fhoIr rosµonsIbIIIfy fo kooµ fho fnmIIy snfo. Trusf In nduIfs nnd fho fufuro cnn nIso bo orodod, IonvIng chIIdron wIfhouf hoµo. ThIs Is µnrfIcuInrIy fho cnso whon chIIdron wIfnoss fho hoIµIossnoss of µnronfs nnd cnrogIvors fo sfoµ vIoIonco. If doos nof mnffor fo chIIdron whofhor vIoIonco Is cnusod by sfnfos, mIIIfIns, roboIs, or crImInnI grouµs; whnfovor fho cnuso nnd whoovor Is fo bInmo, chIIdron oxµorIonco vIoInfIon nnd dIsfross fhnf cnn hnvo Iong-form consoquoncos. In fho curronf sIfunfIon In MoxIco, fho govornmonf musf bo hoId nccounfnbIo for uµhoIdIng fho rIghfs of chIIdron nnd for µuffIng Info µInco monsuros fo roduco fho vIoIonco chIIdron nro oxµorIoncIng, µnrfIcuInrIy If If omnnnfos from ngonfs of fho sfnfo, In nddIfIon fo µrovIdIng sorvIcos nImod nf mIfIgnfIng fho offocfs of vIoIonco on chIIdron.
Attacks on Scbools
Tho consfnnf bnffIos bofwoon drug cnrfoIs nnd fho mIIIfnry hnvo mndo If IncronsIngIy dIfhcuIf nnd dnngorous for chIIdron In somo µIncos fo ronch schooI. In Ifs 20l0 roµorf 1Juco/ion InJer A//oc/, !ÞISCO documonfod n sIgnIhcnnf numbor of cnsos In whIch schooIs, 38 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
fonchors, nnd sfudonfs woro nffnckod nnd fhronfonod, bofh by cnrfoIs nnd by µoIIco or mIIIfnry forcos. Tho roµorf found ns ronsons for fhoso nffncks, nmong ofhors, fho dosIro of IrroguInr grouµs fo undormIno conhdonco In govornmonf confroI of nn nron or ovon fho funcfIonIng of fho oducnfIon sysfom.
In Þovombor 2008, nrmod drug gnngs fhronfonod fonchors In sIx dIfforonf schooIs, sfnfIng fhnf fhoy wouId kIdnnµ sfudonfs If fhoy woro nof µnId ChrIsfmns bonusos. Mosf of fhoso schooIs hnd fo ovncunfo nII of fhoIr sfudonfs nnd cIoso fhoIr doors for moro fhnn fhroo wooks duo fo n Inck of socurIfy fhnf shouId hnvo boon µrovIdod by fho sfnfo.
On Mnrch l?, 2009, moro fhnn fwonfy hIgh-cnIIbor cnrfrIdgos woro found on fho cnmµus of fho 83rd InccnInuronfo SfudIos InsfIfufo, In fho TrIquI rogIon of Snn Junn CoµnIn, Onxncn, foIIowIng n rnId by nrmod gnngs on n communIfy nIong Ifs µorImofor. Thoso woro dnys of confInuod nrmod nffncks nffrIbufod fo fho !nIon of SocInI WoIfnro of fho TrIquI !ogIon, n µnrnmIIIfnry grouµ fhnf forcod µrImnry nnd socondnry hIgh schooIs fo susµond cInssos durIng AµrII 2009.
IoIIco nnd mIIIfnry forcos hnvo nIso boon dIrocfIy InvoIvod In cnsos whoro nccossIbIIIfy fo schooIs, nnd ovon fho vory socurIfy of sfudonfs, hns boon comµromIsod. In Mnrch 20l0, IocnI µoIIco bursf Info n hIgh schooI In CIudnd Juároz IookIng for drugs nnd nrms wIfhouf nny µrovIous nofIhcnfIon fo schooI nufhorIfIos. Thoy ovIcfod 2,600 sfudonfs nnd fook fhom ouf for InsµocfIon. Affor n fow hours, fho µoIIco rofronfod nnd concIudod fhnf fho sfudonfs woro nof In µossossIon of drugs.
SchooIs hnvo boon n sµocIhc fnrgof In fho govornmonf`s sfrnfogy fo roduco fho domnnd for drugs by crImInnIIzIng drug uso. Thus fho µrogrnm Moclilo eeguro (Snfo schooIbng) wns ImµIomonfod. If consIsfod of n sorIos of µoIIco-Iod rnndom sonrch offorfs InsµocfIng sfudonfs` schooIbngs fo mnko suro fhoy nro nof cnrryIng wonµons or drugs wIfh fhom. ÐIfforonf humnn rIghfs nufhorIfIos hnvo sµokon ngnInsf fhIs µrogrnm bocnuso If nof onIy µushos sfudonfs nwny from schooIs nnd dnmngos conhdonco bofwoon µuµIIs nnd fonchors, buf nIso Is nn InvnsIvo monsuro fhnf vIoInfos fho rIghf fo µrIvncy of chIIdron nnd youfh.
In sfnfos such ns TnmnuIIµns, MoroIos, or ChInµns, sfudonfs hnvo mIssod cInssos bocnuso of rumors fhnf honvy shoofIngs wIII occur nround fho cIfy. In !oynosn, for oxnmµIo, nbsonco from schooI oxfondod fo 90 µorconf of nII sfudonfs. TnmnuIIµns`s IducnfIon MInIsfry oxµInInod fhnf: ¨fho ronson for fho Inrgo numbor of nbsoncos PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 39
wns µrImnrIIy omnII chnIns fhnf confnInod µhrnsos such ns 'cnro for your chIIdron` nnd 'don`f Ionvo homo bocnuso If wIII gof worso fhnn Irnq.`¨
IxµorIonco from ofhor conßIcf zonos hns shown fho vnIuo of roducIng fho hnrmfuI offocfs of vIoIonco on chIIdron by onsurIng fhnf fhoy hnvo nccoss fo snfo sµncos such ns onrIy chIIdhood nnd communIfy sorvIcos nnd schooIs.
If schooIs nro fhronfonod wIfh dIsruµfIon or fnrgofod ns doscrIbod nbovo, fho sfnfo musf fnko ovory ncfIon fo onsuro fhnf fhoy sfIII funcfIon. IducnfIon hns µrovod Ifs ossonfInI roIo In µrovIdIng sfrucfuro, roufIno, nnd n focus on fho fufuro fhnf Is hIghIy bonohcInI fo chIIdron nnd communIfIos nffocfod by vIoIonco nnd conßIcf. IqunIIy, µrogrnms fhnf onnbIo chIIdron fo oxµIoro nnd como fo forms wIfh fhoIr oxµorIoncos In n snfo onvIronmonf fhrough µIny, musIc, nrf, nnd drnmn nro offon sufhcIonf fo hoIµ mosf chIIdron donI wIfh fho oxfromo offocfs of oxµosuro fo vIoIonco. InIfInfIvos such ns fhoso In CIudnd Juároz fo osfnbIIsh snfo sµncos for µIny, suµµorfod by fho communIfy nnd WorId VIsIon, nn InfornnfIonnI ovnngoIIcnI roIIof nnd dovoIoµmonf ngoncy, wIII go n Iong wny fo IossonIng fho offocfs of fho vIoIonco fhnf fhoso chIIdron nro sfIII oxµorIoncIng.
ArIol que crece /orciJo jonóe eu /ronco enJereco
MoxIcnn µrovorb
Affor four yonrs of µoor rosuIfs In nffomµfs fo dIrocfIy combnf drug cnrfoIs nnd fo ndoµf zoro-foIornnco nµµronchos fo drugs, rofhInkIng govornmonf sfrnfogIos Is now unnvoIdnbIo In fho fnco of grofosquo vIoIonco nnd rIsIng rnfos of nddIcfIon (bofh nffocfIng chIIdron); Incronsod schooI nbsoncos nnd fho bronkdown of oducnfIonnI sfrucfuros; nnd fho µrosµocf of nImosf corfnIn Iong-form µsychoIogIcnI dnmngo fo chIIdron oxµosod fo fho drug wnr.
A rndIcnI chnngo In dIrocfIon Is roquIrod, for ns moro nnd moro chIIdron fnII vIcfIm fo vIoIonco dIrocfod nf fhom, fhoIr µnronfs, nnd fhoIr schooIs, nnd ns moro nnd moro young µooµIo who uso drugs nro nbnndonod by fho sfnfo, fho Iong-form Imµncf of MoxIco`s vIoIonf oxµorImonf wIII bocomo cIonr. Þoxf fo fhIs µrognosIs, fho onrIIor gnIns In forms of doIInrs frozon, crImInnIs oxfrndIfod, nnd mofrIc fons of drugs soIzod, soom nII fho moro hoIIow nnd IrroIovnnf.
40 CH|LDRLN OF THL DRUG WAR
Iormor µrosIdonf VIconfo Iox hns now sfnfod fhnf ho Is In fnvor of consIdorIng modoIs of IognI roguInfIon of curronfIy IIIIcIf drugs. IrosIdonf CnIdoron, whIIo ngnInsf fhIs µroµosnI, snys fhnf fho dobnfo Is Imµorfnnf.
Whnfovor fho oufcomo of such dobnfos, MoxIcnn nufhorIfIos musf rofocus nnd Incronso ncfIons nImod nf µromofIng young µooµIo`s comµrohonsIvo dovoIoµmonf, µnrfIcuInrIy In fho nrons of oducnfIon, omµIoymonf, nnd IoIsuro. ThIs Is µossIbIo If If Is µroncfIvoIy docIdod fhnf drugs shouId bo nddrossod ns n µubIIc honIfh nnd dovoIoµmonf Issuo, rnfhor fhnn n socurIfy Issuo, nnd onIy If chIIdron nro fruIy µIncod nf fho forofronf of moro offocfIvo drug µoIIcIos rnfhor fhnn boIng Ioff fo drIff In n son of vIoIonco. Lnonotes
Tho nufhors nro vory grnfofuI fo TInn Hydor, sonIor µrogrnm mnnngor nf fho Oµon SocIofy IoundnfIons` InrIy ChIIdhood Irogrnm, for hor Imµorfnnf Inµuf roInfIng fo chIIdron In conßIcf sIfunfIons.
l. !ory CnrroII, ¨MoxIco Ðrug Wnr: Tho Þow IIIIIng IIoIds,¨ GuorJion, Soµfombor 3, 20l0.
2. Quofod In 1npreeionee Lo/inoe, ¨CIudnd Juároz: InmIIIn y nInoz son nrrobnfndns,¨ Mny 25, 20l0.
3. ¨!.S. Ðrug Cznr CnIIs for Ind fo 'Wnr on Ðrugs,`¨ !oufors, Juno 8, 2009.
4. ÞofImox, ¨CoIobrn CnIdoron dofoncIon do '!n !oInn doI Incíhco,`¨ Ao/icieroe Teletieo, Ocfobor 2, 200?; J. Cnsfnnodn, ¨Whnf`s SµnnIsh for QungmIro¨ IIvo Myfhs Thnf Cnusod fho InIIod Wnr Þoxf Ðoor,¨ Ioreign Polic,, Jnnunry/Iobrunry 20ll, www.foroIgnµoIIcy.com/nrfIcIos/20l0/0l/04/whnfs_sµnnIsh_for_qungmIro/.
5. IrnncIsco !oIon, ¨InfrovIsfn n IoIIµo CnIdoron: !n sIfuncIon on MoxIco,¨ 1l Pole, Jnnunry 2l, 200?.
6. Irocurndurín ConornI do In !oµubIIcn, Ieeul/oJoe Je lo Poll/ico Mexicono con/ro lo Delincuencio OrgonicoJo, Juno 9, 2009. ?. Milenio, ¨CnIdoron IIovn 3l6 oxfrndIcIonos; Iox nµrobo 2l9,¨ Iobrunry 2l, 20l0.
8. Irocurndurín ConornI do In !oµubIIcn, Ieeul/oJoe Je lo Poll/ico Mexicono. 9. Jorgo Chnbnf, ¨!n rosµuosfn doI gobIorno do CnIdoron nI dosnfío doI nnrcofráhco: Infro Io mnIo y Io µoor,¨ Confro do InvosfIgncIon y ÐoconcIn IconomIcn (CIÐI), 20l0, www.cIdo.odu/µubIIcncIonos/sfnfus/dfs/ÐTII°20l96.µdf.
l0. Idunrdo Cuorroro CufIorroz, ¨!os hoyos nogros do In osfrnfogIn confrn oI nnrco,¨ Aexoe, Augusf l, 20l0.
ll. TnIn !osns, ¨Vnn más do 28,000 muorfos, roconoco CIson,¨ 1l 1cononie/o, Augusf 3, 20l0.
l2. ÞnfIonnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs, Ac/iti/iee Iepor/ 19992009, www.cndh.
l3. 1l Initereol, ¨Vnn 565 cIvIIos muorfos durnnfo ndmInIsfrcIon: Sodonn,¨ Soµfombor 24, 20l0.
l4. !od µor Ios Ðorochos do In InfnncIn on MoxIco, Pronuncionien/o con/ro ornoe, Mny l?, 20l0, www.dorochosInfnncIn.org.mx/IsµocInIos/IronuncInmIonfo_
confrnnrmns.hfmI.
l5. !ufh !odríguoz, ¨900 monoros hnn muorfo on guorrn nI nnrco,¨ 1l Initereol, Juno 8, 20l0.
l6. !od µor Ios Ðorochos do In InfnncIn on MoxIco, Pronuncionien/o con/ro ornoe.
PART 1: FRONTL|NLS 41
l?. Lo Cr6nico, ¨InvosfIgnn nsosInnfo do jovonos on Ðurnngo,¨ Mnrch 29, 20l0.
l8. 1l Initereol, ¨Mnfnn n fros nIumnos do bnchIIIoros on TIjunnn,¨ Jnnunry 8, 20l0.
l9. 1l Siglo Je Torre6n, ¨Incuonfrnn n cInco jovonos nsosInndos,¨ Mnrch 2?, 2009.
20. 1l Initereol, ¨IjorcIfo mnfo n mIs hIjos: CynfhIn SnInznr,¨ AµrII l3, 20l0.
2l. ÞnfIonnI CommIssIon on Humnn !Ighfs, IeconnenJo/ion 36/2010, www.cndh.
22. Loe Angelee Tinee, ¨l9 In MoxIcnn Army HoId In Ðonfhs of 5,¨ Juno 5, 200?.
23. Junn CodIIIo, ¨Iuo un orror dIsµnrnrIo n fnmIIIn, ndmIfo Sodonn,¨ 1l Initereol, Soµfombor ?, 20l0.
24. Ior nn ovorvIow of fho Issuos nnd ovIdonco roforrod fo In fhIs nrfIcIo, soo T. Hydor, Wor, Confic/ AnJ Plo, (MnIdonhond, !K: Oµon !nIvorsIfy Iross, 2004).
25. ÐnnIoIn Insfrnnn, ¨MoxIcnn Covf Turns n IIInd Iyo fo Orµhnnod nnd ÐIsnbIod ChIIdron,¨ Infor Iross SorvIco, JuIy 23, 20l0. A chIId who hns Iosf hIs or hor fnfhor Is consIdorod ¨orµhnnod¨ In MoxIco.
26. CnfhorIno Iromor, ¨SµocInI !oµorf: MoxIco`s CrowIng !ogIon of Þnrco Orµhnns,¨ !oufors, Ocfobor 6, 20l0.
2?. IbId.
28. IoIIµo CnIdoron`s sµooch nf fho Inunch of fho µrogrnm ¨!ImµIomos MoxIco,¨ In Monforroy, JuIy 2, 20l0. 29. SocrofnrIn do SnIud, 1ncuee/o Aocionol Je AJiccionee, 2008, 49, www.Insµ.mx/
oncuosfn-nncIonnI-do-ndIccIonos-2008.hfmI.
30. IbId., 52
3l. Milenio, ¨So Incromonfnn índIcos do nInos ndIcfos, dIco SSA,¨ Mny l0, 20l0.
32. IoµuInr nnmo gIvon fo n kInd of kIdnnµµIng commonIy cnrrIod ouf by crImInnI gnngs fo Incronso fhoIr rnnks.
33. A sImIInr µhonomonon occurs In CoIombIn, whoro IIIognI nrmod grouµs hnvo boon known fo µubIIcIy fhronfon drug usors nnd sox-frndo workors. In 2009, n Ionßof wns droµµod In muIfIµIo cIfIos by n µnrnmIIIfnry grouµ mnkIng such fhronfs. In Snnfn Io, n µoor nron In Iogofn, drug usors nnd sox workors woro subsoquonfIy kIIIod.
34. Lo Cr6nico, ¨Þuovn mnfnnzn on un confro do rohnbIIIfncIon do CIudnd Juároz,¨ Soµfombor l?, 2009.
35. !uIs CnrIos Cnno, ¨Sumnn l8 muorfos on confro do rohnbIIIfncIon on Juároz,¨ 1l Initereol, Soµfombor 3, 2009.
36. 1l Agoro, ¨Vnn 46 ojocufndos on confros do rohnbIIIfncIon,¨ Soµfombor l?, 2009.
3?. 1l 1cononie/o, ¨CobIorno do ChIhunhun InvosfIgnrá confros do rohnbIIIfncIon,¨ Soµfombor l?, 2009.
38. 1l Initereol, ¨SIcnrIos fusIInn n l? jovonos on CIudnd Juároz,¨ Soµfombor 3, 2009.
39. Aler/o PerioJle/ico, ¨Acfos forrorIsfns, do oxformInIo onfro bnndns, jusfIhcnn nuforIdndos,¨ Soµfombor l?, 2009.
40. !uIs CnrIos Cnno, ¨'IxformInIo` do nnrcorrIvnIos: IJI,¨ 1l Initereol, Soµfombor 4, 2009.
4l. 1l Agoro, ¨Vnn 46 ojocufndos on confros do rohnbIIIfncIon.¨
42. Soo !nIfod ÞnfIons ConornI AssombIy, 1npoc/ of ArneJ Confic/ on ClilJren. Iepor/ of /le 1xper/ of /le Secre/or,-Generol, Groco Moclel, !Þ Ðoc. Þo. A/5l/306, Augusf 26, l996.
43. On fhIs, soo Tle Science of 1orl, ClilJlooJ Detelopnen/. Cloeing /le Gop Be/ueen Wlo/ ue Knou onJ Wlo/ We Do, Confor on fho ÐovoIoµIng ChIId, Hnrvnrd !nIvorsIfy, 200?.
44. !ÞISCO, 1Juco/ion InJer A//oc/, 20l0.
45. 1l Siglo Je Torre6n, ¨Ivncunn oscuoIns µor nmonnzn do oxforsIon,¨ Ðocombor l?, 2008.
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