Source: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/98780372/Practices-of-Overseas-Jurisdictions-in-Building-up-or-Maintaining
Timestamp: 2014-07-11 01:43:03
Document Index: 170405449

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 1', 'art 2', 'art 3', 'art 4', 'art 5', 'art 6', 'art 7', 'art 8', 'ART 2', 'ART 5', 'ART 6', 'ART 7', 'ART 8']

Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining
RP04/01-02
Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions
in Building up or Maintaining
Their Fiscal Reserves
Telephone : (852) 2869 7735
Facsimile : (852) 2525 0990
Website : http://www.legco.gov.hk
E-mail : library@legco.gov.hk
Part 1 - Introduction                                                                                                    1
Background                                                                                                               1
Selection of Economies for the Research                                                                                  1
Scope of the Research                                                                                                    2
Methodology                                                                                                              2
Part 2 - Singapore                                                                                                       3
Current Economic Situation                                                                                               3
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                                                                              3
Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves                                                                                 4
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal                                                     4
Managing Fiscal Reserves                                                                                             5
Safeguarding Fiscal Reserves                                                                                         5
Uses of Fiscal Reserves to Finance Two Off-budget Packages                                                           6
Part 3 - Norway                                                                                                         10
Current Economic Situation                                                                                              10
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                                                                             10
Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves                                                                                11
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal                                                    11
Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves                                                                            12
Part 4 - New Zealand                                                                                                    14
Current Economic Situation                                                                                              14
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                                                                             14
The Fiscal Responsibility Act                                                                                       14
Practices of Maintaining Budget Surpluses                                                                               16
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1994 and Fiscal                                                    16
Uses of Budget Surpluses                                                                                            16
Part 5 - Argentina                                                                                                      18
Current Economic Situation                                                                                              18
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                                                                             18
The Legislative Council Secretariat welcomes the re-publication, in part or in whole, of this research
report, and also its translation in other languages. Materials may be reproduced freely for non-
commercial purposes, provided acknowledgment is made to the Research and Library Services
Division of the Legislative Council Secretariat as the source and one copy of the reproduction is sent
Practices of Financing Government Debt                                   19
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal    19
Practices of Financing Government Debt                              20
Argentina&#39;s Convertibility Programme: the Currency Board System          20
Part 6 - The United States of America                                    22
Current Economic Situation                                               22
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                              22
Practices of Financing Government Debt                                   24
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal     24
Practices of Financing Government Debt                               25
Economic Stimulus Packages                                               26
The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001        26
The Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002                   28
Part 7 - Hong Kong                                                       29
Current Economic Situation                                               29
Exchange Fund and Fiscal Reserves                                        29
Functions of the Exchange Fund and Fiscal Reserves                   30
Functions of the Various Components of the Exchange Fund             30
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                              33
Guidelines on Purposes and Level of Fiscal Reserves                      33
Views on the Guidelines on Purposes and Level of Fiscal Reserves     35
Government&#39;s Fiscal Positions from Financial Year 1983-84 to Financial   38
Fiscal Positions                                                     38
Fiscal Reserves Balances                                             38
Investment Income from Fiscal Reserves                               40
Views on the Size of Fiscal Reserves                                 41
Uses of Excess Fiscal Reserves                                           44
Part 8 - Analysis                                                        47
References for Hong Kong                                                 47
Principles of Fiscal Policy                                          48
Measures to Achieve a Balanced Budget                                48
Practices of Maintaining Budget Surpluses/Fiscal Reserves            48
Ways to Finance Budget Deficits/Government Debt                      48
Uses of Fiscal Reserves/Budget Surpluses to Finance Economic         49
Guidelines on the Level of Fiscal Reserves                           50
Fiscal Reserves to Meet Monetary Requirement                         50
Matters for Consideration                                                51
Appendix                                                                 53
References                                                               62
1.   The principles of fiscal policy are to: (a) avoid persistent budget deficits; (b)
implement fiscal policy which should promote economic development and improve
efficiency and productive capacity of the economy; and (c) keep the size of the
public sector small.
2.   The government recorded budget surpluses between Fiscal Year 1988 and Fiscal
Year 2000. To support the shrinking economy, the government introduced two
separate off-budget fiscal stimulus packages in July and October 2001 respectively.
These fiscal stimulus packages are expected to stimulate consumer spending and
lower business costs, but may also have caused a budget deficit in Fiscal Year 2001.
3.   Singapore&#39;s reserves are managed by the Government of Singapore Investment
Corporation which is wholly owned by the government. The Constitution of
Singapore has provisions for safeguarding the country&#39;s fiscal reserves.
4.   The principles of fiscal policy are to: (a) allocate resources for public consumption,
public investment and transfers to achieve the highest possible welfare over time;
and (b) contribute to a stable and sustainable economic development. To adhere to
these two principles, the government sets out two guidelines for fiscal policy which
are (a) the government should stabilize fluctuations in the economy; and (b) the
government should use the expected return on the Government Petroleum Fund (GPF)
to finance government spending.
5.   The GPF serves as the government&#39;s fiscal reserves and has two purposes: (a) it acts
as a financial buffer to smooth variations in petroleum revenues, which helps
maintain the robustness of the Norwegian economy and allows the government to
have greater room for manoeuvre in its economic policies; and (b) it will be used to
pay for the expected rising social security expenditures in future years as a result of
6.   Norges Bank, the Central Bank of Norway, is responsible for investing the GPF.
The value of the GPF is estimated to reach Nok 650 billion at the end of 2001 (about
15.5 months of government expenditure).
7.   The government enacted the Fiscal Responsibility Act which sets out four principles
to govern fiscal policy: (a) government debt should be reduced to a prudent level; (b)
the government should maintain a balanced budget on average over the medium to
long term; (c) the government should manage fiscal risks prudently; and (d) the
government should pursue policies that are consistent with a reasonable degree of
predictability about the level and stability of tax rates for future years.
8.    Following the implementation of the Fiscal Responsibility Act, New Zealand
recorded fiscal surpluses from Fiscal Year 1994 onwards. However, there is still no
fiscal reserve. The country uses its budget surpluses to pay off government debt
and to fund its public pension scheme.
9.    Although the government attempted to reduce budget deficits and balance the budget
over the medium term, the country&#39;s fiscal position continued to deteriorate.
Government debt continued to increase to an uncontrollable level. To finance
government debt, Argentina relies heavily on funding from multilateral lending
agencies. In January 2002, the government defaulted on its debt when it failed to
10. Argentina established a currency board system in 1991 to peg the Argentine peso at
one-to-one to the US dollar. The Central Bank is required to maintain the country&#39;s
foreign reserves which should be equivalent to at least 100% of the monetary base to
defend the fixed exchange rate system. However, the government is not required to
use fiscal reserves, if there are any, to defend the linked exchange rate regime. In
January 2002, intending to restructure the economy, the government abolished the
currency board system and allowed its currency floating in the foreign exchange
11.    The principles of fiscal policy which called for restraining budget deficits were set
out in the Budget Enforcement Act in 1990. This Act set a specific dollar limit on
government spending for a fiscal year and created a &quot;pay-as-you-go&quot; (PAYGO)
provision which required the costs of new or expanded government programmes be
explicitly covered through either higher taxes or lower expenditures in other
programmes so as to prevent the deterioration of budget deficits.
12. The government recorded budget surpluses between Fiscal Year 1998 and Fiscal Year
2000 mainly due to strong economic growth which boosted government revenues at
a rate faster than the growth in government spending. At the same time, the
government has to finance its debt by issuing notes and bonds of various sizes and
13. The government uses budget surplus to finance economic stimulus packages. The
Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act was enacted in May 2001 to
provide for a US$1.35 trillion tax cut in 10 years. The centrepiece of this law is an
across-the-board cut in income tax rates. In addition, the Job Creation and Worker
Assistance Act has been enacted in March 2002 which adds a 13-week extension to
unemployment benefits for the unemployed and provides business with further tax
14. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government (the Government)
accumulates the annual surplus in fiscal reserves which are placed with the Exchange
Fund for investment purposes. The Exchange Fund and fiscal reserves are two
different entities. The Exchange Fund is primarily used for the regulation of the
exchange value of the Hong Kong dollar. In addition, it may be used to maintain
the stability and integrity of the monetary and financial systems of Hong Kong with a
view to maintaining Hong Kong as an international financial centre. Meanwhile,
the present functions of fiscal reserves are to meet operating and contingency
15. The Financial Secretary entrusted the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) with
the responsibility of investing fiscal reserves which are placed with the Exchange
16. The principles of fiscal policy are set out in the Basic Law. The Government
maintains that in drawing up the budget, it has to follow the principles set out in
Article 107 of the Basic Law of keeping expenditure within the limits of revenues,
striving to achieve a fiscal balance, avoiding deficits and keeping the budget
commensurate with the growth rate of GDP. These constitutional provisions for
financial prudence are crucial in maintaining the status of Hong Kong as an
17. In his 2002-03 Budget Speech on 6 March 2002, the Financial Secretary announced a
revised target level of fiscal reserves. Under the new guidelines, fiscal reserves are
considered to be at an appropriate level if they amount to some 12 months of
government expenditure to meet operating and contingency requirements. A few
academics have commented that a reserve equivalent to 12 months of government
expenditure is acceptable.
18. The balance of fiscal reserves continued to rise to HK$457.5 billion at the end of
Financial Year 1997-98 although there were various external shocks (e.g. world stock
market crash in October 1987, the Gulf War in August 1990, the exchange rate
mechanism turmoil in Europe in September 1992, the Mexican currency crisis in
January 1995, the Asian Financial crisis in the period between July 1997 and 1998)
which might have affected the stability of the exchange rate system.
19. However, the fiscal reserve balance has declined since the end of Financial Year 1999-
2000 for financing budget deficit. Fiscal reserves are projected to total HK$369.8
billion (19 months of government expenditure) by 31 March 2002. To finance the
expected budget deficit in the next three financial years, the balance of fiscal reserves is
projected to drop to HK$271.0 billion (13 months of government expenditure) at the end
of Financial Year 2004-05 and remain more or less stable at that level onwards.
20. In addition to giving views on the guidelines on the purposes and target level of the
fiscal reserves, academics and experts invited to the Financial Affairs Panel meeting
on 3 July 2001 also commented on the present size of fiscal reserves. The majority
of the academics are of the view that there is an excess of fiscal reserves in Hong
Kong, and that any freely disposable fiscal reserves should be employed for uses
other than fulfilling the monetary requirement.
1.1           The Panel on Financial Affairs requested the Research and Library
Services Division to conduct a research on &quot;Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in
Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves&quot; in April 2001, and the outline was endorsed in
2.     Selection of Economies for the Research
2.1           We have selected the following countries for this research study --
(a) Singapore,
(b) Norway,
(c) New Zealand,
(d) Argentina, and
(e) the United States of America (US).
2.2             Singapore maintains strong fiscal reserves to sustain long-term
economic growth. In fact, it has run budget surpluses since 1988, even in the midst
2.3             Norway recorded budget surpluses from 1994 to 2000. In addition,
the country has set up a stabilization fund to provide a mechanism for adjusting
government spending in response to changes in the economic situation and
fluctuations in the level of revenue. The study explores how Norway manages its
2.4           New Zealand also recorded budget surpluses from 1994 to 2000.
Legislative Council Secretariat              Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
2.5              In addition to the above three countries which have recorded budget
surpluses for a number of years, we have selected Argentina because, similar to Hong
Kong, it had a currency system based on the currency board arrangement. The study
also aims to find out whether the Argentine government had any guideline to maintain
its level of reserves to defend the linked exchange rate regime.
2.6           We have also studied the case of the US although the country only
recorded budget surpluses in recent years, i.e. between 1998 and 2000. The study
aims to examine the US fiscal policy which has provided tax relief for the Americans
as a means to enhance economic growth and to improve the livelihood of the general
3.      Scope of the Research
3.1              The scope of the research, as agreed by the Panel, covers:
(a) current economic situations of the countries studied;
(b) principles of fiscal policies adopted by the governments of the
countries studied;
(c) practices of the five countries in maintaining their fiscal reserves
or financing their government debts, depending on their fiscal
(d) the experiences of these five countries in maintaining their fiscal
reserves or financing their government debts.
4.      Methodology
4.1           The research involves a combination of information collection and
analysis. In addition to making reference to materials available in the LegCo Library,
we also use reference materials acquired through the Internet and other outside
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 2
Legislative Council Secretariat                    Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
PART 2 - SINGAPORE
5.       Current Economic Situation
5.1           In 2001, the Singapore economy fell into a recession due to the
sluggish domestic economic performance, as well as weakening global demand and
diminishing growth in international trade. Singapore&#39;s Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) contracted by an estimated 2.2% in 20011, after a 9.9% GDP positive growth
5.2            The government has pointed out that the economic outlook in 2002 is
uncertain. In view of the sharp economic decline in the second half of 2001, the
economic growth in the first half of 2002 may stay negative. However, economic
growth in the second half of 2002 may turn positive, depending on the global situation.
The forecast for economic growth in 2002 is in the range of 1% to 3%.
6.       Principles of Fiscal Policy
6.1             The Singapore government always emphasizes that a prudent fiscal
policy is the foundation for macro-economic stability. Although the principles of
fiscal policy are not set out in laws or in fiscal guidelines, the government has
outlined the following principles of fiscal policy in various occasions2:
(a) The first principle is to avoid persistent budget deficits. The
government&#39;s aim is to build up budget surpluses in good years to
augment its fiscal reserves, providing an important financial
buffer for the country. A healthy reserve position also instills
confidence among foreign investors and underpins Singapore&#39;s
status as a major financial centre.
The manufacturing sector fell by an annual rate of 9.6% in January - September 2001, being hurt
by depressed global demand.
These are: (i) Ministry of Finance, An Overview of Singapore Tax System, 2001; (ii) Dr Richard Hu
(Minister for Finance and Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore), Macroeconomic
Policies in Singapore: Principles, Milestones and Future Prospects, 22 March 1997; and (iii) Radm
Teo Chee Hean (Minister for Education), Getting it Right: Responding Successfully to
Globalisation, 31 January 1998.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 3
Legislative Council Secretariat                   Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
(b) The second principle is to implement fiscal policy which should
promote economic development and improve efficiency and
productive capacity of the economy rather than encourage
consumption. Through productive investments, the country will
be equipped to overcome challenges ahead.
(c) The third principle is to keep the size of the public sector small.
The government believes that the market mechanism of the
private sector can allocate resources more efficiently. The
government&#39;s role is to provide a stable and conducive
environment for the private sector to thrive.
7.       Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year3 1995 and Fiscal Year 2000
7.1          The government recorded budget surpluses between Fiscal Year 1988
and Fiscal Year 2000. Even in the midst of Asian financial crisis, the Singapore
government recorded a budget surplus of S$3.4 billion for Fiscal Year 1998 (see Table
1). The accumulated budget surpluses between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year
2000 amounted to S$35.4 billion4.
7.2            To support the shrinking economy, the government introduced two
lower business costs, but may also result in an estimated budget deficit of S$4 billion
in Fiscal Year 20015. (Please refer to paragraphs 7.7 to 7.9 for a detailed discussion
of the two off-budget packages.)
Table 1 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year
2000 (in billions of Singapore dollars)
1995      1996       1997        1998        1999      2000
Government Revenues                24.8        28.0      30.6        28.2       28.6       33.5
Government Expenditures            15.6        19.1      25.9        24.8       24.9       28.0
Budget Surpluses                     9.2        8.9       4.7         3.4        3.7         5.5
Source: Singapore Ministry of Information and the Arts, Singapore 2001, 2001.
Fiscal year begins on 1 April and ends on 31 March.
The average exchange rate of Singapore dollar to US dollar in 2000 was S$1.73 = US$1.
The Singapore government has not announced the revised government revenues and government
expenditures for Fiscal Year 2001 as of the date of the publication of this research report.
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 4
Legislative Council Secretariat                     Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
Managing Fiscal Reserves
7.3            Singapore&#39;s reserves, consisting of fiscal reserves and foreign reserves6,
are managed by the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation (GIC)7 which
is wholly owned by the government. The GIC manages over US$100 billion of the
country&#39;s reserve assets. However, the amount of fiscal reserves is not revealed to
7.4             The investment objective is to achieve sustainable long-term returns to
protect the real value of the assets. The GIC&#39;s investments are carried out overseas,
largely in the form of portfolio investments in equities, fixed-income and money
market instruments, real estate and special investments8.
Safeguarding Fiscal Reserves
7.5             The Constitution of Singapore has provisions for safeguarding the
country&#39;s fiscal reserves. First, Article 147(5f) of the Constitution provides the
President with veto powers to safeguard fiscal reserves of the past government (i.e.
fiscal reserves not being accumulated by the government during its current term of
office9). Essentially, the government is required to achieve a balanced budget over
the term of the government in order not to draw on past fiscal reserves.10
7.6             Second, Article 142 of the Constitution stipulates that the government
is required to safeguard at least 50% of the Net Investment Income11 (NII) earned
from past fiscal reserves.12 In other words, the government can only use up to 50%
of the NII to finance its expenditures. The rest of NII is kept in fiscal reserves.
Singapore&#39;s foreign reserves amounted to US$75.5 billion at the end of September 2001.
The formation of the GIC had its roots in the late 1970s. At that time, Singapore had a high
saving rate among a young population, which was expected to contribute to the country&#39;s balance
of payments surpluses for some time. The country&#39;s foreign reserves were also expected to grow
continuously. Under such circumstances, the GIC was established in 1981 and has been
responsible for investing the reserves in long-term, high-yielding assets. The current chairman of
the GIC is Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew.
Special investments include venture capital, infrastructure, mezzanine financing and corporate
The President is the Head of the government and holds office for a term of six years.
Gisbert Flanz, Constitution of the Countries of the World: Constitution of Singapore, September
NII is the interest and dividend income earned from government&#39;s fiscal reserves, net of expenses
on investment and borrowing charges.
Singapore Government Gazette, 23 November 2000.
Research and Library Services Division                                                          page 5
Uses of Fiscal Reserves to Finance Two Off-budget Packages
7.7           To help Singaporeans and local businesses cope with the economic
downturn, the Singapore government has used fiscal reserves to finance two separate
off-budget support packages introduced in July and in October 2001 respectively.
The measures of these two economic stimulus packages are discussed below.
First Off-budget Package
7.8          In July 2001, the Singapore government introduced a package of
measures worth S$2.2 billion, equivalent to 1.4% of GDP, to stimulate the economy.
The measures were classified into the following three categories:
(a) Accelerate the construction of infrastructure projects
-- developing Jurong Island, performing drainage and sewerage
works, constructing road and public transport facilities, and
upgrading information technology projects at polytechnics and
(b) Cut costs
-- reducing foreign worker levy to hold down business costs;
-- extending a 25% property tax rebate for one year from 1 July
2001 to 30 June 2002;
-- extending rental rebates for public housing flats for one year
until 30 June 2002;
-- offering a 20% port dues concession to container ships and
commercial harbour craft; and
-- allowing local companies to access financing by
(i)    raising the government&#39;s risk-sharing percentage of the
Local Enterprise Financing Scheme13 (LEFS) from 50%
to 70% for one year until July 2002;
(ii) increasing loan availability under LEFS; and
(iii) introducing a loan insurance scheme to help small and
medium-sized companies obtain loans from banks.
This is a fixed-interest financing programme designed to encourage entrepreneurship and assist
local enterprises in strengthening their operations. The scheme is administered by the
Productivity and Standards Board, a government agency.
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 6
(c) Help the unemployed and promote worker retraining
-- expanding job matching services by increasing the number of
career centres14;
-- offering a new &quot;People for Jobs&quot; Traineeship Programme15 for
older and less educated workers;
-- expanding the Skills Redevelopment Programme16 (SRP) to
help less educated workers acquire certifiable skills;
-- providing incentives such as course fee support and absentee
payroll support for employers to send less skilled workers for
-- introducing two training programmes, the National
Information Technology Literacy Programme17 and the
Critical Enabling Skills Training Programme18, for the
unemployed and less educated workers.
Second Off-budget Package
7.9            As Singapore&#39;s economic conditions continued to worsen in the third
quarter of 2001, the government introduced another fiscal stimulus package in
October 2001 to tide the economy over the downturn. The size of the economic
stimulus package was S$11.3 billion, equivalent to 7% of GDP. These measures
were classified into eight categories:
(a) Tax and fee rebates and reductions for businesses and individuals
-- granting corporate income tax rebates and personal income tax
rebates for Years of Assessment 2001 and 2002;
-- increasing property tax rebates for commercial and industrial
properties19;
-- reducing stamp duty rates by 30% on all instruments (relating
mostly to property and stock transactions), petrol excise duty
by 40%, and diesel tax for taxis20 by the amount of S$400; and
-- granting a one-time S$100 road tax rebate for cars, taxis,
goods vehicles and buses, and a 10% rebate on landing fees to
The centres provide information on labour market trends, advice on job and training opportunities
and employment assistance.
Under the programme, the government provides financial support for companies employing
retrenched workers and companies agreeing to put in place a traineeship arrangement to help those
This programme is jointly operated by the government and the National Trade Union Congress.
This programme aims to improve the employment prospect for Singaporeans by equipping them
with basic computer and Internet skills.
This programme aims to provide seven core skills, such as &quot;Learning-to-Learn&quot;, &quot;Literacy&quot;, and
&quot;Problem Solving and Creativity&quot;, to enhance the employability of an individual worker.
The government gave a fixed rebate of up to S$8,000 per year to landlords of all commercial and
industrial properties, and a further rebate of 30% for any balance of property tax payable.
The government charges taxis a diesel tax of S$5,100 per year.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 7
(b) Assistance to local enterprises
-- helping local enterprises access funds easier by
(i)    reducing the interest rates for LEFS loans;
(ii) increasing the government&#39;s risk-sharing percentage
under the LEFS from 70% to 80% for one year until
July 2002; and
(iii) launching a new loan programme for very small
-- offering cash grants to market stall-holders (S$15,000) and
cooked food stall-holders (S$19,000); and
-- upgrading hawker centres.
(c) Land/Property-related stimulating measures
-- suspending the sale of industrial land for the rest of 2001 and
2002, and extending the projected completion period for all
government industrial land sale projects21;
-- suspending the sale of residential and commercial sites for
-- removing income tax on gains from the sale of property;
-- exempting property tax for land under development; and
-- extending rental rebates for commercial and industrial tenants
of government properties.
(d) Acceleration of infrastructure projects
-- accelerating more than 100 infrastructure projects, which
include upgrading the National University of Singapore (NTU)
campus, expanding NTU teaching facilities, and constructing
new clinics and hospitals.
(e) Employment assistance for workers and executives
-- funding training and skills upgrading programmes;
-- expanding the &quot;People for Jobs&quot; Traineeship Programme;
-- enhancing the Skills Redevelopment Programme;
-- increasing funding support for training through Skills
Development Fund and the National Trade Union Congress
Education and Training Fund; and
-- intensifying employment assistance services.
Currently, developers of industrial sites are granted projected completion periods of eight or 10
years. The periods will be extended by two years for land sites already awarded, thus increasing
the average projected completion period to 10 to 12 years.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 8
(f)   Help for the lower-income and unemployed citizens
-- freezing undergraduate and polytechnic tuition fees;
-- suspending repayment of tuition fees loans and study loans for
-- easing the cash flow requirement for new public housing
buyers by extending the down-payment period;
-- providing financial assistance for public housing mortgagors;
-- reducing electricity tariffs by 4% from 1 November 2001
onwards and by a further 6% from 1 January 2002 onwards;
-- offering rebates on utilities bills to help public housing
-- extending Service and Conservancy rebates for public housing
-- extending rent-free periods and rental rebates for public
housing tenants until March 2003;
-- implementing Hospitalisation Fee Assistance Scheme to help
Singaporeans meet their medical costs; and
-- introducing a new Economic Downturn Relief Scheme to help
Singaporeans pay for essential expenses, such as food and
(g) New Singapore Shares
-- giving New Singapore Shares (NSS)22 to adult Singapore
citizens as a means of distributing part of fiscal reserves to the
population. The distribution is weighted in favour of less
well-off Singaporeans to help them during the current
economic downturn.        Qualified citizens will receive a
package of 200 NSS to 1 400 NSS, depending on income
levels for employed citizens, and housing types for self-
employed and unemployed citizens.
(h) Measures related to wage costs
-- recommending wage freeze or appropriate wage cost
-- reducing civil servants&#39; 2001 year-end payments; and
-- reducing the monthly salaries of political appointees and
senior civil servants by 10% from 1 November 2001 onwards
NSS is worth S$1 per share. NSS will earn annual dividends in the form of bonus shares for five
years, from 2002 to 2007, at a guaranteed minimum return of 3% per annum. An extra dividend
will be declared yearly, equal to the GDP growth (if positive) of the previous calendar year. In
other words, the better the economy performs, the higher will be the number of bonus shares
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 9
Legislative Council Secretariat               Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
8.      Current Economic Situation
8.1            After a 2.3% Gross Domestic Product23 (GDP) growth in 2000,
Norway&#39;s GDP growth is projected to slow down to 1.6% in 2001 due to the
deteriorating international economic environment. The global economic downturn
has affected the performance of both Norwegian exports24 and domestic consumption.
Nevertheless, the government forecasts a higher GDP growth rate of 2.7% in 2002 on
the back of expected increased investment from the manufacturing, petroleum and
residential construction sectors.
9.      Principles of Fiscal Policy
9.1            The government has stated the following principles of fiscal policy in
the Guidelines for Economic Policy:25
(a) to allocate resources for public consumption, public investment
and transfers to achieve the highest possible welfare over time;
(b) to contribute to a stable and sustainable economic development.
9.2             To adhere to these two principles, the government set out the following
guidelines for fiscal policy:
(a) The government should stabilize fluctuations in the economy with
a view to controlling inflation and ensuring low unemployment.
The petroleum sector plays an important role in the Norwegian economy, accounting for
approximately 18% of GDP and 29% of government revenues respectively in 2000.
Norway&#39;s major exports are petroleum, fish and aluminium. In 2000, petroleum exports
accounted for about 55% of the total exports.
The Ministry of Finance, Guidelines for Economic Policy, March 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                  page 10
(b) The government should estimate the expected return on the
Government Petroleum Fund26 (the Fund) at the beginning of a
fiscal year27 and then allocate the corresponding amount of capital
out of the Fund to finance government spending. For example,
if the expected rate of return on the Fund is 4% and the value of
the Fund amounts to Nok 650 billion, under this guideline, the
government may transfer Nok 26 billion (i.e. Nok 650 billion x
4%) from the Fund to finance government expenditures.
10.       Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year 2000
10.1            Government revenues grew by 29% to reach Nok 643.6 billion28 in
Fiscal Year 2000 over Fiscal Year 1999 (see Table 2). The substantial growth was
attributed to a surge in revenues from petroleum activities. Budget surplus rose by
475% in Fiscal Year 2000 over Fiscal Year 1999 to reach Nok 153.4 billion,
equivalent to about 10.8% of GDP. The accumulated budget surpluses between
Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year 2000 amounted to Nok 280.3 billion29.
Table 2 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Fiscal Year 1997 and Fiscal Year
2000 (in billions of Nok)
1997             1998            1999             2000
Government Revenues                    478.2            471.3           499.6             643.6
Government Expenditures                411.5            443.7           467.0             490.2
Budget Surpluses                         66.7             27.6            32.6            153.4
Source:     Ministry of Finance
Norway recorded budget surpluses between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year 2000. The
government has set aside the accumulated budget surpluses into a stabilization fund known as the
Government Petroleum Fund. (Please refer to paragraphs 10.2 to 10.7 below for a detailed
discussion of the Government Petroleum Fund.)
Fiscal year begins on 1 January and ends on 31 December.
The average exchange rate of Norway kroner to US dollar in 2000 was Nok 8.5 = US$1.
We do not have data for Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year 1996.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 11
Legislative Council Secretariat                      Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
Practices of Maintaining Fiscal Reserves
10.2            The government established the Government Petroleum Fund in 1990
through enacting the Petroleum Fund Act to transform budget surpluses into foreign
financial assets. It is noteworthy that the Government Petroleum Fund serves as the
government&#39;s fiscal reserves.
Purposes of the Government Petroleum Fund
10.3           The Government Petroleum Fund has two purposes. First, it acts as a
financial buffer to smooth variations in petroleum revenues, which helps maintain the
robustness of the Norwegian economy and allows the government to have greater
room for manoeuvre in its economic policies.
10.4            Second, the Government Petroleum Fund will be used to pay for the
expected rising social security expenditures30 in future years as a result of
demographic changes. The government has emphasized that Norway&#39;s population is
ageing. The ratio of Norwegian citizens aged 67 or older to the labour force is
projected to increase from 26% in 2001 to 43% by 2050. The fiscal cost of social
security is estimated to increase from 8% of GDP in 2001 to about 20% of GDP by
10.5          Norges Bank, the Central Bank of Norway, is responsible for investing
the Government Petroleum Fund in accordance with the investment guidelines
provided by the Ministry of Finance.
10.6           The Petroleum Fund Act stipulates that capital in the Government
Petroleum Fund should be invested in equities and fixed-income instruments abroad.
The government states that investing the Government Petroleum Fund in foreign
assets can protect the Norwegian economy from both fluctuations in demand and
price pressures that may occur if the volatile petroleum revenues are used to relax and
constrain government expenditures which will then move in the same volatile cycle.
Norway has a comprehensive social welfare system. All Norwegian citizens are insured
compulsorily under the National Insurance Scheme, which is financed by contributions from
employers, employees and tax revenues. This scheme confers a wide range of benefits, including
old-age pension benefits, disability benefits, family allowances, medical benefits, and cash benefits
for sickness, maternity and unemployment. These benefits are linked to a basic amount, which is
adjusted on a discretionary basis, generally annually, by Parliament.
Research and Library Services Division                                                           page 12
Legislative Council Secretariat          Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
Size of the Government Petroleum Fund
10.7           The government has accumulated substantial foreign assets in the
Government Petroleum Fund. The value of the Government Petroleum Fund is
estimated to reach Nok 650 billion at the end of 2001 (about 42% of GDP or 15.5
months of government expenditure). The government has projected that the
Government Petroleum Fund may continue to increase to about Nok 1,450 billion at
the end of 2005 (or about 90% of GDP).
Research and Library Services Division                                             page 13
11.       Current Economic Situation
11.1         New Zealand&#39;s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) expanded by 2.6% in
2000 and 2.3% in the first half of 2001. However, the government has projected that
the GDP growth will fall to 1.5% in both 2001 and 2002 owing to the global
economic downturn. Slower export growth and uncertainty around the world are
expected to make firms think twice before hiring new staff and undertaking new
12.       Principles of Fiscal Policy
12.1          New Zealand faced serious fiscal problem at the beginning of the
1990s. During that period, the government adopted a lax fiscal policy which
allowed government expenditures to grow to over 40% of GDP. High spending
caused large and persistent budget deficits. The government had to finance its
operations through borrowing.       In Fiscal Year31 1993, budget deficits and
government debt reached highs of 8.8% of GDP and 52% of GDP respectively.
12.2           The government recognized that the deteriorating fiscal position would
affect the country&#39;s economic condition and long-term economic performance. To
promote consistent, good quality fiscal management, the Fiscal Responsibility Act
was enacted in 1994. This Act sets legal standards for transparency of fiscal policy
and reporting, and holds the government formally responsible to the public for its
12.3           The Fiscal Responsibility Act sets out the following four principles to
govern fiscal policy:
(a) Government debt should be reduced to a prudent level.
-- This principle acknowledges that the level of government debt
was too high in 1994, and that the government needs to run
budget surpluses for a period of time to reduce outstanding
Fiscal year begins on 1 July and ends on 30 June.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 14
Legislative Council Secretariat                Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
(b) Once government debt is down to a prudent level, the government
should maintain a balanced budget on average over the medium to
-- This principle implies that the government can pursue
counter-cyclical fiscal policy, but that over time budget
deficits and budget surpluses are required to balance out.
(c) The government should manage fiscal risks prudently.
-- This principle calls for attention to fiscal risks such as shifts in
the demographic structure of the population which may have
an impact on fiscal position. For example, an ageing
population will imply higher government expenditures on
(d) The government should pursue policies that are consistent with a
reasonable degree of predictability about the level and stability of
tax rates for future years.
-- This principle recognizes the importance of tax stability for
private sector planning.
12.4            It is noteworthy that these four principles of responsible fiscal
management are stated in general terms in the legislation and do not mandate any
specific fiscal targets. The government may specify its meaning of the relevant
fiscal terms such as &quot;a prudent level&quot; and &quot;a reasonable degree&quot; in the Budget Policy
12.5           The Fiscal Responsibility Act also allows the government to deviate
from these four principles only if such a deviation is temporary. In the event of a
deviation, the Fiscal Responsibility Act requires the government to specify the
reasons for the deviation, the actions the government intends to takes to return to the
principles, and the time period it expects to take to return to the principles.
12.6            In accordance with the Fiscal Responsibility Act, the government has
to update its long-term fiscal objectives in the Budget Policy Statement. The long-
term fiscal objectives specified in the Budget Policy Statement 2001 were to:
(a) limit government expenditures at the level of 35% of GDP;
(b) raise sufficient government revenues to fund government
(c) run budget surplus on average over the economic cycle; and
(d) reduce government debt to below 30% of GDP.
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 15
13.        Practices of Maintaining Budget Surpluses
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1994 and Fiscal Year 2000
13.1          Following the implementation of the Fiscal Responsibility Act, New
Zealand recorded fiscal surpluses from Fiscal Year 1994 to Fiscal Year 2000 (see
Table 3). Nonetheless, the annual budget surplus dropped continuously from 3.7%
of GDP in Fiscal Year 1994 to 0.4% of GDP in Fiscal Year 2000.
13.2           To attain the long-term fiscal objectives, the government controlled its
expenditures at around 35% of GDP between Fiscal Year 1994 and Fiscal Year 2000.
The government is committed to maintaining its spending at this level in the next few
Table 3 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Fiscal Year 1994 and Fiscal Year
2000 (in percent of GDP)
1994     1995       1996      1997      1998      1999      2000
Government Revenues                38.2      38.0      36.2      36.3      36.4      34.5      34.2
Government Expenditures            34.5      34.4      34.3      34.9      35.8      34.2      33.6
Budget Surpluses                    3.7       3.6        1.9       1.4       0.6      0.3       0.4
Government Debt                    50.1      44.9      37.5      38.6      36.7      34.0      31.9
Sources:    International Monetary Fund, Staff Country Report: New Zealand, October 2000.
The Treasury, Budget Economic and Fiscal Update 2001, May 2001.
Uses of Budget Surpluses
13.3           Although New Zealand has recorded budget surpluses from Fiscal Year
1994 onwards, there is still no fiscal reserve. The country uses its budget surpluses
to pay off government debt and to fund its public pension scheme.
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 16
13.4            A top priority of the government&#39;s agenda is to repay government debt.
In addition to using budget surpluses, the government raises funds from domestic and
international markets and sells government-owned enterprises to finance its debt.
Accordingly, the government debt was reduced from the peak of 52% of GDP in
Fiscal Year 1992 to 31.9% of GDP in Fiscal Year 2000.32
Funding New Zealand Superannuation
13.5           New Zealand has a universal public pension system called New
Zealand Superannuation which is funded with tax revenues. The amount of pension
benefit is based on the pensioner&#39;s marital status and the nation-wide average wage.
Pension benefits are paid from age 65 onwards, and are set at 65% of the average
13.6           The government has emphasized that New Zealand&#39;s population is
ageing. The proportion of the population aged over 65 is expected to increase from
the current 12% to 25% by 2050. In addition, falling birth rates and increasing life
expectancy are expected to result in future superannuation payments being much
higher than present levels. The cost of New Zealand superannuation is projected to
rise gradually from its current level of about 5% of GDP to over 10% of GDP by
13.7           To meet the present and future cost of New Zealand superannuation,
the New Zealand Superannuation Act was enacted in October 2001. Under this Act,
the government is empowered to start funding part of the future superannuation
payments out of budget surpluses33 beginning in Fiscal Year 2001.34 Meanwhile, tax
revenues will continue to be part of the contribution.
Government debt amounted to US$16 billion in Fiscal Year 2000.
The government entity responsible for administering and investing the New Zealand
Superannuation Fund is the Guardians of New Zealand Superannuation. The Guardians are
required to invest the Fund on a prudent and commercial basis. The Board of Guardians is
appointed by the government on the basis of their commercial expertise.
The estimated cumulative contributions will be about 3% of GDP by the end of Fiscal Year 2003.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 17
PART 5 - ARGENTINA
14.       Current Economic Situation
14.1           Argentina&#39;s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contracted by 3.4% in
1999 and by another 0.5% in 2000 mainly due to declined investment in the
construction and manufacturing sectors. The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
has forecasted Argentina&#39;s GDP to contract by 2.7% in 200135 and by another 1.1% in
2002. The economy is expected to remain in recession in 2002 due to weak
investment sentiment, sluggish domestic demand and social unrest36.
15.       Principles of Fiscal Policy
15.1           Argentina&#39;s fiscal position was on a decline in the 1990s.
Government debt increased from US$96.5 billion in 1989 to US$134.5 billion in 1999
because of increased expenditures on social security, health-care services, government
administration and debt service payments37.
15.2          The Argentine government recognized that the magnitude of
government debt and mounting debt service costs would constrain its ability in
implementing fiscal policy to stimulate the country&#39;s economic growth.
15.3           To reduce government debt over the medium term, the Fiscal
Responsibility Act was enacted in August 1999, which requires the government to
reduce future budget deficits and to balance the budget by Fiscal Year38 2005. The
medium-term fiscal consolidation is based on the freezing of government spending at
the level of Fiscal Year 2000, and the strengthening of structural reforms in tax
administration, social security system and public administration.
The economy contracted 4.9% in the third quarter of 2001 and the unemployment rate was at a
high 18.3% in October 2001.
There are ongoing public protests in Argentina in the wake of the country&#39;s current economic crisis
Government debt service payments in 1999 represented about 6% of GDP.
Research and Library Services Division                                                           page 18
15.4           The Fiscal Responsibility Act stipulates that the government should
establish a target for the budget deficit in a fiscal year. For instance, the targeted
budget deficit was 1.8% of GDP in Fiscal Year 200039. However, the government
was unable to meet the fiscal target for Fiscal Year 2000 because of increased
government debt service payments40 and lower-than-expected government revenues41.
15.5           To be eligible for accessing the IMF funds, the Argentine government
is required to meet the IMF&#39;s loan conditions42. An important reform carried out by
the government was to enact the Zero-deficit Act in August 2001. Under the Zero-
deficit Act, the government is required to limit its monthly spending to match the
monthly tax revenues. If tax collection after debt service payments is not enough to
cover government expenditures, payments to civil servants and pensioners will be
reduced so as to match spending to revenue.
16.       Practices of Financing Government Debt
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position Between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year 2000
16.1          The government has recorded budget deficits since the early 1980s.
The budget deficit as a percentage of GDP ranged from 2% to 4.1% between Fiscal
Year 1995 and Fiscal Year 2000 (see Table 4).
Table 4 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year
1995      1996       1997       1998        1999       2000
Government Revenues                 23.2       22.1       23.1      23.7       24.2         24.5
Government Expenditures             25.5       25.3       25.1      25.3       28.3         28.1
Budget Deficits                       2.3        3.2       2.0       1.6         4.1         3.6
Source: International Monetary Fund, Argentina: Selected Issues and Statistical Annex, December
The fiscal target for Fiscal Years 2001 and 2002 is 1.3% of GDP and 1.7% of GDP respectively.
Government debt service payments continued to increase because of increased government debt
and higher costs of new borrowing.
The government revenue shortfall was mainly caused by weaker-than-expected economic
In September 2001, the IMF asked the Argentine government to cut spending by US$8 billion in
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 19
Practices of Financing Government Debt
16.2            The Argentine government does not have any fiscal reserves because
the country has been running budget deficits for more than two decades.
Government debt has increased to the current level of US$162 billion. To finance
agencies, including the IMF, the United States of America (US) Government and
institutional investors43.
16.3            In early January 2002, the Argentine government formally entered into
default on its debt, when it failed to pay US$28 million in interest payments due on
lira-denominated bonds. To restructure government debt and strengthen its fiscal
position, Argentina has been seeking funds from the IMF, the World Bank and the US
government. The IMF has responded that it will not consider providing any
additional support for Argentina until the country has developed a plan to put the
economy back on a sustainable track.
17.       Argentina&#39;s Convertibility Programme: the Currency Board System
17.1          Argentina fell into hyperinflation in early 1990. Inflation reached a
monthly rate of 95% in March 1990, and the economy collapsed as residents
scrambled to find alternative means for setting prices, protecting savings and
conducting economic transactions.
17.2          In April 1991, Argentina launched a Convertibility Programme which
established a currency board through enacting the Convertibility Act to peg the
Argentine peso at one-to-one to the US dollar so as to improve policy credibility and
to maintain macro-economic stability.
17.3            The Convertibility Act requires the Central Bank of Argentina to
maintain the country&#39;s foreign reserves44 which should be equivalent to at least 100%
of the monetary base45 to defend the fixed exchange rate system46.                 The
Convertibility Act does not require the Argentine government to use fiscal reserves, if
there are any, to defend the linked exchange rate regime. As discussed in paragraph
16.2 above, the Argentine government does not have any fiscal reserves and has to
raise funds from multilateral lending agencies to finance government debt.
For example, in November 2001, multilateral lending agencies provided funds for the Argentine
government to meet its debt obligations of US$132 billion to avoid a default.
The assets forming the foreign reserves may include: securities, bonds, fixed-interest instruments,
gold, precious metals, US dollars and other major foreign currencies.
The monetary base in the Argentine peso is formed by outstanding currency plus any deposits of
financial entities with the Central Bank of Argentina.
Under the convertibility arrangement, the Central Bank of Argentina has to maintain at least
US$13 billion -- an estimated amount of Argentine pesos in circulation – of foreign reserves to
defend the linked exchange rate system. At the end of October 2001, Argentina&#39;s foreign reserves
amounted to US$18.3 billion.
Research and Library Services Division                                                          page 20
17.4           To help the export sector and to revive economic growth, the
legislature amended the Convertibility Act in June 2001 to introduce a dual exchange
rate mechanism. Trade transactions were converted at an exchange rate based on a
50% US dollar and 50% Euro currency basket,47 while investment transactions were
converted at the fixed exchange rate of one peso to one US dollar. The Argentine
government indicated its intention of replacing the peso&#39;s link to the US dollar with a
link to the 50% US dollar and 50% Euro basket when the Euro reaches parity with the
US dollar48.    In other words, the Argentine government planned to peg the peso to
the average exchange rate between the US dollar and the Euro.
17.5           Although the Argentine government insisted on retaining the currency
board system, the peso came under heavy pressure in the last few months owing to
high rates of deposit withdrawals49 and falling foreign reserves. There were fears of
currency devaluation and debt default.
17.6           On 6 January 2002, Argentina abolished the currency board system
and devalued its currency by 29% to the new exchange rate of 1.40 pesos to one US
dollar. The government also allowed its currency floating in the foreign exchange
market. The peso&#39;s value has declined further against the US dollar in the free
market. The current exchange rate is 2.4 pesos to one US dollar.
Since the appreciation of the Argentine peso -- caused by the strong US dollar – had made
Argentina&#39;s exports expensive, this arrangement devalued the peso for trade transactions by around
5% in June 2001.
This means that the exchange rate between the US dollar and the Euro is one to one.
In January - November 2001, 17% of bank deposits (equivalent to US$14.5 billion) were
withdrawn from the banking system. In an effort to restrict bank deposit withdrawals, Argentina
imposed banking and exchange controls in early December 2001. Under this regulation,
Argentines could withdraw only US$250 a week in cash from each bank account, or a maximum
of US$1,000 a month. The government also limited transfers of funds abroad. Argentines were
not allowed to take more than US$1,000 abroad in cash and companies had to obtain clearance to
make foreign payments above that amount.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 21
PART 6 - THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
18.       Current Economic Situation
18.1            The economy of the United States of America (US) expanded
continuously between 1992 and 200050, being supported by strong consumer spending
and business investment. However, the pace of economic growth had slowed
significantly since the fourth quarter of 2000 and the expansion turned negative in the
third quarter of 2001 when Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contracted by an annual
rate of 1.3%51. The weak third-quarter economic performance reflected the decline
in both consumer spending and business investment in new plants and equipment,
which was exacerbated by the 11 September terror attack.
18.2           In an attempt to revive the economy, both fiscal52 and monetary
policies53 have been relaxed. The Federal Reserve expects a modest and gradual
recovery in the economy by mid-2002. GDP is projected to grow by 2-2.5 % in
2002, after an estimated 1.2% rise in 2001.
19.       Principles of Fiscal Policy
19.1           In the US, the principles of fiscal policy which call for restraining
budget deficits are set out in laws.
19.2            Prior to the 1980s, the US government&#39;s budget deficits did not cause
much concern. Budget deficits became an issue of concern in the 1980s when the
size of deficits increased rapidly as a result of surging defence spending and sagging
Gross Domestic Product growth in 2000 was 5%.
The unemployment rate rose to 5.8% in November 2001, its highest level since August 1995.
Please see section 21 for details of the economic stimulus packages.
In an effort to restore economic growth, the Federal Reserve reduced the Federal Funds Rate 11
times in 2001 to 1.75% in December, its lowest level in nearly four decades. The cumulative cut
of interest rates was 4.75% in 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                       page 22
19.3          By the mid-1980s, the government became worried about the ever-
rising budget deficits, which significantly increased the government&#39;s debt burden.
The government recognized that rising budget deficits were unhealthy because of the
following adverse consequences:
(a) Rising budget deficits forced the government to allocate billions
of dollars for interest payments on government debt.
(b) Rising budget deficits forced the government to raise interest rates
to attract capital to cover the deficits. Accordingly, less money
was available for corporate and private borrowing, which
constrained investment and subsequently economic growth.54
(c) Rising budget deficits raised the likelihood of fiscal instability for
future generations of Americans, which was morally wrong.
19.4            To restrain budget deficits, the Balanced Budget and Emergency
Deficit Control Act was enacted in 1985. This Act required the budget deficit be
reduced by a specified dollar amount for a fiscal year55 and the budget be balanced by
Fiscal Year 1991. Although budget deficits went down somewhat in the late 1980s,
the statutory targets were not met.
19.5           As a result of that failure, the Budget Enforcement Act56 was enacted
in 1990 which set a specific dollar limit on government spending57 for a fiscal year
and created a &quot;pay-as-you-go&quot; (PAYGO) provision which required the costs of new or
expanded government programmes be explicitly covered through either higher taxes
or lower expenditures in other programmes. The PAYGO requirement is designed to
prevent the further deterioration of budget deficits.
19.6          These budget mechanisms were effective means in restraining the
growth in government spending and controlling budget deficits. The fiscal position
improved progressively in the 1990s, being aided by the prolonged economic
This is known as the &quot;crowding-out&quot; effect which states that the rise in interest rates with an
expansionary fiscal policy may result in an offsetting reduction in private expenditures.
Fiscal year begins on 1 October and ends on 30 September.
The Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act of 1985 was supplanted by the Budget
The controls of deficit targets were replaced by the restrictions on government expenditures.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 23
Legislative Council Secretariat                  Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
20.       Practices of Financing Government Debt
20.1           The US government recorded budget surpluses between Fiscal Year
1998 and Fiscal Year 2000. In Fiscal Year 1998, the government&#39;s budget surplus
amounted to US$69.2 billion58. The budget surplus grew to US$124.6 billion in
Fiscal Year 1999 and US$169.0 billion in Fiscal Year 2000 (see Table 5). However,
the budget surplus in Fiscal Year 2001 fell to US$127 billion,59 reflecting a weakening
20.2           The improvement in fiscal position between Fiscal Year 1998 and
Fiscal Year 2000 was mainly due to strong economic growth which boosted
government revenues at a rate faster than the growth in government spending.
Additionally, the end of the Cold War had slowed down the expansion in defence
Table 5 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year
2000 (in billions of US dollars)
1995      1996      1997       1998       1999       2000
Government Revenues               1,351.8   1,453.1   1,579.3   1,721.8     1,827.5    2,025.2
Government Expenditures           1,515.8   1,560.6   1,601.3   1,652.6     1,702.9    1,856.2
Budget Balances                    -164.0    -107.5     -22.0       69.2      124.6      169.0
Source: Office of Management and Budget, The Budget For Fiscal Year 2002: Historical Tables, p.22.
This was the first budget surplus since 1969.
It marked the first time in a decade that the government&#39;s fiscal position did not show an
Research and Library Services Division                                                     page 24
20.3           The gross government debt is divided into two categories: debt held by
the public60 and debt the government owes itself61. At the end of Fiscal Year 2000,
the gross government debt totalled US$5.63 trillion. Government debt held by the
public was US$3.41 trillion and government debt held by government accounts was
US$2.22 trillion respectively (see Table 6).
20.4           Government borrowing involves the sale of notes and bonds of various
sizes and time to maturity. The cumulative amount of borrowing from the public --
i.e. the government debt held by the public -- is a more important measure of
government debt because it determines how much interest the government pays to the
public.62
Table 6 - Government’s Debt Position between Fiscal Year 1995 and Fiscal Year
2000 (in trillions of US dollars)
1995       1996       1997        1998       1999       2000
Government Debt Held by
3.60       3.73       3.77        3.72       3.63       3.41
1.32       1.45       1.60        1.76       1.97       2.22
Gross Government Debt                4.92       5.18       5.37        5.48       5.60       5.63
Source: Office of Management and Budget, The Budget For Fiscal Year 2002: Historical Tables,
20.5           It is noteworthy that the US government used budget surpluses
accumulated between Fiscal Year 1998 and Fiscal Year 2000 to pay down the
outstanding government debt held by the public. As a result, government debt held
by the public was down from US$3.77 trillion at the end of the Fiscal Year of 1997 to
US$3.41 trillion at the end of Fiscal Year 2000.
This is the cumulative amount of money the government borrowed from the public.
The debt the government owes itself is the sum of all trust funds surpluses which the law requires
to be invested in government securities over the years. The major trust funds are: Social Security
Trust Funds, Medicare Trust Funds, Retirement Trust Funds and Postal Service Fund.
Interest payments on government debt were about 10% of government expenditures in Fiscal Year
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 25
21.       Economic Stimulus Packages
21.1           To provide tax relief to taxpayers as a means to enhance economic
growth and to improve the livelihood of the general public, the Economic Growth and
Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 was enacted in May 2001. It provides for a
US$1.35 trillion tax cut in 10 years. The major provisions contained in the Act are
21.2          The centrepiece of the new tax law is an across-the-board cut in
income tax rates. Prior to the enactment of the new law, income tax rates ranged
from 15% to 39.6%. The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of
2001 makes two major changes to the tax system.
(a) Create a new 10% tax bracket
-- The new law lowers the tax rate from 15% to 10% for the first
US$12,000 of taxable income for married couples and
US$6,000 for singles. The tax rate cut was retroactive to the
beginning of 2001.63
(b) Across-the-board cut in marginal income tax rates64
-- The top income tax rate will be lowered by 4.6 percentage
points in three stages, and the other tax rates -- except for the
15% rate -- will be lowered by three percentage points. The
first cut took effect in July 2001, the second will take effect in
2004, and the third in 2006. The top rate will eventually
drop from 39.6% to 35%; the 36% rate to 33%; the 31% rate
to 28%; and the 28% rate to 25%.
21.3          The child credit65 for families with children under age 17, which was
worth up to US$500 per child in Fiscal Year 2000, will be gradually increased to
US$1,000 in Fiscal Year 2010.
The government sent out tax rebate cheques to taxpayers between July and September 2001.
The President&#39;s tax plan recognizes the important role of constructive tax policy in stimulating
long-term growth. Reduction in marginal tax rates may encourage greater work effort and
provide more inducement for personal saving and business investment.
Parents can use the child tax credit to offset taxes owed.
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 26
21.4          The amount of expenses eligible for the dependent care credit will be
increased from US$2,400 in Fiscal Year 2000 to US$3,000 in Fiscal Year 2003 for
Standard Deductions for Married Couples
21.5          The new law will increase the standard deductions for married couples
beginning in Fiscal Year 2005. This measure is aimed at easing the so-called
&quot;marriage penalty&quot;, which causes many two-earner couples to pay more tax than they
would pay as single individuals.
Retirement Savings Incentive
21.6           The new law will provide a tax credit for contributions to Individual
Retirement Accounts to encourage lower-income workers66 to save for retirement.
The credit is available from Fiscal Year 2002 through Fiscal Year 2006. The credit
ranges from 10% to 50% of the contribution, depending on the taxpayer&#39;s income.
The maximum annual contribution eligible for the credit is US$2,000.
21.7            The new tax law makes the tax exemption for employer-provided
educational assistance permanent. The tax break was originally slated to expire at
the end of Fiscal Year 2001. The new law also extends the exemption to graduate-
level studies beginning in Fiscal Year 2002.
21.8           Federal estate taxes will be steadily reduced and eventually abolished
Taxpayers with annual incomes below US$25,000 for singles and US$50,000 for couples are
eligible for the tax credit.
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 27
21.9            In the wake of the 11 September terrorist attacks, President Bush
proposed a US$100 billion economic stimulus package in October 2001 which
focused mostly on further tax cuts for businesses and individuals to stimulate
economic growth. The package aimed at accelerating write-offs for businesses,
accelerating tax cuts scheduled to take effect under the tax relief package and
distributing a US$300 tax rebate to each low-income worker.
21.10            The Congress was unable to reach compromise on the bill. After
months of deadlock in the legislature, the Congress has recently approved the second
economic stimulus package to spur business investment and create jobs67. The
legislation (i.e. the Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act of 2002) adds a 13-week
extension to unemployment benefits68 for the unemployed and provides business with
tax cuts. The major business provision of the new law is a 30% depreciation tax
break of investments in new factories and equipment for the next three years.
21.11         The government has projected the cost of the package will be about
US$51 billion in 2002, US$43 billion in 2003 and US$29 billion in 2004. The
estimated cost over 10 years is about US$42 billion because some tax breaks will
generate government revenue in later years.
There are signs of economic recovery. For example, the unemployment rate in February fell to a
four-month low of 5.5%.
The package extends regular 26-week unemployment benefits by 13 weeks and allows additional
automatic extensions in states with high unemployment rates.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 28
PART 7 - HONG KONG
22.       Current Economic Situation
22.1           Real growth in Hong Kong&#39;s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is
estimated to slow down to 0.1% in 2001, in view of the high comparison base of
growth in 200069, slackening consumer spending70, rising unemployment71 and slower
global demand72. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR)
Government (the Government) has projected a 1% real GDP growth in 2002, and 3%
real growth over the medium term.
23.       Exchange Fund and Fiscal Reserves
23.1          The Government accumulates the annual surplus in fiscal reserves
which are placed with the Exchange Fund for investment purposes. The Exchange
Fund and fiscal reserves are two different entities.
23.2          According to the 12 April 2001 Viewpoint article entitled Fiscal
Reserves and the Exchange Fund by Mr Joseph YAM of the Hong Kong Monetary
Authority (HKMA), &quot;although the Exchange Fund and the Government&#39;s fiscal
reserves were managed and invested together, they were two separate and distinct
entities. Fiscal reserves represented money borrowed for the account of the
Exchange Fund, but the corresponding assets, managed along with other assets of the
Fund, could be used for the monetary purposes for which the Fund was established.&quot;
23.3            The Financial Secretary entrusted the HKMA with the responsibility of
investing fiscal reserves which are placed with the Exchange Fund. Under Section 8
of the Exchange Fund Ordinance, the Financial Secretary is empowered to transfer
money from the Exchange Fund to general revenue, after satisfying certain conditions.
One condition is that the Financial Secretary should be &quot;satisfied that such transfer is
not likely to affect adversely his ability to fulfil any purpose for which the Exchange
Fund is required to be or may be used under section 3(1) and (1A).&quot; These sections
deal with the exchange value of the currency of Hong Kong, the stability and the
integrity of the monetary and financial systems of Hong Kong and maintaining Hong
Kong as an international financial centre.
The Hong Kong economy recorded a high 10.5% GDP growth in 2000.
Consumer spending continued to be dragged down by the lingering weakness in the asset markets
and the worsening labour market condition. Retail sales value dropped by 4.2% year-on-year in
The labour market showed signs of slackening in recent months. The unemployment rate
increased to 6.7% for the period of November 2001 - January 2002.
Merchandise exports fell 4.8% year-on-year to US$159.6 billion in January - October 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 29
Legislative Council Secretariat            Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
Functions of the Exchange Fund and Fiscal Reserves
23.4            The Exchange Fund is primarily used for the regulation of the
exchange value of the Hong Kong dollar. In addition, it may be used to maintain the
stability and integrity of the monetary and financial systems of Hong Kong with a
view to maintaining Hong Kong as an international financial centre.
23.5           Meanwhile, as indicated by the Financial Secretary in his 2002-03
Budget Speech regarding the new guidelines on purposes and level of fiscal reserves,
the functions of fiscal reserves are to meet operating and contingency requirements
(see paragraph 25.6 below for details).
Functions of the Various Components of the Exchange Fund
23.6         At the end of December 2001, the total assets of the Exchange Fund
were at HK$980.6 billion, representing a decrease of HK$42.8 billion from
HK$1,023.4 billion at the end of December 2000 (see Table 7).
23.7           Part of the Exchange Fund is formed by the monetary base which is
defined, at the minimum, as the sum of the currency in circulation (banknotes and
coins) and the balance of the banking system held with the central bank (the reserve
balance or the clearing balance). In Hong Kong, the monetary base comprises
Certificates of Indebtedness (for backing the banknotes issued by the note-issuing
banks), coins issued, the balance of the clearing accounts of banks kept with the
HKMA, and the Exchange Fund Bills and Notes.
23.8           Under the currency board system, the monetary rule requires changes
in the monetary base to be matched by corresponding changes in foreign reserves in a
specified foreign currency at a fixed exchange rate. At the end of 2001, the
monetary base amounted to HK$229.7 billion in Hong Kong. The backing assets
amounted to HK$256.5 billion. In other words, the backing ratio (i.e. the ratio
between the backing assets and the monetary base) stood at 111.7%. According to
the HKMA, under the linked exchange rate system, the backing ratio should be at
least 105%.
23.9            At the end of 2001, the accumulated surplus of the Exchange Fund (i.e.
the total net profit earned by the Exchange Fund) amounted to HK$302.7 billion. It
is noteworthy that the annual investment of the Exchange Fund and the accumulated
surplus are not treated as recurrent income of the Government. In reply to our
enquiry regarding the function of the accumulated surplus, the HKMA says that the
Exchange Fund functions as a single entity and is not broken down or differentiated in
functions according to its component parts, so there is no segregation of the
accumulated surplus for any specific use.
Research and Library Services Division                                               page 30
Legislative Council Secretariat                                                         Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Table 7 - Exchange Fund Balance Sheet (in millions of Hong Kong dollars)
1990      1991        1992         1993        1994               1995     1996      1997        1998        1999         2000        2001
Foreign Currency Assets              192,323   225,333     274,948      335,421     381,233         428,547      493,802   588,475    701,239     755,115       856,680    878,847
Hong Kong Dollar Assets                3,874     10,788     12,546        12,973     24,617          32,187       40,715    48,198    211,036     247,641       166,683    101,717
Total Assets                         196,197   236,121     287,494      348,394     405,850         460,734      534,517   636,673    912,275    1,002,756    1,023,363    980,564
Certificates of Indebtedness          40,791     46,410      58,130       68,801     74,301          77,600       82,480    87,015     86,465     118,195       99,265     107,545
Coins in Circulation                   2,003      2,299       2,559        2,604      3,372              3,597     4,164     5,399      5,778       5,777        5,918        5,691
Balance of Banking System               480         500       1,480        1,385      2,208              1,762      474       296       2,527       7,960          669         671
Exchange Fund Bills and
6,671     13,624      19,324       25,168     46,140          53,125       83,509    89,338     98,334     101,828      109,288     118,157
Placements by other HKSAR
63,226     69,802      96,145     115,683     131,240         125,916      145,898   237,629    424,562     392,206      417,162     380,602
government funds (4)
Other Liabilities (5)                   391       4,834       3,220        7,135     22,815          38,600       45,130    26,770     52,364      85,932       83,962      65,154
Total Liabilities                    113,562   137,469      180,858     220,776     280,076         300,600      361,655   446,447    670,030     711,898     716,264      677,820
Accumulated Surplus                   82,635     98,652     106,636     127,618     125,774         160,134      172,862   190,226    242,245     290,858      307,099     302,744
Notes: (1)      Assets and liabilities include the following accounts:
The Fund is invested in interest-bearing placements with banks and other financial institutions both in Hong Kong and outside Hong Kong and in a variety of
financial instruments, including bonds, notes, treasury bills and equities.
(b) Foreign currency assets distribution
A large proportion of the Fund&#39;s foreign currency assets is held in US dollars. Apart from US dollar, the Fund also holds assets denominated in other
foreign currencies, including the Canadian dollar, Euro, Japanese yen and pound sterling.
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                                  page 31
Legislative Council Secretariat                                                           Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
(c)   Location of assets
The assets are held in deposit, trustee and safe-keeping accounts with banks, central banks and custodial organisations situated in Hong Kong and other
major financial centres.
(d) Valuation of assets and liabilities
Debt securities, equities and Exchange Fund Bills and Notes are valued in the accounts at market value at the balance sheet date. Placements with banks
and other financial institutions, certificates of deposit, consideration received or paid under repurchase and resale agreements, securities lending agreements,
placements by banks and other financial institutions, placements by other HKSAR government funds for which interest is payable at market-based rates and
placements by Hong Kong statutory bodies are valued according to a price matrix of discounted cash flows using applicable interest rates for discounting.
The consequential change in value of the asset or liability is reflected in the carrying value of the relevant asset or liability in the Balance Sheet except in the
case of placements by other HKSAR government funds for which interest is payable at market-based rates, which are stated in the Balance Sheet at the
principal amounts payable at the balance sheet date with the revaluation differences included in other liabilities. Placements by other HKSAR government
funds for which interest is payable at rates determined by reference to the investment income of the Fund are stated at the principal amounts payable at the
(e) Translation of foreign currency assets and liabilities
Exchange gains and losses on foreign currency assets and liabilities are included in the Income and Expenditure Account.
Certificates of Indebtedness and with effect from 1 April 1999 Coins in Circulation, both of which are denominated in Hong Kong dollars but are issued and
redeemed in US dollars at the linked exchange rate of US$1=$7.80, are stated in the accounts at their Hong Kong dollars face value. At the balance sheet
date, the difference between their Hong Kong dollar face value and the market value of the US dollars required for their redemption is included in other
(2)    As backing for the bank note issues, each note-issuing bank is required to hold a non-interest bearing Certificates of Indebtedness issued by the Financial
Secretary. Payments for the issuance and redemption of notes against these Certificates are made in US dollars at a fixed rate of US$1=HK$7.80.
(3)    Under the interbank payment system based on Real Time Gross Settlement principles, all licensed banks maintain a clearing account with the Monetary
Authority for the account of the Exchange Fund. The aggregate balance in these accounts represents the total level of liquidity in the interbank market.
(4)    These represent placements by other HKSAR government funds with the Exchange Fund. Until 31 March 1998, all placements by other HKSAR government
funds bore interest at market-based rates. With effect from 1 April 1998, the basis of interest payable on certain placements by other HKSAR government
funds was amended from market-based rates to rates determined by reference to the investment income of the Fund.
(5)    Other liabilities include placements by banks and other financial institutions, placements by Hong Kong statutory bodies, interest payable to Exchange Fund
Notes and placements by other HKSAR government funds, revaluation losses on off-balance sheet items which are marked to market, other accrued expenses
and provisions and the revaluation differences of placements by other HKSAR government funds for which interest is payable at market-based rates.
(6)    The accumulated surplus of the Exchange Fund is the total net profit earned by the Exchange Fund since 6 December 1935.
Source:   The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Hong Kong Annual Report, Various Issues.
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                                          page 32
24.       Principles of Fiscal Policy
24.1            The principles of fiscal policy are set out in the Basic Law. The
Government maintains that in drawing up the budget, it has to follow the principles
set out in Article 107 of the Basic Law of keeping expenditure within the limits of
revenues, striving to achieve a fiscal balance, avoiding deficits and keeping the budget
international financial centre.73
24.2            At present, the time frame adopted by the Government to strive a fiscal
balance is the six-year forecast period for the Medium Range Forecast.
25.       Guidelines on Purposes and Level of Fiscal Reserves
25.1          A set of guidelines to determine the level of fiscal reserves was
provided by the then Financial Secretary when he presented the 1998-99 Budget on
18 February 1998. He defined three purposes for which fiscal reserves are needed,
namely, to meet operating, contingency and monetary requirements.
(a) The operating requirement provides money on hand to meet day-
to-day cash flow needs and to cover those months in a financial
year when expenditure exceeds revenue. An amount equivalent
to three months of government expenditure is considered
(b) The contingency requirement is to meet the Government&#39;s
financial requirements when its revenues decline during a
downswing in the economic cycle, or to cope with the
consequences of unforeseen global events that would have serious
implications for the public finance. An amount equal to nine
months&#39; expenditure, allowing a margin of plus or minus three
months&#39; expenditure, is considered sufficient.
(c) The monetary requirement underpins the exchange rate stability.
An amount equal to the Hong Kong Dollar money supply under
the M1 definition74, allowing a margin of plus or minus 25%, is
Article 109 of the Basic Law.
M1 refers to the sum of legal tender notes and coins held by the public plus customers&#39; demand
deposits placed with licensed banks.
Research and Library Services Division                                                       page 33
25.2             Under the aforementioned guidelines, the level of fiscal reserves
should be the sum of 12 months&#39; government expenditure and Hong Kong Dollar
money supply under the M1 definition, with a margin of plus or minus 25%. It
means that fiscal reserves were considered at an appropriate level if they stayed
between the limits of 15 months of government expenditure plus 125% of Hong Kong
Dollar money supply under the M1 definition (i.e. the upper limit) and nine months of
government expenditure plus 75% of Hong Kong Dollar money supply under the M1
definition (i.e. the lower limit).
25.3           In his 1998-99 Budget Speech, the Financial Secretary pointed out that
the guidelines were proposed in light of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and 1998.
The guidelines might be reviewed when the Government had built up some
experience in following them.    At that time, the estimated government expenditure
in 1997-98 was HK$198 billion. M1 money supply averaged HK$202 billion in
1997. This indicated that, to meet the guidelines, fiscal reserves should lie between
HK$300 and HK$500 billion. The Government&#39;s accumulated fiscal reserves as at
31 March 1998 were at HK$446 billion.75
25.4           In Financial Years 1998-99 and 2000-01, the Government used fiscal
reserves to finance consolidated deficits at HK$23.2 billion and HK$7.8 billion
25.5         On 14 August 1998, the Financial Secretary, with the support of the
Exchange Fund Advisory Committee and the consent of the Chief Executive, asked
the HKMA to use the Exchange Fund, part of it being fiscal reserves, to take
appropriate measures in the stock and futures markets to counter speculative
25.6           In his 2002-03 Budget Speech on 6 March 2002, the Financial
Secretary announced a revised target level of fiscal reserves in the light of the
prevailing conditions of the economy and public finances. He said that &quot;in the wake
of the Asian financial crisis, the HKMA has implemented a series of measures to
reinforce the stability of the Hong Kong Dollar exchange rate. In addition, the
accumulated surplus of the Exchange Fund has now reached HK$300 billion. These
developments have greatly enhanced the Exchange Fund&#39;s ability to maintain
exchange rate stability. I see no further need to link the level of fiscal reserves to
money supply. In my view, it should be sufficient to have fiscal reserves equivalent to
around 12 months of government expenditure to meet operating and contingency
requirements. Although it is no longer necessary to link the level of fiscal reserves to
money supply, the Government&#39;s fiscal reserves will continue to be placed with the
Exchange Fund, thereby providing even more resources for the Exchange Fund to
maintain the stability of the Hong Kong Dollar and our monetary system.&quot;76
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 1998-99 Budget, 18 February
1998, paragraphs 57-63.
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 2002-03 Budget, 6 March 2002,
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 34
Legislative Council Secretariat             Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
25.7           As the Government&#39;s fiscal reserves will not be kept separately from
the Exchange Fund and they would also form part of the resources to maintain the
stability of the Hong Kong Dollar, the purpose of fiscal reserves for monetary
requirements still stands.
25.8           The estimated government expenditure in Financial Year 2002-03 was
HK$254.3 billion. The new guidelines on the level of fiscal reserves should be
equivalent to around 12 months of government expenditure, i.e. around HK$254.3
billion, to meet operating and contingency requirements. As of 31 January 2002,
the Government&#39;s accumulated fiscal reserves amounted to HK$389.7 billion which
was equivalent to about 19.5 months of government expenditure.
Views on the Guidelines on Purposes and Level of Fiscal Reserves
25.9            Prior to the revision of the guidelines on the level of fiscal reserves,
academics and experts were invited to speak at the Financial Affairs Panel meeting on
3 July 2001, the majority view seems to suggest that fiscal reserves should be
employed to fulfil both the operating and contingency requirements. There is
reservation regarding using fiscal reserves for the monetary requirement. There are
doubts on whether it is appropriate to include such a purpose in the requirement of
fiscal reserves. Following the announcement of the new guidelines, views were
invited from those who had formerly given views to the Panel. As of the publication
date of this research report, Professor HO Lok-sang and Professor Leonard CHENG
Kwok-hon have provided their views on the new guidelines. They have responded
that a reserve equivalent to 12 months of government expenditure is acceptable. A
summary of the relevant opinions on the subject is presented in Table 8.
Research and Library Services Division                                                page 35
Table 8 - Views of Academics and Experts on the Guidelines on Purposes and
Level of Fiscal Reserves
Academics and experts                                        Details
Professor HO Lok-sang         Professor HO has commented that the Government&#39;s guidelines
on the level of fiscal reserves to support the linked exchange rate
system are meaningless. On the other hand, achieving budget
balance at full employment is important if the linked exchange
rate system is to be maintained.
He is all for a stable fiscal policy that aims at balanced budget at
full employment and the Government should tolerate cyclical
budget deficits but not structural deficits.
He agrees that there is no need to maintain a huge fiscal reserve.
A reserve equal to one year&#39;s expenditure is quite acceptable.
Professor TANG Shu-           The government had an unofficial guideline in the 1950s when
hung77                        fiscal reserves was set to be not less than government revenue at
the corresponding budget year.           This guideline was not
achievable until several years later. Then in 1962-63, the
guideline was amended that fiscal reserves should not be less
than 50% of the budgetary operating expenditure.
The Government&#39;s 1998-99 guidelines were too conservative and
much higher than the previous guidelines. The restrictive
guidelines did not allow the Government to adopt a deficit
budget in 1998-99 when the economy experienced a negative
Under a currency board system, the Central Bank does not need
to intervene in the foreign exchange market to maintain the
stability of the currency. It only needs to hold foreign reserves
equivalent to some 105% - 112% of its monetary base.
The HKMA used some HK$296.4 billion to support the Hong
Kong dollar in August 1998. The accumulated surplus of the
Exchange Fund at that time was close to HK$300 billion, which
implied that HKMA had enough foreign reserves to support
Hong Kong dollar and did not need fiscal reserves to further
He suggests to adopt the following amended guideline: At the
beginning of a financial year, the level of reserves should be
50% of the government expenditure for the year.
Interested readers can read his original views on fiscal reserves in full as published in the Hong
Kong Economic Times dated 14 June 2001 and 15 June 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                         page 36
Academics and experts                                      Details
Professor Wilson WONG Fiscal reserves should fulfil the purposes of operating and
Wai-ho                contingency requirements only, while the monetary requirement
is not justified. To meet the two former requirements, fiscal
reserves at the level of 12 months of public expenditure should
be sufficient. If necessary, the Government can borrow money
to meet any shortfall in expenditure.
Professor Stephen Y L Fiscal reserves should fulfil the purposes of operating and
CHEUNG                contingency requirements only, but it is difficult to understand
the rationale behind the monetary requirement.
A rule of thumb is that fiscal reserves should be sufficient to pay
for three or four months&#39; worth of imports. In addition to the
ratio of reserves-to-imports, Professor CHEUNG also looks at
reserves-to-expenditure and reserves-to-Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). He suggests that the ratio of reserves-to-GDP can be
used as a benchmark in measuring the adequacy of fiscal
reserves. Lower and upper limits can be set to reflect short-
term fluctuations in the economy.
Professor Francis LUI        Although the establishment of guidelines on fiscal reserves is
Ting-ming                    quite arbitrary, it will enhance the transparency and credibility of
the Government&#39;s fiscal policy. However, in the event that
reserves falls below the lower limit if it was set too high, it may
hurt the public&#39;s confidence. Therefore, it may be necessary to
preserve a certain degree of constructive ambiguity in the
Government&#39;s fiscal position to prevent speculation on the
Mr Vincent KWAN              There is no hard and fast rule of thumb in determining an
appropriate level of fiscal reserves, both theoretically or
economically.       The &quot;proper level of fiscal reserves&quot; is
circumstantial in nature which needs to be determined from time
to time by taking into account of the specific situation of the
economy and its public finance.
Professor Leonard            Fiscal reserves should fulfil the purposes of operating and
CHENG Kwok-hon               contingency requirements. The monetary requirement is not
justified given the existence of a very sizeable Exchange Fund.
Hence, fiscal reserves at a level between 12 to 15 months of
government expenditure will be adequate to address the needs
He supports the Financial Secretary&#39;s new guideline on the level
of fiscal reserves.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 37
26.       Government&#39;s Fiscal Positions from Financial Year 1983-84 to Financial
26.1             In the last 10 Financial Years78, the Government recorded surpluses in
Financial Years 1992-93, 1993-94, 1994-95, 1996-97, 1997-98 and 1999-2000 but had
deficits for Financial Years 1995-96, 1998-99 and 2000-01 (see Table 9).
26.2            For Financial Year 2001-02, government revenue and government
expenditure are projected to total HK$173.8 billion and HK$239.4 billion respectively,
leading to an estimated deficit of HK$65.6 billion (equivalent to 5.2% of GDP). The
large deficit has been a result of decreased revenues from three major sources (namely,
investment income on fiscal reserves, land premiums and the sale of Mass Transit
Railway Corporation shares).
26.3           Another concern of the Government is that operating expenditures have
continuously exceeded operating revenues since Financial Year 1998-99. In the 2002-03
Budget, the Government has projected to record operating deficits after investment
income from fiscal reserves in the next few years until Financial Year 2006-07.
Fiscal Reserve Balances
26.4           The Government&#39;s fiscal reserves79 comprised the accumulated balances
of the General Revenue Account and seven funds80, namely, Capital Works Reserve Fund,
Capital Investment Fund, Civil Service Pension Reserve Fund, Disaster Relief Fund,
Innovation and Technology Fund, Land Fund and Loan Fund.
26.5             As mentioned in paragraph 23.1, the Government accumulates the annual
surplus in fiscal reserves. The fiscal reserve balance amounted to HK$21.8 billion at the
end of Financial Year 1983-84 when the Government established the linked exchange rate
system in October 1983. The balance of fiscal reserves continued to rise to HK$457.5
billion at the end of Financial Year 1997-98 despite the fact that there were various
external shocks (e.g. global stock market crash in October 1987, the Gulf War in August
1990, the exchange rate mechanism turmoil in Europe in September 1992, the Mexican
currency crisis in January 1995, the Asian Financial crisis between July 1997 and 1998)
which might have affected the stability of the exchange rate system. It is noteworthy
that fiscal reserves saw a big increase in Financial Year 1997-98 as a result of the
establishment of the Land Fund on 1 July 1997 to receive the HK$197.1 billion worth of
investment held by the former Trustees of the HKSAR Government Land Fund.
Financial year begins on 1 April and ends on 31 March.
Hong Kong foreign currency reserve assets amounted to US$111.2 billion at the end of December
2001. In terms of foreign currency reserves ranking, Hong Kong is the world&#39;s fourth largest
holder of foreign reserves, after Japan, Mainland China and Taiwan.
These funds are established under section 29 of the Public Finance Ordinance to finance specific
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 38
Legislative Council Secretariat                                                                                        Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Table 9 - Government&#39;s Fiscal Position between Financial Year 1983-84 and Financial Year 2001-2002 (in millions of Hong Kong dollars)
1983-84   1984-85   1985-86   1986-87   1987-88(a)   1988-89   1989-90   1990-91(b)   1991-92   1992-93(c)   1993-94   1994-95   1995-96(d)   1996-97   1997-98(e)   1998-99    1999-00   2000-01
2001-02(f)
32,813    38,511    43,695    48,603     60,877      72,658    82,430      89,524     114,701   135,311      166,602   174,998    180,045     208,358   281,226      216,115    232,995   225,060    173,830
35,346    36,087    40,845    42,704     48,375      56,592    71,366      85,557     92,192    113,332      147,438   164,155    183,158     182,680   194,360      239,356    223,043   232,893    239,350
(2,533)    2,425     2,850     5,899     12,502      16,066    11,064       3,967     22,509      21,979      19,164    10,843      (3,113)    25,678    86,866      (23,241)    9,952    (7,833)    (65,520)
21,772       24,197    27,047    32,946     45,448      61,514    72,578      76,545     99,054    121,033      140,197   151,040    147,927     173,605   457,543(2)   434,302    444,254   430,278    369,760
Remarks: External shocks which occurred since the establishment of the linked exchange rate system in October 1983 and might/did affect the exchange rate system in Hong Kong
World stock market crash (October 1987)
Gulf War (August 1990)
Exchange rate mechanism turmoil in Europe (September 1992)
Mexican currency crisis (January 1995)
Asian financial crisis (July 1997 - 1998)
Abolishment of Argentina&#39;s currency board system (January 2002)
Notes:            Figures exclude &#39;transfers between the General Revenue Account and Funds&#39;.
Including net worth of HK$197,072 million received from Trustee of the former Special Administrative Region Government Land Fund at 1 July 1997.
Sources: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, Various Issues.
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: 2000-01 Government Final Accounts, 6 July 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                                                                                page 39
Legislative Council Secretariat                 Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
26.6          However, the fiscal reserve balance has declined since the end of
Financial Year 1999-2000: from HK$430.3 billion at the end of Financial Year
2000-01 to HK$389.7 billion at 31 January 2002. The Financial Secretary has
projected that fiscal reserves will amount to HK$369.8 billion (19 months of
government expenditure) by 31 March 2002, and HK$325.6 billion (15 months of
government expenditure) by 31 March 2003 (see Table 10).
Table 10 - Projected Government&#39;s Fiscal Position (in millions of Hong Kong
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2007-08
Consolidated surplus/(deficit) (65,630) (45,210) (38,760) (15,870)              60         50
Fiscal reserves at 31 March       369,760 325,580 286,910 271,040 271,100 271,150
As number of months of
19         15         14         13         13         12
Source: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 2002-03 Budget, 6 March
26.7           The Government has projected that there will be consolidated deficit
in the coming three financial years, amounting to HK$45.2 billion in Financial Year
2002-0381, HK$38.7 billion in Financial Year 2003-04 and HK$15.9 billion in
Financial Year 2004-05. This implies that the estimated consolidated deficit for the
coming three financial years will total HK$99.8 billion. Accordingly, fiscal
reserves will be drawn to finance the deficit. Hence, the balance of the fiscal
reserves is projected to drop to HK$271.0 billion (13 months of government
expenditure) at the end of Financial Year 2004-05 and remain more or less stable at
that level onwards (see Table 10).
Investment Income from Fiscal Reserves
26.8           Investment income82 from fiscal reserves is used to finance
government expenditure. It is noteworthy that investment income from fiscal
reserves decreased rapidly from HK$36.8 billion for Financial Year 1999-2000 to
zero for Financial Year 2001-02 (see Table 11).
The expenditure estimates for 2002-03 have accounted for the assumed 4.75% civil service pay
reduction and the corresponding reduction in subventions for salary-related expenses to
subvented organisations, which are assumed to take effect from 1 October 2002 onwards.
The Exchange Fund recorded investment income of HK$7.0 billion in 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                    page 40
Table 11 - Investment Income from Fiscal Reserves between Financial Year
1991-92 and Financial Year 2001-02 (in billions of Hong Kong
1991   1992    1993   1994   1995      1996    1997    1998   1999     2000
-92    -93     -94    -95    -96       -97     -98     -99   -2000     -01
3.0     1.8     3.4   4.9    5.9       5.6     15.0    31.6    36.8    19.5      0.0
Source: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The Final Report of the Task
Force on Review of Public Finances, February 2002
Views on the Size of Fiscal Reserves
26.9             In addition to giving views on the guidelines on purposes and target
level of fiscal reserves, academics and experts invited to the Financial Affairs Panel
meeting on 3 July 2001 also commented on the present size of fiscal reserves. The
majority of the academics are of the view that there is an excess of fiscal reserves in
Hong Kong. A summary of their views is presented in Table 12.
Research and Library Services Division                                                      page 41
Table 12 - Views of Academics and Experts on the Size of Fiscal Reserves
Professor Y C JAO            The administration&#39;s explanation that it has to adhere to the two
budgetary principles enshrined in Article 107 of the Basic Law
is not sufficient to justify the size of fiscal reserves. Therefore,
the size of fiscal reserves needs to be justified by sound
However, a large size of fiscal reserves is justified because of the
(a) It acts as a buffer against the adverse effects of an
unanticipated crisis or contingency since Hong Kong is an
exceptionally open economy; and
(b) It provides room for manoeuvre during the downward
phase of the economic cycle because Hong Kong&#39;s
monetary policy is constrained under the linked exchange
He does not agree that Hong Kong&#39;s huge foreign reserves are
strong enough to protect Hong Kong against external shocks,
allowing fiscal reserves to be freely used for spending. He
argues that the stability of the linked exchange rate by itself does
not guarantee the absence of currency or financial crisis, thus it
must be strengthened by fiscal soundness and probity. Any
fiscal imprudence that results in a significant decrease in the size
of fiscal reserves will give wrong signals to both investors and
speculators, ultimately undermining confidence in Hong Kong.
Professor HO Lok-sang        It is not meaningful to determine the optimal size of government
since the relevant question is whether each spending area is
optimally sized. To achieve an optimal government, it is
important to quantify benefits versus costs for each spending
In any event, Professor HO is worried that Hong Kong is
suffering from structural deficits, which if continues, will draw
fiscal reserves down.
Professor TANG Shu-   Professor TANG has commented that the size of fiscal reserves
hung                  may be too big based upon the 1998-99 guidelines.
Professor Wilson WONG There is an excess of fiscal reserves, even if monetary
Wai-ho                requirement is taken as a primary and legitimate objective of
fiscal reserves. There are other more useful and cost-effective
ways of defending the linked exchange rate that do not require
enormous fiscal reserves.
Research and Library Services Division                                                    page 42
Academics and experts                                    Details
Professor Stephen Y L        There is an excess of fiscal reserves. Fiscal reserves are
CHEUNG                       important to maintain public confidence in Hong Kong and a
sudden drop in reserves may attract adverse attention from the
international investment community, particularly from credit
Holding large reserves per se cannot prevent crisis.
Nonetheless, countries that had big reserves, on average, did
better than those with small reserves.
However, holding an excessive amount of reserves may indicate
that the Government is too conservative in investing in our
economy. Large reserves are costly because they represent a
lot of money sitting idle in the bank; the opportunity to invest
this money in the economy is lost. In most developed
economies, holding large reserves seems unjustified, especially
since these economies can borrow on the world capital market
Professor Francis LUI        Professor LUI has commented that fiscal reserves of some
Ting-ming                    HK$100 - $200 billion should be sufficient to deal with any
imbalances in the Government&#39;s operation. Therefore, there are
excessive fiscal reserves.
Even during the Asian Financial Crisis, less than HK$10 billion
were shorted compared to around HK$230 billion of foreign
reserves backing up the linked exchange rate system.
Accordingly, the linked exchange rate system does not need the
additional protection of some HK$400 billion fiscal reserves.
Larger fiscal reserves may encourage higher government
expenditure, which will increase both the pressure of the
occurrence of fiscal deficits and the ratio of government
expenditure to GDP.         Studies have discovered that the
expansion in government may lead to lower long-term economic
Professor Richard Y C        The burning question to consider is the optimal level of
WONG                         Government spending.
Mr Vincent KWAN              Hong Kong&#39;s huge fiscal reserves were built up between 1985
and 1997 as a result of the booming property market.
Professor Leonard            Hong Kong&#39;s fiscal reserves, in absolute terms and as a fraction
CHENG Kwok-hon               of its GDP, are huge by international standard. However, if the
formula proposed in the 1998/99 Budget Speech were to be
applied to previous years, then Hong Kong&#39;s fiscal reserves
would have been grossly inadequate, with the exception of
1997/98, the year the Land Fund became part of fiscal reserves.
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 43
27.     Uses of Excess Fiscal Reserves
27.1         The majority of academics invited to the Financial Affairs Panel
meeting on 3 July 2001 are of the view that any freely disposable fiscal reserves
should be employed for uses other than fulfilling the monetary requirement. A
summary of their views is presented in Table 13.
Table 13 - Views on the Uses of Excess Fiscal Reserves
Academics and experts                                         Details
Professor Y C JAO                 The priorities of using &quot;freely disposable fiscal reserves&quot; are:
(a) job training or retraining for unemployed and under-
(b) &quot;Comprehensive Social Security Assistance&quot;;
(c) education and high technology; and
(d) tax cut or relief.
Professor HO Lok-sang             Professor HO has proposed the Government to limit its
spending only to social projects with a good rate of return so as
to improve the livelihood of the general public and to stimulate
Professor Terence                 If the reserves are at or below the level under the Government&#39;s
CHONG                             guidelines, the reserves should be used only when Hong Kong
is under catastrophic circumstances. The Government should
not use the reserves simply for the improvement of the living
standard of the public which is already well above the
Professor CHONG has suggested the Government to set up a
Relief Fund if the reserves are above the maximum level. The
interest income of the Fund can be used to help low-income
Professor TANG Shu-               The Government should utilize the substantial reserves to
hung                              improve the economy and to invest in projects for the long-
term benefits of Hong Kong.
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 44
Professor Wilson WONG             The Government should use the excess fiscal reserves to
Wai-ho                            address some of the critical issues and major problems faced by
Hong Kong, such as the promotion of economic growth and the
restructuring of the economy. In deciding the best way of
using the excess fiscal reserves, the Government should follow
(a)    avoiding long-term financial commitment since the
excess fiscal reserves are not recurrent revenues;
(b)    allowing the private sector to take the initiative in using
the excess fiscal reserves and limiting the role of the
(c)    emphasizing investment, not consumption, to yield
returns for Hong Kong.
Professor WONG has suggested that an endowment fund can
be created to privatize universities, health services and housing
in Hong Kong. The Government can also use the excess
reserves to finance or subsidize education for low-income
classes and provide support services (e.g. child care).
Professor Stephen Y L             Excess amount of fiscal reserves can be invested in projects
CHEUNG                            that will enhance Hong Kong&#39;s sustainable economic growth.
These projects should generate a higher rate of return than that
of the Exchange Fund. For example, infrastructure projects to
improve the hardware (e.g. railway and reclamation) and
software (e.g. education) for economic development can attract
more investments to Hong Kong.
Professor Francis LUI             Instead of preserving fiscal reserves to maintain the stability of
Ting-ming83                       Hong Kong dollar, the reserves should be used to improve the
economic environment, which in turn would help maintain the
stability of the exchange rate.
The Government should invest fiscal reserves to enhance the
productivity and competitiveness of Hong Kong. Investments
made should help alleviate the problem of uneven distribution
of wealth and provide benefits to the entire society rather than
selected classes of people. The investment should best be
undertaken by the private sector.
In respect of specific investment programme, about HK$200
billion should be earmarked to set up a tertiary education fund
for the long-term development of tertiary education in Hong
Professor LUI has further explained that there are two ways to deal with the reserves. One is to
earmark part of the reserves for some projects that may improve Hong Kong&#39;s economic
development or to set up a fund to pay for government liabilities (e.g. civil servants&#39; pensions).
The other is to earmark the reserves for the purpose of investing in US bonds. The investment
will generate a steady flow of dividends every year, which will form part of the government
income. However, once earmarked, only the dividends should be spent, but not the principal of
Research and Library Services Division                                                        page 45
Professor Richard Y C             Fiscal reserves can be leveraged to make expenditure cutting
WONG                              more palatable to society and to directly affected parties.
Expenditure cutting will help preserve Hong Kong&#39;s
commitment to a limited government system. It will also help
the Government budget for the structural deficit that Hong
Kong is likely to face.
(a)   fully fund civil service pensions, which will then be
removed from recurrent public expenditure;
(b) reform the public housing policy and end the Home
Ownership Scheme programme;
(c) privatize government-owned assets, like the Airport
Authority, the Water Authority and tunnels;
(d) increase private participation in infrastructure
(e) enhance incentives for the private provision and funding
of health care to stem the growth of public medical and
health expenditures; and
(f)    endow universities and reduce recurrent spending on
Mr Vincent KWAN               The current fiscal reserves have not been built up intentionally
for specific purposes. Mr KWAN suggests that any proper
use of fiscal reserves should fall into the following categories:
(a) accumulate for planned expenditure and investments in
(b) accumulate for generating recurrent investment income;
(c) cover unforeseen budget deficits;
(d) use the reserves for fiscal stimulation of the economy;
(e) use the reserves for specific capital investments.
The Government may consider setting aside certain amount of
reserves to finance pension payments for civil servants.
Professor Leonard             Professor CHENG does not think fiscal reserves should be kept
CHENG Kwok-hon                in preparation of future speculative attacks on the Hong Kong
dollar. Fiscal reserves should be used to invest in Hong
Kong&#39;s economic foundation by upgrading knowledge, skills
and technology. The key areas that Hong Kong should invest
(a) education and human resources;
(b) physical environment, including urban development and
(c) cultural environment, including arts and sports; and
(d) technology, in particular technology that reinforces Hong
Kong&#39;s traditionally strong industries and technology that
creates new and sustainable advantages.
Research and Library Services Division                                                       page 46
PART 8 - ANALYSIS
28.     References for Hong Kong
28.1            The subject of fiscal reserves has been discussed on quite a number
of occasions in the Legislative Council, namely at meetings with the Financial
Secretary and the Secretary for the Treasury at the Finance Committee and the
Financial Affairs Panel. Members are particularly concerned about the current
arrangement in maintaining fiscal reserves and they question whether this
arrangement would provide sufficient room for Hong Kong to face adversities and
economic difficulties.     Reference may be made to the practices in other
jurisdictions in maintaining fiscal reserves and in financing fiscal deficits.
28.2         In this analysis, we have highlighted the following aspects for
(a) In what manner a budget is proposed; whether the proposed
budget is subject to any statutory regulation or fiscal policy;
(b) In the event that a balanced budget is required, the measures
taken to ensure that is achieved;
(c) In what manner surpluses are kept and maintained; under what
circumstances and with whose authority surpluses could be
(d) In what manner deficits are paid off; whether other alternatives
are adopted apart from maintaining fiscal reserves; how effective
(e) In the event that fiscal reserves or funds are in existence to pay
off fiscal deficits, whether yardsticks are instituted to determine
the level of reserves / funds;
(f) Whether the level of fiscal reserves / funds is a consideration
when preparing the budget;
(g) Whether the fiscal reserves / funds are also used for objectives
other than fiscal purposes; and
(h) In what manner fiscal reserves / funds are managed and invested;
and under whose authority the reserves / funds can be used.
Research and Library Services Division                                                page 47
28.3           To facilitate Members&#39; discussion, a comparison table of the findings
of the jurisdictions covered in this study is provided in the Appendix. The
information highlighted in the following paragraphs may be of relevance for further
Principles of Fiscal Policy
28.4            All jurisdictions studied in this research have their own fiscal policies.
In the cases of New Zealand, Argentina, the US and Hong Kong, these principles of
fiscal policy are set out in laws. In Singapore, New Zealand, Argentina, the United
States of America (US) and Hong Kong, the principles of fiscal policy are to avoid
or reduce budget deficits, and to maintain a balanced budget on average over the
medium to long term. Hence, most of the governments of the jurisdictions studied
strive to balance the budget and avoid deficits.
Measures to Achieve a Balanced Budget
28.5          In New Zealand, there are guidelines for raising sufficient
government revenues to fund government expenditures and running budget surplus
on average over the economic cycle.
28.6           In the US, there is a &quot;pay-as-you-go&quot; (PAYGO) provision in the
Budget Enforcement Act of 1990 which requires the costs of new or expanded
government programmes be explicitly covered through either higher taxes or lower
expenditures in other programmes.
Practices of Maintaining Budget Surpluses/Fiscal Reserves
28.7           The jurisdictions studied in this research have different practices in
maintaining budget surpluses/fiscal reserves.        In Norway, the government
accumulates budget surpluses in a stabilization fund, i.e. the Government Petroleum
Fund, which is invested in foreign financial assets. In Singapore, fiscal reserves,
along with foreign reserves, are managed by the Government of Singapore
Investment Corporation which is owned by the government. In Hong Kong, fiscal
reserves are placed in the Exchange Fund which is managed by the Hong Kong
Monetary Authority (HKMA).
Ways to Finance Budget Deficits/Government Debt
28.8          In our research, Singapore and Hong Kong record budget deficits but
have incurred no government debt in the time period studied. Both Singapore and
Hong Kong have used fiscal reserves to finance budget deficits.
Research and Library Services Division                                                page 48
28.9          New Zealand has incurred government debt which is financed by
raising funds from domestic and international markets and selling government-
28.10           Argentina and the US have recorded budget deficits and have
government debt. Argentina finances its budget deficits/government debt by
raising funds from multilateral lending agencies, including the International
Monetary Fund, the US government and institutional investors. The US finances
its budget deficits/government debt by raising funds from domestic and international
28.11          The implications for the different ways to finance budget
deficits/government debts are as follows:
(a)    If the use of fiscal reserves to finance deficits is to be continued,
it may lead to scarcity of financial resources available for future
use and lack of flexibility for financing means to meet changing
needs of the jurisdiction; and
(b)    Borrowing will have an impact on public expenditure due to
interest payments, as well as on the interest rates to attract
capital to cover deficits, and financial burden on future
Use of Fiscal Reserves/Budget Surpluses to Finance Economic Stimulus Packages
28.12        Both Singapore and the US have implemented economic stimulus
packages to help revive the economy and to minimize the impact of economic
28.13         In the case of Singapore, the government used fiscal reserves to
finance two separate off-budget support packages introduced in July and October
2001 respectively. The major measures of these two packages included:
(a)    accelerating the construction of infrastructure projects;
(b)    providing tax and fee rebates;
(c)    reducing business costs;
(d)    helping the unemployed and promoting worker retraining;
(e)    providing assistance to local enterprises;
(f)    implementing land/property-related stimulating measures;
(g)    issuing New Singapore Shares; and
(h)    reducing the salaries of political appointees and civil servants.
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 49
28.14          In the US, the government uses budget surplus to finance economic
stimulus packages. The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act was
enacted in May 2001 to provide for a US$1.35 trillion tax cut in 10 years. The
centrepiece of this law is an across-the-board cut in income tax rates. In addition,
the Job Creation and Worker Assistance Act was enacted in March 2002 which
lengthens a 13-week extension of unemployment benefits for the unemployed and
provides business with further tax cuts.
Guidelines on the Level of Fiscal Reserves
28.15           Among the jurisdictions studied, Hong Kong is the only place which
has guidelines on determining the level of fiscal reserves. Based on information
available to us84, we are not aware of any guidelines adopted by overseas
jurisdictions for determining the appropriate level of fiscal reserves. It appears that
there are no explicit guidelines on fiscal reserves announced by other governments.
As a matter of fact, most governments do not have fiscal reserves. Singapore has
fiscal reserves but it does not have any public guidelines on the level of fiscal
28.16          In Hong Kong, under the new guidelines announced by the Financial
Secretary in the 2002-03 Budget, fiscal reserves are considered to be at an
appropriate level if they amount to around 12 months of government expenditure to
meet operating and contingency requirements.
28.17           It is noted that prior to 1998, the Government did have an unofficial
guideline of setting fiscal reserves at not less than 50% of the budgetary operating
expenditure.85 While the guidelines adopted in 1998 represented a significant raise
in the definition of the appropriate level of fiscal reserves, the new guidelines have
reduced the definition to a lower level.
Fiscal Reserves to Meet Monetary Requirement
28.18          Argentina is the only overseas jurisdiction in our study which had
implemented a currency board system. It is noteworthy that the Central Bank of
Argentina was not required to use fiscal reserves, if there were any, to defend the
linked exchange rate system. In fact, the country does not have any fiscal reserves
but has a huge government debt amounting to US$162 billion.
We are awaiting information from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Inter-American Development Bank,
Brookings Institution and the Institute for Fiscal Studies regarding whether any overseas
jurisdictions have laid down guidelines for determining the appropriate level of fiscal reserves.
TANG Shu-hung, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1646/00-
01(04).
Research and Library Services Division                                                       page 50
28.19          The other jurisdictions studied, including Singapore, Norway, New
Zealand and the US, all implement a floating exchange rate system. In theory, they
do not need to fix the exchange rate at a determined margin. In reality, the central
banks of these jurisdictions may use their reserves to intervene the foreign exchange
market so as to stabilize the exchange rate from time to time.
28.20           In Hong Kong, under the currency board system, fiscal reserves are
placed with the Exchange Fund and thus form part of the resources used to maintain
the stability of the Hong Kong dollar. The monetary base, comprising Certificates
of Indebtedness and coins issued, the Aggregate Balance86 of the banking system
and Exchange Fund Bills and Notes issued, amounting to HK$229.7 billion at the
end of December 2001, is fully backed by the Exchange Fund. Under this system,
Hong Kong dollar is linked at the exchange rate of HK$7.8 to one US dollar.
28.21          The majority view of the academics and experts invited to speak at
the Financial Affairs Panel meeting on 3 July 2001 is that it is doubtful if monetary
requirement should be included as one of the purposes of fiscal reserves.
28.22           In our study, both Singapore and Norway have fiscal reserves, but
they are not required to use their fiscal reserves for monetary purpose. Based on
information available to us, we are not aware of any overseas jurisdictions which use
fiscal reserves for monetary purpose.
29.       Matters for Consideration
29.1        Based upon the practices of other jurisdictions and academics&#39; views,
Members may wish to consider the following issues:
(a) whether the Government should establish guidelines to
determine purposes and level of fiscal reserves;
(b) whether the present purposes of fiscal reserves are appropriate
and whether the reserves should be kept separately from the rest
of the Exchange Fund for accounting purposes;
(c) for operating purpose, whether it is necessary to have a reserve
exceeding three months of government expenditure and whether
this can be absorbed within the reserve for meeting contingency
The sum of the clearing balances of the licensed banks held with the HKMA for the purpose of
effecting the clearing and settlement of transactions between the banks themselves and also
between the HKMA and the banks.
Research and Library Services Division                                                     page 51
(d) for contingency purpose, whether it is necessary to have a
reserve exceeding the projected fiscal deficit for the current and
the following, say, four financial years; or the aggregate of five
consecutive years with the highest deficits recorded, whichever
(e) for monetary purpose, how far and to what extent could fiscal
reserves be utilized for such a purpose, and could this
requirement be fulfilled by the accumulated surplus in the
Exchange Fund instead;
(f) in the event of excess fiscal reserves, whether the excess could
be used to finance relief programmes to reduce the hardship of
the public under the current economic situation, as well as other
designated programmes; and
(g) what other incomes the Government has, e.g. through its
investments in other public services or projects, which can be
placed with designated funds/reserves for the purpose of
financing specific social services or contingent relief measures.
Research and Library Services Division                                                page 52
Legislative Council Secretariat                                   Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Overall Comparison of the Experiences of Singapore, Norway, New Zealand, Argentina, the United States of America (US)
and Hong Kong in Maintaining Fiscal Reserves or Financing Government Debt
Table 14 - Comparison of the Experiences of Singapore, Norway, New Zealand, Argentina, the United States of America and Hong Kong
in Maintaining Fiscal Reserves or Financing Government Debt
Singapore           Norway          New Zealand             Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Economic Situations in 2001 and 2002
Economic    • In recession       • An estimated    •    An estimated   • Recession for the •             GDP is forecast to • The Government
Growth in   • Gross Domestic       1.6% GDP growth      1.5% GDP growth fourth consecutive               grow at an           has estimated a
2001          Product (GDP) is                                           year                            estimated 1.2%       0.1% real GDP
estimated to                                             • GDP is estimated                                     growth
contract by 2.2%                                           to contract 2.7%
Growth      • GDP growth         • A higher GDP    •    An estimated   • GDP is projected •              An estimated            • The Government
forecast in   forecast is in the   growth rate of       1.5% GDP growth to contract by a                 2-2.5% GDP                has projected a
2002          range of 1% to       2.7%                                  further 1.1%                    growth                    1% real GDP
3%                                                                                                                   growth
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                           page 53
Legislative Council Secretariat                                      Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore         Norway               New Zealand                Argentina                                       Hong Kong
Laws or    • Nil                     • Guidelines for     • Fiscal Responsibility • Fiscal         • Budget          • Basic Law
Fiscal     • However, the              Economic             Act of 1994             Responsibility   Enforcement Act   (Article 107)
Guidelines   government has            Policy                                       Act of 1999      of 1990
outlined the principles                                              • Zero-deficit
of fiscal policy in                                                    Act of 2001
various sources such
as government&#39;s
websites and high-
ranked government
officials&#39; speeches
Principles • Avoid persistent        • Allocate           • Reduce government • Reduce future • Reduce budget            • Keep
of Fiscal    budget deficits           resources for        debt to a prudent level budget deficits deficit for a fiscal   government
Policy     • Promote development       public             • Once government         and balance     year by a specified expenditure
and improve               consumption,         debt is reduced to a    the budget by   dollar amount          within the limits
efficiency and            public               prudent level, the      Fiscal Year                            of revenues in
productive capacity of    investment and       government should       2005                                   drawing up the
the economy               transfers to         maintain a balanced • Restrain                                 budget
• Keep the size of the      achieve the          budget on average       monthly                              • Strive to
public sector small       highest possible     over the medium to      government                             achieve a fiscal
welfare over         long term               spending to                            balance and
time               • Manage fiscal risks     match                                  avoid deficits
• Contribute to a      prudently               monthly tax                          • Keep the budget
stable and         • Ensure tax stability    revenues                               commensurate
sustainable          for private sector                                             with the growth
economic             planning                                                       rate of GDP
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                              page 54
Legislative Council Secretariat                                               Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore                 Norway               New Zealand              Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Guidelines • Nil                         • Stabililize         •Limit government • Nil                           • Nil                       • Strive a fiscal
for                                        fluctuations in the  expenditures at                                                                balance in the
Upholding                                  economy              the level of 35%                                                               six-year forecast
the                                      • Transfer the         of GDP                                                                         period for the
Principles                                 expected return on • Raise sufficient                                                               Medium Range
of Fiscal                                  the Government       government                                                                     Forecast
Policy                                     Petroleum Fund to    revenues to fund
finance              government
government           expenditures
spending            •Run budget
to below 30% of
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                       page 55
Legislative Council Secretariat                                 Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore          Norway        New Zealand             Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Government&#39;s Fiscal Position
Budget          • Recorded budget • Recorded budget • Recorded budget • Recorded budget • Recorded budget                      • Recorded
Surpluses/        surpluses         surpluses between surpluses between deficits between   deficits between                      surpluses in
Budget            between Fiscal    Fiscal Year 1997  Fiscal Year 1994  Fiscal Year 1995   Fiscal Year 1995                      Financial Years
Deficits          Year 1995 and     and Fiscal Year   and Fiscal Year   and Fiscal Year    and Fiscal Year                       1996-97, 1997-
Fiscal Year 2000  2000              2000              2000               1997                                  98 and 1999-
• However, the                                                           • However, the                          2000
government                                                               government                          • However, the
expects to record                                                        recorded budget                       Government
budget deficit in                                                        surpluses between                     recorded deficits
Fiscal Year 2001                                                         Fiscal Year 1998                      in Financial
and Fiscal Year                       Years 1995-96,
2001                                  1998-99 and
• A budget deficit
some HK$65.6
billion is
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                         page 56
Legislative Council Secretariat                                              Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore                Norway               New Zealand              Argentina             States of                Hong Kong
Uses of         • Accumulate budget      • Accumulate budget    • Pay off         • Not applicable • Pay off           • Accumulate surpluses
Budget            surpluses in fiscal      surpluses in fiscal    government debt                    government debt     in fiscal reserves
Surpluses         reserves                 reserves (the        • Fund its public                  • Finance two
Government Petroleum   pension scheme                     economic
Fund)                                                     stimulus packages
May 2001 and
Availability of • Yes                     • Yes                      • Nil                 • Nil                • Nil                 • Yes
Fiscal          • However, the amount • Amounted to Nok 650                                                                           • Amounted to
Reserves            of fiscal reserves is   billion (US$76.5                                                                            HK$389.7 billion at 31
not revealed to the     billion) at the end of                                                                      January 2002 which
public                  2001 which was                                                                              was equivalent to about
equivalent to about 15.5                                                                    19.5 months of
months of government                                                                        government
expenditure                                                                                 expenditure
Law which       • Constitution of         • Nil                      • Nil                 • Nil                • Nil                 • Nil
Safeguards          Singapore
Fiscal          -- President with veto
Reserves           powers to safeguard
fiscal reserves of the
-- Safeguard at least 50%
past fiscal reserves
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                      page 57
Legislative Council Secretariat                                       Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore                Norway        New Zealand           Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Guidelines • Nil                         • Nil               • Nil             • Nil                     • Nil                       • Yes
on                                                                                                                                   • Cover around 12
Determining                                                                                                                            months of
the Level of                                                                                                                           government
Fiscal                                                                                                                                 expenditure to
Reserves                                                                                                                               meet operating
Authority for • The President            • Ministry of       • Not applicable • Not applicable           • Not applicable            • Financial
Using Fiscal                               Finance                                                                                     Secretary
Authority for • Government of            • Norges Bank       • Not applicable • Not applicable           • Not applicable            • Hong Kong
Managing        Singapore                  (i.e. the Central                                                                           Monetary
Fiscal          Investment                 Bank of Norway)                                                                             Authority
Reserves        Corporation
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                               page 58
Legislative Council Secretariat                                     Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore          Norway           New Zealand             Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Uses of         • Finance two        • Act as a         • Not applicable     • The country does • Not applicable                   • Use fiscal
Fiscal            separate off-        financial buffer                        not have any                                          reserves to
Reserves          budget economic • Pay for the                                fiscal reserves                                       finance fiscal
stimulus packages    expected rising                       • The recently                                          deficits
introduced in July   social security                         abolished                                           • Use investment
and October 2001     expenditures in                         currency board                                        income on fiscal
respectively         future years                            arrangement did                                       reserves to fund
not require the                                       government
Central Bank to                                       expenditure
use fiscal
reserves, if there
were any, to
defend the linked
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                             page 59
Singapore             Norway              New Zealand              Argentina                                         Hong Kong
Practices • Use fiscal        • Norway did not         •   New Zealand did not • Raise funds           • Raise funds from • Use fiscal
of          reserves to         record any fiscal          record any fiscal      from                   domestic and       reserves to
Financing   finance the         deficits between           deficits between       multilateral           international      finance the
Budget      expected budget     Fiscal Year 1997 and       Fiscal Year 1994 and   lending                markets to finance deficits in
Deficits    deficit in Fiscal   Fiscal Year 2000           Fiscal Year 2000       agencies,              government debt by Financial Years
Year 2001         • No information is      •   However, the           including the          selling government 1995-96, 1998-
available on               country had            IMF, the US            notes and bonds of 99 and 2001-02
government&#39;s fiscal        persistent budget      government             various sizes and
position prior to          deficits prior to 1994 and                    time to maturity
Fiscal Year 1997,          due to government      institutional
hence no information       borrowing              investors
to confirm how the •       See below for the
government financed        practices of
budget deficits in the     financing
past                       government debt
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                             page 60
Legislative Council Secretariat                                         Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up or Maintaining Their Fiscal Reserves
Singapore                  Norway        New Zealand             Argentina                                            Hong Kong
Amount of • Nil                          • Nil              • Amounted to       • Amounted to        •         Amounted to         • Nil
Government                                                    US$16 billion       US$162 billion in            US$5.63 trillion in
Debt                                                          (or 31.9% of        January 2002                 Fiscal Year 2000
GDP) in Fiscal
Practices of • Not applicable            • Not applicable   • Raise funds from • Raise funds from •            Raise funds from • Not applicable
Financing                                                     domestic and        multilateral                 domestic and
Government                                                    international       lending agencies,            international
Debt                                                          markets and sell    including the IMF,           markets to finance
government-         the US                       its government debt
owned enterprises   government and               by selling
to finance its      institutional                government notes
government debt     investors                    and bonds of
Research and Library Services Division                                                                                                                 page 61
1.   Gisbert Flanz, Constitution of the Countries of the World: Constitution of Singapore,
2.   Government of Singapore Investment Corporation, Annual Report 2000, April 2001.
3.   International Monetary Fund, Ageing in the Asian &quot;Tigers&quot;: Challenges for Fiscal Policy,
4.   International Monetary Fund, Selected Issues Report on Singapore, April 1999.
5.   International Monetary Fund, Selected Issues Report on Singapore, July 2000.
6.   International Monetary Fund, Statistical Appendix Report on Singapore, July 2000.
7.   Minister for Trade and Industry, Cushioning the Impact of the Downturn, July 2001.
8.   Ministry of Information and the Arts, Country Profile Singapore 2000, 2000.
9.   Ministry of Information and the Arts, Economic Management in Singapore: Scenarios,
Strategies &amp; Tactics, February 1999.
10. Ministry of Information and the Arts, Getting it Right: Responding Successfully to
11. Ministry of Information and the Arts, Macroeconomic Policies in Singapore: Principles,
Milestones and Future Prospects, 22 March 1997.
12. Ministry of Information and the Arts, Singapore 2000, 2000.
13. Ministry of Information and the Arts, Singapore 2001, 2001.
14. Ministry of Information and the Arts, Supplementary Press Release to the 2nd Package
of Off-Budget Measures, 12 October 2001.
15. Ministry of Finance, Budget Statement 2001, February 2001.
16. Ministry of Finance, Ministerial Statement by Minister for Finance to Parliament on 17
August 1999 on Protection of Reserves Issues Raised by the President at His Press
Conference, 16 July 1999.
17. Ministry of Finance, Round-up Speech for the Debate on the Financial Year Budget
Delivered by the Minister of Finance, 7 March 2000.
18. Ministry of Finance, Second Off-Budget Measures 2001: Tackling the Economic
Downturn, October 2001.
19. Ministry of Finance, Singapore Economic Trends Report, August 1999.
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 62
20. Ministry of Finance, Singapore&#39;s FY98-99 Budget Stays the Course Despite Economic
Slowdown, April 1998.
21. Ministry of Finance, Singapore&#39;s 2000 Budget: A Budget in Transition, March 2000.
22. Ministry of Finance, Singapore&#39;s FY2001 Budget: Something for Everyone, Tax Cuts
Prominent, April 2001.
23. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Performance of the Singapore Economy in Third Quarter
2001, October 2001.
24. Monetary Authority of Singapore, Overview of the Singapore Economy, 2000.
25. Monetary Authority of Singapore, Recent Economic Developments in Singapore,
26. Singapore Government, Singapore Government Gazette, 23 November 2000.
27. United States Department of State, Country Commercial Guide for Singapore, July 2000.
28. United States Department of State, Background Notes: Singapore, August 1999.
1.   Website of Government of Singapore Investment Corporation, www.gic.com.sq
2.   Website of Office of the President of Singapore, www.gov.sq/istana
3.   Website of Ministry of Finance, www.mof.gov.sq
4.   Website of Ministry of Trade and Industry, www.mri.gov.sq
5.   Website of Monetary Authority of Singapore, www.mas.gov.sq
6.   Website of New Singapore Shares, www.newsingaporeshares.gov.sq
7.   Website of Singapore Government, www.sq
1.   International Monetary Fund, IMF&#39;s Assessment of the Norwegian Economy, October
2.   International Monetary Fund, Norway: 2000 Article IV Consultation, February 2001.
3.   International Monetary Fund, Norway: Selected Issues, February 2001.
4.   Ministry of Finance, Economic Policy, September 2001.
5.   Ministry of Finance, Guidelines for Economic Policy, March 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                                  page 63
6.   Ministry of Finance, Higher Growth and Fiscal Discipline, May 2000.
7.   Ministry of Finance, National Budget for 2002, October 2001.
8.   Ministry of Finance, The Fiscal Budget 2001: Supporting Balanced Growth, October
9.   Ministry of Finance, The Government Petroleum Fund Act, June 1990.
10. Ministry of Finance, The National Budget 2001, October 2000.
11. Norges Bank, Bank of Norway&#39;s Role as a Manager of Norway&#39;s Foreign Exchange
Reserves and the Government Petroleum Fund, February 1997.
12. Norges Bank, Monetary Policy and Developments in the Norwegian Economy, October
13. Norges Bank, Monetary Policy and the Outlook for the Norwegian Economy, September
14. Norges Bank, The Government Petroleum Fund: Annual Report 2000, 1990.
15. Norges Bank, The Norwegian Economy, May 2001.
16. Norges Bank, The Norwegian Government Petroleum Fund, 2001.
17. Royal Norwegian Embassy -- London, Economic Outlook, May 2001.
18. Statistics Norway, Economic Trends for Norway and Abroad, September 2001.
1.   Website of Norges Bank, www.norges-bank.no
2.   Website of Ministry of Finance, www.finans.dep.no
3.   Website of Royal Norwegian Embassy, www.norway.org.uk
4.   Website of Statistics Norway, www.sss.no
1.   Cabinet Policy Committee, Pre-funding New Zealand Superannuation: Budget
Implications, September 2000.
2.   Cabinet Policy Committee, Pre-funding New Zealand Superannuation: Funding
Arrangements, September 2000.
3.   International Monetary Fund, IMF Concludes Article IV Consultation with New Zealand,
Research and Library Services Division                                                  page 64
4.   International Monetary Fund, New Zealand: 2000 Article IV Consultation, October 2000.
5.   International Monetary Fund, New Zealand: Staff Report for the 2000 Article IV
Consultation, September 2000.
6.   International Monetary Fund, Revised Manual on Fiscal Transparency, February 2001.
7.   PriceWaterHouseCoopers, Budget 2001 Analysis, 2001.
8.   Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Budgeting for the Future,
9.   Minister of Finance, Budget 2001: Executive Summary, May 2001.
10. Minister of Finance, Budget Speech and Fiscal Strategy Report 2000, June 2000.
11. Ministry of Finance, Economy Report -- New Zealand, 1999.
12. Ministry of Finance, Public Finance and Fiscal Policy, 1998.
13. Ministry of Finance, New Zealand Economic &amp; Financial Overview, 1999.
14. The Treasury, Budget 2000 - Fiscal Strategy Report, 2000.
15. The Treasury, Budget 2001 - Fiscal Strategy Report, 2001.
16. The Treasury, Budget Economic and Fiscal Update 2001, 2001.
17. The Treasury, Budget Policy Statement 2000, 2000.
18. The Treasury, Government Policy on Pre-funding New Zealand Superannuation, October
19. The Treasury, Fiscal Strategy Report -- Budget 2001, 2001.
20. The Treasury, Fiscal Responsibility Act 1994, July 1994.
21. The Treasury, Fiscal Responsibility Act 1994: An Explanation, 2001.
22. The Treasury, Fiscal Responsibility Act 1994 and the Budget Policy Statement, 2001.
23. The Treasury, New Zealand Treasury Strategic Plan 1999-2004, March 1999.
24. The Treasury, New Zealand Economic and Financial Overview, March 2000.
25. The Treasury, Putting it Together: An Explanatory Guide to the New Zealand Public
Sector Financial Management System, 1996.
26. The Treasury, Short-Term Fiscal Policy, 2000.
Research and Library Services Division                                                  page 65
1.   Website of Government Executive, www.executive.govt.nz
2.   Website of the Treasury, www.treasury.gov.nz
1.   Argentine Government, Convertibility Law, 1991.
2.   International Financial Policy, Argentina: Current and Future Challenges, April 2001.
3.   International Monetary Fund, Argentina: Third Review Under the Stand-By Arrangement,
4.   International Monetary Fund, Argentina&#39;s Structural Reforms of the 1990s, March 2000.
5.   International Monetary Fund, Selected Issues and Statistical Annex Report on Argentina,
6.   International Monetary Fund, Second Review Under the Stand-By Arrangement, January
7.   Inter-American Development Bank, Country Report: Argentina, 2000.
8.   LatinFocus, Argentina Economic Briefing, Various Issues.
9.   Payden &amp; Rygel, South America Research Brief, Various Issues.
10. United States Department of Commerce, Argentina Country Commercial Guide 2002,
11. United States Department of State, Background Note: Argentina, October 2000.
12. United States Department of State, Country Report on Argentina, March 2001.
13. World Bank Group, Country Brief: Argentina, September 2000.
1.   Website of Central Bank of Argentina, www.bcra.gov.ar
2.   Website of Bloomberg, www.bloomerg.com
3.   Website of Financial Times, www.ft.com
4.   Website of the Times, www.thetimes.co.uk
Research and Library Services Division                                                   page 66
1.   Bureau of the Public Debt, Historical Debt Outstanding: Annual 1950 - 2000, September
2.   Congressional Research Services, Report for Congress: The Budget Enforcement Act of
1997, October 1997.
3.   Congressional Research Services, Report for Congress: The Budget Enforcement Act: Its
Operation Under a Budget Surplus, February 1998.
4.   Congressional Joint Committee on Taxation, Summary of Tax Relief Act of 2001, 2001.
5.   Department of the Treasury, Guide to the Economic Growth &amp; Tax Relief Act of 2001,
6.   International Monetary Fund, Selected Issues Report on the United States, August 2001.
7.   International Monetary Fund, What Should be Done with a Fiscal Surplus?, August
8.   Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, What Fiscal Surplus?, September 1998.
9.   Office of Management and Budget, A Blueprint for New Beginnings, 2001.
10. Office of Management and Budget, A Citizen&#39;s Guide to the Federal Budget, 2001.
11. Office of Management and Budget, Mid-Session Review: Fiscal Year 2002, 2001.
12. Office of Management and Budget, The Budget for Fiscal Year 2002: Historical Tables,
13. The Brookings Institution, The President&#39;s Framework for the Budget Surplus: What Is It
and How Should It be Evaluated, March 1999.
14. The Brookings Institution, Does the Budget Surplus Justify a Large-Scale Tax Cut?,
15. United States Senate Budget Committee, The Budget Outlook and Tax Policy, February
16. United States House of Representatives Committee on the Budget, Evaluating the Budget
Surplus and Tax Policy Options, March 2001.
1.   Website of Bureau of the Public Debt, www.publicdebt.treas.gov
2.   Website of Library of Congress, www.loc.gov
3.   Website of Office of Management and Budget, www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/
Research and Library Services Division                                                  page 67
4.   Website of the New York Times, www.nytimes.com
5.   Website of White House, www.whitehouse.gov
1.   Leonard CHENG Kwok-hon, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper
No. CB(1) 1646/00-01(09).
2.   Terence CHONG, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1)
1625/00-01(04).
3.   Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, Various Issues.
4.   Census and Statistics Department, Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics, Various
5.   Finance Bureau, Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs Proper Use of Fiscal
Reserves, 7 May 2001.
6.   HO Lok-sang, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1)
1625/00-01(03).
7.   Y C JAO, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1625/00-
01(01).
8.   Vincent KWAN, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1)
1646/00-01(07).
9.   Legislative Council Secretariat, Background Brief on the Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves,
29 June 2001, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1646/00-01(03).
10. Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs, Minutes of Meeting Held on 7 September
1998 at 4:30 pm, LC Paper No. CB(1) 534/98-99.
11. Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs, Minutes of Meeting Held on 8 September
1998 at 4:30 pm, LC Paper No. CB(1) 535/98-99.
12. Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs, Minutes of Meeting Held on 3 May 2001
at 4:30 pm, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1949/00-01.
13. Legislative Council Panel on Financial Affairs, Minutes of Meeting Held on 3 July 2001
at 10:45 am, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1951/00-01.
14. Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Various Issues.
15. Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Quarterly Bulletin, Various Issues.
16. Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Viewpoint: Fiscal Reserves and the Exchange Fund, 12
Research and Library Services Division                                                     page 68
Legislative Council Secretariat           Practices of Overseas Jurisdictions in Building up
17. Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Viewpoint: The Adequacy of Hong Kong&#39;s Foreign
Reserves, 5 April 2001.
18. Hong Kong Monetary Authority, Viewpoint: How Much is Enough?, 27 January 2000.
19. Professor Stephen Y L CHEUNG, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC
Paper No. CB(1) 1646/00-01(06).
20. Tim LUI, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1) 1646/00-
01(08).
21. Francis LUI Ting-ming, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No.
CB(1) 1750/00-01(08).
22. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 2002-03 Budget, 6
23. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 2001-02 Budget:
Honing Our Strengths, Striving to Excel, 7 March 2001.
24. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 1998-99 Budget:
Riding Out the Storm, Renewing Hong Kong Strengths, 18 February 1998.
25. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Hong Kong Annual Report,
26. The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government of the
27. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Exchange Fund Ordinance,
28. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, The 2002-03 Budget
Background Information for the Financial Secretary&#39;s Consultations with LegCo
Members, December 2001.
29. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: Exchange
Fund 2001 Results Announced, 17 January 2002.
30. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: Hong
Kong&#39;s Latest Foreign Currency Reserve Assets Figures Released, 7 January 2002.
31. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: Good
Fiscal Reserves Vital for Confidence, 18 February 1998.
32. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: Statement
by Chief Executive, 14 August 1998.
33. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: 2000-01
Government Final Accounts, 6 July 2001.
Research and Library Services Division                                              page 69
34. The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Press Release: Financial
Results for Ten Months Ended 31 January 2002, 31 January 2002.
35. Task Force on Review of the Public Finances, Final Report to the Financial Secretary,
36. TANG Shu-hung, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1)
1646/00-01(04).
37. Wilson WONG Wai-ho, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No.
CB(1) 1646/00-01(05).
38. Richard Y C WONG, Submission on Proper Use of Fiscal Reserves, LC Paper No. CB(1)
1625/00-01(02).
1.   Website of Hong Kong Monetary Authority, www.hkma.gov.hk
2.   Website of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government Information Centre,
Research and Library Services Division                                                page 70
Regulation of Interception of Communications in Selected Jurisdictions