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⭐HANS GENBERG CHO-HOI HUI. The credibility of The Link from the perspective of modern financial theory*
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1 HANS GENBERG CHO-HOI HUI The credibility of The Link from the perspective of modern financial theory* Institute for Monetary and Financial Stability JOHANN WOLFGANG GOETHE-UNIVERSITÄT FRANKFURT AM MAIN WORKING PAPER SERIES NO. 18 (2008)2 PROF. DR. HELMUT SIEKMANN (HRSG.) INSTITUTE FOR MONETARY AND FINANCIAL STABILITY PROFESSUR FÜR GELD-, WÄHRUNGS- UND NOTENBANKRECHT JOHANN WOLFGANG GOETHE-UNIVERSITÄT GRÜNEBURGPLATZ FRANKFURT AM MAIN TELEFON: (069) TELEFAX: (069)3 HANS GENBERG CHO-HOI HUI The credibility of The Link from the perspective of modern financial theory* *Prepared for the conference Hong Kong s Currency Board at 25 held at the Institute of Historical Research, London on October The views expressed in this paper are the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority. The authors gratefully acknowledge incisive comments from Charles Goodhart and Pierre Siklos as well as assistance from Laurence Fung, Tom Fong, Georgina Lok and Bill Chung. Institute for Monetary and Financial Stability JOHANN WOLFGANG GOETHE-UNIVERSITÄT FRANKFURT AM MAIN WORKING PAPER SERIES NO.18 (2008)4 Abstract Hong Kong s Linked Exchange Rate System (LERS) has been in operation for twenty-five years during which time many other fixed exchange rate systems have succumbed to shocks and/or speculative attacks. This fact alone suggests that the LERS is a robust system which enjoys a large measure of credibility in financial markets. This paper intends to investigate whether this is indeed the case, and whether it has been the case throughout its 25-year history. In particular we will use the tools of modern finance to extract information from financial asset prices about market expectations that are related to the credibility of the LERS. The main focus is on how market participants judged the various changes made to the LERS, such as the seven technical measures introduced in September 1998 and the three refinements made in May These changes have been characterizes as making the system less discretionary over time, and we hypothesize that they have also made it more credible as revealed in the prices of exchange rate related asset prices. We also investigate the relationship between interest rates and exchange rates in the current system in light of modern models of target-zone exchange rate systems. We will examine whether the intramarginal intervention in November 2007 changed the dynamic properties of the exchange rate as suggested by such models.5 I. Introduction and summary. Hong Kong s Linked Exchange Rate System (LERS) has been in operation for twenty-five years during which time many other fixed exchange rate systems have come and gone, succumbing to shocks and/or speculative attacks. This fact alone suggests that the LERS is a robust system which enjoys a large measure of credibility in financial markets. This paper intends to investigate whether this is indeed the case, and whether it has been the case throughout its 25-year history. In particular we will use the tools of modern finance to extract information from financial asset prices about market expectations that are related to the credibility of the LERS. The main focus is on how market participants judged the various changes made to the LERS, such as the seven technical measures introduced in September 1998 and the three refinements made in May These changes have been characterized as making the system less discretionary over time, 1 and we hypothesize that they have also made it more credible in the eyes of financial market participants. 2 We will define credibility with reference to the behaviour of asset prices, principally nominal interest rates, the US dollar exchange rate and various derivative products related to these underlying instruments. Our strategy is to attempt to infer from asset prices how market participants judged reforms of the system and its future. We do so in part by extracting information about exchange-rate expectations from market prices, in part by investigating exchange-rate and interest-rate volatility, and in part by studying the dynamics of the exchange rate itself. To place the empirical analysis in context, we start in the next section by recalling the main features of the LERS, highlighting how the nature of the official exchange rate commitment evolved over time and outlining the main features of refinements that were introduced. In section III we implement a recently developed technique for estimating the distribution of exchange rate expectations from market prices and use the results to investigate how this distribution changed around the times of significant changes in the LERS. We find that, generally speaking, the two major 1 Latter (2007a). 2 Kwan et al. (1999) employ a number of methods developed in the target zone literature to measure the credibility of Hong Kong s currency board during the Asian financial crisis in6 changes in the exchange rate aspects of the system, the seven technical measures and the three refinements achieved their goals of reducing uncertainty about the future value of the exchange rate and can therefore be said to have increased the credibility of the system. Furthermore, the effects of the announcements were reflected rapidly in market prices. In section IV we study the evolution over time of the volatility of the exchange rate and the interest rate differential between HKD and USD instruments. It is frequently suggested that fixing the exchange rate, i.e. reducing its volatility, will come at the expense of increased interest rate volatility because the central bank will need to adjust the interest rate in response to pressures in the foreign exchange market. This, however, need not be the case if the fixed exchange rate is perfectly credible, because in this case excess demand for foreign exchange by some market participants will be offset by opposite positions taken by other participants who have confidence that the exchange rate peg will be maintained. Our results show that volatility in both the exchange rate and interest rates declined after the introduction of the seven measures and spill-overs from exchange rate volatility to interest rate volatility was reduced. The evidence relating to the three refinements is less clear-cut, but volatility in the money and foreign exchange markets were much lower in the most recent period of the system than before the seven measures. In section V we turn our attention to the period after the latest refinements of the LERS in May 2005 which established a symmetric band for the HKD/USD exchange rate around 7.8. We investigate the properties of the movements of the spot exchange rate within the band, in particular whether they are mean reverting and bounded - which would indicate that markets believe the Link to be maintained whether they have been influenced by intra-marginal interventions by the Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA). We also discuss the influence of a more flexible renminbi exchange rate on both interest-rate and exchange-rate movements in Hong Kong, and relate it to a puzzle in the Hong Kong dollar forward market where the forward exchange rate at times have been outside the intervention limits implied by the current version of the LERS. Our conclusions again imply that market prices generally suggest that the Link is viewed as a credible system by 27 market participants. In the final section of the paper we draw together our conclusions and speculate about the broader reasons for the main results that we find, namely that the credibility of the LERS as revealed by asset prices seems to have increased over time. II. A brief history of the LERS. The evolution of the monetary system in Hong Kong since 1983 has been thoroughly described and analysed in recent works by John Greenwood and Anthony Latter and does not need to be repeated here. 3 Instead we highlight only those events that are most directly related to our evaluation of how market participants reacted to the changes in the system that were introduced over time. The exchange rate commitment. The LERS was introduced in October 1983 with a fixed exchange rate between a certificate of indebtedness (CI) and the US dollar at the rate of 7.8 HKD/USD. Holding CIs gave the note issuing banks the right to issue Hong Kong dollar (HKD) bills. Hence the fixed value of the CI effectively translated into a fixed exchange rate between the HKD and the USD for currency transactions. Although, as we shall see, the system has undergone a number of modifications since then, this fixed rate between the CI and the USD has never been changed as illustrated by the light blue line in Chart 1. Although in theory an exchange rate commitment involving only currency might through arbitrage also lead to a convergence between the exchange rate in the interbank market and the fixed rate for currency, this did not happen in practice. A wider exchange rate commitment for reserve balances of banks - Authorized Institutions, or AIs, as they are referred to was therefore introduced in September 1998 at the rate of 7.75 HKD/USD. This was a weak-side commitment in that the HKMA was ready to purchase 3 See Greenwood (2008) and Latter (2007a,b). Both authors have been close observers of monetary affairs in Hong Kong during this period, Greenwood as a private sector economist and, since 1998 member of the Currency Board Subcommittee of the Exchange Fund Advisory Committee, and Latter as Deputy Secretary for Monetary Affairs in the Hong Kong government from 1982 to 1985 and as Deputy Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority from 1999 to8 unlimited amounts of Hong Kong dollars for US dollars to prevent a weakening of the currency beyond that rate. No strong side commitment was introduced at that time. The weak side commitment was gradually moved from 7.75 to 7.8 between April 1999 and July 2000 as shown by the red line in the chart. The exchange rate commitment was altered once again in May 2005 when a symmetric convertibility zone (or target zone to use the terminology of the academic literature) was introduced with a strong side Convertibility Undertaking (CU) at 7.75 HKD/USD (the black line in Chart 1) and the weak side CU gradually being gradually moved from 7.8 to 7.85 over a period of 5 weeks. A question that we will investigate in Section III is how the change in the rules of the game affected expectations in the foreign exchange market, in particular whether the mere announcement of the change had an impact, or whether it took some time for market participants to be convinced. We will also look at the implications of the introduction of the symmetrical target zone in 2005 for the dynamics of the exchange rate within the zone, specifically whether it conforms to the predictions of the theoretical literature on target zones. The Accounting Rules of July During the first five years of operation of the LERS interbank clearing operations were carried out entirely in the private sector through banks clearing accounts with the HSBC. There was no formal official involvement in the market and hence no possibility for the authorities to influence liquidity conditions in the interbank market by means of open market operations. This changed in July 1988 with the introduction of the accounting rules which required the HSBC to hold reserve balances in an account with Exchange Fund. The size of the account should be no less than the net clearing balances of the rest of the banking system. The significance of the new rules for our purposes was that the authorities now had the possibility to influence money market conditions directly making it possible for them to have an additional degree of control over interest rates and the exchange rate. Greenwood (2008), p. 214 notes 49 that this gave the authorities more discretion to steer the markets in the direction they considered desirable. As the data necessary for carrying out our analysis only start in 1996 we are not able to assess the effect of this additional degree of freedom on the behaviour of market participants. In December 1996 a RTGS system was introduced in Hong Kong and at the same time all AIs were required to hold reserve balances with the HKMA which had been established in April Again, due to data limitations we are unfortunately unable to assess whether these events had any material impact on the volatility of interest rates and exchange rates as well as on market expectations. The Seven Technical Measures of September The financial crisis in East Asia in 1997 and 1998 provided the impetus for another modification of the LERS. The so-called seven technical measures were introduced in September 1998 with the purpose of strengthening the system. For our purposes the two most significant features were (i) the introduction of the weak-side CU which has already been described above, and (ii) the introduction of a discount window facility which made it possible for banks to borrow from the HKMA against collateral. The objective of the latter was to dampen interest rate volatility that was very high during the crisis. (See Chart 1 for an illustration of the interest rate movements at the time.) Did the seven technical measures instil greater confidence in the LERS and did they alter the volatility of the exchange rate and interest rates? Sections III and IV provide the answers. The Three Refinements of May Starting in the fall of 2003 the Chinese renminbi came under pressure to appreciate. Judged by non-deliverable forward contracts on the CNY, market expectations indicated a steady increase in the expected appreciation of the Chinese currency. The Hong Kong dollar also came under pressure, perhaps due to expectations in the market that the Hong Kong authorities would follow any move by their counterparts on the Mainland to allow the currency to appreciate with respect to the USD. Two consequences materialized. First, 510 the HKD/USD spot rate started to appreciate (see Chart 1) and since the LERS did not contain an explicit strong side convertibility commitment there was considerable uncertainty about the extent of the appreciation that the HKMA would allow. Second, expectations of appreciation meant a forward premium on the HKD relative to the USD and therefore a negative interest rate differential. As US interest rates also were quite low at the time, HKD short-term interest rate declined to close to zero. (Chart 2) The combination of very low interest rates, which risked creating overheating in the economy in general and in asset markets in particular, and increased uncertainty about the exchange rate level, which could call into question the credibility of the LERS, suggested the need for an official response. It came on May 19, 2005 in the form of Three Refinements to the LERS. These were (i) the introduction of a strong side CU at 7.75 HKD/USD, (ii) moving the weak-side CU to 7.85 (in small steps over a 5 week period) thus creating a symmetric convertibility zone around 7.8, the convertibility rate for CIs which, as explained above, had been in effect since 1983, and (iii) giving the HKMA the possibility to intervene inside the convertibility zone 611 Chart 1: Market spot rate Weak side CU for AB Strong side CU for AB Convertibility rate for CIs The Accounting Arrangements. The July 'Accounting 1988 Arrangements', July The Seven Technical Measures. September 1998 The 'Seven Technical Measures', September 1998 The Three Refinements. The 'Three Refinements', May 2005 May 2005 Jan-83 Jan-86 Jan-89 Jan-92 Jan-95 Jan-98 Jan-01 Jan-04 Jan-07 712 Chart 2: HKD short term interest rate US Federal Funds rate Jan-83 Jan-86 Jan-89 Jan-92 Jan-95 Jan-98 Jan-01 Jan-04 Jan-07 813 In addition to investigating how, and how fast, expectations of market participants reacted to the Three Refinements, in Section V we will study how exchange-rate and interest rate movements in the refined system compare with theoretical predictions of target-zone models of exchange rates. In particular we will ask whether the dynamics of the exchange rate was altered when the HKMA conducted its first after the introduction of the three refinements - intramarginal intervention in the foreign exchange market in October III. The reaction of market expectations to reforms of the system. In this section we will use measures of exchange rate expectations derived from asset prices to infer how market participants assessed two reforms of the linked exchange rate system, the seven technical measures introduced in September 1998 and the three refinements of May Our main interest is to examine whether the market seemed to have confidence in the promises made by the HKMA in each of these instances and, if so, whether this confidence was reached rapidly through the words of the Monetary Authority or had to be earned over time through its deeds. Expectations in foreign exchange markets are often judged by quotes in the forward market, as the forward rate should, leaving aside the possibility of risk premia, reflect market participants expectations of the most likely value of the future spot rate. While having an estimate of the central tendency of expectations is useful for some purposes, in this section we are more interested in how refinements to the LINK affected the range of expectations. To this end we use two measures derived from prices of foreign exchange options: the implicit probability density function of exchange rate expectations, and an estimate the maximum depreciation or appreciation expected by the market over a given horizon. A word of caution on the use of market prices to infer expectations of market participants. Just as the forward rate may be a biased estimate of the future spot rate because of risk premia, the measures we derive will only be as good as the underlying model that is used to reverse engineer the underlying diversity of expectations. Hence while market prices have the advantage of being forward-looking, it must be kept in mind that interpreting the information contained in them is conditional on a theory about how asset prices are determined in the 914 market. In what follows we proceed on the assumption that the models we use accurately reflect the true determinants of asset prices. III.1 Characterizing market expectations using probability density functions. Market expectations about a currency s exchange rate in the future and market attitudes towards the risk of particular realisations can be compactly summarized in the entire risk neutral probability density function (PDF) which can be inferred from option prices. As noted, option values have the desirable property of being forward-looking in nature and thus are a useful source of information for gauging market sentiment about future values of financial assets. By studying a range of option prices with different strike prices, the distribution of all possible levels of future exchange rate can be estimated and used for assessing the credibility of exchange rate policies. The technique for extracting market expectations from option prices in this study is based on that in Malz (1997). 4 Chart 3 shows the PDFs of the Hong Kong dollar exchange rate in a 1- month horizon as at 2 September 1996, 1 September 1997, 4 and 14 September 1998 and 13 September 1999, i.e. before and after the Asian financial crisis in ; and before and after the seven technical measures. 5 The statistics of the PDFs are reported in Table 1. The PDF as at 2 September 1996 shows that the exchange rate was not expected to be traded higher than 7.8. However, when the financial crisis emerged in the summer of 1997, the PDF as at 1 September 1997 dispersed with higher standard deviation and coefficient of variation. The uncertainty about the exchange rate anticipated by the market deepened and was extremely high in early September 1998 before the introduction of the policy measures. This is reflected from the fat-tailed PDF (high excess kurtosis) as at 4 September 1998 with large dispersion (high standard deviation and coefficient of variation). All statistics of the PDF reflects the potential depreciation of the Hong Kong dollar beyond 7.8 anticipated by market participants when the spot exchange rate was traded at After the announcement of the policy measures, the PDF as at 14 September 1998 became narrow with a high 4 5 A similar technique was applied in Mizrach (1996), Campa et al. (1997) and Söderlind (2000) to derive market expectations of effective bandwidths for ERM currencies. The HKMA introduced a time element into the CU on 14 September15 probability around the mean. The change is more evident at their fat tails. In Chart 4, the fat tail of the PDF as at 4 September 1998 extends well beyond 8.5, while the fat tail as at 14 September 1998 disappears at 8.4. The substantial reductions in the corresponding statistics of the standard deviation and coefficient of variation also demonstrate the reaction of the market. 6 This demonstrates that the seven technical measures reduced the uncertainty about the exchange rate and thus confined the market expected exchange rate movement within a relatively narrow range. Furthermore, the change in expectations occurred immediately upon the announcement of the measures, suggestive of a high degree of credibility of the Monetary Authority. The narrow shape and corresponding statistics of the PDF as at 13 September 1999 suggest that the effects of the measures had been incorporated into the option prices to a large extent over the following one year, in particular the skewness and excess kurtosis reduced significantly compared with the PDF as at 14 September Chart 3: PDFs of Hong Kong dollar exchange rate before and after seven technical measures. Probability Density September September % September September September HKD/USD Table 1: Statistics of PDFs (before and after seven technical measures). 6 The smaller skewness and excess kurtosis of the PDF as at 4 September 1998 (compared with those as at 14 September 1998) are due to the extremely dispersed distribution. 1116 Statistics 02/09/ /09/ /09/ /09/ /09/1999 Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Excess Kurtosis Coefficient of Variation Note: The coefficient of variation (CV) is a normalized measure of dispersion of a probability distribution. It is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. Chart 4: Tails of PDFs of Hong Kong dollar exchange rate before and after seven technical measures. Probability Density September 1999 % 2 4 September September HKD/USD It should be noted that the Government s operations in the stock market in August 1998 could also be reason for the change in exchange rate expectations in September As the culminating events of the stock market operations and the introduction of the seven measures occurred within two months, it is not possible to determine the contribution of each separately to the change in market sentiment. However, the fat-tailed PDF as at 4 September 1998 at least reflected that the effect of the stock market operations has not been rapidly incorporated into expectations by participants in the financial markets. In other words the narrowed PDF as at 13 September 1998 indicates that the introduction of the seven technical measures was useful even though not completely decisive. 7 This point was raised by Charles Goodhart. 1217 The PDFs and the associated statistics of the exchange rate in a 1-month horizon before and after the three refinements on 18 May 2005 are shown in Charts 5 and 6 and Table 2. 8 The fat-tailed PDFs in Chart 5 with negative skewness and high excess kurtosis before the three refinements reflected the potential appreciation of the Hong Kong dollar anticipated by market participants. It is likely that these expectations were associated with the expectation of a revaluation of the renminbi and the belief by some market participants that the Hong Kong dollar might de-link from the US dollar and follow the renminbi. After the introduction of the three refinements, the PDFs in Chart 6 became narrow with a high probability around the mean, while the skewness became positive and the excess kurtosis reduced substantially. The PDF as at 20 May 2005 shifted slightly to the weak side compared with the PDF as at 18 May 2005, that may be due to the change of the weak-side CU from 7.8 to As the exchange rate was now in a target zone regime, its PDFs became more or less symmetric, even after the revaluation of the renminbi on 21 July The mean of the PDFs was at the strong side of the Convertibility Zone as both the spot and forward exchange rates were stronger than the central parity. The PDFs demonstrate that the three refinements effectively reduced the uncertainty about the exchange rate and confined the market expected exchange rate movement well within the Convertibility Zone. 8 The data as at 26 November 2004 are chosen because the option market somehow had less uncertainty about the exchange rate during early See section III.2 below for additional discussion. 1318 Chart 5: PDFs of Hong Kong dollar exchange rate before three refinements. Probability Density May October 2004 % November January HKD/USD Chart 6: PDFs of Hong Kong dollar exchange rate after three refinements. Probability Density November August May 2005 % May HKD/USD 1419 Table 2: Statistics of PDFs (before and after three refinements). Statistics 04/01/ /10/ /11/2004 Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Excess Kurtosis Coefficient of Variation /05/ /05/ /08/ /11/2005 Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Excess Kurtosis Coefficient of Variation Note: The coefficient of variation (CV) is a normalized measure of dispersion of a probability distribution. It is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. III.2 Market expectation of maximum appreciation/depreciation of Hong Kong dollar. Another way of assessing the credibility of modifications to the LINK is to estimate the market expectation of the range of the movement of the exchange rate inferred from option prices. Hui et al. (2008a) propose an approach for estimating the maximum appreciation/depreciation of a currency expected in the financial market based upon a first-passage-time approach. 9 This approach considers that path dependency is a critical factor that allows substantial appreciation/depreciation of an exchange rate triggered by an important economic-political event during a time horizon. There is a significant difference between expected maximums measured by the path-independent approach which is used for constructing probability density functions in the previous subsection, and by the path-dependent approach. The measurement of the path-independent approach depends on the exchange rate only at the end of some time interval, and not on a particular path. This means that the path-independent maximum/minimum does not take into account the exchange rate reaching at a high/low level during some time interval. The expected maximum appreciation/depreciation of the Hong Kong dollar estimated by the first-passage- 9 The use of the first-passage-time approach is first proposed by Hui and Lo (2008) for estimating the realignment risk of a currency within a target zone. This approach is different from the path-independent approach (such as in Mizrach (1996) and Söderlind (2000)) which provides the expectations of the exchange rate movements only at the end of a given time horizon and ignores any substantial movement triggered by an important economic-political event during a time horizon. 1520 time approach could therefore be used to assess the expected trading bands anticipated by the market and hence the credibility of the Linked Exchange Rate system. The model parameters used to estimate expected maximum appreciation/depreciation of the Hong Kong dollar are spot exchange rates (the Hong Kong dollar value of a unit of the US dollar, HKD/USD), Hong Kong dollar 1- month HIBOR, US dollar 1-month LIBOR, and volatility implied from 1-month atthe-money-forward currency option prices covering the period from 2 January 1996 to 8 October The forward exchange rate is computed from the interest rate parity between the Hong Kong dollar and US dollar. Chart 7 presents day-byday estimates of 1-month expected maximum appreciation/depreciation of the Hong Kong dollar. A general observation prompted by this chart is that the estimated maximum expected trading range of the Hong Kong dollar exchange rate has been quite narrow with the notable exceptions of the and episodes. This is presumably a reflection of both the credibility of the peg and the absence of major shocks striking the system except in these two episodes. Chart 7: 1-month expected maximum appreciation/depreciation of the Hong Kong dollar. HKD/USD Spot (HKD/USD) S_Min S_Max May 2005 Announcement of the three refinements September 1998 (Monday following announcement of seven technical measures on 5 Sep 1998) 7.5 Jan-96 Jul-96 Jan-97 Jul-97 Jan-98 Jul-98 Jan-99 Jul-99 Jan-00 Jul-00 Jan-01 Jul-01 Jan-02 Jul-02 Jan-03 Jul-03 Jan-04 Jul-04 Jan-05 Jul-05 Jan-06 Jul-06 Jan-07 Jul-07 Jan-08 Jul-08 16 View more
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