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⭐ACCIDENT, EXCLUSIVITY, AND PASSENGER DISTURBANCES UNDER THE WARSAW CONVENTION
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1 ACCIDENT, EXCLUSIVITY, AND PASSENGER DISTURBANCES UNDER THE WARSAW CONVENTION TORY A. WEIGAND INTRODUCTION I. THE WARSAW CONVENTION A. PASSENGER DISTURBANCES B. THE WARSAW INSTRUMENTS AND LIABILITY SCHEME C. ARTICLE 17 AND ACCIDENT: TEXT, CONTEXT, TRAVAUX PREPARATOIRES, AND POST-RATIFICATION CONDUCT D. THE MONTREAL INTERIM AGREEMENT OF 1966 AND THE ELIMINATION OF THE ALL NECESSARY MEASURES DEFENSE II. ARTICLE 24 AND EXCLUSIVITY UNDER THE CONVENTION III. JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF ACCIDENT AND EXCLUSIVITY A. EXCLUSIVITY B. ACCIDENT Saks v. Air France a. The Supreme Court s Decision b. The Aftermath of Saks A Strict Application of Saks The Causal Connection or Relationship to Aircraft Operations The Inherent Risks of Air Travel Medical Aid Claims IV. JUDICIAL TREATMENT OF PASSENGER UPON PASSENGER ASSAULTS A. WALLACE V. KOREAN AIRLINES Tory A. Weigand is a partner in the Boston office of Morrison, Mahoney & Miller. Mr. Weigand is a trial and litigation attorney and a member of the firm s Aviation and International Practice Groups. 8912 892 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 V. FAULT REVISITED AND OTHER RUMINATIONS CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION Since 1929, an international air carrier s liability for personal and cargo injury and damage has been governed by the Warsaw Convention ( Convention ), officially referred to as the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to International Transportation by Air. 1 The Convention is a comprehensive international treaty governing the liability of carriers in all international transportation of persons, baggage and goods. 2 The Convention emerged due to differences among the world s countries as to liability rules governing air transportation accidents. 3 The parties to the Convention desired to limit a carrier s liability in the event of any catastrophic aircraft disasters which might otherwise threaten the financial security of the infant industry. 4 Other objectives were to achieve uniformity in an air carrier s liability and documentation for transportation, to avoid involved conflicts of law problems, protect the fledgling international transportation business, and to facilitate transactions between countries around the world Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to International Transportation by Air, opened for signature Oct. 12, 1929, 49 Stat. 3000, 137 L.N.T.S. 11, reprinted in 449 U.S.C (1998) (adherence of United States proclaimed Oct. 29, 1934) [hereinafter Warsaw Convention]. The various instruments comprising the Warsaw Convention are reprinted and collected in the International Air Transport Association s ESSENTIAL DOCUMENTS ON INTERNATIONAL AIR CARRIER LIABILITY (1999) [hereinafter IATA, AVIATION DOCUMENTS]. 2. Warsaw Convention, supra note 1, art. 1(1). 3. See id. pmbl.; see also Andreas F. Lowenfeld & Allan I. Mendelsohn, The United States and the Warsaw Convention, 80 HARV. L. REV (1967) (noting the intention of the Warsaw Convention to create, among other things, uniform regulations regarding liability of air carriers). 4. See Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at (discussing the relative youth of the airline industry and the goal of the Warsaw Convention to limit air carrier liability in instances involving accidents). 5. See Warsaw Convention, supra note 1, pmble. (relating the aims of the Warsaw Convention); see also Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at (discussing the goals of the Warsaw Convention).3 2001] WARSAW CONVENTION 893 Since the Convention s inception, various issues have emerged regarding the scope and interpretation of the Convention, especially in light of the modernization and expansion of air travel. As a result, the Convention has recently undergone significant changes and reform efforts aimed at modernizing the liability scheme. The traditionally low liability limits have been raised, converted into an international market standard, and tied to inflation. The concept of willful misconduct to break the monetary limits has been eliminated with an essentially no-fault based system in place for damage claims under the new and higher limits, with a pure fault based system for claims over the established limits. The reforms also have introduced notions of up-front payments, arbitration, and mandatory insurance as well as expanded the possible forums to assert claims. Despite these changes, however, the fundamental standard of liability for death and injury claims under Article 17 remains unchanged. Since the initial elimination of the international carrier s due diligence defense, beginning in 1966, the meaning and intent of accident has been under great strain. Moreover, it is now clear that the Convention provides the exclusive remedy for claims arising out of international air travel. This has further intensified the debate over the scope and meaning of Article 17, especially as to altercations by and among passengers and flight crew, and other similar disturbances or incidents arising out of modern air travel. This Article overviews the history and origin of the Warsaw Convention as it relates to carrier liability for passenger disturbances. This Article examines the evolution of the liability scheme, together with decisional law interpreting and applying Article 17, and the Convention s exclusivity to international air travel claims. This Article suggests that courts have interpreted and applied the accident requirement of Article 17 too broadly and contrary to the drafters intentions, especially as to incidents of passenger misconduct. It is argued that the modern reform efforts have so far failed to include Article 17 within their purview, and that they must do so in order to truly modernize an international air carrier s liability. This Article further asserts that the interpretational problems with accident, visà-vis passenger upon passenger misconduct, raise the more fundamental question of whether there is any need for monetary limits or wholesale elimination of fault based principles for all international aviation claims.4 894 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 I. THE WARSAW CONVENTION A. PASSENGER DISTURBANCES Modern air travel is both convenient and relatively inexpensive, allowing more passengers to travel to more places then ever before. 6 Moreover, air travel is now a routine and fundamental aspect of modern life. One result of this growth is that in-flight disturbances by and between passengers and/or flight crew have become increasingly common. 7 In-flight disturbances range in degree and character. 8 The panoply of altercations encompass physical fights or confrontations, sexual assaults, injurious contact, or verbal harassment by and between passengers, or passengers and flight crew members. 9 Others include refusals to obey simple commands or instructions of the flight crew. Some of the reported incidents include: 6. See Suzi T. Collins & John Scott Hoff, In Flight Incivility Today: The Unruly Passenger, 12 AIR & SPACE L. 23, 23 (1998) (stating that [m]ost airlines have reconfigured their aircraft to fit as many passengers as possible to increase their seat revenues per flight mile ); see also World Airline Passenger Traffic Growth Pick Up Through to 2001, at (last visited Feb. 9, 2001) (noting the International Civil Aviation Organization s ( ICAO ) statistics and estimates for total international and domestic passenger traffic, including 2,630 billion passenger-kilometers in 1998, 2,739 billion in 1999, 2,875 billion in 2000, and 3,038 billion in 2001). 7. See Collins & Hoff, supra note 6, at 23 (noting the rise of disturbances that have taken place on airplanes during the course of air travel). 8. See Jeff MacGregor, The Way We Live Now: ; Fly the Angry Skies, N.Y. TIMES, Sept. 24, 2000, 6 (Magazine), at 21 (discussing some of the different disturbances that have occurred during commercial airline flights); see also Feds Are Getting Tough on Unruly Airline Passenger, SALT LAKE TRIB., Dec. 10, 1997, at A16, available at 1997 WL (discussing a survey by the Air Transport Association ( ATP ) finding that twenty-five percent of air rage incidents were fueled by alcohol, sixteen percent concerned seat assignments, ten percent of incidents related to smoking, nine percent involved carry-on baggage, eight percent of incidents related to attitude problems, and five percent of airline incidents centered around food service). 9. See Donald B. Cotton, Interference with Crew Members in the Performance of their Duties, Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular No (1996), available at see generally AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION, PASSENGER MISCONDUCT: A GUIDE TO PROSECUTING CRIMES AGAINST AIRLINES PERSONNEL AND PASSENGERS (2000), available at5 2001] WARSAW CONVENTION 895 a sleeping passenger wakes up to another passenger unbuttoning her pants and fondling her private parts; 10 a passenger assaults flight attendant and tries to enter cockpit after becoming enraged when told he was whistling too loudly; 11 a passenger momentarily grabs another passenger s private parts based on mistaken identity; 12 a fist fight between two passengers; 13 a drunken passenger falls on another passenger; 14 a passenger injures another passenger by suddenly moving his seat or dropping an item from overhead compartments; See Wallace v. Korean Airlines, Inc., 214 F.3d 293, 297 (2d Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 2001 U.S. Lexis 1113 (U.S. Feb. 20, 2001) (holding that a sexual assault while on an airplane was to be considered an accident under the rules of the Warsaw Convention, thus subjecting the carrier to potential liability); see also Tsevas v. Delta Airlines, Inc., No. 97 C 0320, 1997 WL , at *2 (N.D. Ill. Dec. 1, 1997) (holding that the unsolicited sexual advances of one intoxicated passenger upon another passenger comprised an accident within the terms of the Warsaw Convention). 11. See Officials Seek to Prevent Air Rage; Experts on Security Exchange Ideas During DFW Airport Meeting, FORT WORTH STAR-TELEGRAM, Sept. 20, 2000, at 2, available at LEXIS, News Library, FWSTEL File (discussing incidents of air rage). 12. See Langadinos v. American Airlines, Inc., 199 F.3d 68, 71 (1st Cir. 2000) (reversing a lower court s dismissal of a claim brought by a passenger who asserted that he was momentarily grabbed in the private area by another passenger ). 13. See Price v. British Airways, No. 91 Civ (JFK), 1992 WL , at **1-3 (S.D.N.Y. July 7, 1992) (granting defendant s summary judgment motion where plaintiff, who was intoxicated, was assaulted in the aircraft and sought to hold the defendant liable under Warsaw Convention); see also Stone v. Continental Airlines, Inc., 905 F. Supp. 823, 827 (D. Haw. 1995) (holding that an assault that occurred between two passengers did not qualify as an accident, thereby resulting in airline liability under the terms of the Warsaw Convention because it was not an accident derived from air travel. ). 14. See Oliver v. Scandinavian Airlines Sys., 17 Av. Cas. (CCH) para. 18, (D. Md. Apr. 5, 1983) (dismissing a plaintiff s claim that he was allegedly injured on an airline flight when an intoxicated passenger fell on the him because, although the incident was an accident under the terms of the Warsaw Convention, the claim was barred by the statute of limitations). 15. See Potter v. Delta Airlines, Inc., 98 F.3d 881, (5th Cir. 1996) (holding that a passenger who sought to hold an airline liable for injuries she suffered as she attempted to avoid contact with another passenger s seat failed to sup-6 896 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 a verbal and/or physical confrontation between crew member and passenger over seat assignment; 16 a routine but offensive search of a passenger prior to boarding; 17 a flight attendant pushes a passenger into a seat to clear the aisle; 18 a flight crew member forcefully removes a passenger from the lavatory due to a smoke alarm sounding; 19 a passenger assaults and intimidates flight attendant after being denied a request for pillow or blanket; 20 a passenger refuses to turn off boom box; 21 and port her claim of an accident under the Warsaw Convention because a reclined seat was not considered an unusual event on an airplane); see also Gotz v. Delta Airlines, Inc., 12 F. Supp. 2d 199, 204 (D. Mass. 1998) (holding that a passenger who injured himself by placing a bag in an over-head compartment while seeking to avoid injuring another passenger failed to support his claim for airline liability for an accident under the Warsaw Convention because the incident was not within the airline s control); Maxwell v. Aer Lingus, 122 F. Supp. 2d 210 (D. Mass. 2000) (holding that liquor bottles which dislodge from overhead bin and strike passenger on head is an accident) 16. See Carey v. United Airlines, Inc., 77 F. Supp. 2d 1165, (D. Or. 1999) (holding that a physical and verbal confrontation between a passenger and a flight attendant over seating assignments was governed by the Warsaw Convention and was considered an accident under the Convention). 17. See El Al Israel Airlines, LTD v. Tseng Yuan Tsui, 525 U.S. 155 (1999) (considering the liability of an airline where an intrusive security search conducted by airline security before the passenger boarded plane inflicted the passenger with psychological harm). 18. See Brandt v. American Airlines, No. C SI, 2000 WL , at *7 (N.D. Cal. Mar. 13, 2000) (dismissing plaintiff s claim that airline personnel s act of pushing plaintiff into his seat constituted grounds for airline liability as an accident under the terms of the Warsaw Convention). 19. See Laor v. Air France, 31 F. Supp. 2d 347, (S.D.N.Y. 1998) (holding that the plaintiff s claim of being forcibly removed from an airplane lavatory by airline personnel was considered an accident under the Warsaw Convention, but that the plaintiff s claim for punitive damages was barred by the Convention). 20. See United States v. Flores, 968 F.2d 1366, 1368 (1st Cir. 1992) (assessing liability when a passenger assaulted a flight attendant during a dispute concerning the passenger s rude behavior). 21. See United States v. Hicks, 980 F.2d 963, 972, (5th Cir. 1992) (holding that the charge of intimidating an airline s flight crew was not unconstitu-7 2001] WARSAW CONVENTION 897 a passenger refuses to extinguish cigarette. 22 These incidents, as well as other related modern day events such as in-flight health crises, diversions, passenger removals, security searches and arrests, pose conflicts under the Warsaw scheme. It is not immediately apparent whether the Convention s liability scheme was meant to cover such events, especially passenger upon passenger assaults or torts. Courts are currently conflicted, with a growing number finding such confrontations to invoke carrier liability under the Convention. 23 Upon deeper inquiry, however, substantial questions are raised as to whether the Convention was ever meant to cover such disputes. B. THE WARSAW INSTRUMENTS AND LIABILITY SCHEME The Warsaw Convention was the product of international conferences held in 1925 and At the 1929 conference, the Comité International Technique d Experts Juridiques Aériens (C.I.T.E.J.A.), a committee of government selected experts previously appointed to establish a set of rules for international air carriage, presented a draft convention. 25 Underlying this draft were the principles upon which the liability provisions of the Warsaw Convention were founded. Actionally vague and that there was sufficient evidence of intimidation where a passenger refused to discontinue the use of his boombox despite repeated requests to do so). 22. See Choukroun v. American Airlines, Inc., No NG (D. Mass. Aug. 2, 2000) (order granting defendant s motion for summary judgment). 23. See El Al Israel Airlines, Ltd. v. Tseng Yuan Tsui, 525 U.S. 155, 160 (1999) (suggesting that an intrusive routine security search can be interpreted as an accident under the Warsaw Convention); see also Wallace v. Korean Airlines, 214 F.3d 293, 297 (2d Cir. 2000) (holding that a sexual assault by one passenger upon another is an accident under the rules of the Warsaw Convention); Lahey v. Singapore Airlines, Ltd., 115 F. Supp. 2d 464, (S.D.N.Y. 2000) (holding that an assault on one passenger by another was considered an accident under the Warsaw Convention); Goodwin v. Air France, No. C FMS, 1998 WL , at *1 (N.D. Cal. June 2, 1998) (holding that an attack by a passenger on another passenger can be deemed an accident under the terms of the Warsaw Convention). 24. See Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at 498 (providing the background of the Warsaw Convention). 25. See John J. Ide, The History and Accomplishments of the International Technical Committee of Aerial Legal Experts (C.I.T.E.J.A.), 3 J. AIR L. & COM. 27, 32, 36 (1932) (describing the work of the CITEJA on the Warsaw Convention).8 898 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 cording to the Rapporteur of the 1925 Conference: [t]he Commission asked itself which liability regime had to be adopted: risk or fault. The general feeling is that, whilst liability towards third parties must see the application of the risk theory, by contrast, in the matter of the carrier s liability in relation to passengers and goods, one must admit the fault theory. 26 Further, the Convention s formation involved the convergence of principles of carrier liability under both the civil and common law systems. Under common law, the carrier is subjected to a heightened duty of care. While not absolute, it requires the carrier to use the greatest amount of care and foresight which is reasonably necessary 27 under the circumstances. Thus, failure to exercise this care is negligent. Carriers are not liable for the assaults or torts of third parties absent notice and failure to protect the injured passenger. 28 In contrast, under the civil law system, a carrier s duty to passengers is a strict contractual duty to safely transport. 29 The only exception to this contractual liability is if the damage or loss is due to a cause that is not attributable to the carrier. 30 Under the principle of force majeure, a carrier is not liable for loss or damage if the occurrence is unforeseeable, insuperable, and extraneous to the carrier s business and activities, 31 and includes fait ou faute d un tiers (act or fault of 26. See GEORGETTE MILLER, LIABILITY IN INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT: THE WARSAW SYSTEM IN MUNICIPAL COURTS 63 (1977) (quoting Conference Internationale (Paris, 1925) Rapport Pittard Annexes, p. 60). 27. Id. at See Milone v. Washington Metro. Area Transit Auth., 91 F.3d 229, 231 (D.C. Cir. 1996) (quoting Washington Metro. Area Transit Auth. v. O Neill, 633 A.2d 834, 840 (D.C. 1993)) (holding that a common carrier has a duty to protect its passengers from foreseeable harm arising from criminal conduct of others. ); see also Kelley v. Metro-N. Commuter R.R., 37 F. Supp. 2d 233, 240 (S.D.N.Y. 1999) (holding that a railroad is not liable for assault of a passenger by an employee unless it is proven that the railroad knew or should have known the assailant was the type of person who might commit an assault. ). 29. See MILLER, supra note 26, at 54 (describing the presence of a contractual duty to transport goods and passengers safely under French law). 30. See id. (describing the exception to contractual liability, cause étrangère, under the Civil Code). 31. See id. at (listing instances where a carrier is not liable for failing to deliver passengers and goods safely under the concept of force majeure in French9 2001] WARSAW CONVENTION 899 a third party) so long as all three conditions are met. 32 Accordingly, carriers were not absolutely liable for injuries or damage caused to passengers by other passengers under either system of liability. A primary and fundamental purpose of the Convention was to establish uniform rules governing claims arising out of international air transportation and limit the liability of air carriers. 33 At the time, the air transportation industry was in its infancy, 34 and there were substantial differences among the world s countries as to liability rules governing air transportation accidents. 35 Many countries civil laws allowed carriers to contractually (i.e. by ticket) disclaim liability for injury or death. 36 Importantly, while uniformity was an essential goal to the Convention, the objectives also included the desire to protect the fledgling air transportation business from disaster. 37 The primary concern was air accidents, such as crashes or other large-scale incidents in the plane s operation, which could lead to disastrous finanlaw). 32. See id. at 55 n.41 (noting the requirement that all three conditions must be met in order for liability to be excluded in situations involving fait ou faute d un tiers ). 33. See Floyd v. Eastern Airlines, Inc., 872 F.2d 1462, 1467 (11th Cir. 1989) (discussing the background of the Warsaw Convention and its aims); Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at (outlining the drafter s goals for the Warsaw Convention). 34. See 1 LEE S. KREINDLER, AVIATION ACCIDENT LAW sec [2], at 10-6 (Blanca I. Rodriguez ed., 1996) (describing the state of the aviation industry in 1929); Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at 498 (characterizing the aviation industry as being on the verge of becoming a common mode of transportation). 35. See 1 STUART M. SPEISER & CHARLES F. KRAUSE, AVIATION TORT LAW 11.4, at (1978 & Supp. 1999) (stating the twin goals of the Convention to be establishing uniformity in law and limiting the liability of air carriers in accidents). 36. See HUIBERT DRION, LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES IN INTERNATIONAL AIR LAW 1-11 (1954) (discussing limitations on liability in civil aviation law). 37. See generally Jonathan L. Neville, The International Air Transportation Association s Attempt to Modify International Air Disaster Liability: An Admirable Effort with an Impossible Goal, 27 GA. J. INT L & COMP. L. 571, (1999) (citing Francis Lyall, The Warsaw Convention: Cutting the Gordian Knot and the 1995 Intercarrier Agreement, 22 SYRACUSE J. INT L L. & COM. 67, (1996)) (noting the problem that liability posed to the relatively young airline industry in the event of an airline disaster).10 900 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 cial consequences. 38 There was also the concern that insurance would otherwise become too expensive for carriers, and tickets too costly for most passengers. At the time, the air carrier industry was financially weak and faced possible, if not inevitable, bankruptcy from a single disaster. 39 It was crucial for the Convention to limit air carrier liability and allow the air transportation industry to grow and obtain the necessary capital by placing uniform limits on possible disastrous claims. 40 This could be done by identifying, at the outset, what liability the carrier could incur See MacDonald v. Air Canada, 439 F.2d 1402, 1405 (1st Cir. 1971) (discussing the aims of the Warsaw Convention, particularly preventing liability claims from severely harming air carriers in the event of a disastrous accident); see also James N. Fincher, Watching Liability Limits Under the Warsaw Convention Fly Away, and the IATA Initiative, 10 TRANSNAT L LAW 309, 310 (1997) (noting the concerns surrounding the potential financial ramifications that an air disaster could have had on the airline industry); cf. Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at 499 (observing that the Warsaw Convention s aim of establishing liability ceilings was an effort to attract capital to the airline industry). 39. See generally KREINDLER, supra note 34, sec [2], at 10-6 (citing Dunn v. Trans World Airlines, Inc., 589 F.2d 408, (9th Cir. 1978)) (discussing early issues and problems with the aviation industry). 40. See Lowenfeld & Mendelsohn, supra note 3, at (maintaining that a central goal of the Convention was to uniformly restrict the potential liability of the airline in the event of passenger injuries or fatalities); see also D. GOEDHUIS, NATIONAL AIRLEGISLATIONS AND THE WARSAW CONVENTION 136 (Martinus Nijhoff ed., 1937) (stressing that the airliners motive to enter into the Convention was in limiting their own liability). Moreover, the airliners sought to exclude domestic flights, non-commercial flights, and carriages performed not for reward by individuals or groups from the Convention altogether. Id. at 142; KRIENDLER, supra note 34, sec [2] n.4 (citing Dunn, 589 F.2d at ) (providing the example of Dunn, a federal case in which the defendant airline was forced to pay a substantial penalty to an injured passenger). Airlines were fully aware of the possibility that a major lawsuit could destroy capital investment, and thus sought to limit their potential liability through the Convention. See KRIENDLER, supra note 34, sec [2] n See Ide, supra note 25, at 30 (citing Report of 1925 International Conference of Private Air Law) (reporting the establishment of two commissions by the First International Conference of Private Air Law in 1925, created to report on general questions of private air law and the liability of air carriers); see also Andrea Buff, Reforming the Liability Provisions of the Warsaw Convention: Does the IATA Intercarrier Agreement Eliminate the Need to Amend the Convention?, 20 FORDHAM INT L L.J. 1768, 1774 n.42 (1997) (citing Senate Comm. on Foreign Relations, Message from the President of the U.S. Transmitting a Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules, S. EXEC. DOC. NO. G., 73d Cong., at 3-4 (2d Sess. 1934), reprinted in 1934 U.S. Aviation Rep. 239, 242) (contending that lim-11 2001] WARSAW CONVENTION 901 Also underlying the Convention s goal of limiting a carrier s liability was the understanding that liability of the air carrier would be less rigorous than that for other carriers 42 and that the carrier was not assuming responsibility for the safety of the passenger absent fault. It was also understood and intended that the carrier would not assume responsibility for risks associated with travel in general. 43 Reduced to its essentials, the Convention s limited liability scheme imposed presumed liability upon the carrier for injury resulting from aviation accidents by setting monetary limits to any damage recovery, and allowing exoneration where the carrier exercised due diligence. 44 Since the Convention was imposing liability upon the carrier for aircraft accidents, it placed the burden of proof regarding due diligence on the carrier, as it was believed that, in most crashes or major incidents, the carrier would be the most knowledgeable as to cause. 45 If the cause could not be determined, then the carrier would ited liability would attract investors and insurance underwriters to the airline industry); GOEDHUIS, supra note 40, at 243 (explaining that the purpose of the Warsaw Convention was to give carriers the advantage of knowing when and to what extent their liability would be engaged). 42. See GOEDHUIS, supra note 40, at 233, 236 (stating that the [t]he liability of the air carrier must be submitted to rules less rigorous than those imposed on other carriers. ). 43. See id. (justifying the less rigorous enforcement of airline liability with the belief among representatives at the Convention that airline passengers, unlike passengers traveling on the more traditional modes of transportation, accepted the increased risks accompanied with flying). The argument for decreased airline liability was further strengthened by the contention that an airline could not overcome a presumption of fault where the airplane is involved in an accident, or disappears in the sea. See id. at 237; MILLER, supra note 26, at 63 (admitting that anyone using an aircraft does not ignore the risks inherent in a mode of transportation which has not yet reached the point of perfection that one hundred years have given to the railways. ). 44. See GOEDHUIS, supra note 40, at 38 (explaining that a system of liability must be arrived to which the injured party is relieved from the burden of proof without this resulting in declaring the carrier liable when it has committed no fault. ). 45. See INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON AIR LAW AFFECTING AIR QUESTIONS, SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON PRIVATE AERONAUTICAL LAW, MINUTES, OCT. 4-12, WARSAW 1929, at 21, 37, 252 (R. Horner ed. & D. Legrez transl., 1975) [hereinafter 1929 WARSAW MINUTES] (noting that a showing of due diligence will lessen the extent to which the air carrier would be liable); GOEDHUIS, supra note 40, at , 230 (discussing the generally accepted rule of placing the burden of proof on the carrier).12 902 AM. U. INT L L. REV. [16:891 be liable. 46 Indeed, it was the placement of the burden of proof on the carrier that served as the justification for modest liability limits. Based on these notions, the Warsaw liability scheme that emerged in 1929 allowed a passenger to recover damages for any injury or death if the following were established: (a) the claimant was a passenger of an international flight; 47 (b) the claimant suffered an accident; 48 (c) the accident occurred aboard the international flight or in the course of embarking or disembarking the international flight; 49 and (d) the accident caused the passenger to suffer death or wounding... or any other bodily injury. 50 The two primary defenses were contributory negligence on the part of the claimant and carrier exoneration where it undertook all necessary measures to avoid the accident. 51 Finally, the monetary limit could be broken by showing that the carrier engaged in willful misconduct, 52 or where the carrier failed to deliver the ticket. 53 The monetary limit was 125,000 francs (approximately $8,300 in U. S. currency). 54 Although the Convention barred carriers from undermining the Convention rules by exculpatory contract language, carriers could agree to a higher limit of liability with the passenger by special contract. 55 Since its inception, a number of modifications or supplements to the Convention have attempted to address and raise the liability limits. 56 These modifications include the 1955 Hague Protocol, 57 the 46. See LAWRENCE B. GOLDHIRSCH, THE WARSAW CONVENTION ANNOTATED: A LEGAL HANDBOOK (Kluwer 2000) (providing a translation and analytical commentary for the Warsaw Convention). 47. See Warsaw Convention, supra note 1, arts. 1, See id. art See id. 50. Id. 51. See id. art. 20(1). 52. See Warsaw Convention, supra note 1, art See id. art See id. 55. See id. art. 22(1). 56. See infra notes and accompanying text (delineating the several multilateral and unilateral attempts to increase liability limits). 57. 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