Source: https://www.scribd.com/document/46312996/Offshore-Marine-Aquaculture-Administrative-Issues
Timestamp: 2017-12-14 10:24:19
Document Index: 417597915

Matched Legal Cases: ['§1431', '§1342', '§1801', '§1855', '§28012810', '§1371', '§661', '§33713378', '§1451', '§403', '§1536', '§1333', '§1536', '§1337', '§661', '§42', '§ 4321', '§85', '§8301']

Offshore Marine Aquaculture Administrative Issues | National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration | Aquaculture
Uploaded by Anders Arfelt
OFFSHORE MARINE AQUACULTURE Multiple Administrative and Environmental Issues Need to Be Addressed in Establishing a U.S. Regulatory Framework
GAO-08-594
Highlights of GAO-08-594, a report to the Chairman, Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives
U. S. aquaculture—the raising of fish and shellfish in captivity—has generally been confined to nearshore coastal waters or in other water bodies, such as ponds, that fall under state regulation. Recently, there has been an increased interest in expanding aquaculture to offshore waters, which would involve raising fish and shellfish in the open ocean, and consequently bringing these types of operations under federal regulation. While the offshore expansion has the potential to increase U.S. aquaculture production, no comprehensive legislative or regulatory framework to manage such an expansion exists. Instead, multiple federal agencies have authority to regulate different aspects of offshore aquaculture under a variety of existing laws that were not designed for this purpose. In this context, GAO was asked to identify key issues that should be addressed in the development of an effective regulatory framework for U.S. offshore aquaculture. In conducting its assessment, GAO administered a questionnaire to a wide variety of key aquaculture stakeholders; analyzed laws, regulations, and key studies; and visited states that regulate nearshore aquaculture industries. Although GAO is not making any recommendations, this review emphasizes the need to carefully consider a wide array of key issues as a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture is developed. Agencies that provided official comments generally agreed with the report.
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click on GAO-08-594. For more information, contact Anu K. Mittal at (202) 512-3841 or mittala@gao.gov.
In developing a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture, it is important to consider a wide array of issues, which can be grouped into four main areas. Program administration: Addressing the administration of an offshore program at the federal level is an important aspect of a regulatory framework. Stakeholders that GAO contacted and key studies that GAO reviewed identified specific roles and responsibilities for federal agencies, states, and regional fishery management councils. Most stakeholders and the studies agreed that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) should be the lead federal agency and emphasized that coordination with other federal agencies will also be important. In addition, stakeholders and some of the studies recommended that the states play an important role in the development and implementation of an offshore aquaculture program. Permitting and site selection: It will also be important to establish a regulatory process that clearly identifies where aquaculture facilities can be located and for how long. For example, many stakeholders stated that offshore facilities will need the legal right, through a permit or lease, to occupy an area of the ocean. However, stakeholders varied on the specific terms of the permits or leases, including their duration. Some stakeholders said that longer permits could make it easier for investors to recoup their investments, while others said that shorter ones could facilitate closer scrutiny of environmental impacts. This variability is also reflected in the approaches taken by states that regulate aquaculture in their waters. One state issues 20-year leases while another issues shorter leases. Stakeholders supported various approaches for siting offshore facilities, such as case-bycase site evaluations and prepermitting some locations. Environmental management: A process to assess and mitigate the environmental impacts of offshore operations is another important aspect of a regulatory framework. For example, many stakeholders told GAO of the value of reviewing the potential cumulative environmental impacts of offshore operations over a broad ocean area before any facilities are sited. About half of them said that a facility-by-facility environmental review should also be required. Two states currently require facility-level reviews for operations in state waters. In addition, stakeholders, key studies, and state regulators generally supported an adaptive monitoring approach to ensure flexibility in monitoring changing environmental conditions. Other important areas to address include policies to mitigate the potential impacts of escaped fish and to remediate environmental damage. Research: Finally, a regulatory framework needs to include a federal research component to help fill current gaps in knowledge about offshore aquaculture. For example, stakeholders supported federally funded research on developing (1) alternative fish feeds, (2) best management practices to minimize environmental impacts, (3) data on how escaped aquaculture fish might impact wild fisheries, and (4) strategies to breed and raise fish while effectively managing disease. A few researchers said that the current process of funding research for aquaculture is not adequate because the research grants are funded over periods that are too short to accommodate certain types of research, such as hatchery research and offshore demonstration projects.
Results in Brief Background It Is Important to Consider Many Issues in Four Key Areas When Developing a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture Concluding Observations Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
1 4 7 13 37 37 40
Stakeholders Consulted by GAO Regarding a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture
Comments from the Department of Agriculture
Table 1: Agencies’ Regulatory Responsibilities and Authorities for Offshore Aquaculture 10
Figure 1: Examples of Cages Used in Nearshore and Offshore Aquaculture 8
GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture
Abbreviations Corps EPA NEPA NOAA NPDES PEIS USDA Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Protection Agency National Environmental Policy Act National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System programmatic environmental impact statement U.S. Department of Agriculture
May 9, 2008 The Honorable Nick J. Rahall II Chairman Committee on Natural Resources House of Representatives Dear Mr. Chairman: The U.S. aquaculture industry—which primarily raises fish and shellfish in captivity—is relatively small compared with that of other countries. According to the most recent data available from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the United States was the tenth largest aquaculture producer in the world in 2004.1 Generally, U.S. aquaculture takes place in nearshore marine waters or onshore—such as in ponds or tanks—that fall under the jurisdiction of individual states. Offshore marine aquaculture, which involves raising fish in cages and shellfish attached to underwater ropes in open-ocean federal waters, has the potential to increase U.S. aquaculture production. A move to offshore operations would mean that aquaculture facilities would be sited in federally regulated waters that generally extend from 3 to 200 nautical miles from the U.S. coast. To date, no offshore aquaculture operations exist in U.S. federal waters. However, a few small-scale commercial and research operations are ongoing in state or territorial waters in Hawaii, New Hampshire, and Puerto Rico, which have conditions similar to the offshore environment such as deep water, rapid currents, and large waves. With some recent advances in offshore aquaculture technologies and the existence of some open-ocean commercial and research operations in state waters, the aquaculture industry is increasingly interested in expanding to offshore areas. Proponents of offshore aquaculture have argued that it can increase production, while potentially alleviating some of the environmental concerns that have been associated with aquaculture in nearshore areas. For example, nutrients from nearshore aquaculture facilities have, in some cases, decreased the diversity of organisms living in and on the ocean floor—known as the benthic community. Some have
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006 (Rome, Italy: 2007).
NOAA evaluates proposals for new facilities in the marine environment. However. several nearshore aquaculture facilities have faced challenges in keeping aquaculture-raised fish free from diseases. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) issues permits for structures in 2 Concerns about disease interactions between wild fish and aquaculture facilities received attention recently in response to a 2007 study of nearshore salmon aquaculture operations in British Columbia. potentially harming both. and monitored. under a variety of existing laws that were not designed for this purpose. regulated. and national marine sanctuary resources are protected. the U.suggested that faster currents and deeper waters in offshore areas will disperse these nutrients before they can be deposited on the ocean floor. in part. the feeds currently used in aquaculture production rely. diseases can be transmitted between aquaculture and wild populations.3 In addition. endangered species.S. multiple federal agencies have the authority to regulate different aspects of offshore aquaculture. The study argued that aquaculture facilities near inlets and channels where juvenile salmon migrate from fresh to marine waters have led to damaging levels of sea lice transmission from aquaculture-raised fish to wild populations. Also. and offshore facilities could face similar challenges as well. potentially reducing the ability of wild fish to survive. fish may escape from an aquaculture facility. and no comprehensive law directly addresses how it should be administered. NOAA also coordinates with eight regional fishery management councils to manage fishing activity and protect fish habitat in federal waters. including aquaculture. In this regard. which are used in aquaculture feeds. and interbreed with wild fish. whether nearshore or offshore. For example.2 Finally. noting that there are many wild sources of sea lice that could have accounted for the sea lice infections of wild salmon and disputed some of the methods used in the study. such as anchovies. others believe that significant environmental concerns remain and should be addressed before the United States authorizes an offshore aquaculture program. In addition. The key federal agencies include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Additionally. Other scientists disagreed. there is no lead federal agency for regulating offshore aquaculture. such as those for aquaculture or oil exploration. Currently. Page 2 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . to ensure that marine mammals. raising concerns that an expanded aquaculture industry could result in over-fishing certain species. which has the authority to protect the marine environment from potential negative impacts from a variety of sources. on ingredients derived from wild-caught fish. 3 Regional fishery management councils are composed primarily of federal and state fishery management officials and individuals selected by the Secretary of Commerce from lists submitted by the Governors of the states in the councils’ regions.
Sustainable Marine Aquaculture: Fulfilling the Promise. the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issues permits to limit the release of pollutants from aquaculture facilities into U. among other things. Commission on Ocean Policy. Within this context.S. To conduct this work. and the Pew Oceans Commission—brought together ocean policy stakeholders to examine. the administration developed legislative proposals to provide a new regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. 1609 in 2007. In addition. D. America’s Living Oceans: Charting a Course of Sea Change (Washington. If a study is not cited for a particular policy issue. and environmentalists to advocate for a coordinated approach to regulating offshore aquaculture in the United States. as well as a wide range of studies on offshore aquaculture. 4 5 The bills were introduced as S. offshore aquaculture. University of Delaware. This complex structure of federal responsibilities for offshore aquaculture has led aquaculture researchers. U.S. the University of Delaware. In 2005 and 2007. we reviewed federal laws and regulations. We also visited the states with active nearshore fish aquaculture industries— Hawaii. it is because the study did not address that issue. MD: 2007).4 The 2007 legislative proposal was introduced in the House and Senate but has not progressed any farther toward becoming law. regulators.navigable waters. Managing the Risks (Takoma Park.: 2003). potential regulatory frameworks for offshore aquaculture. Federal Waters (Newark: 2005). that study did not address the policy issue. D. you asked us to identify key issues that should be addressed in the development of an effective regulatory framework for U. Pew Oceans Commission.R. Throughout the report. and Washington—and met with state and federal regulators to discuss state regulatory frameworks. 2010 and S. Maine. Recommendations for an Operational Framework for Offshore Aquaculture in U. Similarly. representatives from six of the eight regional fishery management councils. and state officials in California. we spoke with other relevant federal agency officials.S. 1195 in 2005 and as H. to ensure that navigation is not impeded. Commission on Ocean Policy. those who operate aquaculture facilities (aquaculturists). If a study is not cited for a particular policy issue. the U. An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century (Washington. including four key studies. we cite those studies that reached similar conclusions or made similar recommendations on particular policy issues.: 2004). Page 3 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .5 These key studies—by the Marine Aquaculture Task Force.C.C.S. such as aquaculture net pens where fish are raised.S. Marine Aquaculture Task Force. waters.
We conducted this performance audit from April 2007 to May 2008 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. and research.Florida. as well as broad geographic representation throughout the United States. but differed on how to address other specific implementation issues. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objective. Based on this information.S. Most stakeholders we contacted said that NOAA should be the lead federal agency to (1) manage a permitting or leasing program for offshore aquaculture facilities and (2) Page 4 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . and “most” means 20 stakeholders or more. and Texas. “about half” means 12 to 14 stakeholders. and up to five stakeholders. For purposes of characterizing the results from our questionnaire and followup interviews of our 25 stakeholders. Aquaculture stakeholders whom we contacted generally agreed on how to address some specific issues within each of these four broad areas. We selected these stakeholders because of their knowledge of aquaculture issues and to ensure broad representation across government. industry. Results in Brief In developing an effective regulatory framework for U. a variety of aquaculture stakeholders. offshore aquaculture. and conducted follow-up structured interviews with. and environmental groups. it is important to consider a wide array of issues. aquaculture industry. These issues can be grouped into four main areas: program administration. we identified specific meanings for the words we used to quantify the results. “some” means between 6 and 11 stakeholders. and the environmental and academic sectors. as follows: “a few” means at least three. we developed a questionnaire to assess the level of support for various regulatory policy options. We administered the questionnaire to. Identifying a lead federal agency. appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objective. is key to the administration of an offshore aquaculture program. environmental management. • Program administration. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient. and aquaculture researchers. representatives from the commercial fishing industry. We sent questionnaires to 28 stakeholders and received responses from 25. including key federal and coastal state officials. “a majority” of stakeholders and “many” stakeholders both mean 15 to 19 stakeholders. where new marine aquaculture policies are under development. as well as the roles and responsibilities of other federal agencies and states. permitting and site selection.
a majority of stakeholders agreed that states should be able to “opt out” of the offshore aquaculture program. For example. while others advocated for permits or leases with shorter time frames to ensure close scrutiny of environmental impacts during the lease or permit renewal process. If a state chose to opt out. In addition. For example. For example. some stakeholders supported permits or leases with long time frames—20 years or more—to allow investors to recoup their investments. Permits or leases are important to establish the terms and conditions for offshore aquaculture operations. Regarding the extent to which states should be involved in regulating offshore aquaculture. emphasized that offshore aquaculturists will need the legal right—through a permit or lease—to occupy a given tract of ocean. • Permitting and site selection. Some stakeholders were concerned that without legal rights defined in a permit or lease. Finally. EPA has knowledge of technologies and practices that control and reduce pollutants from marine aquaculture. stakeholders and studies generally agreed that regional fishery management councils should review or comment on offshore aquaculture projects but not be able to veto such projects. In addition. three of the key studies that we reviewed recommended that states be involved in the development and implementation of a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. most stakeholders emphasized that formal agreements among agencies are essential to enhance federal coordination and take advantage of each agency’s unique expertise. and the University of Delaware study. stakeholders expressed a range of opinions on the specific terms of offshore aquaculture permits and leases. the stakeholders also said that states that have not opted out of the program should not have the authority to veto individual offshore aquaculture projects. site selection—developing a process to approve offshore aquaculture facility locations—is an important component of regulating offshore aquaculture. However. However. aquaculturists might not be able to obtain needed business loans. it would be refusing to allow any offshore aquaculture to take place in the federal waters adjacent to its state waters. stakeholders we contacted.coordinate with other federal agencies. About half of these stakeholders supported NOAA because of its expertise in fisheries and oceans management. Stakeholders supported a variety of approaches that the lead aquaculture agency could use to site new offshore aquaculture facilities. Specifically. In addition. including (1) reviewing and approving sites Page 5 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . and the lead federal agency for offshore aquaculture could draw on that experience to protect water quality in federal waters. one stakeholder said he did not support allowing states to veto individual offshore aquaculture projects because few businesses would be interested in investing time and money in obtaining federal offshore aquaculture approvals if any individual state could veto the federal decision.
competitive grants. For example. Finally. Most stakeholders said that the federal government should place particular importance on funding research on (1) developing fish feeds that do not rely heavily on harvesting wild fish. Research. for example. although these states vary in the frequency and intensity of monitoring they require. and (4) developing strategies to breed and raise fish while effectively managing disease. Most stakeholders also supported using an adaptive monitoring approach that would alter monitoring requirements over time as better information became available and help focus on the types of monitoring that are demonstrated to be the most appropriate for tracking changes to the environment. facility-specific environmental review should also be required. Maine. Stakeholders’ views varied. Such monitoring is done for nearshore marine aquaculture programs in Hawaii. and mitigate the potential environmental impacts of offshore aquaculture facilities will also be important. In addition. on whether aquaculturists should be allowed to raise genetically modified species in offshore aquaculture facilities. Finally. monitor. Stakeholders. For example. among other things. stakeholders had varied opinions on policies that could be used to mitigate the potential impacts of escaped fish and remediate environmental damage. most stakeholders supported requiring aquaculturists to develop plans to address fish escapes from their proposed facilities. some researchers said that grants are funded over time periods that are too short to accommodate certain types of research.on a case-by-case basis and (2) prepermitting locations by approving sites independently of and prior to submitting individual facility applications. However. researchers in Hawaii told us that the development of healthy breeding • Page 6 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . A regulatory process to review. however. Currently.S. NOAA and the U. research to address gaps in current knowledge on a variety of issues for offshore aquaculture is an important component of a regulatory framework. Many stakeholders recognized the value of reviewing the potential environmental impacts of offshore aquaculture over a broad ocean area before any offshore aquaculture facilities are sited—which should involve preparing a programmatic environmental impact statement. and the four key studies we reviewed. A few considered this a sufficient level of environmental review. while others said that a follow-up. • Environmental management. the majority of stakeholders supported conducting environmental monitoring at offshore aquaculture facilities to identify changes to the benthic community and disease. and Washington. Department of Agriculture (USDA) fund research on marine aquaculture through. (2) developing best management practices. (3) exploring how escaped offshore aquacultureraised fish might impact wild fish populations. generally agreed that the federal government should fund such research.
a NOAA official said that no countries have substantial offshore aquaculture industries with facilities sited in openocean environments. and cod and halibut in New Hampshire. such as catfish.C. such as oysters. G. have expressed interest in or are developing policy frameworks to regulate offshore aquaculture in the open ocean. and J. The New Hampshire project also grows mussels. cobia in Puerto Rico. and shellfish. To date. Many countries are producing marine fish.6 During the last 10 years. Page 7 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . A majority of global aquaculture fish and shellfish are raised in a freshwater environment and species raised in a marine environment make up about 36 percent of aquaculture production. C. The United States’ aquaculture industry includes both onshore and nearshore operations and produces both fish. Marine aquaculture is dominated by high-value fish. although the industry is relatively small compared with the global salmon aquaculture industry. and they most frequently raise oysters. though a NOAA official indicated that most production is occurring in shallow. and New Hampshire. however.: TRAFFIC North America and World Wildlife Fund. A few countries. clams. four small-scale aquaculture facilities began nearshore open-ocean operations in Hawaii. mussels. such as salmon and catfish. Anderson.5 million tons in 2004. Background Globally. and salmon. such as moi and kahala in Hawaii.fish to supply offshore aquaculture operations can often require years of intensive breeding efforts. Puerto Rico. Onshore aquaculture facilities are primarily involved in raising freshwater species. sheltered areas relatively close to shore. 2007). such as salmon. All four facilities grow fish species native to their regions. such as Ireland. The Great Salmon Run: Competition between Wild and Farmed Salmon (Washington. Marine aquaculture facilities in the United States are generally located in waters close to shore and in sheltered conditions. but that it is difficult to obtain consistent research funding over this long time period. accounting for less than 1 percent of the world’s production. from less than 1. The salmon aquaculture industry in the United States is concentrated in Maine and Washington. These open-ocean facilities and similar facilities that may be established in an offshore environment require technology that differs from what is generally needed by nearshore 6 Knapp. aquaculture production has grown significantly over the past 50 years. D.. Roheim.1 million tons around 1950 to about 65. in conditions similar to those found offshore.
open-ocean facilities need stronger cages and anchors that can withstand the strong currents and storms that are prevalent offshore.facilities. Figure 1: Examples of Cages Used in Nearshore and Offshore Aquaculture Surface cages Subsurface cages Source: GAO. For example. Furthermore. Page 8 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . offshore aquaculture will face challenges such as inclement weather. which may prevent offshore aquaculturists from accessing cages due to their location far from shore and could delay essential activities such as feeding.
NH: 2001-2007). (Durham. Anthony. et al. Chuck. Anthony. 9 Page 9 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . HI: 2007). HI: 2000). Hawaii Offshore Aquaculture Research Project–Phase I. EPA. have regulatory authorities relevant to various aspects of offshore aquaculture operations (see table 1). 8 The Clean Water Act generally prohibits discharge of pollutants into waters of the United States. Although the environmental impact of an offshore aquaculture industry is uncertain because of a lack of data specific to large-scale. Helsley. Ward. (Waimanalo. Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center Open Ocean Aquaculture Annual Progress Report. (Mayaguez. medication. and USDA. data from existing small-scale. et al. Studies of other open-ocean sites in state or territorial waters found little to no impact on water quality or the benthic community. as well as monitoring requirements to ensure that a stipulated level of water quality is retained. Hawaii Offshore Aquaculture Research Project—Phase III: Critical Research and Development Issues for Commercialization and Supplement for Acquisition of Initial Sedimentation Rate Data around Sea Cages Operating off the Coast of Oahu.7 but that these changes were within the allowable limits of the facility’s National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.However. open-ocean facilities in state waters provide some information about this kind of impact. offshore aquaculture operations. Alston. NPDES permits include limits on the pollutants that can be released. Environmental and Social Impact of Sustainable Offshore Cage Culture Production in Puerto Rican Waters. the Corps. the data from the site indicated a slight change in the benthic community. (Waimanalo. PR: 2005). 7 Ostrowski. but researchers noted that it returned to its original composition after the cages were not used for 6 months. HI: 2001). (Waimanalo. Specifically.8 Also. Larry. and fish waste may alter water quality and may also change the composition of the benthic community. there are concerns that offshore aquaculture may have adverse environmental impacts. including NOAA. Studies of one small-scale commercial facility in Hawaii show that some water quality changes occurred near the aquaculture cages. Hawaii Offshore Aquaculture Research Project–Phase II. Dallas.9 Multiple federal agencies. excess nutrients or chemicals from fish food. Ostrowski.
S.S. §1431 et Act seq.C. such as oil and gas platforms.S. tribal.S. §§1342.S. 1343 EPA Regulate discharges to navigable waters through NPDES permits. marine mammals.S.C. §1801 et seq. Regulate the importation and interstate transportation of fish under humane and healthful conditions.C. or foreign laws.S.Table 1: Agencies’ Regulatory Responsibilities and Authorities for Offshore Aquaculture Agency (Department) Responsibilities Authority Marine Mammal Protection Act Citation 16 U. including aquaculture. Corps (Defense) Regulate structures.S. essential fish habitat.C. Clean Water Act Fish and Wildlife Service (Interior) Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act Endangered Species Act Lacey Act 16 U. in navigable waters through “Section 10” permits.C.S. §1855 16 U. §§28012810 16 U. §1371 NOAA’s National Marine Consult with regulating agencies regarding the Fisheries Service impact of permitted activities on living marine (Commerce) resources. including aquaculture.C. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 16 U. §661 et seq.C. NOAA’s National Ocean Review and approve state coastal management Service (Commerce) programs. 16 U. §§33713378 16 U. Consult with permitting agencies regarding the impact of permitted activities on fish and wildlife.C. 16 U. Enforce prohibitions on the sale. Regulate activities in national marine sanctuaries to protect sanctuary resources.C.C. Cooperate with other federal agencies in National Aquaculture Act of implementing the National Aquaculture Development 1980 Plan.S. and endangered species.S. for marine-related activities. Rivers and Harbors Act Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 33 U.S. §1451 et seq. §403 43 U. Often authorizes states to issue NPDES permits for discharges to navigable waters within a state. §1536 18 U. §1333 33 U. Endangered Species Act Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act Regulate fishing activities.C. Oversee federal consistency with these programs.C. Coastal Zone Management Act National Marine Sanctuaries 16 U.C. §1536 16 U.S. including endangered species. such as aquaculture cages.C. which identify permissible water uses in the coastal zone. Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 43 U.C. §1337 Page 10 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . 16 U. Performed in consultation with regional fishery management councils. state. §661 et seq. or Lacey Act transportation of fish or wildlife harvested or attained in violation of federal.S. trade.C.S. §42 Minerals Management Service (Interior) Authorize the use of existing facilities on the outer continental shelf.S.
11 Under NEPA. 11 10 42 U. Similarly. Corps.C. An agency may also elect to prepare a programmatic environmental impact statement (PEIS). federal agencies would be In addition to USDA. Agency for International Development. such as sponsoring the 2007 National Marine Aquaculture Summit. other member agencies of the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture are: Department of Commerce. is creating a federal plan for managing aquatic animal health and has convened a science and technology task force to update the federal strategic plan for aquaculture research. §§ 4321-4347. Tennessee Valley Authority. Coast Guard (Homeland Require structures that are located in waters under Security) the jurisdiction of the United States to be marked with lights and signals to protect navigation. and Farm Credit Administration. NOAA’s Aquaculture Program coordinates the agency’s aquaculture research activities and conducts outreach and industry development efforts. Small Business Administration.S. such as siting a number of aquaculture facilities in the same general location that plan to raise the same species. §85 In addition to the responsibilities described in table 1. a variety of individuals and organizations will have a stake in how the industry is regulated and how it affects the environment. Rivers and Harbors Act 14 U. If an offshore aquaculture industry develops. Source: GAO. permits for aquaculture facilities or oil platforms might necessitate such a review. §8301 et seq. Page 11 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . EPA. Animal Health Protection Act 7 U.10 In addition to agency-specific responsibilities and authorities. all federal agencies are required to comply with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). social. For example. among other things. National Science Foundation.S. A PEIS could either be prepared to help develop regulations for an industry by evaluating its potential for environmental. and economic impacts or to evaluate proposed actions sharing geographic and programmatic similarities after regulations have been established.S.Agency (Department) Responsibilities Authority Citation Animal and Plant Health Regulate the movement of aquatic animals in Inspection Service interstate and foreign commerce and respond to (Agriculture) aquatic animal disease outbreaks.C. USDA also chairs the interagency Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture which. Department of the Interior. agencies evaluate the likely environmental effects of projects that could significantly affect the environment. Department of Energy. Specifically. Department of Health and Human Services.C.
business. The commercial fishing industry would be a stakeholder both because it may have to share ocean space with aquaculturists. conservation. Massachusetts. four key studies have been conducted with stakeholder input that examined. and the offshore aquaculture industry could affect the environment that supports wild fish populations. and others in regional meetings in the states of Alaska. state government. industry. The University of Delaware study was prepared by an interdisciplinary team with backgrounds in marine policy. independent group to identify policies and practices necessary to restore and protect living marine resources in U.stakeholders because they would regulate the offshore aquaculture industry. These four key studies are as follows: • The Marine Aquaculture Task Force study was developed by a group of scientists. among other things.S. environmental protection. education. potential regulatory frameworks for offshore aquaculture. The Pew Oceans Commission study was developed by a bipartisan. Hawaii. Florida. fishing. waters and the ocean and coastal habitats on which they depend. researchers would be stakeholders because they are technical experts and want to ensure proper application of scientific knowledge. The Marine Aquaculture Task Force’s approach to gathering such information included meeting with aquaculturists. This study made recommendations for developing a comprehensive regulatory framework for sustainable offshore aquaculture in the United States based on information from literature reviews and consultations with stakeholders through national and regional workshops throughout the United States. The Pew Commission conducted a national dialogue on ocean issues by • • Page 12 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . or guide and fund public research on offshore aquaculture. The aquaculture industry would be a stakeholder because it is interested in developing offshore facilities. government. and Washington. law. aquaculturists. and policy experts who sought to gather information about aquaculture and its positive and negative effects. Coastal states would be stakeholders because an offshore aquaculture industry could potentially have impacts on natural resources in their state waters and provide economic benefits to coastal communities. public officials. legal scholars. and philanthropy. Environmental groups would be stakeholders because they are interested in protecting marine resources. and marine science. and the offshore aquaculture industry could affect those resources. Over the last 5 years. The Pew Commission brought together a diverse group of American leaders from the worlds of science. fishermen. Finally. marine scientists.
Site selection is also an important component of regulating offshore aquaculture. which was required by the Oceans Act of 2000. Specifically. are key to the administration of an offshore aquaculture program. 106-256. No. 12 The U. Moreover. Specifically. receiving testimony from hundreds of people. Finally. Commission had 16 members drawn from diverse backgrounds. and workshops to listen to those who live and work along the coasts. Page 13 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Moreover. In addition. 647 (2000). it is important that a regulatory framework include research to address gaps in current knowledge on a variety of issues related to offshore aquaculture. and research— are important to consider when developing an offshore aquaculture program for the United States. most stakeholders and all four studies we reviewed agreed that NOAA should be the lead federal agency for offshore aquaculture and emphasized that coordination with other federal agencies will be important. including individuals nominated by the leadership in the United States Senate and House of Representatives. states. The study includes detailed recommendations for reform of oceans policy. reviewing environmental impacts of. and monitoring environmental conditions at.S. permitting and site selection. Sec. and regional fishery management councils. • The U. Key Program Administration Issues Aquaculture stakeholders that we contacted and key studies that we reviewed identified specific roles and responsibilities for federal agencies.convening a series of 15 regional meetings. identifying a lead federal agency. Stakeholders whom we contacted generally agreed on how to address some specific issues within each of the four key areas but differed on many other issues. 114 Stat. offshore aquaculture facilities are key to identifying the scope and nature of potential environmental issues that may require mitigation. It Is Important to Consider Many Issues in Four Key Areas When Developing a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture A wide array of issues within four key areas—program administration. The U. L. the 12 Pub.S. established findings and developed recommendations for a coordinated and comprehensive national ocean policy. 3(f)(1). environmental management. public hearings. Commission on Ocean Policy study. Commission held 16 public meetings around the country and conducted 18 regional site visits.S. as well as the roles and responsibilities of other federal agencies and states. permits or leases are important to establish the terms and conditions for offshore aquaculture operations.
USDA would be best able to effectively regulate the industry and coordinate with other agencies. Two of the stakeholders who supported USDA explained that since aquaculture is ultimately an agricultural activity. but that those states that have chosen to participate should not have the ability to veto individual offshore aquaculture facility proposals. University of Delaware. would be better equipped to serve as the lead agency. conducted by the University of Delaware. One study. In addition. Finally. and the University of Delaware study. Most stakeholders. stakeholders and three of the key studies we reviewed recommended that states be involved in the development and implementation of a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. both to manage a new permitting or leasing program for aquaculture in federal waters and to coordinate federal responsibilities for offshore aquaculture. the Corps should also assume that role for offshore aquaculture in federal waters. a few stakeholders we spoke with who did not agree that NOAA should be the lead agency said that other agencies. such as regulations or memorandums of understanding. Commission on Ocean Policy. with other federal agencies to define the Marine Aquaculture Task Force.S.majority of stakeholders we contacted said NOAA should be the lead agency for research on offshore aquaculture. said that since the Corps is currently the de facto lead federal agency for aquaculture permitting in state waters. and U.13 Stakeholders told us that states should have the ability to opt out of the offshore aquaculture program. stated that it was important for NOAA to develop formal agreements. One stakeholder. Roles and Responsibilities of Federal Agencies Most stakeholders that we contacted and the four key studies that we reviewed agreed that NOAA should be the lead federal agency for offshore aquaculture. also stated that NOAA was the best choice for a lead agency because of its extensive expertise and knowledge of marine science and policy. although stakeholders were evenly divided about whether NOAA or USDA should be responsible for promoting or supporting the offshore aquaculture industry. However. About half of the stakeholders said they supported NOAA as the lead offshore aquaculture agency because of its experience managing ocean resources. 13 Page 14 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . stakeholders generally supported regional fishery management councils having the opportunity to comment on individual offshore aquaculture facility proposals but did not support councils having other authorities. who supported the Corps as the lead agency. such as veto authority. over individual proposals. such as USDA or the Corps.
A few stakeholders emphasized that NOAA should coordinate on both research and technology development with other agencies. and the offshore aquaculture program could draw on that experience to protect water quality in federal waters. while developing regulations for an offshore aquaculture program. Commission on Ocean Policy also suggested that a new office be created to manage the offshore aquaculture program. A majority of stakeholders also said that NOAA should be responsible for managing federal research related to offshore aquaculture. including funding marine aquaculture research and the development of offshore aquaculture technologies. and procedures for regulating offshore aquaculture. Another stakeholder emphasized that he did not support government funding for offshore aquaculture technology development because funding should come from the aquaculture industry. authorities. The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture requires that the Department of Commerce consult with other federal agencies. One stakeholder who supported creating a new office in NOAA said that existing offices currently focus on the conservation of marine resources and that aquaculture is a fundamentally different enterprise meriting a separate office that can focus on developing the aquaculture industry. as appropriate. close coordination with USDA could draw on USDA’s experience in developing food production industries.responsibilities. particularly USDA. Another stakeholder suggested that since aquaculture is a food production business. Some stakeholders also suggested that close coordination with agencies will allow NOAA to draw on each agency’s expertise when developing regulations or making permitting decisions. particularly for any technologies needed to comply with environmental regulations.S. The studies conducted by the University of Delaware and the U. Page 15 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Stakeholders who did not support NOAA as the lead agency for technology development generally supported USDA or said that the federal government should not support technology development at all. Of the stakeholders who said that an existing office should manage the offshore aquaculture program. One stakeholder supported USDA because he said it has a superior record in developing aquaculture technology for both freshwater and marine aquaculture. a few mentioned that this would keep NOAA small and streamlined. stakeholders were about evenly divided on whether those responsibilities should be assigned to a new NOAA office or an existing NOAA office. one stakeholder said that EPA has expertise in protecting marine water quality in state waters. For instance. Despite strong support for NOAA as the lead agency for offshore aquaculture.
stakeholders expressed concern over having one agency. promoting offshore aquaculture at the expense of other types of aquaculture. In contrast. the U. and that the agency has consistently balanced its missions of enabling and regulating other industries. though a few stakeholders did not think this was a role for the federal government. as well as offshore aquaculture. 14 Page 16 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . officials from both states said that agencies have the ability to balance these competing responsibilities. be responsible for both regulating and promoting the offshore aquaculture industry because of the potential conflict of interest between those two responsibilities. Hawaii. one state official in Hawaii stated that keeping promotion and regulatory responsibilities together can allow officials to share expertise. Another stakeholder said that USDA is the logical choice to promote and support the offshore aquaculture industry because it has experience marketing agricultural products. such as nearshore shellfish aquaculture. Commission on Ocean Policy recommended that any proposed federal permitting and Marine Aquaculture Task Force. Despite Hawaii’s and Maine’s separation of these responsibilities. with appropriate environmental safeguards.14 For instance. Finally. and U. Commission on Ocean Policy. One stakeholder who said that NOAA should promote the offshore aquaculture industry suggested that NOAA should restructure its mission to support not just offshore aquaculture but the production of sustainable seafood from wild fisheries. at the state level. thereby increasing efficiency and resulting in cost savings. One stakeholder objected to government promotion of offshore aquaculture because it amounts to the government promoting one industry over another. such as NOAA. University of Delaware.Stakeholders were also about evenly divided on whether NOAA or USDA should be responsible for promoting and supporting the offshore aquaculture industry.S. Roles and Responsibilities of States Three of the key studies we reviewed recommended that states be involved in the development and implementation of a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. A NOAA official said that NOAA’s mission is to enable marine aquaculture. and Washington have each separated their regulatory and promotion agencies. In fact.S. a few stakeholders said that promotion or support of the offshore aquaculture industry is not a role for the federal government. Maine. In this context. One stakeholder suggested that NOAA regulate the industry and develop offshore aquaculture technologies and that USDA focus on promoting offshore aquaculture. for instance.
If a state chose to opt out. state boundaries on the New England coast overlap extensively. rather than opting out of Page 17 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture includes a provision that would allow a state to opt out of offshore aquaculture within 12 miles of its coast. Of those who supported an opt-out provision. Stakeholders who supported providing the states the ability to opt out did so for various reasons. Three stakeholders said that this provision is necessary for political reasons—that without the ability for states to opt out. Stakeholders who opposed the state opt-out provision also listed various reasons. potentially interbreeding with wild fish populations in state waters. NOAA officials explained that the agency’s decision to limit the opt-out provision to 12 miles was a policy decision that balanced the need to give states a reasonable buffer zone and the difficulty of identifying boundaries between states out to 200 miles in the exclusive economic zone. it would be difficult to garner enough support to enact offshore aquaculture legislation. In addition. A few stakeholders stated that the opt-out provision should apply only within a certain distance from shore—ranging from 5 to 12 miles. Other stakeholders proposed more flexible opt-out policies. one stakeholder supported a policy that would allow states to selectively opt out of particular locations. A few stakeholders said they supported an opt-out provision because offshore aquaculture could still affect a state’s natural resources. even relatively close to shore. a majority said that states should be able to opt out of fish aquaculture anywhere in the 200 miles of federal waters directly offshore from their state waters. such as the spread of disease. For instance. while it is relatively clear where the boundaries of Alaska’s state line would be when extended out to 200 miles. A few stakeholders argued that states should not make decisions about the use of federal resources. For example. escaped fish could travel into state waters and spawn.leasing program be coordinated with aquaculture-related regulations developed at the state level to provide regulatory consistency to the industry and manage potential environmental impacts that cross jurisdictional lines. it would be refusing to allow any offshore aquaculture to take place in the federal waters adjacent to its state waters. and one stakeholder said that allowing states to opt out is contrary to a nationally stated goal of increasing domestic seafood production. which could reduce the ability of wild fish to survive. For example. The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture requires coordination with coastal states during the process of establishing regulations for offshore aquaculture. a majority of stakeholders supported a policy that would allow states to opt out of the offshore aquaculture program.
the majority of stakeholders agreed that states that participate in the offshore aquaculture program should not have the ability to veto individual offshore aquaculture projects. A few stakeholders who opposed veto authority for states explained that. in which states would need to declare their support for offshore aquaculture before any facilities could be located in the waters adjacent to their coasts. Regardless of how the opt-out provision is applied. said that states could use the Coastal Zone Management Act—rather than veto authority—to challenge offshore aquaculture proposals. a state could only make this determination if the proposed offshore aquaculture facility would clearly violate provisions of the state’s coastal zone management plan. since the Secretary of Commerce has the authority to override states’ objections under certain circumstances. For instance. such as comments on potential environmental impacts or proposed facility locations. Finally. a state could determine that a proposed offshore aquaculture facility was inconsistent with the state’s coastal zone management plan. including NOAA. In addition. Three of the key studies we reviewed also recommended that states have the opportunity to Page 18 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .offshore aquaculture entirely. For instance. although the majority of stakeholders did not support veto authority for states participating in the program. one stakeholder was concerned that states would not be assured of preventing proposals they objected to. Stakeholders who supported giving states veto authority said that offshore aquaculture could affect states’ natural resources. disease could spread from fish in offshore facilities to fish in state waters requiring state and federal regulators to coordinate closely to manage the disease. In addition. a few stakeholders mentioned using an “opt-in” policy. One stakeholder was concerned that. if states were allowed to veto individual offshore aquaculture projects. A few stakeholders. most stakeholders said that states should have the opportunity to provide input regarding proposed offshore aquaculture facilities. According to NOAA officials. states should not be allowed to overrule federal decisions. since offshore aquaculture would be in waters under federal jurisdiction. then this would prevent offshore aquaculture development since few businesses would be interested in investing time and money in obtaining federal approvals if a state could ultimately veto a federal decision.
emphasized that councils should comment on proposed projects to ensure that they will not adversely impact wild fisheries or fish habitat managed by the councils. In its response to our questionnaire. including restrictions on season of harvest. The sixth council representative said that the council does not have a unified position on whether they want to be involved in permitting issues for every proposed project. For instance. Some stakeholders did not support a veto for councils because they believed the councils are dominated by wild fishery interests and might veto projects simply to avoid any potential competition in their markets. including NOAA. and U. NOAA agreed that adjacent states should have an opportunity to provide comments regarding proposed projects.15 In particular. For example. Some stakeholders. Most stakeholders also agreed that offshore aquaculture should not be subject to some of the regulations that are currently used to manage wild fisheries under fishery management plans. stakeholders generally agreed on how regional fishery management councils should be involved in regulating offshore aquaculture. a representative from the Western Pacific council said that councils should have this additional authority because councils are best positioned to address region-specific issues that may not be considered in a nationwide top-down permitting process. University of Delaware.16 Most stakeholders also agreed that councils should not have veto authority for proposed projects within their regions. Commission on Ocean Policy. In contrast. representatives from two councils wanted more direct authorities. and the method that may Marine Aquaculture Task Force. Roles and Responsibilities of Regional Fishery Management Councils Finally. most stakeholders indicated that councils should have the opportunity to provide comments on proposed offshore aquaculture projects in their regions. 16 15 Page 19 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . the Marine Aquaculture Task Force study said that federal agencies should use states’ comments on proposed facilities to ensure that permits issued for offshore aquaculture are integrated with regional marine planning efforts and do not undermine the effectiveness of ongoing state conservation measures. The University of Delaware and Marine Aquaculture Task Force studies also supported allowing councils to review or comment on offshore aquaculture projects. Representatives from five of the six councils that we spoke with wanted the opportunity to comment on proposed offshore aquaculture projects.comment on proposed facilities. size of the fish that may be harvested. such as the ability to approve or deny proposed offshore aquaculture projects.S.
developing a process to select appropriate sites was identified as an important component of planning for offshore aquaculture facilities and most stakeholders supported a variety of approaches to approve aquaculture facility locations. their wild harvests would still be subject to catch restrictions. Assistant General Counsel for Fisheries.be used to harvest fish. Because offshore aquaculture is considered fishing under Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Johnson. would be illegal under current regulations for species managed under fishery management plans. a representative from the South Atlantic council was concerned that it is too soon to enact such an exemption since any escapes from offshore aquaculture facilities could impact wild fisheries. About half of the stakeholders who agreed with this approach told us that offshore aquaculture is a completely different enterprise from fishing and does not result in an increase or decrease of the wild stocks managed by councils. Brennan. & Margaret F. the councils could impose these types of restrictions on offshore aquaculture operations. to James W. including authorizing aquaculture activities and providing the legal right to occupy an area of the ocean. 7. However. NOAA. for Offshore Aquaculture Permits or leases are important to establish the terms and conditions for offshore aquaculture operations. many offshore aquaculture tasks. Regulation of Aquaculture in the EEZ (Feb. 18 The exemption applies only to hatchery-raised fish that were not taken from the wild. 17 See NOAA’s interpretation in Memorandum from Jay S.18 The University of Delaware study reached a similar conclusion stating that offshore aquaculture facilities should be exempt from restrictions that apply to wild fisheries. Page 20 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . If an aquaculture operation harvested wild fish for broodstock—adult fish kept for breeding purposes—or to put in offshore cages. 1993). Hayes.19 In addition. and Selecting Appropriate Sites. 19 The rights granted by permits versus leases can vary depending on how they are written. Representatives from five of the six councils we interviewed also supported exempting offshore aquaculture facilities from catch restrictions placed on wild fisheries. such as stocking cages outside of fishing season and harvesting small fish. the administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture would exempt offshore aquaculture facilities from fishing restrictions under current law. Acting General Counsel. NOAA. Therefore. Establishing the Terms and Conditions. One stakeholder suggested that subjecting offshore aquaculture facilities to catch restrictions for wild fisheries is like limiting poultry production to duck hunting season. NOAA. Deputy General Counsel. 17 According to NOAA.
Some stakeholders identified this legal right as important for financing offshore aquaculture operations because it would have market value and.S. which extends 12 miles from the shore. however. Exclusive Economic Zone. Several existing federal permits—such as EPA’s NPDES permit for water quality and the Corps’ section 10 permit for structures in navigable waters—can regulate specific offshore aquaculture activities. or the installation of structures in. such as fishing and aquaculture. For example. or used as collateral on a loan to allow aquaculturists to secure funding for their projects. Some stakeholders articulated distinct and important benefits for both permits and leases. According to NOAA officials. the majority of stakeholders told us that an offshore aquaculture program should include both permits and leases. which generally extends from 3 to 200 miles from shore. NOAA officials stated that. permits are more appropriate than leases for aquaculture operations beyond the territorial sea. offshore aquaculturists will need a legal right—through a permit or lease—to occupy a given area of the ocean. including authorizing aquaculture activities and providing legal rights to occupy an area of the ocean. a few stakeholders said permits should have shorter time frames to ensure compliance with regulations and best management practices while leases should grant a long-term right 20 Although NOAA could theoretically issue leases for aquaculture facilities between 3 and 12 miles. the administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture would authorize permits for all aquaculture facilities in federal waters. waters. under customary international law. could be sold. However.S. according to the University of Delaware study and stakeholders we talked to. Page 21 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .20 Specifically.Permits or Leases Permits or leases are important to establish the terms and conditions for offshore aquaculture operations. NOAA officials said they prefer this approach because it sets up a consistent regulatory framework throughout federal waters. or selling the permits. therefore. it is well established that the United States has exclusive rights to regulate economic activities. While this jurisdiction and authority do not include any proprietary rights for waters or submerged lands beyond the territorial sea. In addition. when questioned on the most appropriate vehicles for authorizing an offshore aquaculture program. such as the release of pollutants into. in the U. NOAA officials stated that other types of permits issued by NOAA have provided the security of tenure—the right to occupy an area of the ocean—necessary for obtaining financing. U.
with some stakeholders supporting time frames of approximately 20 years and others supporting shorter terms 21 Best management practices are operating procedures. stakeholders expressed differing opinions about whether to allow short-term permits or leases to allow an aquaculturist to test the feasibility of a proposed offshore aquaculture facility. and other management practices that aquaculturists can use to prevent or reduce impacts on the ocean environment. A NOAA official told us that emergency permits or leases are not necessary because offshore aquaculture facilities would be difficult to move and. aquaculturists would be unlikely to take advantage of such a permit or lease. therefore. such as modifying the terms of an existing permit to allow facilities to relocate.21 One stakeholder said that investors may be less receptive to permits as a mechanism for assigning the legal right to occupy an area of the ocean because they perceive permits to grant fewer legal rights. besides emergency permits or leases. In addition. however. two stakeholders said that whether one identifies a document as a permit or a lease is unimportant as long as the document provides legal rights to the area. Stakeholders also expressed a range of opinions on the specific types of permits or leases that should be issued. For example. In addition. Stakeholders’ opinions also varied on the appropriate length for commercial permits or leases. schedules of activities. Two others were concerned that either emergency or short-term permits or leases could be used to circumvent permitting requirements associated with longer term commercial permits or leases. others stated that either a permit or lease could be used to secure legal rights and. thereby. many stakeholders supported issuing emergency permits or leases that allow facility relocation in the case of natural events such as hurricanes or red tides. but NOAA did not support this approach. NOAA officials emphasized. that there are other ways. However. Page 22 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . of addressing emergencies. maintenance procedures. encourage financial investment. one stakeholder questioned the utility of short-term permits or leases because the costs associated with offshore aquaculture make it impractical to operate facilities for a short period of time. one stakeholder stressed the importance of research permits or leases for further developing a commercially viable offshore aquaculture industry. Most stakeholders supported issuing both commercial and research permits or leases. For instance.to occupy a given area of the ocean to encourage investment. For example.
The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal for offshore aquaculture would authorize permits for 20-year terms and includes language allowing the suspension or revocation of a permit. For example. and aquaculturists involved with existing aquaculture facilities in Hawaii’s state waters identified public involvement as key to a successful and transparent permitting process. the full impacts on the environment are unknown. researchers. Conversely. Regardless of their opinions on permit or lease terms. state regulators in Maine also stressed the Page 23 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Similarly. However. For example. Based on their experience with this issue. while Maine issues 10-year leases to facilities in nearshore state waters. a few stakeholders we spoke with did not support longer terms out of concern that permits or leases would be difficult to revoke midterm in cases of environmental damage or stressed that if permits had longer terms. a key regulator. state regulators and others that we spoke to in Hawaii and Maine also supported public involvement. The states we visited have taken varying approaches on this issue. a few stakeholders who supported public participation also expressed concern that some public comments and hearing testimony could be misinformed or unnecessarily stall the decision-making process. one aquaculturist adjusted the site and specifications of his operation in response to requests made during a public hearing. the main permitting process authorizing aquaculture operations requires public hearings as part of its approval process. Both aquaculturists and researchers in Hawaii said that the public involvement process ultimately decreases opposition to proposals because applicants can modify their plans in response to public comments or alleviate public concerns by providing more comprehensive information about the proposal. need a longer term permit or lease to recoup initial investments. In Hawaii. Some stakeholders noted that because facilities will be located in public waters. the majority of stakeholders supported public involvement during the permitting or leasing process. then regulators should be able to revoke permits early if such damage were to occur. Most stakeholders indicated that the public should have the opportunity to both comment for the record and present evidence at public hearings associated with permitting or leasing decisions. a permitting or leasing process requires transparency and public input. a state official recognized that an offshore facility would require a larger investment and. Similarly. a state official from Washington supported shorter permit or lease lengths because offshore aquaculture is new and.such as 10 years. For example. Some stakeholders stressed the need for longer permits or leases to allow time for the operation to become profitable. therefore. Hawaii issued 20-year leases to its two existing nearshore open-ocean aquaculture facilities. therefore.
importance of public involvement in their states’ permitting and leasing approval process. (3) zoning ocean areas to identify both appropriate areas for offshore aquaculture and prohibited areas. (2) prepermitting locations by approving sites independently of and prior to submitting individual facility applications. Site Selection Developing a process to approve aquaculture facility locations is an important component of regulating offshore aquaculture according to federal regulators. Maine requires a public scoping meeting before an aquaculturist may submit an aquaculture application. Those stakeholders who supported using a case-by-case site selection strategy agreed that regulators should assess the appropriateness of a specific site. some environmental groups also advocated siting aquaculture facilities outside known fish migration corridors to reduce the interactions between aquaculture-raised and wild fish. In addition. should be the ones to propose aquaculture facility site locations. this Page 24 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . there was a lack of consensus on any one approach. For instance. according to a few stakeholders. and (4) developing aquaculture parks containing multiple facilities in areas that are unlikely to result in conflicts between aquaculture facilities and other ocean uses and have optimum access to land-based aquaculture services. saying that it could create additional costs for applicants or lengthen the permitting process. thereby reducing the likelihood that disease will be passed from aquaculture-raised to wild populations. environmentalists. Two other stakeholders noted that this approach is advantageous during the early stages of offshore aquaculture development because it requires only knowledge about proposed facility sites rather than a wide variety of potential sites. One stakeholder who supported the approach stated that aquaculturists are most likely to know which locations best fit their planned operations and type of species and. Although the majority of stakeholders we contacted supported a variety of approaches that federal regulatory agencies could use to approve aquaculture facility sites. therefore. Officials have found this early dialogue between the aquaculturists and the public useful in resolving concerns while the details of the proposed facility are still under development. a few stakeholders also criticized the case-by-case approach. In Maine. These approaches include (1) determining whether a site is appropriate on a case-by-case basis. NOAA officials in Hawaii emphasized that siting aquaculture facilities away from areas known to have high concentrations of marine mammals could reduce the likelihood that aquaculture facilities would adversely affect these animals. and researchers. However.
approach would create a less standardized process for approving facilities than other approaches would. certain stakeholders who supported a prepermitted approach noted that establishing such a system will be time consuming and. A few stakeholders were opposed to using prepermitted site selection. Currently at the state level. issuing individual permits for occupying the area. and another said that it would allow for cumulative environmental review of multiple projects. determining which aquaculture techniques and projects are appropriate for that area. when deciding whether to approve a facility site. creating a general permit authorizing use of the area. individual aquaculture applications. Furthermore. regulators consider the impacts of a proposed site on marine mammals and ocean users. approved by other regulatory agencies. creating a master plan for siting in the area. a few stakeholders were wary of allowing regulatory agencies to select sites that may ultimately be unsuccessful. and independently of. A few stakeholders told us that prepermitting would make site approval more predictable and consistent. therefore. in Hawaii. a stakeholder who did support prepermitting still noted that permit holders may unreasonably expect a prepermitted location to produce high yields and blame regulators if this does not occur. among other things. Two of these stakeholders questioned the appropriateness of making regulatory agencies responsible for selecting facility locations. For example. ultimately. However. not feasible in the short term. Those stakeholders who supported a prepermitting site selection strategy agreed that regulators should assess the suitability of a location for aquaculture before. In this context. For example. stating that this approach may not identify the most viable sites. such as native Hawaiian fishermen. Hawaii. and. Maine. Those stakeholders who supported a zoning approach to site selection agreed that regulators should use a process in which government agencies would designate allowable uses—both aquaculture-related and others— for various ocean areas. Among these stakeholders was a state regulator in Florida. a state which initially created aquaculture zones in their state waters but later shifted to Page 25 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . the University of Delaware study describes prepermitting as the process of establishing appropriate areas for offshore aquaculture by conducting environmental assessments of potential sites. However. and Washington all use the case-by-case approach for approving sites within their state waters. Another stakeholder expressed concern that the case-by-case approach would not allow regulators to collectively assess the cumulative impacts of several sites located near one another because they would be assessed individually. stakeholders expressed many of the same concerns about a zoning approach as they did about a prepermitting approach.
a few proponents of aquaculture parks said the approach made the permitting process more predictable. Alternatively. They asserted that concentrating offshore aquaculture facilities within the confines of aquaculture parks would not be in the best interest of aquaculturists and could also lead to increased environmental impacts. while another stakeholder was concerned that this approach involved regulators too heavily in the site selection process. aquaculture parks could be designed to provide adequate space for aquaculture operations in an area environmentally suited to the operations. a few stakeholders supported zoning as a method to systematically manage the ocean ecosystem and identify appropriate sites. stakeholders generally supported monitoring environmental conditions at offshore aquaculture facilities once they begin operations. According to the University of Delaware study. Aquaculture parks could be managed by a private-sector entity. In addition. with minimal user conflicts and access to land and coastal services. They said that the extensive work necessary for zoning federal waters would unnecessarily delay offshore aquaculture development. or a public-private partnership. While a few stakeholders considered aspects of zoning and prepermitting approaches to be similar. stakeholders identified issues unique to aquaculture parks. In addition. Most stakeholders supported an adaptive approach to monitoring that would alter monitoring requirements over Page 26 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Like the prepermitting site selection approach. Key Environmental Management Issues Most stakeholders we contacted supported an environmental review of the potential impacts of offshore aquaculture facilities before any facilities are sited. a government agency.a case-by-case site-selection approach because it allowed them to better identify appropriate sites for specific aquaculture operations. One stakeholder said that parks could allow greater business efficiencies by consolidating necessary aquaculture infrastructure and supplies like dock facilities and fuel into one area. Stakeholders we contacted were less supportive of establishing aquaculture parks compared with the other approaches to site selection. In addition. two stakeholders expressed concerns about the technical feasibility of zoning the ocean because the process would be too time consuming due to the extensive information needed about appropriate uses for broad areas of the ocean. Similarly. which can help agencies approve facilities in areas less likely to suffer ecological harm. others distinguished zoning as being a more far-reaching approach than prepermitting. Hawaii state officials responsible for developing Hawaii’s aquaculture industry expressed concerns about zoning. but others were concerned that offshore aquaculture facilities would be located too close to one another.
should also be required. For instance. But these stakeholders also articulated different views on the goal of a PEIS for offshore aquaculture. The law requires the review to consider. 10 factors. the effects of aquaculture on ocean and coastal habitats. A few stakeholders said that it is not important for the federal government to conduct a PEIS for offshore aquaculture. which requires the state to conduct a review similar to a PEIS. about half of the stakeholders we contacted suggested that a facility-specific environmental review. Two of these stakeholders stated that a PEIS would require a significant amount of data and would take a very long time. medications. About half of the stakeholders who supported the facility-specific review said that such reviews could examine site-specific or facility-specific issues that cannot be addressed in Page 27 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . at a minimum. In this context.time to focus on the measures demonstrated to be the most appropriate for tracking changes to the environment. However. and commercial and recreational fishing. and the use of fish meal and fish oil. marine ecosystems. While the administration’s 2007 legislative proposal requires NOAA to conduct a PEIS. Reviewing Potential Environmental Impacts Most stakeholders we contacted generally supported an environmental review prior to offshore aquaculture facilities’ beginning operations to ensure that these facilities are established in areas less likely to suffer ecological harm. and whether facilities should be required to develop plans outlining how they would respond to fish escapes. While a few stakeholders considered the broad level of review in a PEIS to be sufficient. unnecessarily delaying the development of offshore aquaculture. in 2006. other stakeholders noted that a PEIS would be most useful if it reduced the need for facility-specific environmental reviews. conducted in accordance with NEPA. it does not specify exactly what the PEIS should include. including restrictions on the types of fish that could be raised in offshore cages. While some stakeholders emphasized that a PEIS should examine the potential environmental impacts of an offshore aquaculture industry. such as: appropriate areas for siting aquaculture facilities. California enacted a law to allow fish aquaculture facilities in state marine waters. whether fish should be marked or tagged. stakeholders did not always agree on how to mitigate the potential environmental impacts of escaped aquaculture-raised fish. and the potential environmental impacts of escaped fish. a majority of stakeholders recognized the value of reviewing the potential environmental impacts of offshore aquaculture over a broad ocean area before any aquaculture facilities are sited—which involves preparing a PEIS. Stakeholders also generally supported conducting regular inspections of offshore aquaculture facilities.
In addition. such as commercial fishing and recreational boating. Most stakeholders also stated that considering the potential cumulative impacts of aquaculture facilities is important when evaluating offshore aquaculture proposals. Maine requires that applicants collect environmental baseline data on sediment characteristics. we found that Maine and Hawaii both require facility-specific environmental reviews for proposed aquaculture facilities in their state waters. Once an application is submitted. and existing uses of the site. combining multiple kinds of aquaculture—such as fish and shellfish—to take advantage of shellfish’s ability to remove nutrients from the water column. Of the few stakeholders who supported only the PEIS. species. the benthic community. Hawaii requires a similar level of detail from its applicants through an environmental assessment process. a facility-specific review should not be necessary. One stakeholder mentioned that requiring a facility-specific review for each proposed offshore aquaculture facility would be expensive for aquaculturists and would be a barrier to offshore aquaculture development. water quality. and limiting the number of fish within a given cage or area. and sites that are well understood could draw on existing documentation. The University of Delaware and Marine Aquaculture Task Force studies both recommended that agencies consider cumulative impacts of offshore aquaculture facilities during environmental reviews. The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal includes language requiring that a permitting process address the potential cumulative impacts of offshore aquaculture on marine ecosystems. human health and safety.a broader PEIS. including siting facilities far enough apart that their operations will be less likely to affect one another. a review of a project that uses technologies. An industry representative also pointed out that it is in the best interest of Page 28 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . and coastal communities. Two stakeholders suggested that cumulative impacts be considered as part of the PEIS process. In its response to our questionnaire. while a proposal for a project that uses a new species or untested technology may require a more in-depth review. NOAA indicated that a facility-specific review is very important and stated that the complexity of this type of review should reflect the risk level of the project. For instance. many stakeholders offered suggestions for mitigating cumulative impacts. With regard to the states’ approaches for addressing environmental reviews. Aquaculture industry representatives and state regulators in Hawaii both told us that they supported Hawaii’s process. other ocean uses. which can include conducting video surveys of the area and gathering water quality information. two stakeholders said that if the PEIS was done correctly. the state also conducts a site review.
Finally. For example. removed. Maine and Washington have developed monitoring programs for their nearshore aquaculture facilities. While most stakeholders said it is important to monitor both fish and shellfish aquaculture facilities for impacts on the benthic community and disease outbreaks. we found that these states have developed monitoring programs—although they vary significantly between states—to address benthic community. Washington requires aquaculturists to monitor for antibiotics in benthic sediments if antibiotic use could pose a threat to human health or the environment. Page 29 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Specifically. if aquaculturists use medications to treat disease. Maine’s general NPDES permit for salmon aquaculture facilities requires multiple kinds of benthic community monitoring. Both states require that an aquaculturist whose fish test positive for certain diseases notify the state within 48 hours. and chemical impacts for nearshore fish aquaculture facilities. stakeholders said it is more important to monitor fish aquaculture facilities than shellfish aquaculture facilities for chemical levels in the water. In addition. which provide examples of how the federal government could implement the types of monitoring recommended by stakeholders for offshore aquaculture facilities. some stakeholders mentioned that monitoring fish aquaculture facilities for escapes will be very important. Monitoring Environmental Conditions and Inspecting Facilities Stakeholders generally supported monitoring a variety of potential environmental impacts of offshore aquaculture facilities once they have been approved and are operating. Maine requires them to monitor the concentration of those medications in benthic sediments. Maine and Washington also both have regulations to control disease outbreaks in fish aquaculture facilities. Washington requires video evaluations under net pen facilities twice every 5 years but requires detailed analysis of samples of benthic community organisms only if routine video evaluation results show that the facility samples exceed the permit requirements.aquaculturists to locate their facilities far from one another to avoid being affected by potential water quality or disease problems from neighboring facilities. disease. Maine and Washington can require a number of mitigation measures—depending on the severity of the outbreak and the potential for the disease to impact other aquaculture-raised or wild fish—including requiring that the infected fish be quarantined. or destroyed. In contrast. including color video or photographic evaluations of the ocean floor under and around each net pen twice per year and a detailed analysis of samples of benthic community organisms at least once every 5 years. though they varied on the types of monitoring they supported for fish and shellfish aquaculture facilities.
among other things. For instance. according to aquaculturists in Hawaii. The University of Delaware study also recommended that monitoring requirements and regulations be flexible and adaptive to allow regulators to modify these requirements as warranted by changes in environmental conditions. Finally. Officials in Maine also supported adaptive monitoring and suggested that regulators need flexibility to adjust monitoring requirements to ensure that resources are focused on monitoring the most important measures. it is difficult to predict the impacts and the monitoring measures needed beforehand. Some stakeholders said that an adaptive monitoring approach would provide regulators the flexibility to respond to new information on environmental risks and change monitoring requirements accordingly. Others mentioned that. The University of Delaware study stated that regulators should conduct both announced and unannounced inspections. are very difficult to conduct in open-ocean conditions. Unannounced Page 30 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . aquaculturists find it difficult to obtain insurance coverage for deep water diving. is that some types of monitoring. most stakeholders wanted federal agencies to require inspections for the security of structures and equipment at the aquaculture site. Specifically. open-ocean aquaculture facilities in Hawaii state waters. state regulators in Hawaii identified some challenges to monitoring the nearshore. as well as for compliance with the terms and conditions of permits. Diving for these samples in deep water is dangerous and. and so the flexibility of adaptive monitoring would be appropriate. most stakeholders also supported using an adaptive monitoring approach that would allow regulators to change monitoring requirements over time to focus only on the types of monitoring demonstrated to be the most appropriate for tracking changes to the environment. such as collecting sediment samples beneath the cages for benthic community analysis. since offshore aquaculture is a new industry. Hawaii state regulators said they do not have the data to determine whether medications used to treat fish for disease could affect the marine environment. These officials suggested that EPA could help the states evaluate these impacts by developing standardized laboratory tests that could detect medications in the marine environment. as well as by developing protocols for monitoring such medications. as a result. In addition to supporting specific types of environmental monitoring for fish and shellfish facilities. announced inspections could be conducted to oversee chemical treatments of fish or obtain water samples from the cages.Although monitoring was identified as important by stakeholders. Another monitoring challenge.
About half of the stakeholders we spoke to also supported a policy that would prohibit raising genetically modified species offshore.S. on a particular bone in the fish.S. One stakeholder said he opposed a prohibition on genetically modified species because it could reduce the competitiveness of U. in which a proposal to raise nonnative species that have never been cultured in Maine must be presented at a public hearing in addition to the regular environmental review process. Specifically. For instance. These temperature changes create a distinctive pattern. The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal includes language to require that offshore aquaculture facilities raise only species that are native to the aquaculture facility’s geographic region unless a scientific analysis shows that the harm to the marine environment is negligible or can be mitigated. Mitigating the Potential Impact of Escaped Fish and Remediating Environmental Damage Stakeholders had varied opinions about other policies related to offshore aquaculture that could be used to mitigate the potential environmental impact of escaped aquaculture-raised fish. thereby making it identifiable as from a hatchery in Washington. companies from raising species that may become economically important. requiring fish to be marked or tagged. Maine’s aquaculture industry currently uses a genetic method of marking fish in which the genetics of aquaculture-raised fish are distinctive and documented so that a sample of scales taken from an aquaculture-raised fish can identify the facility where that fish was raised. Washington state requires that aquaculture-raised fish be exposed to different temperatures throughout the rearing process in a hatchery (before the fish are transferred to a marine cage). The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal includes language to require that offshore aquaculture facilities not raise genetically modified species unless a scientific analysis shows that the harm to the marine environment is negligible or can be mitigated. including restricting the types of fish that could be raised in offshore cages. physical tags could also be used. By contrast. A similar approach is currently being used by Maine.inspections could be useful if the permitting agency suspects that the operator is not meeting permitting conditions. a majority of the stakeholders supported a policy that would limit offshore aquaculture to species native to the region in which the facility is located. 22 Page 31 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .22 Marking or tagging could be done in a variety of ways. industry by preventing U. though two stakeholders mentioned that tagging fish causes stress and increases mortality. an official told us that the state prohibits aquaculturists from raising nonnative species. similar to tree rings. in California. Stakeholders also had varied views on a policy that would require aquaculturists to mark or tag their fish to distinguish them from wild fish. In addition to these methods. and requiring facilities to develop plans outlining how they would respond to fish escapes.
Maine and Washington currently require aquaculture-raised salmon in their marine waters to be marked so as to be distinguishable from wild populations. aquaculture facilities or from Canadian ones. the agency would support marking or tagging for that facility. council representatives said that if aquacultureraised fish are indistinguishable from wild fish. For instance. Aquaculturists raising fish in Hawaii’s open-ocean state waters told us that the state does not require them to mark or tag their fish. Marking aquaculture-raised fish from Washington can clarify whether fish are escaping from U. In Washington. Page 32 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . but noted that if there is a scientific basis for it because of a high risk of environmental harm from escapes from a particular aquaculture facility. Most stakeholders who opposed marking or tagging of aquaculture-raised fish did so because they said that this practice is expensive. including the particular river in which they were hatched. The council representatives were generally concerned with how aquacultureraised fish would complicate their efforts to enforce wild fisheries regulations. one environmentalist in Maine explained that wild Atlantic salmon—an endangered species—are highly adapted to their environments. Three of the six regional fishery management council representatives we spoke with said that marking or tagging aquaculture-raised fish was a good idea. A NOAA official opposed requiring marking or tagging for each offshore aquaculture facility. suggested that a tracking system with a paper trail to follow aquaculture-raised fish from offshore cages to the marketplace could alleviate some of the concerns raised by stakeholders. a few stakeholders said that marking or tagging fish would also allow researchers to gather additional information about the impacts that escaped fish have on wild populations. undermining wild fisheries enforcement. In addition.The majority of stakeholders we spoke with supported this policy. As a result. the marking requirement stems from a desire to identify aquaculture-raised Atlantic salmon found spawning in state rivers. States have developed marking requirements for fish raised in nearshore aquaculture facilities that provide examples of how the federal government could implement marking requirements for fish raised offshore. however. interbreeding with aquaculture-raised salmon could change the genetics of the wild population and reduce the ability of wild Atlantic salmon to survive. then this increases the potential for illegally caught wild fish to be passed off as aquacultureraised fish.S. British Columbia also has an Atlantic salmon aquaculture industry. One NOAA official and a representative of the Gulf of Mexico council. For instance. often citing the need to hold aquaculture producers accountable for fish escapes.
which they believe could also help aquaculturists relocate their facilities in an emergency. the guarantee prevents the government from having to pay to remove the facility. insurance policy. particularly if there are no numerical limits on the total environmental damages that could be claimed. or trust fund. might hinder offshore aquaculture industry development. The University of Delaware study also supported the development of such plans. letter of credit. such as a bond. Some stakeholders cited a variety of concerns with bonds for environmental remediation.Most stakeholders also supported requiring aquaculturists to develop plans to address fish escapes from their proposed offshore aquaculture facilities. in the event that the aquaculturist goes bankrupt. Stakeholder views varied. with about half of the stakeholders supporting such a requirement as a necessary and logical accountability provision. Most stakeholders also agreed that aquaculturists should be required to develop emergency response plans in the event that aquaculture operations need to be temporarily relocated. The administration’s 2007 legislative proposal states that environmental requirements must include safeguards to prevent fish escapes that may cause significant environmental harm. about whether a similar financial guarantee should be required to remediate environmental damage caused by an offshore aquaculture operation. Other stakeholders objected to requiring a financial guarantee for remediating environmental damage. (2) difficulty quantifying the damage. NOAA indicated that it supports requiring this type of financial guarantee. any damage caused by a facility would require public funds for remediation. to cover the cost of removing abandoned aquaculture facilities. Both Maine and Hawaii use a similar approach for aquaculture in their state waters by requiring companies to obtain bonds for removing aquaculture facilities when aquaculture operations cease. For example. such as (1) difficulty proving that the environmental damage was caused by a particular facility. Page 33 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . NOAA indicated that requiring aquaculturists to submit escape response plans is very important. Most stakeholders also supported a requirement that aquaculturists provide a financial guarantee. such as if a red tide or large storm system threatened the aquacultureraised fish. In its response to our questionnaire. however. two stakeholders supported this policy because. One NOAA official said that requiring a financial guarantee for mitigation of the benthic habitat in the immediate vicinity of the aquaculture site is practical but did not agree with a requirement for mitigation of all other environmental damage. and (3) that the cost of providing such a guarantee. A few stakeholders stated that without a financial guarantee.
while NOAA and USDA fund research on marine aquaculture through. California recently enacted a marine aquaculture law.To address the issue of financial guarantees to cover environmental damage from aquaculture facilities in state regulated waters. some researchers said that these grants are funded over time periods that are too short to accommodate certain types of research. Priorities for Aquaculture Research and Limitations of Current Programs It is also important for a regulatory framework to include federally funded research to address gaps in current knowledge on a variety of issues related to offshore aquaculture. while industry supported it because it is confident that the Fish and Game Commission will deal with environmental damage issues fairly. the investigation of how escaped aquaculture-raised fish might impact wild fish populations. but specifies that the extent of environmental damage and related costs will be determined by the state Fish and Game Commission. Stakeholders identified four research areas as particularly appropriate for federal funding—the development of alternative fish feeds. In addition. One stakeholder who did not support a federal government system similar to California’s feared that the criteria for identifying environmental damage could change from year to year. which includes a provision requiring a financial guarantee from companies to cover environmental damage. and the development of hatchery technologies to breed and grow fish. About half of the stakeholders that we contacted said that they would support a similar provision at the federal level. thereby increasing the risk of investing in offshore aquaculture. Stakeholders we contacted and the four key studies we reviewed generally agreed that the federal government should fund aquaculture research to address gaps in current knowledge. while effectively managing disease. he said that environmentalists supported the compromise because it holds aquaculture facilities accountable for environmental damage. Stakeholders identified four research areas as particularly appropriate for federal funding. Specifically. These four research areas are as follows: Federal Research Priorities Page 34 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Two stakeholders suggested that NOAA could make determinations about the extent of environmental damage at the federal level since it has experience assessing impacts on the marine environment. the development of best management practices. An environmentalist involved in the negotiations surrounding the law explained that identifying a specific entity—the state Fish and Game Commission—to determine the extent of environmental damage was a compromise acceptable to both the aquaculture industry and environmental groups. competitive grants. for instance.
• Most stakeholders supported research to help in the development of alternative fish feeds. one stakeholder suggested that the top issue for government funding should be determining which species will be commercially viable for offshore aquaculture. While stakeholders generally identified these areas as priorities. Other stakeholders. and helping to lower industry costs. industry representatives and researchers are interested in developing alternative feeds that cost less. Most stakeholders also supported federal research that would help develop best management practices. and breeding fish is complex. One stakeholder supported this research because existing research on escapes does not focus on the species likely to be raised offshore. Similarly. For example. Most stakeholders supported federally funded research investigating how escaped aquaculture-raised fish might impact wild fish populations. For example. a few stakeholders also emphasized that federal funding should focus on research that helps regulate the aquaculture industry or mitigate environmental impacts. Aquaculturists have identified the hatchery stage of aquaculture as particularly difficult because hatchery fish are susceptible to diseases. a NOAA official noted that the demand for fish feed has increased in recent years. Many stakeholders also supported federal research that would help develop hatchery technologies to breed and grow the fish that ultimately populate offshore cages. For instance. citing reasons such as protecting wild species from overfishing because wild species are currently used as a source of fish meal and fish oil.S. suggested that federal research should also assist aquaculture industry development. leading to a steep rise in the price of aquaculture fish feeds. Ocean Commission study. one stakeholder said that best management practices are very important because they identify accepted practices for aquaculturists to follow and provide a method for agencies to judge whether aquaculture facilities are operating appropriately. while effectively managing disease. the stakeholder noted that developing a species for aquaculture is difficult for the private sector to do because it is very expensive and would take 10 to 30 years. as well as the U. Due to this price increase. young fish need specially formulated feeds. Research into how escaped aquaculture-raised fish might impact wild fish populations is an example of this type of research. • • • Page 35 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .
In addition. NOAA’s major competitive grant program for marine aquaculture is the National Marine Aquaculture Initiative. Several researchers. to identify priorities and develop 5-year plans for aquaculture research. Education. A USDA official also suggested that the Agricultural Research Service could support long-term projects if such projects are identified as priorities in future 5-year plans for aquaculture research. and regional aquaculture centers. USDA’s Agricultural Research Service conducts research at its federal science centers and laboratories. The Agricultural Research Service uses feedback from aquaculturists and regulatory agencies.6 million in projects related to marine species during the 2006 grant cycle. Similarly. among others. Specifically. they noted that appropriations for their programs dictate the current length of these grants.Components and Potential Limitations of the Current Federal Aquaculture Research Program NOAA and USDA currently support research on marine aquaculture through. but none of the other centers currently support research specifically related to offshore aquaculture. land grant institutions. identified potential limitations of the current federal aquaculture research programs. USDA officials identified some programs that could be used for long-term research. For example. the regional center in Hawaii has supported research that applies to offshore aquaculture. competitive grants. However. including competitive grants from the agency’s regional aquaculture centers or the agency’s Agricultural Research Service internal research projects. Agricultural Research Service officials indicated that the current 5-year plan directs Page 36 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . which funded approximately $4. and Extension Service funds external aquaculture research through such vehicles as competitive grant programs. but that it is difficult to obtain consistent research funding over this longer time period. for example. including some whom we interviewed during our site visits. which allows centers to focus on longterm offshore aquaculture research if they so choose. NOAA also manages funding for a number of offshore aquaculture-related projects. researchers in Hawaii said that the development of healthy breeding fish to supply offshore aquaculture operations can require years of intensive breeding efforts. they said that many of the available competitive grants are funded over time periods that are too short and at funding levels too low to accommodate certain types of research. Both USDA and NOAA officials acknowledged that demonstration projects and other lengthy research projects may be difficult to complete within current competitive grant time frames. USDA’s Cooperative State Research. such as the openocean aquaculture demonstration project off the coast of New Hampshire. The regional aquaculture centers set their own priorities and funding allocations. For instance.
S. A key first step in developing a U. and USDA. a transparent regulatory process that gives states and the public opportunities to comment on specific offshore aquaculture projects could help allay some of the concerns about the potential environmental impacts of offshore aquaculture. setting up clear legislative and regulatory guidance on where offshore aquaculture facilities can be located and how they can be operated could help ensure that these facilities have the least amount of impact on the ocean environment. In addition. and many technical challenges remain. while at the same time protecting the health of marine ecosystems. such as the best species to raise offshore and the most effective offshore aquaculture practices. Agency Comments and Our Evaluation We provided a draft of this report to the Departments of Agriculture. EPA. Overall. offshore aquaculture will be critical to facilitating the development of an economically sustainable industry. and also to the Environmental Protection Agency for review and comment. because the offshore aquaculture industry is in its infancy much remains unknown. Concluding Observations An effective federal regulatory framework for U. we believe it will need to consider a number of important issues. and quickly identifying and mitigating environmental problems when they occur. monitoring the environmental impacts of these facilities once they are operational. We received written comments from the Department of Commerce.about one-third of the agency’s aquaculture funding to research related to marine species. there may be a role for the federal government in funding the research needed to help answer these questions and facilitate the development of an ecologically-sound offshore aquaculture industry. a regulatory framework could also include a process for reviewing the potential environmental impacts of proposed offshore aquaculture facilities. Inclusion of an adaptive management approach by which the monitoring process can be modified over time could be useful not only to ensure that the most effective approaches are being used to protect the environment but also to help reduce costs to the industry. and Commerce. In addition. In this context.S. Moreover. the Army. the Department of Commerce’s NOAA stated that the report accurately presented information regarding the opportunities and challenges for offshore Page 37 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Finally. regulatory framework could be designating a lead federal agency that has the appropriate expertise and can effectively collaborate and coordinate with other federal agencies. As the Congress considers providing a cohesive legislative framework for regulating an offshore aquaculture industry.
which we have incorporated in the report as appropriate. NOAA also commented on many issues discussed in our draft report. Most of the policy issues raised in the report apply equally to shellfish and fish aquaculture. sustainable. In those cases where the issues differ for shellfish and fish aquaculture. NOAA said that by indicating that the environmental impacts of an offshore aquaculture industry are uncertain due to a lack of data specific to such facilities. USDA mentioned two issues that it did not think were adequately addressed in the report. EPA’s comments are presented in appendix IV. expressing three areas of concern. including the role aquaculture can play in the development of a safe. These issues were outside our scope which was focused on identifying key elements of a federal regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. we were diminishing the importance of the findings from environmental monitoring of the small-scale open ocean aquaculture operations in state waters. We believe that it did. However. The Department of Agriculture provided two comments on the report. Our report acknowledges that USDA chairs the interagency Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture and that the Subcommittee is currently working to update the federal strategic plan for aquaculture research. it is too early to know what their impacts will be. • • • USDA said that a mechanism for a coordinated federal-wide research framework exists through the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture.aquaculture and will contribute to the discussion of environmentally responsible and sustainable offshore aquaculture. we discussed them separately. as larger facilities begin operating. NOAA also provided technical comments. Our report acknowledges that the results of environmental monitoring at small-scale open ocean facilities have found modest impacts. NOAA said that our report did not adequately discuss offshore shellfish aquaculture. First. • NOAA listed several issues it thought were not adequately addressed in the report. We do not agree. NOAA’s comments and our detailed responses are presented in appendix III. EPA provided clarifying language regarding their expertise in regulating water quality related to offshore aquaculture. which we incorporated as appropriate. Page 38 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . their impacts could become more pronounced. Given that such facilities do not yet exist. domestic seafood supply.
brackish. we reported what stakeholders told us regarding research related to offshore marine aquaculture. If you or your staff have any questions about this report or need additional information. and other interested parties.gov.gov. Key contributors to this report are listed in appendix VI.gao. Rather. appropriate congressional committees. Sincerely yours. Natural Resources and Environment Page 39 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . the Administrator of the EPA. Characterizing all of USDA’s aquaculture-related research activities was not within the scope of our report. Agriculture. Mittal Director. or salt water. and Commerce. our report is focused on offshore marine aquaculture. please contact me at (202) 512-3841 or mittala@gao. The Department of the Army did not have any comments on the report. USDA explained that it did not feel that it was appropriate to respond to our questionnaire on offshore aquaculture because it asked for individual opinions related to policy matters. USDA’s comments and our detailed responses are presented in appendix V. Anu K. We also will make copies available to others upon request. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and of Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report. In addition. As such.• USDA also said that it has a wide diversity of aquaculture research that is not limited or directed by whether the fish will be raised in fresh. We are sending copies of this report to the Secretaries of the Army. Second. this report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at http://www.
We identified studies on offshore aquaculture regulations by conducting a literature search of online databases for studies and reports from government agencies. among other things.Appendix I: Objective. reviewed existing federal laws that include provisions that are applicable to offshore aquaculture. potential regulatory frameworks for offshore aquaculture. If a study is not cited for a particular policy issue. it is because the study did not address that issue. we identified four key studies that examined offshore aquaculture and made recommendations to improve the regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. Commission on Ocean Policy—brought together ocean policy stakeholders to examine. we cite those studies that reached similar conclusions or made similar recommendations on particular policy issues. industry associations. and the U. the Pew Oceans Commission. These studies of offshore aquaculture regulations were each developed in the last 5 years with stakeholder input and discuss a variety of issues related to marine aquaculture. the U. and Methodology The objective of this report was to identify key issues that should be addressed in the development of an effective regulatory framework for U.S. policies. as well as federal agencies’ regulations. the EPA. and guidance for marine aquaculture. the University of Delaware. Scope. a variety of aquaculture stakeholders. Department of Agriculture (USDA). policies. and academia. and the U. we reviewed key academic and government-sponsored studies that analyzed proposed regulatory frameworks for offshore aquaculture in federal waters.S. as well as federal agencies’ regulations. nonprofit organizations. regulations. visited aquaculture facilities in selected states. After reviewing various studies. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). the U. and Methodology Page 40 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . To address this objective. The laws we reviewed included the Appendix I: Objective. we interviewed officials from the NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service. NOAA’s National Ocean Service. Army Corps of Engineers. To identify existing federal laws that include provisions that are applicable to offshore aquaculture. We also reviewed a wide variety of laws to identify federal agencies’ responsibilities and authorities for offshore aquaculture. Throughout the report. offshore aquaculture. These key studies—by the Marine Aquaculture Task Force. and administered questionnaires to. and guidance for marine aquaculture in selected states. the Department of the Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service and Minerals Management Service.S. reviewed laws. and the USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. We also obtained references from aquaculture experts and agency officials at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Scope. and conducted follow-up structured interviews with.S.S. policies. and guidance for marine aquaculture.
Hawaii. we met with state and federal regulators in Hawaii. aquaculture operations in state waters. and Washington. we developed a questionnaire on the elements of a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. and the Clean Water Act. and in our interviews with federal and state officials. regulations. the Endangered Species Act. We selected these states because they currently regulate. the Rivers and Harbors Act. Maine. opinions on the types of environmental review and monitoring that should be required as part of a regulatory framework. Policy Analyst. and Methodology Marine Mammal Protection Act. the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. Jr. and W. how a potential permitting or leasing program should be structured. state. We identified relevant state laws. Maine.S. Florida. Robinson & Cole LLP. policies.. Page 41 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Additionally. including to what extent various stakeholders should be involved in the process. and Washington—the states with active nearshore fish aquaculture industries—to discuss state regulatory systems and visited aquaculture facilities in Hawaii and Maine. Roger Fleming. Prior to distributing the questionnaire. Texas. environmentalists. Senior Research Biologist. Mark Drawbridge. the Coastal Zone Management Act. 1 These pretesters were: Susan Bunsick. and guidance for marine aquaculture by interviewing state regulators. we identified key aquaculture stakeholders to respond to the questionnaire. Attorney. and because they represent different geographic areas of the United States. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. the National Aquaculture Act of 1980. Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute.. Richard Smith. Partner. representatives of the commercial fishing industry. or local level. NOAA Aquaculture Program. Based on issues identified in the four key studies. or are in the process of developing regulatory frameworks for.Appendix I: Objective. to provide representation across academia. Earthjustice. we conducted pretests with stakeholders who were similar to those we intended to survey and modified some questions in response to those results. Scope. and what should be the priority areas for potentially federally funded aquaculture research. We selected these stakeholders because of their expertise in aquaculture at the national. the National Environmental Policy Act. M.1 The final questionnaire covered a range of topics including which federal agencies should be responsible for various program administration activities such as program management and agency coordination. In addition to developing the questionnaire. and representatives of the aquaculture industry in California.
asking them to fill it out and return it to GAO. We distributed the questionnaire to 28 stakeholders electronically. and the EPA—did not provide official or complete written responses to the questionnaire. “some” means between 6 and 11 stakeholders. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objective. “about half” means 12 to 14 stakeholders. industry. and up to five stakeholders. and to provide broad geographic representation throughout the United States. we analyzed the results of the questionnaire by summarizing responses and producing descriptive statistics using Microsoft Access. we identified specific meanings for the words we used to quantify the results. Scope.Appendix I: Objective. “a majority” of stakeholders and “many” stakeholders both mean 15 to 19 stakeholders. and the nonprofit sector. To ensure that our initial list of stakeholders satisfied these criteria. appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objective. The two individuals recommended by both experts were then included as stakeholders. To identify trends in responses. In addition. and Methodology government. Both experts submitted three additional names for our consideration—two of which were the same individuals—otherwise they both agreed our list satisfied our criteria. Page 42 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . We conducted this performance audit from April 2007 to May 2008 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. However. See appendix II for a list of the stakeholders who responded to our questionnaire. After reviewing the questionnaire responses we received. For purposes of characterizing the results from our questionnaire and follow-up interviews of our 25 stakeholders. We received 25 responses. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient. Three federal agencies with responsibilities relating to offshore aquaculture—the Department of the Interior. we met with officials from these agencies to discuss their responsibilities related to aquaculture. we asked two noted aquaculture experts to review our selections. and “most” means 20 stakeholders or more. we conducted follow-up structured interviews with each stakeholder to clarify some responses and to obtain additional details on stakeholders’ responses to some open-ended questions. we qualitatively analyzed open-ended responses from the questionnaire and responses from follow-up interviews to provide additional insight into stakeholder views on key issues that should be addressed in the development of a regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. as follows: “a few” means at least three. the USDA.
National Fisheries Institute. Assistant Secretary. California Resources Agency. Aquaculture Director. b • • • • • • • • • • • • • • John R. Ocean and Coastal Policy. Belle. Office of Washington Governor Chris Gregoire. Ocean Conservancy. Ph. Sebastian M. Forster Consulting Inc. Brian E. Executive Policy Advisor. University of New Hampshire. President.. Page 43 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .D. Dr. John Connelly. Aquaculture Policy Coordinator. President.. Richard Langan. Maine Department of Marine Resources.Appendix II: Stakeholders Consulted by GAO Regarding a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture The following stakeholders responded to our questionnaire and participated in follow-up interviews regarding administrative and environmental issues that should be addressed in the development of an effective regulatory framework for U. Tim Eichenberg. Ph. Maine Aquaculture Association.D. Manager of Public Affairs. Leonard. Ph. Executive Director. Office of the Governor. Pacific Coast Shellfish Growers Association. Taylor Shellfish Company. MacMillan. Kathleen Drew. Executive Director.D. George H. John Forster.. Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center and Open Ocean Aquaculture Program. Fisheries Policy Advisor. Senior Scientist. Ph. Samantha D. Baird.. Alaska Department a of Fish and Game.D. Rebecca Goldburg. Environmental Defense Fund. Special Assistant to the Commissioner. Pacific Regional Office.S. Former Director. Ocean b Conservancy. National Aquaculture Association. State of a Alaska. Cora Crome. President and Aquaculture Consultant. offshore aquaculture: • Appendix II: Stakeholders Consulted by GAO Regarding a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture Sue Aspelund. Robin Downey. Horn Olsen. Director.. Bill Dewey.
M. Both Tim Eichenberg and George Leonard contributed to the stakeholder response for the Ocean Conservancy. Aquaculture Program. Jack Rensel. Tribal and Regulatory Affairs. State of Hawaii. NOAA Aquaculture Program. Ph.Appendix II: Stakeholders Consulted by GAO Regarding a Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture • Dr. and Founding Boardmember. Because we received a single questionnaire and conducted a single follow-up interview. Director of Coastal Fisheries.. LLC. Larry McKinney. Jose Villalon. we treated them as a single stakeholder for purposes of analysis even though they are acknowledged separately here. Mitchell Shapson. Tacon. Albert G. Stanford University. Rosamond Naylor. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Ph. Director. J.. LL. Policy and Legal Analyst. a • • • • • • • • • • • Both Sue Aspelund and Cora Crome contributed to the stakeholder response for the state of Alaska.J. Paula Terrel. Chip Smith. Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works). Because we received a single questionnaire and conducted a single follow-up interview. Senior Policy Advisor. Manager. Neil Anthony Sims. Smith. we treated them as a single stakeholder for purposes of analysis even though they are acknowledged separately here. Commercial Fisherman & Fish Farming Issues Coordinator. Co-founder and President. Linda L. Program on Food Security and the Environment. and Sherman Wilhelm. Principal Scientist.D. Division of Aquaculture.D. Technical Director. Office of the Governor. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Kona Blue Water Farms. Director. Assistant for Environment. Aquatic Farms Ltd. Ocean Stewards Institute. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.. b Page 44 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Alaska Marine Conservation Council. William Wrigley Senior Fellow and Director.E. The Institute for Fisheries Resources. Rensel Associates Aquatic Sciences.. World Wildlife Fund. Michael Rubino. Dr.
Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Commerce Note: GAO comments supplementing those in the report text appear at the end of this appendix. Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Commerce Page 45 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .
Page 46 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Commerce See comment 1.
See comment 4.Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Commerce See comment 2. Page 47 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . See comment 3.
As NOAA points out. Most of the policy issues raised in the report apply equally to shellfish and fish aquaculture. New Hampshire. We are aware of the efforts of the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council to develop a generic amendment to their fishery management plans to establish an offshore aquaculture program in the Gulf of Mexico.Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Commerce The following are GAO’s comments on the Department of Commerce’s letter dated April 25. The issues identified by NOAA are outside the scope of our review. On page 9 of the report. 3. these large-scale operations do not yet exist. we stated that environmental monitoring at the existing small-scale research and commercial open-ocean aquaculture operations in Hawaii. Page 48 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . We believe our statements regarding the lack of data on the environmental impacts from large-scale commercial offshore aquaculture operations are appropriate. their impacts on the marine environment could become more pronounced. a sound permitting system. Given the lack of such large facilities to date. and additional research all apply equally to shellfish and fish. 4. it is too early to know what the environmental impacts of large-scale commercial offshore aquaculture facilities will be. and Puerto Rico has found modest environmental impacts. 2008. as facilities begin to scale-up. the need for clear federal leadership. In cases where the issues differ for shellfish and fish aquaculture—such as for environmental monitoring protocols—we discussed shellfish aquaculture separately from fish aquaculture. While we discuss the roles and responsibilities of fishery management councils on pages 19 and 20. 2. However. GAO Comments 1. For instance. We believe that the report adequately discusses offshore shellfish aquaculture within the context of offshore aquaculture. which was to identify key elements of a federal regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture. we did not discuss this regional initiative in our report because it was outside our scope of identifying key elements of a federal regulatory framework for offshore aquaculture.
Appendix IV: Comments from the Environmental Protection Agency Appendix IV: Comments from the Environmental Protection Agency Page 49 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .
Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Agriculture See comment 1.Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Agriculture Note: GAO comments supplementing those in the report text appear at the end of this appendix. Page 50 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .
Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Agriculture Page 51 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture .
In addition. our report is focused on offshore marine aquaculture. we mentioned on page 11 that USDA chairs the interagency Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture and that the Subcommittee is currently working to update the federal strategic plan for aquaculture research. Page 52 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . We believe the Joint Subcommittee on Aquaculture was adequately addressed in the report. Rather. GAO Comment 1. characterizing all of USDA’s aquaculture-related research activities was not within the scope of our report. we reported what stakeholders told us regarding research related to offshore marine aquaculture. Specifically. 2008. As such.Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Agriculture The following are GAO’s comments on the Department of Agriculture’s letter dated May 1.
(202) 512-9846. Poling. Stephen D. Leo G. Assistant Director. Wolford. Secrist. Barbara SteelLowney. Silvers. Nancy Crothers. Kathleen Gilhooly. Acosta. (360830) Page 53 GAO-08-594 Offshore Marine Aquaculture . Mittal. Director. Julie E. Jerry Sandau. made significant contributions to this report. and Monica L. Katherine Raheb. Shana Wallace.Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments GAO Contact Staff Acknowledgments Anu K. or mittala@gao. Janice M.gov Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments In addition to the individual named above.
exists to support Congress in meeting its constitutional responsibilities and to help improve the performance and accountability of the federal government for the American people. evaluation.gov. Managing Director. DC 20548 PRINTED ON RECYCLED PAPER . Additional copies are $2 each. Waste. Each weekday. and correspondence on its Web site.gov Automated answering system: (800) 424-5454 or (202) 512-7470 Ralph Dawn. Government Accountability Office. recommendations. To have GAO e-mail you a list of newly posted products every afternoon. GAO posts newly released reports. GAO also accepts VISA and Mastercard. the audit. and provides analyses.gao. Government Accountability Office 441 G Street NW. (202) 512-4400 U. DC 20548 Chuck Young. Room 7125 Washington.gao.gao. and reliability.gov). testimony. Orders should be sent to: U. Managing Director. and investigative arm of Congress. A check or money order should be made out to the Superintendent of Documents. go to www.S.GAO’s Mission The Government Accountability Office. Room LM Washington. GAO examines the use of public funds. integrity. Room 7149 Washington. and other assistance to help Congress make informed oversight.gov. GAO’s commitment to good government is reflected in its core values of accountability. 441 G Street NW. Orders for 100 or more copies mailed to a single address are discounted 25 percent. 441 G Street NW. youngc1@gao.S.gov and select “E-mail Updates.S.” The first copy of each printed report is free. policy. dawnr@gao. and funding decisions. Government Accountability Office. and Abuse in Federal Programs Congressional Relations Public Affairs Contact: Web site: www. DC 20548 To order by Phone: Voice: TDD: Fax: (202) 512-6000 (202) 512-2537 (202) 512-6061 Obtaining Copies of GAO Reports and Testimony Order by Mail or Phone To Report Fraud.htm E-mail: fraudnet@gao. (202) 512-4800 U. The fastest and easiest way to obtain copies of GAO documents at no cost is through GAO’s Web site (www.gov/fraudnet/fraudnet. evaluates federal programs and policies.
Documents Similar To Offshore Marine Aquaculture Administrative Issues