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Ndt of Composite Materials | Holography | Composite Material
Ndt of Composite MaterialsUploaded by Dhaval KondhiyaRelated InterestsHolographyComposite MaterialNondestructive TestingFiberglassUltrasoundRating and Stats0.0 (0)Document ActionsDownloadShare or Embed DocumentEmbedDescription: composites,ndtView Morecomposites,ndtCopyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)List price: $0.00Download as PDF, TXT or read online from ScribdFlag for inappropriate contentNOT MEASUREMENT SENSITIVE MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 6 November 1989MILITARY HANDBOOK
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2. The various nondestructive techniques available are described in a manner that outlines the techniques. and polymeric matrices—are discussed.
Nondestructive testing is the testing of materials or structures without causing failure of the item being tested. for inspection during fabrication. this handbook is not intended for use as an operator’s manual for the techniques discussed. Generally. The term composite materials is defined. foam. such as prepregs. each of which is distinguishable at a macroscopic level. A solid laminate is a product made by bonding together two or more layers of material. such as honeycomb. resins. 1-3. graphite.assistdocs. 1-1 PURPOSE The purpose of this handbook is to educate the reader as to the nature of nondestructive testing of fiber-reinforced polymeric materials. and fibers. The layers may be oriented in various configurations with respect to the orientation of the fibers in order to obtain the most desirable properties.2. This will be discussed in further detail in par. and (3) in-service use of NDT. The intent is to advise the reader about the various techniques available for use during the inspection of the raw materials and incoming component materials. Solid laminates and sandwich constructions are discussed and discussed. aramid fibers. an attempt will be made to alert the reader to new and promising techniques that are being developed. In-service use of NDT covers the problems related to in-service testing in evaluating such properties as reliability. one of the constituents acts as a reinforcing agent.1) or tubular structures bonded together in a form similar to honeycomb.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.1. durability. and nondestructive inspection (NDI) (or nondestructive investigation (NDI)). The composite materials of interest in this handbook will be limited to polymeric matrix materials with “advanced” high-modulus or high-performance reinforcements. nondestructive evaluation (NDE). 1-1
Source: http://www.2. NDI (inspection) is preferred by the quality control engineer. such as metal or wood. and life expectancy of a fiber-reinforced composite by nondestructive means. NDT is the more general term. This handbook covers the testing that can and should be carried out on (1) incoming materials. the organic or polymeric matrix-fiberreinforced composites. Sandwich structures will be discussed in more detail in par. to help build quality assurance into the subsequent parts.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS Composites are defined as material systems consisting of two or more constituents. due to its limited use. other configurations such as waveformed composites (Ref. graphite fibers. and NDE and NDI (investigation) are preferred by the research scientist. glass fibers. more recently. These skins are bonded to an internal structural material. However. The properties of the composite material are derived from the combination of the properties contributed by the constituents but modified by their synergistic effects.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
The purpose and scope of this handbook are discussed.com -. There are three acronyms that are in general usage: nondestructive testing (NDT). and the roles of components of these materials—reinforcements. and for final inspection and in-service monitoring to detect damaged and/ or degraded structures. The type of composite structures considered will include solid laminates and sandwich constructions. These terms are used by various authors to describe the same basic types of testing. Metal-matrix composite materials are another subject and will not be addressed here. namely. A sandwich structure is made up of two outer skins of composite laminate or other material. Boron filament. and aramid fibers in continuous or discontinuous forms. and the other serves as the matrix or binder. will not be discussed. 1-3. (2) the types of tests that can be used during fabrication and on the final product. or. The reinforcements will include fiberglass. This handbook briefly describes the materials of interest. 1-2 SCOPE Further. The constituents retain their individual identities in the composite and are separated by a detectable interface. 1-3 DEFINITIONS 1-3.
and 8. the Society for the Advancement of Materials and Process Engineering (SAMPE).3 Aramid Fibers Aramid is a generic term denoting a class of polyamide materials. Thermoplastic resin systems. electrical.
. 6. However. and 13). 2. have design engineers turning to aramid fiber composites in many applications requiring light weight. recent developments in armor applications are finding a place for Kevlar 29 fibers in composites as well.1. Specific sources are the annual conferences of the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI). and woven and nonwoven fabrics. 7. reinforced mats. 1-3. The versatility and durability of these fibers. thermal. which are generally used in specialty applications. polyamides (Refs. The monofilament bundles can then be prepared in different forms such as rovings. stress relaxation.1. and silicone resins. However. More recently. polyamides. some of which include aircraft structural components. 14) have been evaluated for fabricating composites with special mechanical and thermal properties. high strength. satellites.1.com -. These fibers may be oriented in various configurations and may vary in size and shape. various automotive applications. 1-3. the matrix material also controls many other properties. The aramid fibers are produced by conventional textile spinning methods. 12.2 Matrix Materials The principal matrix materials used in composites are epoxy. specific sources are the conferences and journals of SAMPE and Ref. specific sources are the conferences and journals of SAMPE and Refs. secondarily. Among the various forms of fibers used to fabricate solid laminates are rovings or strands. 10). systems such as the bis-maleimides (Ref.1. X-ray equipment. Laminates are generally formed by use of wet lay-ups or prepregs. The various forms are explained in detail in Ref. 15) of the composite are also properties that are controlled by the matrix material.1.1 Solid Laminates Composite materials are generally used in the form of solid laminates. Many papers have been published on the use of aramid fibers in composites. the orientation or structural shape may influence the interpretation of the results obtained. Kevlar 49 is the principal aramid fiber currently used in composite applications. and vinyl ester resins. 2.2 CONSTRUCTION 1-3. missiles and armament components. and environmental aging characteristics (Ref. phenyladimides.assistdocs. 2 and 5. combined with their desirable properties.2. The size of the holes will determine the diameter of the fiber. as its principal role. In structural composites the materials bonded together to form the composite consist of fibers of reinforcement. and durability. have been used to fabricate high-performance composites.1. More information on graphite fiber can be found in Refs. The properties of the fibers are a function of both the tension and the temperature used during pyrolysis. which may be fabricated in either sheet or molded form and are made by bonding together two or more layers of material.1 Reinforcements 1-3.1.1. The wet layup method involves the application of the matrix material to the dry reinforcement at the time of the buildup of the part to be fabricated. Kevlar aramid fiber and Nomex aramid paper are two materials in this class.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 1-3. 9). such as the viscoelastic behavior. chopped fibers.1 Glass Fibers In the United States fiberglass generally implies either E-glass (a lime-alumina-borosilicate glass) or S-glass (a silica-alumina-magnesia glass) fiber and is produced as a continuous monofilament bundle by drawing molten glass through a multihole bushing.1.2 Graphite Fibers Most military and aerospace applications requiring high-performance graphite fibers use fibers produced by the pyrolysis of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers under tension at temperatures of 1760 -2760 0C (3200-5000° F) in a controlled atmosphere. and there are numerous reports in the literature on fiberglass. These are followed by phenolics. 1-3. 11. and polyphenyl sulfides (Ref. Aramid fibers are used in composite applications because of their outstanding combination of low density. however. The polymeric matrix material used in composites has. such as polysulfone and polyarylsulfone (Ref. The designer should be careful. and woven and nonwoven fabrics. high strength and high stiffness. and sports and recreational equipment. Care must be taken to insure that the reinforcement material is thoroughly wetted out by the matrix material and that no air is entrapped in the composite because this will result in 1-2
Source: http://www. A detailed discussion of these materials is given in Ref. 1-3. 3 and 4. The matrix material and the fiber material used to fabricate a composite do not generally play a large part in the selection of the nondestructive testing technique used to inspect the final part. 2. polyester. creep. as well as Refs. and in-plane and interlaminar shear. Graphite fibers are used in a wide range of applications.1. not to use these composites in applications that will experience high or sustained compressive loads. the responsibility of absorbing and transmitting loads to the reinforcement fiber.
1-3. as described in par.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. polymerization of monomer reactants (PMR). multifilament strands. However. Many other papers have been published on the evaluation of matrix materials for organic composites. The chemical.
T. wood. 1042-55. mats. Meyer. Sandwich construction is strong. Mohr. Acetylene-Terminated Sulfone (ATS) a New Composite Matrix Resin. and the aramids. 16th National SAMPE Technical Conference. New Bis-maleimide Matrix Resins for Graphite Fiber Composites. stiff. 3-5 April 1984. it is important that the quality control engineer be aware of the type of core material that is in the sandwich construction since the type and configuration of the core will affect the type of test method to be selected. May 1979. pp. and A. F. or compound curved. Covina. 9-11 October 1984. New York. G. Design Guidance for Producibility. A basic discussion of bonded sandwich construction is given in Ref. pp. NY. pp. Schibler. NV. Bailie. W. G. 1969. DuPont Company. Design and Use of Kevlar Aramid Fiber in Composite Structures. 8. K. All of the important reinforcing materials. 859-69. When selecting the NDT method for inspection. The inner core separates the skin and prevents buckling of the skin when loaded. unidirectional tapes. 23rd National SAMPE Symposium. pp. The outermost skins (laminations). Ed. 19-21 March 1985. T. The detection of defects in composites by NDT may be affected by the form and makeup of the laminate. CA. 490-505. 1-3. and L. J. A. or foam. 30th National SAMPE Symposium. Prepregs are preimpregnated combinations of the reinforcement and the matrix materials in a condition ready for fabrication. 23rd National SAMPE Symposium. H. A. and J. 119-27. NY. Covina. Switzerland. such as honeycomb core. CA.assistdocs. Covina. 600°F Properties of PMR 15 and LARC-160/Glass and Graphite With Various Sizings After Aging at 600° F for up to 2000 Hours. 10. 19-21 March 1985. Lockerby. Air Force Materials Laboratory. 24 May 1978. Maximovich. Technical Symposium. A. A. L. pp. CA. Vols. W: Huff. Typical Sandwich Construction (Honeycomb)
Source: http://www. graphite. J. 5. Labor. simple curved. 4. Handbook of Fiberglass and Advanced Plastics Composites. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. S. S. made up of solid laminate. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. St. 2 3 r d N a t i o n a l 1-3
Figure 1-1. and G. CA. 2. 16. E. Lough ran. Covina. Luippold. Repair Procedures for C o m p o s i t e Sinewave Substructure. C. 1973. October 1980. 29th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 29. 30th National SAMPE Symposium. Arnold. M.. furnish the strength and stiffness properties of the construction. Solventless LARC160 Polyimide Matrix Resin.. E. SPI Handbook of Technology and Engineering of Reinforced Plastics/Composites. Hsu. 1st Ed. DuPont Company. MIL-HDBK-727. 13. J. CA. 5 April 1984. G. C. as shown in Fig. 9. Clair and R. It may be flat. and J. The transmission of the signal into the sandwich and the interpretation of the signal response may vary with each type of core material
REFERENCES 1. Structural Composite Fabrication Guide.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) voids. 2-4 May 1978.2 Sandwich Construction Sandwich construction consists of two or more laminates of different (dissimilar) materials bonded together with an adhesive. they are available as woven or nonwoven fabrics. 12. D. S.2. Snipe. 3. and rovings coated with the various matrix materials. 11. Covina. and lightweight..
. 876-88. Jewell. 2nd Ed. 6.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. M. Oleesky. A. including fiberglass. D. Heimbuch. D.com -. 1-1. 7. can be prepreged. 1-1. Geneva. Lubin. or bonded composite tubes. The inner lamination or core material may be made of a number of materials. 2nd Ed. pp. Mace. Parker. Covina. Technical Symposium V. Because of these useful properties and the ability to form many shapes.. The Design and Use of Kevlar in Aircraft. composite waveformed material. Collins. Department of Defense NASA. Chen. as shown in Fig. Fabrication of Reinforced PMR 15 Graphite Cloth Cylinder Assembly. 1 and 2. the design engineer may choose sandwich construction for many military systems. OH. C. April 1984. 208-17. CA. L. Shook. Evaluation of Kevlar 29 for Filament-wound Structural Applications in Helicopters. Reno.
CA. No.assistdocs. Dublin. CA. 15. 2-4 May 1978. Y. O’Connor. 38-45.
Source: http://www. The Basics on Bonded Sandwich Construction. 16.
. Lou. Covina. J. pp. 4. 532-9. 520-9. W. Hexcel.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.com -.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) SAMPE Symposium. 14. and A. S. Kevlar-Fiber-Reinforced Polyphenylene Sulfide High-Performance Composites. CA 94566. PP. E. H. Wallace. TSB 124. 19-21 March 1985. Effects o f Aging and Environmental Conditions on Kevlar/ Epoxy Composites. W. 20th National SAMPE Symposium. SAMPE Quarterly 14. D. Beever. pp. July 1983. Covina. Beckwith and B.
Each of the techniques is discussed in the paragraphs that follow. and in-service reliability evaluations are covered in Chapter 3. lack of adhesive. radiographic. and flatness. Chemical analysis 2. durability .MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
An overview is presented of the various nondestructive testing techniques that are available for evaluating structural composites with the goal of building in reliability. Cure control and monitoring.
Source: http://www. lack of filleting. The first two are techniques that are not nondestructive in nature because they require the removal of a sample of the material and.1 VISUAL NDT Visual NDT is one of the most important and simplest forms of inspection. The visual technique is used to determine that the proper materials are used and involves reading of the identification label on the raw material. and observation of visible defects or delaminations.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. 1 and 2. and mechanical methods of inspection is discussed. Radiographic NDT 6. Combinations or adaptations of these techniques may also be effective in the inspection of composite materials. therefore. and maintainability.
. visual inspection often can aid in detecting porous adhesive fillets. Various concepts of nondestructive testing are discussed in generalities to attempt to describe the techniques and their limitations. Optical NDT 3. 2-1 INTRODUCTION The intent of this chapter is to introduce the various nondestructive testing techniques that are available to the engineer to help build reliability. Ref. proof testing.com -. 1 also presents a cross reference to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the Deutsches Institute for Normung e. acoustic. Processability evaluations 3. In-service reliability evaluations. Cure control and monitoring 4. durability. will not be discussed in this chapter. optical. 2-2 DISCUSSION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
The nondestructive test (NDT) techniques used to evaluate composite materials include 1. physical measurement for size. 2-2. thermal. It is the observation of the material or product to detect gross imperfections or defects. and maintainability into composite structures. Ultrasonic NDT 4. Nondestructive testing 5. 3 and 4. these techniques should be given serious consideration to insure that the proper raw materials are used. ultrasonic.assistdocs. Nondestructive testing (in some cases nondestructive inspection might be a more appropriate term) can and should cover the complete range of operations from the raw materials through fabrication to final inspection to in-service inspection. Acoustic NDT 5. The use of visual. and lack of or incomplete cure of the adhesive. Thermal NDT 7. When adhesive bonding is used in conjunction with composites. shape. Some of the areas that the engineer should consider include 1. observation of the gelation and cure of the matrix material. Discussions of visual inspection can be found in Refs. edge voids. However. (DIN) tests for many of the techniques. Mechanical NDT. Proof testing 6. However. Discussions of these techniques are well presented in Refs.u. Visual NDT 2. the detailed nondestructive procedures for the various methods will not be included. This technique is operator interpretive but of such significant value that the operators should be trained to know what they are looking for and what any variation might mean to the reliability of the final product.
These instruments will respond to flaws. Further discussion on these modified systems is given in par.3 U L T R A S O N I C N D T Ultrasonic nondestructive testing uses a pulsed ultrasound at 2. Destructive wave interference may cause an appearance of voids in a structure where there are none. The ultrasonic methods are adversely affected by destructive wave interference. The reflector-plate techniques are easier to use than the pulse-echo technique when attempting to produce C-scan recordings of flat laminate surfaces.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 2-2. The image is reconstructed from the hologram by a process during which the hologram is illuminated with monochromatic. fiber curvature. Special equipment is required for large panels. The limitations to this method include the loss of volatiles during test and the small size of the sample studied.7. Contour followers are needed for contoured parts and special squirters are available for parts that cannot be immersed into a water tank. Modification of the ultrasonic techniques includes systems that operate on the principle of resonance impedance. 2-2. These methods may be further refined or automated to produce visual recordings of the defects by using C-scans. The hologram diffracts the light into waves that are indistinguishable from those that were reflected from the original object. and the scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) often are valuable research tools to study the mechanisms of adhesion of the fibers and the matrix materials. 2-2. the fringe pattern produced can be extremely complex. which is caused by varying adherend. these instruments are of little or no value as nondestructive tools to be used in the production control of composite materials or structures.1 Microscopy Optical methods such as the optical microscope. This process records the intensity pattern. thickness. or adhesive. 6 through 11. Holographic NDT is limited by size. and by its inability to resolve curved surfaces. However. coherent light. 5). surface coating uniformity. These squirters are described in Chapter 3.9X10-5 in. and sometimes to porosity. surface analysis.assistdocs. Further discussion on ultrasonics can be found in Ref.2. The surface deformations are examined in the holographic reconstruction as a means of interpreting the structural integrity of the component. Isolation tables capable of isolating all vibrations are 2-2
Source: http://www. and failure analysis. in general.2. The optical microscope requires very little sample preparation. Interferometric holography is a technique of detecting minute surface deformations induced by stress by comparison of each point on the surface before and after stressing. can scan large areas. The eddy-sonic method does not require a liquid couplant and is generally limited to metallic structures.
required to insure that any movement on the surface of the item under study is that induced by the applied stress. this microscope is limited by its low resolution (approximately 1µm (3.
. and photographic attachments can record color and birefringence. by its depth of focus at the higher magnifications.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. The ultrasonic methods generally are divided into immersion and contact techniques. Relatively little training is required to use this system. 1) points out that the scanning electron microscope with energy-dispersive X ray (EDAX) is an excellent tool for such evaluations as coating durability. However. The method may cause charging of the sample surface and generally requires metallized coatings. which mechanically excites the laminate over a bond failure or delamination. and the complexity of the equipment required. which is related to the amplitude and phase of the light waves reflected from the object under study. and contact through transmission or contactpulse echo. However. the scanning electron microscope (SEM). bond failures.com -. cost.2 OPTICAL NDT 2-2. In these systems an ultrasonic transducer is coupled to the part by use of a liquid coupling agent. Furthermore. and these can be further subdivided into immersion through transmission or immersion-reflector plate. This system combines the principles of eddy current and ultrasonic testing.)). has been developed and will detect many such defects in a composite structure. Another modification of the ultrasonic technique is the eddy-sonic harmonic system. a modified probe. The instrument is calibrated to respond to a shift in frequency and amplitude or only to amplitude shifts. There have been numerous reports published on holographic nondestructive testing. 2-2. some of these are given in Refs. Holography was first developed in 1948 by Gabor (Ref. 12. The application of stress to study defects in composite laminates is generally accomplished by either acoustic or thermal means. Kaelble (Ref. and it is questionable whether it is possible to detect all of the important defects with reliability and repeatability.25 to 10 MHz. The limitations of this type of equipment are that the part being tested must be manually scanned and manually marked to identify the defect areas and that recorded information from this type of equipment is not easily obtained. The system uses a process known as the interferometric process.2 Holography Holography is a system that is capable of storing three-dimensional information on a two-dimensional recording plane for future observation in the original three-dimensional form. and thickness uniformity in evaluating surface characterization methods for reinforced fiber coating.2 and in Chapter 3. The recorded pattern is called a hologram.
This concept will be discussed further in Chapter 3. and crushed core (Refs.e. is that “. or breakage of the fibers (Ref. i. which makes it possible to analyze the results.4. tension. However. inclusions. 28). Silence is the indication of a good sound structure. Acousto-ultrasonics has opened the door to these and other new areas of nondestructive testing. This technique has the same limitations as X-ray radiography but has the advantage of being in real-time. and gamma radiography. 1) and bond degradation. lamination separation. debonding of the matrix from the fibers.com -.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. cracks. 12 and 27). 16). bucket trucks.5. the more the structure has degraded (Ref. and 15. et al. The method can be used to detect water intrusion into honeycomb structures (Ref.”. a broadband pulser transducer imparts a repeating series of ultrasonic pulses to the material. Acousto-ultrasonics has been proposed as a means of indirectly measuring the interlaminar shear strength of fiber-reinforced composites (Ref. the more pops and cracks detected. 26).2 Acousto-Ultrasonics The technology of acousto-ultrasonics or ultrasonicacoustics was developed by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-Lewis Research Center to evaluate the subtle defects in composites (Refs. 2-2. and bonded panels (Ref. The stress applied to the structure to cause the material to emit acoustic emissions (stress waves) is generally accomplished by applying a mechanical force such as bending. Vary of NASALewis realized that it also was necessary to know how defects interact within the microstructural environment in the composite. 25). The most widely known form of radiography is the X ray. fiber orientation. both for new fabrication and for in-service use. The principle behind acousto-ultrasonics.5.assistdocs. was not a problem since many techniques were available to address these areas. The acoustic-emission technique listens to the different sounds made by a structure under stress. tanks. Finding defects. This technique has been reported useful for testing of composite materials. 2-2. and it is a useful in-line inspection technique that will be discussed further in Chapter 3. The modified stress waves then have superimposed the stress wave forms which would be produced by actual acoustic emission events as if the material were stressed and experienced local microcracking.2 Fluoroscopic Radiography Fluoroscopic radiography is real-time viewing of Xray radiography.
within the material along its path. and in various aerospace applications. 13.5 RADIOGRAPHIC NDT Radiographic nondestructive testing is the technique of producing a picture on a sensitive surface by a form of radiation other than light. The ability to evaluate strength loss after use was of particular importance.5. This often can be accomplished by use of a hot-air gun. A receiving transducer from the acoustic emission equipment is coupled to the surface through a waveguide that transmits only longitudinal components of the wave and separates the received signal from the input pulse.3 Neutron Radiography Neutron radiography is particularly useful when components are not X-ray opaque. although important. This technique shows great promise as a technique for testing composite structures. porosity. molded plastics. 17). Each of these techniques is discussed in the paragraphs that follow. If this were known. it would be possible to predict how serious or how critical a defect might be..4. Work is going on to study adhesive bond strength (Ref. A second method uses thermal stressing. as described by Green. delamination. The expansion of the composite structure caused by the application of heat is enough to induce the required stress.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) Other information on ultrasonic testing is given in Refs. The waves are produced by the rapid release of energy within the material.1 Acoustic Emission Acoustic emission is a term used to describe elastic stress waves produced in solids as the result of the application of stress. The technique is used in field testing of composite pipes. Detailed discussions on acoustic-emission nondestructive testing can be found in Refs. The method has been used to inspect honeycomb panels and other complex laminated structures. and other discontinuities in fiber composites.1 X-Ray Radiography X-ray radiography is effective for complex geometries that are difficult to inspect ultrasonically. Other forms of radiographic nondestructive testing are fluoroscopic radiography. splice flaws. 19). or torsion to the item. 18 and 19. (Ref. 14. especially in composites where moisture absorption and fatigue can cause a loss in strength. 2-2. fiber pullout. 2-2.. 20 through 24). The hydrogen atoms in water and in organic materials are neutron opaque and
. 2-2.4 ACOUSTIC NDT 2-2.. Each of these pulses interacts 2-3
Source: http://www. In fiberreinforced composites the acoustic emission is generated by cracking of the matrix. neutron radiography. 2-2. The modified stress waves thus contain the energy and frequency content of stress wave emissions due to the actual microcracking in the material. However the method must be enhanced by the use of X-rayopaque materials.
39 and 40).Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. pp. crushed core. 37. Nondestructive Testing Evaluation. M. Furthermore. "Holog-
Source: http://www. Quality Control and Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Composites— Part 11: Physiochemical Characterization Techniques—A State-of-the-Art Review. H.com -.
REFERENCES 1. Nature. Ed. January 1979. D. 2-2. However.2 Mechanical Impedance The mechanical impedance technique is based upon the excitation of the surface of the structure with a relatively low-frequency mechanical vibration and the measurement of the response. Naval Air Engineering Center. 777 (1948).MIL-HDBK-793(AR) hence can be imaged to detect defects or water intrusion. Proceedings: Ninth Annual Technical and Management Conference. The excitation may be accomplished by a variety of means such as a vibrating pin or tapping probe. Wilkins. B.7. P. US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. Voids and blisters sound hollow in 2-4 comparison with a sound area.assistdocs. R. L. more defining. or an adhesive-filled area of core may be mistakenly identified as a good area when tapping inspection is used (Refs. This method is very often used as the first inspection method. Metallic components are not neutron opaque. Ref.1 Tap Test (Coin Tap) In the tap test the surface of the structure is tapped by hand.
. 34. H. Kraus. Phelps. Gamma radiography is generally used to measure properties such as fiber content and resin content (Refs. MO. SPI. ultrasonically induced vibrations. Some mechanical impedance instruments require the use of a couplant. Section 20. 4. These patterns can be used to estimate the characteristics of the nonuniformities and to predict the resultant behavior or serviceability of the material.. 3. 2-2. Lakehurst. R. November 1973. 4 and 12. 30 and 31).6 THERMAL NDT Thermal nondestructive testing uses the patterns of surface temperature to detect nonuniformities below the surface. The gamma rays are obtained from radioactive isotopes such as cesium 139. St. J. but the others do not and are described as dry coupling instruments. techniques. K. May 1983. Koeing.7. 38. Liquid crystals can be formulated so that the color change range can be regulated to the particular need. 1-10. cobalt 60. AVRADCOM Report No. The temperatures are measured with infrared computer-generated thermographs of the damaged areas (Refs. but at this time it has not been widely accepted. WA. 33 describes the use of liquid crystals to evaluate cracks of various types. The theory behind this type of testing is given in Refs. D. Quality Control in Aircraft Plastics.7 MECHANICAL NDT 2-2. The color change can be regulated from –20 to 250°C (–4. M. early indication of damage. the color transition response time can be as low as 0. 26.05°F) within a given range.5. Quality Control and Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques-for Composites— Part 1: Overview of Characterization Techniques for Composite Reliability>. 2. 35. iridium 192.. and for this reason.4 Gamma Radiography Gamma radiography is similar to X-ray radiography. TR 82-F-3. and cracks. Heat generated by the vibrations is preferentially located around the damaged area and rises to the surface. interlaminar porosity and crushed core. this technique is very useful for inspection of adhesive bonds or organic matrix materials which are hidden by large metallic components (Refs. 3-5 February 1954.1°C (0. NJ. L. Kaelble. 2-2. TR 83-F-6. Ref. The response to the vibration can be measured as either amplitude and phase shifts or as amplitude and frequency changes. 6. which is then followed by one of the other. pp. 41. Boeing Commercial Airplane Co. Waters. McCullough. 7. NASA Contractor Report 158969. US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. Cholesteric liquid crystals can be used for displaying variations in surface temperatures because these crystals will change color according to their temperature and formulation. dents. and thalium 70. and 36. composite-to-composite debonding. 28. These techniques can detect skinto-skin bond failures or voids. Erf. 5. Other publications on thermal nondestructive testing are covered in Refs. Gagosz. using a hard blunt object such as a tapping hammer or a coin. and 29). S. AVRADCOM Report No. Louis. and J. Seattle. Louis. and inclusions. uncured matrix. laminate voids or inclusions. 2-2.1 s. 161. St. J. or by piezoelectric excitation. Vibrothermography involves the use of a lowamplitude mechanical vibration to induce localized heating in the composite and real-time thermography to record the resulting heat patterns. “A New Microscopic Principle”. May 1982. delamination. W. Assessment of State of the Art of lnService Inspection Method for Graphite Epoxy Composite Structures on Commercial Transport Aircraft. Gabor. and the techniques are further discussed in Ref. MO.0 to 482°F) with temperature resolutions of 0. GSED Mist 126. 32 describes the use of thermal nondestructive testing (liquid crystals) to evaluate a wood-stiffened composite for defects such as composite-to-wood debonding. and 39).
“Nondestructive Testing of Adhesive Bonded Structure”. Ed. A. Ultrasonic Techniques for Inspecting Flat and Cylindrical Composite Specimens. Fowler. Maddux and G. Vary and K. 23.
. Bowles. Aviation (1979). Daniel. W. W. 4. 57-71. Proceedings of the Annual Mechanics of Composites Review (5th). J. 1979. NY. Schramm. 27. 5-25. TR 83-F-7. Proceedings of the American Helicopter Society. T. 14. Quantication of Flaws in Fibered Composite Structures Using Interferometric Fringe Patterns. R. Sacramento. J. L. 5-25. Alexandria. 30 October-1 November 1979. G. pp. A. Philadelphia. 4. 5 (April 1979). American Society for Testing and Materials. W. Pipes. E. and W. Vary and K. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. Army Missile Research and Development Engineering Laboratory. Carlyle. Bowles. St. J. 11th National SAMPE Technical Conference. 20 April 1976. Ultrasonic Evaluation of the Strength of Unidirectional Graphite-Polyamide Composites. R. PA. R. No. T. W. Nondestructive Evaluation and Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials. G. D. Society of the Plastic Industry. H. Pipes. 26. 1977. VA. 21. Shuford. J. Philadelphia. San Antonio. J. Ed. I.26-37 (April 1975). 2 (January 1971). OH. PA. New York. 28. ASTM STP 696. E. Reinforced Plastics/Composite Institute. 1979. American Society for Testing and Materials. No. Daniel. Hamilton. 16. pp. Dance and J. Anonymous. W. ASTM STP 696. La Jolla. Ranson. D. No. B. Ed. D. I. S. pp. and S. Eleventh Symposium on Nondestructive Testing. 2644. A. pp. Final Report ATC-B-9220001 8 CR-137. Porter and B. A. No. B. 1980.. “New NDE Techniques Find Subtle Defects”. P. R. F. Automatic Scanning Inspection of Composite Helicopter Structure Using an Advanced Technology Fluoroscopic System. Hamstad. I. 3. 11. Hamilton. 1983. 1983 ATA Nondestructive Testing Forum. Sendeckyj. 1-6. H. B. N-Ray Inspection of Aircraft Structures Using Mobile Sources: A Compendium of Radiographic Results. Sobczak. M. 1-10. Paper No. 59-63 (September 1980). 36-58 (July 1982). SPI. No. B. 35th Annual Technical Conference.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. 31. Technical Report RL-76-18. Green. Kukuchek.. Jr. Mechanics of Nondestructive Testing. E. 13-15 November 1979. Swinson. Acoustic Emission Technology Corporation. Paper No. ImpactDamaged Graphite Epoxy Composites: Impact 2-5
Source: http://www. 1979. Fassbender. 9. T. Journal of Testing and Evaluation. Reinforced Plastics/Composites Institute.R. and W. Mitchell. Quality Assurance and In-Service Inspection Applications of Acousto-Ultrasonics to Bonded and Composite Structures. pp. 20. DARPA/AF Review of Progress in Quantitative NDE. and P. VA. Kansas City. Ed. Concepts and Techniques for Ultrasonic Evaluation of Material Properties.com -. Teagle. AVRADCOM Report No. CA. PA. 19. 1979. S. Philadelphia. Schramm. 14-18 July 1979. “Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiber Reinforced Plastic Equipment”. Recent Advances in Mechanical Impedance Analysis Instrumentation for the Evaluation of Adhesive-Bonded and Composite Structures. 1980. 18. Daniel. R. Dance. R. W. New York. SAMPE Quarterly 16. 8. A. pp. B-80-MW-13F000. NDE of Composite Rotor Blades During Fatigue Testing. Schultz. 24. 1980. Plenum Press. Neutron Radiographic Nondestructive Inspection for Bonded Composite Structures. M. 12341. Scripps Institute of Oceanography. American Helicopter Society. J. Pipes. Knoll. US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. and T. A-79-35-35-5000. Polymer Engineering and Science 19. J. E. Holographic Techniques for Defect Detection in Composite Materials. M. pp. F.. R. Hunter. MO. 242-58. Cost. Quality Control and Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Composites—Part VI: Acoustic Emission—A State-of-the-Art Review. TX. 25.. Section 21-G. Interferometric Testing of Composites. W. W. Lark. “An Ultrasonic-Acoustic Technique for Nondestructive Evaluation of Fiber Composite Quality”. 38th Annual Conference. 32-40. Liber. “Nondestructive Testing of Advanced Fiber-Reinforced Composites”. Vought Corp. 185-91 (July 1979). Nondestructive Characterization of Flaw Growth in Graphite/Epoxy Composites. SAMPE Quarterly 2. Dallas. A. B. 7-11 February 1983. Rogers. Schramm. Hagemaier and R. 12.. Mullinix. Haughton. January 1983. Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories. “Correlation of Fiber Composite Tensile Strength With the Ultrasonic Stress Wave Factor”. CA. 192-209. Alexandria. pp. Nondestructive Evaluation and Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials. and J. 17. 10. TX. W. R.
Testing and ND T Evaluation. Wehrenberg. JTEVA 7. M. Middlebrook. 13. “The Sign of a Good Panel is Silence”. M. P. American Society for Nondestructive Testing and Southwest Research Institute.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) raphy: New Tool Comes of Age”. April 1979. G. J. 30. Chemical Processing (March 1984). Redstone Arsenal. NY. Louis. A. May 1983. American Society for Testing and Materials. 15. KS. J. W. AL. Airworthiness Certifcation of Composite Components for Civil Aircraft: The Role of Nondestructive Evaluation. 29. Section 12-E. Vary and R. Schaeffel. SAMPE Quarterly 9. pp. ASTM STP 696. pp. Materials Engineering.assistdocs. Nondestructive Evaluation of Graphite/Epoxy Damage. Vary. F.. 22. G.Teagle. R.
pp. PLASTEC Report No. 13. Buckingham. Report CCM-80-4. Composite Materials Testing and Design (5th Conference).. NJ. Ed. Charles. Nondestructive Evaluation of Fiber Composites. Tsai. Babcock. 83-95. 33. R. 40.
Source: http://www. Jones. A. pp. 39. Field and Depot Level Repair Methods of Advanced Composite Structure. E. 13-15 October 1981. CA. p. CA. McErlean. 525-35. March 1978. Liquid Crystals for Flaw Detection in Composites. US Army Armament Research. Whitecomb. ASTM STP 696. 13th National SAMPE Technical Conference. May 1984.. S. Wegman. 30th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition. D. Ed. R51. 2nd National SAMPE Technical Conference. 2. Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials. Reifsnider. Charles and D.. 36. J. ASTM STP 696. J. Covina. Dover. R.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. and Engineering Center (ARDEC). 502-18.
. 1970. MA. W. Olevitch. 41. 34. 1131-42. Philadelphia. B. PA.com -. J. 38. R. B. Cambridge. 1983. B. 19-21 March 1985. Nondestructive Evaluation and Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials. 80-8. Wilson. PA. pp. January 1979. III. Plastics Technical Evaluation Center (PLASTEC). Photochromic Coatings for Nondestructive Testing. Thermographic Measurements of Fatigue Damage. G. S. Nondestructive Test Method for Composite Structures. 123. Hampton. J. Development. D. Detection of Damage in Composite Materials by Vibrothermography. MIT Sea Grant Program Report No. A. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. T. F. L. E. pp. DE. and R. Covina. 1979. 7 July 1980. Singh.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 32. 30. Allinikow and S. J. 72-82. A Model of Passive Thermal Nondestructive Evaluation of Composite Laminales. Phonography-It's Role in NDE. American Society for Testing and Materials. Nondestructive Evaluation and Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials. A. Bidwell. S. Fort. NASA/Langley Research Center. A. pp. Pipes. Newark. NASA-TM-79649. Pipes. CA. 37. VA. Effects of M o i s ture in Infrared Thermography of Resin Matrix Composites. American Society for Testing and Materials. K. J. Kansios. 35. Philadelphia. J. R.assistdocs. Henneke. A. B. PA. W. 441-52. University of Delaware. Center for Composite Materials. 1979. Ed. Covina. pp. R.
com -. The destructive test and failure analysis engineers work with the team to determine where the weak points in the structure are and where redesign is required.
Figure 3-1. New developments in nondestructive testing techniques for the various stages are also discussed. Collins (Ref. This concept is shown graphically in Fig. A nondestructive testing policy should be established for all advanced composite structures that are to be built. sandwich construction and adhesive bonding. 8. engineers familiar with materials and production processes. 2. Strict process controls supported by select inprocess inspection are required. Refs. delaminations.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
Quality control of advanced composite structures includes all stages from design to in-service inspection. 9. Kausen (Ref. reliable product. 3 through 6 describe testing of resin systems and prepregs for use in reinforced composite production.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. or major porosity. 7) describes 3-1
Source: http://www. and resin and curing agent purity and specific requirements must be established. All structures shall be subjected to NDT. The intensity of the policy should be determined by the criticality of the item being built. Defect allowable shall be determined.assistdocs. 2) graphically depicts the interplay of the principal activities that are related to structural reliability. and final and in-sevice testing are discussed. As pointed out by both Collins and Vary. cure cycles must be established and monitored. Calibration standards with designed-in defects shall be provided for the nondestructive testing. The nondestructive test engineer sets up the NDT requirements to insure that the structural integrity that was designed into the part is actually there and that no defects that would affect the integrity of the part are present. The concept of the policy is 1. A concept of quality control is presented and the methods and equipment available for the control of incoming materials during fabrication testing of prepregs. 7. 3-1 INTRODUCTION Quality control of advanced composite items must start early during the design phase. end-item inspection. nondestructive and destructive testing both play important roles in the overall plan for a well-designed. 5. Only proven NDT methods shall be used. The NDT engineering team shall coordinate its activities for specific development programs. The materials and production process engineers are required to develop the specific data required to select the most appropriate materials and the best processes to do the job. 6. The NDT engineer shall specify the design and fabrication of the defect standards. Vary (Ref. quality-controlled. Written NDT procedures shall be required for all production programs. Many organizations form teams that consist of design engineers. The design engineers design the item to meet the user criteria. Design Team Concept for Structure Reliability
. 1) outlines an NDT policy for the inspection of composite structures. Only through close teamwork and exchange of data among disciplines can structural reliability be assured. and specialists in nondestructive testing (NDT) and destructive testing and failure analysis. He further points out that nondestructive testing is an important link in the design-production-inspection system. The purpose of NDT shall be to detect voids. Raw materials must be tested and standards established. 3-1. 4. 3.
9 discusses the need for quality assurance material testing for glass-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic molding. core materials. and subassemblies. add to the component cost and should be used only when warranted on critical applications. matrix materials. and effect on the properties of the laminate or structure. prepregs. 3-2 INCOMING MATERIALS The incoming materials generally can be itemized to include reinforcements. this can be accomplished by using the various nondestructive testing techniques discussed in Chapter 2. but they are not nondestructive. laminates or moldings. A list of specifications and standards covering nondestructive testing is given in Appendix A. Some of the defects that can be detected by nondestructive testing are given in Table 3-2.
. the resin weight fraction. 8 are of value to determine and describe the properties of the resins. weight and density determinations. moldings. size and location. Resin fraction variations—resin-rich and resinstarved areas over the surface of the laminate brought about by variations in the prepreg resin content. Porosity—accumulation of open or closed macroscopic or microscopic bubbles 9. Fiber misalignment—the disorientation of the fabric or filaments. Therefore. 14. matrix materials. Flow lines—local waviness of the surface due to fiber orientation or low mold temperature 7. or by improper resin bleed out during vacuum-bag curing. The basic raw materials such as reinforcements. If the integrity of the subassembly warrants a more complete inspection. Unbends or disbonds (bond failures)—the separation of an adhesive bond or of the facing from the core in a sandwich structure 13. Moisture pickup—excess moisture that is not normal within the resin or reinforcement 8. However. It must be remembered that to insist upon the removal of all defects will result in excessive cost without necessarily increasing reliability. SAE has prepared a group of specifications designated as Aerospace Materials Specifications (AMS). The major defects that might occur in a fiber-reinforced composite structure are 1. or washout of the fiber caused by excessive resin flow 6. The design engineer and the NDT engineer must determine the importance of the defect based upon the frequency of occurrence. or maintainability.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) the concept of fiber areal weight as a practical manufacturing and quality control for composite laminates. The fiber areal weight is a function of the ply thickness. and the laminate density. Voids—the entrapment of air or other volatiles that may be present in the resin system. and subassemblies may be inspected by simple procedures consisting of dimensional and tolerance measurements. 8 describes overage indicators for prepreg materials. and voids 5.assistdocs. Only those defects that will adversely affect the performance should be considered nonacceptable.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. There is an increasing tendency to move toward the consensus-type specifications. cure determinations by hardness measurements. and prepregs should be purchased in compliance with military or other specifications. Components such as laminates. Delamination—the separation of the plies within a laminate 4. which are prepared by organizations such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). A list of some material specifications covering incoming raw materials is given in Table 3-1. The various test methods described in the papers in Ref. adhesives.com -. Ref. Damaged fibers-broken filaments. and Ref. Nondestructive test methods are generally used to detect defects in the structure. The adhesives used to assemble composite structures should be checked to determine that they are within the required shelf life for that particular adhesive. the deviation from a predetermined lay-up or filament-winding pattern. Sink marks—caused by nonuniform shrinkage during molding due to uneven temperature in the mold halves or to insufficient pressure 11 Thickness variations—normally associated with variations in the resin content of the laminate and often inherent in open-mold processing 12. visual examination for defects. Warpage—the uneven shrinkage caused by uneven mold temperatures or by orientation caused by long flow paths in a mold 15. prepreg materials. and composite components. durability. or by variation due to flow conditions in short-fiber molding 10. or splicings in the roving or fabric yarns 3. porosity. The defects must be defined and defect allowable must be evaluated and established. -
Source: http://www. the acceptance criteria will depend upon an analysis of the defects. Washout—the abnormal fiber displacement during molding caused by excessive resin flow. Adhesives stored for any period of time should be used on a first-
. Density variations—variations associated with resin fraction variations. Contamination—the inclusion of foreign matter 2. These may be either macroscopic or microscopic and may be either localized or distributed through the laminate. and tapping for void determinations. nondestructive testing will. in general. These consensus specifications cover a wide range of subjects and often replace the military specifications if both are considered to be equal. knots.
The data obtained in these areas will be fed into computer-aided design and manufacturing programs.assistdocs. Short-Glass-Fiber Reinforced AMS 3687A Adhesive. first-out cycle. AMS 3899 Polysulfone-lmpregnated Glass. such as the phenolic-impregnated kraft and Nomex paper honeycombs and the various polymeric foams. but this recertification requires strict controls.2. Adhesives that have exceeded the recommended storage life may. in some cases. The control of the lay-up is generally done by use of well-trained and certified personnel. Structural Film ASTM E 990 Adhesive. processability testing. Rolls of adhesive generally should be removed from the cold storage and kept in their sealed wrappings at least 12 h prior to use. It is very important that frozen adhesives be allowed to stabilize at room temperature in the sealed wrappings to prevent moisture condensing on the surface of the adhesive. and Molding Plastic Molding Compound. the next step is to require control and monitoring of the lay-up and curing of the composite. be recertified by the quality control laboratory. especially the nonmetallic cores. Fig.1 Control of Prepregs
In applications where the control of the thickness or weight per unit area is very critical and continuous control is required. Core Splice
in. and flow characterization. and cure monitoring. Type-S Glass. Tape and Sheet. to predict structural safety margins and composite durability and reliability. The monitoring of the cure may use various methods. should be checked for moisture content and dried prior to use if their moisture contents are above the standards established in the processing specification. Polyimide. Epoxy-ResinPreimpregnated AMS 3832A Glass Roving. EpoxyImpregnated AMS 3894C/ Graphite Fiber. Tape and AMS 3906/ Sheet. radioactive isotope in the sensing probe. The quality control laboratory should establish minimum stabilization times for these samples depending upon the size and volume of the sample package. The system uses a small. Core materials. gel and cure rate determinations. 3-3.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
Specification Topic No. Style 7781 AMS 3828A Glass Roving. Laminating.1 SOLID LAMINATES
Once the raw materials have been certified as performing to the standards set forth. Tape and Sheet. AMS 3616A Resin.1. Epoxy-Resin-Impregnated 1-7 ASTM E 865 Adhesive. Glass Cloth. EpoxyImpregnated 1-9 Graphite Fiber. which will be discussed in par. 3-2 shows a gamma backscatter thickness gage. Film.1. These controls might include strength tests. shorter stabilization times may be used.
3-3. The theory of operation of the gamma backscatter technique is based upon the Compton Photon Backscatter Principle. for Sandwich Panels AMS 3823C Fabric. along with nondestructive inspection and in-service history data.
. which emits low-energy gamma rays that are collimated and beamed at the 3-3
Source: http://www. gamma backscattering gages can be used for on-line inspection. Recertified adhesives must be used within a short time after recertification.
3-3.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Most new developments in the testing of incoming raw materials are in the area of chemical quality assurance testing. If samples have been cut and replaced in cold storage. Novolac AMS 3671 Epoxy. Nonwoven Fiber.com -.
The scanners are synchronized to make a same-spot measurement. In composite fabrication. In a dual scanning system. these are often not enough. The resin matrix is the dielectric medium and a small condenser can be built into the fabrication part. The principle of dielectric measurement is quite simple. Compared to other radiation-gaging methods. 3-4. can be related to the weight per unit area or to thickness provided that the density is constant.1. The mold. A scintillation crystal or photomultiplier detector is used to convert the backscattered protons to an electrical signal.assistdocs. However. Refs. Most organic resins are polar because they contain dipoles. press platen. traversing frames and probes are mounted before and after the coater so that a complete profile of the sheet is generated and displayed on the recorder chart. 10) points out that the theory covering the interrelationship between dielectric and mechanical relaxation properties. The gamma backscattering gages can be set up in various configurations. 3-3. The dual scanning system may consist of dual traversing frames. 11 through 15 discuss dielectric-cure monitoring. adhesion wetting. Various Configuration Set-Ups of Gamma Backscatter Gages for some time. thin metal foils or screening can be placed directly in the part. two gages. 3-3. Autoclaves and presses are equipped with temperature.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. These include dielectric analysis and ion graphing. and composition. and complete color cathode-ray tube (CRT) display of product profiles and parameters.and pressure-recording devices and can be automatically controlled for time. temperature. and molecular architecture has been known 3-4
Before (Courtesy of NDC Systems) Figure 3-3.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
material to be measured. opacity. which. which will orient in
Source: http://www. Further work on the application of this theory has progressed so that today dielectric cure monitoring is used not only in conjunction with the laboratory-controlled tests but also with large production equipment.
. These rays are scattered back toward the detector in direct proportion to the mass of the material in front of the probe.2 Cure Monitoring Standard practices for monitoring the cure of a resin system involve control of the time. Yolof (Ref. and pressure during cure. as shown in Fig. solubility.com -. as shown in Fig. in turn. these metal parts act as the plates of the condenser. This eliminates the need for complex calibration techniques. Other systems have been developed to help monitor the cure of the organic resins. the gamma backscatter principle is insensitive to changes in color. or caul sheet can also be used as one of the condenser plates.
3-3.2 SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION As mentioned in par. Ref. bonding capability. Ref. 18 discusses some of the considerations that the designer should be aware of as far as acceptance test criteria for sandwich construction are concerned. with the application of dielectric monitoring. (Courtesy NDC Systems) Figure 3-4. sandwich construction consists of two or more laminates of dissimilar materials bonded together with an adhesive. the parts often can be saved and rebagged. If the temperature-time-pressure window has not been reached at the time of bag failure. The results of an ion-graphing analysis generally are plotted as voltage versus time. The adhesive system should be selected based on its durability. Their testing is covered in par. the dipoles will not move because they are locked in place. The ease or difficulty of orientation can be determined by measuring the dielectric constant or capacitance of the polymerizing resin.1 and will be further covered in par. Changes in the resin caused by temperature and pressure variations can be defined and controlled accurately if the physical nature of the curing resin is known. Yokota (Ref. which includes the use of ion
. Therefore. The resistance measurement changes with the fluidity of the resin. Allen (Ref.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) monitoring in large autoclave operations. in Ref. also can be determined. 13) shows that. adhesive cure. 19. which is a measure of the energy lost due to dipole movement. the resistance through the system drops and then increases again. as described by Fritzen. The authors point out that there is a need for work and serious consideration of the problems involved with some types of sandwich structures. Dual Traversing Frames With Color CRT Display for Gamma Backscatter Gages an electric field. The core materials. One of these is the use of cure monitoring.3. and storage of the adhesive have been used.3 ADHESIVE BONDING The in-fabrication testing of adhesive bonding mainly involves the use of destructive coupon testing to insure that the proper controls of surface preparation. This system can also be used to monitor the recure of an aborted autoclave run. the dipoles are free to move and will readily orientate. and compatibility with the adherends (laminates and core).2. should be dried to prevent blowing the panel during cure. When the resin matrix is fluid. In this way the cure through the thickness of the laminate is observed. it is possible to establish a temperature-time-pressure application diagram. 3-3. 12) points out that the technique of automatic dielectrometry is reliable. it is necessary that the laminates be of sound structure. These dipoles will change position in an alternating field. As the system goes from a viscous solid to a fluid to the cured solid. which are constantly changing as the cure proceeds. The testing of the structure itself will be covered in par.com -. will be discussed in par.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. which will define the optimum time to apply the pressure and what temperature range should be maintained. 14 discusses the use of dielectric 3-5
Source: http://www. 3-3. 3-4.. especially if nonmetallic. The surfaces of the laminates should be clean and freshly prepared. as such. To build a quality sandwich structure. the movement of the dipoles is restricted by the physical state of the material. sandwich construction will be treated as an adhesive-bonded structure and. However. 3-4. There are a few tests that can be used during fabrication.assistdocs. In practice. the dipoles will move only with great difficulty. this decreases wasted time. More details on ion graphing can be found in Refs. If the resin matrix is hard (unmelted or cured). If the resin matrix is very viscous or if gelation takes place. The dielectric system can be and has been used to determine at what stage of a cure the parts are in the event of a vacuumbag failure. aluminum foil electrodes are placed such that one is in contact with the laminate and the other is within the bleeder ply on the other side.2. et al. This factor is related to the viscoelastic properties of the resin matrix. Ion graphing as an in-process. The dissipation factor. 16 and 17. cure-monitoring procedure involves continuous measuring of DC resistance of the resin during cure. but a background data base must be established for each resin system used. 3-3. 1-3.
4 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN IN-PROCESS NDT New developments in in-process testing will include the areas of design and manufacture. Thus SNDT should be more suited for inspection in the production plant environment. 3-3. SNDT detects flaws in a manner similar to holography except that holography measures displacements and shearography measures strains. bubbly. The tool measures current due to optically stimulated electron emission and relates these measurements to peel strengths of bonds to graphite-epoxy composite laminates. The development of a point-contact transducer and digital AE signal processing were the first steps toward developing AE as a quantitative NDT technique. This new tool or method. and a very important one. There are some important but simple tests that the operator can use to inspect the parts being bonded. and the design and NDT engineer should watch these developments as they progress. The system measures phase-angle shift and vector voltages. The first test. These defects are important to understand because they will dictate the inspection criteria for the nondestructive testing technique that will be used to inspect the final part and for subsequent in-service inspections. this information will indicate whether the adhesive will cure at the cure temperature but will not account for the possibility that the bond line may not have reached the required temperature. 25). The flash should be checked to determine the degree of cure. is a visual inspection for warpage. an area in which there is currently no acceptable inspection tool. dielectrics. SNDT does not require special vibration isolation as is needed for holography. an economical method of detecting. Another area in which nondestructive testing is being rapidly adopted is in the in-service inspection of
. Elevated-temperature-curing adhesives can also be checked for cure by putting a small amount of the adhesive through the cure cycle and observing it. it probably was cured at too high a temperature. will lend itself to the inspection of composite surfaces prior to bonding. porosity may indicate that the use of a vacuum may have removed volatile constituents. 22). They are expected to be useful in the study of composites under ballistic impact.
Other work of interest involves the use of unmodified. from the mix. if the advantages of composites are to be fully achieved.assistdocs. If the adhesive system used was one that cures at room temperature. 3-6
Source: http://www. 3-4. 23) concludes that “the future application of color graphics to ultrasonic C-scan inspection. or porous. SNDT is an interferometric technique that allows surface strains to be measured. Another new NDT tool has been introduced which is reported to be able to inspect the quality of surfaces to be coated or bonded. Boyce and Miller (Ref. described the use of acoustic emission (AE) technology to evaluate the design of composite structures using static testing to locate those areas that needed to be reinforced without overdesign of the component. However. 27 is a good introduction to nondestructive testing of adhesivebonded structures and describes some of the test techniques that will be discussed in par. is the area where nondestructive testing is used the most. and phase metrology. The authors pointed out that.” A new optical method of NDT referred to as “Shearographic Nondestructive Testing” (SNDT) seems to be well suited for nondestructive inspection in production environments (Ref. The edges of the joint should be checked for voids and flash (exuded adhesive). 26). distortion. These techniques are being applied to study deformations and strains in fiberreinforced composites. Much work must be done in this area. or misalignment. either as the final production inspection of subassemblies or complete products. such as amines. 21) discusses the effects of flow and porosity on the strength of the adhesive joint. This work (Ref. This tool is described as Surface Quality Unit for Inspection by Nondestructive Testing (SQUINT) with photoelectron emission (Ref. 3-4 END-ITEM TESTING NONDESTRUCTIVE
The inspection of end-items. in a paper presented at the American Helicopter Society meeting. Ref. 24). as well as more sophisticated image processing techniques promises to provide a more quantitative basis for material evaluation. aluminum foil electrode placed in the adhesive “glue line”. ultrasonic equipment in conjunction with a digital-to-analog converter to help analyze the data by use of binary and colorgraphic displays. If it is burnt. Hart-Smith (Ref. general-purpose. the three systems are similar in that they measure some form of electrical flow through the resin system and response to the changes as the resin cures. Leaving a sample of the roomtemperature-curing adhesive in the container overnight often will give a good indication of the cure in the parts that were bonded with that batch. locating.com -. 20. which will result in adverse effects. and assessing the severity of a defect was necessary. The phase metrology system uses a small. and interpretation of ultrasonic composite material amplitude signatures will be facilitated. Areas of uncured adhesive are also indicative of improper mixing of multicomponent adhesives. which will indicate whether too little or too much adhesive was applied. Basically.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) graphing. Ion graphing is also discussed in Ref. when perfected.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Flash X ray and cineradiography (X-ray movie pictures) are coming and will provide new insights into composite performance (Ref.
There are two different approaches to ultrasonic inrich/resin-starved areas. 3-4. Fluoroscopic evaluation has been reported to be particularly applicable to composite materials to detect exaggerated resinTABLE 3-3 FINAL INSPECTION TECHNIQUES FOR SPECIFIC DEFECTS 3-4.1. tail rotor blades.2 Ultrasonic Inspection The ultrasonic inspection system has found wide acceptance in the inspection of composite structures.assistdocs.1. lack of potting material around inserts.
X X X (Courtesy of Bell Helicopter/ Textron) Figure 3-5.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) composite structures and adhesive-bonded structures. and Fig. Ref. flatness or contour. However. final inspection and in-service inspection. These discrepancies include excess or missing material. 3-4. and damaged or distorted honeycomb core in a sandwich structure. to determine ply orientation (if indicators are included). The fluoroscopic system is particular) applicable to bonded honeycomb structures such as helicopter main rotor blades. mismatch or misalignment of detail parts. 30 and 31. and nondestructive testing for structural integrity. and panels to detect hidden foreign materials. porosity. inclusions. These two areas.
Source: http://www.com -. Table 3-3 lists some of the common defects that would affect the structural integrity of the composite structure and the nondestructive test technique that may be used to inspect for these defects. will be discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Xray radiographs are a permanent record that the engineer can use to evaluate problems that may occur later during service. and a wide variety of core defects including entrapped matter. Composite Main Rotor Blade Inspection by Fluoroscopic Radiography
. These tests include visual inspection for dimensional tolerances.1 FINAL INSPECTION Final inspection of the finished item must consist of a number of tests. 3-6 shows the control room of the Fluoroscopic Radiography Laboratory at Bell Helicopter Textron. 29). radiographs are expensive in terms of time and materials. 3-5 shows a helicopter main rotor blade being inspected by fluoroscopic radiography. 28 describes a product inspection development program for the inspection of a carbon-fiber-reinforced composite-honeycomb panel that was part of a commercial aircraft rudder. Fig.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. and to detect cracks that are oriented parallel to the X-ray beam and have a depth greater than approximately 3% of the total part thickness (Ref.1 Radiographic Inspection Radiographic inspection techniques are widely used for the detection of discrepancies in the internal details of the structure which will show up as cross-sectional density variations. Fig. Other discussions of radiographic inspection of composite structure can be found in Refs. Recent advances in improving equipment have made real-time viewing radiographic (fluoroscopic) techniques very appealing for inspection of composite structures. 3-7 shows a variety of parts awaiting fluoroscopic radiographic inspection.
assistdocs. 3-8 depicts a bonded laminate structure with no defect. Also this method requires a reference standard of the same material with and without the defect. Control Laboratory for Fluoroscopic Radiography Showing Real-Time Imspection of Honeycomb Panel spection of a laminate. 3-8
Source: http://www. and a void. The time interval from pulse initiation to its return to the transducer can be electronically presented as a depth reading. for example.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
(Courtesy of Bell Helicopter/Textron) Figure 3-6. The sound path for each type of defect is also shown. For this method to detect bond failures. In ultrasonic pulse echo the pulses are generated and detected by a single transducer in contact with the surface through a couplant. One is pulsed wave and the other is standing wave. the interface of a laminate bonded to a different substructure. the skin-tosubstructure bond must permit the pulse to pass into the substructure. Variety of Parts Awaiting Fluoroscopic Radiographic Inspection
(Courtesy of Bell Helicopter) Textron) Figure 3-7. from each material change. The pulsed wave approach includes the pulse-echo and through-transmission techniques.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.com -. The signal on the CRT would vary in shape and duration for each of these three locations. or reflects. The reflected pulses or echos are detected by the transducer and the resultant signals are monitored on a CRT for changes caused by the defects. Fig. The pulse travels internally through the part and ethos. this standard is used to set up the instrument. a delamination.
Throughtransmission ultrasonics generally is used with the part removed from the whole assembly. This is depicted in Fig.assistdocs. OH) Figure 3-9. This system will only distinguish between a good and a defective part. the center dot is a bonded or structurally sound laminate.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. which will rotate the transducers 360 deg around the vertical axis. 3-10. A n adapter can be used to mount the squirter nozzles so that their centerline is horizontal instead of vertical.
. In Fig. which is coupled to the other side in the same manner as the “transmit” transducer. this causes a loss or reduction in signal amplitude. The major applications include the detection of bond failures between bonded laminates or composite-to-metal bonds. and it cannot be used to measure depth of the defects. The transducers can be moved over the part to be inspected in pairs. The squirter nozzles can be used in-plane or offset in either the x. The pulse enters the part and travels through to the other side and is detected by the “receive” transducer.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
Figure 3-8. especially in graphite-reinforced composites. 34 through 37. and the signal recorded as a C-scan that will locate the areas of lost or reduced signal.
(Courtesy of Custom Machine. The dot in the lower. the through-transmission system and the use of a water bath or column can be used with C-scan recording. Cleveland. Standing wave ultrasonics. water column. 3-11 shows a portable standing wave ultrasonic instrument. Standing wave 3-9
Source: http://www. relies on the generation of a standing wave pattern throughout the laminate thickness and on measuring its collective effects on the acoustic impedance at the surface. The system can be controlled by a programmable controller. and detecting internal-impact damage. 3-11 the dot display represents various defects. which is coupled to the surface of the part by a water bath. Pulsed Echo Ultrasonic Inspection Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection can be used while the section to be inspected is a part of the whole or in inplace inspection.com -.or y-axis. Inc. Other papers on ultrasonic nondestructive testing are cited in Refs. Fig. Fig. delamination between layers of the composite laminate. 3-9 shows a water squirter or water column for use with throughtransmission ultrasonics. starting with the one on the x-axis (first quadrant) and proceeding counterclockwise. or impedance plane ultrasonics. Water Squirter Used to Couple the Ultrasonic Signal to the Part in ThroughTransmission Ultrasonics ultrasonics has specific areas of application for the inspection of fiber-reinforced polymeric composites. 32 and 33. or by direct contact through a couplant. The part need not be removed for inspection In through-transmission ultrasonic inspection the pulses are generated by the “transmit” transducer. Detectable defects will block or reduce the sound transmission. It is also possible to have the squirters mounted on an auxiliary manipulator. would indicate a defect (void or delamination) at a progressively deeper depth. The theory of standing wave ultrasonics is explained in Refs.. The dots. fourth quadrant is a measure of the probe in air. Multiple squirter assemblies can be placed in “gangs” to decrease inspection time. The system uses a small probe (typically resonant) to generate the standing wave across the laminate thickness.
Inc. The two Uniwest-Shurtronic units use a probe with a vibrating pin. For further details on the use of the thermal-sensitive photochromic systems. Couplant penetration may affect the adhesion of rainerosion-resistant coatings. Refs. see par. a load must be applied to the structure. or sonic means. The other instruments are dry-coupling and rapid-scanning. the transducers will pick up the signal. 3-4.6 and Refs.1.1. The time for the signal to reach the different transducers can be used to locate the source of the signal and hence the location of the defect. BondaScope 2100 Standing Wave Ultrasonic Inspection Instrument 3-4.5 Thermal Inspection Large structures such as large nose radomes and some communication satellites are made from composite materials that present some different and unique problems in nondestructive testing. AE
Source: http://www. i.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) testing involves the placing of AE transducers at various locations on the structure and then applying a load or stress. 28 and 41 discuss mechanical impedance techniques. the matrix cracking is important only if it leads to fiber damage.1.com -.
(Courtesy of NDT Instruments. AE can inspect for all three modes of failure. Often the skin ply thickness is very thin and the use of couplants could result in couplant penetration of the laminate surface.) Figure 3-11. The three modes can occur during the pressurization of a fiber-reinforced pressure vessel. 3-4. 312). 38 through 40 discuss the use of AE testing to evaluate the structural integrity of fiber-reinforced composite pressure vessels. which excites the composite structure. delamination. thermal. the Fokker Bond Tester.assistdocs.e.. AE requires some sort of proof testing. The Fokker instrument requires a liquid couplant and the transducer must be repositioned for each reading. However. The Fokker Bond Tester and the Acoustic Flaw Detector use a piezoelectric transducer to excite the surface. 42 through 44.3 Acoustic Emission Inspection Of the various types of defects one might inspect for. 3-4. and fiber breakage. The amplitude and phase shifts of the returned signal are measured and processed to detect the defect. and the fibers are the primary load-bearing constituent of the structure.4 Mechanical Impedance Inspection (Courtesy of Custom Machine.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. These include matrix cracking. Multiple Squirters for the Inspection of Large Parts Mechanical impedance testing techniques use bond test equipment that excites the structure with relatively low-frequency mechanical vibrations and then measures the response to these vibrations. there are three primary failure modes in composite structures. and Inspection Instrument’s Acoustic Flaw Detector.2. By use of standard specimens representing a structure. As the load increases and any microfailures start to occur. OH) Figure 3-10. Inc.. 2-2. Delamination is critical to the buckling strength of the vessel. AE counts versus load traces can be prepared and then compared to the counts obtained during pressure testing to help to predict the strength or weakness of a structure. AE tests have been used to inspect pressure vessels such as rocket motor cases. Photochromic coatings that will change color with changes in surface temperature have been found useful in these applications. These methods are generally used to check on the structure once it is in service and will be discussed further in par. Cleveland. The load may be applied by mechanical. Refs. This type of equipment includes such instruments as the Uniwest-Shurtronics Composite Tester and Harmonic Bond Tester (Fig.
”. What Botsco described was the ultrasonic impedance display concept for testing a variety of laminated and honeycomb-core. 3-13.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Since 1982. These tests included 1. defect growth. under a contract to NASA. 46). localized areas. and the use of highresolution ultrasonic techniques for inspecting graphite composites and bond line thickness. rather than about small. 46 lists seven areas of nondestructive testing that had been or were being used to inspect advanced composite structures on in-service aircraft at that time. In 1977. objective evaluation criteria and is not open to the subjectivity of operator interpretation. Delamination are not only readily detectable.) Figure 3-13. 3-4. Inc. The NovaScope 2000 Ultrasonic Inspection Equipment
Source: http://www. there has been a dramatic decrease in the number and frequency
(Courtesy of Uniwest-Shurtronics) Figure 3-12. Furthermore. 53) states that “Compared to many other nondestructive test methods acoustic emission has predetermined.2 IN-SERVICE NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING The testing of items in service for defect development.Left Front 3-4. adhesive-bonded structures that were discussed in par. Appendix B to Ref. This high-resolution ultrasonic equipment includes the NovaScope 2000 shown in Fig. Tap testing 3. This work was done to establish a nondestructive test procedure for testing the safe service life of fiberglass nonconductive aerial booms. Many of these methods are still in use.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) Some of these methods could be used while the part is on the aircraft. 45) reported that “Acoustic emission can conveniently be implemented into a periodic overload proof test to detect the existence of material cracks and other discontinuities or to predict impending material failure. but their depths can be precisely measured with a digital readout of thickness. in-service equipment can be tested while in use. and in most cases it is not necessary to shut the equipment down. Ultrasonic pulse-echo 4. Fowler (Ref.assistdocs. 3-14 and 3-15. Ultrasonic through-transmission 5. Harmonic Bond Tester With the Vibrating Pin Probe. Ultrasonic digital thickness gage 6. or degradation is one of the most important uses of nondestructive testing. The paper shows that since acoustic emission testing of all fiber-reinforced plastic chemical processing vessels has been used at Monsanto. Radiography 7.1. In 1980 Botsco (Ref. 3-11
(Courtesy of NDT Instruments. but other methods require that the part be removed. Visual and visual optical 2. Wadin and Pollock (Ref.2. the Boeing Commercial Airplane Company conducted an assessment of the state of the art of in-service inspection of graphite-epoxy composite structures on commercial transport aircraft (Ref. Botsco reported that the highresolution ultrasonic technique is particularly useful for inspecting graphite-reinforced composites for delamination.com -. Refs. 47) described new methods for nondestructively evaluating airframes and jet engines.”. The author further points out that the test method provides information about the entire item of equipment. In 1979. 48 through 52 describe the use of AE field testing of aerial lift trucks shown in Figs. there has been an increasing number of papers presented on the use of AE as an in-service test method for fiber-reinforced composite structures.
. Bond test equipment.
Acoustic Emission Testing of Aerial Lift Trucks Showing the Use of a Tie-Down to Stress the Boom
Source: http://www.assistdocs.) Figure 3-14.com 3-12 -.
.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
(Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp.
56) that AE techniques were being applied to the quality control problem in many areas such as fiber-reinforced tanks and vessels. Ref. In 1985.) Figure 3-15. 56).assistdocs.”. much more work is required if the method is to be used to predict long-term strength under cyclic loading conditions.
. is the area in which advances must be made. It is possible to detect differences in strength. it is conceivable that the nondestructive testing industry will be able to produce and market instruments that will be capable of reading the strength of an adhesive joint or the interlaminar strength of a composite with reproducible and reliable results. 58 also discusses acousto-ultrasonics and its potential to detect dispersed microstructural anomalies in composites and differences in the bond strength or interlaminar strength of the composites. 3-16). whether final production or in-service inspection. emission is a method of testing composite components and bonded structures without physically loading them. composite aircraft structures (Fig. This work is also described in Ref. 59. 54. The paper also describes a dry-coupled. This method
(Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp. Work is underway in the area of detecting degradation in composite structures and in adhesive bonds during acousto-ultrasonics. absorption of moisture or other liquids. 55) discusses the use of AE to predict long-term performance of reinforced thermosetting resin pipe and concludes that acoustic emission has proven to be a valuable tool in determining the structural integrity of reinforced thermosetting pipe at the time of the test.
(Courtesy of Physical Acoustics Corp. two-wheeled sensor that contains the pulser in one wheel and the receiver in the other. The progress made in the area of in-service inspection since 1977 has been impressive. or some force within the composite must be acting on the flaw in such a way as to cause it to grow in order for it to release energy. Gillette (Ref.) Figure 3-16. Only one tank failed before it was removed from service. and changes in moduli of materials by NDT techniques. and that failure had been predicted as a result of the testing.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. The combination of highly pulsed ultrasonic transducers with AE systems shows promise in the ability to detect differences in structures that appear to be sound but in fact have advanced in degradation due to environmental and chronological aging (Ref. The author also discusses the “uses of ultrasonic AE. Vargas reported (Ref. Either an external force. 57). or acousto-ultrasonic. Ultrasonic-acoustic. Acousto-ultrasonic techniques can be used to determine the relative adhesive bond strength of composite assemblies ( Ref. The author points out “A limitation of acoustic emission as a quality control method is that it can only detect flaws that are growing.com -. Therefore. Further information on acousto-ultrasonics is included in Ref.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) has been used to detect the difference between a good and a poor adhesive-bonded joint. However. and pipes. but much more work is required. Acoustic Emission Testing of a Composite Helicopter Rotor Blade 3-13
Source: http://www. rocket motor cases. 3-5 NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN ENDITEM NDT The inspection of the finished item. Acoustic Emission Sensors Located on the Boom of an Aerial Lift Truck During Test of catastrophic failures of the tanks.
The Structural Effects and Detection CA. Book 1. Materials Report CCM-82-01. CA. F. CA. American Helicopter Society. 11th National SAMPE Technical Exhibition. D. CA. Characterization of 18. N. of Variations in Hercules 3501-5A and AVCO 5505 17.
10. In-Process Dielectric Monitoring of 1982. 24th National SAMPE Symposium and 20. M. C. Technical Conference 5. Digital Nondestructive Evaluation of SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 20. 270-85. In-Process Controlled Curing o f Covina. S. Center for Composite CA. 416-29. Book 1. Ion Graphing as an In-Process ing Process Control. Overage Indicators for Prepreg Products. Resin Systems. 22nd National SAMPE Symposium and Structural Damage on Composites Utilizing AcousExhibition 22. Advanced Composites. 24th National SAMPE SymCure Monitoring Procedure for Composites and posium and Exhibition 24. Y. CA. 8-10 May 1979. CA. 26-28 April 1977. 20th National 23. Covina. 24th National SAMPE nual Conference. Kausen. pp. CA.
1. 8-10 May Analysis of Adhesive Cure. 404-21. 11-7 (July/August 1978). CA. Origins. Alexandria. 108-15. R. FTS-IR and DSC.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. A Review of Issues and Strategies in Large Autoclave Molded Parts by Dielectric Nondestructive Evaluation of Fiber-Reinforced StrucAnalysis. 22. J. SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24. D. pp. pp. S. C. The Electrical Exhibition 24. CA. W. 26-28 April 1977. pp. Covina. 29 April-1 24. D. NY. and J. Hagnauer. Covina. K. May J. Thuen. 458-505. R. 1517 May 1985. Book 1. Exhibition 22. B. 39th AnHPLC. 24th National SAMPE Symposium Acoustic Emission as an Aid for Investigating Comand Exhibition 24. SAMPE Journal 14. Shuford. Characterization Techniques Applied to Manufactur16. J. CA. J. W. 29th National and Exhibition 24. pp. Thomas. pp. 20th National Cure Monitoring Techniques for Adhesive Bonding SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 20. SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 22. B. and C. D. 131-50. Testing in Production Plants by Shearography. Conference 11. 26th National SAMPE Symposium and tural Composites. CA. 29 April-1 May 1975. D. Advanced Chemical tion 28. 27th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 27. Journal 19. Polymeric Resin Cure. Composite Matrix Quality Assurance— S. J. J. McLay and W. R. Marshall. pp. 405-12. Collins. Vary. Crabtree and G. Hung and R.. Book 1. CA. 422-45. 11th National 1979. CA. J. 377-83. Chottiner. Senturia. Composite-Cured Ply Performance. 9-11 October 1973. 22nd National 8-10 May 1979. L. pp.
3. 1979. Houghton. CA. Yolof. also 28th National SAMPE Symposium and ExhibiR. 1-4. Y. W. pp. 4-6 May 1982. G.
9. 12-14 April 1983. pp. nical Conference 11.
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4.assistdocs. Covina. May. 16-19 January 1984. Athey. 636-49. Dielectric Measurements for Composite Cure Control—Two Case Studies. Jr. Processes. Fritzen.
7. NDI Policy and Techniques for National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 22. Z. Covina. Covina. M. 26-28 April 1977. pp. M. G. and G. pp.Reinforced Thermo21.
13. 33041. Sprouse. Hart-Smith. pp. 166-77. Thompson. H. DE. 5th National SAMPE 1979. Covina. H. Covina. N. pp. The Need for Quality Assurance Material Testing for Glass Fiber. University of Delaware. Z. 11th National SAMPE TechCovina. 1315 November 1979. E. pp. CA. Prepregs and Composites Using Test Development for Foam Sandwiches. New York. Sanjana. Society of the Plastics Industry.. F. C. Covina. Resin Matrix Composites. Uses. B. 8-10 May posite Manufacturing Processes. pp. 95-107. Covina. R. R. Dielectric Analysis. Yokota. 24th National SAMPE Combined Dielectric/ Temperature Probes. 840-52. pp. tic Emission Technology. pp.
2. 3-14
Source: http://www. Book 1. Boyce and R. pp.com -. Sacher. Allen. 851-61. Miller. 24th National SAMPE Symposium Strength of Adhesive-Bonded Joints.
5. A. Covina. Cure Monitoring and Control With An Art Becomes a Science. pp. 13-15 November 14. Grant. Blake. Monitoring Cure of A. L.
11. L.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) REFERENCES Number 4. 28-30 April 1981. Sprouse. Kodani. 430-4. A. 26-28 April 1977. Jr. SAMPE Technical Conference 11. CA. Lengel. Effects of Flaw and Porosity on plastic Molding. W. Covina. 77-88. CA. J. Book 1. Assessment o f Future. CA. Fiber Areal Weight—A Key to 19. stitute. Covina. A. Reinforced Plastic Composites InSymposium and Exhibition 24. R. S. Rosenblatt. Sanjana. A. also 22nd R. 3-5 April 1984. 22-6 (July/August 1983). 390-403. Arvay. 8-10 May 1979. Bischoff. Crabtree.
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communication Satellites”. Covina. pp. pp. Covina. 8-15 (September. 35. pp. October 1982). Phelps. J. 29 April-1 May 1975. Book 1. P. pp. “Acoustic Emission Monitoring of a Filament-Wound Composite Rocket Motor Case During Hydroproof”. J. Jr. Allinikov. Hamstad and T. CA. T. Camahort. 24th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24. “Inspection of Composite Rocket Motor Cases Using Acoustic Emission”. No. Seattle. L. Long Beach. L. 38. 377-89. Boeing Military Airplane Company’s Robotic Ultrasonic Inspection System. 728-32 (May 1985). Boeing Commercial Airplane Company. Transmission and Distribution. pp. pp.assistdocs.com -. Nondestructive Evaluation of Fiber Composites. pp. “Acoustic Emission”. A. Chiao. 1923 (31 May 1984). 45. Ultrasonic Testing of Composites With High Resolution and Impedance Plane Techniques. pp. 528. pp. American Society for Testing and Materials. V. G. 28-30 April 1981. Standardization News. 31. E. and D. T. Graeber. Von Aspe. 41. Blake. Moran. Electric Utility Fleet Management. Number 7. SAMPE Quarterly 15. 1-5. T. pp. 11-13 January 1983. Number 7. 33. Styron and S. Pollock. 2. Hagemaier. 117-28. B. Paper Number EM 83-107. 34. T. 8-10 May 1979. 40. Warrendale. MITSG 80-8. Paper No. 8-10 May 1979. 39. Allinikov. MA (July 1980). 9th National SAMPE Technical Conference 9. R. CA. CA. Wadin and A. 30th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 30. 1-10. Book 1. R. Cambridge. Contract NAS-1-15304. Smith. 49. 192-210. K. and R. J. 28. “Sound Advice”. SAMPE Quarterly 15. pp. 6-13 (January 1984). Adhesives Age 27. DeLacy. H.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 25. A. J. J. pp. 13-15 November 1979. Airworthiness Certification of Composite Components for Civil Aircraft: The Role of Nondestructive Evaluation. Porter and B. 24-33. pp.. R. 11th National SAMPE Technical Conference 11. R. Dougherty. January 1979. K. Teagle. pp. Photochromic NDI Aircraft Radome Structures. 24th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24. A. T. 35th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society. “Structural Integrity of Fiber Epoxy Vessels by Acoustic Emission”. Bidwell. Composites in Manufacturing 11. 46. Pfeil. M. 8-11 September 1980. Periodic Proof Testing of Fiberglass Booms Through the Use of NonKaiser Acoustic Emission Responses. 80708 Int. Dearborn. Anderson. and S. May 1979. 79-35. 24th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24. “Nondestructive Testing to Study Stress Relaxation in Advanced Composites for Tele3-15
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. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. J. Covina. 26th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 26. Quality. Paper No. 43. “Aerial Equipment Requires Thorough Regular Inspection”. PA. Carver. Recent Advances in Mechanical Impedance Analysis Instrumentation for the Evaluation of Adhesive-Bonded and Composite Structures. C. 27. Stewart. PA. Teagle. 36-7. R. 32. R. Sheldon. pp. 372-6. Epstein. J. W. Larson. M. Number 6.
Toggart. NTIAC Handbook. Erf. Ed. 58. WrightPatterson Air Force Base. Marchant. M. The Society of the Plastics industry. Fabricating Composites Conference. San Antonio. NTlAC-791.assistdocs. Vol. Holographic Nondestructive Testing. Relation of Composite Part Strength to Ultrasonic Inspection. B. Covina. 1-3. 4. pp. T. St. E. AVRADCOM Report No. 53. CA. Fesko. 7th International Acoustic Emission Symposium. 1. published by The Japanese Society for Nondestructive inspection. NY. K. Engelhardt. Fowler. R. Holographic Interferometry of CFRP
. R. G. SAMPE Journal 19. T. Ricker. pp. 1-3 December 1981. Green and J. Holt. K. H. 29th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 29. M. MO. E. W. T. A. Zao. pp. New York. Nondestructive Monitoring of Flaw Growth in Graphite/Epoxy Luminates Under Spectrum Fatigue Loading. A. Djiauw and D. Ed.
56. Lorenzo and H. AVRADCOM Report No. T. Quality Assurance and In-Service Inspection Applications of Acousto-Ulrasonics to Bonded and Composite Structures. G. “Computer-Assisted Dielectric Cure Monitoring in Material Quality and Cure Process Control”. OH. 1. March 1983. 1-3 December 1981. SAE. E.
59. Chemical Processing (March 1984). Paper 811349. New York. CA. January 1980. Henneke and K. Warrendale. The Society of the Plastics Industry. Acoustics Emission Technology Corporation. Mitchell and D. 39th Annual Conference. Covina. Rogers. Automotive Plastics Durability Conference Proceedings P100. New York. M. 1022-33. L. NY. Sacramento. J. 1974. 16-19 January 1984. pp. Book 1. CT. SAMPE Journal 14. Detection of Ply Cracking Through Wave Attenuation. Fatigue Life Prediction for Structural Composites by Acoustic Emission. “Acoustic Emission Testing of FiberReinforced Plastic Equipment”. 28th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 28. Ed. H. NY. Acousto-Ultrasonic Evaluation of Impact-Damaged Graphite Epoxy Composites. K. Hartford. No. Reifsnider. May 1983. M. Hahn. Quality Control and Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Composites— Part VI: Acoustic Emission—A State-of-the-Art Review. pp. with Revision Supplement No. Hams tad. 39th Annual Conference. DAAG2980-C-0137. A. 4-6 May 1982. Can Acoustic Emission Be Used as a Tool to Predict Long-Term Performance of Reinforced Thermosetting Resin Pipe?. AFWAL-TR-80-4020. 16-19 January 1984. ARPA AF Review of Progress in Quantitative NDE.
57. Acoustic Emission for Quality Conrol in Composites. J.. Leonard. Paper 811350. Reinforced Plastics/ Composites Institute. Session IO-D. St. Composites Group. Henry. TR-82-F-5. I. J. “Nondestructive Evaluation of Bonded Test Specimens Using Test Ultrasonic Schlieran Method”. March 1982.
BIBLIOGRAPHY W. G. Reinforced Plastics Composites Institute. Technical Report No. R. US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. M. E. CA. J. NC. Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories.. 351-63 (May 1979). W. Gillette. Academic Press. 3-5 April 1984. Baumgartner and T. pp. Fowler. 1-7. S. L. US Army Research Office. PA. “Field Repair of Graphite Epoxy Skin Panels on the Spaceship Columbia”. 57-61. SME. Kaelble. 2nd National SAMPE Technical Conference 2..MIL-HDBK-793(AR) 52. and T. H. 23-26 October 1984. Schramm. 6-16 (July/August 1983). No. L.. Acoustic Emission Testing of Chemical Process Industry Vessels. TX. Southwest Research institute. F.
E. Scripps Institution of Oceanography. A. “Collimated Scanning Radiography”. Session 16B. Research Triangle Park. US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. 3-16
Source: http://www. 24th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 24. J. Littleton.com -. 54. 27th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 27. Japan. J. Rogers. Acoustic Emission Testing of Fiberglass Bucket Truck Booms. pp. 1 TR-83-F-7. Qualify Control and Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Composites—Part VII: Thermlography-A State-of-theArt Review. January 1983. Nondestructive Testing Information Analysis Center.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Louis. Daniel. 55. E. CAD/CAM Handbook for Polymer Composite Reliability. Vargas. L. D. Automotive Plastics Durability Conference Proceedings P100. June 1982. J. pp. 471-6 (6-8 October 1970). "Moisture Diffusion Analysis for Composite Microdamage”. Louis. Dynes. E. Kaelble and P. 249-57 (April 1983). D. Contract No.
58. Liber. MO. 21-3 (May June 1978). Proceedings of the Annual Mechanics of Composites Review (5th). Djiauw. Ed. 3. 12 June 1985. Knoll. SAE. 8-13 July 1979.
Source: http://www. No. ASTM STP 696. D. F. Rotem. Thousand Oaks. W. A.. ATA Nondestructive Testing Forum. 28-30 August 1984. 550-64 (October 1982). US Army Aviation Research and Development Command. Proceedings: 17th Annual Technical and Management Conference. Schramm. Teagle. Science Center. pp. S. G. Daniel. P. Nondestructive Evaluation of FiberReinforced Composites. Tracer-Radiography of Glass Fiber-Reinforced Plastics. V. November 1979.com -.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) Wing Tips. Farnborough. Pittsburgh. S. Reynolds. D. Section No. J. 6-E. Matzkanin. M. St. Villanova. C. 12-23 (28-30 April 1981). Department of Mechanical Engineering. Final Report No. A State-of-the-Art Survey. England. AVRADCOM Report No. McAssey. May 1981. 1-16 (July 1985). CA. P. TR-81-F-6. 14th National SAMPE Technical Conference 14. I. pp.. Louis. Dietrich. Radiography and Ultrasonics. PA. G. Villanova University. A. Pless. Bailey. Reynolds. M. “Acoustic Emission Testing”. Southwest Research Institute. 329-53 (May 1978). M. Hamilton. Automated Ultrasonic Testbed: Application to NDE in Graphite/Epoxy Materials. TX.. pp. Ed. B. AFML-TR-78-205. pp. 23rd National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 23. Martin. Jr. R. and W. Part 1. Proceedings of the ARPA/ AFWL Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation. Aerostructure Nondestructive Evaluation by Thermal Field Techniques. PA. McLaughlin. W. “Nondestructive Testing (NDT) of Fiber-Reinforced Composite Materials”. March 1982. 18. 1979. E. Royal Aircraft Establishment Technical Report 78105. Vol. Washington. August 1978. Freeman. 26th National SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition 26. Jr. American Society for Testing and Materials. Society of the Plastics Industry. No. pp. MO. and C. Aviation Mechanics Journal. W. Philadelphia. J.
. SAMPE Quarterly 16. pp. Marsh. V. NAEC-92-131. PolymerPlast. The Estimation of Residual Strength of Composites by Acoustic Emission. Nondestructive Evaluation Flaw Criticality for Composite Materials. Hants. N. H.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Technol. January 1979. O. Reinforced Plastics Division. and R. Nondestructive Examination of Composite Materials—A Survey of European Literature. N. DC. 1. W.assistdocs. R. Thompson. Perry. A d vanced Methods for Damage Analysis in Graphite Epoxy Composites. NDE of Graphite Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites. Ed. Pipes. S. 65-80(1982). Eng.. San Antonio. 11-8 (March 1977). 4. Evaluation of Sensitivity of Ultrasonic Detection of Disbonds in Graphite/Epoxy to Metal Joints. 1. Rockwell International. Enhancements in the Routine Evaluation of Composite Aerospace Components Using Microprocessor-Based Composite Evaluation Package. 6 February 1962.
Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.assistdocs.Source: http://www.
.com -.
voids. previously Dunegan Endevco. sells. and Federal specifications. Training courses are also available in ultrasonic inspection. in a wide variety of engineering materials and structures. Equipment ranges from simple manual operation to fully automated inspection lines using computer controls. Suite 150. computerized flaw-location systems. HOLOSONICS. CA 95815. Tempil Division 2901 Hamilton Blvd. Box 552. Box 76. CSI also designs and manufactures special equipment such as test jigs and fixtures that can be used with existing test equipment. International Organization for Standardization (IS0). CA 94903. Equipment capabilities range from simple hand-scanning applications to fully configured systems for a broad range of metallic and nonmetallic structures. Cleveland. ultrasonic.. (216) 341-3994 Custom Machine Corporation designs and builds special machinery for various industries. systems. Cincinnati. CUSTOM SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. and accessories. (916) 927-3861 The Acoustic Emission Technology Corporation designs. porosity. INC. San Juan Capistrano. and neutrons during radiography. OH 45242: (513) 793-6051 The Dosimeter Corporation of America (DCA) provides radiation detection auxiliary equipment and supplies for measuring gamma rays. (201) 538-8500 Custom Scientific Instruments (CSI) is a manufacturer of instruments for nondestructive and physical
testing of materials. INC. BIG THREE INDUSTRIES. San Rafael. and services acoustic emission instruments. multichannel. and crack depth measuring inspection equipment. (717) 248-4993 Echo Laboratories is a manufacturer of ultrasonic couplants and ultrasonic transducers used in nondestructive testing. NJ 07080. RD No. DOSIMETER CORPORATION OF AMERICA Nuclear Accessories Division 6106 Interstate Circle. OH 44105. Sacramento. 9200 George Avenue.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION Division of Krautkramer-Branson International 1812J Tribute Road. Box A. Transport mechanisms and systems have been designed and built for ultrasonic inspection. INC..com -. (714)831-9131 Dunegan. 63 Jefferson Street.O. Instrumentation ranges from low-cost. etc. X rays. The products encompass X-ray. Special instrumentation systems for structural testing. manufactures acoustic emission instrumentation for flaw detection and location. nondestructive inspection and testing. INC. BALTEAU ELECTRIC CORPORATION Box 385. These products are used in determining preheat temperatures and the calibration of commercial ovens and equipment. such as composites and multilayered structures.O. inclusions. (201) 757-8300 The Tempil Division is a manufacturer of temperatureindicating crayons. magnetic particle. CA 92675. P. DCA was previously known as the Bendix Dosimeter Product Line and the Landverk Electrometer Corporation. delamination. The standard line of instruments is designed to ASTM. South Plainfield. and destructive testing are supplied. Applications include detection and location of discontinuities. CUSTOM MACHINE. ECHO LABORATORIES P. DUNEGAN Rancho Viejo Road. cracks. acoustic emission. Whippany.
. liquids. single-channel systems to complex.assistdocs. NJ 07981. 4. Lewistown. PA 17044. (203) 324-6118 Balteau Electric Corporation is involved solely in nondestructive testing equipment sales and service.
Source: http://www. INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS 4340 Redwood Highway. CT 06902. and labels. Stamford. paints.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. (415) 479-5880 Holosonics provides acoustic imaging systems and services. eddy current.. manufactures.
and thickness gaging. real-time. San Carlos. 15622 Graham Street. shear wave inspection. continuous measurement of the weight of prepregs. time-average. and reliability.. inc. a subsidiary of Smith Kline Corp. manufactures. Box 7463. and eddy current instrumentation. Lewistown. gates.2 to 1. INC. composites.
. spectral responses. (717) 242-0327 KB-Aerotech designs and builds transducers for use in nondestructive testing applications. NDC SYSTEMS 1859 Business Center Drive. delay. INC. and physical configurations are available. PA 17044. and double-exposure holography. Box 350. Ridgewood. 800 Wellsian Way. The product line includes transducers for contact testing. B. and applications involving dual-element probes. sonic. NUCLEAR EQUIPMENT CORPORATION 963 Industrial Road.0. computer-based systems using X-ray tubes. B. Box 408. (509) 9464684 Metrotek manufactures and supplies ultrasonic nonA-2
Source: http://www. CT 06497. P. NDT INSTRUMENTS. Colorado Springs. INC. Customer personnel are trained on customer parts. JODON. METROTEK.com -. portable units using radioisotopic sources to large. manufactures noncontact infrared-temperature-measuring instruments (both AC and battery-powered) for use between the limits of –75 o to 2200 oC (–100° to 4000°F) and surface emissivity limits of targets from 0. bond testers. and manufacture of remote viewing systems. Main Line Drive.O. ITI products include borescopes. cold lighting is supplied from a 150-watt external source.
destructive testing equipment.O. MI 48103. CO 80933. and X-ray spectrometers for use with electron microprobe. and reinforced plastics (RP). MA 01085. (516) 488-3880 Olympus fabricates an industrial fiberscope. Duarte. Box 381. CA 91010. Many ranges. XY bridge assemblies. KAMAN SCIENCES CORPORATION Products Division P. Stamford. Richard. CT 06902. (203) 377-3900 Krautkramer-Branson.. sheet molding compounds (SMC). KRAUTKRAMER-BRANSON. which is a flexible fiberoptic borescope permitting internal inspection without disassembly. Laser Products Division 145 Enterprise Drive. module pulsers. (415) 591-8203 Nuclear Equipment Corporation manufactures energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometers.O. OLYMPUS CORPORATION OF AMERICA Industrial Fiberoptics 4 Nevada Drive. KB-AEROTECH P. INC.O. INC. and scanning electron microscopes. is a manufacturer of ultrasonic nondestructive testing equipment. (714) 893-2438 NDT Instruments designs. immersion tanks. Brilliant. Box 211. and sells ultrasonic. repeatability. New Hyde Park. (313) 761-4044 Laser Products Division provides holographic NDT systems for performing utility and specialized continuous wave services. receiver amplifiers. In the eddy current realm is a coating thickness gage. (818) 358-1871 NDC Systems is a supplier of gaging for on-line. ENGINEERING AND SALES CO. J. immersion testing. (201) 891-7330 Mikron Instrument Co. INC. which may be made compatible with computers. Ann Arbor. Engineering is a provider of complete ultrasonic immersion test systems that provide accuracy. KRAUTKRAMER-BRANSON.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) INSTRUMENT TECHNOLOGY.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. CA 91649. 207 Greenwich Avenue. scan controllers. binoculars.. P. (413) 562-5132 Instrument Technology. P. Systems include complete turnkey setups with on-site indoctrination. (203) 348-6753 J. and an extensometer for gaging bolt tightness.O. (ITI) specializes in the design. Westfield. energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction spectrometers. development. ITI systems are used visually but are also available with photographic and TV cameras. In the ultrasonic realm are ultrasonic thickness gages. (303) 599-1500 Kaman Sciences manufactures a complete line of 14 MeV neutron generators and transfer systems for neutron radiography. NJ 07481. X-ray fluorescence systems range from small. NY 11042. including ultrasonic imaging systems. CA 94070. and transducers. INC. INC. MIKRON INSTRUMENT CO. and optical devices for inspection.assistdocs.. Inc. Systems have been adapted for on-stream and in-stream use.. Huntington Beach. Immersion test systems are built to meet specifications defined by customer needs. Stratford.. WA 99352.
complete systems with image intensifiers.com -. Trenton. (516) 364-8046 Unitron Instruments manufactures and markets a line of microscopes. INC. This Center collects and maintains a computerized information bank in the field of nondestructive testing for dissemination to both Government and private requesters.O. Ehrenreich Photo-Optical Industries. Drawer 28510. 101 Crossways Park West. CA 92111. consisting of material handling and radiation-protective components.
Source: http://www. 1014 Whitehead Road Extension.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) PHILLIPS ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS. 5060A Convoy Street. and sale of very high-resolution ultrasonic test equipment and acoustic microscopes. Inc.
. Bensenville. Box 1611. 530 East Green Street. sells. SONIC INSTRUMENTS. 85 McKee Drive.O. Long Beach. and TV readout are also available. Kennewick. Clifton. IL 60106.) cabinets with or without fluoroscopic capabilities. (609) 451-2510 Physical Acoustics Corporation (PAC) designs. composites. and services nondestructive equipment for testing adhesive bonds. manufacture. sells. SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE P. inc.assistdocs. San Antonio. TETRAHEDRON ASSOCIATES. and services the Audrey dielectric cure analysis system for the dielectric analysis cure monitoring of most polar materials. (EPI) is part of North American Phillips Corporation and manufactures X-ray and X-ray fluorescence systems for industrial inspection. INC.. (203) 934-5211 TF1 manufactures X-ray equipment and systems used in nondestructive testing. INC. manufactures. (512) 684-5111 Southwest Research Institute is a not-for-profit corporation having activities in a wide range of nondestructive testing disciplines. 1029 North Kellogg. NJ 08638. Located at the Institute is the Nondestructive Testing Information Analysis Center (NTIAC). 819 Alexander Road. San Diego. WA 99336.O. SONOSCAN. (609)883-5030 Sonic Instruments is a manufacturer of ultrasonic instrumentation and transducers used in the field for NDT and applied to materials testing. NJ 08540. Princeton. PHYSICAL ACOUSTICS CORPORATION P. CT 06516. UNITRON INSTRUMENTS. manufactures. These systems are offered in standard 0. image enhancers. TORR X-RAY CORPORATION 4031 Via Oro Avenue. metallographs. CA 90810-1495. Special electronic fluoroscope). (201) 773-9400 X-Ray Industrial Distributors distributes industrial radiographic equipment and supplies as well as designs and manufactures radiographic systems. (201) 529-3800 Phillips Electronic Instruments. TFl will design and fabricate special purpose X-ray generators as well as incorporate standard or custom products into complete systems. and laminates. and related optical products. Box 1015. INC. (509) 783-0680 Uniwest-Shurtronics designs. UNIWEST-SHURTRONICS United Western Technologies Corp. coatings.61m (24-in. sells. X-RAY INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTORS P. telescopes. and services acoustic emission equipment for in-service inspection of a wide variety of materials and structures. NY 11797. (213)513-1411 Torr X-Ray Corporation manufactures cabinet-type X-ray units.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. which is operated under contract to the Defense Logistics Agency. West Haven. Box 3135. (312) 766-7088 Sonoscan is engaged in the development. TX 78284.O. manufactures. Woodbury. NJ 07430. INC. TFl CORPORATION NDT Products Divion P. Mahwah. NJ 07014. (619) 277-2820 Tetrahedron Associates designs.
assistdocs.
.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.Source: http://www.com -.
With Suppl.41
ANSI PH 2.83 ments for Inspection Program Require. Technical. (See Table 3-1 for specifications covering incoming raw materials. Require. Silver-Gelatin Type.com -.22
Source: http://www.28 Specification for Photographic Film for Archival Records. on Polyester Base Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photographic Darkroom Illumination B-1
ANSI PH 1.) Par.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. I and II) Nondestructive Testing Handbook. Nondestructive Inspection
B-2 SOCIETY-SPONSORED DOCUMENTS Title Society Document ANSI PH 1. on Cellulose Ester Base Specification for Photographic Film for Archival Records.79 ments. Bulletin on. Radiographic Ultrasonic Inspection. and handbooks pertaining to nondestructive testing of materials follows. Radiography and Radiation Testing
Inspection Equipment Design 62 Handbook for Standardization of NDT Methods 74 74 NDT Methods of Composite Materials—Acoustic Emission 84 NDT Personnel Qualification 79 and Certification 84 Inspection. Vol. standards. B-3 contains a list of societies and their abbreviations.
.32 Year Method for Evaluating the Processing of Black-and-White Photographic Papers With Respect to the Stability of the Resultant Image Imperfection Technology.assistdocs. 3. Nondestructive for Aircraft and Missile Materials and Parts 73 Manual. B-2 contains the various society-sponsored documents. 1-1986 Film and Paper Radiography— Section Five: The NDT Handbook on Radiography and Radiation Testing Radiographic Latent Image Processing—Section Seven: The NDT Handbook on Radiography and Radiation Testing Real-Time Radiography— Section Fourteen: The NDT Handbook on Radiography and Radiation Testing Image Data Analysis—Section Fifteen: The NDT Handbook on Radiography and Radiation Testing Attenuation Coefficient Tables—Section Twenty: The NDT Handbook on Radiography and Radiation Testing NDT Handbook (Vols. MIL-STD-453C MIL-STD-1875 MIL-I-6870E ANSI PH 4.. B-1 DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE DOCUMENTS Title Document No. SilverGelatin Type. and Par.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
A partial list of specifications. 2nd Ed. MIL-HDBK-204 MIL-HDBK-333 VOL 1 VOL 2 MIL-HDBK-732 MIL-STD-410D . Par. B-1 contains the Department of Defense documents.
MIL-HDBK-793(AR) ASNT 127A-85 Introduction to Radiography and Radiation Testing (NDT Handbook. Definitions of Terms Relating to Radiographic Testing. Guide to (ANSI-Approved Standard) ASTM E545-81 ASTM D883-83A Definitions of Terms Relating to Plastics—DoD Adopted Conditioning. Guide for Measurement of the Apparent Attenuation of Longitudinal Ultrasonic Waves by Immersion Method (R 1983) Thermal Neutron Radiography of Materials Measuring the Operating Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Instrumentation
Source: http://www.com -. Reference Radiographs for (R 1985) Sensory Evaluation of Materials and Products. Standard Guide for—DoD Adopted ASTM E569-85 ASTM E317-85 Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Ultrasonic PulseEcho Testing Systems Without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments—DoD Adopted Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection (R 1985) Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials (R 1985) Ultrasonic Examination..Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. Definitions of Terms Relating to B-2
Definitions of Terms Relating to Acoustic Emission Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Contact Sensors. 2nd Ed. Definitions of Terms Relating to Appearance of Materials.
. Terminology Relating to—DoD Adopted Determining Image Quality in Thermal Neutron Radiographic Testing Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structures During Controlled Stimulation Definitions of Terms Relating to Gamma and X-Radiography
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo StraightBeam Testing by the Contact Method—DoD Adopted Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing—DoD Adopted Immersed Ultrasonic Testing by the Reflection Method Using Pulsed Longitudinal Wave (R 1985) Appearances of Radiographic Images as Certain Parameters are Changed. 1985— Radiography and Radiation Testing) Recommended Practice for a Demonstration of NDE Reliability on Aircraft Production Parts Ultrasonic Test Method Question and Answer Book C Materials and Processes for NDT Technology Inspection Planning.assistdocs.
com -. Principles and identification—First Edition Apparatus for Gamma Radiography—Specification— First Edition Nondestructive Testing—lndustrial Radiographic Illuminators—-Minimum Requirements— First Edition Nondestructive Testing Glossary of Terms
AMS 2630A-80 Ultrasonic Inspection Product Over 0.5 in.
. (13 mm) and Thinner (ANSI-Approved Standard)
AMS 2635C-81 Radiographic Inspection AMS 265045 Fluoroscopic X-Ray Inspection (Noncurrent) Quality Inspection Procedure. Composites Tracer Fluoroscope Image Quality Indicator Radiographic Nondestructive Tests. Guide for Acoustic Emission Examination of Fiberglass-Reinforced Plastic Resin (FRP) Tanks and Vessels Dose Measurement for Use in Linear Accelerator Pulsed Radiation Effects Tests—DoD Adopted Glossary of Terms Used in Nondestructive Testing—Part 4: Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (1985) Methods for Assessing the Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Equipment—Part 2: Electrical Performance BSI BS4331-74 Methods for Assessing the Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Equipment—Part 3: Guidance on the In-Service Monitoring of Probes (Excluding Immersion Probes) Apparatus for Gamma Radiography Method of Preparation and Use of Radiographic Techniques Radiographic Image Quality Indicators. Information Report (SAE Handbook.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. (13 mm) Thick (ANSI-Approved Standard) AMS 2632-74 Ultrasonic Inspection of Thin Materials 0. 1984)
Source: http://www. Guide for Detection and Evaluation of Discontinuities by the Immersed Pulsed-Echo Ultrasonic Method Using Longitudinal Waves Evaluating Characteristics of Ultrasonic Search Units.assistdocs.5 in.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) ASTM E763-85 Calculation for Absorbed Dose From Neutron Irradiation by Application of Threshold-Foil Measurement Data Measuring Thickness by Manual Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method Controlling Quality of Radiographic Testing of Electronic Devices—DoD Adopted Determining the L/D Ratio of Neutron Radiography Beams Calibration of an Ultrasonic Test System by Extrapolation Between Flat Bottom Hole Sizes Radiologic Real-Time Imaging.
Information Report (SAE Handbook.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.assistdocs. 1984) (ANSI-Approved Standard)
Source: http://www.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) SAE J 427-83 Penetrating Radiation Inspection.com -.
. 1984) Ultrasonic Inspection. Information Report (SAE Handbook.
A data presentation system using acoustic waves.assistdocs. (2) microseismic activity. and (3) emission or acoustic emission with other qualifying modifiers. ) (From ASTM D907) Couplant. C Caul. A method of data presentation on a cathode-ray tube (CRT) using a horizontal baseline that indicates distance.com -. Real-time viewing of X-ray radiography.) (From ASTM E610) Acousto-Ultrasonic. (From ASTM E500) M Mechanical Impedance. A means of data presentation that provides a plane view of the material and discontinuities therein. product of wave velocity and material density. i. (From ASTM E500) P Probe.1
Source: http://www. A process of making an image of the internal details of an object by the selective attenuation of a neutron beam by the object. and it may be made of any suitable material.. the other a receiver. T Through Transmission. (From ASTM E500) Squirter. The boundary between two materials. (From ASTM E500) D Dual Search Unit (Twin Probe). A probe or search unit containing two elements—one a transmitter. The class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material or from the transient elastic waves so generated. (From ASTM E500)
G. analogous to optical holography. Holography (Thermal). S Search Unit. Other terms that have been used in AE literature include (1) stress wave emission. A device incorporating one or more transducers. A device using a liquid stream to couple an ultrasonic beam to the test piece. and a vertical deflection from the baseline. A material used at the structure-to-sensor interface to improve the transmission of acoustic energy across the interface during acoustic emission monitoring. (Note: A caul is used to protect the faces of the assembly or the press platens. (From ASTM E500) Impedance (Acoustic). (From ASTM E500) Interface.
. (From ASTM E500) B Bubbler.e. See Search Unit. (From ASTM E610) C-Scan. analogous to optical holography. or time. A sheet of material employed singly or in pairs in hot or cold pressing of assemblies being bonded. H Holography (Acoustic).MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
GLOSSARY A Acoustic Emission (AE). An examination method during which the search unit and the material are submerged in water. A technique that uses lowfrequency mechanical vibrations to locate defects.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. A data presentation system using light waves to form an image. A mathematical quantity used in commutation of reflection characteristics at boundaries. (From ASTM E500) F Fluoroscope. which indicates amplitude. (From ASTM E500) Holography (Optical). or both. I Immersion Testing. N Neutron Radiography. See Bubbler. (Acoustic emission is the recommended term for general use. A technique that combines highly pulsed ultrasonic transducers with an acoustic emission system to detect subtle defects in composites and bonded joints. A test procedure during which ultrasonic vibrations are emitted by one search unit and received by another at the opposite surface of the material examined. A data presentation system using temperature gradients. A-Scan.
and SH 2.
.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) Transducer. E586. E610. E748.assistdocs. An electro-acoustical device for converting electrical energy to acoustical energy and vice versa. and SAA AS 1929. (From ASTM E500) V Vibrothermography. DIN 50035-SH 1. Other sources of definitions of terms relating to NDT are ASTM E41 . and D883. E1067. E253. BSI BS 3683-PT4. E94.
Source: http://www. Pertaining to mechanical vibrations having frequency greater than approximately 20.000 Hz.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use. A system that uses the heat developed by a defect under vibration to locate the defect. E500. E1065.com -. (From ASTM E500) U Ultrasonic. E284.
l-2 polyarylsulfone.3-4 D Defect detection. See Sandwich construction M Matrix materials. 1-2 S-glass.3-5 K Kevlar 29.3-10 Bond tester.1-1.l-2 phenyladimides.3-9 Consensus specifications. 1-2 End-item NDT.3-8 I-1
Source: http://www.3-7.3-11 Holography. 1-2 H
I Incoming material inspection.l-2 epoxy.3-10 Bond tester.3-3 Dielectric analysis.2-1 Cure monitoring. Fokker. 1-1 Composite tester.3-4.l-2 phenolic. 1-2 Graphite fibers.1-2 polyimides.1-2 bis-maleimides.3-4 Digital thickness gage.3-6 Epoxy. matrix.2-1 Ion graphing.3-10.2-3. harmonic . 1-1.1-2 Kevlar 49.3-5 Aramid fibers.3-5 Gamma radiography. 1-2 BondaScope.2-1 Composite.1-3 Cure control.3-11 Acoustic flaw detector.2-1.2-3.l-2 polyphenyl sulfide. fibers.1-3 bonded tubes.l-3.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
A Acoustic emission.1-2 Kevlar 29.1-2 polyester.assistdocs. advanced.3-2 In-process inspection.3-1 Composite material.3-6 In-service inspection.2-2
G Gamma backscatter.1-2 polysulfone.matrix.l-2 vinyl ester.3-10.
. 1-3 foam.3-3 Core material.1-2 L Laminates Solid.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.com -.1-2 Kevlar 49.3-3.2-4. See Solid laminates Sandwich.3-10 Acoustic-ultrasonic. 1-3 paper.3-3 wood. definition.3-3.3-10
Chemical analysis.3-9.34 Gamma backscatter gage.3-3 honeycomb.3-7 Fluoroscopic radiography.3 -3.2-4 Glass fibers. 1-3 composite wave. A-1 through A-3 F Final inspection.l-2 silicone.1-2 B bis-maleimides.3-7.2-3 Adhesive bonding.2-1.3-11 In-service reliability.3-11 E E-glass. 1-2 E-glass.l-2 Equipment suppliers. 1-2 Mechanical impedance.
B-1 through B-4 Standards on nondestructive testing. 1-2 Solid laminate. 1-2 Polyester. matrix.2-2.l-3.
.3-8.3-3 Specifications on nondestructive testing.3-9.2-3 V Vinyl ester.2-2 shearographic.2-4.2-3.2-3.2-1. matrix.2-1.1-2 Polyimide.2-3 fluoroscopic radiography.2-1.3-7.3-9 pulse echo.3-l1 thermal.1-1.3-5 S-glass.2-2 microscopy.2-1.2-4 ultrasonic.2-2 tap test (coin tap).2-3.3-5 Sandwich structure.2-1.3-10 X X ray.2-2.1-1.3-11 X ray.3-10 Thermal NDT.3-7
Source: http://www.2-2 neutron radiography.3-10 acoustic-ultrasonic.3-10 microscopy.3-2 S Sandwich construction.1-2 Phenyladimides.l-2 Q Quality control.3-3 Proof testing.2-3 Nondestructive evaluation (NDE).3-6.1-3.l-2.1-1 Nondestructive inspection (NDI).3-l1 through-transmission.3-11 W Water squirters.2-2 holography.matrix.3-9.3-11 O 0ptical.2-1.l-2 Visual.2-2 microscopy.l-1.3-7.3-1 R Raw material testing.3-5 gamma radiography.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.3-1 Nondestructive testing techniques acoustic emission.3-6.com -.2-1 Phenolic.2-1.2-1.2-3 optical.2-1 Nondestructive investigation (NDI).3-9.2-4.3-9.l-2 Polyphenyl sulfide.1-2 Silicone.2-2.3-7.l-2 Polysulfone.3-4.3-l1 visual.2-4.2-3.2-1. matrix. matrix.2-4 mechanical impedance.2-2 mechanical.2-3 holography.3-9 pulse echo.3-1.3-8 gamma backscattering. matrix.3-9.3-7.3-3.l-2 Polyarylsulfones.assistdocs.3-3.MIL-HDBK-793(AR) INDEX (cont’d)
N Neutron radiography.2-2.3-6 P Prepreg.3-l1 Ultrasonic/acoustic.1-3.3-l1 through-transmission.3-9. matrix.1-1 Nondestructive testing (NDT).2-4.3-8.3-10 T Thermal inspection.2-1.3-7. matrix. matrix.2-1 Nondestructive testing policy.2-2 holography.l-l.l-2.3-10 U Ultrasonic.3-7 NovaScope.3-3. B-1 through B-4 Standing wave ultrasonics.
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Preparing Activity: Army .assistdocs.
.MIL-HDBK-793(AR)
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com -.Source: http://www.assistdocs.
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.com -.assistdocs.Downloaded: 2013-08-31T04:10Z Check the source to verify that this is the current version before use.Source: http://www.
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