Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/473/1113/226019/
Timestamp: 2018-10-20 19:22:48
Document Index: 303224691

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 1654', '§ 1654', '§ 1654', '§ 5010', '§ 401', '§ 1654', '§ 3500']

United States v. Dougherty, 473 F.2d 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1972) :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › D.C. Circuit › 1972 › United States v. Dougherty
United States v. Dougherty, 473 F.2d 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1972)
US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit - 473 F. 2d 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1972)
Argued Sept. 21, 1971. Decided June 30, 1972. Rehearing Denied in No. 24318 Oct. 26, 1972
The day before, it seems, Judge Pratt had attended a seminar on the problems of disruption encountered in multi-defendant trials, and he was concerned that "there have been rumors that maybe some disruptive tactics are going to be employed." (Tr. 15, 174 ). Defense counsel assured him that they knew of no such rumors and that they anticipated no disruptive behavior. In any event, Judge Pratt scheduled a hearing for February 3, 1970, on the four defendants' requests as a matter preliminary to the trial.
In defendants' view, Judge Pratt violated their constitutional and statutory rights when he refused to permit them to represent themselves. They say the right to dispense with counsel is correlative to the guarantee of the right to counsel and is therefore "implicit" in the Sixth Amendment. They rely as well on 28 U.S.C. § 1654 which provides:
The Supreme Court has never directly determined whether the Constitution guarantees the pro se right. Appellants rely on Adams v. United States ex rel. McCann, 317 U.S. 269, 279, 63 S. Ct. 236, 242, 87 L. Ed. 268 (1942) where the Court observed:
However, Adams's "correlative right" language was not an essential ingredient of its holding, which was simply that a defendant who has intelligently waived his right to counsel may also waive his right to a jury trial. Moreover, in Singer v. United States, 380 U.S. 24, 85 S. Ct. 783, 13 L. Ed. 2d 630 (1965), holding a defendant's waiver of right to a jury trial subject to the assent of the prosecution and the trial judge, the Court said that "the ability to waive a constitutional right does not ordinarily carry with it the right to insist on the opposite of that right." 380 U.S. at 34-35, 85 S. Ct. at 789. It pointed out that
[t]he Constitution recognizes an adversary system as the proper method of determining guilt, and the Government, as a litigant, has a legitimate interest in seeing that cases in which it believes a conviction is warranted are tried before the tribunal which the Constitution regards as most likely to produce a fair result. Id. at 36, 85 S. Ct. at 790.7
There are conflicting indications from the circuits. The Second Circuit in United States v. Plattner, 330 F.2d 271 (2d Cir. 1964), recognized constitutional status for the pro se right. In accord with Plattner, see Lowe v. United States, 418 F.2d 100 (7th Cir. 1969), cert. denied 397 U.S. 1048, 90 S. Ct. 1378, 25 L. Ed. 2d 660 (1970); United States v. Warner, 428 F.2d 730 (8th Cir. 1970), cert. denied 400 U.S. 930, 91 S. Ct. 194, 27 L. Ed. 2d 191 (1971); United States v. Pike, 439 F.2d 695 (9th Cir. 1971); Hodge v. United States, 414 F.2d 1040 (9th Cir. 1969). But compare Juelich v. United States, 342 F.2d 29 (5th Cir. 1965); Van Nattan v. United States, 357 F.2d 161 (10th Cir. 1966).
This case does not require final resolution of the constitutional question. That would be unavoidable had Congress attempted to narrow or qualify the pro se right along the lines advocated by the Government on this appeal. But that is not the case. The right of pro se representation was enacted by our very first Congress. The language declaring the pro se right is not qualified, see 28 U.S.C. § 1654. The statute was passed in a context of colonial tribunals largely manned by laymen, and of pioneer modes of thought emphasizing the virtues of common sense and self-reliance.9 Its constitutional aura is under-scored by the proposal the very next day of the Sixth Amendment.10
When the pro se right is claimed after trial has begun, the court exercises its discretion. It may weigh the inconvenience threatened by defendant's belated request against the possible prejudice from denial of defendant's request. In exercising discretion the judge may take into account the circumstances at the time, whether there has been prior disruptive behavior by defendant, whether the trial is in an advanced stage, etc. E. g., Seale v. Hoffman, supra, note 14; United States v. Foster, 9 F.R.D. 367 (S.D.N.Y. 1949). The right to self-representation, though asserted before trial, can be lost by disruptive behavior during trial, constituting constructive waiver. But that is a far different situation from that presented by the instant case, where appellants unequivocally claimed the right to represent themselves, see Brown v. United States, supra, 105U.S.App.D.C. at 81, 264 F.2d at 367 (Burger, J.), United States ex rel. Higgins v. Fay, 364 F.2d 219 (2d Cir. 1966), well in advance of the beginning of trial and selection of the jury, see United States ex rel. Maldonado v. Denno, 348 F.2d 12 (2d Cir. 1965); cf. United States v. Thomas, 146 U.S.App.D.C. 308, 450 F.2d 1355 (1971).
On the other hand, a potentially unruly defendant may and should be clearly forewarned that deliberate dilatory or obstructive behavior may operate in effect as a waiver of his pro se rights and, in that event, amicus will be ready to assume exclusive control of the defense.19 The Supreme Court has recently emphasized that even constitutional litigation prerogatives of a defendant are available to give choice in the conduct of a trial, and do not extend so far as to permit subversion of the core concept of a trial. Illinois v. Allen, 397 U.S. 337, 90 S. Ct. 1057, 25 L. Ed. 2d 353 (1970). The same principle means that obstreperous behavior may constitute waiver of the pro se right.20
The Government finally contends that, assuming arguendo error in the denial of pro se defense, reversal as inappropriate because no prejudice resulted. We may assume, without deciding, that the harmless error doctrine-either in its ordinary formulation, or the more refined "harmless constitutional error" version25 -applies even in cases involving denial of a fundamental statutory right approximating or equalling the rights expressly stated in the Constitution. But we do not think it applicable to this case.
However, a salient aspect of the pro se right, in our view, is directed to considerations distinct from the objective of achieving what would be the best result in the litigation from a lawyer's point of view. As the Supreme Court said in Adams v. United States ex rel. McCann, supra, 317 U.S. at 279, 63 S. Ct. at 241, the "right to dispense with a lawyer's help . . . . rest [s] on considerations that go to the substance of an accused's position before the law." It is designed to safeguard the dignity and autonomy of those whose circumstances or activities have thrust them involuntarily into the criminal process. An accused has a fundamental right to confront his accusers and his "country," to present himself and his position to the jury not merely as a witness or through a "mouthpiece," but as a man on trial who elects to plead his own cause. He is not obliged to seek what counsel would record as a victory but what he sees as tantamount to condemnation or doubt rather than vindication. A defendant has the moral right to stand alone in his hour of trial. The denial of that right is not to be redeemed through the prior estimate of someone else that the practical position of the defendant will be enhanced through representation by another, or the subsequent conclusion that defendant's practical position has not been disadvantaged.
The crucial legal ruling came in United States v. Battiste, 2 Sum. 240, Fed.Cas. No. 14,545 (C.C.D. Mass. 1835). Justice Story's strong opinion supported the conception that the jury's function lay in accepting the law given to it by the court and applying that law to the facts. This considered ruling of an influential jurist won increasing acceptance in the nation. The youthful passion for independence accommodated itself to the reality that the former rebels were now in control of their own destiny, that the practical needs of stability and sound growth outweighed the abstraction of centrifugal philosophy, and that the judges in the courts, were not the colonial appointees projecting royalist patronage and influence but were themselves part and parcel of the nation's intellectual mainstream, subject to the checks of the common law tradition and professional opinion, and capable, in Roscoe Pound's words, of providing "true judicial justice" standing in contrast with the colonial experience.38
The tide was turned by Battiste, but there were cross-currents. At midcentury the country was still influenced by the precepts of Jacksonian democracy, which spurred demands for direct selection of judges by the people through elections, and distrust of the judge-made common law which enhanced the movement for codification reform. But by the end of the century, even the most prominent state landmarks had been toppled;39 and the Supreme Court settled the matter for the Federal courts in Sparf v. United States, 156 U.S. 51, 102, 15 S. Ct. 273, 39 L. Ed. 343 (1895) after exhaustive review in both majority and dissenting opinions. The jury's role was respected as significant and wholesome, but it was not to be given instructions that articulated a right to do whatever it willed. The old rule survives today only as a singular relic.40
This so-called right of jury nullification is put forward in the name of liberty and democracy, but its explicit avowal risks the ultimate logic of anarchy. This is the concern voiced by Judge Sobeloff in United States v. Moylan, 417 F.2d 1002, 1009 (4th Cir. 1969), cert. denied, 397 U.S. 910, 90 S. Ct. 908, 25 L. Ed. 2d 91 (1970):
The Court reasons that a jury uninformed of its power to nullify will invoke that power only where it "feel [s] strongly about the values involved in the case, so strongly that it [will] itself identify the case as establishing a call of high conscience * * *." Majority opinion at 1136. In other words, the spontaneous and unsolicited act of nullification is thought less likely, on the whole, to reflect bias and a perverse sense of values than the act of nullification carried out by a jury carefully instructed on its power and responsibility.
Moreover, if it were true that nullification which arises out of ignorance is in some sense more worthy than nullification which arises out of knowledge, the Court would have to go much further. For under the Court's assumption, the harm does not arise because a jury is told of its power to disregard the law, but because it knows of its power. Logically construed, the Court's opinion would seem to require the disqualification at voir dire of any prospective juror who admitted to knowledge of the doctrine. By excluding jurors with knowledge of the doctrine the Court could insure that its invocation would be spontaneous. And yet, far from requiring the exclusion of jurors who are aware of the power, the Court takes comfort in the fact that informal communication to the jury "generally convey [s] adequately enough the idea of prerogative, of freedom in an occasional case to depart from what the judge says." Majority opinion at 1135. One cannot, it seems to me, have the argument both ways. If, as the Court appears to concede, awareness is preferable to ignorance, then I simply do not understand the justification for relying on a haphazard process of informal communication whose effectiveness is likely to depend, to a large extent, on whether or not any of the jurors are so well-educated and astute that they are able to receive the message. If the jury should know of its power to disregard the law, then the power should be explicitly described by instruction of the court or argument of counsel.
Admittedly, the concept of blameworthiness does not often receive explicit recognition in the criminal process. But it comes very close to breaking through the surface in cases where the responsibility defense is raised, see United States v. Brawner, 153 U.S.App.D.C. 1, at 62, 471 F.2d 969, at 1030 (1972) (en banc), (separate opinion); United States v. Bennett, 148 U.S.App.D.C. 364, 368-370, 460 F.2d 872, 876-878 (1972); United States v. Eichberg, 142 U.S.App.D.C. 110, 113, 439 F.2d 620, 623 (1971) (concurring opinion), and it is implicit in every case where criminal sanctions are imposed. More than twenty-five years ago this Court recognized that " [o]ur collective conscience does not allow punishment where it cannot impose blame."6 And the Supreme Court, in a well-known opinion by Justice Jackson, has pointed out that
One charged with crime has an absolute right to do without an attorney and conduct his own defense (28 U.S.C. § 1654), but that is quite different from the right to discharge counsel after trial has begun. This latter right is a qualified one.
Appellants Begin, Moloney and O'Rourke: one to three years imprisonment, to be placed on probation for three years after serving six months. Slaski: indefinite sentence pursuant to the Federal Youth Corrections Act, 18 U.S.C. § 5010(b). Dougherty and Malone: six months imprisonment on Count One and nine months to four years on Counts Two and Three, all terms to run concurrently. Melville: six months imprisonment on Count One and one to six years on each of Counts Two and Three, to run concurrently
The judge had earlier denied a defense request for the larger ceremonial courtroom, saying " [i]f I can help it, this is not going to be a roman circus," transcript of Jan. 29, 1970, hearing, p. 3
The right of a defendant to appear pro se in a criminal matter, cannot be isolated from the other elements of the fair and orderly administration of justice. [The judge cited United States v. Davis, 260 F. Supp. 1009 (M.D. Tenn. 1966); United States v. Bentvena, 319 F.2d 916 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 375 U.S. 940, 84 S. Ct. 345, 11 L. Ed. 2d 271 (1963).] [T]he right of a defendant to appear pro se, despite the language of the Constitution, despite the language of the applicable statute, and despite Rule 44 of the Criminal Rules, may be denied when the trial court finds the defendants rights should [sic] not be sufficiently protected if he appeared on his own behalf. [Citing United States v. Davis, supra; United States v. Jones, 369 F.2d 217 (7th Cir. 1966), cert. denied, 386 U.S. 944, 87 S. Ct. 976, 17 L. Ed. 2d 875 (1967).] [T]he right to appear pro se may also be denied when the trial court finds that this allowance would be likely to disrupt the proceedings. [Citing United States v. Private Brands, Inc., 250 F.2d 554 (2d Cir. 1957); United States v. Mitchell, 138 F.2d 831 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 321 U.S. 794, 64 S. Ct. 785, 88 L. Ed. 1083 (1943); Overholser v. DeMarcos, 80 U.S.App.D.C. 91, 149 F.2d 23, cert. denied, 325 U.S. 889, 65 S. Ct. 1579, 89 L. Ed. 2002 (1945).]
There were several further, though considerably less serious, instances of questionable behavior by defendants. In addition to Slaski, appellants Dougherty and Melville were cited for contempt during the trial, see Tr. 733-36. The sentences for these offenses, violations of 18 U.S.C. § 401, were suspended when the court imposed sentences on the jury verdicts, on May 6, 1970
We also note that in Price v. Johnston, 334 U.S. 266, 285, 68 S. Ct. 1049, 1060, 92 L. Ed. 1356 (1947), the Court referred to a defendant's "constitutional prerogative of being present in person at each significant stage of a felony prosecution, . . . and to his recognized privilege of conducting his own defense at the trial." (Emphasis added.)
As Judge Medina pointed out in Plattner, supra, 330 F.2d at 274, the Sixth Amendment was proposed by Congress one day after Section 35 of the Judiciary Act of 1789, the substantially verbatim forerunner of 28 U.S.C. § 1654, was signed by President Washington
It was held binding on the states in United States ex rel Maldonado v. Denno, 348 F.2d 12 (2d Cir. 1965). See also Manson v. Pitchess, 317 F. Supp. 816 (C.D.Calif.1970). We need express no opinion on this point.
We are fortified in this conclusion by language in Price v. Johnston, supra, 334 U.S. at 285, 68 S. Ct. 1049, wherein the Court suggested, albeit in dictum, that the "recognized privilege" embodied in Sec. 1654, though "limited" following conviction and incarceration, "is . . . otherwise unqualified."
United States v. Davis, 365 F.2d 251 (6th Cir. 1966); Overholser v. DeMarcos, 80 U.S.App.D.C. 91, 149 F.2d 23, cert. denied, 325 U.S. 889, 65 S. Ct. 1579, 89 L. Ed. 2002 (1945); Manson v. Pitchess, 317 F. Supp. 816 (C.A.Cal.1970); United States v. Davis, 260 F. Supp. 1009 (E.D. Tenn. 1966)
The Supreme Court has indicated though not held that an accused may be competent to stand trial and yet be incompetent to waive his right to counsel. Westbrook v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 150, 86 S. Ct. 1320, 16 L. Ed. 2d 429 (1966). The Ninth Circuit apparently does not even recognize that limitation of the pro se right, see United States v. Odom, 423 F.2d 875 (9th Cir. 1970). Such a limitation, if it exists, suggests that there is a point of incompetency, short of complete incapacity, where a defendant is able to understand the nature of the charges against him and to assist in the preparation of his defense, yet does not have the capacity to waive counsel and undertake representation of himself.
United States v. Catino, 403 F.2d 491 (2d Cir. 1968), cert. denied, 394 U.S. 1003, 89 S. Ct. 1598, 22 L. Ed. 2d 780 (1969); United States v. Conder, 423 F.2d 904 (6th Cir. 1970), cert. denied, 400 U.S. 958, 91 S. Ct. 357, 27 L. Ed. 2d 267 (1971); Butler v. United States, 317 F.2d 249 (8th Cir.), cert. denied sub nom, Benedec v. United States, 375 U.S. 836, 84 S. Ct. 67, 11 L. Ed. 2d 65 (1963); Seale v. Hoffman, 306 F. Supp. 330 (N.D. Ill. 1969)
See United States v. Spencer, 439 F.2d 1047 (2d Cir. 1971); Lee v. Alabama, 406 F.2d 466 (5th Cir. 1969), cert. denied, 395 U.S. 927, 89 S. Ct. 1787, 23 L. Ed. 2d 246 (1969); Bayless v. United States, 381 F.2d 67 (9th Cir. 1967); Brown v. United States, supra, 105 U.S.App.D.C. at 83, 264 F.2d at 369 (Burger, J., concurring)
Allen involved a waiver, of one's right to be present at the trial, by disruptive behavior. The Court emphasized however that the right to be present could be reclaimed by a simple promise not to engage in further disruption, 397 U.S. at 343, 90 S. Ct. 1057. We think a similar rule may be inappropriate regarding reclamation of the pro se right. Unlike a change in the physical location of defendant, a change from pro se representation and back again is likely to promote incoherence and destroy the jury's understanding. Reclamation of the pro se right after disruptive behavior is properly a matter left to the trial court's sound discretion
Offutt v. United States, 348 U.S. 11, 14, 75 S. Ct. 11, 13, 99 L. Ed. 11 (1954) ("Justice must satisfy the appearance of justice."); Adams v. United States ex rel McCann, 317 U.S. 269, 279, 63 S. Ct. 236, 87 L. Ed. 268 (1942) ("The public conscience must be satisfied that fairness dominates the administration of justice.")
THE DEFENDANT MALON [E]: Why? What is the difference?
E. g., United States v. Missler, 414 F.2d 1293 (4th Cir. 1969), cert. denied, 397 U.S. 913, 90 S. Ct. 912, 25 L. Ed. 2d 93 (1970) (failure of government to comply with disclosure requirements of Jenck's Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3500, held harmless error)
E. g., Simmons v. United States, 390 U.S. 377, 88 S. Ct. 967, 19 L. Ed. 2d 1247 (1968) (existence of "independent source" may permit identification of suspect despite use of suggestive identification procedure)
See Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 156, 88 S. Ct. 1444, 1451, 20 L. Ed. 2d 491 (1968):
Williams v. Florida, 399 U.S. 78, 100, 90 S. Ct. 1893, 1906, 26 L. Ed. 2d 446 (1970):
" [T]he essential feature of a jury obviously lies in the interposition between the accused and his accuser of the commonsense judgment of a group of laymen, and in the community participation and shared responsibility that results from that group's determination of guilt or innocence."
See Judge Learned Hand in United States ex rel. McCann v. Adams, 126 F.2d 774, 775-776 (2d Cir. 1942):
Howe, Juries as Judges of Criminal Law, 52 Harv. L. Rev. 582 (1939)
M. R. Kadish and S. H. Kadish, On Justified Rule Departures by Officials, 59 Calif. L. Rev. 905, 914 (1971)
Wyley v. Warden, 372 F.2d 742 (4th Cir. 1967), cert. denied, 389 U.S. 863, 88 S. Ct. 121, 19 L. Ed. 2d 131 (1967). In holding the provision of the Maryland Constitution consistent with the Federal Constitution, Judge Sobeloff noted that "a practice may be deemed unwise, yet not be unconstitutional." He referred to the "potent and persuasive arguments . . leveled against the wisdom of the Maryland practice," and the various jurists' analyses condemning it as "archaic, outmoded and atrocious," "unique and indefensible," an "antique constitutional thorn" in "the flesh of Maryland's body of Criminal Law."
Horning v. District of Columbia, 254 U.S. 135, 138, 41 S. Ct. 53, 54, 65 L. Ed. 185 (1920) (jury power to render illogical and inconsistent verdicts)
E. g., Scheflin, Jury Nullification: The Right to Say No, 45 So.Calif. L. Rev. 168, 182 (1972)
Kadish and Kadish, supra, note 36, 59 Calif. L. Rev. at 926
See Apodaca v. Oregon, 406 U.S. 404, 92 S. Ct. 1628, 32 L. Ed. 2d 184 (1972); Johnson v. Louisiana, 406 U.S. 356, 92 S. Ct. 1620, 32 L. Ed. 2d 152 (1972)
As Mr. Justice Goldberg said in the recent Supreme Court case of Cox against Louisiana [379 U.S. 559, 85 S. Ct. 476, 13 L. Ed. 2d 487]:
Starr v. United States, 153 U.S. 614, 626-628, 14 S. Ct. 919, 38 L. Ed. 841 (1894) (court advocated defendant's guilt to the jury in a long address); Quercia v. United States, 289 U.S. 466, 53 S. Ct. 698, 77 L. Ed. 1321 (1933) (judge expressed opinion that defendant was a liar); Hardy v. United States, 118 U.S. App.D.C. 253, 335 F.2d 288 (1964) (judge stated government's case as affirmative facts); Blunt v. United States, 100 U.S.App.D.C. 266, 244 F.2d 355 (1957) (judge stated matter in issue as a fact, and in other respects advocated the prosecution's position)
See Williams v. Florida, 399 U.S. 78, 100, 90 S. Ct. 1893, 26 L. Ed. 2d 446 (1970); Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 155-156, 88 S. Ct. 1444, 20 L. Ed. 2d 491 (1968); United States v. Spock, 416 F.2d 165, 180-182 (1st Cir. 1969); United States v. Bennett, 148 U.S.App. D.C. 364, at 368, 460 F.2d 872, at 876 (1972); United States v. Eichberg, 142 U.S.App.D.C. 110, 113, 439 F.2d 620, 623 (1971) (Bazelon, C. J., concurring); Scheflin, Jury Nullification: The Right to Say No, 45 S.Cal. L. Rev. 168, 187-88 (1972)
391 U.S. at 155-156, 88 S. Ct. at 1451.
See generally Scheflin, supra, note 2; H. Kalven & H. Zeisel, The American Jury 310-11 (1966); J. Alexander, A Brief Narration of the Case and Trial of John Peter Zenger (1963); cf. Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 155-156, 88 S. Ct. 1444, 20 L. Ed. 2d 491 (1968)
Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 252, 72 S. Ct. 240, 96 L. Ed. 288 (1952) (emphasis supplied). See also United States ex rel. McCann v. Adams, 126 F.2d 774, 775-776 (2d Cir. 1942) (L. Hand, J.), rev'd on other grounds, 317 U.S. 269, 63 S. Ct. 236, 87 L. Ed. 268 (1962); Hart, The Aims of the Criminal Law, 23 Law & Contemp.Probs. 401 (1958)
See Williams v. Florida, 399 U.S. 78, 100, 90 S. Ct. 1893, 26 L. Ed. 2d 446 (1970); Duncan v. Louisiana, 391 U.S. 145, 155-156, 88 S. Ct. 1444, 20 L. Ed. 2d 491 (1968); United States ex rel. McCann v. Adams, supra; cf. A. Gold-stein, The Insanity Defense 91 (1967):
See Carter v. Jury Comm'n, 396 U.S. 320, 90 S. Ct. 518, 24 L. Ed. 2d 549 (1970); Turner v. Fouche, 396 U.S. 346, 90 S. Ct. 532, 24 L. Ed. 2d 567 (1970)
H. Kalven & H. Zeisel, supra note 3, at 296-97. Jury nullification also provides us with crucial information about the morality of the death penalty. See McGautha v. California, 402 U.S. 183, 199, 91 S. Ct. 1454, 1463, 28 L. Ed. 2d 711 (1971):
Compare Sparf & Hansen v. United States, 156 U.S. 51, 15 S. Ct. 273, 39 L. Ed. 343 (1895)
Defendants argue that the right to proceed pro se is both Constitutional and absolute. But not all Constitutional rights are absolute. Indeed, the right to be represented by counsel may be intelligently and knowingly waived, Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 58 S. Ct. 1019, 82 L. Ed. 1461 (1937), and the right to discharge one attorney for another after the trial has begun is subject to the trial court's discretion, see Evans v. Ockershausen, 69 U.S.App.D.C. 285, 100 F.2d 695 (1938). Other rights, such as the very important right to be present during the trial itself, may be waived by obstreperous conduct. Illinois v. Allen, 397 U.S. 337, 90 S. Ct. 1057, 25 L. Ed. 2d 353 (1970). The considerations deemed important in Allen apply to a case such as this
"* * * But our courts, palladiums of liberty as they are, cannot be treated disrespectfully with impunity. Nor can the accused be permitted by his disruptive conduct indefinitely to avoid being tried on the charges brought against him. It would degrade our country and our judicial system to permit our courts to be bullied, insulted, and humiliated and their orderly progress thwarted and obstructed by defendants brought before them charged with crimes. As guardians of the public welfare, our state and federal judicial systems strive to administer equal justice to the rich and the poor, the good and the bad, the native and foreign born of every race, nationality, and religion. Being manned by humans, the courts are not perfect and are bound to make some errors. But, if our courts are to remain what the Founders intended, the citadels of justice, their proceedings cannot and must not be infected with the sort of scurrilous, abusive language and conduct paraded before the Illinois trial judge in this case." 397 U.S. at 346-347, 90 S. Ct. at 1062.
"* * * The degree of liberty and equality that exists today has been the product of unceasing struggle and sacrifice. Much remains to be done-so much that the very institutions of our society have come under challenge. Hence, today, as in Lincoln's time, a man may ask 'whether [this] nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure'. It cannot endure if the Nation falls short on the guarantees of liberty, justice, and equality embodied in our founding documents. But it also cannot endure if we allow our precious heritage of ordered liberty to be ripped apart amid the sound and fury of our time. It cannot endure if in individual cases the claims of social peace and order on the one side and of personal liberty on the other cannot be mutually resolved in the forum designated by the Constitution. If that resolution cannot be reached by judicial trial in a court of law, it will be reached elsewhere and by other means, and there will be grave danger that liberty, equality, and the order essential to both will be lost." Id. at 348, 90 S. Ct. at 1063.
See Mayberry v. Pennsylvania, 400 U.S. 455, 91 S. Ct. 499, 27 L. Ed. 2d 532 (1971). The need for the contempt issue to be determined by a different judge means that the trial judge must take pains to develop a clear and complete record permitting a sound and fair resolution
A jury should not be instructed about its power of nullification by a judge, even though this power exists and is not improper.
As part of a protest against the Dow Chemical Company's support for U.S. military involvement in Vietnam, nine people broke into the company's offices and destroyed property. One of them, Dougherty, sought a jury instruction that he could be acquitted without regard to the law and the evidence. The judge refused to give this instruction.
Harold Leventhal (Author)
Jury nullification should happen only in very unusual cases and should not be presented by the judge as a plausible alternative to applying the law as provided. Instructing the jury of its power would encourage it to weigh the law as well as the facts, which would place too heavy a burden on it and exceed the scope of its traditional role.
David L. Bazelon (Author)
A jury does have the power of weighing criminal proceedings with a sense of fairness and sensitivity to an individual's circumstances. This is part of its modern responsibilities, and it may be unwise to allow a judge to suggest that this power is outside its proper role. Jury nullification may serve a useful policy purpose of showing when society no longer considers certain actions to be criminal, which can lead to reforms in the law.
The concept that jury nullification may lead to fairer outcomes in some distinctive cases than rationally applying the laws is less controversial than it once was.
A jury should not be instructed about its power of nullification by a judge, even though this power...
As part of a protest against the Dow Chemical Company's support for U.S. military involvement in Vie...