Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/537/257/468316/
Timestamp: 2019-08-25 02:16:22
Document Index: 71151566

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 2113', '§ 2113', '§ 844', '§ 844', '§ 2314', '§ 953', '§ 40', '§ 2113']

United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. Pasquale Charles Marzano, Defendant-appellant, 537 F.2d 257 (7th Cir. 1976) :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Seventh Circuit › 1976 › United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. Pasquale Charles Marzano, Defendant-appellant
United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. Pasquale Charles Marzano, Defendant-appellant, 537 F.2d 257 (7th Cir. 1976)
US Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit - 537 F.2d 257 (7th Cir. 1976)
Argued Dec. 11, 1976. Decided May 18, 1976. Rehearing and Rehearing En Banc Denied June 28, 1976
In November 1974, an indictment was returned against Pasquale Marzano, William Marzano, Ralph Marrera, Luigi DiFonzo, Peter Gushi, and James Maniatis. Count one of the indictment charged these persons with conspiracy to commit various offenses including the theft of money from Purolator Security, Inc. Counts two through seven charged the two Marzanos and Marrera with taking money belonging to various banks1 from the possession of Purolator in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2113(b).2 Gushi and Maniatis were charged with aiding and abetting in each of these counts. Count eight charged the same persons with the same offenses as counts two through seven but included all the banks in the one count. Count nine charged the Marzanos and Marrera with entering a building used in part as a bank for the possession of money belonging to Merchandise National Bank with the intent to commit a felony in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2113(a). Gushi and Maniatis were charged with aiding and abetting that offense. Counts ten and eleven charged the Marzanos and Marrera with the use of an explosive in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 844(h) (1) and 18 U.S.C. § 844(i), respectively, and Gushi and Maniatis with aiding and abetting these offenses. Count twelve charged the Marzanos, DiFonzo, and Gushi with transporting stolen money in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2314.3
The authority cited by defendants is inapposite. In United States v. Dellinger, 472 F.2d 340 (7th Cir. 1972), cert. denied, 410 U.S. 970, 93 S. Ct. 1443, 35 L. Ed. 2d 706 (1973), it was held that the trial judge had made rulings during closing argument which were comparatively more restrictive to the defense than to the Government; no such showing was made in this case. Indeed, in the present case, the defense reply brief agreed "that the trial judge's demeanor and patience during this long and hotly contested trial was exemplary." In United States v. Gonzalez, 488 F.2d 833 (2d Cir. 1973), the trial judge made statements immediately after giving an accomplice instruction which negated the instruction and in effect indicated that the warnings in the instruction did not apply in that case. In United States v. DeLoach, 164 U.S.App.D.C. 116, 504 F.2d 185 (1974), the trial judge prevented defense counsel from arguing that certain factual inferences could be drawn from the evidence.
The attitude and hopes of the witness with regard to his own incarceration or other punishment for his participation could not have been other than obvious to the trier of fact from that which was in evidence. In sum, the trial judge was acting within his discretion in limiting defense counsel's cross-examination and arguments regarding Gushi's hopes. See United States v. Keefer, 464 F.2d 1385, 1386 (7th Cir. 1972), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 983, 93 S. Ct. 322, 34 L. Ed. 2d 247; United States v. Peskin, 527 F.2d 71, 82-83 (7th Cir. 1975). Cf. Davis v. Alaska, 415 U.S. 308, 316, 94 S. Ct. 1105, 1110, 39 L. Ed. 2d 347, 353 (1974).
It was within the discretion of the trial judge to sustain the Government's objection on the grounds of irrelevance to the questions regarding where the bond was set and posted. Counsel argues that the defense need not demonstrate the relevance of possible answers, citing cases such as Alford v. United States, 282 U.S. 687, 692, 51 S. Ct. 218, 219, 75 L. Ed. 624, 627 (1931), and United States v. Varelli, 407 F.2d 735, 749-51 (7th Cir. 1969). These cases hold that defense counsel should normally be permitted to inquire as to a witness's address. A witness's address can be highly relevant, e. g., where the witness is in custody, or can lead to other relevant information where an address is not known. In contrast, the location where bond was set has at best marginal intrinsic relevance, and it has not been demonstrated to us that Gushi's answer could have led to other relevant information since defendant's counsel knew the bond had been set in the Northern District of Illinois; indeed, the remarks of the trial judge about which counsel complains reveal that he had set Gushi's bond.
Where bias is to be proved by showing a prior statement, a foundation must be laid by calling the statement to the witness's attention so that the witness may explain or deny the statement. Smith v. United States,283 F.2d 16, 20-21 (6th Cir. 1960), cert. denied, 365 U.S. 847, 81 S. Ct. 808, 5 L. Ed. 2d 811 (1961); IIIA Wigmore, Evidence § 953 (Chad. rev. 1970); McCormick, Evidence § 40 at 80 (2d ed. 1972) (majority rule); 3 J. Weinstein and M. Berger, Weinstein's Evidence P 607(03) at 607-32-33 (1975) (indicating this view should prevail under the Fed.R.Evid.). The reasons for this rule are closely analogous to the reasons for the rule requiring a foundation for impeachment by prior inconsistent statements.
The annotation cites Ewing v. United States, 77 U.S.App.D.C. 14, 135 F.2d 633 (1942), cert. denied, 318 U.S. 776, 63 S. Ct. 829, 87 L. Ed. 1145, for the proposition that a foundation is not required. The case in that regard is somewhat ambiguous, but any indication to that effect is clearly dicta because foundation questions had been asked. The district court in United States v. White, 225 F. Supp. 514, 520 (D.D.C. 1963), rev'd on other grounds, 121 U.S.App.D.C. 287, 349 F.2d 965 (1965), held that Ewing was not controlling; the court of appeals did not comment. We note that even in Ewing the court held that it would be objectionable to permit a witness to testify as to a cause of bias before the allegedly biased witness testified. We believe that the current position of the Second Circuit is represented by United States v. Kahn, 472 F.2d 272, 281-82 (2d Cir. 1973), cert. denied, 411 U.S. 982, 93 S. Ct. 2270, 36 L. Ed. 2d 958 which follows Smith, and that therefore Hoagland v. Canfield, 160 F. 146 (S.D.N.Y. 1908), and United States v. Schindler, 10 F. 547 (S.D.N.Y. 1880), cited in the annotation, have no continuing validity on this point. Comer v. Pennsylvania R. R. Co., 323 F.2d 863 (2d Cir. 1963), cited by Wigmore, involved evidence of conduct or a situation indicating possible bias rather than a statement showing bias. Whether a different rule should be applied where conduct rather than a statement is involved is not before this court. Many state courts draw this distinction. Annot., supra.
Defendant argues that it was error for the trial judge to preclude Pollakov from testifying about a threat by Gushi to kill a cash register salesman. Gushi denied ever making such a threat but admitted that he had told a cash register salesman to leave his store. The defense had a right to prove such a threat was made if it could, but on voir dire Pollakov testified that Gushi did not threaten the salesman's life though he yelled and screamed at him and chased him out of the store. He testified that Gushi never touched the salesman but said that two persons in the store had grabbed Gushi. Pollakov admitted that he might have told Doyle that Gushi threatened to kill the salesman. Since the defense could not substantiate its allegations of the threat, it was not error for the court to refuse to permit the matter to be raised before the jury a second time. In addition at most the threat would have been a state crime, and we have held that the United States Attorney's lack of power to cause or prevent a prosecution is a factor that may be considered by a district judge though it is doubtful whether that fact alone would be a sufficient basis to exclude such evidence. United States v. Amabile, 395 F.2d 47 (7th Cir. 1968), rev'd on other grounds, 394 U.S. 310, 89 S. Ct. 1163, 22 L. Ed. 2d 297 (1969). United States v. Masino, 275 F.2d 129 (2d Cir. 1960), is not to the contrary. In that case it was held that it was error to exclude evidence showing that a state court charge had actually been quashed at the behest of the assistant United States Attorney prosecuting that case. Id. at 131-32.
In United States v. Issod, 508 F.2d 990, 994 (7th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 916, 95 S. Ct. 1578, 43 L. Ed. 2d 783 (1975), this court held that if information is obtained in a search by a private individual absent probable cause, the information is usable if Government agents did not participate in the search. The same standard applies when foreign law enforcement personnel obtain evidence through such a search. Whether the Government participated so as to render the search Government action must be determined by examining the facts surrounding the search. United States v. Newton, 510 F.2d 1149, 1153 (7th Cir. 1975).
The defendant argues that but for the information provided by the FBI, he would never have been taken into custody on Grand Cayman. This is perhaps a fair reading of the testimony; nevertheless, the law is clear that providing information to a foreign functionary is not sufficient involvement for the Government to be considered a participant in acts the foreign functionary takes based on that information. Stonehill v. United States,405 F.2d 738, 746 (9th Cir. 1968), cert. denied, 395 U.S. 960, 89 S. Ct. 2102, 23 L. Ed. 2d 747 (1969); Gold v. United States, 378 F.2d 588 (9th Cir. 1967); Birdsell v. United States, 346 F.2d 775, 782 (5th Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 382 U.S. 963, 86 S. Ct. 449, 15 L. Ed. 2d 366; Shurman v. United States, 219 F.2d 282 (5th Cir. 1955), cert. denied, 349 U.S. 921, 75 S. Ct. 661, 99 L. Ed. 1253; Sloane v. United States, 47 F.2d 889 (10th Cir. 1931). FBI agents were present with Superintendent Tricker at various times during his investigation and search, but there is no evidence that they took an active part in interrogating or searching the suspects or in selecting evidence to seize. Mere presence of federal officers is not sufficient to make the officers participants. Stonehill v. United States, supra ; United States v. Johnson, 451 F.2d 1321 (4th Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 1018, 92 S. Ct. 1298, 31 L. Ed. 2d 480 (1972). Under the circumstances of this case the coincidence of these factors is insignificant. See United States v. Johnson, supra.
Citing Knoll Associates v. FTC, 397 F.2d 530 (7th Cir. 1968), defendant argues that Tricker's purpose to help the United States is sufficient reason to prohibit the use of evidence he seized in violation of the Fourth Amendment. In Knoll this court held that documents which had been stolen by a private citizen for the purpose of assisting the FTC in a proceeding then pending were inadmissible. This court relied on Gambino v. United States, 275 U.S. 310, 48 S. Ct. 137, 72 L. Ed. 293 (1927). In Gambino the Supreme Court held inadmissible the fruits of a search which had been made by a state officer solely for the purpose of fulfilling the duty he believed he had under state law to enforce the national prohibition act. This court has distinguished Knoll where the items challenged were rightfully acquired for purposes independent of helping the Government and where the items challenged were acquired eight months prior to contact by the Government. United States v. Billingsley, 440 F.2d 823 (7th Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 403 U.S. 909, 91 S. Ct. 2219, 29 L. Ed. 2d 687; United States v. Harper, 458 F.2d 891 (7th Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 406 U.S. 930, 92 S. Ct. 1772, 32 L. Ed. 2d 132 (1972). Recently this court made it clear that a mere purpose to assist the Government does not transform an otherwise private search into a Government search. United States v. Newton, supra, 510 F.2d at 1153. See also Gold v. United States, supra. The defendants violated Grand Cayman law, according to Tricker, and that is the reason for which he arrested them. That he might also have intended to help the United States is not a sufficient reason to treat his actions as those of United States agents.
In Brulay v. United States, 383 F.2d 345 (9th Cir. 1967), cert. denied, 389 U.S. 986, 88 S. Ct. 469, 19 L. Ed. 2d 478, a case similar to the one before us, the Ninth Circuit stated:
The Fourth Amendment does not, by its language, require the exclusion of evidence and the exclusionary rule announced in Weeks (v. United States, 232 U.S. 383, 34 S. Ct. 341, 58 L. Ed. 652 (1914),) is a court-created prophylaxis designed to deter federal officers from violating the Fourth Amendment. Neither the Fourth nor the Fourteenth Amendments are directed at Mexican officials and no prophylactic purpose is served by applying an exclusionary rule here since what we do will not alter the search policies of the sovereign Nation of Mexico. Id. at 348.
Defendant argues that even if the Government was not a participant in Tricker's actions, an illegal seizure took place when he turned the items taken from the defendant and DiFonzo over to the FBI on Grand Cayman. Superintendent Tricker's action in turning the items over to the FBI was totally voluntary. Thus, no seizure took place. Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 484 et seq., 91 S. Ct. 2022, 29 L. Ed. 2d 564, (1971).
It has long been held that due process has been satisfied when a person is apprised of the charges against him and is given a fair trial. The power of a court to try a person is not affected by the impropriety of the method used to bring the defendant under the jurisdiction of the court. Frisbie v. Collins, 342 U.S. 519, 72 S. Ct. 509, 96 L. Ed. 541 (1952); Ker v. Illinois, 119 U.S. 436, 7 S. Ct. 225, 30 L. Ed. 421 (1886). Once the defendant is before the court, the court will not inquire into the circumstances surrounding his presence there. United States ex rel. Calhoun v. Twomey, 454 F.2d 326, 328 (7th Cir. 1971). The Supreme Court recently reaffirmed the continuing validity of the Ker-Frisbie doctrine. Gernstein v. Pugh, 420 U.S. 103, 119, 95 S. Ct. 854, 865-6, 43 L. Ed. 2d 54, 68 (1975).
We are aware of only one case in which a court departed from this doctrine. In United States v. Toscanino, 500 F.2d 267 (2d Cir. 1974), the Second Circuit remanded the case for an evidentiary hearing to determine the truth or falsity of defendant's allegations that he was forcibly abducted by or at the direction of United States officials. Toscanino had allegedly been subject to brutal torture before being returned to the United States, and United States officials allegedly had taken part in the interrogation and torture. The Second Circuit has since made clear that Toscanino should not be read as abolishing the Ker-Frisbie doctrine in that circuit and that it will only apply Toscanino where it is shown that Government agents took part in outrageous conduct which shocks the conscience of that court. United States ex rel. Lujan v. Gengler, 510 F.2d 62 (2d Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 421 U.S. 1001, 95 S. Ct. 2400, 44 L. Ed. 2d 668; United States v. Lira, 515 F.2d 68 (2d Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 847, 96 S. Ct. 87, 46 L. Ed. 2d 69 (1976). See Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165, 72 S. Ct. 205, 96 L. Ed. 183 (1952).
In part II of this opinion we held that the United States agents did not significantly participate in events on Grand Cayman Island. No facts have been alleged or proved which could be termed shocking to the conscience. Toscanino is therefore inapposite. We need not decide whether we would follow Toscanino if similar facts were presented. We note that the Fifth Circuit appears to have rejected Toscanino, and the Ninth and Tenth Circuits have rejected similar arguments. United States v. Winter, 509 F.2d 975, 987 (5th Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 825, 96 S. Ct. 39, 46 L. Ed. 2d 41 (1976); United States v. Herrera, 504 F.2d 859 (5th Cir. 1974); United States v. Cotten, 471 F.2d 744, 747-49 (9th Cir. 1973), cert. denied, 411 U.S. 936, 93 S. Ct. 1913, 36 L. Ed. 2d 396; Hobson v. Crouse, 332 F.2d 561 (10th Cir. 1964). None of these cases, however, appear to have involved as outrageous conduct as was involved in Toscanino.
Defendant was charged under 18 U.S.C. § 2113(b) with taking money belonging to six different federally insured banks. A separate count was charged for each bank whose money was taken.8 Defendant argues that it was error to charge multiple counts since all the money taken was from the Purolator vault. In issue is what Congress intended to be the allowable unit of prosecution under section 2113(b). It is now clear beyond question that the different subsections of 2113 do not create different crimes but merely prescribe alternate sentences for the same crime depending on the manner in which the crime was committed. Wright v. United States, 519 F.2d 13, 15 (7th Cir. 1975), cert. denied, 423 U.S. 932, 96 S. Ct. 285, 46 L. Ed. 2d 262. Defendant was only charged with offenses under one subsection, section 2113(b).
A single occurrence may constitute multiple offenses if Congress so intends. Ebeling v. Morgan, 237 U.S. 625, 35 S. Ct. 710, 59 L. Ed. 1151 (1915), cutting multiple mail bags taken from the same railroad car; Barringer v. United States, 130 U.S.App.D.C. 186, 399 F.2d 557 (1968), cert. denied,393 U.S. 1057, 89 S. Ct. 697, 21 L. Ed. 2d 698 (1969), robbery of two persons at the same time. In Fleming this court stated:The crime is bank robbery, not personal assault. . . . Congress' concern was penalizing the robbery of the institution, perpetrated by whatever means, and not penalizing the robbery of each individual teller. 504 F.2d at 1054. See United States v. Canty, supra, 469 F.2d at 126.
Defendant argues that he could not properly be convicted of taking property under section 2113(b) and transportation under section 2314. In Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299, 52 S. Ct. 180, 76 L. Ed. 306 (1932), the Supreme Court stated the standard by which to determine whether one offense or multiple offenses resulted from particular conduct:
(W)here the same act or transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one, is whether each provision requires proof of a fact which the other does not. Id. at 304, 52 S. Ct. at 182, 76 L. Ed. at 309.
This holding does not conflict with Heflin v. United States, 358 U.S. 415, 79 S. Ct. 451, 3 L. Ed. 2d 407 (1959), or Milanovich v. United States, 365 U.S. 551, 81 S. Ct. 728, 5 L. Ed. 2d 773 (1961), relied on by defendant. In Heflin the Court held that in enacting section 2113(c), Congress did not intend to increase the punishment for the robber of a bank but rather intended to provide punishment for those who receive loot from a robber. Section 2314 does not refer to receiving. The primary purpose of section 2314, as indicated in United States v. Sheridan, 329 U.S. 379, 67 S. Ct. 332, 91 L. Ed. 359 (1946), would be thwarted if we were to engraft a receiving requirement on to it. In Sheridan the Court stated that the purpose of a predecessor of section 2314 was to aid the states in punishing criminals whose offenses were complete under state law but who utilized channels of interstate commerce to escape. Thus a second actor cannot be required to violate section 2314. Milanovich also involved statutes prohibiting taking and receiving.
Finally, defendant argues that since the purpose of the instruction was to protect the defendant, he had a right to have no instruction given on the subject. He analogizes to cases holding that unless a defendant requests an instruction indicating that the jury should not consider defendant's failure to take the stand or indicating that the jury should limit its consideration of defendant's prior convictions to credibility, it is error so to instruct. United States v. Glazer, 110 F. Supp. 558, 563 (E.D. Mo. 1952); Illinois v. Gibson, 133 Ill.App.2d 722, 272 N.E.2d 274, 277 (1971). Defendant did not make this argument to the trial court. Instructions on prior convictions and a defendant's failure to take the stand have the potential of prejudicing him by singling out sensitive evidence. The instruction given in this case is much less likely to prejudice defendant. We hold that it is not error for a trial judge to give an accomplice instruction without a request by a defendant at least where, as in this case, the defendant does not make known his preference that no instruction be given.
The majority discusses a number of precedents to draw subtle distinctions as to when official involvement is or is not sufficient to invoke Fourth Amendment protection. But the law is not cloudy when the involvement is as clear as it is in this case. In Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1, 5-6, 77 S. Ct. 1222, 1225, 1 L. Ed. 2d 1148, 1157 (1956), the Supreme Court, speaking through Mr. Justice Black, delineated the basic reach of the Bill of Rights with respect to citizens of the United States when abroad. There Mr. Justice Black wrote:
The majority of the panel in this case allows foreign officials to hand evidence against the defendants to federal agents on a "silver platter." The cases dealing with this doctrine decided prior to the Supreme Court's decision in Elkins v. United States, 364 U.S. 206, 80 S. Ct. 1437, 4 L. Ed. 2d 1669 (1960), which excluded evidence seized illegally by state officials and handed on a "silver platter" to federal officers, do present situations analogous to that before us. Those cases clearly indicate that the evidence seized in this case should be suppressed.
The Fourth Amendment does not, of course, apply to foreign officials and evidence obtained in violation of that amendment by such officials. If the "silver platter" cases are followed, the evidence would be admissible in a federal court unless the purpose of the illegal search was to obtain evidence of a federal offense, Gambino v. United States, 275 U.S. 310, 48 S. Ct. 137, 72 L. Ed. 293 (1927), or unless federal officials participated in the search, Lustig v. United States, 338 U.S. 74, 69 S. Ct. 1372, 93 L. Ed. 1819 (1949); Byars v. United States, 273 U.S. 28, 47 S. Ct. 248, 71 L. Ed. 520 (1927). If the federal officials "had a hand" in the search, "before the object of the search was completely accomplished," it becomes a joint operation, and the "(federal official) must be deemed to have participated in it." This was the holding in Lustig and is the law that must be applied to the facts of this case. When so applied there can be but one answer. The FBI actively participated in the illegal search and seizure. Accordingly, the motion to suppress should have been granted.
Count 2 Merchandise National Bank of Chicago $1,165,204.00 Count 3 Central National Bank $ 562,610.00 Count 4 Exchange National Bank $ 66,500.00 Count 5 Ford City Bank $ 378,850.00 Count 6 Peterson Motor Bank $ 10,000.00 Count 7 Metropolitan Bank and Trust Company $ 19,000.00
The opinion of the district court on this issue appears at 388 F. Supp. 906