Source: http://docplayer.net/10333570-Detlef-czybulka-peter-kersandt.html
Timestamp: 2018-12-16 08:13:35
Document Index: 325826780

Matched Legal Cases: ['art 4', 'Art. 38', 'Art. 311', 'Art. 192', 'Art. 192', 'Art. 193', 'Art. 194', 'Art. 194', 'Art. 194', 'Art. 194', 'Art. 197', 'Art. 207', 'Art. 208', 'Art. 209', 'Art. 209', 'Art. 210', 'Art. 211', 'Art. 211', 'Art. 211', 'Art. 213', 'Art. 197', 'Art. 214', 'Art. 208', 'Art. 215', 'Art. 216', 'Art. 210', 'Art. 217', 'Art. 211', 'Art. 220', 'Art. 221', 'Art. 55', 'Art. 56', 'Art. 12', 'art. 6', 'Art. 58', 'Art. 56', 'Art. 58', 'Art. 58', 'Art. 87', 'Art. 58', 'Art. 88', 'Art. 58', 'Art. 56', 'Art. 76', 'Art. 76', 'Art. 76', 'Art. 76', 'Art. 77', 'Art. 77', 'Art. 78', 'Art. 78', 'Art. 86', 'Art. 87', 'Art. 87', 'Art. 89', 'Art. 136', 'Art. 140', 'Art. 141', 'Art. 138', 'Art. 139', 'Art. 137', 'Art. 137', 'Art. 156', 'Art. 156', 'Art. 157', 'Art. 152', 'Art. 145', 'Art. 147', 'Art. 31', 'Art. 1', 'Art. 3', 'Art. 4', 'Art. 5', 'Art. 6', 'Art. 7', 'Art. 10', 'Art. 10', 'Art. 10', 'Art. 13', 'Art. 2', 'Art. 3', 'Art. 38', 'Art. 6', 'Art. 3', 'Art. 3', 'Art. 95', 'Art. 100', 'Art. 95', 'Art. 100', 'Art. 95', 'Art. 100', 'Art. 95', 'Art. 100', 'Art. 174', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 175', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 174', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 176', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 175', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 300', 'Art. 228', 'Art. 249', 'Art. 189', 'Art. 226', 'Art. 169', 'Art. 175', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 299', 'Art. 227', 'Art. 80', 'Art. 84', 'Art. 175', 'Art. 130', 'Art. 227', 'Art. 227', 'Art. 4', 'Art. 227', 'Art. 227', 'Art. 192', 'Art. 194', 'Art. 211']

Detlef Czybulka & Peter Kersandt - PDF
Detlef Czybulka & Peter Kersandt
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1 Detlef Czybulka & Peter Kersandt Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas of the OSPAR Maritime Area BfN Skripten 22 Federal Agency for Nature Conservation 2000
2 Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the High Seas of the OSPAR Maritime Area Detlef Czybulka Peter Kersandt Federal Agency for Nature Conservation 2000
3 Cover design: Ralf Grunewald Authors` addresses: Detlef Czybulka and Peter Kersandt University of Rostock Law Faculty Richard-Wagner-Str. 31 D Rostock-Warnemünde Germany The BfN-Skripten are not available in book-trade. Editor: Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation) Konstantinstr. 110, D Bonn Tel.: ++49/228/ Fax: ++49/228/ internet: The editor takes no guaranty for correctness, details and completeness of statements and of views in this report as well as no guaranty for respecting private rights of third parties. Any statements and views expressed in this report are not necessarily those of the editor. All rights reserved by BfN. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner. Printed by the printing office of the Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. Printed on 100% recycled paper. Bonn, Germany 2000
4 Table of contents A. General Part 4 I. Basic Aspects of Public International Law 4 1. The Sources of International Law 4 2. The Translation of International Law into Municipal Law 4 3. The Relationship Among International Treaties 5 4. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as Umbrella Convention for the Law of the Sea 5 a) Provisions of UNCLOS with Regard to the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment 5 b) The Maritime Areas According to UNCLOS 8 5. The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) as Regional Convention of International Environmental Law International Environmental Custom and Environmental "Soft Law" 12 II. Basic Aspects of European Community Law Primary law 13 a) The Environmental Law in the EC-Treaty 13 b) International Treaties Concluded by the Community Secondary Legislation Environmental Action Programmes Applicability of Community Law Beyond the Territorial Sea 16 B. Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 18 I. Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for the Creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) International Law 18 a) International (Global or Regional) Conventions 18 b) Protection of Sea Areas Under IMO Conventions and Resolutions European Community Law 23 a) The Directive 79/409/EEC (Birds Directive) 23 b) The Directive 92/43/EEC (Habitats Directive) 24 c) Applicability of These Directives in the EEZ 25 II. Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for the Regulation of Human Activities within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Definition of MPAs Navigation 26 a) Navigation in the EEZ 26 b) Navigation on the High Seas 27 c) Global Conventions Adopted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Relating to Maritime Safety and Marine Environmental Protection 28 d) Regional Agreements Providing for Competence with Regard to Marine Pollution from Ships 30 e) European Community Law Relating to Safety at Sea The Establishment and Use of Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures 34 a) The Establishment and Use of Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures in the EEZ 35 b) Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures on the Continental Shelf 35 c) The Construction of Artificial Islands and other Installations on the High Seas 36 d) Installations in the Area 36 e) International Environmental Law with Relevance for Artificial Islands, for Installations and Structures 37 f) European Community Law The Laying of Submarine Cables and Pipelines 41 a) The Laying of Submarine Cables and Pipelines in the EEZ 41 b) Submarine Cables and Pipelines on the Continental Shelf 41 c) The Laying of Submarine Cables and Pipelines on the High Seas 41 2
5 d) International Environmental Law with Regard to Submarine Cables and Pipelines 42 e) European Community Law Dumping 43 a) The Term "Dumping" under UNCLOS, LDC and the OSPAR Convention 43 b) Regulations on Dumping under UNCLOS, LDC and OSPAR Convention 45 c) European Community Law on Waste The Exploration and Exploitation, the Conservation and Management of the Non-Living Natural Resources - Mining Activities 50 a) The Exploration and Exploitation, the Conservation and Management of the Non-Living Natural Resources in the EEZ 50 b) The Exploration of the Continental Shelf and the Exploitation of its Non-Living Natural Resources 51 c) Development of and Rights over Resources of the Area 51 d) International Environmental Law with Regard to Marine Mining 53 e) European Community Law The Exploration and Exploitation, the Conservation and Management of the Living Natural Resources in Particular Fisheries 57 a) The Exploration and Exploitation, the Conservation and Management of the Living Natural Resources in the EEZ 57 b) The Exploitation of the Living Natural Resources of the Continental Shelf 59 c) The Conservation and Management of the Living Resources of the High Seas 59 d) In Particular: Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks 60 e) International Organizations and Commissions Relating to Certain Living Marine Resources 61 f) International Environmental Law with Regard to Living Marine Resources 65 g) European Community Law of Fisheries 68 h) Protection of Species by Means of the Habitats Directive Aquaculture 74 a) International Law 75 b) European Community Law Marine Scientific Research 77 a) Marine Scientific Research in the EEZ and on the Continental Shelf 77 b) Marine Scientific Research in the Area 79 c) Marine Scientific Research in the Water Column beyond the EEZ 79 d) Scientific Research Installations or Equipment in the Marine Environment 80 e) Marine Scientific Research and International Environmental Law 80 f) European Community Law Tourism 84 Table of figures Figure 1: Synopsis on the Protection of Areas and International Conventions 18 Figure 2: IMO-Conventions Relating to Marine Pollution by Shipping 29 Figure 3: International Environmental Law with Relevance for Artificial Islands, for Installations and Structures37 Figure 4: International Environmental Law with Regard to Submarine Cables and Pipelines 42 Figure 5: The Term "Dumping" in International Conventions 44 Figure 6: Regulations on Dumping under UNCLOS, LDC and OSPAR Convention 45 Figure 7: International Environmental Law with Regard to Marine Mining 53 Figure 8: International Environmental Law with Regard to Living Marine Resources 65 Figure 9: International Environmental Law with Regard to Aquaculture 75 Figure 10: Marine Scientific Research and International Environmental Law 80 Preface The authors of this study endeavoured to provide correct and unmitigated results, however, cannot entirely exclude shortenings and incompleteness due to the amount of relevant material subject to the examination and the complexity of the topic. 3
6 A. General Part I. Basic Aspects of Public International Law Public international law is the sum of rules, which establish the principles of conduct, necessary for the well-ordered living together of the people of this world and are not provided for in the municipal law of each sovereign state The Sources of International Law Art. 38 para. 1 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) provides a nonexhaustive list of the following sources of international law: international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the contesting parties; international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law; the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations; and finally judicial decisions and the teaching of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law. 2. The Translation of International Law into Municipal Law The rights and obligations imposed by international law must be translated into municipal law by each subject of public international law. International law leaves the modality to do so to the respective domestic legal order. It only provides the aim: The States must successfully enforce international rules in relation to the national state bodies, in particular administrative authorities and courts. To this end they must give effect to international law in their internal law in some form, they must declare it applicable. 2 This, however, requires first to decide whether the respective international law is capable of being given legal effect or not. A rule of international law can only be given legal effect if it is "self-executing". To qualify as such, the norm must be designed by contents and purpose to directly legally bind or entitle state bodies and those subject to law without the need of any further implementation by national legislation. 3 The norm is "non-self-executing" if these requirements are lacking. It then is not enforceable but calls for national measures of implementation, normally an Act of Parliament. 4 States constitutions in principal provide different juridical techniques to implement international law 5 : According to one method 6 the promulgation of the act of consent to an international treaty or the publication of a treaty or an administrative agreement in the competent organs of publication automatically results in the immediate national applicability of the respective rule of public international law provided it enters into force internationally ("automatic/ 1 I. Seidl-Hohenveldern, Völkerrecht, 9 th ed. 1997, para M. Schweitzer, Staatsrecht III, Staatsrecht, Völkerrecht, Europarecht, 6 th ed. 1997, para. 418 and M. Schweitzer, supra 2, para M. Schweitzer, supra 2, para See I. Seidl-Hohenveldern, supra 1, para. 562 and E.g. in the constitutions of the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the United States of America. 4
7 general transformation or adoption"). According to another technique 7 a treaty provision, even if its wording is self-executing, is only legally binding within the national legal order, if after the treaty had entered into force internationally the legislator "transforms" its contents into municipal law by passing a special national law ("special transformation"). Notice: The specific implementation of public international law into national law is not subject of this study. 3. The Relationship Among International Treaties As far as the relationship among international treaties with corresponding subject-matters is concerned, the recognized general principles of law the later prevails the prior and the more specific prevails the general rule applies to those States which are parties to both treaties (lex posterior derogat legi priori, lex specialis derogat legi generali) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) as Umbrella Convention for the Law of the Sea The contemporary law of the sea is predominantly shaped by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982/1994 (UNCLOS). 9 It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world s oceans and seas; it is an umbrella convention which establishes rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. 10 The four Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea of 29 April 1958: Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, Convention on the High Seas, Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources on the High Seas, Convention on the Continental Shelf are still in force and the group of signatory States partly differs from that of UNCLOS but non-the-less their importance inevitably is diminishing with the increasing global coming into force of UNCLOS. 11 The UNCLOS prevails, as between State Parties, over the Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea (Art. 311 para. 1 UNCLOS). For these reasons the representation of the public international law of the sea in this study is oriented towards UNCLOS. a) Provisions of UNCLOS with Regard to the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment UNCLOS dedicates a separate part to the protection and preservation of the marine environment. This Part XII of UNCLOS is an attempt to establish a general framework for a legal system which rules in a global, legally binding convention on the rights, obligations 7 E.g. in the United Kingdom; similar also in Austria. 8 C. Fitzpatrick, Künstliche Inseln und Anlagen auf See, Der völkerrechtliche Rahmen für die Errichtung und den Betrieb künstlicher Inseln und Anlagen, in: G. Gornig, Schriften zum internationalen und zum öffentlichen Recht, Vol. 21, 1998, p Adopted in New York on 30 April 1982; concluded at Montego Bay (Jamaica) on 10 December 1982; entry into force: 16 November Source: "Ocean and Law of the Sea Home Page" ( 11 K. Ipsen, Völkerrecht, 4 th ed. 1999, p
8 and responsibilities of (coastal) States with respect to the marine environment. 12 This framework mainly consists of: General provisions (Art. 192 et seq. UNCLOS): Art. 192 provides the general obligation of the States to protect and preserve the marine environment. States have the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant to their environmental policies and in accordance with their duty to protect and preserve the marine environment (Art. 193 UNCLOS). Art. 194 para. 1 and para. 2 UNCLOS obliges States to adopt measures that are necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source. Art. 194 para. 2 hereby repeats the general principle on the prohibition of "nontransboundary-pollution", i.e. of not causing damage to the environment of other States or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction a principle which also can be found in principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration 13, but which is made topical in so far as preventive measures have to be adopted in order to avoid pollution and its extension to areas beyond national jurisdiction in the first place. 14 According to Art. 194 para. 3 UNCLOS the measures taken pursuant to Part XII of UNCLOS shall deal with all sources of pollution of the marine environment. They shall include those designed to minimize to the fullest possible extent in particular the release of toxic, harmful or noxious substances, pollution from vessels, pollution from installations and devices used in exploration or exploitation of the natural resources of the sea-bed and subsoil and pollution from other installations and devices operating in the marine environment. All measures taken in accordance with Part XII of UNCLOS shall include pursuant to Art. 194 para. 5 UNCLOS those necessary to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life. Provisions concerning the global and regional co-operation of States (Art. 197 et seq. UNCLOS), according to the holistic approach of UNCLOS 15, as environmental pollution does not stop at the borders of national jurisdiction; Provisions governing the legislative powers of states with regard to the specific sources of pollution (Art. 207 et seq. UNCLOS): Pursuant to Art. 208 para. 1 and para. 2 UNCLOS coastal States shall adopt laws and regulations and take other measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment arising from or in connection with sea-bed activities subject to their jurisdiction and from artificial islands, installations and structures under their jurisdiction. International Rules, regulations and procedures shall be established in accordance with Part XI of UNCLOS, which lays down the status of the Area and its resources, in order to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from activities in the Area (Art. 209 para. 1 UNCLOS). Art. 209 para. 2 UNCLOS obliges the States to adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine 12 A. E. Boyle, Marine Pollution under the Law of the Sea Convention, AJIL Vol. 79 (1985), pp. 347 et seq. (350). 13 J. I. Charney, The Marine Environment and the 1982 United Nations Convention, The International Lawyer Vol. 28 (1994), pp. 879 et seq. (886). 14 C. Fitzpatrick, supra 8, p J. I. Charney, supra 13, p
9 environment from activities in the Area undertaken by vessels, installations, structures and other devices flying their flag or of their registry or operating under their authority. Art. 210 UNCLOS provides for the legislative powers of the (coastal) States with regard to dumping. According to Art. 211 para. 1 UNCLOS States, acting through the competent international organization or general diplomatic conference, shall establish international rules and standards to prevent, reduce and control pollution from vessels. Moreover Art. 211 para. 2 UNCLOS imposes on them the obligation to adopt laws and regulations for the prevention, reduction and control of the pollution of the marine environment from vessels flying their flag or of their registry. Pursuant to Art. 211 para. 5 UNCLOS the coastal States are entitled in respect of their exclusive economic zones (EEZs) to adopt laws and regulations for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution from vessels conforming and giving effect to generally accepted international rules and standards established through the competent international organization or general diplomatic conference. Enforcement powers (Art. 213 et seq. UNCLOS), which correspond with the legislative powers according to Art. 197 et seq. UNCLOS: Thus Art. 214 UNCLOS entitles but also obliges the States to enforce their laws and regulations adopted in accordance with Art. 208 UNCLOS (pollution from sea-bed activities). At the same time the States shall adopt laws and regulations and take other measures to implement applicable international rules and standards established through competent international organizations or diplomatic conferences to prevent, reduce and control pollution arising from or in connection with sea-bed activities subject to their jurisdiction and from artificial islands, installations and structures under their jurisdiction. With regard to the enforcement of international rules, regulations and procedures established to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from activities in the Area, Art. 215 UNCLOS refers to Part XI of UNCLOS, which lays down the status of the Area and its resources. Pursuant to Art. 216 para. 1 UNCLOS laws and regulations adopted in accordance with Art. 210 UNCLOS (pollution by dumping) and applicable international rules and standards established through competent international organizations or diplomatic conferences for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution by dumping shall be enforced by the coastal State with regard to dumping within its EEZ or onto its continental shelf, by the flag State with regard to vessels flying its flag of its registry, and by any State with regard to acts of loading of wastes or other matter occurring within its territory or at its off-shore terminals. The flag State shall in accordance with Art. 217 para. 1 UNCLOS ensure compliance by vessels flying its flag or of its registry with applicable international rules and standards, established through the competent international organization or general diplomatic conference, and with its laws and regulations adopted in accordance with Art. 211 UNCLOS (pollution from vessels) for prevention, reduction and control of pollution from vessels and shall accordingly adopt laws and regulations and take other measures necessary for their implementation. The flag State is also obliged to provide for the effective enforcement of such rules, standards, laws and regulations, irrespective where a violation occurs. According to Art. 220 UNCLOS the coastal State enjoys only restricted enforcement powers in its EEZ as to vessels flying a flag other than that of 7
10 the coastal State, e.g. rights to information, inspection and to institute proceedings with regard to the violation of international rules and standards for the prevention, reduction and control of pollution from vessels (para. 3, 5 and 6). None of the listed provisions shall prejudice the right of States, pursuant to international law to take and enforce measures beyond the territorial sea proportionate to the actual or threatened damage to protect their coastline or related interests, including fishing, from pollution or threat of pollution following upon a maritime casualty or acts relating to such a casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful consequences (Art. 221 para. 1 UNCLOS). b) The Maritime Areas According to UNCLOS UNCLOS divides up the sea into different zones measured from a so-called baseline: internal waters, territorial sea, contiguous zone, continental shelf, exclusive economic zone and high seas. aa) The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a maritime zone established and codified by UNCLOS. The dividing up into maritime zones is directly applicable law. Art. 55, 57 UNCLOS entitles the coastal state to establish a EEZ of a maximum breadth of 200 nautical miles from the baseline. Geographically restricted to this zone the coastal State enjoys functionally restricted rights 16 according to Art. 56 para. 1 UNCLOS: sovereign rights: for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters superjacent to the sea-bed and of the sea-bed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone; jurisdiction with regard to: the establishment and use of artificial islands, installations and structures; marine scientific research; the protection and preservation of the marine environment. These rights are exclusive in relation to other states. An exception is provided for by the European Community in "Community waters", which terminologically includes the EEZs of the Member States. Art. 12 (ex-art. 6) EC-Treaty prohibits any discrimination on the ground of nationality within the scope of application of the EC-Treaty and thus obliges the Member States to grant to all nationals of the Member States equal access to their EEZs. Art. 58 et seq. UNCLOS and provisions in other chapters of UNCLOS specify, complement but also restrict Art. 56 para. 1 UNCLOS: In particular Art. 58 UNCLOS ought to be mentioned here which contains general provisions on rights and duties of other States in the EEZ. Pursuant to Art. 58 para. 1 UNCLOS the principle of the freedom of the high seas and its related freedoms as listed in Art. 87 UNCLOS apply also to the EEZ, thus e.g. the freedom of navigation and the freedom of the laying of submarine cables and pipelines, and other internationally lawful uses of the sea related to these freedoms, such as those associated with the operation of ships and submarine cables and pipelines, and compatible with the other provisions of UNCLOS. As the EEZ regime restricts 16 L. Gründling, Die 200 Seemeilen-Wirtschaftszone, 1983, p. 119 with further quotations. 8
11 the resource-related rights of other States, this provision must be understood to the end that all non-resource-related uses are open to other States. 17 Art. 58 para. 2 UNCLOS declares Art. 88 to 115 UNCLOS constituting the high seas régime applicable to the EEZ, in so far as they are not incompatible with the provisions of the EEZ régime. Art. 58 para. 3 UNCLOS obliges the States in exercising their rights and performing their duties in the EEZ to have due regard to the rights and duties of the coastal State and to comply with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance with the UNCLOS and other rules of international law in so far as they are not incompatible with the EEZ régime. With regard to the exercise of the rights with respect to the sea-bed and subsoil, Art. 56 para. 3 UNCLOS refers to the continental shelf régime of Part VI of UNCLOS. bb) Continental Shelf The Continental Shelf of a coastal state comprises the sea-bed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to that distance (Art. 76 para. 1 UNCLOS). Yet, the continental margin comprises the submerged prolongation of the land mass of the coastal State, and consists of the sea-bed and subsoil of the shelf, the slope and the rise, but it does not include the deep ocean floor with its oceanic ridges or the subsoil thereof (Art. 76 para. 3 UNCLOS). The continental shelf of a coastal State shall not extent beyond the limits provided for in Art. 76 para. 4 to 6 UNCLOS (Art. 76 para. 2 UNCLOS), i.e. not beyond a maximum of 350 sm measured from the baselines. Art. 77 para. 1 UNCLOS bestows upon the coastal State over the continental shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting its natural resources. These rights: are exclusive in the sense that if the coastal State does not explore the continental shelf or exploit its natural resources, no one may undertake these activities without the express consent of the coastal State (Art. 77 para. 2 UNCLOS); do not affect the legal status of the superjacent waters (Art. 78 para. 1 UNCLOS); must not infringe or result in any unjustifiable interference with navigation and other rights and freedoms of other States as provided for in the UNCLOS (Art. 78 para. 2 UNCLOS). cc) High Seas High seas are all parts of the sea that are not included in the EEZ, in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State, or in the archipelagic waters of an archipelagic State (Art. 86 UNCLOS). Here the principle of the freedom of the high seas as laid down in Art. 87 para. 1 UNCLOS applies, which comprises, inter alia, both for coastal and land-locked States: freedom of navigation and, subject to the respective relevant provisions in other parts of the Convention, freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines, freedom to construct artificial islands and other installations permitted under international law, freedom of fishing, 17 K. Ipsen, supra 11, p
12 freedom of scientific research. These freedoms shall be exercised by all States with due regard for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas, and also with due regard for the rights under the UNCLOS with respect to activities in the Area (Art. 87 para. 2 UNCLOS). No State may validly purport to subject any part of the high seas to its sovereignty (Art. 89 UNCLOS). dd) The Area The status of the sea-bed beyond the continental shelf, called "the Area", and its resources are provided for in Part XI of UNCLOS. They are the common heritage of mankind (Art. 136 UNCLOS). Therefore activities in the Area shall be carried out for the benefit of mankind as a whole (Art. 140 para. 1 UNCLOS). According to Art. 141 UNCLOS the Area shall be open to use exclusively for peaceful purposes by all States, whether coastal or land-locked, without discrimination. The general conduct of States in relation to the Area shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part XI of UNCLOS, the principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations and other rules of international law in the interests of maintaining peace and security and promoting international co-operation and mutual understanding (Art. 138 UNCLOS). State Parties have the responsibility to ensure that activities in the Area, whether carried out by State Parties, or State enterprises or natural or juridical persons which possess the nationality of State Parties or are effectively controlled by them or their nationals, shall be carried out in conformity with Part XI of UNCLOS (Art. 139 para. 1 UNCLOS). Art. 137 para. 1 UNCLOS rules that no State shall: claim or exercise sovereign rights over any part of the Area or its resources; appropriate any part thereof. The rights over the resources which in compliance with Art. 137 para. 2 UNCLOS appertain to the whole mankind, are administered and managed in accordance with Art. 156 et seq. UNCLOS by the International Sea-Bed Authority (ISBA) with seat at Kingston, Jamaica. All State Parties are ipso facto members of the ISBA (Art. 156 para. 2 UNCLOS). Through the ISBA State Parties shall organize and control activities in the Area, particularly with a view to administering the resources of the Area (Art. 157 para. 1 UNCLOS). Art. 152 para. 1 UNCLOS provides that the ISBA shall avoid discrimination in the exercise of its powers and functions, including the granting of opportunities for activities in the Area. Part XI of UNCLOS comprises special provisions on the protection of the marine environment in the Area. In particular Art. 145 UNCLOS empowers the ISBA to adopt appropriate rules, regulations and procedures for, inter alia,: the prevention, reduction and control of pollution and other hazards to the marine environment, including the coastline, and of interference with the ecological balance of the marine environment, particular attention being paid to the need for protection from harmful effects of such activities as drilling, dredging, excavation, disposal of waste, construction and operation or maintenance of installations, pipelines and other devices related to such activities; the protection and conservation of the natural resources of the Area and the prevention of damage to the flora and fauna of the marine environment. Activities in the Area shall be carried out with reasonable regard for other activities in the marine environment (Art. 147 para. 1 UNCLOS). 10
13 5. The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) as Regional Convention of International Environmental Law The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) which was done in Paris on 22 September 1992 replaced according to its Art. 31 para. 1 with its entry into force on 25 March 1998 the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft (Oslo Convention) and the Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources (Paris Convention). The OSPAR Convention refers to the same maritime areas, listed in Art. 1 a) OSPAR Convention, and contains a summary and further development of the two preceding Conventions. On completion of the OSPAR Convention the Contracting Parties aimed at adopting, on a regional level, more stringent measures with respect to the prevention and elimination of pollution of the marine environment and with respect to the protection of the marine environment against adverse effects of human activities than are provided for in international conventions or agreements with a global scope (Preamble of the OSPAR Convention). The Contracting Parties are obliged to take, individually and jointly, all possible steps to prevent and eliminate pollution: from land-based sources (Art. 3 in connection with Annex I OSPAR Convention); by dumping or incineration (Art. 4 in connection with Annex II OSPAR Convention); from offshore sources (Art. 5 in connection with Annex III OSPAR Convention). Further the Contracting Parties shall undertake and publish at regular intervals joint assessments of the quality status of the marine environment and of its development, for the maritime area or for the sub-regions thereof (Art. 6 a) in connection with Annex IV OSPAR Convention). Art. 7 OSPAR Convention requires the Contracting Parties to co-operate with a view to adopting additional annexes prescribing measures, procedures and standards to protect the maritime area against pollution from other sources, to the extent that such pollution is not already the subject of effective measures agreed by other international organizations or prescribed by other international conventions. Based on Art. 10 et seq. OSPAR Convention a Commission was established upon which Art. 10 para. 2 OSPAR Convention bestows, inter alia, the following duties: to supervise the implementation of the OSPAR Convention; generally to review the condition of the maritime area, the effectiveness of the measures being adopted, the priorities and the need for any additional or different measures; to draw up, in accordance with the General Obligations of the OSPAR Convention, programmes and measures for the prevention and elimination of pollution and for the control of activities which may, directly or indirectly, adversely affect the maritime area. Art. 10 para. 3 in connection with Art. 13 OSPAR Convention provides as legal instruments for the OSPAR Commission decisions and recommendations. At the ministerial meeting of the OSPAR Commission in 1998, Annex V "On the Protection and Conservation of the Ecosystems and Biological Diversity of the Maritime Area" was adopted which extended the OSPAR Convention in favour of nature conservation provisions. Thus the Contracting Parties are obliged by Art. 2 of Annex V in order to perform their obligations under the OSPAR Convention and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) of 5 June 1992: to take the necessary measures to protect and conserve the ecosystems and the biological diversity of the maritime area, and to restore, where practicable, marine areas which have 11
14 been adversely affected; and to co-operate in adopting programmes and measures for those purposes for the control of the human activities identified by the application of the criteria in Appendix 3. In this context the OSPAR Commission has the duty as described in more detail in Art. 3 para. 1 b) of Annex V to draw up programmes and measures for the control of the human activities identified by the application of the criteria in Appendix International Environmental Custom and Environmental "Soft Law" The environmental customary international law is a primary source of non-codified international environmental law. According to today s unanimous school in literature (see also Art. 38 para. 1 b) of the Statute of the ICJ) the emergence of international customary law requires two constitutive elements: a constant general practice and the respective acceptance of the practice as binding law (opinio iuris et necessitatis). 18 Therefore a common international practice of the states is required which by conviction of the states postulates immediate obligations. 19 Thus the repeated and constant existence of a rule on the level of soft law is a valuable evidence for the formation of the necessary conviction that it reflects a legal obligation. Also international treaties contribute to the emergence of international custom. 20 International custom therefore has legally binding effect. However, particularly in international environmental law a differentiation into "principles" and "rules" is required with regard to the normative contents of international customary rules. "Rules" contain a binding commitment, whereas "principles" grant a relatively wide scope for performance and need to be completed by application of law and legislation. 21 International customary principles do not comprise concrete rights or duties. They rather serve as ground for interpretation and application of specific international rules. As such they are legally binding though they are operationally manageable only to a limited extent. 22 Such legally binding effect as customary principle can be claimed in the first place by the precautionary principle because of its generalized acceptance. The principle provides that in case of danger of considerable damage to be caused to the environment the necessary measures must even be adopted, if there is no absolute scientific certainty whether the environmental damage really will occur or whether there exists a causal connection between the conduct and the feared impacts on the environment. 23 International customary law as binding international law must be distinguished from so-called international "soft-law". These are rules of conduct for the international practice, which in principle are not legally binding but non-the-less show certain also legal effects. 24 The transition from international "soft law" to international custom very often is fluid A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, Strukturprinzipien des Umweltvölkerrechts, 1998, p A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, pp. 107, 125 and A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p. 78; partly the existence of international "soft law" is denied any justification, see quotations in: A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, pp. 79 footnotes 183 and 184; "soft law" does in fact not belong to the accepted sources of international law, but there is discussion whether "soft law supplements the classical sources of international law, see quotations in: A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p. 78 footnote A. Epiney/ M. Scheyli, supra 18, p
15 II. Basic Aspects of European Community Law The law of the European Union consists of the law of the three European Communities 26 (European Community Law) and the provisions governing the new forms of intergovernmental co-operation in the European Union 27 (European Union Law). European Community Law is constituted by primary and secondary law. 1. Primary law The primary law, i.e. the Acts of Member States, comprises the constitutive Treaties including all Annexes and Protocols, subsequent Treaty amendments, accession and association treaties, international treaties concluded by the Community with third countries 28, but also (noncodified) general principles of law. a) The Environmental Law in the EC-Treaty The Treaty basis of environmental law of the Community can be found in the provisions of the constitutive Treaty on the European Community (EC-Treaty) of 25 March 1957 as amended by the Treaty of the European Union (Maastricht Treaty) of 7 February 1992 and by the Treaty of Amsterdam of 2 October The Amsterdam Treaty and thus the revised EC-Treaty entered into force on 1 May As Treaty basis first Art. 6 (ex Art. 3c) EC-Treaty should be given notice, which provides that environmental protection requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of the Community policies and activities referred to in Art. 3 EC-Treaty, in particular with a view to promoting sustainable development. This embodies the so-called cross-the-board principle. 29 Further Art. 95 (ex Art. 100a) EC-Treaty must be pointed out its para. 3 and 4 explicitly mention environmental protection: Art. 95 para. 1 (ex Art. 100a para. 1) EC-Treaty is the legal basis for measures on the establishment and functioning of the internal market. These regulations can (additionally) also aim at environment protection. 30 According to Art. 95 para. 3 (ex Art. 100a para. 3) EC-Treaty the Commission when submitting its suggestions in compliance with para. 1 shall adopt a high level of protection, taking account in particular of any new development based on scientific facts. The European Parliament and the Council will also seek to achieve this objective. Art. 95 para. 4 (ex Art. 100a para. 4) EC-Treaty allows Member States under certain conditions to maintain national provisions on grounds of major needs relating to the protection of the environment. The EC-Treaty dedicates an entire Title XIX (ex Title XVI) to environmental policy. This Title contains three categories of provisions: 26 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC); European Community (EC; former European Economic Community); European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom or EAC). 27 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP); Co-operation in the fields of justice and home affairs (JHA; in future co-operation of police and justice in combating crime). 28 There is dispute as to the classification of treaties with third countries as primary Community law, see M. Schweitzer/ W. Hummer, Europarecht, 5 th ed. 1996, para The "cross-the-board principle" requires to take due regard of environmental issues in all other common policies, see A. Epiney, Umweltrecht in der Europäischen Union, 1997, p A. Epiney, supra 29, p
16 Art. 174 (ex Art. 130r) EC-Treaty describes the objectives and principles of action of Community environmental policy as well as principles for their preparing. Para. 2 subpara. 1 prescribes the Community a high level of protection taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Community and lays down the precautionary principle, the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damages should be rectified at source and the polluter-pays principle. Art. 175 (ex Art. 130s) EC-Treaty is the legal basis for Community measures in order to achieve the objectives listed in Art. 174 (ex Art. 130r) EC-Treaty, though para. 2 provides for a different decision-making procedure. Para. 3 rules on the competence and procedures for the adoption of general action programmes in the field of environmental protection. Para. 4 imposes on the Member States the financing and implementation of the EC environmental policy, though para. 5 provides for exceptions in cases of Member States which are un-proportionally affected. Art. 176 (ex Art. 130t) EC-Treaty allows the Member States to derogate from Art. 175 (ex Art. 130s) EC-Treaty in order to maintain or introduce more stringent measures. b) International Treaties Concluded by the Community Due to its institutional powers the Community has concluded various international treaties in the field of environmental protection. As a rule these agreements are mixed agreements, involving both the Community and the Member States. 31 According to Art. 300 (ex Art. 228) para. 7 EC-Treaty international agreements concluded by the Community are legally binding on its institutions and on the Member States. They thus prevail secondary legislation adopted by the Community institutions. 32 Also the OSPAR Convention has been signed by the Commission of the European Community and was approved on behalf of the Community by Council Decision of 7 October Secondary Legislation Secondary legislation means the legislative acts of the Community institutions which are based on the Community Treaties or on the empowering provision of another legislative act. 34 According to Art. 249 (ex Art. 189) EC-Treaty Community legislation comprises the following categories of legislative acts: regulations (subpara. 2), directives (subpara. 3), decisions (subpara. 4), recommendations and opinions (subpara. 5), and other legislative acts, in particular organizational acts. A regulation has general application and is binding in its entirety. It is directly applicable in all Member States, thus has direct effect for the individual A. Epiney, supra 29, p R. Streinz, Europarecht, 3 th ed. 1996, para Council Decision 98/249/EC of 7 October 1997 on the conclusion of the Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic, Official Journal L 104, 03/04/1998 p M. Herdegen, Europarecht, 2 nd ed. 1999, para M. Herdegen, supra 34, para
17 Directives, which constitute the main legislative instrument in the field of environmental protection 36, are binding only as to the aim which should be achieved and only on the Member States they address. They leave to the Member States to choose the appropriate form and method to achieve the set aim ("graded binding nature"). 37 Directives call for their effective implementation within a given period of time. Before its expiry however, directives develop some pre-effect. Thus while the implementation period is running a Member State must not adopt laws, which seriously endangers the achievement of the set aim of the directive. 38 Unlike the regulation the directive has in principle no direct effect in the Member States. According to the consistent decisions of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) 39 a directive as an exception may develop direct effect if: after expiry of the given period of implementation the Member State has not or only insufficiently implemented the directive into national law and if it the provision invoked is clear and unambiguous and unconditional. In case of non-implementation of a directive an enforcement action can be brought against the Member State before the ECJ pursuant to Art. 226 (ex Art. 169) EC-Treaty. 3. Environmental Action Programmes Action programmes have no legally binding effect. They lay down the aims and priorities of the common environmental policy, they thus describe in a general way measures planned for a certain period of time, bring them into a global context and introduce as the case may be new developments and orientations. 40 So far five action programmes were adopted. The Community s fifth environmental action programme "Towards Sustainability" was produced in In point 5.4 of the programme, under the heading "Management of water resources" those actions to be adopted or developed are listed which should serve the objective to reduce discharges of all substances, which due to their toxic persistence or accumulating impact could negatively affect the environment, to levels which are not harmful to a high standard of ecological quality of all surface waters. In particular the following actions are enumerated: marine water: further to the measures to achieve a high ecological quality and to reduce surface water pollution; proposals on marine transport preventing environmental damage from shipping activities (oil spills, loss of cargo, reduction of operational pollution) to be developed; surveillance of geographic zones with appropriate monitoring techniques; proposal for a directive on the reduction of operational and accidental pollution from small-tonnage boats; economic and fiscal measures. In point 5.3 "Protection of nature and biodiversity" the Community commits itself to the following main targets for 2000: the maintenance or restoration of natural habitats and species of wild fauna and flora at a favourable conservation status on the basis of the Habitats Directive (92/42/EEC) and the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC); 36 A. Epiney, supra 29, p. 20, arguing that directives grant a certain flexibility which allows Member States to take account of their national and regional peculiarities when implementing them. 37 R. Streinz, supra 32, para ECJ case C-129/96 Inter-Environnement Walloni [1997] E.C.R. I Since ECJ case 9/70 Leberpfennig [1970] E.C.R. 825/837 et seq. 40 A. Epiney, supra 29, p. 20 and
18 the creation of a European network of protected areas Natura 2000; strict control of abuse and trade of wild species. On 24 January 1996, the European Commission adopted an Action Plan to ensure more effective implementation of the European Union s Environment Strategy and Policies. To that end, the Union s fifth Action Programme "Towards Sustainability" was updated. So far action programmes always were adopted in form of a decision of the Council of Ministers and the European Council of Heads of State or Government. 41 With the EU-Treaty in Art. 175 (ex Art. 130s) EC-Treaty the adoption of environmental action programmes explicitly was regulated Applicability of Community Law Beyond the Territorial Sea The question whether primary and secondary Community law is applicable in sea areas beyond the seaward boundary of the territorial sea of the Member States and thus beyond their territory needs clarification. Art. 299 (ex Art. 227) para. 1 EC-Treaty according to which the Treaty shall apply to the Member States listed there, is interpreted with regard to the applicability of Community law as reference to the territory, on which Member States enjoy their exclusive territorial sovereignty. 43 To these territories also belongs the marine territorial waters, which are constituted by the internal water and the territorial sea, including the appertaining sea-bed and subsoil 44, but not by other maritime zones beyond the seaward boundary of the territorial sea. However, the main school in literature 45 agrees on the applicability of Community law beyond the territorial sea: The legal responsibility of the Community for the marine orientation should not be answered dependent on the question of the applicability of Community law in a physicalgeographical sense. The necessary Community powers for a marine orientation requires rather a functional connection between the subject-matter of the rules of the law of the sea and an aim-determined field of action of the Community. 46 The Community can exercise its jurisdiction like any other subject of public international law in any space provided that no exclusive territorial jurisdiction of any other subject of public international law exists or that there is no inconsistency with other international rules. The fact that specific Community powers like those set out in Art. 80 (ex Art. 84) para. 2 EC-Treaty are not limited in their applicability in the first place to the territory of the Member States confirm this interpretation. 47 In the leading case Kramer the ECJ confirms that under Community law the starting point for the extension and applicability of Community law beyond the territory of the Member States 41 A. Epiney, supra 29, p See A. Epiney, supra 29, p. 23, according to whom Art. 175 (ex Art. 130s) para. 3 EC-Treaty is merely a rule of procedure for the adoption of action programmes and not an empowering norm. 43 M. Schröder, in: H. v. d. Groeben/ J. Thiesing / C.-D. Ehlermann, Kommentar zum EU-/EG-Vertrag, Bd. 5, Art EGV, Art. H-S EUV, 5 th ed. 1997, Art. 227 EGV, para M. Schröder, supra 43, Art. 227 EGV, para D. Czybulka, NuR 21 (1999), pp. 562 et seq. (565); U. Jenisch, Rechtsprobleme der Meeresnutzungen in der Nordsee und im EG-Meer - Auswirkungen der Seerechtskonferenz auf die EG -, in: R. Krämer, Die wirtschaftliche Nutzung der Nordsee und die Europäische Gemeinschaft, 1979, pp. 103 et seq. (106 and 107); H. P. Ipsen, EWG über See, in: Festschrift für Rolf Stödter, 1979, pp. 167 et seq. (180 and 182); W. Graf Vitzthum, Die EG und das Internationale Seerecht, AöR 111 (1986), pp. 33 et seq. (44). 46 H. P. Ipsen, supra 45, pp. 180 and W. Graf Vitzthum, supra 45, p
19 is the subject-related legislative power of the Community. It first must be established with regard to the internal relationship among the Member States, but following the principles developed by the ECJ in AETR 48 as a rule extends to the performance of the corresponding international jurisdictional powers of the Member States. 49 The ECJ s reasoning in Commission v. Ireland, according to which each extension of marine areas subject to sovereignty or jurisdiction of the Member States results in a corresponding extension of the application of Community law, is of fundamental importance. 50 At the core of the matter this means that existing Community law possibly can include the extension of the rights of a coastal state without any formal amendment. 51 By decision of the High Court (London) of 5 November the Court ordered the United Kingdom Government to apply the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) throughout its 200-mile fishing zone and to the continental shelf (the United Kingdom officially has not proclaimed a EEZ) before granting offshore oil or gas exploration licenses. The judgement is the first on this point by an EU national court. At an early stage Community law included into its scope of application the continental shelf which does not belong to the territory of the Member States. Art. 4 para. 2 h) of the Council Regulation 802/68/EEC on the common definition of the origin of goods 53 provides that produced goods and other products extracted from the sea-bed beyond the territorial sea are goods which are entirely produced in one country provided that the country exercised exclusive rights over the sea-bed for the purpose of its exploitation. Thus implicitly the continental shelf is included 54, and even the applicability of Community law in the EEZ is covered by this formula. 55 With effect on 1 January 1977 the so-called "Community waters" were created, in which the Community exercises the Common Fisheries Policy. This was preceded by a concerted action of the coastal Member States which proclaimed each a 200 sm exclusive fisheries zone in the North Sea and the North Atlantic. The Community could not establish such a zone by itself as it lacks the quality of coastal State capable of making proclamations ECJ case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1971] E.C.R. 265 (275). 49 ECJ cases 3, 4 and 6/76 Kramer [1976] E.C.R (1311). 50 ECJ case 61/77 Commission v. Ireland [1978] E.C.R. 417 (447 and 448). 51 M. Schröder, supra 43, Para File number: CO 1336/ Official Journal L 148, 1968 p W. Hummer, in E. Grabitz/ M. Hilf, Das Recht der Europäischen Union, Teil I: Primärrecht, Vol. II, Art EGV (Maastrichter Fassung), EWGV (Römische Fasung), Loseblattsammlung, Stand: 13. Ergänzungslieferung Mai 1999, Art. 227 EGV, para. 25; M. Schröder, supra 43, para W. Hummer, supra 54, Art. 227 EGV, para. 14; M. Schröder, supra 43, para Starting point was Council Resolution of 3 November 1976 on certain external aspects of the creation of a 200- mile fishing zone in the Community with effect from 1 January 1977, Official Journal C 105, 07/05/1981 p. 1; see to this generally M. Schröder, supra 43, para
20 B. Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) I. Legal Regulations, Legal Instruments and Competent Authorities with Relevance for the Creation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) 1. International Law a) International (Global or Regional) Conventions Nearly all relevant international (global or regional) conventions for this study encourage the designation of (marine) protected areas by national Governments or international organizations. In their relationship among another these convention though they only partly refer to each other explicitly are of mutual complementary, close and overlapping character. Figure 1: Synopsis on the Protection of Areas and International Conventions Convention Abbreviation Done Entry into Regulations global force United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNCLOS Montego Bay, 10 December November 1994 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals CMS Bonn, 23 June November 1983 General obligation (Art. 192): -States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment. Measures taken by the States (Art. 194 para. 5): -shall include those necessary to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life. Special for EEZ: coastal States have a (restricted) option (Art. 211 para. 6 a)): -after appropriate consultations through the competent international organization of identifying particular, clearly defined areas of their respective EEZ where the adoption of special mandatory measures for the prevention of pollution from vessels is required for recognized technical reasons in relation to the oceanographical and ecological conditions in such areas, as well as their utilization or the protection of their resources and the particular character of their traffic; -of submission to IMO for its approval special measures which exceed existing international rules and standards for such areas. Parties that are Range States of a migratory species listed in Appendix I shall endeavour: -to conserve and, where feasible and appropriate, to restore those habitats of the species which are of importance in removing the species from danger of extinction (Art. III para. 4 a)). 18