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People v. Freeman (1994) :: :: Supreme Court of California Decisions :: California Case Law :: California Law :: US Law :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › California Case Law › Cal. 4th › Volume 8 › People v. Freeman (1994)
People v. Freeman (1994)
[No. S004787. Oct 24, 1994.]
Around 11 p.m., a man identified as the codefendant at trial, Paul Gutierrez, entered the bar wearing a baseball cap, and sat down about three stools [8 Cal. 4th 470] away from Koger. Gutierrez ordered a beer. About 10 or 15 minutes later, 2 other men entered and sat down at the far end of the bar. One, identified as defendant, ordered a beer. The other, who has never been identified, went to the men's room, then returned and also ordered a beer. After serving these two, Urone continued his bartending duties, and walked in front of Gutierrez.
Paul Urone, the bartender, worked with the police to prepare an "Identi-Kit" composite of the suspects, and later helped a police artist sketch them. He made no selection from a photographic lineup that did not include either Gutierrez or defendant. About a month after the crime, Urone selected Gutierrez's photograph from a lineup as that of the gunman wearing the [8 Cal. 4th 471] baseball cap. A few days later, he chose defendant's photograph as that of the "shooter." The next day, he identified defendant from a physical lineup. He put a question mark on the card because, he explained at trial, "I just felt that at the time, the seriousness of the crime, I didn't know, he might have had a look alike, a twin, so I just put a question mark ...." Urone later attended another physical lineup that included Gutierrez. He initially identified a person other than Gutierrez, but then felt he had made a mistake, and changed his identification to Gutierrez. He identified both Gutierrez and defendant at trial.
No one else in the bar the night of the robbery identified either defendant or Gutierrez. [8 Cal. 4th 472]
James Peters testified for the prosecution that in 1961, defendant and another person robbed him at gunpoint while he worked as a gas station attendant in Berkeley. The prosecution introduced records showing that defendant was convicted of robbing Peters and that defendant was also convicted of another armed robbery in 1968. [8 Cal. 4th 473]
In August 1984, near the end of the preliminary hearing, defense counsel Spencer Strellis, one of the defense attorneys who represented defendant throughout the trial, stated, "I have heard from my client ... that his hearing aid batteries, the batteries in his hearing aid have died, and I wonder if the Court would order the sheriff to provide him with new batteries so he once again can hear and partake in whatever." (Italics added.) The court responded, "Can I do that through a [Penal Code section] 4011.5?" An off-the-record discussion ensued, and the matter was not again referred to at the preliminary hearing. [8 Cal. 4th 474]
During this time, defendant filed various pro se pleadings in state court complaining about his attorneys and other matters. One, filed October 14, 1986, contained detailed complaints about defendant's medical and dental care. None mentioned a hearing problem. [8 Cal. 4th 475]
The next day, January 22, the court postponed a hearing from the next Monday to Tuesday so defendant could receive his medical treatment. It ordered that "defendant be seen by an Otolaryngologist for his ears. Further Court orders that his ears be cleaned and a determination be made whether defendant needs a second hearing aid for right ear and that the hearing aid for the left ear be checked and have batteries replaced, if necessary." The [8 Cal. 4th 476] same day, a doctor from the Alameda County Health Care Services examined defendant and scheduled him for an appointment the next day. A notation on the paper work indicates the doctor spoke with Judge Golde.
At a hearing on February 3, 1987, defendant personally admitted three prior convictions and denied one, with no apparent difficulty understanding the court. [8 Cal. 4th 477]
At a hearing to settle the record of the unreported bench conference of January 28, 1987, the court stated, "The conference concerned obtaining an extra copy of the daily transcripts for Mr. Freeman, who had a hearing loss, and we felt it would be necessary to make certain he could comprehend exactly what was said in case he had some difficulty hearing the voir dire of prospective jurors ... and testimony of witnesses." The court and Strellis also agreed that the daily transcript had been provided because of a concern that defendant "might not be able to hear because of his hearing loss." [8 Cal. 4th 478]
A similar contention was presented in People v. Guillory (1960) 178 Cal. App. 2d 854 [3 Cal. Rptr. 415, 80 A.L.R.2d 1077]. There, on the day of trial, the defendant, who had been released from custody on bail, complained he could not hear what was being said. He did not bring a battery for his hearing aid. At defense request, the court allowed defendant to stand next to the witness to hear. At the afternoon session, defendant indicated he had a hearing aid and could hear some things and not hear others. The trial proceeded. "No objection was made to proceeding further or effort made to change the seating arrangements in any manner. Nor did defendant appear to have any difficulty in following the proceedings." (Id. at p. 859.)
Nevertheless, the Guillory court held that the "record does not support the claim [that defendant was denied due process because he could not hear] factually or legally." (People v. Guillory, supra, 178 Cal.App.2d at p. 858.) "The trial judge showed the appellant every reasonable consideration. No [8 Cal. 4th 479] objection to the adopted procedure was made in the trial court. When equipped with his hearing aid appellant seems to have had no difficulty in following what was said. When he came to court without live batteries in the hearing device any handicap he may have suffered was self-imposed, and hence gave no ground for complaint. The record leaves no doubt that defendant had a fair and considerate trial and that he is guilty beyond a peradventure." (Id. at p. 862.)
Even if we assume that defendant occasionally failed to hear something, there is no reason to further assume that anything of significance was missed, or that defendant's ability effectively to participate in the proceedings or assist his attorney was compromised. [2] Even total physical absence from a hearing is not reversible unless the defendant's presence bears a reasonably substantial relation to the fullness of the defendant's opportunity to defend against the charges. (People v. Medina (1990) 51 Cal. 3d 870, 902-903 [274 Cal. Rptr. 849, 799 P.2d 1282].) [1b] Nothing in the record indicates that the hearing difficulties adversely affected the [8 Cal. 4th 480] defense, or prejudiced defendant in any way. Because he fails to demonstrate how he was prejudiced or denied a fair trial, we reject his claim of constitutional error. (Id. at p. 903.)
On August 7, 1986, a few months before the case was assigned to Judge Golde for trial, defendant filed one of his several pro se pleadings, a "Petition for Writ of Habeas Corpus," on a standard form approved by the Judicial Council. Defendant stated the following grounds upon which he based his allegation that his "imprisonment or detention is illegal": "I have a [sic] attorney I do not trust and conflict of interest. [¶] My attorney wants me to plead guilty." In response to the form question why he had not previously presented the ground, defendant stated: "I did not know how to get another attorney. See [Harris v. Superior Court (1977) 19 Cal. 3d 786 (140 Cal. Rptr. 318, 567 P.2d 750)]."
[3a] Defendant contends that the document, although "styled as a petition for writ of habeas corpus," was, "in essence, a 'Marsden motion' " (People v. Marsden (1970) 2 Cal. 3d 118 [84 Cal. Rptr. 156, 465 P.2d 44]), and that the trial court erred in failing to hold a hearing before denying it. We disagree.
[4] In People v. Marsden, supra, 2 Cal.3d at page 124, we held that "a judge who denies a motion for substitution of attorneys solely on the basis of his courtroom observations, despite a defendant's offer to relate specific instances of misconduct, abuses the exercise of his discretion to determine the competency of the attorney." Because of this, "[w]hen a defendant moves for substitution of appointed counsel, the court must consider any specific examples of counsel's inadequate representation that the defendant wishes to enumerate. Thereafter, substitution is a matter of judicial discretion. Denial of the motion is not an abuse of discretion unless the defendant has shown that a failure to replace the appointed attorney would 'substantially impair' the defendant's right to assistance of counsel. [Citations.]" (People v. Webster (1991) 54 Cal. 3d 411, 435 [285 Cal. Rptr. 31, 814 P.2d 1273].) "[A] trial court's duty to permit a defendant to state his reasons for dissatisfaction with his attorney arises when the defendant in some manner moves to discharge his current counsel." (People v. Lucky (1988) 45 Cal. 3d 259, 281 [247 Cal. Rptr. 1, 753 P.2d 1052].) "We do not necessarily require [8 Cal. 4th 481] a proper and formal legal motion, but at least some clear indication by defendant that he wants a substitute attorney." (Id. at p. 281, fn. 8.)
In People v. Wharton (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 522 [280 Cal. Rptr. 631, 809 P.2d 290], in a prior case, the defendant had "sent a detailed letter to the trial judge explaining why he was unhappy with his trial attorney ...." (Id. at p. 580.) We found no error in the court's denial of new counsel without further inquiry. "When the basis of a defendant's dissatisfaction with counsel is set forth in a letter of sufficient detail ... a full-blown hearing is not required." (Ibid.)
A full-blown hearing was not required here either. The only reason stated for the lack of "trust" and the "conflict of interest" was that defendant's attorney wanted him to plead guilty. The petition was filed months before trial; defendant did not claim that counsel would be unprepared if the case went to trial, as it eventually did. Defense counsel is obligated to advise the defendant regarding plea offers and possible guilty pleas. In light of this, defendant did not state an adequate basis for substitution of counsel. (People v. Smith (1993) 6 Cal. 4th 684, 689, 696-697 [25 Cal. Rptr. 2d 122, 863 P.2d 192]; People v. Terrill (1979) 98 Cal. App. 3d 291, 299-300 [159 Cal. Rptr. 360]; see also People v. Wharton, supra, 53 Cal.3d at pp. 580-581 [citing Terrill with approval].)
People v. Lloyd (1992) 4 Cal. App. 4th 724 [6 Cal. Rptr. 2d 105], cited by defendant, is distinguishable. There, the defendant wrote a letter to the [8 Cal. 4th 482] superior court requesting a new attorney. The letter contained specific claims of defense counsel's alleged malfeasance which, if well-founded, may have warranted the appointment of new counsel. The trial court was apparently unaware of the letter, and took no action regarding it. The Court of Appeal found the court erred in not even considering the "Marsden motion," although the error was cured by later events. (Id. at p. 731-732.)
Prior to examining the first panel, the court, anticipating that defendant would admit the prior convictions, stated that it would not read the allegations regarding them to the prospective jurors. Thereafter, while "death-qualifying the jury," the court and parties questioned the prospective jurors individually, as mandated in Hovey v. Superior Court (1980) 28 Cal. 3d 1, 80 [168 Cal. Rptr. 128, 616 P.2d 1301]. During this individual questioning, defense counsel Strellis often referred to the prior convictions. For example, in questioning the first prospective juror, he asked, "Let us suppose that ... you were to find that on four prior occasions some other time, years earlier, days earlier, months earlier, Mr. Freeman had been convicted of robbery, based on the fact that you have convicted him of murder, that you've convicted him of nine counts of, I think, attempted robbery, if I'm going to characterize it correctly, and that he has four prior robbery convictions, would you automatically come back with a verdict of death?" The answer was "no."
Later that day, defendant admitted the priors, which actually included two robberies and being an ex-felon in possession of a firearm on the occasion of [8 Cal. 4th 483] one of the robberies. Starting the next day, the district attorney also sometimes referred to the priors. A few days later, outside the presence of the prospective jurors, counsel for the codefendant Gutierrez, who did not face capital charges, objected that referring to defendant's priors "tainted" Gutierrez with "guilt by association." Strellis responded: "... I intend to ask every single juror, unless Mr. Quatman [the district attorney] does it, whether they would automatically return a death penalty based in part on the fact that my client has got two prior robbery convictions for which he has served separate prison terms. [¶] And I think I would be derelict in my duty to him if I did less than that. [¶] I can't do it hypothetically. They're his priors, and the one thing I do not want is for a surprise to the jury in the penalty phase, if we should get there, where suddenly they're evenly balanced, and we throw in two priors they never thought about."
In argument to the jury at the penalty phase, Strellis referred to the prior robberies, and stated they "should have come as no shock to most of you because we talked about it when we were selecting the jury." [8 Cal. 4th 484]
[5a] Defendant argues that "defense counsel and the prosecutor made it impossible for [defendant] to receive a fair trial" by disclosing his prior convictions. In effect, he claims Strellis was ineffective, and the district attorney committed misconduct, in this regard. The claim of misconduct has been waived. Not only did the defense fail to object to the district attorney's reference to the priors but, as noted, defense counsel referred to them first. (People v. Visciotti (1992) 2 Cal. 4th 1, 47-48 [5 Cal. Rptr. 2d 495, 825 P.2d 388]; People v. Ashmus, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 976.)
Defendant has not demonstrated ineffectiveness of counsel. [6] "To show ineffective assistance of counsel, defendant has the burden of proving that counsel's representation fell below an objective standard of reasonableness under prevailing professional norms, and that there is a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's unprofessional errors, the result would have been different." (People v. Kelly (1992) 1 Cal. 4th 495, 519-520 [3 Cal. Rptr. 2d 677, 822 P.2d 385].) "A reviewing court will not second-guess trial counsel's reasonable tactical decisions." (Id. at p. 520.)
[5b] Defense counsel Strellis explained his tactical decision on the record. Recognizing the possibility of an eventual penalty phase at which the priors would be proven to the jury, counsel wanted to blunt their effect by educating the jury about them in advance. We have already recognized the validity of such a tactical decision. In People v. Lanphear (1980) 26 Cal. 3d 814, 826-831 [163 Cal. Rptr. 601, 608 P.2d 689], defense counsel failed to object at the guilt phase to evidence of other crimes because he believed the evidence would be admitted at a possible penalty phase. We found such a decision reasonable. "Defense counsel was caught in a cruel dilemma: If the prior murders were introduced for the first time when the jury was considering penalty alone, the impact would be such as to make the penalty of death a foregone conclusion. ... We cannot say that the trial counsel's actions were not the product of informed tactical choice within the range of reasonable competence." (Id. at p. 831, as quoted in People v. Kelly, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 522.)
This rationale applies here. Defense counsel had to make a decision; he had to weigh the possible prejudice at the guilt phase of informing the jurors of the priors against the possible prejudice of the jury hearing of them for the first time at the penalty phase. "[C]ounsel may reasonably treat the entire trial as a whole, and consider what effect a tactical decision at one phase will have on a later phase." (People v. Kelly, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 522 [counsel reasonably failed to object to the guilt phase admission of a confession that might aid the defense at the penalty phase].) Counsel did so here; he made his decision and acted upon it. He followed through in his penalty phase [8 Cal. 4th 485] argument to the jury. "This is precisely the type of tactical decision defense counsel must be allowed to make without fear of appellate second-guessing ' "in the harsh light of hindsight." ' " (Id. at p. 523; see also People v. Visciotti, supra, 2 Cal.4th at pp. 47-48, fn. 17 [Counsel "may well have believed that this method of acquainting jurors with the evidence they were to hear would blunt its eventual impact."].)
[7] Defendant complains that counsel acted without his permission. His permission was not required. "[C]ounsel is captain of the ship.... 'When the accused exercises his constitutional right to representation by professional counsel, it is counsel, not defendant, who is in charge of the case. By choosing professional representation, the accused surrenders all but a handful of "fundamental" personal rights to counsel's complete control of defense strategies and tactics.' " (In re Horton (1991) 54 Cal. 3d 82, 95 [284 Cal. Rptr. 305, 813 P.2d 1335] [counsel can agree to trial by a commissioner], quoting People v. Hamilton (1989) 48 Cal. 3d 1142, 1163 [259 Cal. Rptr. 701, 774 P.2d 730], italics in Hamilton.) [5c] Once defendant made known to counsel his desire that prospective jurors not be informed of his record, counsel stopped mentioning it. Until then, he was entitled to voir dire the prospective jurors in the manner he felt was best for his client.
We have repeatedly rejected similar contentions. "Because the use of peremptory challenges is inherently subjective and intuitive, an appellate record will rarely disclose reversible incompetence in this process." (People v. Montiel (1993) 5 Cal. 4th 877, 911 [21 Cal. Rptr. 2d 705, 855 P.2d 1277].) The record reveals nothing suggesting incompetence in the questioning of prospective jurors. Defendant's attorneys participated fully in the process, and did so intelligently; they also had the benefit of the questions posed by the other attorneys and by the court, and the answers to those questions. Counsel asked no questions of some of the prospective jurors, which may be the best tactic for a number of reasons. For example, questioning by other parties may convince counsel that the juror would be favorable for the defense, and that further questions might only antagonize the juror or give the prosecution a reason to use a peremptory challenge or even grounds for a challenge for cause. Defendant "has not demonstrated that the manner of conducting this portion of voir dire resulted from other than an informed [8 Cal. 4th 486] strategic decision." (People v. Cox (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 618, 658 [280 Cal. Rptr. 692, 809 P.2d 351]; see also People v. Lewis (1990) 50 Cal. 3d 262, 290 [266 Cal. Rptr. 834, 786 P.2d 892] ["Defendant's assumption that a short voir dire could not have been competent is not supported by the authorities he cites."].)
The italicized language suggests the juror might have been good for the defense. The follow-up questioning that defendant focuses exclusively on showed only that the juror, although ambivalent about the death penalty, could vote for it if appropriate. Defendant claims his attorneys were incompetent for not questioning this juror themselves about the death penalty. The reason they did not is apparent. Why take a chance on him saying something that might get him disqualified or cause the district attorney to challenge him peremptorily when his views were established by the other questioning? [8 Cal. 4th 487]
[9] Defendant also complains that the "trial court repeatedly risked prejudicing jurors during voir dire by presenting individual jurors with possible scenarios, none of which mentioned that defendant might be innocent." (Italics by defendant.) "Defendant's failure to object at trial, however, particularly where (as here) such action would have permitted the court to clarify any possible misunderstanding resulting from the comments, bars his claim of error on appeal." (People v. Mitcham (1992) 1 Cal. 4th 1027, 1053 [5 Cal. Rptr. 2d 230, 824 P.2d 1277].)
The contention also lacks merit. The court carefully explained to the jury panels that questions regarding the death penalty are relevant only if the jury found defendant guilty of murder with special circumstances, and that it was not suggesting that the jury would or should make those findings. The conditional nature of the questions regarding death was repeated during the individual voir dire, including the voir dire of the very prospective juror that defendant uses as a "[t]ypical" example supposedly supporting his position. The court told the juror, "If you find Mr. Freeman guilty of first degree murder and you find the special circumstance true, that he intentionally killed during the course of a robbery, the law says the punishment for that offense is either death or life without possibility of parole...." (Italics added.) Defendant purports to quote this language, but deletes the critical word "If." fn. 3 [8 Cal. 4th 488]
Defendant did not seek a hearing on Horton's competence, or make any objection or motion relevant to this contention, thus waiving the claim. (People v. Sully (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 1195, 1216 [283 Cal. Rptr. 144, 812 P.2d 163].) Moreover, the claim lacks merit. The order granting immunity, issued in 1984 at the time of the preliminary hearing and signed by Judge Golde, was not originally part of the appellate record. The record has now been augmented to include it. It ordered Horton to "answer the questions with respect to her knowledge in" this case, and further ordered unconditionally that she "shall not be prosecuted or subjected to penalty or forfeiture for or on account of any fact or act concerning which, in accordance with the Order, she was required to answer."
"[Answer]: Yes, I did. [8 Cal. 4th 489]
This questioning, defendant contends, was a "bold insinuation to the jury that the trial judge had vouched for Carmen Horton's credibility by granting her immunity" and, as such, was a "foul blow." Again, the claim has been waived by the failure to object. (People v. Ashmus, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 976.) Moreover, there was no misconduct. The questions merely informed the jury that Horton had received immunity for her testimony. No reasonable juror would interpret the questions as implying that the judge, or anyone else, had vouched for her credibility. (People v. Price (1991) 1 Cal. 4th 324, 445 [3 Cal. Rptr. 2d 106, 821 P.2d 610] ["A reasonable juror would be unlikely to view the statement that immunity was 'not contrary to the public interest' as an endorsement of [the witness's] credibility."].)
Defendant claims the 1984 order did not grant immunity from prosecution as an "accomplice," while the 1987 formulation would have. We disagree. Horton's compelled testimony implicated her as an accessory under Penal Code section 32, although not as a principal; that "fact or act" was clearly covered by the 1984 order. Moreover, even if, hypothetically, the prosecutor had stated the terms of immunity more broadly in front of the jury than in the written order, that would not aid defendant. Both formulations granted unconditional immunity; neither suggests any reason to doubt Horton's competence to testify. In addition, the broader the grant of immunity the greater tendency it has to cast doubt on the credibility of the witness. [8 Cal. 4th 490]
We also find no misconduct and no incompetence. Because the decision whether to object is inherently tactical, the failure to object to evidence will [8 Cal. 4th 491] seldom establish incompetence. (People v. Ghent (1987) 43 Cal. 3d 739, 772 [239 Cal. Rptr. 82, 739 P.2d 1250]; People v. Frierson (1979) 25 Cal. 3d 142, 158 [158 Cal. Rptr. 281, 599 P.2d 587].) Defendant claims the evidence of the bag in the car was irrelevant because no one identified it as the bag used in the robbery, and an "infinite" number of people "must possess such common, unremarkable articles as plastic bags" in their cars. We disagree.
[12] Relevant evidence is evidence "having any tendency in reason to prove or disprove any disputed fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action." (Evid. Code, § 210.) "While there is no universal test of relevancy, the general rule in criminal cases might be stated as whether or not the evidence tends logically, naturally, and by reasonable inference to establish any fact material for the prosecution or to overcome any material matter sought to be proved by the defense. [Citation.] Evidence is relevant when no matter how weak it may be, it tends to prove the issue before the jury." (People v. Slocum (1975) 52 Cal. App. 3d 867, 891 [125 Cal. Rptr. 442].) [11b] Evidence that defendant possessed a plastic garbage bag shortly after the crime, coupled with the evidence that the shooter in the bar used a plastic garbage bag, tended to show that defendant was the shooter, which is a material fact in the case. Standing alone the inference may have been weak, but that does not make the evidence irrelevant. The fact that many persons may similarly have possessed such bags may diminish the strength of the evidence, but it does not make it irrelevant.
In People v. De La Plane (1979) 88 Cal. App. 3d 223 [151 Cal. Rptr. 843], the court admitted over a relevance objection evidence of a sawed-off axe handle found in the bathroom of the house in which the defendant was arrested. No evidence connected the handle to the crimes of that case except for expert testimony that it "could have caused" the victim's wounds. (Id. at p. 239, italics in original.) The Court of Appeal upheld admission of the evidence: "If a victim's wound could have been caused by a specific type of weapon or instrument, such a weapon or instrument found in defendant's possession is admissible in evidence. Such a weapon or instrument is considered relevant on the theory that a trier of fact may reasonably draw an inference from defendant's possession of the weapon or instrument to the fact that he used the weapon or instrument to commit the offense-a disputed fact of consequence in the action." (Ibid., italics in original.)
Similarly, here the jury may reasonably infer that defendant used the bag in the robbery, and thus was the shooter, a disputed fact of consequence in the action. Contrary to defendant's contention, the inference was not speculative, but was based on the similarity of the bag used in the robbery to the one found in defendant's car. In People v. De La Plane, supra, 88 [8 Cal. 4th 492] Cal.App.3d at page 240, the appellate court suggested the trial court could have excluded the evidence of the axe handle under Evidence Code section 352 because of its prejudicial nature. Here, there was nothing prejudicial about the plastic bag. No reason appears to have excluded it.
[13] Defendant argues the evidence should have been excluded, or sanctions should have been imposed, because the bag was later lost. In order to obtain sanctions for the loss of evidence, the defendant must show that it possessed an exculpatory value that was apparent before it was destroyed, and that the police acted in bad faith. (People v. Webb (1993) 6 Cal. 4th 494, 519 [24 Cal. Rptr. 2d 779, 862 P.2d 779].) Defendant can show neither. It is hard to imagine how the bag could have had an exculpatory value or how that value could have been apparent to the police. There is also no suggestion of bad faith. The jury heard all the facts surrounding the bag and its loss, and could draw its own conclusions. That was sufficient to protect defendant. (People v. Cooper (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 771, 811-812 [281 Cal. Rptr. 90, 809 P.2d 865].)
Defendant also suggests the issue regarding the bag was somehow related to an earlier "Hitch" motion (People v. Hitch (1974) 12 Cal. 3d 641 [117 Cal. Rptr. 9, 527 P.2d 361]) defendant made pro se, and argues that his attorneys acted ineffectively regarding that motion. The motion, handwritten by defendant, was labeled "Notice of motion and motion to dismiss (Hitch motion)," and requested the charges be dismissed "based upon the suppression and/or failure to preserve evidence." The motion was couched entirely in general terms; it never specified what evidence was supposed to have been suppressed or not preserved, and does not mention the plastic bag. The closest the motion came to being specific was a statement that the prosecutor "must provide names of all informants." When the motion was first filed, Strellis had not yet read it. As he stated, "It's in pro per. I'm not entitled not to file the motion." He asked to put the motion over so he would be in a position to argue it. When the motion was considered on the merits, Strellis stated in general terms that defendant was only asking for what he was entitled to, that the district attorney provide him with all exonerating evidence. The district attorney stated there was none that had not already been provided. When the defense presented no evidence to the contrary, the motion to dismiss was denied. [8 Cal. 4th 493]
Later, outside the presence of the jury, defendant moved for a mistrial on the basis that the "District Attorney had no right to go into the specifics of whether or not it was an armed robbery or guns were used." The court responded, "He didn't. He asked him was there a gun used, you objected, I sustained. [¶] Going into the robbery to show he was a crime partner is perfectly proper when it's offered as an alibi." When counsel for defendant noted the witness was not called by defendant, the court responded, "What difference does it make? He testified." [8 Cal. 4th 494]
Evidence that the alibi witness and defendant were crime partners in 1961 was admissible on the question of credibility. "The existence or nonexistence of a bias, interest, or other motive" may be considered in judging the credibility of a witness. (Evid. Code, § 780, subd. (f).) The evidence was admitted for that purpose, and therefore did not violate the general proscription in Evidence Code section 1101, subdivision (a), against the use of other crimes evidence. (People v. Lang (1989) 49 Cal. 3d 991, 1017 [264 Cal. Rptr. 386, 782 P.2d 627].)
Defendant cites People v. Holt (1984) 37 Cal. 3d 436 [208 Cal. Rptr. 547, 690 P.2d 1207], where the trial court admitted evidence of gang membership of certain witnesses. Although recognizing that a "witness may be cross-examined about the group membership he shares with a party to the action" to show bias, we doubted whether the evidence was properly admitted in that case because there was no evidence the defendant belonged to any such gang. (Id. at p. 456.) Here, the evidence did link the witness and defendant.
Defendant also contends the court failed to expressly weigh the probative value against the prejudicial effect. (See People v. Green (1980) 27 Cal. 3d 1, 25 [164 Cal. Rptr. 1, 609 P.2d 468].) "[H]owever, the record does not show an objection on these grounds to this line of questioning. [Fn. omitted.] Accordingly, the trial court was not obligated to make such an explicit ruling." (People v. Fierro (1991) 1 Cal. 4th 173, 238 [3 Cal. Rptr. 2d 426, 821 P.2d 1302].) Moreover, the fact the court disallowed questions regarding the specific facts of the 1961 crime suggests the court did weigh the probative [8 Cal. 4th 495] value against the prejudicial effect. Given the importance of allowing evidence that shows bias (People v. Dyer (1988) 45 Cal. 3d 26, 47 [246 Cal. Rptr. 209, 753 P.2d 1]), the court's rulings were well within its discretion.
[15] Although the court apparently offered to instruct the jury on the purpose for which it could consider this evidence, it never did. Defendant did not, however, request such an instruction, which waives the issue. The court has no sua sponte duty to so instruct. (People v. Collie (1981) 30 Cal. 3d 43, 64 [177 Cal. Rptr. 458, 634 P.2d 534, 23 A.L.R.4th 776]; People v. Milner (1988) 45 Cal. 3d 227, 251-252 [246 Cal. Rptr. 713, 753 P.2d 669].) Nor was counsel ineffective in failing to request the instruction. Counsel may well not have desired the court to emphasize the evidence, especially since it was obvious for what purpose it was being admitted. (See People v. Collie, supra, 30 Cal.3d at p. 64 ["Evidence of past offenses may not improperly affect the jury's deliberations if ... the evidence is obviously used to effect one or more of the many legitimate purposes for which it can be introduced."].)
[16] Defendant contends the prosecutor committed misconduct by asking whether McGuire was armed with a firearm. The court sustained an objection to the question, and it was not pursued. Defendant did not ask the jury be admonished to disregard the question, which, in any event, referred only to McGuire and not defendant. The issue has thus been waived. (People v. Carrera (1989) 49 Cal. 3d 291, 319 [261 Cal. Rptr. 348, 777 P.2d 121].) The court instructed the jury at the conclusion of the guilt phase that as "to any question to which an objection was sustained, you must not conjecture as to what the answer might have been or as to the reason for the objection." (See ibid.) Moreover, merely asking a question to which an objection is sustained does not itself show misconduct. Since the objection was sustained, counsel may have felt it best not to emphasize the matter in front of the jury. His failure to request a specific admonition was therefore not incompetent. (People v. Ghent, supra, 43 Cal.3d at pp. 772-773.)
Defendant also contends the prosecutor committed misconduct in suggesting to the jury during argument that McGuire may have been the unapprehended third man. Other prosecution evidence indicated that the identity of this third person was unknown. There was no objection, however, thus waiving the claim. (People v. Ashmus, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 976.) In any event, the argument merely commented on the evidence, and came within the broad range of permissible argument. The jury could decide the matter for itself. There was no implication the prosecutor had information not available to the jury. (People v. Edwards, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 839.) [8 Cal. 4th 496]
Defense counsel was also not incompetent for failing to renew the severance motion. As discussed in the next part, by this stage of the trial, defense counsel may have believed that the codefendant was useful to defendant in carrying the burden of trying to raise a reasonable doubt regarding identity, allowing counsel for defendant to concentrate on the issue of intent to kill. Moreover, given the Legislature's preference for joint trial of jointly charged defendants, and the advantages of such a trial, McGuire's testimony alone would not have been sufficient to justify severance of an otherwise proper joint trial. (People v. Keenan (1988) 46 Cal. 3d 478, 499-501 [250 Cal. Rptr. 550, 758 P.2d 1081].)
Defendant contends that his attorney's "concession" of guilt was tantamount to a guilty plea requiring a knowing and voluntary waiver of [8 Cal. 4th 497] constitutional rights, and that counsel failed to provide effective representation in this regard. We disagree on both counts.
Citing Boykin v. Alabama (1969) 395 U.S. 238 [23 L. Ed. 2d 274, 89 S. Ct. 1709] and In re Tahl (1969) 1 Cal. 3d 122 [81 Cal. Rptr. 577, 460 P.2d 449], defendant argues that he had to be admonished of and personally waive his rights against self-incrimination, to a jury trial, and to confront adverse witnesses before counsel could "concede" his guilt of everything but the special circumstance. Counsel did not, however, concede guilt; he merely did not argue the question of identity. The jury still had to find defendant was the gunman beyond a reasonable doubt. But even if counsel had expressly conceded identity, admonitions and waivers would not have been necessary.
In People v. Hendricks (1987) 43 Cal. 3d 584 [238 Cal. Rptr. 66, 737 P.2d 1350], defense counsel presented no closing argument at all. Pointing out that defendant did receive a jury trial, exercise his right against self-incrimination, and confront witnesses, we held that the admonitions and waivers were not necessary. (Id. at pp. 592-594; see also People v. Griffin (1988) 46 Cal. 3d 1011, 1029 [251 Cal. Rptr. 643, 761 P.2d 103] [no waiver needed even though defense counsel expressly "conceded defendant's responsibility for the killing"]; People v. Murphy (1972) 8 Cal. 3d 349, 365-366 [105 Cal. Rptr. 138, 503 P.2d 594].)
Defendant correctly argues that in People v. Hendricks, supra, 43 Cal.3d at page 592, the record expressly reflected that the defendant agreed with counsel's actions. Here, the record reflects neither agreement nor disagreement. That makes no difference. "The plurality opinion in People v. Frierson (1985) 39 Cal. 3d 803 [218 Cal. Rptr. 73, 705 P.2d 396] made it clear that although counsel does not have authority to override his client's express objection to conceding guilt, there is no requirement of a Boykin/Tahl waiver. (Id. at p. 818, fn. 8.) Here, unlike in Frierson, the record shows absolutely no indication that defendant disagreed with his attorney's tactical approach." (People v. Griffin, supra, 46 Cal.3d at p. 1029.)
Defendant cites Brookhart v. Janis (1966) 384 U.S. 1 [16 L. Ed. 2d 314, 86 S. Ct. 1245]. There, the defense agreed that the state need only prove a "prima facie case," and that the case would not be contested and the defendant would not cross-examine witnesses. (Id. at p. 3 [16 L.Ed.2d at pp. 316-317].) The high court held this procedure required a waiver of constitutional rights. There was, however, no comparable agreement here, thus making that decision inapposite. (People v. Hendricks, supra, 43 Cal.3d at p. 593.) [8 Cal. 4th 498]
In People v. Hendricks, supra, 43 Cal.3d at page 594, footnote 1, we noted, "The decision on the part of counsel not to present a defense does not involve a question of waiver but rather the issue of effective assistance of counsel." Defendant claims his attorneys were ineffective. To prevail, defendant must overcome the strong presumption that counsel's actions were sound trial strategy under the circumstances prevailing at trial. (Strickland v. Washington (1984) 466 U.S. 668, 689 [80 L. Ed. 2d 674, 694-695, 104 S. Ct. 2052]; People v. Bunyard (1988) 45 Cal. 3d 1189, 1215 [249 Cal. Rptr. 71, 756 P.2d 795].) He cannot overcome that presumption on this record. The decision of how to argue to the jury after the presentation of evidence is inherently tactical; counsel's approach comes within the permissible range of competent representation.
Recognizing the importance of maintaining credibility before the jury, we have repeatedly rejected claims that counsel was ineffective in conceding various degrees of guilt. (People v. Mayfield (1993) 5 Cal. 4th 142, 177 [19 Cal. Rptr. 2d 836, 852 P.2d 331]; People v. McPeters (1992) 2 Cal. 4th 1148, 1186-1187 [9 Cal. Rptr. 2d 834, 832 P.2d 146] [counsel conceded defendant's presence at the crime scene, thus repudiating defendant's alibi testimony, but under the "circumstances, we cannot say counsel was constitutionally ineffective in his attempt to make the best of a bad situation"]; People v. Mitcham, supra, 1 Cal.4th at pp. 1060-1061 ["good trial tactics often demand complete candor with the jury, and ... in light of the weight of the evidence incriminating a defendant, an attorney may be more realistic and effective by avoiding sweeping declarations of his or her client's innocence"]; People v. Breaux (1991) 1 Cal. 4th 281, 306-307 [3 Cal. Rptr. 2d 81, 821 P.2d 585]; People v. Jackson (1980) 28 Cal. 3d 264, 292-293 [168 Cal. Rptr. 603, 618 P.2d 149].) The same applies here.
It is true, as defendant argues, that counsel indicated in the opening statement that identity was one of the issues. But much happened between the opening statement and the closing argument, namely the presentation of evidence. During the evidence portion of trial, counsel for both defendants cross-examined witnesses and presented evidence on the question of identity. fn. 6 When the time came to argue the case to the jury, however, counsel had to base the tactical decisions on how the trial actually went, not how it might have gone. [8 Cal. 4th 499]
Counsel could reasonably have believed it unlikely that the jury would find a reasonable doubt regarding identity as to Gutierrez, but not also as to [8 Cal. 4th 500] defendant. Thus, argument on behalf of Gutierrez was also, in effect, argument on behalf of defendant. Counsel could reasonably have chosen to let Gutierrez argue the question of identity, and to concentrate on the issue that concerned defendant alone-intent. That way, defendant could benefit from Gutierrez's argument while allowing counsel for defendant to maintain his credibility with the jury by not making either weak arguments (all eyewitness identifications were wrong and Horton was lying) or inconsistent arguments (Horton was lying but she also was right about intent). Counsel effectively used Horton's testimony without also having to argue to the jury that she should not be believed.
In a related vein, defendant claims the court erred in its response to a jury question during deliberations, and his attorneys were ineffective in not objecting. During the read-back of testimony at jury request, one juror asked: "It may be out of line, but what is the procedure-I mean, this lineup identification, identification lineups, these suspects were in this lineup because of a flyer-if it's known to the court-because of the flyers that were sent out to the other police departments or maybe a telephone call-." Without objection, the court responded: "The reason for the lineup is to determine and see if a witness can make an identification. That's all you [8 Cal. 4th 501] have to know.... [¶] And the composition of the lineup is not for you to concern yourself."
[19] Defendant challenges the trial court's instruction on the reasonable doubt standard. The United States Supreme Court has recently upheld, for the present at least, the constitutionality of CALJIC No. 2.90, the standard reasonable doubt instruction in California. (Victor v. Nebraska (1994) 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239, affirming People v. Sandoval (1992) 4 Cal. 4th 155 [14 Cal. Rptr. 2d 342, 841 P.2d 862].) fn. 8 We have consistently upheld that instruction. (People v. Webb, supra, 6 Cal.4th at p. 531.)
"Now, the word 'moral' here does not mean religiosity or truthfulness. [8 Cal. 4th 502]
In Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239], the defendant challenged the constitutionality of CALJIC No. 2.90. His "primary objection [was] to the use of the phrases 'moral evidence' and 'moral certainty' in the instruction." (Id. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 593, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1245].) Although expressing concern that, in isolation, the challenged phrases do not contain the meaning today that they had in the 19th century, the high court, viewing the instruction in its entirety, rejected the challenge. It held, "Moral evidence, in this sentence [in CALJIC No. 2.90], can only mean empirical evidence offered to prove such matters-the proof introduced at trial." (Id. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 595, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1246].) The court was "more concerned" with the phrase " 'moral certainty.' " (Id. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 595, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1247].) It found the [8 Cal. 4th 503] term "ambiguous in the abstract," but saved by its context. (Ibid.) "An instruction cast in terms of an abiding conviction as to guilt, without reference to moral certainty, correctly states the government's burden of proof." (Ibid.) The court thus concluded that although the questioned terms add nothing of value to the instruction, they do not render it unconstitutional.
While finding the instruction not so unclear as to violate the Constitution, the court criticized the use of the word "moral," a criticism echoed in separate opinions by individual justices. "At the same time, however, we do not condone the use of the phrase ['moral certainty']. As modern dictionary definitions of moral certainty attest, the common meaning of the phrase has changed since it was used in the Webster instruction, and it may continue to do so to the point that it conflicts with the [In re Winship (1970) 397 U.S. 358 (25 L. Ed. 2d 368, 90 S.Ct. 1068)] standard [of reasonable doubt]." (Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 597, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1248], italics added.) Justice Kennedy found "California's use of 'moral evidence' is the most troubling, and to me seems quite indefensible." (Id. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 601, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1251] (conc. opn. of Kennedy, J.).) Justice Ginsburg agreed "that the term 'moral certainty,' while not in itself so misleading as to render the instructions unconstitutional, should be avoided as an unhelpful way of explaining what reasonable doubt means." (Id. at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 601, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1252] (conc. opn. of Ginsburg, J.).)
Penal Code section 1096a provides, "In charging a jury, the court may read to the jury section 1096 of this code [i.e., CALJIC No. 2.90], and no further instruction on the subject of the presumption of innocence or defining reasonable doubt need be given." In light of this provision and Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239], it is clear that giving CALJIC No. 2.90 is not error, at least not yet. It is equally clear, however, that Penal Code section 1096a, although stating that the standard instruction "may" be given and, if given, is sufficient, does not require that precise language. Nothing in that section prohibits trial courts from modifying the instruction.
It is true, as defendant argues, that appellate courts have long cautioned against "an impromptu instruction on reasonable doubt." (People v. Yoshimura (1979) 91 Cal. App. 3d 609, 632 [154 Cal. Rptr. 314]; see also People v. Paulsell (1896) 115 Cal. 6, 10 [46 P. 734]; People v. Garcia (1975) 54 Cal. App. 3d 61, 63-68 [126 Cal. Rptr. 275].) This is not because the instruction cannot be improved today. As Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239] attests, it certainly can. (See also People v. Brigham, supra, 25 Cal.3d at p. 290, fn. 11 (maj. opn.); id. at pp. [8 Cal. 4th 504] 292-316 (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).) Rather, it is because varying from the standard is a "perilous exercise." (People v. Yoshimura, supra, 91 Cal.App.3d at p. 632.)
Here, the trial court survived the peril inherent in modifying the standard instruction. Indeed, although it did not entirely anticipate the high court's opinion, it arguably improved the standard instruction by defining "moral evidence" as "mortal" evidence, or evidence from people or the mouths of people. This meshed nicely with the standard phase, used by the trial court, [8 Cal. 4th 505] "everything relating to human affairs," and came closer than the standard instruction to the high court's formulation of "the proof introduced at trial." Proof introduced at trial is necessarily mortal evidence or evidence from people or the mouths of people. Defendant argues this reformulation diminished the prosecution's burden. We disagree. The trial court used the phrase "an abiding conviction" that the high court held saved the standard instruction. If the term "moral evidence" passes muster, as the high court concluded, the court's modification certainly does. We stress, however, that future trial court modifications of the standard instruction should not be based on what the trial court did here (without benefit of the decision of Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S.Ct. 1239]), but should be limited to those suggested in this opinion pending possible action by the Legislature or CALJIC committee.
Regarding circumstantial evidence, which was relevant to the question of intent to kill, the court instructed: "[Y]ou cannot find a defendant guilty of any charge against him based on circumstantial evidence unless the proved circumstances are not only consistent with the theory that the defendant is guilty of the crime but cannot be reconciled with any other rational conclusion. Each fact which is essential to complete a set of circumstances [8 Cal. 4th 506] necessary to establish a defendant's guilt must be proved beyond a reasonable doubt.
[21] Defendant challenges the word "appears" in the final paragraph of the language quoted above, which is found in several standard instructions. (See CALJIC Nos. 2.01, Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence-Generally; 2.02, Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence to Prove Specific Intent or Mental State; 8.83, Special Circumstances-Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence-Generally; 8.83.1, Special Circumstances-Sufficiency of Circumstantial Evidence to Prove Required Mental State.) We have already rejected a similar challenge. (People v. Jennings (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 334, 386 [279 Cal. Rptr. 780, 807 P.2d 1009].) "The plain meaning of these instructions merely informs the jury to reject unreasonable interpretations of the evidence and to give the defendant the benefit of any reasonable doubt. No reasonable juror would have interpreted these instructions to permit a criminal conviction where the evidence shows defendant was 'apparently' guilty, yet not guilty beyond a reasonable doubt." (Ibid.; see also People v. Wilson (1992) 3 Cal. 4th 926, 942-943 [13 Cal. Rptr. 2d 259, 838 P.2d 1212].)
In this case, circumstantial evidence was not significant to the question of identity. That was shown by multiple eyewitness identifications and evidence that defendant admitted his involvement to Horton. Regarding the mental state of intent to kill, the titles, text and use notes of the instructions [8 Cal. 4th 507] all indicate that CALJIC Nos. 2.02 and 8.83.1, not 2.01 and 8.83, are the correct instructions. The correct instructions do not include the omitted sentence. In fact, the court added this sentence from CALJIC Nos. 2.01 and 8.83 that is not in CALJIC Nos. 2.02 and 8.83.1: "[E]ach fact which is essential to complete a set of circumstances necessary to establish a defendant's guilt must be proved beyond a reasonable doubt." Whether that sentence is appropriate to questions of mental state is problematic, but defendant cannot complain of any error in that regard, as it tended to increase the prosecution's burden. We find no error prejudicial to defendant.
[23] Defendant contends the court should have given accomplice instructions as to witness Horton, including that her testimony had to be corroborated and should be viewed with distrust. However, there was no evidence that Horton was an accomplice. None of the three robbers was a [8 Cal. 4th 508] woman, and Horton was not otherwise involved in the robbery itself, such as helping to asport the "loot" to a place of temporary safety. (See People v. Cooper, supra, 53 Cal. 3d 1158, 1169-1170.)
To be sure, there was evidence that Horton was an accessory to the crimes; she admitted that she disposed of the murder weapon. (See Pen. Code, § 32.) That no doubt explains why she was given immunity for her testimony. But an accessory is not "liable to prosecution for the identical offense charged against the defendant on trial in the cause in which the testimony of the accomplice is given." (Pen. Code, § 1111.) Hence, "[m]ere accessories are not accomplices under section 1111." (People v. Howard (1992) 1 Cal. 4th 1132, 1173 [5 Cal. Rptr. 2d 268, 824 P.2d 1315]; see also People v. Garceau (1993) 6 Cal. 4th 140, 183 [24 Cal. Rptr. 2d 664, 862 P.2d 664]; People v. Daniels (1991) 52 Cal. 3d 815, 867 [277 Cal. Rptr. 122, 802 P.2d 906].) For these reasons, accomplice instructions were unnecessary. (People v. Howard, supra, 1 Cal.4th at pp. 1173-1174.) Moreover, Horton's testimony was more than amply corroborated by the multiple eyewitness identifications of this case.
Defendant contends his attorneys were ineffective in a host of ways. The record does not support the claim. Those specific contentions that are sufficiently developed to be cognizable have been or will be discussed elsewhere in this opinion. Defendant argues in general that he filed various pro se pleadings and repeatedly complained about his attorneys in both state and federal courts. This is certainly correct. But complaints do not themselves prove they are well founded. Defendant must affirmatively show [8 Cal. 4th 509] ineffectiveness. (People v. Williams (1988) 44 Cal. 3d 883, 937 [245 Cal. Rptr. 336, 751 P.2d 395].) Mere allegations and complaints, even if repetitive, do not suffice.
Defendant argues that his attorneys did not file enough motions and written points and authorities, and did not "advocat[e] or supplement[]" some of his own pro se motions. He has not, however, shown a single potentially meritorious motion that was not pursued, or that any motions that were pursued were done so ineffectively. [25] As noted before, counsel is the captain of the ship (In re Horton, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 95), and need not do everything the defendant may personally desire, no matter how unmeritorious or possibly even harmful to the overall defense. Competent counsel is not required to make all conceivable motions or to leave an exhaustive paper trail for the sake of the record. Rather, competent counsel should realistically examine the case, the evidence, and the issues, and pursue those avenues of defense that, to their best and reasonable professional judgment, seem appropriate under the circumstances. (See generally, People v. Eckstrom (1974) 43 Cal. App. 3d 996, 1002-1003 [118 Cal. Rptr. 391].)
Penal Code section 190.9, subdivision (a), provides in pertinent part: "In any case in which a death sentence may be imposed, all proceedings conducted in the justice, municipal, and superior courts, including proceedings in chambers, shall be conducted on the record with a court reporter present." Although section 190.9 has been amended in other respects, the quoted language has applied to all proceedings conducted after its effective date of January 1, 1985. (See People v. Pinholster (1992) 1 Cal. 4th 865, 920 [4 Cal. Rptr. 2d 765, 824 P.2d 571].)
[26a] Despite this statutory mandate, the trial court presided over various conferences off the record, both at the bench in front of the jury and in chambers outside the presence of the jury, that occurred well after the statute's effective date. Defendant contends this was reversible error. Error it was; in the absence of prejudice, however, it is not reversible. Defendant "bears the burden of demonstrating that the appellate record is not adequate to permit meaningful appellate review." (People v. Cummings (1993) 4 [8 Cal. 4th 510] Cal.4th 1233, 1333-1334, fn. 70 [18 Cal. Rptr. 2d 796, 850 P.2d 1]; see also People v. Hawthorne (1992) 4 Cal. 4th 43, 66-67 [14 Cal. Rptr. 2d 133, 841 P.2d 118]; People v. Howard, supra, 1 Cal.4th at pp. 1165-1166; People v. Pinholster, supra, 1 Cal.4th at pp. 919-923.)
Defendant's ability to fully litigate any issue on appeal has thus not been compromised by the unreported conferences. "We find the record before us adequate to the task at hand: Resolution of defendant's claims does not depend upon a verbatim transcription; hence, the settled statement suffices. [Citations.] On this basis, we also find no violation of defendant's due process right to meaningful appellate review." (People v. Hawthorne, supra, 4 Cal.4th at pp. 66-67.) Defendant challenges the accuracy of the settled record. "The settlement of the record, however, is primarily a question of fact to be resolved by the trial court. [Citation.] Once settlement is ordered, the trial court has broad discretion to accept or reject counsel's representations in accordance with its assessment of their credibility. [Citation.]." (People v. Beardslee (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 68, 116 [279 Cal. Rptr. 276, 806 P.2d 1311]; accord, People v. Clark (1993) 5 Cal. 4th 950, 1011 [22 Cal. Rptr. 2d 689, 857 P.2d 1099].) We see no abuse of discretion.
Defendant contends he was indeed prejudiced. Some of the instances he complains of are discussed elsewhere in this opinion. He claims there were unreported proceedings regarding the prosecutor's written "notice of intention to introduce evidence in aggravation." The settled record does indicate that off the record, the court limited the prosecution's aggravating evidence to that which was in fact presented, and that it "advised" the prosecutor "he could not argue future dangerousness." Defendant has shown no inability to litigate any issue these rulings present. Defendant also claims there were unreported hearings related to his hearing difficulties. The contents of one, on January 28, 1987, were immediately placed on the record. The settled record states the contents of another, on February 5, 1987. We have reviewed defendant's other claims, and similarly find no prejudice. The record is sufficient to afford full appellate review. [8 Cal. 4th 511]
[27] ,[26b] Defendant also argues that some of the unreported hearings violated his right to be present. However, "a defendant does not have a right to be present at every hearing held in the course of a trial." (People v. Price, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 407.) He has a right to be personally present only if his presence bears a reasonable and substantial relation to his full opportunity to defend against the charges. (People v. Jones (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 1115, 1140-1141 [282 Cal. Rptr. 465, 811 P.2d 757]; People v. Clark, supra, 5 Cal.4th at pp. 1011-1012.) Defendant has not shown that any absence prejudiced him or denied him a fair or impartial trial. (Ibid.)
[28] Defendant contends the "courtroom atmosphere was frivolous and antithetical to the seriousness of the proceedings, and destroyed [his] entitlement to a fair trial and due process of law." He refers to a number of exchanges among counsel for both sides and the court that were intended, with varying degrees of success, to be humorous. The exchanges often, although not always, occurred outside the presence of the jury. Defendant has waived the contention by failing to object to the complained-of comments. (People v. Wright (1990) 52 Cal. 3d 367, 411 [276 Cal. Rptr. 731, 802 P.2d 221]; People v. Melton (1988) 44 Cal. 3d 713, 753 [244 Cal. Rptr. 867, 750 P.2d 741].)
On the merits, we find no error. Although a jury trial, especially for a capital offense, is obviously a serious matter, "Well-conceived judicial humor can be a welcome relief during a long, tense trial. Obviously, however, the court should refrain from joking remarks which the jury might interpret as denigrating a particular party or his attorney." (People v. Melton, supra, 44 Cal.3d at pp. 753-754.) We have reviewed the entire record, [8 Cal. 4th 512] including each example defendant cites in support of his claim. During the course of the lengthy trial, the court and counsel engaged in occasional good-natured repartee. At no time did either court or counsel cross the line from the proper to the improper. No comments denigrated either defendant or his attorneys in any significant manner. Moreover, even if we were to assume that any of the exchanges were improper, there is no suggestion of prejudice to defendant. The trial as a whole, especially the portion in front of the jury, was conducted with appropriate solemnity.
[29] Defendant contends the court should have excluded James Peters's testimony regarding the facts of the 1961 armed robbery. He has waived the contention by failing to object. (People v. Zapien (1993) 4 Cal. 4th 929, 987 [17 Cal. Rptr. 2d 122, 846 P.2d 704].) Moreover, there would have been no basis for the court to exclude the testimony upon an objection; therefore, contrary to defendant's claim, counsel was not ineffective. "The short answer to this claim is that the evidence is expressly made admissible by factor (b) of [Penal Code] section 190.3. The court is not given discretion under Evidence Code section 352, to exclude this evidence when offered at the penalty phase where ... the question for the jury is not one of fact in determining guilt." (People v. Karis (1988) 46 Cal. 3d 612, 641 [250 Cal. Rptr. 659, 758 P.2d 1189]; accord, People v. Zapien, supra, 4 Cal.4th at p. 987.) Remoteness is not a ground to exclude penalty phase evidence of violent criminal activity, as it "affects the weight, not admissibility, of the offense." (People v. Anderson (1990) 52 Cal. 3d 453, 476 [276 Cal. Rptr. 356, 801 P.2d 1107].)
The court does have limited discretion under Evidence Code section 352 regarding the form of penalty phase evidence, that is, the way in which the prosecutor seeks to present the case. (See People v. Bacigalupo (1991) 1 Cal. 4th 103, 140 [2 Cal. Rptr. 2d 335, 820 P.2d 559].) Here, there was nothing questionable about the form of the evidence, consisting of live testimony of a victim, and thus no reason for the court to insist on the prosecutor presenting the facts in a different form.
Defendant contends his attorneys were ineffective in their penalty phase representation. Some of the specific contentions have been or will be [8 Cal. 4th 513] discussed elsewhere in this opinion. We reject the others. [30] In analyzing the contentions, we must keep in mind the strong presumption that counsel's actions fell within the wide range of reasonable professional assistance. We also evaluate the conduct from counsel's perspective at the time of the acts or omissions complained of. (People v. Bunyard, supra, 45 Cal.3d at p. 1215.)
[32] Even if we somehow assume additional mitigating evidence existed, counsel did not necessarily have to present it. As always, counsel had to consider the possible detriment as well as the benefit. Presenting mitigating evidence risks opening the door to rebuttal evidence. "The prosecution may rebut mitigating penalty evidence with unfavorable revelations about the defendant. In rebuttal, the prosecution is bound neither by its statutory pretrial notice of aggravating evidence [citation] nor by the aggravating factors set forth in the statute. [Citations.] The possibility of damaging rebuttal is a necessary consideration in counsel's decision whether to present mitigating evidence about the defendant's character and background." (People v. Gonzalez (1990) 51 Cal. 3d 1179, 1251 [275 Cal. Rptr. 729, 800 P.2d 1159].) [31b] Here, the defense case triggered no rebuttal whatsoever.
Nothing supports defendant's contention that counsel acted incompetently regarding the evidence they did put on. Defendant cites a question counsel [8 Cal. 4th 514] posed to a defense witness that showed momentary confusion regarding the facts, but nothing close to incompetence is thereby shown. Any confusion was quickly straightened out, and may even have suggested to the jury that the evidence was coming from the witnesses, not orchestrated by counsel.
After the defense presented its penalty phase evidence, the court asked the district attorney in front of the jury if there was anything further. He responded, "Not at this time, no." The court stated, "If you don't do it at this time, I don't know when you're going to do it." The district attorney then said, "I may have a rebuttal witness but I'm not sure you'll allow me to put him on." Ultimately, there was no further evidence. Defense counsel moved for a mistrial, arguing that the reference to a possible rebuttal witness implied to the jury there was additional aggravating evidence the court [8 Cal. 4th 515] would not allow. The district attorney responded that he had some evidence regarding possession of razor blades in prison, and he did not want to rest until he could argue for its admission. The court denied a mistrial, stating, "The jury has heard a lot of instructions. They know to base the decision on what they hear. I told them a million times: The statements of attorneys are not evidence and I think we're overly reacting."
[33] Defendant complains of the comment regarding a possible rebuttal witness. The district attorney had to say something when the court wanted to know if there was anything further. While he certainly could have more artfully preserved his option to argue the matter later, we agree with the trial court that there was no prejudice. This reference to possible rebuttal was brief and vague. It was never exploited. The jury was instructed at both the guilt and the penalty phases that statements of the attorneys are not evidence, and not to consider any statement by an attorney not supported by the evidence. "Any harm flowing from the alleged misconduct was thereby cured." (People v. Szeto (1981) 29 Cal. 3d 20, 34 [171 Cal. Rptr. 652, 623 P.2d 213].)
We have generally condemned invocations to a different or higher law than that found in the California Penal Code. (People v. Wash (1993) 6 Cal. 4th 215, 260-261 [24 Cal. Rptr. 2d 421, 861 P.2d 1107], and cases cited therein.) "What is objectionable is reliance on religious authority as supporting or opposing the death penalty. The penalty determination is to be made by reliance on the legal instructions given by the court, not by recourse to extraneous authority." (People v. Sandoval, supra, 4 Cal.4th at p. 194, affd. sub nom. Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239].)
Defendant has waived this contention by failing to object. (People v. Wash, supra, 6 Cal.4th at pp. 259-260.) "Trial counsel not only failed to [8 Cal. 4th 516] object, but he relied at length on the Bible as support for not imposing the death penalty." (People v. Hill (1992) 3 Cal. 4th 959, 1012 [13 Cal. Rptr. 2d 475, 839 P.2d 984], italics in original.)
Defendant contends his attorneys were ineffective. "[I]n the heat of a trial, defense counsel is best able to determine proper tactics in the light of the jury's apparent reaction to the proceedings. The choice of when to object is inherently a matter of trial tactics not ordinarily reviewable on appeal. [Citation.] Here, defense counsel did not object; rather, he countered the prosecution argument with argument of his own." (People v. Frierson (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 730, 749 [280 Cal. Rptr. 440, 808 P.2d 1197].) Counsel adeptly turned the argument around: "You know," he responded to the jury, "it's interesting that [the district attorney] read the Bible. He sort of when he gets to talking, he left out Christ's sermon on the mountain where Christ said ...." He then quoted from the Sermon on the Mount, concluding, " 'Judge not that ye be not judged. For with that judgment ye judge ye shall be judged; and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again.' " We cannot say this tactic was unreasonable.
In light of this, the religious references were not so much prejudicial as pointless. They invited the defense to effectively respond in kind, as it did. "Thus, we do not believe the objectionable remarks could reasonably have diminished the jury's sense of responsibility, or displaced the court's instructions." (People v. Wash, supra, 6 Cal.4th at p. 261.) [8 Cal. 4th 517]
On the merits, the argument was improper in two respects. First, although the Attorney General is technically correct that the speaker was only a prospective juror at the time of the quote, for the district attorney not to further identify him as a sitting juror was misleading. Second, counsel should not quote individual jurors in their argument to the entire jury. In People v. Wein (1958) 50 Cal. 2d 383, 395 [326 P.2d 457], overruled on other grounds in People v. Daniels (1969) 71 Cal. 2d 1119, 1140 [80 Cal. Rptr. 897, 459 P.2d 225, 43 A.L.R.3d 677], we stated that "arguments should be addressed to the jury as a body and the practice of addressing individual jurors by name during the argument should be condemned rather than approved...." (Accord, Neumann v. Bishop (1976) 59 Cal. App. 3d 451, [8 Cal. 4th 518] 473 [130 Cal. Rptr. 786].) If counsel should not address individual jurors by name, they should similarly not quote individual jurors.
In his rebuttal argument, the district attorney stated: "And then Mr. Braverman [defendant's second attorney] turned to you and told you that this should be reserved for the worst possible people. He begged you for Fred Freeman's life. Yet in 1979, when he represented another guy who was one of the worst possible people, he begged for his life, too. He is just begging for the life of the client in this case." Defendant later moved for a mistrial, arguing that the reference to his arguments in the other case "is outside the record. It was improper." The court denied the motion. It was indeed improper for the district attorney to refer to counsel's argument in another case. (People v. Farmer (1989) 47 Cal. 3d 888, 922-923 [254 Cal. Rptr. 508, [8 Cal. 4th 519] 765 P.2d 940].) But we perceive no prejudice. The district attorney suggested that the facts in the other case were worse than in this, which could hardly harm defendant. It would not astonish the jury to be told that counsel would also argue for life in another case, even if the facts were worse. No reasonable juror would infer that the propriety of death in this case should not be individually assessed.
[37] Defendant argues the district attorney improperly suggested defendant had committed more than one murder, and that the references to "homicidal maniac" were inflammatory. He did not object, thus waiving the [8 Cal. 4th 520] contention. (People v. Ashmus, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 989.) Defendant contends his attorneys were ineffective. We disagree. As noted, the failure to object rarely establishes prejudice. Here, counsel Strellis countered the statements with argument of his own. (People v. Frierson, supra, 53 Cal.3d at p. 749.) He responded: "Is my client a homicidal maniac? [¶] Did you find any evidence of that? Is there any likelihood of that? Truthfully? [¶] Are you a little amazed? I was amazed." There was no need for counsel to object regarding the number of murders. Although the district attorney misspoke when he said defendant killed "once more," there was no serious suggestion of additional murders. Indeed, the prosecutor himself stated, "This is not a mass-murder situation.... You were all asked and told that the law applies in this case specifically to one murder during the course of one robbery-a couple of robberies in a bar, but basically one activity."
Defendant contends the district attorney improperly argued future dangerousness by noting that defendant had killed before, and might in prison. [8 Cal. 4th 521] Defendant's mistrial motion was properly denied. Although expert testimony on future dangerousness is not permitted, the prosecutor may argue the defendant is dangerous. (People v. Danielson (1992) 3 Cal. 4th 691, 720-721 [13 Cal. Rptr. 2d 1, 838 P.2d 729]; People v. Fierro, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 249.)
It appears from this that, off the record, the court ruled inadmissible prosecution evidence regarding institutional misbehavior, may have placed restrictions on how the defense could argue defendant's good behavior, and told the prosecutor not to argue "future dangerousness." As discussed above, there should be no proceedings off the record. But we perceive no prejudice. A ruling excluding aggravating evidence could obviously only benefit defendant. There is no indication the court limited the defense presentation of evidence. It is clear the court did not believe the prosecutor violated its directive not to argue future dangerousness in his generic argument that defendant had killed before and might again. The restriction on argument of future dangerousness was undoubtedly tethered to the court's limitations on aggravating evidence. [8 Cal. 4th 522]
[39] Defendant claims the district attorney improperly argued that none of defendant's family members asked the jury to spare his life. There was no objection, thus waiving the point. There was also no error. The district attorney did not argue this was aggravating, but was merely the absence of mitigation. The prosecutor may properly comment on defense evidence in mitigation. (People v. Noguera (1992) 4 Cal. 4th 599, 644 [15 Cal. Rptr. 2d 400, 842 P.2d 1160]; People v. Pinholster, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 972; cf. People v. Davenport (1985) 41 Cal. 3d 247, 288-290 [221 Cal. Rptr. 794, 710 P.2d 861] [prosecutor may not argue that the lack of mitigating evidence rendered the crime aggravated].)
Defendant argues that counsel was wrong, that it is permissible for defense counsel to ask family members if they want the defendant executed. This may be correct, but we cannot determine on appeal the tactical reasons [8 Cal. 4th 523] for the approach counsel took. Counsel may have preferred this argument to having witnesses testify and be subject to cross-examination. Moreover, we do not know what the witnesses might have said if asked. There is no basis for finding ineffective assistance of counsel.
Defendant also challenges prosecution arguments that defendant's two children would be "better off without him"; that calling the children was "the cheapest trick of all," was "manipulating them," and was "cold and calculating"; and that even if defendant's father had abused him and turned him into a "homicidal maniac," that "just means that he's more dangerous than he ever was before." There was no objection, thus waiving the claims. Moreover, the argument was a proper response to the defense evidence in mitigation. (People v. Caro (1988) 46 Cal. 3d 1035, 1062-1063 [251 Cal. Rptr. 757, 761 P.2d 680] [the prosecutor may argue that "defendant's evidence under [Pen. Code, § 190.3, factor (k),] did not excuse his conduct -it made it worse. He was merely arguing the lack of weight of defendant's evidence"].)
Defendant also complains of argument that "[w]e haven't had an execution in the state of California since 1966. That's 21, 22 years ago." He claims the prosecutor improperly told the jury, in effect, the "execution won't happen," and thus minimized the jury's sense of responsibility for imposing the death penalty. (See Caldwell v. Mississippi (1985) 472 U.S. 320 [86 L. Ed. 2d 231, 105 S. Ct. 2633].) There was no objection, so the claim has been waived. Moreover, in context, there was no impropriety. In his opening argument, defense counsel had described to the jury in vivid terms the horrors of an execution. The district attorney responded that counsel could not have been speaking from personal experience, since there had not been an execution for so long. There is no reasonable likelihood the jury misunderstood the comments in a manner that violates the rule of Caldwell v. Mississippi, supra, 472 U.S. 320. (People v. Rowland (1992) 4 Cal. 4th 238, 276 [14 Cal. Rptr. 2d 377, 841 P.2d 897].)
Finally, defendant claims, as he did at trial, that the district attorney violated the rule of Griffin v. California (1965) 380 U.S. 609 [14 L. Ed. 2d 106, 85 S. Ct. 1229] by arguing, "Not one person, not his mother, not his sister, not his ex-wife, told you about remorse, sorrow. None." We disagree. The statement was fair comment on the state of the evidence. (People v. Mayfield, supra, 5 Cal.4th at p. 178.) "[I]n the absence of a clear reference to a defendant's failure to testify, a prosecutor is free to make a logical comment on the defendant's lack of remorse." (People v. Breaux, supra, 1 Cal.4th at p. 313.) [8 Cal. 4th 524]
Reversing the common defense argument that the trial court is required to delete inapplicable mitigating factors (e.g., People v. Malone (1988) 47 Cal. 3d 1, 47 [252 Cal. Rptr. 525, 762 P.2d 1249]), defendant argues the court erred in doing so. Although the court need not delete inapplicable factors (ibid.), it is not error of which defendant can complain to do what defendants have long urged. (See People v. Edwards, supra, 54 Cal.3d at p. 846.) The court listed all mitigating factors that had any possible relevance to this case. In light of the evidence of the 1961 robbery, however, it did inexplicably delete one clearly applicable aggravating factor, factor (b) (criminal activity involving force or violence). Omission of an aggravating factor could hardly have harmed defendant. In any event, since defendant was also convicted of the crime, the jury no doubt considered that evidence as a felony conviction.
Defendant also challenges the use of the phrase "if applicable." He claims the court, not the jury, must determine whether any factor applies. The phrase was appropriate. The jury ultimately determines whether any particular factor applies in any given case. (People v. Miranda (1987) 44 Cal. 3d 57, 105 [241 Cal. Rptr. 594, 744 P.2d 1127].)
Defendant next contends the court erroneously instructed on the catchall factor (k) of Penal Code section 190.3. The court told the jury it "may consider any other circumstance which extenuates the gravity of the crime, even though it's not a legal excuse for the crime. [¶] You may consider any other aspect of the defendant's character, his background, his history or record that he offers as a basis of a sentence less than death." This is actually broader than the formulation we suggested in People v. Easley (1983) 34 Cal. 3d 858, 878, footnote 10 [196 Cal. Rptr. 309, 671 P.2d 813], and is [8 Cal. 4th 525] certainly broad enough to encompass all the evidence the defense presented. Defendant complains that this instruction "wrongly suggested that [he] had the burden of providing a 'basis of a sentence less than death.' " It did not. It merely told the jury it may consider any evidence the defendant did offer, nothing more.
The court instructed, "A factor in aggravation must be proved beyond a reasonable doubt." This was unduly favorable to defendant, a point of which he can hardly complain. Except for evidence of other crimes, an aggravating factor need not be proved beyond a reasonable doubt. (People v. Williams (1988) 45 Cal. 3d 1268, 1322 [248 Cal. Rptr. 834, 756 P.2d 221].) Defendant contends, however, that the instruction suggested to the jury that he had the same burden as to factors in mitigation. It did not.
Defendant reiterates other arguments that have already been rejected. The court need not instruct the jury which factors are aggravating and which are mitigating. (People v. Raley (1992) 2 Cal. 4th 870, 919 [8 Cal. Rptr. 2d 678, 830 P.2d 712].) The California legislative scheme and the factors in Penal Code section 190.3 are not unconstitutionally vague. (Tuilaepa v. California (1994) 512 U.S. __________ [129 L. Ed. 2d 750, 114 S. Ct. 2630]; People v. Bacigalupo (1993) 6 Cal. 4th 457 [24 Cal. Rptr. 2d 808, 862 P.2d 808].) Consideration of age as a possible factor in either mitigation or aggravation was not improper. (Tuilaepa v. California, supra, 512 U.S. at p. __________ [129 L.Ed.2d at pp. 762-763, 114 S.Ct. at pp. 2637-2638]; People v. Hawthorne, supra, 4 Cal.4th at pp. 77-79.)
I concur in the judgment. I am also in general agreement with the majority opinion by Justice Arabian and with the concurring opinion by Justice George. [8 Cal. 4th 526]
For 15 years, the Legislature has had before it an invitation to prohibit trial courts from attempting to define proof beyond a reasonable doubt in their jury instructions in criminal cases. (See People v. Brigham (1979) 25 Cal. 3d 283, 292-316 [157 Cal. Rptr. 905, 599 P.2d 100] (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).)
The invitation was extended at that time because any purported instructional definition of reasonable doubt-including, and perhaps especially, that which is deemed standard-was seen to run a substantial risk of violating the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which, in the words of In re Winship (1970) 397 U.S. 358, 364 [25 L. Ed. 2d 368, 375, 90 S. Ct. 1068], "protects the accused against conviction except upon proof beyond a reasonable doubt of every fact necessary to constitute the crime with which he is charged." (People v. Brigham, supra, 25 Cal.3d at p. 293 (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).)
The risk of a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause is even more substantial today. Indeed, it may now be characterized as grave. (See generally, Victor v. Nebraska (1994) 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239].)
I concur in the thoughtful analysis set forth in the court's opinion. I write separately to echo the court's request that the Legislature address the numerous concerns regarding the clarity of California's standard reasonable doubt instruction, CALJIC No. 2.90, pointedly expressed by the United States Supreme Court in Victor v. Nebraska (1994) 511 U.S. __________ [127 L. Ed. 2d 583, 114 S. Ct. 1239], affirming People v. Sandoval (1992) 4 Cal.4th [8 Cal. 4th 527] 155, 185-186 [14 Cal. Rptr. 2d 342, 841 P.2d 862]. (See maj. opn., ante, pp. 501-505.) fn. 1
In tracing the origins of CALJIC No. 2.90 to a charge given more than a century ago in Commonwealth v. Webster (1850) 59 Mass. (5 Cush.) 295, 320, the high court in Victor summarized certain relevant judicial and legislative commentary, observing: "The California instruction [CALJIC No. 2.90] was criticized in People v. Brigham [(1979)], 25 Cal. 3d 283, 292-316 [(]157 Cal. Rptr. 905, 911-926, 599 P.2d 100, 106-121[)] (Mosk, J., concurring). Justice Mosk apparently did not think the instruction was unconstitutional, but he 'urge[d] the Legislature to reconsider its codification.' [Citation.] The California Assembly and Senate responded by requesting the [CALJIC Committee] 'to study alternatives to the definition of "reasonable doubt" set forth in Section 1096 of the Penal Code, and to report its findings and recommendations to the Legislature.' [(]Cal. Assem. Con. Res. No. 148, 1986 Cal. Stats. 5634.[)] The committee recommended that the legislature retain the statutory definition unmodified, see Alternative Definitions of Reasonable Doubt: A Report of the Committee on Standard Jury Instructions -Criminal to the California Legislature (May 22, 1987), and § 1096 has not been changed." (Victor v. Nebraska, supra, 511 U.S __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 593, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1245].)
In the report cited in Victor, Alternative Definitions of Reasonable Doubt, approved by the Committee on Standard Jury Instructions-Criminal of the Los Angeles Superior Court on February 19, 1987, and reprinted by the Los Angeles Daily Journal on May 22, 1987, as Report No. 87-10 (the CALJIC Report), the CALJIC Committee considered various criticisms that had been directed toward California's standard reasonable doubt instruction, studied similar instructions given in other jurisdictions, and concluded, inter alia, that "the Legislature should retain the present definition of reasonable doubt," observing that "the definition [of reasonable doubt] embodied in [Penal Code] section 1096 has survived ... all appellate challenges and efforts to modify and improve it." (CALJIC Rep., supra, at pp. 7-8, italics [8 Cal. 4th 528] added [citing People v. Paulsell (1896) 115 Cal. 6, 12 [46 P. 734]; People v. Chun Heong (1890) 86 Cal. 329, 332 [24 P. 1021]; People v. Strong (1866) 30 Cal. 151, 155].)
"And it follows that by an equally confusing reference to 'a moral certainty.' The apparent origins of these terms, traced to an 1850 opinion of the Massachusetts Supreme Court, are discussed in Justice Mosk's brilliant essay on the reasonable doubt instruction. [See People v. Brigham (1979) 25 Cal. 3d 283, 292 [157 Cal. Rptr. 905, 599 P.2d 100] (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).] [8 Cal. 4th 529]
"There is simply no basis to apprehend that a reasonable doubt instruction in the terms of the present first paragraph, and mandated by the Legislature, would be found constitutionally insufficient. No case has been cited or found that reached such a conclusion. [In re Winship (1970) 397 U.S. 358, 364 (25 L. Ed. 2d 368, 375, 90 S.Ct. 1068)] was the first U.S. Supreme Court case to explicitly hold that the Due Process Clause protects an accused against conviction except upon [proof beyond a] reasonable doubt. But neither that case nor any later decision has prescribed any particular definition of the [8 Cal. 4th 530] concept. Certainly none has required 'moral evidence' or 'moral certainty' as constitutional imperatives. And, as the majority report discloses, most American jurisdictions do not employ these phrases in defining reasonable doubt, and several do not attempt any definition of the term.
"A similar question was before the [California] Supreme Court within the last year. In People v. Rodriguez [(1986)] 42 Cal. 3d 730, 780 [ ], the special circumstance of killing a person one knows or reasonably should have known to be an on-duty police officer (Pen. C[ode §] 190.2[, subd.](a)(7)) was attacked as too vague for a death penalty standard. The court upheld it. The defendant argued that the court has a sua sponte duty to instruct on the meaning of 'reasonably should have know[n].' But 'any instruction elaborating on the term "reasonable" would add little, if anything, to the understanding of most jurors.' (42 Cal.3d at [p.] 782.) And '[s]uch an instruction could do little more than inform the jury that "reasonable" means "what an average person of average intelligence would have known under the circumstances." ' (42 Cal.3d at p. 782, fn. 19.)
"The United States Supreme Court reached a similar conclusion over 30 years ago: 'A definition of a doubt as something the jury would act upon would seem to create confusion rather than misapprehension. "Attempts to explain the term 'reasonable doubt' do not usually result in making it any clearer to the minds of the jury." [(Miles v. United States (1880) 103 U.S. 304, 312 [26 L. Ed. 481, 484].)]' [(Holland v. United States (1954) 348 U.S. 121, 140 [99 L. Ed. 150, 166-167, 75 S. Ct. 127].)]
"The [California] Supreme Court was right in inviting the Legislature to clarify the reasonable doubt instruction. The Legislature was wise in seeking [8 Cal. 4th 531] the advice of this Committee in approaching this task. We do it no service in advising that there is nothing to clarify." (Minority Report to CALJIC Rep., pt. 10, at pp. 51-53, original italics.)
FN 1. Civil Code section 54.8, which provides for the use in specified circumstances of assistive listening systems, was not enacted until after the trial of this case.
FN 2. We discuss those arguments that are sufficiently developed to be cognizable. To the extent defendant perfunctorily asserts other claims, without development and, indeed, without a clear indication that they are intended to be discrete contentions, they are not properly made, and are rejected on that basis. (People v. Turner (1994) 8 Cal. 4th 137, 214, fn. 19 [32 Cal. Rptr. 2d 762, 878 P.2d 521]; People v. Ashmus (1991) 54 Cal. 3d 932, 985, fn. 15 [2 Cal. Rptr. 2d 112, 820 P.2d 214].)
FN 3. In a letter dated and filed five days before oral argument, defendant argued for the first time that "the trial court unconstitutionally excluded prospective jurors based on their principled opposition to the death penalty." Although the parties are entitled to file a supplemental brief no later than 10 days before oral argument "confined" to "new matter" that was "not available in time to have been included in the party's brief on the merits" (Cal. Rules of Court, rule 29.3(a)), such a letter is not an appropriate vehicle to raise entirely new issues that could have been raised in the original briefs. For this reason, we deem the issue waived.
Our review of the record and pertinent authorities also convinces us that the belated contention is meritless. (E.g., Lockhart v. McCree (1986) 476 U.S. 162 [90 L. Ed. 2d 137, 106 S. Ct. 1758]; Wainwright v. Witt (1985) 469 U.S. 412, 424 [83 L. Ed. 2d 841, 851-852, 105 S. Ct. 844]; People v. Livaditis (1992) 2 Cal. 4th 759, 771-772 [9 Cal. Rptr. 2d 72, 831 P.2d 297]; People v. Edwards (1991) 54 Cal. 3d 787, 840-841 [1 Cal. Rptr. 2d 696, 819 P.2d 436]; People v. Fields (1983) 35 Cal. 3d 329, 342-358 [197 Cal. Rptr. 803, 673 P.2d 680]; Hovey v. Superior Court, supra, 28 Cal. 3d 1.)
FN 4. Defendant claims not to "know, what strategy, if any, motivated the calling of McGuire as a witness," and even argues that counsel for the codefendant committed misconduct. On the contrary, the strategy is readily apparent. The evidence of identity was quite similar as to both defendants. Generally, those witnesses who identified one identified both. Horton implicated both. Thus, counsel for Gutierrez could reasonably conclude that evidence casting doubt on the identity of either defendant effectively cast doubt on both. There was a sound reason for Gutierrez to call McGuire.
FN 5. The crime was committed, and the trial held, after our decision in Carlos v. Superior Court (1983) 35 Cal. 3d 131 [197 Cal. Rptr. 79, 672 P.2d 862] and before People v. Anderson (1987) 43 Cal. 3d 1104 [240 Cal. Rptr. 585, 742 P.2d 1306]. Therefore, to find the special circumstance true, as the jury did, it had to find that defendant intended to kill Koger. (People v. Duncan (1991) 53 Cal. 3d 955, 973, fn. 4 [281 Cal. Rptr. 273, 810 P.2d 131].) The court so instructed the jury. Thus, counsel knew they could avoid a penalty phase, and a death verdict, if they could convince the jury that defendant did not intend to kill Koger.
FN 6. Defendant also claims his attorneys were incompetent in their presentation of evidence and cross-examination of witnesses. We have reviewed the record; it does not support the claim.
FN 7. Defendant claims that counsel's failure to examine Dr. Loftus "symboliz[ed] his rejection of" the defense of misidentification, and hence was itself incompetence. We see no such symbolism. Dr. Loftus's testimony was not fact specific, and applied equally to all of the identifications. Failure to cross-examine a favorable witness could easily be read as signaling approval, not rejection, of that testimony. Counsel could reasonably have believed that the examination by counsel for Gutierrez was sufficiently thorough, and there was no benefit to be gained in asking more questions.
FN 8. CALJIC No. 2.90, which is drawn verbatim from Penal Code section 1096, defines "reasonable doubt" as follows: "It is not a mere possible doubt; because everything relating to human affairs, and depending on moral evidence, is open to some possible or imaginary doubt. It is that state of the case which, after the entire comparison and consideration of all the evidence, leaves the minds of the jurors in that condition that they cannot say they feel an abiding conviction, to a moral certainty, of the truth of the charge." This language is derived from an opinion by Chief Justice Shaw of Massachusetts. (Commonwealth v. Webster (1850) 59 Mass. (5 Cush.) 295; see People v. Brigham (1979) 25 Cal. 3d 283, 294 [157 Cal. Rptr. 905, 599 P.2d 100] (conc. opn. of Mosk, J.).)
FN 9. With these modifications, the instruction would read: "It is not a mere possible doubt; because everything relating to human affairs is open to some possible or imaginary doubt. It is that state of the case which, after the entire comparison and consideration of all the evidence, leaves the minds of the jurors in that condition that they cannot say they feel an abiding conviction of the truth of the charge."
FN 10. The quote is as follows: " 'I would say there has to be a measuring in a society of people who are standing up and supporting the system of justice. There has to be a standard for which all people have to live by and I think when someone goes so far outside that standard that they create a menace to that society that they create a situation where even in prison they are a menace in that prison and that the crime itself is abhorring and violates justice and the morality of people, then the death penalty is warranted.' "
FN 1. The high court in Victor, supra, 511 U.S. at pp. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at pp. 594, 594, 596-597, 114 S.Ct. at pp. 1246, 1248], observed that the term "moral evidence," contained within California's standard reasonable doubt instruction, "is not a mainstay of the modern lexicon," and, as to the instruction's inclusion of the words "moral certainty," the court commented, "we do not condone use of the phrase." (Italics added.) The court further observed that "the definitions of reasonable doubt most widely used in the federal courts do not contain any reference to moral certainty." (Id., at p. __________ [127 L.Ed.2d at p. 597, 114 S.Ct. at p. 1248], italics added; see also 1 Devitt et al., Federal Jury Practice and Instructions, Civil and Criminal (4th ed. 1992) § 12.10 at pp. 353-372 [surveying the decisions from several federal circuit courts, and setting forth the federal court pattern jury instruction, which defines "reasonable doubt" as "a doubt based upon reason and common sense-the kind of doubt that would make a reasonable person hesitate to act"].)