Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/559/809/436541/
Timestamp: 2019-10-21 17:31:37
Document Index: 434931021

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 3564', '§ 1331', '§ 1343', '§ 1343', '§ 1983', '§ 1343', '§ 2', '§ 41', '§ 1331', '§ 41', '§ 1331', '§ 1331', '§ 1983', '§ 1331', '§ 1331', '§ 1331', '§ 2']

Sheila Payne, Next Best Friend of Franklin Payne, a Minor,et al., Appellants, v. Government of the District of Columbia et al, 559 F.2d 809 (D.C. Cir. 1977) :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › D.C. Circuit › 1977 › Sheila Payne, Next Best Friend of Franklin Payne, a Minor,et al., Appellants, v. Government of the D...
Sheila Payne, Next Best Friend of Franklin Payne, a Minor,et al., Appellants, v. Government of the District of Columbia et al, 559 F.2d 809 (D.C. Cir. 1977)
U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit - 559 F.2d 809 (D.C. Cir. 1977) Argued Sept. 8, 1975. Decided June 7, 1977. As Amended June 15, 1977
The District Court also denominated appellants' constitutional position "insubstantial,"34 a categorization ostensibly within Bell's second exception for litigation "wholly insubstantial and frivolous."35 Again I find myself in disagreement. As in Bell, "(t)he issue of law is whether federal courts can grant money recovery for damages said to have been suffered as the result of (a) federal officer() violating the . . . Fifth Amendment () ."36 It seems to me that no less here than there "the issue thus raised has sufficient merit to warrant exercise of federal jurisdiction for purposes of adjudicating it. . . ."37
The second precondition to invocation of Section 1331(a) as a jurisdictional predicate is that "the matter in controversy exceed() the sum or value of $10,000, exclusive of interest and costs."55 In their complaint, each of the four appellants sought $15,000 in compensatory damages and a like amount in punitive damages. To the District Court, "(i)t appear(ed) . . . to a legal certainty that no (appellant) . . . (was) entitled to or could properly recover a judgment in excess of $10,000."56 To me, however, that assessment is not nearly so clear.
* Every case in which the pleadings allege a claim under federal law does not automatically come within section 1331(a) jurisdiction, even though the amount in controversy requirement has been satisfied. In Bell v. Hood,327 U.S. 678, 66 S. Ct. 773, 90 L. Ed. 939 (1946), the Supreme Court expressly stated that a suit may sometimes be dismissed for want of federal question jurisdiction
Id. at 682-83, 66 S. Ct. at 776. The standard for want of "substantiality" is a stringent one, and "if there is any foundation of plausibility to the claim federal jurisdiction exists." 13 C. Wright, A. Miller & E. Cooper, Federal Practice and Procedure § 3564, at 428 (1976) (hereinafter Wright); see Hagans v. Lavine, 415 U.S. 528, 539-41, 94 S. Ct. 1372, 39 L. Ed. 2d 577 (1974); Montana Catholic Missions v. Missoula County, 200 U.S. 118, 130, 26 S. Ct. 197, 50 L. Ed. 398 (1906).
The constitutional claim raised by the appellants in this case certainly cannot be labelled "wholly insubstantial and frivolous", since Bell v. Hood, supra, clearly held that a federal court can grant money damages to redress the violation by a federal officer of a person's fifth amendment rights. 327 U.S. 683-84, 66 S. Ct. 773. However, the mere allegation by a plaintiff that a defendant was acting as a governmental agent should not suffice ipso facto to avoid the other exceptions delimited by Bell. This court has made it very clear that for federal jurisdiction to attach, "it is necessary to show that the Government exercises some form of control over the actions of (a) private party." Spark v. Catholic University of America, 167 U.S.App.D.C. 56, 510 F.2d 1277, 1282 (1975). This requirement may pose a substantial hurdle for a plaintiff where the defendant is distinctly a private entity, such as a private university, hospital or restaurant. See, e.g., Moose Lodge No. 107 v. Irvis, 407 U.S. 163, 92 S. Ct. 1965, 32 L. Ed. 2d 627 (1972); Wahba v. New York University, 492 F.2d 96 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 874, 95 S. Ct. 135, 42 L. Ed. 2d 113 (1974). Though the status of an off-duty policeman may be a somewhat easier case, I see no reason why a court should automatically hold that the requirement of governmental involvement is met simply because a defendant is employed by the government. The record in any given case may well disclose that a defendant clearly was not acting as a governmental agent, in which case a district court must conclude that the constitutional claim was "made solely for the purpose of obtaining jurisdiction" and must dismiss the action for lack of any plausible nexus between the constitutional right and its violation by the government. Otherwise a plaintiff could merely assert a "substantial" but factually baseless federal claim so as to seek adjudication of a related state law claim under a federal court's pendent jurisdiction, even though the federal claim was dismissed on the merits. See ALI, Study of the Division of Jurisdiction Between State and Federal Courts 177 (1969).
Even though these claims of constitutional tort survive the exceptions set forth in Bell v. Hood, supra, appellants can still not invoke general federal question jurisdiction unless they also satisfy the $10,000 amount in controversy requirement of section 1331(a).11 Each of the four appellants demands $15,000 in compensatory and $15,000 in punitive damages. Appellants may not aggregate their claims to make up the jurisdictional amount; it must appear that each and every one of them satisfies the requirement. Zahn v. International Paper Co., 414 U.S. 291, 294-95, 94 S. Ct. 505, 38 L. Ed. 2d 511 (1973). The allegations of the complaint are not conclusive on the question of whether the requisite amount has been met, but, in finding that it has not been, a court must conclude "to a legal certainty that the claim is really for less than the jurisdictional amount." St. Paul Mercury Indemnity Co. v. Red Cab Co., 303 U.S. 283, 289, 58 S. Ct. 586, 590, 82 L. Ed. 845 (1938), quoted in Apton v. Wilson, 165 U.S.App.D.C. 22, 506 F.2d 83, 95 (1974).
While I believe that the district court would not have abused its discretion in holding that the physical and emotional injuries to appellants clearly did not satisfy the jurisdictional amount requirement, the question still remains whether their punitive damage claims and the alleged violation of their constitutional interests are sufficient to carry the matter in controversy across the $10,000 threshold. Both compensatory and punitive damage claims are generally to be considered in this determination, Bell v. Preferred Life Assurance Co., 320 U.S. 238, 240, 64 S. Ct. 5, 88 L. Ed. 15 (1943), and the amount of the latter need not have any necessary relation to the former. Wardman-Justice Motors v. Petrie, 59 App.D.C. 262, 39 F.2d 512, 515-16 (1930); see Afro-American Publishing Co. v. Jaffe, 125 U.S.App.D.C. 70, 366 F.2d 649, 662 (1966) (en banc).
These punitive damage claims of the appellants though do not have any talismanic effect. The law does not favor punitive damages but will award them to punish and deter intentional and aggravated wrongdoing that evidences a conscious disregard for another's rights. E. g., Brown v. Coates, 102 U.S.App.D.C. 300, 253 F.2d 36, 39-40 (1958); Mills v. Levine, 98 U.S.App.D.C. 137, 233 F.2d 16, cert. denied, 352 U.S. 858, 77 S. Ct. 86, 1 L. Ed. 2d 67 (1956). Assuming the worst, as we must on this appeal, the actions of Lea were outrageous and life-endangering, though their consequences were fortunately slight. In the usual case, which the one now before us clearly is not, I might readily agree with Judge Robinson's conclusion here that appellants' allegations make out at least a colorable claim for some punitive damages, and that must be considered as another input into the valuation calculus. Bell, supra.
It is not clear to me, however, that punitive damages are available where, in the absence of statutory authorization of traditionally available remedies, the remedies sought for alleged constitutional violations must be implied directly from the terms of the Constitution. In the germinal case, Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388, 91 S. Ct. 1999, 29 L. Ed. 2d 619 (1971), the Supreme Court held that money damages may be recovered for any injury suffered as a result of a violation of the fourth amendment. Id. at 397, 91 S. Ct. 1999. There was no mention whatsoever in Bivens of the possible availability of punitive damages by way of such a federal cause of action.
The decisions of this circuit on this particular question appear to be in conflict. For instance, in Hartigh v. Latin, 158 U.S.App.D.C. 289, 485 F.2d 1068 (1973), cert. denied, Columbia v. Marsh, 415 U.S. 948, 94 S. Ct. 1470, 39 L. Ed. 2d 564 (1974), where recovery was sought under a Bivens theory, a panel of this court held that punitive damages are to be included in determining the jurisdictional amount under section 1331(a).14 Id. at 1072. In another decision, however, this court appears to have expressly limited the remedies available under the Bivens decision to compensatory damages. Zweibon v. Mitchell, 170 U.S.App.D.C. 1, 516 F.2d 594, 659 (1975), cert. denied, 425 U.S. 944, 96 S. Ct. 1685, 48 L. Ed. 2d 187 (1976), and this position is not inconsistent with the rationale advanced for the Court's holding in Bivens. See Bivens, supra, 403 U.S. at 395-97, 91 S. Ct. 1999. Justice Harlan in his concurring opinion, for instance, fairly characterized the essential question facing the Court concerning damages as "whether compensatory relief is 'necessary' or 'appropriate' to the vindication of the interest asserted." Bivens, supra, at 407, 91 S. Ct. at 2010 (Harlan, J., concurring). Whether or not "vindication" is limited to compensation must remain for now an open question. It could well be argued though that punitive damages are unnecessary to the vindication of constitutional interests because their justificatory functions of deterrence and punishment might just as well be served by according the victims of constitutional violations compensatory damages,15 see id. at 407-08, 91 S. Ct. 1999, especially where the lack of clear standards in setting compensation in any given case may permit amplification of an award on exemplary grounds anyway.16 At least in such a case as this one, too, illegal actions may subject the governmental agent to the possibility of criminal prosecution,17 which should serve similar if not, perhaps, as effective a deterrent purpose.
Thus, for jurisdictional purposes, this court has found that some twelve hours of alleged false imprisonment sufficed by itself to satisfy the $10,000 amount requirement. Sullivan v. Murphy, 156 U.S.App.D.C. 28, 478 F.2d 938, 960-61 n.34, cert. denied, 414 U.S. 880, 94 S. Ct. 162, 38 L. Ed. 2d 125 (1973). Similar valuations were reached in Apton v. Wilson, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 34, 506 F.2d supra at 95 (fourth and fifth amendment violations) and Hartigh v. Latin, supra, 158 U.S.App.D.C. at 293, 485 F.2d at 1072 (fifth and eighth amendment violations).
Not every violation of local law may be transformed into a constitutional tort at the whim of a plaintiff simply because it was committed by a governmental agent under color of official authority. See Paul v. Davis,424 U.S. 693, 699-701, 96 S. Ct. 1155, 47 L. Ed. 2d 405 (1976); cf. Cooper v. California, 386 U.S. 58, 61, 87 S. Ct. 788, 17 L. Ed. 2d 730 (1967). I am not insensitive in this regard to the growing burden of unsound constitutional claims upon our district courts. The proper means of disposing of baseless claims, however, should usually be by summary judgment for failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted and not by dismissal for lack of jurisdiction. See Lewis v. D. C. Department of Corrections, 174 U.S.App.D.C. 483, 533 F.2d 710, 712 (1976). Where a federal constitutional claim brought under section 1331(a) rests upon an allegation of governmental involvement that is clearly baseless, however, the suit may and should be dismissed for want of jurisdiction. While the action presently before this court may pose a close question in this respect, I believe that the more cautious alternative adopted today is the preferable one.
28 U.S.C. § 1331(a), as amended by Pub. L. 94-574, Oct. 21, 1976 (90 Stat. 2721). On remand the trial court should consider the additional issues raised by this amendment of the statute in the light of our opinion in Marshall v. District of Columbia, --- U.S.App.D.C. ----, at ----, 559 F.2d 726, at 730 (Nos. 75-1651, etc).
While the existence of necessary governmental involvement could be resolved at the summary judgment stage, as Judge Tamm's concurrence proposes, it is appropriate, in certain cases, to find such a lack of governmental connection as to deny 28 U.S.C. § 1343 jurisdiction on a pre-summary judgment motion. Paul v. Davis, 424 U.S. 693, 96 S. Ct. 1155, 47 L. Ed. 2d 405 (1976), upheld a dismissal before summary judgment where insufficient governmental action was alleged. In that case, the complained-of defamation was particularly harmful precisely because it was uttered by a police chief; such additional connection between the government and the tort is lacking here. Though I concur in the remand resulting in this case, I would not agree with any inference that jurisdictional challenges based on insufficient governmental action cannot succeed against 28 U.S.C. § 1343 cases.
District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U.S. 418, 93 S. Ct. 602, 34 L. Ed. 2d 613 (1973), precludes reliance on 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1970) or its concomitant jurisdictional statute, 28 U.S.C. § 1343(3) (1970)
See note 5 supra. This requirement, prerequisite when appellants' suit was filed, is discussed in Part II infra. On October 21, 1976, Congress abolished this requirement for cases wherein the jurisdiction of a district court is invoked on the ground that the matter arises under federal law and the "action (is) brought against the United States, any agency thereof, or any officer or employee thereof in his official capacity." Pub. L. No. 94-574, § 2, 90 Stat. 2721. Since all members of the court agree that, at least for the time being, the jurisdictional-amount requirement is met, it is unnecessary to inquire as to whether Pub. L. No. 94-574 applies to pending litigation, or whether within its contemplation the District of Columbia is an "agency" of the United States, or Officer Lea is an "officer or employee" of the United States sued "in his official capacity." Compare Marshall v. District of Columbia, 182 U.S.App.D.C. ---- at ---- - ----, 559 F.2d 726 at 729-730 (No. 75-1651, 1977)
Bell v. Hood, supra note 15, 327 U.S. at 679, 66 S. Ct. at 774, 90 L. Ed. at 940 (footnote omitted).
Bell v. Hood, supra note 15, 327 U.S. at 681-682, 66 S. Ct. at 775-776, 90 L. Ed. at 942-943, quoting The Fair v. Kohler Die & Specialty Co., 228 U.S. 22, 25, 33 S. Ct. 410, 411, 57 L. Ed. 716, 717 (1913). The Court added:
U.S at 682, 66 S. Ct. at 776, 90 L. Ed. at 943 (citations omitted)
Id. at 682-683, 66 S. Ct. at 776, 90 L. Ed. at 943-945
"(T)he alleged violations of the Constitution here are not immaterial but form rather the sole basis of the relief sought. Nor can we say that the cause of action alleged is so patently without merit as to justify, even under the qualifications noted, the court's dismissal for want of jurisdiction. The Circuit Court of Appeals correctly stated that 'the complaint states strong cases, and if the allegations have any foundation in truth, the plaintiffs' legal rights have been ruthlessly violated.' Petitioners' complaint asserts that the Fourth and Fifth Amendments guarantee their rights to be free from unauthorized and unjustified imprisonment and from unreasonable searches and seizures. They claim that respondents' invasion of these rights caused the damages for which they seek to recover and point further to 28 U.S.C. § 41(1) (now § 1331(a)) which authorizes the federal district courts to try 'suits of a civil nature' where the matter in controversy 'arises under the Constitution or laws of the United States,' whether these are suits in 'equity' or at 'law.' Petitioners argue that this statute authorizes the Court to entertain this action at law and to grant recovery for the damages allegedly sustained. Respondents contend that the constitutional provisions here involved are prohibitions against the Federal Government as a government and that 28 U.S.C. § 41(1) does not authorize recovery in money damages in suits against unauthorized officials who according to respondents are in the same position as individual trespassers." Id. at 683, 66 S. Ct. at 776, 90 L. Ed. at 943-944
"Respondents' contention does not show that petitioners' cause is insubstantial or frivolous, and the complaint does in fact raise serious questions, both of law and fact, which the District Court can decide only after it has assumed jurisdiction over the controversy. The issue of law is whether federal courts can grant money recovery for damages said to have been suffered as a result of federal officers violating the Fourth and Fifth Amendments. That question has never been specifically decided by this Court. That the issue thus raised has sufficient merit to warrant exercise of federal jurisdiction for purposes of adjudicating it can be seen from the cases where this Court has sustained the jurisdiction of the district courts in suits brought to recover damages for depriving a citizen of the right to vote in violation of the Constitution. And it is established practice for this Court to sustain the jurisdiction of federal courts to issue injunctions to protect rights safeguarded by the Constitution and to restrain individual state officers from doing what the 14th Amendment forbids the State to do. Moreover, where federally protected rights have been invaded, it has been the rule from the beginning that courts will be alert to adjust their remedies so as to grant the necessary relief. And it is also well settled that where legal rights have been invaded, and a federal statute provides for a general right to sue for such invasion, federal courts may use any available remedy to make good the wrong done." Id. at 683-684, 66 S. Ct. at 776-777, 90 L. Ed. at 944 (footnotes omitted)
Id. at 682, 66 S. Ct. at 776, 90 L. Ed. at 943 (citations omitted)
327 U.S. at 684-685, 66 S. Ct. at 777, 90 L. Ed. at 994. Compare James v. Lusby, 162 U.S.App.D.C. 352, 356, 499 F.2d 488, 492 (1974); Hartigh v. Latin, 158 U.S.App.D.C. 289, 485 F.2d 1068 (1973), cert. denied, 415 U.S. 948, 94 S. Ct. 1470, 39 L. Ed. 2d 564 (1974). See also Gomez v. Wilson, 155 U.S.App.D.C. 242, 250-252, 477 F.2d 411, 419-421 (1973); Sullivan v. Murphy, 156 U.S.App.D.C. 28, 50, 478 F.2d 938, 960, cert. denied, 414 U.S. 880, 94 S. Ct. 162, 38 L. Ed. 2d 125 (1973)
See text supra at note 26; Wheeldin v. Wheeler, 373 U.S. 647, 649, 83 S. Ct. 1441, 1444, 10 L. Ed. 2d 605, 610 (1963)
Though not essential to the decision, it would appear that the interests respectively protected by federal constitutional law and local assault law are not congruent, and that injuries inflicted by officers acting under color of law are significantly different in kind from those resulting from acts of private persons. See Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents, 403 U.S. 388, 391-392, 91 S. Ct. 1999, 2002, 29 L. Ed. 2d 619, 623-624 (1971); Hartigh v. Latin, supra note 26, 158 U.S.App.D.C. at 293, 485 F.2d at 1072
415 U.S. 528, 94 S. Ct. 1372, 39 L. Ed. 2d 577 (1974)
Hagans v. Lavine, supra, note 38, 415 U.S. at 536-537, 94 S. Ct. at 1378-1379, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 581-588 (citations omitted)
Compare, e. g., Logan v. United States, 144 U.S. 263, 282-283, 12 S. Ct. 617, 622-623, 36 L. Ed. 429, 435-436 (1892); Jenkins v. Averett, 424 F.2d 1228, 1232 (4th Cir. 1970); York v. Story, 324 F.2d 450, 455-456 (9th Cir. 1963), cert. denied, 376 U.S. 939, 84 S. Ct. 794, 11 L. Ed. 2d 659 (1964), and cases cited therein at n.12
Appellants' complaint alleged that "(d)uring all times . . . (Officer) Lea . . . was a duly appointed and qualified police officer of the Metropolitan Police Department, agent of the Municipal Corporation of the . . . District of Columbia, and acting in the course of his employment and engaged in the performance of his duties as a police officer." Complaint P 6. That allegation quite obviously charges governmental action in the constitutional sense, Ex parte Virginia, 100 U.S. 339, 346-347, 25 L. Ed. 676, 679 (1880), and its factual accuracy is not before us at this time. Jurisdiction under § 1331(a) depends upon a degree of substantive sufficiency of the plaintiff's claim and not upon the probability of success on the merits. See text supra at note 24; Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416 U.S. 232, 236, 94 S. Ct. 1683, 1686, 40 L. Ed. 2d 90, 96 (1974); Oneida Indian Nation v. County of Oneida, 414 U.S. 661, 666-667, 94 S. Ct. 772, 776-777, 39 L. Ed. 2d 73, 78-79 (1974); Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 199-200, 82 S. Ct. 691, 700-701, 7 L. Ed. 2d 663, 675 (1962). Even a "(f) ailure to state a claim does not deprive the District Court of jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1331(a)" since that also is a matter affecting only the merits. Apton v. Wilson, supra note 27, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 35 n.16, 506 F.2d at 96 n.16; cf. Conley v. Gibson, 355 U.S. 41, 45-46, 78 S. Ct. 99, 101-102, 2 L. Ed. 2d 80, 84-85 (1957).
Of course, appellants' ability to prove their allegation that Officer Lea acted under color of his authority as a police officer might have been tested on a motion for summary judgment, Fed. R. Civ. P. 56, but that was not the District's effort. Its motion sought dismissal, and strictly on grounds other than Officer Lea's capacity when the shooting occurred, and the District Court's ruling was equally limited. See text supra at notes 6-10. Moreover, without a challenge specifically directed to the existence of evidence on that point, no one can be sure that the record reflects all that could be brought to bear upon it. Compare Local 336, Amer. Fed'n of Musicians v. Bonatz, 475 F.2d 433, 437-438 (3d Cir. 1973); Georgia A. & F. Ry. v. Atlantic Coast Line R.R., 373 F.2d 493, 497-498 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 389 U.S. 851, 88 S. Ct. 69, 19 L. Ed. 2d 120 (1967); Cohen v. Cahill, 281 F.2d 879, 880-881 (9th Cir. 1960); Cooper v. United States Penitentiary, 433 F.2d 596, 597 (10th Cir. 1970).
Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents, supra note 32, 403 U.S. at 407, 91 S. Ct. at 2010, 29 L. Ed. 2d at 632 (concurring opinion)
Bell v. Hood, supra note 15, 327 U.S. at 684-685, 66 S. Ct. at 777, 90 L. Ed. at 944
Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents, supra note 32, 403 U.S. at 390-397, 91 S. Ct. at 2001-2005, 29 L. Ed. 2d at 623-627
Id. at 395-397, 91 S. Ct. at 2004-2005, 29 L. Ed. 2d at 626-627
District of Columbia v. Carter, supra note 12, 409 U.S. at 433, 93 S. Ct. at 610, 34 L. Ed. 2d at 625
While a few courts have refused to extend Bivens beyond the Fourth Amendment, see Archuleta v. Callaway, 385 F. Supp. 384, 388 (D. Colo. 1974); Moore v. Schlesinger, 384 F. Supp. 163, 165 (D. Colo. 1974); Davidson v. Kane, 337 F. Supp. 922, 924 (E.D. Va. 1972); see also Smothers v. Columbia Broadcasting Sys., Inc., 351 F. Supp. 622, 625-626 & n.4 (C.D. Cal. 1972), this court has indicated a willingness to consider a broader application. Lewis v. D. C. Dep't of Corrections, 174 U.S.App.D.C. 483, 484, 533 F.2d 710, 711 (1976); Apton v. Wilson, supra note 27, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 34-35, 506 F.2d at 95-96; Cardinale v. Washington Technical Inst., supra note 31, 163 U.S.App.D.C. at 128 n.5, 500 F.2d at 796 n.5. Other courts have applied Bivens expansively to a variety of constitutional provisions. United States ex rel. Moore v. Koelzer, 457 F.2d 892, 894 (3d Cir. 1972) (Fifth Amendment); Bethea v. Reid, 445 F.2d 1163, 1164-1165 (3d Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 404 U.S. 1061, 92 S. Ct. 747, 30 L. Ed. 2d 749 (1972) (Fourth and Fifth Amendments); States Marine Lines v. Shultz, 498 F.2d 1146, 1156-1157 (4th Cir. 1974) (Fifth Amendment); Revis v. Laird, 391 F. Supp. 1133, 1138-1139 (E.D. Cal. 1975) (First and Fifth Amendments); Butler v. United States, 365 F. Supp. 1035, 1039-1040 (D. Haw. 1973) (First Amendment); Patmore v. Carlson, 392 F. Supp. 737, 739-740 (E.D. Ill. 1975) (Fifth and Eighth Amendments). See also Jones v. Perrigan, 459 F.2d 81 (6th Cir. 1972) (false imprisonment and malicious prosecution). One court has declared that "Bivens recognizes a cause of action for damages for violation of any constitutionally protected interest." Gardels v. Murphy, 377 F. Supp. 1389, 1398 (N.D. Ill. 1975)
Bell v. Hood, supra note 15, 327 U.S. at 682, 66 S. Ct. at 776, 90 L. Ed. at 943, quoted in text supra at note 24; Lewis v. D. C. Dep't of Corrections, supra note 49, 174 U.S.App.D.C. at 484, 533 F.2d at 711; Apton v. Wilson, supra note 27, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 35, 506 F.2d at 96; Cardinale v. Washington Technical Inst., supra note 31, 163 U.S.App.D.C. at 128 n.5, 500 F.2d at 796 n.5
Hagans v. Lavine, supra note 38, 415 U.S. at 543, 94 S. Ct. at 1382, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 591, quoting Oneida Indian Nation v. County of Oneida, supra note 40, 414 U.S. at 666-667, 94 S. Ct. at 777, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 78-79
St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., 303 U.S. 283, 288, 58 S. Ct. 586, 590, 82 L. Ed. 845, 848 (1938) (footnotes omitted). See also cases cited infra notes 58-59
Gibbs v. Buck, 307 U.S. 66, 72, 59 S. Ct. 725, 729, 83 L. Ed. 1111, 1115 (1939); St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., supra note 57, 303 U.S. at 288-289, 58 S. Ct. at 590, 82 L. Ed. at 848; Smithers v. Smith, 204 U.S. 632, 642, 27 S. Ct. 297, 299, 51 L. Ed. 656, 660 (1907)
KVOS, Inc. v. Associated Press, 299 U.S. 269, 277-278, 57 S. Ct. 197, 200-201, 81 L. Ed. 183, 187-188 (1936); McNutt v. General Motors Acceptance Corp., 298 U.S. 178, 184, 56 S. Ct. 780, 782-783, 80 L. Ed. 1135, 1138-1139 (1936). See also St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., supra note 57, 303 U.S. at 289, 58 S. Ct. at 590, 82 L. Ed. at 848. Upon such a challenge, it is the plaintiff's burden to show that it does not appear to a legal certainty that the claim is for less than the jurisdictional amount. Gibbs v. Buck, supra note 58, 307 U.S. at 72, 59 S. Ct. at 729, 83 L. Ed. at 1115; McNutt v. General Motors Acceptance Corp., supra, 298 U.S. at 189, 56 S. Ct. at 785, 80 L. Ed. at 1141
St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., supra note 57, 303 U.S. at 289, 58 S. Ct. at 590, 82 L. Ed. at 848-849. See to the same effect, Hartigh v. Latin, supra note 26, 158 U.S.App.D.C. at 293, 485 F.2d at 1071; Gomez v. Wilson, supra note 26, 155 U.S.App.D.C. at 251, 477 F.2d at 420. See also cases cited supra notes 58-59
St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., supra note 57, 303 U.S. at 298, 58 S. Ct. at 590, 82 L. Ed. at 848; Smithers v. Smith, supra note 58, 204 U.S. at 642, 27 S. Ct. at 299, 51 L. Ed. at 660; Schunk v. Moline, Milburn & Standard Co., 147 U.S. 500, 505, 13 S. Ct. 416, 417, 37 L. Ed. 255, 258 (1893)
Zahn v. International Paper Co., 414 U.S. 291, 294-296, 94 S. Ct. 505, 508-509, 38 L. Ed. 2d 511, 515-516 (1973); Snyder v. Harris, 394 U.S. 332, 335, 89 S. Ct. 1053, 1056, 22 L. Ed. 2d 319, 323 (1969); Pinel v. Pinel, 240 U.S. 594, 596, 36 S. Ct. 416, 417, 60 L. Ed. 817, 818 (1916)
E. g., Bullock v. Tamiami Trail Tours, Inc., 266 F.2d 326, 332 (5th Cir. 1959) (applying Florida law); Tollett v. Mashburn, 183 F. Supp. 120, 126 (W.D. Ark. 1960), aff'd, 291 F.2d 89 (8th Cir. 1961) (applying Arkansas law). And "in assessing . . . actual damages it (is) proper to take into account any injury suffered in body or mind, and to consider the humiliation and outrage to which (the victim) may have been subjected, to the end that (he) might be fairly compensated under all the circumstances of the case." Axman v. Washington Gaslight Co., 38 App.D.C. 150, 160 (1912)
See, e. g., Chesapeake & Potomac Tel. Co. v. Clay, 90 U.S.App.D.C. 206, 209, 194 F.2d 888, 891 (1952). Punitive damages need not bear any necessary relationship to compensatory damages. Afro-American Publishing Co. v. Jaffe, 125 U.S.App.D.C. 70, 83, 366 F.2d 649, 652 (1966); Wardman-Justice Motors v. Petrie, 59 App.D.C. 262, 266, 39 F.2d 512, 516, 69 A.L.R. 648 (1930). Since these principles may intercept Officer Lea, I need not pause to consider whether they extend to the District of Columbia also. Officer Lea remains a party to this case, see note 6 supra, and as we hold today, so does the District. With federal jurisdiction over them the District Court would have pendent jurisdiction for purposes of any application of the doctrine of respondeat superior. Hagans v. Lavine, supra note 38, 415 U.S. at 536, 94 S. Ct. at 1378, 39 L. Ed. 2d at 587; Romero v. International Terminal Operating Co., 358 U.S. 354, 380-381, 79 S. Ct. 468, 484-485, 3 L. Ed. 2d 368, 386-387 (1959); Hartigh v. Latin, supra note 26, 158 U.S.App.D.C. at 293, 485 F.2d at 1072. See also note 77 infra
Bell v. Preferred Life Assurance Soc'y, 320 U.S. 238, 240, 64 S. Ct. 5, 6, 88 L. Ed. 15, 18 (1943); James v. Lusby, supra note 26, 162 U.S.App.D.C. at 357, 499 F.2d at 493; Hartigh v. Latin, supra note 26, 158 U.S.App.D.C. at 292-293, 485 F.2d at 1071-1072
Rosado v. Wyman, 397 U.S. 397, 405 n.6, 90 S. Ct. 1207, 1214 n.6, 25 L. Ed. 2d 442, 451 n.6 (1970); St. Paul Mercury Indem. Co. v. Red Cab Co., supra note 57, 303 U.S. at 289, 58 S. Ct. at 590, 82 L. Ed. at 848-849
Aetna Cas. & Sur. Co. v. Flowers, 330 U.S. 464, 468, 67 S. Ct. 798, 800, 91 L. Ed. 1024, 1027 (1947); Gomez v. Wilson, supra note 26, 155 U.S.App.D.C. at 251 n.51, 477 F.2d at 420 n.51; Friedman v. Machinists Int'l, 95 U.S.App.D.C. 128, 130, 220 F.2d 808, 810, cert. denied, 350 U.S. 824, 76 S. Ct. 51, 100 L. Ed. 736 (1955)
Moreover, should Officer Lea's alleged tort later be accorded constitutional magnitude, see Part I supra, the value placed on the rights violated could well be high. Compare Sullivan v. Murphy, supra note 26, 156 U.S.App.D.C. at 40-41 n.34, 478 F.2d at 960-961 n.34; Walker v. McCune, 363 F. Supp. 254, 255 (E.D. Va. 1973). And lest we forget, punitive damages loom large in circumstances such as those represented here. See notes 68-71 supra and accompanying text.
The District has not raised the question whether its exclusion from liability under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (1970), District of Columbia v. Carter, supra note 12, impairs resort to § 1331(a) for jurisdiction against it. Cf. Mt. Healthy School Dist. Bd. of Educ. v. Doyle, 429 U.S. 274, 276-279, 97 S. Ct. 568, 570-572, 50 L. Ed. 2d 471, 477-479 (1977). As that "question goes not to the District Court's jurisdiction but to the merits," Apton v. Wilson, supra note 27, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 35, 506 F.2d at 96, I do not reach it here
Police officers of the District of Columbia are not considered employees of the United States, at least for certain purposes. See Bradshaw v. United States, 143 U.S.App.D.C. 344, 443 F.2d 759, 766 (1971). Actions may nevertheless be brought under § 1331(a) against District of Columbia officials, even though they are acting in a purely local capacity. Apton v. Wilson, 165 U.S.App.D.C. 22, 506 F.2d 83, 96 (1974); Sullivan v. Murphy, 156 U.S.App.D.C. 28, 478 F.2d 938, 960, cert. denied, 414 U.S. 880 (1973); see District of Columbia v. Carter, 409 U.S. 418, 432-33, 93 S. Ct. 602, 34 L. Ed. 2d 613 (1973). Whether or not the District of Columbia, itself, can be sued for the tortious acts of its employees where the remedy is implied directly from the Constitution is an issue which has not been decided by this court, although it has been raised. Apton, supra, 165 U.S.App.D.C. at 36, 506 F.2d at 96. See also Shifrin v. Wilson, 412 F. Supp. 1282, 1305-06 (D.D.C. 1976). In any case, that issue addresses the merits and not the scope of the jurisdiction conferred on the district court by § 1331(a). Bell v. Hood, 327 U.S. 678, 682, 66 S. Ct. 773, 90 L. Ed. 839 (1946); Lewis v. D.C. Department of Corrections, 174 U.S.App.D.C. 483, 533 F.2d 710, 711-12 (1976)
This case is decidedly not a Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents of Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S. 388, 91 S. Ct. 1999, 29 L. Ed. 2d 619 (1971), or a Monroe v. Pape, 365 U.S. 167, 81 S. Ct. 473, 5 L. Ed. 2d 492 (1961) type situation where the nexus between the constitutional interest and its violation under color of governmental authority is clear. In Bivens agents of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics manacled petitioner in front of his family and, after searching the apartment, took him to a federal courthouse where he was interrogated and subjected to a visual strip search. 403 U.S. at 389, 91 S. Ct. 1999. In Monroe 13 Chicago police officers broke into a home in the early morning, drove the occupants from bed and forced them to stand naked while every room was ransacked, after which petitioner was interrogated incommunicado at the police station
I am disinclined to impart much constitutional relevance to this fact alone. Members of the Metropolitan Police Department must carry their service revolvers whether on duty or off. D.C. Govt., Metropolitan Police Dept. Manual § 2.3:1, at 10 (1972). The circumstances surrounding the use of a service revolver, rather than the mere fact of its use, have constitutional relevance. See Stengel v. Belcher, 522 F.2d 438, 441 (6th Cir. 1975), cert. dismissed, 429 U.S. 118, 97 S. Ct. 514, 50 L. Ed. 2d 269 (1976). Surely one could not reasonably maintain that an off-duty police officer whose revolver accidentally discharged and hurt someone was acting under color of governmental authority
In another case of analogous procedural posture where an appellant prayed for $100,000 in compensatory damages for alleged violation of his constitutional rights, but coincidentally had sustained only $24 of medical bills, this court understatedly remarked that "(i)n view of these very limited medical injuries, there may arise some question of the amount in controversy." Hartigh v. Latin, 158 U.S.App.D.C. 289, 485 F.2d 1068, 1072 (1973), cert. denied, Columbia v. Marsh, 415 U.S. 948, 94 S. Ct. 1470, 39 L. Ed. 2d 564 (1974)
In this country, nevertheless, punitive damages have traditionally been considered foreign to equitable relief, see D. Dobbs, Remedies 211-12 (1973), and Justice Harlan makes clear that the scope of the Court's "equitable remedial discretion" in fashioning the Bivens remedy was "determined according to the distinctive historical traditions of equity as an institution. . . ." Bivens, 403 U.S. supra at 404, 91 S. Ct. at 2009 (Harlan, J., concurring). Furthermore, the punitive liability of governmental entities, such as the District of Columbia, has often been very limited, even where sovereign immunity has been abolished or does not otherwise apply. See Dobbs, supra at 217-18.
E.g., Cortright v. Resor, 325 F. Supp. 797, 810 (E.D.N.Y.) rev'd on other grounds, 447 F.2d 245 (2d Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 405 U.S. 965, 92 S. Ct. 1172, 31 L. Ed. 2d 240 (1972), where the district court stated: