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G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan. Action Point 7: Protection of Whistleblowers - PDF
G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan. Action Point 7: Protection of Whistleblowers
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1 G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan Action Point 7: Protection of Whistleblowers 1
2 Preface At the Seoul Summit in November 2010, G20 Leaders identified the protection of whistleblowers as one of the high priority areas in their global anticorruption agenda. Recognizing the importance of effective whistleblower protection laws, Leaders, in point 7 of the G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan, called on G20 countries to lead by: To protect from discriminatory and retaliatory actions whistleblowers who report in good faith suspected acts of corruption, G-20 countries will enact and implement whistleblower protection rules by the end of To that end, building upon the existing work of organisations such as the OECD and the World Bank, G-20 experts will study and summarise existing whistleblower protection legislation and enforcement mechanisms, and propose best practices on whistleblower protection legislation. The G20 Anti-Corruption Working Group (AWG), in charge of carrying out the Action Plan assigned the OECD the task of preparing a concept note with proposals to implement this point. Following a discussion of the concept note at their meeting on February 2010 in Paris, the G20 Members reiterated the value of a study of the main features of whistleblower protection frameworks currently in place in G20 countries, together with guiding principles and best practices, to help them carry out their commitment under Action Point 7. For that purpose, the Members asked the OECD: To prepare a blue print of the study on best practices for discussion and adoption at the Bali meeting; leading to the preparation of a compendium of best practices and guidelines for legislation on the protection of whistleblowers by the Cannes Summit. A blueprint of this Study was presented by the OECD and agreed upon at the Bali meeting of the AWG on May. In further response to the call by the G20 Leaders and the members of the AWG, the OECD, under the authority of the Secretary-General, now puts forth the following Study as well as a set of guiding principles and examples of best practices to support the implementation of the G20 commitment to strengthen the protection of whistleblowers. 2
3 TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDY ON G20 WHISTLEBLOWER PROTECTION FRAMEWORKS, COMPENDIUM OF BEST PRACTICES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR LEGISLATION... 4 I. Introduction Whistleblower Protection and the Fight against Corruption Outline of the Study Approach and methodology for the Study and Annexed Guiding Principles... 5 II. Main Features of Whistleblower Protection Mechanisms Sources of Whistleblower Protections under Domestic Laws Specific Features of Whistleblower Protection Mechanisms... 7 a. Definitions and Scope... 7 b. Mechanisms for Protection c. Reporting Procedures and Mechanisms d. Enforcement Mechanisms e. Awareness-Raising and Evaluation Mechanisms III. Public Sector Whistleblower Protection Brief overview of the benefits of public sector whistleblower protection Sources of protection a. International law b. Domestic Laws Trends across countries legislation ensuring whistleblower protection a. Protection and remedies b. Use of incentives to encourage reporting c. Procedures and prescribed channels for facilitating the reporting of suspected acts of corruption.. 22 d. Effective protection mechanisms e. Awareness raising, communication and training f. Barriers to whistleblowing IV. Practice of private sector whistleblower protection Private sector whistleblower protection: Legal provisions and voluntary measures Sources of protection prescribed under international law, domestic law, and private sector anticorruption instruments Specific issues concerning private sector whistleblowing procedures; data protection Summary of whistleblower reporting and protection mechanisms in B20 companies ethics and compliance programmes ANNEX: G20 COMPENDIUM OF BEST PRACTICES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR LEGISLATION ON THE PROTECTION OF WHISTLEBLOWERS TABLE OF REFERENCE
4 WHISTLEBLOWER PROTECTION FRAMEWORKS, COMPENDIUM OF BEST PRACTICES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR LEGISLATION STUDY PREPARED BY THE OECD I. INTRODUCTION 1. Whistleblower Protection and the Fight against Corruption 1. Whistleblower protection is essential to encourage the reporting of misconduct, fraud and corruption. The risk of corruption is significantly heightened in environments where the reporting of wrongdoing is not supported or protected. This applies to both public and private sector environments, especially in cases of bribery: Protecting public sector whistleblowers facilitates the reporting of passive bribery, as well as the misuse of public funds, waste, fraud and other forms of corruption. Protecting private sector whistleblowers facilitates the reporting of active bribery and other corrupt acts committed by companies. 2. Encouraging and facilitating whistleblowing, in particular by providing effective legal protection and clear guidance on reporting procedures, can also help authorities monitor compliance and detect violations of anti-corruption laws. Providing effective protection for whistleblowers supports an open organisational culture where employees are not only aware of how to report but also have confidence in the reporting procedures. It also helps businesses prevent and detect bribery in commercial transactions. The protection of both public and private sector whistleblowers from retaliation for reporting in good faith suspected acts of corruption and other wrongdoing is therefore integral to efforts to combat corruption, promote public sector integrity and accountability, and support a clean business environment. 3. International instruments aimed at combating corruption have also recognised the importance of having whistleblower protection laws in place as part of an effective anti-corruption framework. Whistleblower protection requirements have been introduced in the United Nations Convention against Corruption, 1 the 2009 OECD Recommendation of the Council for Further Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions (Anti-Bribery Recommendation), 2 the 1998 OECD Recommendation on Improving Ethical Conduct in Public Service 3, the Council of Europe Civil and Criminal Law Conventions on Corruption, 4 the Inter-American Convention against Corruption, 5 and the 1 UNCAC Articles 8, 13 and OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, 2009 Recommendation for Further Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, Section IX.iii. and Section X.C.v., and Annex II to the Recommendation, Good Practice Guidance on Internal Controls, Ethics and Compliance, Section A.11.ii. 3 OECD Recommendation on Improving Ethical Conduct in the Public Service, Principle 4 4 Council of Europe Civil Law Convention on Corruption, Article 9; Council of Europe Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, Article Inter-American Convention against Corruption, Article III(8). 4
5 African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption. 6 Such provisions have strengthened the international legal framework for countries to establish effective whistleblower protection laws. 2. Outline of the Study 4. G20 countries have undertaken varied approaches to the protection of whistleblowers within their respective jurisdictions, and most are at different stages of development of their laws. Recognising that there is no uniform legislative means for establishing and implementing effective whistleblower protections, this Study focuses on the main features of whistleblower protection laws, and provides examples throughout of certain approaches and trends across most G20 countries in the scope and application of their laws. 5. The first substantive section of the Study (Section II.) focuses on the main features of whistleblower protection mechanisms. The section begins with an overview of the various sources of whistleblower protections under domestic laws. It then proceeds by setting out in more depth the key features of such mechanisms, including definitions and scope of application; mechanisms for protection; reporting procedures and mechanisms; enforcement mechanisms, and; awareness-raising and evaluation mechanisms. 6. While a number of the main features of whistleblower protection mechanisms can apply to both the public and private sector, the Study recognises that there are also key differences where the government is the employer and where the private sector is the employer. The Study also recognises that there are certain issues that are specific to the public or private sector. Accordingly, Sections III. and IV. of the Study focus specifically on public and private sector whistleblower protection mechanisms respectively by expanding on certain issues highlighted in Section II., and discussing in further depth approaches that are specific to each of these sectors. 3. Approach and methodology for the Study and Annexed Guiding Principles 7. As noted above, this Study is not the result of a survey carried out with each G20 countries, but instead relies on publicly available information to present a general picture. It is therefore not intended to provide an in-depth account nor a critical analysis of the systems in place in such countries. Instead, the Study is only provided to the G20 AWG as a general background document to, and basis for, the guiding principles for legislation on whistleblower protection set out in the Annex. 8. The guiding principles provide reference for countries intending to establish, modify or complement whistleblower protection frameworks. In this sense, they are prospective and offer guidance for future legislation. They do not constitute a benchmark against which current legislation should be tested. They are broadly framed and can apply to both public and private sector whistleblower protection systems. To supplement these principles, a non-exhaustive menu of examples of best practices sets out more specific and technical guidance that countries may choose to follow. Taking into account the diversity of legal systems in G20 countries, the guiding principles furthermore offer sufficient flexibility to enable countries to effectively apply such principles in accordance with their respective legal systems. 6 African Union Convention on Combating Corruption, Article 5(6). 5
6 II. MAIN FEATURES OF WHISTLEBLOWER PROTECTION MECHANISMS 1. Sources of Whistleblower Protections under Domestic Laws 9. Legal provisions for the protection of whistleblowers can be found in numerous sources of law. These can include dedicated legislation on whistleblower protection, such as Japan s Whistleblower Protection Act (WPA) 7, South Africa s Protected Disclosures Act (PDA) 8, or the United Kingdom s Public Interest Disclosure Act (UK PIDA). 9 Whistleblower protections may also be provided for in a country s Criminal Code; for example, the Canadian Criminal Code prohibits retaliation against an employee who provides information about a crime. 10 Similarly, the United States Federal Criminal Code was amended by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX Act) to impose a fine and/or imprisonment for retaliation against a whistleblower who provides truthful information about the commission or possible commission of any Federal offence to law enforcement authorities Sectoral laws, such as anti-corruption laws, competition laws, accounting laws, environmental protection laws, employment laws, and company and securities laws, may also make provision for whistleblower protections. Under these sources of law, protection may only be afforded to specific persons or for the reporting of specific offences. For example, Korea s Act on Anti-Corruption and the Establishment and Operation of the Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission (ACRC Act) provides whistleblower protection to anyone who reports an act of corruption to the Commission. 12 France s Code du Travail also provides some protection measures for employees who report health or safety issues, or instances of sexual harassment. 13 The United States Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Dodd-Frank Act) protects whistleblowers who provide information to the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) relating to a possible violation of securities law that has occurred, is ongoing or is about to occur. 11. Laws regulating public servants may also be a source of whistleblower protections for public sector employees. Canada s Public Servants Disclosure Protection Act 14 (PSDPA), for example, provides protection from reprisals for public servants who disclose wrongdoings in or relating to the public sector. Public service codes of ethics and conduct may additionally provide for whistleblower protections within the public sector. For example, the Australian Public Service Code of Conduct makes express reference to whistleblower protections for public service employees who report breaches (or alleged breaches) of the Code to an authorised person. 15 (A more detailed discussion of public sector whistleblower protection mechanisms is provided under Section III. of this Study). 12. Some G20 countries have included protection of private sector employees in their dedicated whistleblower protection legislation. For example, Japan s WPA and South Africa s PDA expressly 7 Act No. 122 of Act No. 26 of UK PIDA (1998). 10 Section 425.1, Criminal Code of Canada U.S.C. 1513(e). Furthermore, this provision of the SOX Act is not limited in its application to only publiclytraded companies; it covers all employers in the United States. See: Stephen M. Kohn, Sarbanes-Oxley Act: Legal Protection for Corporate Whistleblowers, National Whistleblowers Centre. 12 ACRC Act (2009), Chapter V, Article 62. Article 2(4) defines act of corruption. 13 France Code du Travail, Article L PSDPA (2005). 15 Australian Public Service Code of Conduct, Chapter 17 (Whistleblowing). 6
7 provide protection for both public and private sector employees. 16 As noted above, company and securities laws can also be important sources for private sector whistleblower protections. For example, the Australian Corporations Act provides for protected disclosures, including for certain criminal offences. 17 As noted above, the Dodd-Frank Act also covers private sector whistleblowers. (A more detailed discussion of private sector whistleblower protection mechanisms is provided under Section IV. of this Study). 13. Accordingly, a range of sources of law may serve as the bases for providing whistleblower protections. The enactment of a comprehensive, dedicated law could be one effective legislative means of providing such protection. 18 Comprehensive and stand-alone legislation may give the law heightened visibility, thereby making its promotion easier for governments and employers. 19 This approach also allows for the same rules and procedures to apply to public and private sector employees, rather than the more piecemeal approach of sectoral laws, which often only apply to certain employees and to the disclosure of certain types of wrongdoing. 20 The enactment of stand-alone legislation could also contribute to ensuring legal certainty and clarity Specific Features of Whistleblower Protection Mechanisms a. Definitions and Scope i) Whistleblowing 14. There is no common legal definition of what constitutes whistleblowing. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines it as the reporting by employees or former employees of illegal, irregular, dangerous or unethical practices by employers. 22 In the context of international anti-corruption standards, the 2009 OECD Recommendation of the Council for Further Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions (Anti-Bribery Recommendation) refers to protection from discriminatory or disciplinary action public and private sector employees who report in good faith and on reasonable grounds to the competent authorities The UNCAC refers to any person who reports in good faith and on reasonable grounds to the competent authorities any facts concerning offences established in accordance with this Convention. 24 The Council of Europe Civil Law Convention on Corruption refers to employees who have reasonable grounds to suspect corruption and who report in good faith their suspicion to responsible persons or authorities Whistleblower Protection Act (Act No. 122 of 2004), Article Corporations Act (2001), Part 9.4AAA. 18 See also: Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1729 (2010) on the Protection of Whistleblowers, Article 6.1: Whistleblowing legislation should be comprehensive. 19 See: D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), pp Ibid.. 21 See also: Transparency International, Recommended Principles for Whistleblowing Legislation, Recommendation 23: Dedicated legislation - in order to ensure certainty, clarity and seamless application of the framework, standalone legislation is preferable to a piecemeal or a sectoral approach. 22 International Labour Organization Thesaurus (2005). 23 OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, Recommendation for Further Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials in International Business Transactions, Recommendation IX(iii). See also OECD Recommendation of the Council on Improving Ethical Conduct in the Public Service Including Principles for Managing Ethics in the Public Service and OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, Section II UNCAC (2005), Article Council of Europe Civil Law Convention on Corruption (1999), Article 9. 7
8 15. Similar language has also been applied in national whistleblowing legislation. For example, the U.K. s PIDA refers to any disclosure of information which, in the reasonable belief of the worker making the disclosure, tends to show one or more of the following (the provision continues by listing a series of acts, including in relation to the commission of criminal offences). 26 Key characteristics common to whistleblowing could therefore include: i) the disclosure of wrongdoings connected to the workplace; ii) a public interest dimension, e.g. the reporting of criminal offences, unethical practices, etc., rather than a personal grievance; and, iii) the reporting of wrongdoings through designated channels and/or to designated persons. 27 ii) Good Faith and Reasonable Grounds 16. A principal requirement in most whistleblower protection legislation is that the disclosures be made in good faith and on reasonable grounds. Accordingly, protection is afforded to an individual who makes a disclosure based upon his or her belief that the information disclosed evidenced one of the identified conditions in the given statute, even if the individual s belief is incorrect. South African courts, for example, have asserted that good faith is a finding of fact; the court has to consider all the evidence cumulatively to decide whether there is good faith or an ulterior motive, or, if there are mixed motives, what the dominant motive is. 28 The onus is not on the employee to prove good faith; an allegation of lack of good faith must be pleaded and proved by the employer. 29 Under U.S. law, the test for determining whether a purported whistleblower had a reasonable belief is based on whether a disinterested observer with knowledge of the essential facts known to and readily ascertainable by the employee reasonably conclude that the actions of the government evidence the wrongdoing as defined by the statute It follows that individuals who deliberately make false disclosures should not be afforded protection. Some laws expressly refer to this; for example, Korea s ACRC Act states that a person who reports an act of corruption despite the fact that he or she knew that his/her report was false shall not be protected by this Act. 31 Some laws may also impose a criminal penalty for making a false disclosure. India s Bill on Public Interest Disclosure and Protection to Persons Making the Disclosure (PID Bill), for example, punishes any person who makes any disclosure mala fidely and knowingly that it was incorrect or false or misleading 32 by imprisonment for a term of up to two years and a fine. 33 However, whistleblower protection laws would normally not impose sanctions for misguided reporting, and protection would be afforded to disclosures that are made in honest error. iii) Scope of Coverage of Persons Afforded Protection 18. At present, while most whistleblower protection laws do not extend to include private sector employees, some G20 countries, such as Japan, Korea, South Africa and the U.K. have enacted dedicated whistleblower protection legislation that expressly applies to both public and private sector employees. 26 UK PIDA (1998), Part IV.A., Section 43B. 27 U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (2009), p Tshishonga v Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development and Another (JS898/04) [2006] ZALC Ibid. 30 Lachance v. White, 174 F.3d 1378, 1381 (Fed. Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1153, 120 (2000). 31 Korea ACRC Act (2009), Chapter V, Article India PID Bill (2010), Chapter VI., Section The adoption of criminal sanctions for false reporting is controversial; some argue that it may deter whistleblowing and have a chilling effect. See: D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), p
9 Korea s newly enacted Act on the Protection of Public Interest Whistleblowers (PPIW Act), for example, expressly applies to any person who reports a violation of the public interest A no loophole approach to the scope of coverage of protected persons would ensure that, in addition to public servants and permanent employees, coverage also includes consultants, contractors, temporary employees, former employees and volunteers. Australia s Public Service Act, for example, provides whistleblower protection for persons performing functions in or for an Agency, thereby including external contractors. 35 Similarly, under U.K. law, contractors disclosures are also protected. A more expansive approach to the no loophole principle could also extend protection to a wider range of persons, including job applicants, the unemployed, persons who have been blacklisted and family members Some whistleblower protection laws expressly exclude certain categories of public sector employees from protection for instance those in the intelligence services or the army. In other countries, public sector employees who are engaged in particularly sensitive areas of work may be subject to special whistleblower protection legislation. For example, the Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act 37 provides some protections for those working in federal intelligence agencies in the United States. (See also Section III. of this Study for further discussion of specific issues concerning public sector whistleblower protection mechanisms). iv) Scope of Subject Matter of Protected Disclosures 21. One of the main objectives of whistleblower protection laws is to promote and facilitate the reporting of illegal, unethical or dangerous activities. 38 Whistleblower legislation should thus provide a clear definition of the scope of disclosures that are afforded protection. Japan s WPA, for example, expressly lists violations of food, health, safety and environmental laws. Provisions under the WPA are also extended to those who report the bribery of foreign public officials, as provided under the Unfair Competition Prevention Laws. Again, a no loophole approach would be most effective when identifying the breadth of subject matter to be afforded protection. 39 In the context of using whistleblower protection mechanisms as a means of combating corruption, for purposes of clarity and legal certainty, the disclosure of corruption offences may explicitly be referred to in the legislation, or the reporting of crime more generally. The latter is reflected in South Africa s PDA, for example, which expressly includes the commission of a criminal offence. 40 It is important to establish protection measures for whistleblowers when they report acts of corruption that might not be recognised as crimes but could be subject to administrative investigations Some countries set minimum thresholds on the extent of the wrongdoing before whistleblower protection may be triggered. Protected disclosures under U.S. law, for example, include inter alia gross mismanagement and gross waste of funds. To qualify as gross there must be something more than a debateable difference in opinion; the agency s ability to accomplish its mission must be implicated. 34 Act on the Protection of Public Interest Whistleblowers (enacted 29 March 2011, to enter into force on 30 September 2011). 35 Australia Public Service Act (1999), Article U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (2009), p Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act (1999). 38 D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), p U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (2009), p South Africa PDA (2000), Section 1(i). 41 See, for example, MESICIC, Mexico Final Report, 29 June 2007, p. 26; MESICIC, Guatemala Final Report, 27 June 2008, p. 29; MESICIC, Argentina Final Report, 15 December 2006, p
10 Furthermore, under U.S. law, disclosures of trivial violations do not constitute protected disclosures. 42 Australia s Public Service Regulations also state that there is no obligation to investigate whistleblower reports that are frivolous or vexatious. 43 b. Mechanisms for Protection i) Protection against Retaliation 23. Whistleblower protection laws should provide comprehensive protection against discriminatory or retaliatory personnel action 44. For example, the French Law on the Fight Against Corruption, sets out broad employment protections for whistleblowers including direct or indirect disciplinary action, dismissal or discrimination, particularly with regard to remuneration, training, classification and reclassification, assignment, qualification, professional promotion, transfer or contract renewal, as well as exclusion from recruitment or access to internships or training. 45 Similar provisions protecting whistleblowers against employment-related reprisals are expressly listed in detail under South Africa s PDA. 46 In Italy, proposed amendments to the Anti-Corruption Bill state that whistleblowers cannot be penalized, fired or submitted to any direct or indirect discrimination, which would have an impact on the working conditions directly or indirectly linked to the report. 47 Under U.S. law, protection is also provided against less severe disciplinary actions, such as admonishments or reprimands. Korea s ACRC Act also provides protection against financial or administrative disadvantages, such as the cancellation of a permit or license, or the revocation of a contract. 48 ii) Criminal and Civil Liability 24. Some countries impose criminal sanctions if employees disclose information concerning official secrets or national security. In establishing whistleblower protection legislation, countries may consider waiving such criminal liability for protected disclosures, or only affording protection if the disclosure is made through a prescribed channel. In the U.S., for example, if a purported whistleblower makes a disclosure that is specifically ordered by law or Executive Order to be kept secret in the interest of national defense or the conduct of foreign affairs, the disclosure is prohibited by law and will not be afforded whistleblower protection unless it is made to the agency s Inspector General or the Office of Special Counsel. (See also Section III. of this Study for further discussion of specific issues concerning public sector whistleblower protection mechanisms). 25. More comprehensive whistleblower protection laws may also provide protection against libel and defamation suits, as such actions can pose a serious deterrent to whistleblowing. Korea s PPIW Act, for example, provides protection from a claim for damages caused by the public interest whistleblowing The Federal Circuit defined trivial as, arguably minor and inadvertent miscues occurring in the conscientious carrying out of one s assigned duties. Drake v. Agency for Int l Dev., 543 F.3d 1377, 1381 (Fed. Cir. 2008). However, the Federal Circuit has also held that disclosing a seemingly-minor event can be a qualified disclosure when the purpose of the disclosure is to show the existence of a repeated practice. Horton v. Dep t of the Navy, 66 F.3d 279, 283 (Fed. Cir. 1995). 43 Australia Public Service Regulations (1999), Reg See Eur. Ct. H.R., Heinisch v. Germany, Application no /08, 21 July 2011, in which dismissal of a nurse after having brought a criminal complaint against her employer alleging deficiencies in the care provided constituted a violation of article 10 of the European Convention of Human Rights. 45 France Law No (13 November 2007) on the Fight against Corruption. 46 South Africa PDA (2000), Section 1(vi). 47 Draft amendment no to Bill No Korea ACRC Act (2009), Chapter V, Article 62(3). 49 Korea PPIW Act (2010), Article 14(4). 10
11 iii) Anonymity and Confidentiality 26. Most whistleblower laws provide for the protection of the identity of the whistleblower, which is kept confidential unless the whistleblower provides his/her consent to disclose it 50. U.S. law, for example, prohibits the disclosure of the identity of the whistleblower without consent, unless the Office of the Special Counsel determines that the disclosure of the individual s identity is necessary because of an imminent danger to public health or safety or imminent violation of any criminal law. 51 Some countries also impose sanctions for disclosing the identity of the whistleblower; for example, India s PID Bill imposes a penalty of imprisonment and fine for revealing the identity of the whistleblower. 52 Although anonymity can provide a strong incentive for whistleblower to come forward, a number of whistleblower protection laws exclude anonymous disclosures. For instance, Brazil s Supreme Court has explored the investigative difficulties that arise with anonymous reporting, and has held that an anonymous tip cannot by itself warrant the opening of a criminal investigation. 53 Other obstacles to protecting anonymous whistleblowers can also be cultural, because in certain contexts whistleblowers can be seen negatively. In certain countries, the term whistleblower is often associated with being an informant, a traitor or spy or even a snitch 54. iv) Burden of Proof 27. Whistleblower protection laws may lower the burden of proof whereby the employer must prove that the conduct taken against the employee is unrelated to his or her whistleblowing. This is in response to the difficulties an employee may face in proving that the retaliation was a result of the disclosure, especially as many forms of reprisals maybe very subtle and difficult to establish. 55 In this regard, South Africa s PDA, for example, states that any dismissal in breach [of Section 3] of the Act is deemed to be an automatically unfair dismissal U.S. law applies a burden-shifting scheme pursuant to which a Federal employee who is a purported whistleblower must first establish that he or she: 1. Disclosed conduct that meets a specific category of wrongdoing set forth in the law; 2. Made the disclosure to the right type of party (depending on the nature of the disclosure, the employee may be limited regarding to whom the report can be made); 3. Made a report that is either outside of the employee s course of duties or communicated outside of normal channels; 4. Made the report to someone other than the wrongdoer; 5. Had a reasonable belief of wrongdoing (the employee does not have to be correct, but the belief must be reasonable to a disinterested observer); 6. Suffered a personnel action, the agency s failure to take a personnel action, or the threat to take or not to take a personnel action. If the employee establishes each of these elements, the burden shifts to the employer to establish by clear and convincing evidence that it would have taken the same action in absence of the whistleblowing c. Reporting Procedures and Mechanisms i) Channels for Reporting 50 For a more in depth discussion on this issue, see: D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009). 51 U.S. Whistleblower Protection Act (1989); 5 U.S.C. 1213(h). 52 India PID Bill (2010). 53 Supreme Court of Brazil, Inquiry No , en banc, 11 May See Transparency International report: Alternative to silence: Whistleblower protection in 10 European Countries available at: 55 U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation (2009), p South Africa PDA (2000), Section 4(2)(a) 11
12 29. Whistleblowing legislation may refer to one or more channels by which protected disclosures can be made. These generally include internal disclosures, external disclosures to a designated body, and external disclosures to the public. The UK PIDA, for example, applies a tiered approach whereby disclosures may be made to one of the following tiers of persons: Tier 1. Internal disclosures to employers or Ministers of the Crown; Tier 2. Regulatory disclosures to prescribed bodies (e.g. the Financial Services Authority or Inland Revenue), and; Tier 3. Wider disclosures to the police, media, Members of Parliament and non-prescribed regulators. Each tier incrementally requires a higher threshold of conditions to satisfy for the whistleblower to be protected. This is intended to encourage internal reporting and the use of external reporting channels as a last resort. 57 Similarly, in Canada, disclosures may also be made to the public 58 where there is not sufficient time to make the disclosure under other sections of the PSDPA and where the public servant believes on reasonable grounds that the subject-matter of the disclosure is an act or omission that (a) constitutes a serious offence or (b) constitutes an imminent risk of a substantial and specific danger to the life, health and safety of persons, or to the environment. 59 As noted above, certain categories of employees, such as those working in the intelligence sector, may also be subject to narrower reporting channels in order to be afforded protection. 60 ii) Hotlines 30. A number of G20 countries have also established whistleblower hotlines as a mechanism to facilitate the reporting of wrongdoing. These are particularly prevalent with the reporting of acts of corruption. Indonesia s Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK), for example, has established a designated whistleblowing website. 61 Korea s ACRC has also established a telephone hotline to receive whistleblower reports. A number of companies have also established hotlines for the reporting of corruption and other forms of misconduct or illegal behaviour within their organisations, particularly in response to the SOX Act and Dodd-Frank Act. (Private sector whistleblower reporting mechanisms are discussed in further details under Section IV. of this Study). iii) Use of Incentives to Encourage Reporting 31. To encourage whistleblowing, some G20 countries have adopted rewards systems, including monetary rewards. In the U.S., for example, the False Claims Act, allows individuals to sue on behalf of the government in order to recover lost or misspent money, and can receive up to 30 percent of the amount recovered. 62 The Dodd-Frank Act also authorizes the SEC to pay rewards to individuals who provide the Commission with original information that leads to successful SEC enforcement actions (and certain related actions). Rewards may range from 10 percent to 30 percent of the funds recovered. Korean law also provides monetary rewards for whistleblowers who disclose acts of corruption. The ACRC may provide whistleblowers with rewards of up to USD 2 million if their report has contributed directly to recovering or increasing revenues or reducing expenditures for public agencies. The ACRC may also grant or recommend awards if the whistleblowing has served the public interest. 63 Indonesian law also makes 57 D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), p Provided the disclosure is not prohibited under the law. 59 Canada PSDPA (2005), Section See para. 11 on U.S. Intelligence Community Whistleblower Protection Act (1999). 61 Corruption Eradication Commission of Indonesia (KPK), Whistleblower System, available at: 62 False Claims Act, 31 U.S.C Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission of Korea, Protecting and Rewarding Whistleblowers, available at: 12
13 provision for the granting of tokens of appreciation to whistleblowers who have assisted efforts to prevent and combat corruption. 64 d. Enforcement Mechanisms i) Oversight and Enforcement Authorities 32. Whistleblower legislation could designate an independent body that is empowered to receive and investigate complaints of retaliatory, discriminatory or disciplinary action taken against whistleblowers. In Canada, for example, the Public Sector Integrity Commissioner is empowered to receive and investigate complaints of wrongdoings and reports of reprisals. If violations of a whistleblower s rights under PSDPA are found, the Public Servants Disclosure Protection Tribunal can order remedies and impose sanctions. 65 Under U.S. law, the Office of the Special Counsel (OSC) has the authority to investigate and, where appropriate, prosecute claims of prohibited personnel practices taken against Federal employees, including reprisals for whistleblowing. Sectoral whistleblower protection laws may also establish specific bodies to receive reports and handle complaints. Korea s ACRC, for example, is empowered under the ACRC Act to launch an inquiry into claims of reprisals against whistleblowers who have reported corruption offences. In the U.S., the Dodd-Frank Act has also called upon the SEC to create an Office of the Whistleblower to work with whistleblowers, handle their tips and complaints, and help the SEC determine whistleblower awards. ii) Availability of Judicial Review 33. An identified best practice for whistleblower legislation is to ensure that whistleblowers are entitled to a fair hearing before an impartial forum with a full right of appeal ( genuine day in court ). 66 A number of G20 countries have adopted such provisions within their laws. The UK PIDA, for example, allows for appeals to the Employment Tribunal. Similarly, under South Africa s PDA, an employee who has been subjected, is subject, or may be subjected to an occupational detriment in breach of the Act may approach any court with jurisdiction, including the Labour Court. 67 Under U.S. law, Federal employees who are whistleblowers are also afforded legal standing to bring complaints before the Merit Systems Protection Board and the US Court of Appeals, rather than rely on the OSC to prosecute the case. iii) Remedies and Sanctions for Retaliation 34. Whistleblower protection laws will most often include remedies for whistleblowers who have suffered harm. The importance of such provisions is highlighted in the Council of Europe s Parliamentary Assembly Resolution on Whistleblower Protection, which states that the relevant legislation should seek corrective action from the employer, including interim relief pending a full hearing and appropriate financial compensation if the effects of the retaliatory measures cannot reasonably be undone. 68 Such remedies may take into account not only lost salary but also compensatory damages for suffering. 69 Under 64 Law No. 31 of 1999 on the Eradication of the Criminal Act of Corruption, Article See generally: Public Servants Disclosure Protection Tribunal, available at: 66 Transparency International, Recommended Principles for Whistleblowing Legislation, Recommendation South Africa PDA (2000), Section 4(1). 68 Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1729 (2010) on the Protection of Whistleblowers, Article D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), p
14 UK law, for example, the courts have ruled that compensation can be provided for suffering, based on the system developed under discrimination law Legislation may also limit the amount of damages that may be sought. Under South Africa s PDA, for example, damages may not exceed the equivalent of 12 months salary for an occupational detriment that amounts to an unfair labour practice, and 24 months salary for an automatically unfair dismissal. 71 Some G20 countries also impose criminal sanctions against employers who retaliate against whistleblowers. As noted above, in the United States, the SOX Act imposes a criminal penalty of imprisonment of up to ten years and/or a fine against those who retaliate against a whistleblower who reveals a violation of any criminal act to law enforcement authorities. e. Awareness-Raising and Evaluation Mechanisms 36. Whistleblower protection legislation should be supported by effective awareness-raising, communication, training and evaluation efforts. Communicating to public or private sector employees their rights and obligations when exposing wrongdoing is essential as outlined by the 1998 OECD Recommendation on Improving Ethical Conduct in the Public Service 72. A number of G20 countries have undertaken such efforts. Indonesia s KPK, for example, has been actively promoting whistleblowing programmes within government agencies and state-owned enterprises. Some G20 countries have also adopted express provisions within their laws to this effect. For example, in the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration Act (OSHA) requires Federal agencies to post certain information about whistleblower protection in order to keep employees informed of their rights in connection with protected disclosures. Similarly, in France, the Commission Nationale de l Informatique et des Libertés issued guidelines on the implementation of whistleblowing systems which include reference to the need to have clear and complete information communicated to potential users Some G20 countries have also taken steps to evaluate the effectiveness of their whistleblower protection system. Japan s WPA, for example, expressly makes provision for its evaluation, stating that approximately five years after this Act comes into force, the Government shall examine the state of enforcement of this Act and shall take necessary measures based upon those results. 74 Systematically collecting data and information is another means of evaluating the effectiveness of a whistleblowing system. In the United States, for example, the Merit Systems Protection Board has gathered information by conducting surveys with employees about their experiences as whistleblowers. 75 Such efforts play a key role in assessing the progress or lack thereof - in implementing whistleblower protection legislation. 70 Ibid. 71 P. Martin, The Status of Whistleblowing in South Africa: Taking Stock, Open Democracy Advice Centre (June 2010), p The Recommendation stresses in its Principle 4 that public servants need to know what protection will be available to them in cases of exposing wrongdoing. It can be accessed at: k=false 73 CNIL Guidelines for the Implementation of Whistleblowing Systems (November 2005), Article Japan WPA (2004), Supplementary Provisions, Article D. Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments, (2009), p
15 III. PUBLIC SECTOR WHISTLEBLOWER PROTECTION 1. Brief overview of the benefits of public sector whistleblower protection 38. Encouraging the whistleblowing on acts of suspected corruption is essential in safeguarding public interest and promoting a culture of public accountability and integrity. Public officials have access to up-to-date information concerning their workplaces practices, and are usually the first to recognise wrongdoings. 76 In most jurisdictions, it is an obligation for them to report corruption and other malpractices. However, public officials who report wrongdoings may be subject to intimidation, harassment, dismissal and violence by their fellow officials or superiors. In many countries, whistleblowing is even associated with treachery or spying. 77 This notion may be the result of the influence of cultural connotations and, in turn, may also have an impact on individual careers and on the internal organisational culture As a result, encouragement of whistleblowing must be associated with the corresponding protection for the whistleblower. In the public sector, public servants need to know what their rights and obligations are in terms of exposing actual or suspected wrongdoing within the public service. These should include clear rules and procedures for officials to follow, and a formal chain of responsibility. Public servants also need to know what protection will be available to them in cases of exposing wrongdoing Translating whistleblower protection into legislation legitimises and structures the mechanisms under which public officials can disclose wrongdoings in the public sector, protects public officials against reprisals, and, at the same time, encourages them to fulfil their duties in performing efficient, transparent and high quality public service. If adequately implemented, legislation protecting public sector whistleblowers can become one of the most effective tools to support anti-corruption initiatives, detecting and combating corrupt acts, fraud and mismanagement in the public sector. 80 The absence of appropriate legislation impedes the fight against corruption and exposes whistleblowers to risks of retaliation Although in some countries whistleblower protection is still in its infancy, it is increasingly recognised as an essential anti-corruption mechanism and a key factor in promoting a culture of public accountability and integrity. For example, in OECD countries between 2000 and 2009, legal protection for whistleblowers grew from 44% to 66% (see Figure 1) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, UN Anti-Corruption Toolkit, 3rd Edition, Vienna, 2004, p See David Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments in Sandoval, I. (editor), Corruption and Transparency: Debating the Frontiers between State, Market and Society, World Bank-Institute for Social Research, UNAM, Washington, D.C. 2011, p. 7, available at (hereinafter Banisar) and Transparency International, Alternative to Silence: Whistleblower Protection in 10 European Countries (2009). 78 A.J. Brown, ed. Whistle-blowing in the Australian Public Sector: Enhancing the theory and Practice of Internal Witness Management in Public Sector Organisations, ANU E-Press, Australian national University, Canberra. 79 OECD Recommendation on Improving Ethical Conduct in the Public Service, See, for example Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, The protection of "whistleblowers": Introductory memorandum (2008) 09, 3 April 2008, available at 81 David Banisar, Whistleblowing: International Standards and Developments in Sandoval, I. (editor), Corruption and Transparency: Debating the Frontiers between State, Market and Society, World Bank-Institute for Social Research, UNAM, Washington, D.C. 2011, p. 7, available at (hereinafter Banisar). 82 OECD, Government at a Glance (2009), p
16 Figure 1. Countries that offer protection for whistleblowers (2000 and 2009) Protection for whistle-blowers Legal Anonymity Other 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Percentage of the 29 OECD countries that responded to both the 2000 and 2009 surveys 42. However, not all legal frameworks are effective and provide sufficient protection for whistleblowers. 83 The below sections provide a brief overview of the sources of legal protection for whistleblowers among G20 countries and the main elements of existing national legislations. 2. Sources of protection a. International law 43. The source of whistleblower protection is found at the highest level in international law. Whistleblower protection has been recognised by all major international treaties concerning corruption. The international legal framework against corruption requires countries to incorporate - or consider incorporating - appropriate measures into their domestic legal systems to provide protection for persons who report any facts concerning acts of corruption in good faith and on reasonable grounds to the competent authorities Moreover, several international soft law instruments also provide for the protection of whistleblowers. The 1998 OECD Recommendation on Improving Ethical Conduct in the Public Service including the Principles for Managing Ethics in the Public Service and the 2003 OECD Recommendation on Guidelines for Managing Conflict of Interest in the Public Service were among the first. The latter includes guidelines to advise countries to [p]rovide clear rules and procedures for whistle-blowing, and take steps to ensure that those who report violations in compliance with stated rules are protected against reprisal, and that the complaint mechanisms themselves are not abused. 85 In addition, the OECD 2009 Anti-bribery Recommendation also provides for the protection of whistleblowers in the public and private sectors. 45. There is also important international jurisprudence concerning human rights law that reinforces the protection of whistleblowers, explicitly in circumstances when they are the only person aware of the reported situation and in the best position to alert the employer or the public at large. For instance, in 2008, 83 Transparency International, Alternative to Silence: Whistleblower Protection in 10 European Countries (2009) [revealing that in many countries, legislation is fragmented and weakly enforced]. 84 UNCAC, Art. 33; Inter-American Convention against Corruption, Art. 3(8).Under the CoE Civil Law Convention and AU Convention against Corruption States Parties are required to establish appropriate protection for persons reporting corruption. See, CoE Civil Law Convention, Art. 9; and AU Convention against Corruption, Art. 5(6). For a similar provision, see CoE Criminal Law Convention, Art. 22(a). 85 OECD, Guidelines for Managing Conflict of Interest in the Public Service (2003) p. 35, 28 May
17 the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the dismissal of a public servant who released unclassified documents revealing political manipulation of the judiciary system was a violation of article 10 of the European Convention of Human Rights. Recently, the Court ruled in the same fashion, when a nurse working for a State-owned corporation was dismissed after filing a criminal complaint against her employer for its knowingly failure to provide the high quality care promised in its advertisement putting the patients at risk. 86 b. Domestic Laws 46. At the national level the source of protection for whistleblowers may originate either from comprehensive and dedicated laws on whistleblower protection and/or specific provisions in different laws. Among G20 countries, Australia, 87 Canada, 88 Japan, 89 South Africa, 90 the United Kingdom, 91 and the United States 92 have passed comprehensive and dedicated legislation to protect public sector whistleblowers. 93 The U.K. and South Africa are considered to have one of the most developed comprehensive legal systems, 94 having adopted a single disclosure regime for both private and public sector whistleblowing protection. 95 The U.K. also covers the hybrid scheme - when public sector functions are outsourced to private contractors 96 - while South Africa explicitly excludes them from whistleblowing protection In the United States, the Whistleblower Protection Act was enacted in 1989, and subsequently has been complemented by the whistleblowing provisions in the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. These last two Acts are primarily targeted to the private sector, yet also constitute part of the framework that protects whistleblower employees of the federal government from reprisal and provides for redress. The Canadian Public Servants Disclosure Protection Act of 2005 applies only to disclosures made by the Canadian federal public service and to some federal Crown corporations. Australia s whistleblower legislation only provides protection in the public sector, even though some jurisdictions in Australia provide protection for the hybrid scheme. The Japanese whistleblowing protection act protects both public and private employees for public interest disclosures. Specifically, article 7 provides for the Treatment of National Public Employees in the Regular Service, and prohibits the dismissal or any disadvantageous treatment on the basis of whistleblowing Eur. Ct. of H. R., Heinisch v. Germany, application no /08, 21 July, All Australian jurisdictions, except for the Commonwealth, have stand-alone acts that provide for the establishment of whistleblowing schemes and some form of legal protection against reprisals. See, for example the Australian Capital Territory Public Interest Disclosures Act, the New South Wales Protected Disclosures Act of 1994, the Northern territory Public Interest Disclosures Act of 2008, Queensland Whistleblowers Protection Act of 1993, Tasmania Public Interest Disclosures Act of 2002, Victoria Whistleblowers Protection Act of 2001, and the Western Australia Public Interest Disclosures Act of Public Servants Disclosure Protection Act of Whistleblower Protection Act of Protected Disclosures Act of Public Interest Disclosure Act of Whistleblower Protection Act of In India, the Public Interest Disclosure and Protection to Persons Making the Disclosure Bill was approved by the Union Cabinet in 2010 and is awaiting being passed as law. 94 Banisar, p Marie Chene, Good Practice in Whistleblowing Protection Legislation, U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre Expert Answer (2009), p. 4 (hereinafter Chene). 96 Under section 230(3) of the Employment Rights Act of Chene, p Whistleblower Protection Act No. 122 of
18 48. On the other hand, the majority of countries that have adopted whistleblower protection have done so in specific provisions in one or more laws. Yet, many of these provisions only cover specific persons or acts resulting in limited protection. 49. Some examples of provisions are as follows: At a Constitutional level, Article 41 of the Chinese Constitution provides for whistleblower protection, giving citizens the right to report unlawful conduct and forbidding retaliation. 99 Criminal codes may also provide for protection of whistleblowers such as in Mexico. Article 219 (I) of the Federal Criminal Code provides that a crime of intimidation is committed when a civil servant, or a person acting on their behalf, uses physical violence or moral aggression to intimidate another person in order to prevent them from reporting, lodging a criminal complaint, or providing information concerning the alleged criminal act punished by the criminal laws of the Federal Law on Administrative Liability of Civil Servants. Labour laws or codes may also be a legal source of protection for whistleblowers, such as in Italy where the Labour Code protects workers against dismissal, but not against other forms of reprisal, and in Germany 100 which allows the existence of whistleblowers by containing basic protection provisions. 101 In Germany, at the constitutional level, the legal framework protecting whistleblowers is taken from Art. 20(3) of the German Constitutional Law. Art 4 of the Grundgesetz, 102 guaranteeing the freedom of conscience, 103 of information and expression, 104 and the right to petition, 105 that includes the right to address requests or complaints to government agencies, as well asthe general freedom of action 106 and the right to report offences to the public prosecutor also form part of the framework. 107 This, along with the provisions contained in the Labour Law forbidding discrimination caused by a permitted exercise of rights, has been considered 108 to contain the basic protections for whistleblowers. 109 More recently, the Federal Labour Court has established the protection of workers who cooperate with the public prosecutor or make a voluntary notification to the law enforcement agencies in good faith, if the crime reported refers to a government s interference with a fundamental right Constitution of the People s Republic of China, Adopted on December 4, 1982, Article 41: Citizens of the People's Republic of China have the right to criticize and make suggestions to any state organ or functionary. Citizens have the right to make to relevant state organs complaints and charges against, or exposures of, violation of the law or dereliction of duty by any state organ or functionary; but fabrication or distortion of facts with the intention of libel or frame-up is prohibited. In case of complaints, charges or exposures made by citizens, the state organ concerned must deal with them in a responsible manner after ascertaining the facts. No one may suppress such complaints, charges and exposures, or retaliate against the citizens making them. Citizens who have suffered losses through infringement of their civil rights by any state organ or functionary have the right to compensation in accordance with the law. (unofficial translation). 100 Bundesarbeitsgericht vom AZR 235/02 und vom , 2 AZR 400/ Guido Strack, Whistleblowing in Germany, pp. 7, 8. See German Civil Code, Section Also known as the Basic Law. 103 German Grundgesetz, art Id., art. 5, paragraph Id., art Id., art. 2, paragraph Criminal Code, Section For instance, this has been recognized as such by the Whistleblower Netzwerk e.v. is a German organization founded to support whistleblowers and educate on subjects related to their protection. See 109 Guido Strack, Whistleblowing in Germany, pp. 7, 8. See German Civil Code, Section Bundesarbeitsgericht vom AZR 235/02 und vom , 2 AZR 400/05 18
19 Anti-corruption laws may include whistleblower protection, such as in France where the 2007 Anti-Corruption Act protects public and private employees from a diverse variety of sanctions. 111 Similarly, the Russian Federal Law on Combatting Corruption (Art. 9.4) provides for the protection of public officials, in accordance with the laws of the Russian Federation, who report corrupt offences committed by other public officials. 112 The Korean Act on Anti-Corruption and the Foundation of the Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission (Article 56) requires public organization employee to report an act of corruption committed by another public organization employee to any investigative agency, the Board of Audit and Inspection, or the Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission (ACRC). Laws regulating public servants may also be a legal source of protection for whistleblowers. In Mexico, Article 8 (XXI) of the Federal Law on Administrative Liability of Civil Servants provides for the obligation of civil servants to, inter alia, abstain from any acts that would impede the presentation of complaints, or from any acts or omissions that would prejudice the interests of those who formulate or present such complaints. Article 13 provides penalties for administrative misconduct to be imposed on anyone who violates such obligations. Protection of whistleblowers may also originate in regulations of specific agencies. In Argentina, cases of corruption can be reported to the central anti-corruption office (Oficina Anticorrupción), 113 and it is the regulation governing the anti-corruption office that allows for whistleblower anonymity and confidentiality, if desired. 3. Trends across countries legislation ensuring whistleblower protection 50. Limitations concerning public sector whistleblower protection legislation may arise from several facts: legal frameworks are not comprehensive enough, enforcement is weak, allowing continued cases of retaliation against whistleblowers, weak oversight, and lack of implementation of internal procedures It is therefore important to highlight elements of best practices across countries legislation to ensure comprehensive and effective protection of whistleblowers and to protect public interest. A broad definition of who a whistleblower is may be considered the first step.while the reporting of misconduct within the public sector is usually covered by law, 115 it is important to consider the fact that public sector functions may be outsourced to contractors. Thus, the U.K. extends whistleblower protection to contractors under section 230(3) of the 1996 Employment Rights Act where a worker includes an employee and an 111 Loi n du 13 novembre 2007 relative à la lutte contre la corruption, Art. 9, JORF 14 novembre Yet, there is no specific legal protection for whistleblowers besides the general rules that appear in the Federal Law On Combating Corruption. As of August 2011, the Prosecutor General s Office has prepared a draft Federal Law On Making Amendments to separate and specific legal acts in order to protect persons who voluntarily report suspicions of corruption in the state administration. Amendments to this end are planned to be made to the Federal Labour Code and to the 2004 Federal Law on State Protection of Victims, Witnesses and other Participants of Criminal Proceedings No. 119 (GRECO (2008), para. 112). 113 Law No of Banisar, p See, U.K. PIDA 43(K); Korean ACA arts. 25, 26; Japanese WA arts. 2.2, 7; US WPA 2(a)(1); and Australian PDA 3. 19
20 independent contractor who himself or herself provides services other than in a professional/client or a business/client relationship. 52. Regarding misconduct, the legal framework should provide a clear definition of the protected disclosures, specifying the acts that constitute violations in any legal hierarchy, mismanagement, abuse of authority, dangers to the public health or safety, or corrupt acts. 116 Practice shows that the procedures for disclosures should reflect a balance between being overly prescriptive and thus making it difficult to disclose, or overly relaxed, allowing for unlimited disclosures, that in the end do not encourage internal resolution of issues within the organisation. 117 The U.K. legislation provides a balanced approach with a detailed definition including exceptions (Box 1). Box 1. A detailed definition of protected disclosures in the U.K. Part IVA: Protected disclosures 43A: Meaning of protected disclosure In this Act a protected disclosure means a qualifying disclosure (as defined by section 43B) which is made by a worker in accordance with any of sections 43C to 43H. 43B:Disclosures qualifying for protection (1)In this Part a qualifying disclosure means any disclosure of information which, in the reasonable belief of the worker making the disclosure, tends to show one or more of the following (a)that a criminal offence has been committed, is being committed or is likely to be committed, (b)that a person has failed, is failing or is likely to fail to comply with any legal obligation to which he is subject, (c)that a miscarriage of justice has occurred, is occurring or is likely to occur, (d)that the health or safety of any individual has been, is being or is likely to be endangered, (e)that the environment has been, is being or is likely to be damaged, or (f)that information tending to show any matter falling within any one of the preceding paragraphs has been, is being or is likely to be deliberately concealed. (2)For the purposes of subsection (1), it is immaterial whether the relevant failure occurred, occurs or would occur in the United Kingdom or elsewhere, and whether the law applying to it is that of the United Kingdom or of any other country or territory. (3)A disclosure of information is not a qualifying disclosure if the person making the disclosure commits an offence by making it. (4)A disclosure of information in respect of which a claim to legal professional privilege (or, in Scotland, to confidentiality as between client and professional legal adviser) could be maintained in legal proceedings is not a qualifying disclosure if it is made by a person to whom the information had been disclosed in the course of obtaining legal advice. (5)In this Part the relevant failure, in relation to a qualifying disclosure, means the matter falling within paragraphs (a) to (f) of subsection (1). Source: U.K. Public Interest Disclosure Act of 1998, Part IVA a. Protection and remedies 53. Retaliation for whistleblowing usually presents itself in the form of disciplinary actions or harassment in the workplace. Therefore, legislation focuses on providing ample protection of the whistleblower s employment status, including unfair dismissal. 118 South Africa prohibits that whistleblowers be subject to any disciplinary actions and provides one of the most comprehensive list of 116 As established in the UK PDA 43(a), (b); the Japanese WA art. 2.3; the US WPA 2(a)(2); the Uganda WPA II.2; South African PDA 1; Korean ACA art. 2; Australian PDA 4; and Canadian PSPDA art. 8. See also, Government Accountability Project, International Best Practices for Whistleblowers Policies (June 20, 2011) p Banisar, p See, UK PIDA 5, 47(B); Korean ACA arts ; Japanese WA arts. 3-5; US WPA 2(b)(2)(C), 5; South African PDA 2(1)(a-b), 3, 4; Australian PDA 25 ; Canadian PSPDA art. 19) 20
G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan Protection of Whistleblowers
G20 Anti-Corruption Action Plan Protection of Whistleblowers Study on Whistleblower Protection Frameworks, Compendium of Best Practices and Guiding Principles for Legislation G20 Anti-Corruption Action