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Guide to Electric Power in Texas - PDF
Guide to Electric Power in Texas
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Esmond Golden
1 Third Edition Guide to Electric Power in Texas January 2003 Houston Advanced Research Center and Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise University of Houston Law Center
2 Guide to Electric Power in Texas Third Edition January 2003 Houston Advanced Research Center 4800 Research Forest Drive The Woodlands, Texas / Fax 281/ Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise University of Houston Law Center 100 Law Center Houston, TX / Fax 713/
3 Preface This Third Edition of Guide to Electric Power in Texas comes at a time of great change and uncertainty in the electric power industry in Texas and the United States. Nationwide, the outstanding questions deal with how best to build workably competitive markets for bulk, wholesale transactions of power and the financial settlements that accompany these sales. Should we adopt a national market design that will establish and enforce common standards for how these transactions take place? Will such an approach ensure adequate and efficient investments in transmission capacity? How can we best provide open, transparent flows of information so that trading, marketing and risk management for both power and a critical generation fuel, natural gas, can proceed with confidence and integrity? What are the roles of national and state regulators and policy makers? And will our market design encourage continued experimentation with renewable energy sources like wind and solar, where those make sense, and help to foster and improve environmental quality across the system? These and other issues are being debated at a time when our energy policy decisions as a nation are being monitored by other countries as never before, a consequence of the sharp conflicts surrounding California s electric power restructuring program and the corporate governance and ethics issues emanating from the energy trading sector. Among state-based programs, our Texas Electric Choice initiative remains the one most watched. As a consequence, customer education and participation, as well as customer feedback both to electric power providers and Guide to Electric Power in Texas, Copyright 2003, Houston Advanced Research Center, The Woodlands, Texas. The University of Houston is a HARC affiliate. This report may not be resold, reprinted, or redistributed for compensation of any kind without prior written permission from the Houston Advanced Research Center or the Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise, University of Houston Law Center. our Public Utility Commission and Legislature, are important benchmarks. This edition of the Guide, like previous versions, was prepared to provide a comprehensive and balanced educational resource for a wide range of retail customer groups, from interested residential consumers to large commercial and industrial organizations. The Guide was first published in 1997, after the Texas Legislature created our own wholesale market and when thinking began to coalesce with regard to participation in the marketplace by retail customers. Our goal was then, and remains, to provide both background on our state s electric power industry and history and the points of debate on how best to provide free choices and a different set of options so that the benefits of competition can be introduced and flourish. Texas remains unique among the states in how our electric power system is organized. Most electric power customers reside within the Electric Reliability Council of Texas or ERCOT, an island within the interconnected national grids. Our state competes for jobs and industries with other states, and so how our grid and other parts of the electric power system work are important for comparative advantage. As the electric power industry evolves nationwide we may become increasingly integrated, and so how our rules and framework fit with other state and regional approaches is of great interest to customers and the electric power industry. Finally, this book serves as a resource in Mexico, where there is ongoing discussion about how best to restructure that electric power system and where closer ties to Texas are a strategic objective on both sides of the border. The Guide was conceived of and prepared at the Houston Advanced Research Center (HARC) and the Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise (IELE) at the University of Houston s Law Center. The Houston Advanced Research Center is a private, non-profit research organization located in The Woodlands, Texas seeking to improve ecosystem and human health through research and service. HARC s activities are i
4 focused on three primary areas Energy, Environment and Life Sciences. HARC relies on the expertise and knowledge of its research partners, such as the University of Houston, for projects and publications like the Guide. The University of Houston s IELE is a university-wide research, education, and outreach center on energy and related environmental issues. Formerly the Energy Institute located in the C.T. Bauer College of Business, our main focus is on economic, legal, regulatory, and financial frameworks to support sustainable, commercially successful energy development worldwide. Our work at the IELE extends across the energy value chains, from oil and gas exploration and production, to transportation and distribution, and to conversion and delivery for end use as petroleum products (gasoline, jet fuel and so on), electric power, or natural gas. The IELE specializes in the particular problems and issues surrounding the natural gas-to-electric power value chain, including liquefied natural gas (LNG). The transmission and local distribution grid businesses have historically been operated as public utilities because of their strong network economies of scale and potential to exert market power. For the past 25 years, the natural gas and electric power industries have experienced substantial restructuring in the U.S. and other countries as ways are sought to introduce competition, spur innovation and entrepreneurship, and instill market pricing and market-driven behavior. These policy actions have been taken mindful of the public interests involved. This bigger picture underlies the purpose and intent of our Guide. In addition to the Guide, the IELE maintains ongoing research on issues in electric power restructuring and our natural gas supply and delivery system in the U.S., and on comparative approaches to gas and power restructuring both within the U.S. and across a number of countries. Our briefing paper on the Texas Electric Choice program can be found at We place particular emphasis on Mexico and the emerging North American continental marketplace, South America, West Europe and Turkey, and East Asia. The IELE helps to expand energy content in UH courses and degree programs and hosts an international education program, New Era in Oil, Gas and Power Value Creation each May. The IELE is supported by the following financial partners. The University of Houston is a member of the HARC higher education consortium. Baker Hughes BG LNG Services BP Global LNG Bracewell & Patterson L.L.P. Canadian Consulate General Dallas ChevronTexaco Worldwide Power and Gasification and Worldwide LNG ConocoPhillips Worldwide LNG Duke Energy Dynegy El Paso Global LNG Enterprise Products Partners, L.P. ExxonMobil Fulbright & Jaworski L.L.P. Gardere Wynne Sewell L.L.P. For additional printed copies of this report contact: JETRO Houston/ METI, Japan McKinsey & Company Ocean Energy PA Consulting Public Utility Commission of Texas Reliant Energy Shell Oil Company Smith International, Inc. Tractebel/Distrigas U.S. Department of Energy Office of Fossil Energy U.S. Department of State (Agency for International Development) Vinson & Elkins L.L.P. Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise University of Houston Law Center 100 Law Center Houston, TX / Fax 713/ ii
6 Part 1 Facts on Texas Electric Power... 1 Facts and figures on the Texas electric power system. Part 2 The Basics of Electric Power... 9 Physical and organizational characteristics of an electric power system; how electric power systems work. Part 3 History Short history of Texas electric power and U.S. activities that have helped shape electric power systems. Part 4 Regulations & Policies Brief description of major U.S. energy legislation and Texas legislation as they affect electric power. Part 5 Major Issues Discussion of major issues affecting electric power decisions consumers, environmental, economic development, financing, and others. Part 6 Future Trends Discussion of four key trends to watch in the electric power industry. Appendices Basic Economic Principles Glossary Further Readings iii
7 Third Edition Guide to Electric Power in Texas January 2003 Houston Advanced Research Center and Institute for Energy, Law & Enterprise University of Houston Law Center
8 Facts on Texas Electric Power Facts on Texas Electric Power Electricity: We Make and Use a Lot By far, Texans use more electricity than any other state and many countries. In 2000, we bought almost 10 percent of all electricity sold in the U.S., exceeding customers in California, the next largest state, by 44 percent. We used over 60 percent more electricity than Florida, the third largest consuming state or almost twice as much as Ohio, the fourth largest consuming state, and more electricity than the 20 lowest consuming states combined. Texas uses a lot of electricity! Texas utilities sold 318 billion kilowatt hours (kwh) of electricity in billion more than California and almost 122 billion more than Florida. And this doesn t include electricity generated by industry for its own use. Texans use this much electricity because of the concentration and type of businesses and the climate. Who Uses Electricity in Texas? There are more than 9 million customers that buy electricity from Texas utilities and about 86 percent of these are residential. There are nearly 1.1 million commercial customers and more than 61,000 industrial customers. Utilities receive much of their revenue from residential customers who spent about $9.3 billion on electricity in In this same year, industry spent $4.5 billion and commercial users about $5.8 billion. The average Texas industrial customer consumes as much electricity as 114 homes. The average residence consumes more than 14,500 kilowatt-hours (kwh) per year while the average industrial customer uses about 1.66 million kwh per year. Average commercial customers use more than 5 residences - approximately 77,600 kwh. Large volume electricity customers, such as industries and large commercial operations pay lower rates than low volume users, such Electricity it s always there except for an occasional storm, and we expect it to be there wherever we go. It works so well most of the time that we re surprised when it s in the news. In Texas today, electricity is big news, big business and important to all of us. Texas electricity is different. We make more, use more, and have our own niche in the U.S. system. Texas produces and uses more electricity than any other state in the U.S., considerably more than California which has about 13 million more people. Why? And what does that mean for the future? Texas also stands alone in the way it is connected to the electric power grid there s the eastern part of the system, the western part, and as residences. This lower cost for large customers is attributed to lower delivery costs and more stable demand. In 2000, average rates for different types of customers in Texas were 7.96 per kwh for residential customers; 6.88 for commercial customers; and 4.42 for Facts on Texas Electricity 2000 industrial customers. These are average rates that vary from area to area in the state. Also, an industrial or commercial customer using small amounts of electricity would pay higher rates. No. of Generating Stations (2001) Total No. of Electric Utilities No. of Investor Owned Utilities No. of Municipal Utilities No. of Cooperatives No. of River Authorities Making & Moving Electricity Texas electricity used to be made and moved primarily by electric utilities. However, electric power is not simple and utilities are not the only organizations involved, especially now that we are implementing Texas Electric Choice what this third edition of Guide to Electric Power in Texas is really all about. There are several types of utilities; many investor-owned utilities Overview the ERCOT part. How did this happen and why? Texas relies heavily on coal for electric power generation, although we have more than three times the amount in natural gas generation capacity. Fuel competition is driving change in the industry. Why? Texas electricity on average is cheaper, but we spend more and costs vary widely across the state and from consumer to consumer. Why is it cheaper (when it is) and why do prices vary? Finally, how will these characteristics change in today s industry now that full competition was started on January 1, 2002? Total Annual Consumption Total Generating Capacity (2001) No. of Residential Customers No. of Commercial Customers 318 GWh 79.5 GW 8 million 1.1 million No. of Industrial Consumers 61,280 Avg. Residential Consumption Avg. Commercial Consumption Avg. Industrial Consumption Avg. Residential Rate Avg. Commercial Rate Avg. Industrial Rate U.S. Avg. Residential Rate U.S. Avg. Commercial Rate U.S. Avg. Industrial Rate 14,570 kwh 77,600 kwh 1.66 mil. kwh 7.96 /kwh 6.88 /kwh 4.42 /kwh 8.24 /kwh 7.43 /kwh 4.64 /Kwh Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) and the Public Utility Commission of Texas. 1
9 Facts on Texas Electric Power What s a Kilowatt-hour? Part of our bill for electricity is based on how many kilowatt-hours (kwh) we use. The W is capitalized because it is named after James Watt who devised this measure in A kilowatt equals 1,000 watts of power so a 1,000 watt light bulb (very bright) burning one hour would use one kwh. Watts are simply a measure of the rate at which work is done by electricity with a kilowatt equaling about 1.34 horsepower. 350, , , , , ,000 50,000 0 have created separate subsidiaries to make and sell electricity, and these must function apart from the parent company; some industries cogenerate electricity moved on the power grid; power marketers now buy and sell electricity; an Independent System Operator (ISO) has been created in Texas; and there is government involvement in all of this. With the passage of Senate Bill 7 (SB 7) in May 1999, the Texas legislature restructured the state s electricity industry. Through the Texas Electric Choice program, the goals laid out in SB 7 are being implemented. The idea is to allow customers to benefit from competition to make and sell electricity, and to create a marketplace that is more efficient while at the same time protecting customer rights and providing education and assistance to customers that need it.importantly, while the marketplace is changing, the fundamentals of electricity remain the same. The electric power system consists of complex equipment - the power plants that generate electricity, the transmission system, local distribution and the control systems associated with each of these. Texas Electricity and Population Growth 1960 to 2000 Electricity Consumption Population Use of electricity in Texas has grown much faster than the population. By 2000, consumption per capita was over 4 times what it was in This increase has occurred across the board, with residential consumers outpacing industrial customers. Source: U.S. EIA. What are Electric Utilities? Private utilities are a unique U.S. invention. Historically they have been highly regulated monopoly industries that provide water, telephone service, natural gas, and electricity in this country. While still closely regulated, natural gas, telephone, and electricity regulation has changed over time toward less regulation and increased competition. In most other countries, these services are provided by government owned and operated monopolies. This is changing as these countries seek more efficient ways of providing these services through private investment and competitive markets. Texas actually has four types of electric utilities: investor-owned (IOUs), municipal utilities (munis), electric cooperatives (co-ops), and river authorities. In 2000, Texas had 10 IOUs which provided roughly 84 percent of the state s electricity. TXU Electric and Reliant Energy HL&P were the largest. According to SB 7, only the transmission and distribution (T&D) activities can now be seen as utilities while the generation and retail sales are now competitive businesses. However, in parts of Texas where retail competition was delayed, utilities remain integrated (see Part IV for details). There are 87 electric cooperatives, four river authorities and 79 munis that are partially regulated by the Public Utilities Commission of Texas 18.0 (PUCT). Of the munis, 19 actually generate electricity 16.0 with the remainder buying 14.0 and distributing electricity to 12.0 their customers Cogenerators, Qualifying Facilities and Independent Power Producers The U.S. Public Utility Regulatory Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA) created a category of non-utility power producers called qualifying facilities (QFs). This category includes cogeneration plants, facilities 2
10 Facts on Texas Electric Power using waste products as fuel (such as petroleum coke or manure), and renewable resources like wind and solar. Cogeneration (cogen) provides process energy (usually steam) as a by-product of power generation. PURPA required the host utilities of QFs to purchase energy from the QFs at avoided costs. In Texas, QF cogeneration plants may sell power to the steam host and excess energy to the host utility or another electric utility. In 2000, about 15 percent of the total power generation capacity in Texas was associated with non-utility generators (NUGs). With the addition of about another 8,000 MW of mostly merchant plants, the share of NUGs reached about 20 percent by the end of Until recently, Texas accounted for more than 20 percent of total U.S. non-utility power generation. Restructuring of the industry required the generation arm of utilities to be separated from the transmission and distribution operations. Today, even the generation companies affiliated with the old utilities have to compete to sell the power they generate. As such, almost all generation in Texas is now non-utility. Regulators Texas utilities and electric power are regulated primarily by the Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUCT). Created by the state legislature in 1975, Texas was the last state to authorize a PUC. The primary Federal regulator is the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). The FERC regulates the transmission and sale of wholesale power in interstate commerce and thus has regulatory authority over most of the utilities in the U.S. Texas utilities are subject to FERC jurisdiction only for the sale of electric power in the wholesale or bulk market in the U.S. (FERC has no jurisdiction in the Texas wholesale market) or the transmission of power for interstate sales. The PUCT has requirements comparable to FERC s for utilities operating in Texas. Electric Utilities Generating Capacity in Texas By Primary Energy Source Year End 2001 Primary Generating Percentage of Energy Source Capacity (MW) Total Capacity Coal Fired 16, % Gas-fired 56, % Nuclear 5, % Renewable 1, % Petroleum % Hydroelectric % Total 79, % Source: ERCOT EIA-411 filing (4/1/02). Basic Electric Power System direct delivery to large customers may bypass Local Distribution Transmission Local Distribution Consumers Industrial Commercial Generation Residential Recent Actions FERC Orders 888 and 889 issued April 30, 1996 were major federal actions affecting electric utilities. Order 888 required FERCregulated utilities to file tariffs (what they would charge) for wholesale transmission services. Order 889 required FERC-regulated utilities to create an information system for access by others (by August 1996). These two orders did not require separation or unbundling of all utility services, but did require the functional separation of transmission from power marketing. The FERC has left it up to the states to decide whether and how utilities should be reor Electricity Retail Sales Millions of kwh Texas 318,263 California 244,057 Florida 195,843 Ohio 165,195 New York 142,027 Illinois 134,697 Pennsylvania 133,845 North Carolina 119,855 Georgia 119,185 Michigan 104,772 Indiana 97,775 Virginia 96,715 Washington 96,511 Tennessee 95,728 Alabama 83,524 Top 15 States 2,147,992 Total U.S. 3,421,414 Source: U.S. EIA. 3
11 Facts on Texas Electric Power Some of the Utilities in Texas That Provide Electricity Services Investor Owned Utilities American Electric Power (AEP) Company El Paso Electric Company Entergy/Gulf States Utilities Company Houston Lighting & Power Company Sharyland Utilities Southwestern Electric Power Company Southwestern Public Service Company Texas-New Mexico Power Company Texas Utilities Electric Company West Texas Utilities Cooperatives Brazos Electric Power Cooperative Northeast Texas Electric Cooperative, Inc. Sam Rayburn G&T, Inc. San Miguel Electric Cooperative, Inc. STC/MEC Power Pool Municipal Utilities City of Brady Brownfield Municipal Power and Light City of Austin Electric Utility City Public Service-San Antonio City of Coleman City of Electra City of Floydada City of Hearne Lubbock Power and Light Public Utilities Board- Brownsville City of Robstown Sam Rayburn Municipal Power Agency Texas Municipal Power Agency Bryan, Denton, Garland, Greenville Tulia Power and Light Weatherford Municipal Utility System City of Whitesboro River Authorities Guadalupe-Blanco River Authority Lower Colorado River Authority Sabine River Authority Brazos River Authority ganized. In December 1999, the FERC issued Order In that policy, the FERC requires all owners of transmission assets to organize these facilities into Regional Transmission Organizations (RTOs). The intention is to create larger markets for the transmission of electricity, facilitating competition and competitive pricing. Under Order 2000, it is expected that the portions of Texas that are included in the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) would function as a separate RTO. The FERC is holding hearings and encouraging meetings among all stakeholders (utilities, generators, marketers, customers and so on) to determine how best to implement Order When the Texas legislature passed SB 7 in May 1999, utilities were required to unbundle General Locations of Investor Owned Transmission and Distribution Utility Service Areas North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) Texas Interconnection ERCOT: Electric Reliability Council of Texas Western Interconnection WECC: Western Electricity Coordinating Council Eastern Interconnection ECAR: East Central Area Reliability Coordination Agreement MAAC: Mid-Atlantic Area Council MAIN: Mid-America Interpool Network MAPP: Mid-Continent Area Power Pool NPCC: Northeast Power Coordinating Council SERC: Southeastern Electric Reliability Council SPP: Southwest Power Pool FRCC: Florida Reliability Coordination Council their services into generation, transmission and distribution (T&D) and retail. Today, generation and sales (both wholesale and retail) of electricity are competitive businesses while the T&D companies remain regulated utilities. The Equipment of an Electric Power System The physical equipment of an electric power system includes generation which makes electricity, a transmission system that moves electricity from the power plant closer to the consumer and local distribution systems which move electric power from the transmission system to most consumers. Generation Power plants use coal, lignite, natural gas, fuel oil, and uranium to make electricity. In addition, renewable fuels include moving water, solar, wind, geothermal sources and biomass. 4
12 Facts on Texas Electric Power The type of fuel, its cost, and generating plant efficiency can determine the way a generator is used. For example, a natural gas generator with steam turbines has a high marginal cost but can be brought on line quickly. Coal, lignite, and nuclear units have lower marginal costs but cannot be brought on line quickly. They are used primarily to provide the base load of electricity. Costs for fuel, construction and operations and maintenance vary greatly among types of power plant. For example, renewable generation plants, such as solar or wind, have virtually no fuel costs but are expensive to manufacture and install. Nuclear- and coal-fueled plants have low fuel costs but can be more expensive to build and maintain. Coal units also incur additional costs for meeting air quality standards. Natural gas plants have higher fuel costs than coal or nuclear, but have lower initial construction costs. Companies affiliated with utilities have the capacity to generate almost 65 gigawatts of power (65 million kilowatts). This capacity has not changed much since the opening of the wholesale market to competition. This is because, unlike other states, SB 7 did not require utilities to fully divest themselves of all of their 2000 Rate Savings in Texas as compared with the U.S. average electricity costs per kilowatt-hour. Source: U.S. EIA. Texans enjoy lower electricity rates than the average U.S. rates, although these savings have declined in the past 3 years. Texans also spend more annually on electricity. electric power generation assets. As older units are retired, this capacity will decline. On the other hand, merchant, or non-utility, generation capacity added almost 15 gigawatts between 1999 and 2002, bringing total generation capacity of the state to more than 80 gigawatts. By comparison, that is twice as much as the entire country of Mexico. Merchant generators are companies that seek to invest in new electric power generation capacity based on their assessment of supply and demand conditions in the marketplace. Thus, these companies only enter the market if economic conditions warrant. Capacity vs. Actual Generation As of early 2002, almost 70 percent of Texas generating capacity is natural gas. In contrast, gas-fired generation accounted for only about 50 percent between 1999 and The rest of our electricity is mostly generated from coal, lignite or nuclear power plants. This is because of fuel costs. Although coal and nuclear power plants are more expensive to build than natural gas plants, fuel costs for coal and nuclear are considerably less. Thus, electricity is usually dispatched first from nuclear plants, then coal, and last from natural gas. Nuclear and coal generators provide most of the base load of electricity day-in and day-out, while natural gas generators provide the peak loads which occur during certain periods of the day such as when air conditioning is in high demand. Storing Electricity Unlike water and natural gas, electricity cannot be easily stored. This presents a fundamental challenge to the electric power system. There is no container or large battery that can store electricity for indefinite periods (see following). Energy is stored in the fuel itself before it is converted to electricity. Once converted, it has to go out on the power lines. Electricity Storage Technologies - Compressed air, pumped hydroelectric, advanced batteries and superconducting magnetic energy storage are the four main technologies being studied for possible electricity storage. Compressed air and pumped hydro are already being used in some locations in the U.S. 5
13 Facts on Texas Electric Power Cost Per Kilowatt-Hour and Average Annual Cost Per Customer Texas and the U.S Avg. Cost Cost per kwh Per Customer Texas U.S. Texas U.S. Residential $1,160 $879 Commercial $5,337 $5,464 Industrial $73,287 $93,760 Other $8,295 $7,369 All $2,220 $1,828 Source: U.S. EIA Texans pay 5% less per kwh than the U.S., but because we use 28% more electricity on average, our electric bills are 21% higher. Transmission System Power plants are located at points, which allow access to the fuel source, generally away from population centers, and electricity must be moved from that point to the consumer. The transmission system accomplishes much of this task with an interconnected system of lines, distribution centers, and control systems. There are about 50,000 miles of transmission lines in Texas. 37,000 miles of lines are located within the ERCOT system (see NERC map on page 4). These consist of roughly 8,000 miles of 345 kilovolt (KV) lines; 17,000 miles of 138 KV lines; and 12,000 miles of 69 KV lines. About 13,000 miles of lines are located in non-ercot areas of Texas, especially within the Southwest Power Pool territory (the Panhandle and east Texas). Electricity is transported at high voltages (69 KV or greater) over a multi-path powerline network that provides alternative ways for electricity to flow. The large three-conductor lines and substations are familiar to most Texans, but the control systems that keep the system functioning are less visible. The control systems move power between T&D utilities by adjusting generator output in the T&D utility areas involved, not by switches. Movement among several utilities means complex adjustments in which rules of operation are followed carefully. The transmission system has been built over several decades and early developers could not have envisioned the movement of electricity being considered under many of today s competitive scenarios. As such, the transmission system is a critical link in the move to change the electric power system. Local Distribution Systems Most homes and businesses use 120- and 240-volt electric power while industries often use higher voltages. Large commercial and industrial customers may bypass the local distribution system, receiving electricity at high voltage directly from the transmission system. Substations on the transmission system receive power at higher voltages and lower them to 24,900 volts or less to feed the distribution systems. The distribution system is the poles and wires commonly seen in neighborhoods. At key locations, voltage is again lowered by transformers to meet customer needs. Customers on the distribution system are categorized as industrial, commercial and residential. Industrial use is fairly constant, both Real Change in Cost of Electricity in Texas Adjusted to 1996 Dollars (1996 GDP Deflator) 1990 to 2000 Cents per kwh 1996$ Source: U.S. EIA. Residential Commercial Industrial 6
14 Facts on Texas Electric Power over the day and over seasons. Commercial use is less constant and varies over seasons. Residential and commercial use is more variable, sometimes changing rapidly over the day in response to occupant need, appliance use and weather events. Many Texas municipal utilities and co-ops provide only distribution services, purchasing power from the IOUs, other cooperatives or river authorities. Texas and the U.S. The electrical systems in the U.S. and much of Canada are divided into three major regions - the Eastern Interconnection, the Western Interconnection and the Texas Interconnection, which includes most of the state. These are groups of utilities which connect to each other to form the three power grids. The utilities operate in such a way that electricity can move reliably between utilities within the Interconnections. Few direct connections exist between the Interconnections. ERCOT has two high voltage DC (direct current) connections, both to the Eastern Interconnection. The northern tie has a capacity of 200 megawatts and the eastern tie, a 600 megawatt capacity. These DC ties accept AC (alternating current) in and provide AC out, but they are not necessarily synchronous (see page 12 on system stability). In response to a major blackout in 1965 in the Northeast, the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) was created. Most electric power systems in the U.S. and Canada are members of one of NERC s 10 Regional Reliability Councils (see Part 2 for details). ERCOT serves approximately 85 percent of the state s electric load and oversees the operation of approximately 70 gigawatts of generation and over 37,000 miles of transmission lines. Most of the Texas Panhandle and part of East Texas are in the Southwest Power Pool (SPP). The El Paso region is in the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC). A small part of Southeast Texas (Beaumont area) is in the Southeastern Electric Reliability Council (SERC). In 1995, Texas created an Independent System Operator (ISO) as proposed by ERCOT. An ISO is an independent, unbiased thirdparty entity that oversees the activities related to the reliable and safe transmission of electricity within a specified geographic area. After SB 7, ERCOT also provides the platform for an open, competitive marketplace for the majority of Texas customers. ERCOT is required to (1) ensure non-discriminatory access to the T&D systems for all electricity buyers and sellers, (2) ensure the reliability and adequacy of the regional electric network, (3) ensure that information related to customer retail choice is provided in a timely manner, and (4) ensure that electricity production and delivery are accurately accounted for among all regional generators and wholesale buyers and sellers. As the ISO, ERCOT operates an information network for all market participants use as a primary means of facilitating efficient and equitable use of the transmission system. How Much Does It Cost and What Do We Spend? Texas electricity is cheaper than the U.S. average but because we consume more, monthly bills are higher. Electricity rates and costs for Texas residential, commercial and industrial customers are compared with the U.S. in the table on the previous page. The electricity rate averaged for all customer classes in 2000 was 6.49 per kilowatt hour (kwh), 4.7 percent lower than the U.S. average. The average residential electricity rate in Texas was 3.4 percent lower than the U.S. average. However, higher use in Texas resulted in residential bills that were higher by $281 - about 32 percent higher. In 2000, commercial customers in Texas paid 6 percent more per kwh than the overall Texas average and about 14 percent less than residential customers. At 4.42 per kwh, industrial customers paid slightly more than half the rate of residential customers. Texas industrial rates were 4.7 percent lower than the U.S. industrial average. With interruptible service, large electricity users may have lower rates. Such rates also reflect lower fuel costs in Texas, the economies 7
15 Facts on Texas Electric Power Cost Variation Among Utilities ( per kwh, 2000) Residential Commercial Industrial Texas Average Texas Lowest Texas Highest IOU Average IOU Lowest IOU Highest Co-op Average Co-op Lowest Co-op Highest Muni Average Muni Lowest Muni Highest Source: U.S. EIA. Rates for all customer groups vary widely across Texas. In particular, co-op and muni rates demonstrate large variability due to generation type, the extent of the T&D system and the size and mix of customer types. On average, however, IOU rates are lower than those of co-ops and munis. of serving large users, and lower variability. In the U.S. from 1991 to 2000, average electricity rates (adjusted to constant 1996 dollars) decreased by 17.1 percent. Industrial customers have seen their rates decrease by 22.7 percent. Rates for commercial customers decreased by 19.7 percent while those for residential customers decreased by 14.4 percent. In Texas, rates also declined over the same period but not as much. Average electricity rates (in 1996 dollars) decreased by 10.7 percent. Residential rates decreased by 12.6 percent and commercial rates by 13 percent while industrial rates declined by 10 percent (see chart on page 6). Cost Variation Among Utilities As reported in the table above, electricity rates have varied widely within the state during Each utility had its own rates and cost basis, and each was treated separately in rate making by the PUCT. The process of establishing rates and cost basis will continue for T&D utilities under SB 7. Residential rates varied from as little as 1.51 per kwh (City of San Augustine, a muni) to as much as (Harmon Electric Association Inc., a co-op); the next lowest rate was 5.35 (Southwest Arkansas ECC, a co-op) and the next highest rate was (Rio Grande Electric Coop Inc., a co-op). The rates varied from 122 percent higher than the state average of 7.96 to 81 percent lower. IOUs averaged 7.97 while co-ops averaged 8.42 and munis averaged Electricity rates for commercial customers in Texas varied from as low as 5.18 (Southwestern Electric Power Co., an IOU) to per kwh (City of Flatonia, a muni); the next highest rate was only (City of San Augustine, a muni). The rates ranged from 24 percent below to 302 percent above the average commercial rate of IOUs averaged 6.94 while co-ops averaged 7.71 and munis averaged Rates for industrial users varied from as low as 2.71 (Southwestern Public Service Co., an IOU) to per kwh (City of Hearne, a muni) with a variation from 38 percent lower to 180 percent higher than the state average of IOUs averaged 4.76 while co-ops averaged 5.56 and munis averaged The Electric Power Industry in Texas Historically, total expenditures for all energy have accounted for about seven percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the U.S. Purchase of natural gas and electricity services have amounted to more than three percent of GDP. Investment in natural gas and electricity services has been about five percent of total, fixed, nonresidential investment. Energy is big business in the U.S. and electricity is a vital input to our national economy. Texas accounts for almost 10 percent of net electricity generation in the U.S., a result mainly of our large petroleum refining and petrochemical industries. We provide about nine percent of the $226 billion electricity final sales revenue in the U.S., more than any state except California, which provides 10 percent. Clearly, electricity is important to Texas. It is relatively cheap, and so has been beneficial to business and residential growth. The size of the Texas electric power industry means that policies and business trends that impact electric power in the U.S. will have a big effect here. 8
16 The Basics of Electric Power The Basics of Electric Power Electricity travels fast, cannot be stored easily or cheaply, and cannot be switched from one route to another. These three principles are basic to the operation of an electric power system. Electricity is almost instantaneous. When a light is turned on, electricity must be readily available. Since it is not stored anywhere on the power grid, electricity must somehow be dispatched immediately. A generator is not simply started up to provide this power. Electric power must be managed so that electricity is always available for all of the lights, appliances and other uses that are required at any particular moment. Electricity traveling from one point to another follows the path of least resistance rather than the shortest distance. With thousands of miles of interconnected wires throughout the U.S., electricity may travel miles out of any Diagram 1 Electric Current When a metal wire, such as copper, is passed through a magnetic field, electrons are exchanged from atom to atom. This forms a moving stream or current of electricity. Overview The main function of an electrical power system is to transmit all electricity demanded reliably, and in the exact amount, where it is needed. In addition, it should provide for unforeseen contingencies arising from larger than expected demand or system outages. The industry structure has three main segments - generation, transmission, and distribution. Generation The process of producing electric energy by transforming other forms of energy such as coal, natural gas or solar power. Transmission The movement or transfer of electric energy over an interconnected group of high voltage lines between points of supply and points at which it is transformed for delivery to consumers or other electric systems. Transmission ends when the energy is transformed for input into the distribution system. Distribution The portion of the electrical system which operates at low voltages and delivers electricity to an end-user such as a home, business or industrial plant. Most electrical services used to be provided by large, vertically integrated companies that owned the generation, transmission and distribution (T&D) facilities within a specified service area. Today, the generation and sale of electric power in ERCOT can be provided by unregulated (but certified) companies in competitive markets. T&D operations are still provided by regulated utilities, who must unbundle their systems so that generation, sales and related services are separate and so that open access can be provided in a fair, nondiscriminatory way to all competitors. Competitors include competing generators, marketers, aggregators (who combine customers into larger groups), retail electric providers or REPs (who handle customer accounts and sales) and qualified scheduling entities or QSEs (who handle the scheduling of electricity supplies from generators and demand from aggregators, marketers and REPs). direct path to get where it is needed. As a result of these three principles, designing and operating an electrical system is complex and requires constant management. Defining and Measuring Electricity Electricity is simply the flow or exchange of electrons between atoms. The atoms of some metals, such as copper and aluminum, have electrons that move easily. That makes these metals good electrical conductors. Electricity is created when a coil of metal wire is turned near a magnet (Diagram 1). Thus, an electric generator is simply a coil of wire spinning around a magnet. This phenomenon enables us to build generators that produce electricity in power plants. The push, or pressure, forcing electricity from a generator is expressed as volts. The flow of electricity is called current. Current is measured in amperes (amps). Watts are a measure of the amount of work done by electricity. Watts are calculated by Basic Measures of Electricity Volts The push or pressure forcing electricity in a circuit. Amperage Unit of measurement (amps) of electrical current or flow Watts, Kilowatts and Megawatts A measure of electricity s ability to do work. Equals volts times amps Kilowatt=1,000 watts Megawatt = 1,000,000 watts Resistance The measure in ohms of how much force it takes to move electric current through a conductor. Resistance in conductors causes power to be consumed as electricity flows through. 9
17 The Basics of Electric Power multiplying amps times volts. Electrical appliances, light bulbs and motors have certain wattage requirements that depend on the tasks they are expected to perform. One kilowatt (1,000 watts) equals 1.34 horsepower. Kilowatts are used in measuring electrical use. Electricity is sold in units of kilowatthours (kwh). A 100-watt light bulb left on for ten hours uses one kilowatt-hour of electricity (100 wattsx10 hours=1,000 watt hours=1 kwh). The average residential customer in Texas uses more than 14,500 kwh annually. In 2000, Texans used more than 318 billion kwh. Electricity in the U.S. is generated and usually transmitted as alternating current (AC). The direction of current flow is reversed 60 times per second, called 60 hertz (Hz). Because of the interconnection within the power grids, the frequency is the same throughout the grid. Operators strive to maintain this frequency at 60 Hz. Higher voltages in many instances can be transmitted more easily by direct current (DC). High voltage direct current (HVDC) lines are used to move electricity long distances. Diagram 2 Steam Turbine Electric Power Plant Lignite, coal, natural gas or oil is used to heat the furnace. Boiler heats pure water circulating in pipes to make steam Steam turns Transformer the Turbine... increases voltage which turns the. for transmission Generator Rotor producing Electricity Steam Spent steam goes to the Condenser... Condenser and is converted back to boiler water for another cycle Condenser cooling water comes from a power plant lake or water tower Types of Generators Steam Turbine Uses either fossil fuel or nuclear fuel to generate heat to produce steam that passes through a turbine to drive the generator; primarily for base load but some gas-fired plants are also used for peak loads; range in size from 1 to 1,250 megawatts. Combustion Turbine Hot gases are produced by combustion of natural gas or fuel oil in a high pressure combustion chamber; gases pass directly through a turbine which spins the generator; used primarily for peak loads but combined cycle plants are used for base load; generator is generally less than 100 megawatts; quick startup suitable for peaking, emergency, and reserve power. Hydroelectric Generating Units Flowing water used to spin a turbine connected to a generator; range in size from 1 to 700 megawatts; can start quickly and respond to rapid changes in power output; used for peak loads and spinning reserve, as well as baseload. Internal Combustion Engines Usually diesel engines connected to the shaft of a generator; usually 5 megawatts or less; no startup time; operated for periods of high demand. Others Geothermal, solar, wind, and biomass; many different technologies; range widely in size and capabilities. Generating Electricity There are many fuels and technologies that can generate electricity. Usually a fuel like coal, natural gas, or fuel oil is ignited in the furnace section of a boiler. Water piped through the boiler in large tubes is superheated to produce heat and steam. The steam turns turbine blades which are connected by a shaft to a generator. Nuclear power plants use nuclear reactions to produce heat while wind turbines use the wind to turn the generator. A generator is a huge electromagnet surrounded by coils of wire which produces electricity when the shaft is rotated (Diagram 2). Electricity generation ranges from 13,000 to 24,000 volts. Transformers increase 10
18 The Basics of Electric Power Uses of Generating Units Base Load Unit Generates the minimum or baseload requirement of the power system; operates at a constant rate and runs continuously. Peak Load Unit Used to meet requirements during the periods of greatest demand. Intermediate Load Unit Used during the transition between base load and peak load requirements. Reserve or Standby Units Available to the system in the event of an unexpected increase in load or outage. Reserve/Standby Intermediate Load Base Load Time Peak Load Load Demand the voltage to hundreds of thousands of volts for transmission. High voltages provide an economical way of moving large amounts of electricity over the transmission system. Transmission & Distribution Once electricity is given enough push (voltage) to travel long distances, it can be moved onto the wires or cables of the transmission system. The transmission system moves large quantities of electricity from the power plant through an interconnected network of transmission lines to many distribution centers called substations. These substations are generally located long distances from the power plant. Electricity is stepped up from lower voltages to higher voltages for transmission. High voltage transmission lines are interconnected to form an extensive and multi-path network. Redundant means that electricity can travel over various different lines to get where it needs to go. If one line fails, another will take over the load. Most transmission systems use overhead lines that carry alternating current (AC). There are also overhead direct current (DC) lines, underground lines, and even under-water lines. All AC transmission lines carry three-phase current -- three separate streams of electricity traveling along three separate conductors. Lines are designated by the voltage that they can carry. Power lines operated at 60 kilovolt (kv) or above are considered as transmission lines. There are about 50,000 miles of transmission lines in Texas. Even though higher voltages help push along the current, electricity dissipates in the form of heat to the atmosphere along transmission and distribution lines. This loss of electricity is called line loss. About 7 percent of all electricity generated in Texas is lost during transmission and distribution. Switching stations and substations are used to (1) change the voltage, (2) transfer from one line to another, and (3) redirect power when a fault occurs on a transmission line or other equipment. Circuit breakers are used to disconnect power to prevent damage from overloads. Control centers coordinate the operation of all power system components. One or more utilities can make up a control area. To do its job, the control center receives continuous information on power plant output, transmission lines, ties with other systems, and system conditions. Transmission Constraints There are some important constraints that affect the transmission system. These include thermal limits, voltage limits, and system operation factors. 11
19 The Basics of Electric Power Power System Limits Thermal Limits The maximum amount of electrical current that a transmission line or electrical facility can conduct over a specified time period before it sustains permanent damage by overheating or violating public safety requirements. Voltage Limits The maximum voltage that can be handled without causing damage to the electric system or customer facilities. System voltages and voltage changes must be maintained within the range of acceptable minimum and maximum limits. A widespread collapse of system voltage can result in a blackout of portions or all of the interconnected network Stability Limits An interconnected system must be capable of surviving disturbances through time periods varying from milliseconds to several minutes. With an electrical disturbance, generators can begin to spin at slightly differing speeds causing differences in frequency, line loads (current) and system voltages. These oscillations must diminish as the electric system attains a new stable operating point. If a new point is not quickly established, generators can lose synchronism and all or a portion of the interconnected system may become unstable, causing damage to equipment and, left unchecked, widespread service interruption. Thermal/Current Limits Electrical lines resist the flow of electricity and this produces heat. If the current flow is too high for too long, the line can heat up and lose strength. Over time it can expand and sag between supporting towers. This can lead to power disruptions. Transmission lines are rated according to thermal limits as are transformers and other equipment. Voltage Limits Voltage tends to drop from the sending to the receiving end of a transmission line. Equipment (capacitors and inductive reactors) is installed to help control voltage drop. If voltage is too low, customer equipment and motors can be damaged. System Operation Constraints Power systems must be secure and reliable. Operating constraints are needed to assure that this is achieved. Power Flows: Electricity flows over the path of least resistance. Consequently, power flows into other systems networks when transmission systems are interconnected. This creates what are known as loop flows. Power also flows over parallel lines rather than the lines directly connecting two points - called parallel flows. Both of these flows can limit the ability to make other transmissions or cause too much electricity to flow along transmission lines thus affecting reliability. Preventive Operations: The primary way of preventing service failures from affecting other areas is through preventive operations. Standards and procedures from the NERC are followed. Operating requirements include (1) having a sufficient amount of generating capacity available to provide reserves for unanticipated demand and (2) limiting the power transfers on the transmission system. The guidelines recommend that operations be able to handle any single contingency and to provide for multiple contingencies when practical. Contingencies are identified in the design and analysis of the power system. System Stability: The two types of stability problems are maintaining synchronization of the generators and preventing voltage collapse. Generators operate in unison at a constant frequency of 60 Hz. When this is disturbed by a fault in the transmission system, a generator may accelerate or slow down. Unless returned to normal conditions, the system can become unstable and fail. Voltage instability occurs when the transmission system is not adequate to handle reactive power flows. Reactive power is needed to sustain the electric and magnetic fields in equipment such as motors and transformers, and for voltage control on the transmission network. Distribution The distribution system is made up of poles and wire seen in neighborhoods and underground circuits. Distribution substations monitor and adjust circuits within the system. The distribution substations lower the transmission line voltages to 34,500 volts or less. Substations are fenced yards with switches, transformers and other electrical equipment. Once the voltage has been lowered at the substation, the electricity flows to homes and businesses through the distribution system. Conductors called feeders reach out from the substation to carry electricity to customers. At key locations along the distribution system, voltage is lowered by distribution transformers to the voltage needed by customers or endusers. Customers at the End of the Line The ultimate customers who consume electricity are generally divided into three categories: industrial, commercial, and residential. The cost to serve customers depends upon a number of factors including the type of service (for example, if service is taken at high or low voltage) and the customer s location with respect to generating and delivery facilities. Industrial Industrial customers generally use electricity in amounts that are relatively constant throughout the day. They often consume many times more electricity than residential consum- 12
20 The Basics of Electric Power ers. Most industrial demand is considered to be base load. As such it is the least expensive load to serve. Many industrial loads are expected to remain within certain levels over time with relatively little variation. Major industrial customers may receive electricity directly from the transmission system (rather than from a local distribution system). Some industrial plants have their own generators. If they are qualifying facilities (QFs) or exempt wholesale generators (EWGs), their excess electricity can be sold to utilities on the grid. Commercial Commercial loads are similar to industrial in that they remain within certain levels over intermediate periods of time. Examples of commercial customers are office buildings, warehouses, and shopping centers. Residential Residential electrical use is the most difficult to provide because households use much of their electricity in the morning and evening and less at other times of the day. This is less efficient to provide and therefore a more expensive use of the utility s generators. Over time, as homeowners buy new appliances and change life-styles, the expected loads also change. Examples of residential loads are individual residences. Putting the Parts Together The physical parts of the electric power system are generation, transmission and distribution. Numerous power plants, thousands of miles of transmission lines, and thousands of substations and other infrastructure are part of this physical inventory. In addition, hundreds of organizations and corporations make up the electric power system. These include investor-owned utilities, municipal and cooperative utilities, river authorities, power producers, holding companies, retail electric providers and others. Activities are regulated by state and federal agencies under the direction of state and federal legislation. Regional coordination is accomplished through reliability councils. Organizations Private Utilities: The IOUs are granted a license by the state to provide electrical services to a particular area. Many areas compete under multi-certifications which allow more than Energy Sources for Generating Electricity FOSSIL FUELS Fossil fuels are derived from decaying vegetation over many thousands or millions of years. Coal, lignite, oil (petroleum) and natural gas are all fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are non-renewable, meaning that we extract and use them faster than they can be replaced. Fossil fuels are combusted in boilers, and combustion turbines and engines in order to convert water to steam that is used to power the turbines in an electric generator. A concern is that fossil fuels, when combusted, may emit gases into the atmosphere that contribute to climate change. Considerable effort is underway to devise clean technologies that will allow fossil fuel use with few or no emissions. Coal A black or brownish black solid combustible fossil fuel typically obtained from surface or underground mines. Coal is shipped by rail to power plants and may be imported from other countries. In Texas, as in other coal producing states, electric generating stations are often mine-mouth, meaning that they are built at the mine and extracted coal is taken directly to the generator. Coal is classified according to carbon content, volatile matter and heating value. Lignite coal generally contains 9 to 17 million Btus (British thermal units, a measure of heat content) per ton. Texas lignite has somewhat lower heat content. Subbituminous coals range from 16 to 24 million Btu per ton; bituminous coals from 19 to 30 million Btu/ ton; and anthracite, the hardest type of coal, from 22 to 28 million Btu per ton. Texas has about 10 billion tons of recoverable lignite reserves and, in 2001, ranked first in the U.S. in consumption, fifth in production and seventh in recoverable reserves. Natural Gas Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons (principally methane, a molecule of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms) and small quantities of various non-hydrocarbons in a gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil in underground reservoirs. Texas has approximately 42 trillion cubic feet (tcf) of proven natural gas reserves, 24 percent of proven U.S. domestic reserves. Fuel Oil Fuel oils are the heavier oils in a barrel of crude oil, comprised of complex hydrocarbon molecules that remain after the lighter oils have been distilled off during the refining process. Fuel oils are classed according to specific gravity and the amount of sulfur and other substances that might occur. Virtually all petroleum used in steam electric plants is heavy oil. Currently, a negligible amount of Texas electricity is generated using fuel oil. RENEWABLES Renewable fuels are those that are not depleted as they are consumed. The wind, sun, moving waters (hydroelectric), water heated in the earth (geothermal) and vegetable matter (biomass) are typical renewable energy sources for electricity. (cont d next page) 13
Guide to Electric Power in Texas March 1997 Center for Global Studies Houston Advanced Research Center Energy Institute College of Business Administration University of Houston Guide to Electric Power
Study Regarding the Provision of Electricity During a Natural Disaster or Emergency. Public Utility Commission of Texas.
Study Regarding the Provision of Electricity During a Natural Disaster or Emergency Public Utility Commission of Texas November 1, 2009 Commission Contributors of this Study: Regina Chapline Paul Curtis
Chapter 3. Context for Cogeneration
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Electricity. Electricity at a Glance, 2011. The Nature of Electricity. Making Electricity. Moving Electricity. U.S. Electricity Production, 2011
Electricity Electricity at a Glance, 2011 The Nature of Electricity Electricity is a little different from the other sources of energy that we talk about. Unlike coal, petroleum, or solar energy, electricity