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The Advantages of the Civil Law | Judiciaries | European Court Of Justice
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Koch,, Charles H. Jr (2004) "The Advantages of the Civil Law Judicial Design as the Model for Emerging Legal Systems," Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies: Vol. 11: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol11/iss1/6
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KOCH, JR.-
Currently, a number of societies around the world are reforming their legal systems, often upon emerging from years of oppression. Two transatlantic models, the civil law and common law, will have a great influence on these reforms. For one thing, the two basic models already cover over 70 percent of the world's population in some 62 percent of the existing legal systems.' Moreover, there will be many practical, economic advantages to westernizing a legal system, which necessarily means incorporating at least some aspects of one or both transatlantic
models. The key is to extract the best features of the models and adapt them to the specific legal culture. 2 The civil law approach to judicial design in particular has much to recommend it. A dominant feature of the civil law model is the responsibility it places on the judge in dispute resolution.3 True, common law judges have
*Dudley W. Woodbridge Professor of Law, William & Mary Law School. B.A., University of Maryland, 1966; J.D., George Washington University, 1969; L.L.M., University of Chicago, 1975. I would like to thank Indiana University and the participants in the symposium on Globalization,
Courts, and Judicial Power sponsored by the INDIANA JOURNAL OF GLOBAL LEGAL STUDIES.
1. See University of Ottawa, at http'//www.droitcivil.uottawa.ca/world-legal-systems/engmonde.html (last visited Sept. 8, 2003). 2. Comparative law commentators observe that it is possible for reformers to borrow from
quite different legal systems. GEORGE N. SFEIR, MODERNIZATION OF THE LAW IN ARAB STATES: AN
INVESTIGATION INTO CURRENT CIVIL, CRIMINAL, AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW IN THE ARAB WORLD 95
(1998) ("[Borrowing by Arab code writers] all goes to prove Alan Watson's assertion that successful borrowing could be made from a very different legal system as the law reformer looks for an idea in the foreign system which could be transformed into part of the law of his country" (citing Alan Watson, Legal Transplantsand Law Reform, 92 L. Q. REV. 79 (1976))). 3. The most often recognized distinction between the two systems is the civil law's "code" orientation and the common law's case method of evolving the law. That is, the common law judge is said to have the authority to make law and the civil law judge may only find the law from legislation. This distinction is important but subtle. As Merryman in his famous guide to the civil law for U.S. lawyers wrote: The distinction between legislative and judicial production of law can be misleading. There is probably at least as much legislation in force in a typical American state as there is in a typical European or Latin American nation.... The authority of legislation [in the U.S.] is superior to that of judicial decisions; statutes supersede
contrary judicial decisions(constitutional questions aside), but not vice versa .... If,
The common law relies on the performance of its lawyers and on advocacy to assure successful litigation." Mathias Reimann. there remain indisputable disparities regarding the respective conceptual tools and general structures. but lawyers are responsible to their clients alone. Emerging legal systems should look to civil law judicial design because focusing reform on the judiciary has several advantages. to this Reimann observes: "Even if one were to accept that the substantive discrepancies between the civil and common law have been overrated and that the systems have been converging. 1342 (1999). more authority in the sense that they can evolve the law through precedent. Able judges can be the great equalizers. the lessons from civil law judicial design are particularly worthy of consideration in reforming a legal system. JOHN HENRY MERRYMAN. educators. are neutrals who are responsible to the public and ultimately justice. Reform notions based on the common law would naturally focus on the development of a competent private bar and scrutiny of its performance. Id. whereas civil law judges do not have that authority. Some suggest that common law and civil law are converging. Towards a European Civil Code: Why ContinentalJurists Should Consult Their TransatlanticColleagues.4 The civil law judge.CHARLES H. one thinks of codification not as a form but as the expression of an ideology. dominates individual litigations and hence sound dispute resolution depends on the quality of its judges and on assuring that they have the wherewithal to perform their responsibilities to the best of their abilities. Judges are important to competent dispute resolution whether the base system derives from the common law or civil law. the judiciary is an identifiable and discrete component of any legal system and judicial performance and conduct can be subject to public scrutiny. 1337. are largely ineffective.. WESTERN EUROPE AND LATIN AMERICA . and formal techniques for assuring quality. Judges. REV. 4. or even parents charged with guiding however. KOCH. Furthermore. as we see in the U. assuring fair litigation regardless of the relative resources of the litigants. but lawyers are less identifiable and manageable as a group than judges. L. on the other hand.. 73 TUL. Judges in many of these cultures are not so much presiding officials responsible for fair litigation and choosing the winner as they are counselors. however.S. and if one tries to understand that ideology and why it achieves expression in code form... Reference to the civil law model may have another advantage for many emerging legal systems. Thus. 1985). JR. THE CIVIL LAW TRADITION: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LEGAL SYSTEMS OF 26-27 (2d ed. The role of judges in large non-transatlantic legal cultures may make the civil law judicial model more compatible with traditional customary or religiously-based legal attitudes. then one can see how it makes sense to talk about codes.
which is BERNARD SCHWARTZ. PATRICK GLENN. FRANCE AND GERMANY xvi.S.S. 6.S. many of these ideas were either consciously borrowed from the civil law or unconsciously allowed to filter into U. ordered and text-based foundation for their law. LEGAL TRADITIONS OF THE WORLD: SUSTAINABLE DIVERSITY IN LAW 163 (2000) (In Islamic judging: "The law of each case is thus different from the law of every other case. at THE UNITED STATES. See PHILIP C. FRENCH ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND THE COMMON-LAW WORLD (1954). judges represent moral authority rather than state empowerment. H. administrative law has had available an insightful comparison with the French civil law.S. as will be discussed throughout. The civil law judicial philosophy. ENGLAND. Cf JOSEPH SCHACHT. and the qadi [judge]. L."). New Jersey Chief Justice Arthur Vanderbilt wrote: "Now [Schwartz] has shown us clearly how much we can learn from the French. the U. not to advocate for the adoption of the whole of either model. For generations. See generally FRANK J. argues that the administrative process could learn from the civil law model. for example. Nonetheless. as demonstrable familiarity with that model legitimized non-common law thinking." experienced with the U. U. but rather to take human feeling and relations into account when considering the use of punishment. HUANG. Friendly.5 That is.). REV.. administrative adjudications simply because they are more effective and often fairer in that context. Codification itself has certain advantages for emerging legal cultures: "Codification has also meant that the laws of the nations which have codes are readily adoptable by other nations seeking a systematic." THOMAS GLYN WATKIN. 1290 (1975). Judge Friendly." Id. 7 The civil law approach might help an emerging legal culture improve the quality of its judiciary and provide it with better tools to 5. GOODNOW.S.6 Recognizing the potential for judge-oriented reforms. 1267. administrative processes. administrative law text. "Some Kind of Hearing. and to persuade litigants of the correctness of the court's opinion. based in law. might be more adaptable to such legal systems. COMPARATIVE ADMINISTRATIVE LAW: AN ANALYSIS OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS NATIONAL AND LOCAL." 123 U. AN INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC LAW 188-89 (1964).ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN the litigants to the proper outcome. Indeed. . version of the common law model. after having come to clear-cut judgment. CIVIL JUSTICE IN CHINA: REPRESENTATION AND PRACTICE IN THE QING 208 (1996) (The task was to promote harmony in society and not to allow a wayward child to spoil it. I look here at the lessons which might be derived from civil law's approach as an "outsider. JAMES M. and all parties. Many of these techniques developed in U. administrative law scholar used a comparative approach in the first U.").C.S. My purpose is merely to explore the advantages of civil law judicial design.S. common law system has incorporated some of these same concepts in its administrative process. are under an obligation of service to God to bring together the objectively determined circumstances of the case and the appropriate principles of the shari'a. In his oft-cited and highly influential article. OF (The first U. which places so much faith in the judge. PA. THE ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS 3-5 (1938). Henry J. LANDIS. 7. AN HISTORICIAL INTRODUCTION TO MODERN CIVIL LAW 147 (1999). "The point was not to forgo clear-cut adjudication in favor of compromise-working.
Professionalism Perhaps the most significant distinction between the civil law model and the common law model is that in the former the judiciary is a corps of specially 8.S. Globalization.. See id. provides a strategy for protecting the regular judiciary from compromising decision-making responsibilities. at 83. Alfred C." SALLY ENGLE MERRY. administrative process. Democracy.CHARLES H. However." E. Third. rulemaking procedures could also enhance effective democracy "on the ground" for emerging democracies as well. Second. Aman has argued on several occasions that U. It does have some useful general lessons about optimum factual development which might be applied in either model. PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: A PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 77 (1975). A. 1687 (2002). . GETTING JUSTICE AND GETTING EVEN: LEGAL CONSCIOUSNESS AMONG WORKING-CLASS AMERICANS 170 (1990). the civil law uses career judges. This article refers to adjudications in the U. First. A neutral measure of people's preferences when dealing with the legal system is difficult. in a study of working-class users of courts in a Massachusetts town.g. I.. 49 UCLA L. JR. I would urge that U." My law students in simulated civil law proceedings found advantages. and the Need for a New Administrative Law. the civil law's selective resort to specialized tribunals provides expert decision making where needed and. KOCH. administrative law principles of public participation and accountability. but that is not the focus of this article.8 My analysis below takes separately 9 these two goals of civil law judicial design. one empirical study purports to show that the adversarial process is preferred. REV. Sally Engle Merry. But what would a similar study in France or Germany reveal? I have presided at a demonstration civil law trial with a French judge and observe that litigants (and other interested persons) seem to have a more congenial opportunity to "tell their story. the civil law provides an active and positive approach to assuring a competent and independent judiciary. should be employed to combat global "democracy deficit. Jr. trained and managed as such.S. describes how they go to court with feelings of legal entitlement and emerge thinking that the institution is "indifferent to the ordinary person's problem. Ordinary people in real common law courtrooms are likely to see their lawyer as engaging in ritualistic and counter-intuitive behavior which they neither control nor understand. THE CIVIL LAW GUIDE TO MAKING BETTER JUDGES Three aspects of the civil law judicial design might be useful for reforming a judiciary. it shows little more than that students prefer to make their own decisions. if not impossible. 9. usually associated with its rulemaking procedures.S. See JOHN THIBAUT & LAURENS WALKER. because its "pure inquisitorial" model is so dissimi- lar to the actual civil law model. more significantly. perform an active role in dispute resolution. On the other hand. Aman.
GERMAN LEGAL SYSTEM & LAWS 90 (2d ed. REV. A massive psychological literature demonstrates that people in positions of trust. supra note 3. See. 11. 13." and a degree of anticipation that their colleagues will cooperate. like those in Italy and Germany. A major advantage of this design is that it necessarily creates an esprit de corps.43 WM. NIGEL FOSTER. Id." Budding judges enter an apprenticeship as judges. who generally rise from practice. profession.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN trained professionals. See MERRYMAN.. No doubt judicial elitism has its disadvantages. See. it is not entered after a number of years' practice as an attorney.Judges as Altruistic Hierarchs. e. by the civil law judicial corps strategy. Civil law judges make up an anonymous and perhaps "bloodless" elite. 14. legal advocacy. KONRAD ZWEIGERT & HEIN K6TZ. and they are generally promoted to more important positions in higher courts on the basis of their performance and years of service. they opt for a judicial career early in life. The civil law system offsets the lack of 10. to ever more important positions on more important courts. Their promotions are based on performance and are controlled by judges themselves in some form of council. 1605 (2002). but in many ways dissimilar. 12. at 34-35. As Martin Vranken summarized the effect: "Judges in the civil law are civil servants who display a civil service mentality.g.""4 Common law judges. 1998) ("Judges in France.g. at 1615-16. . The common law does not consider judging to be a separate legal profession and hence the U. FUNDAMENTALS OF EUROPEAN CIVIL LAW 62 (1997). are careerjudges. They serve within a community of judges who are available to assist them in becoming better judges. including judges. occupation of Japan attempted to consolidate lawyering and judging). to junior positions on less important courts. INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE LAW 124 (Tony Weir trans. 2 Lynn Stout identified three factors that determine socially conscious behavior in judges: a tendency to do what they are told by an authority figure. judiciary is staffed by "amateur" judges largely drawn from a related. They move from the apprenticeship supervised by senior judges. have been forced to deal with real world situations. not as advocates.. e. tend to live up to that trust. Stout. a "sense of membership in a common group. they are appointed by the state after passing the necessary examinations."). AUTHORITY WITHOUT POWER: LAW AND THE JAPANESE PARADOX 106 (1991) (stating that the U. & MARY L. MARTIN VRANKEN. 3 All of these factors are promoted. embarked upon by professionally qualified lawyers after educational and practical legal training. 1996) ("In Germany the judiciary is a separate career. Civil law judges are educated as judges and usually serve that role throughout their professional lives. or in the case of an emerging legal system created. But see JoHN OWEN HALEY.. 3d ed.").S. Lynn A.S.
1717 (1997). REV. judges find that such "politics" in a judicial community might bias individual decisions. 1377. and suggesting that discussions among the judges may explain some of Revesz's results).and the D. Chief Judge Edwards seems to recognize the impact of a judicial community. bring their practice perspective with them to the bench.S. Q. For the reasons given in the next section. 5 The civil law approach institutionalizes an otherworldly objectivity. Edwards. McCauliff. 8 The key is to capture these benefits while guarding against the drawbacks. our study found nearly every prior employment variable of these judges. practical experience somewhat with the apprenticeship program in which judges must for some time work at the "street level.C. L.M. Circuit practice of announcing the composition of its panels before parties have prepared their briefs). U.CHARLES H. Circuit:A Reply to ChiefJudge Harry T Edwards.. Beware of Numbers (and UnsupportedClaims ofludicialBias). circuit from Edwards' criticism)."' 6 Studies of U.S.Y. these community norms have many positive effects and contribute significantly to the competence and the integrity of the judiciary. Chartingthe Influences of the JudicialMind: An Empirical Study of JudicialReasoning. supra note 16 at 169-70 ("Social sanctions in a closely knit group [such as judges] whose members repeatedly interact are likely to be highly effective. 685 (2000) (examining the effects of the D. McCauliff demonstrate: "[T]he behavior of judges is primarily governed by internally generated norms that can be altogether different from the officially stated organizational rules. 15. an expensive. PROBS. Circuit. Litigation and Settlement in the FederalAppellate Courts: Impact of PanelSelection Procedureson IdeologicallyDivided Court. Gulati & McCauliff.A.C. 157. If these informal nonlegal sanctions work effectively. to be significant in some manner. 61 LAW & CONTEMP. Sisk et al. Mitu Gulati and C. Chief Judge Edwards would seem to agree with the value of community norms within a court. REV. the civil law judicial corps concepts might have the best chance of doing so.29 J. formal enforcement system may be unnecessary. LEGAL STUD. L. Revesz. 83 VA.U. 7 Still. Richard L. 16. 723 (2002) (criticizing the methodology of a study which alleged anti-plaintiff bias in appellate courts). 85 VA. Collegiality. Revesz. A graver danger is that this isolated and elite corps will develop its own cultural norms. 17. L. See Richard L. 73 N.M.C. REV. not surprisingly. 18. Mitu Gulati & C. While disagreeing with many of the negative implications of Revesz's work. supra note 17. 161 (1998). Edwards & Linda Elliott. EnvironmentalRegulation. L. lawyers. 805 (1999) (defending 1997 study of effects of ideology in judicial decisionmaking in environmental cases in the D.A. Collegiality and Decision Making in the D. .C. 1335 (1998) [hereinafter Collegiality andDecision Making] (criticizing the methodology and conclusions of the Revesz study. 80 WAs. studies show that practicing U.84 VA. KoCH. Circuit.C. with the exception of law professors and political experience (and perhaps prosecutorial experience). Revesz. On Not Making Law. JR. see also Richard L. Ideology."). See generally Harry T."). L. See Collegialityand Decision Making. REV. 1470 (1998) ("Although we initially shared [skepticism about the impact of prior employment]. andtheD. Ideology. See Gregory C." Moreover. See Harry T.
S. but even this insulation does not seem to guarantee truly independent judging. Hence. Jordan. especially in a legal culture with no tradition of selecting independent judges. impartial judicial decision making may be compromised by the judge's concern for the political ramifications of certain decisions. Fallon. In fact.S."). Even in the U. REV. rather than adherence to a party or personal ideological agenda. Administrative Agencies. L. This is true in part because it legitimizes habits of thought. A literal reading of the Constitution may require Congress to vest all judicial functions in Article III courts. See William S. [is] unthinkable. are carried out by so-called "legislative courts" having no constitutional protection.S. To the contrary.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN B. Judges. See Richard H.S. but long tradition has validated alternative federal courts and agencies with adjudicative functions. The Mechanics offudicial Independence and Competence The civil law judicial design. For example.S. Moreover. REV. most of federal adjudications are conducted by "legislative" courts or administrative tribunals. While Article Ill of the Constitution vests "judicial power" in courts constituted under its authority." NAT'L CTR. Some 87 percent of U. they appear to reflect differences in 'the personalit[ies] and life experiences that lead the judge to vote Democratic or Republican' in the first place. Some Thoughts on Judging as Gleanedfrom One Hundred Years of the Harvard Law Review and Other GreatBooks. L.. CALL TO ACTION: STATEMENT OF THE NATIONAL SUMMIT ON IMPROVING JUDICIAL SELECTION 7(2002).. 9 More to the point. as Judge Wald has argued. 917 (1988) ("'Article Ill literalism' .S. 1II. L. the selection and promotion process can be extremely political and hence compromise the independence of U. 53 ADMIN. Federal judges have lifetime job security under Article III of the U. 20. Of Legislative Courts. judges do not have constitutional protections. 21. but both are inherently political. FOR STATE COURTS. the Social Security . both the appointment process and elections monitor performance. 99 (2001) ("1 would not characterize these results as demonstrating strategic ideological voting. has more potential for bringing about an independent judiciary than adoption of the U. the vast majority of both federal and state adjudications.S. REV. judges. 45. 100 HARV. in the context of an emerging legal system. Congress immediately found that all adjudications could not be conducted by these courts and created special tribunals under its legislative powers. many of whom 19.2" Of course. Constitution. The U. Wald. Jr.. 101 HARV." (quoting Patricia M. judicial design. and Article III. most U. but that strategy may not be particularly effective. state judges are elected and serve a term of years.2' Vast numbers of adjudications are conducted by administrative judges. Ideology. "Eighty-seven percent of state appellate and trial judges are selected through direct or reten- tion elections.. 891 (1987))). system relies on public vetting and job security. 887. 916. and Policy in the Administrative State: Lessonsfrom a Decade ofHard Look Remands of EPA Rules. one might say the ones that really matter to most people.
S. But see Richard A. translatedin CONSTITUTIONS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD: FRANCE 19 (Gisbert H. they are actually reviewed by magistrates. no less than legislators and bureaucrats. Flanz."). parents and spouses-even legislators. Survey ofNon -ALI HearingProgramsin the FederalGovernment. ON LEcis. See."). supra note 11... Nonetheless. 25. Frederick Schauer. Social Security Administration. JR. REV. A study has shown that the Supreme Court is conscious of political actors in setting its agenda.. at 90-91 ("Judges are guaranteed complete independence . REv. art. 39 HARV.g."). at 1493 (citing Mark Cohen.S. EcoN. DynamicAgenda-Setting on the United States Supreme Court:An EmpiricalAssessment.. Sisk et al. CT. for Administration (SSA) holds hearings on about 500. 7 J. ed..22 The result of the U. but falters when asked to produce a model of how judges act. 620 (2000) ("In sharing this common ground of belief that what really matters to judges are their sincere policy preferences. 1. The Synthesis of Discourse. ECON. have very little protection.. at least. See Lee Epstein et al. Incentives. 24. 261 (1992). REV. injurers and accident victims." 24 In short. the administrative judges with no formal protection as well as those with only statutory protection generally find themselves to be independent. 2 Civil law judges themselves control management of the judge corps. Charles H. of independence. I believe the survey results demonstrate that institutional norms can be an extremely effective guarantee of independence because the lack of formal protection seemed to make little difference in the perception.000 cases a year. While these are technically reviewed by an Article III judge. L. L. 44 ADMIN. "). CIN.. The New Legal Process. 68 U. and the Inglorious DeterminantsofJudicialBehavior. 64. LA CONSTITUTION. supra note 15. and executive officials such as prosecutors-act. 403 (2002) ("Our analysis of the data leads us to conclude that the justices do indeed consider the preferences and likely responses of other political actors in deciding whether to grant certiorari. 1393.. 615. 22. judges are more driven by rational self-interest than we often concede.CHARLES H. & ORg. Studies show that "promotion potential is a factor in understanding lower federal court behavior.. the U. FOSTER.. and the Microanalysisof Institutions.. 109 HARV. See John H. KocH. 2 (1993) ("The economic analyst has a model of how criminals and contract parties. Key Work load IndicatorReport 5 (2002). The French Constitution. 3 Sup. ExplainingJudicialBehavior of What's 'Unconstitutional'about the Sentencing Commission?. Koch. Oceana Publications 2000) ("Judges are irremovable. Edward Rubin. 183. REv. system has not developed an effective system for assuring impartiality and independence. have strong career-based self-interests that often inform or dominate their policy preferences.pdf."). J. Administrative PresidingOfficials Today. system is that judges are not and perhaps cannot be insensitive to political influence. Reputation. and Article I judges.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/supplemenr! 2002/2f8-2fl 1. 23. L. 271. Office of Hearings and Appeals... Posner. availableat http://www. 1399 (1996) ("[N]o stable [rational choice] theory has emerged to explain the behavior of judges .S. 278-79 (1994). 193 (1991)). Civil law judges also have life tenure. Frye III.L. REV. . e. L. Frederick Schauer observed 23 that U. [legal scholars and political scientists alike] tend to ignore or downplay the possibility that judges.ssa. What Do Judges and Justices Maximize? (The Same Thing Everybody Else Does). 46 ADMIN. Judges cannot be sacked unless it is by judicial order following a judicial hearing. more than the entire federal Article III judiciary. Jr."). 395. 5 The civil law model does provide such a system.
30. disciplining judges whose conduct is so egregious that it cannot be allowed to continue. See JOHN BELL ET AL. 47 U. REV. usually called a "central panel. LA CONSTITUTION. 29. as suggested above.53 ADMIN. 6 That is.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN example.S.28 Many U. This approach has been proposed for federal adjudications for years. judiciary can only engage in negative management. L. the judiciary itself controls promotion and assignment. 425-27 (2001). The civil law system allows the judicial authorities to provide positive incentives and mentoring."). 54 ADMIN. PRINCIPLES OF FRENCH LAW 64 (1998) ("Since promotion is central to the career of all judges. REV. Antonin Scalia. the unified panel has not been adopted in the federal system. 57. 7 In contrast. Flanagan. while at the same time protecting judges from external forces. L. James F. and its adoption demonstrates that it can be incorporated into a common law setting.29 This approach captures much of the same advantages as the civil law model in monitoring and motivating optimum judicial performance. Hardwicke. See PAUL VERKUIL ET AL."). THE FEDERAL ADMINISTRATIVE JUDICIARY 171-74 (1992). The danger is that the judicial elite will themselves distort judging. See e. in CONSTITUTIONS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. 27. Such a closed system is not without dangers.S. The CentralPanelMovement: A Work in Progress. Common lawyers might argue that judicial self-management in the civil law system dangerously consolidates authority and hence increases the opportunity 26. the U. but potential shortcomings can be controlled by transparency and process. supra note 25.. MARK RAMSEYER & MINORU NAKAZATO. For several reasons. its organization is all the more relevant and must be strictly regulated. These states bring administrative judges together into one administrative unit. See John W. art. 28. 419. 1355. JAPANESE LAW: AN ECONOMIC APPROACH 17 (1999) ("This institutional structure radically shapes the incentives judges face: fundamentally it gives judges an incentive to act in those ways that the people deciding their transfers consider appropriate.. as well as discipline. 1357 (2002). state administrative judiciaries are adopting a more management-oriented approach to their judges.3" In short. headed by an independent administrator. 65. Redefining the Role of the State Administrative Law Judge: CentralPanels and Their Impact on State AL] Authority and StandardsofAgency Review. See J. Emerging legal systems should adopt this approach and constitute a self-governing judicial body. a self-managed judiciary has suggested its advantages in the United States. at 19. . establishes a disciplinary body dominated by judges." from which individual agencies request judges. 79 (1979) ("The problem of improper influence would also be solved by implementing proposals for establishment of a unified ALJ corps.g.. L. Flanagan identified twenty-five states and at least three major cities. The ALl Fiasco-A Reprise. REV."). CHI.
The threat of whistleblowing itself assures some 31. Examples of corruption in civil law systems are not scarce. Furthermore." Luz Estella Nagle.gov/public/pdf. available at http://www.. See. 345. Assuring Competence and Independence in the Litigation Itself The civil law system extends this self-regulation of judicial performance into litigation itself.S. e. W. some to build the record. by contrast. 1789 TO 1992.CHARLES H. Those from other civil law systems might contest the verdict on independence although a certain type of judicial activism is foreign (literally) to the civil law philosophy.nsf/lookup/judgeres. creates numerous whistleblowing opportunities. For most significant litigation. Nagle. [Tihe widespread effects of corruption on the overall social system are extremely pernicious. THE FRENCH LEGAL SYSTEM 77..32 The judges in any system may be corrupted. C. writes: "In Latin America.33 So the civil law system. with several judges involved. INT'L L. 32. at 17 (1993). relies on the lawyers and judges to check each other.fjc. corruption is so intensely woven in the fabric of government that accountability to the people is of almost no consequence . It should be noted that Latin American systems are increasingly a mix of the civil law and common law models so that lacking the institutionalized norms of an elite corps it is also without the imbued constraints of the judicial tradition of established common law systems. in ESSAYS IN LAW AND ECONOMICS IV 223."). 224 (1993)."). . EMILY FIELD VAN TASSEL. especially in systems without a positive tradition. JR. The civil law process utilizes several judges. 83 (2d ed. herself a former Colombian judge. and others to bring the case to a decision.. 370 (2000). The judge-managed civil law system might be better able to accomplish that.. The Cinderellaof Government:JudicialReform in Latin America.. 506 U.. the judges sit in panels. These are concepts foreign to the legal traditions of the civil law system. Again it is a question of which is more easily created in a system with neither. a study prepared for the National Commission on Judicial Discipline and Removal found numerous cases of resignations and several impeachments for corruption. there is little historical precedent for judicial activism and independence.g.. 30 CAL. for corruption. others to manage the litigation. For example. both civil and criminal. Nixon v. 1998). See ANDREW WEST ET AL.pdf/$File/judgeres. 234 (Claus Ott & George Von Wangenhem eds. 1998) ("[C]orruption runs rampant within the judiciary.An Analysis of CorruptPractices Within the Judiciaryin Latin America. 33. The search is for the optimum mechanism for preventing corruption. KoCH. The many examples of this system breaking down demonstrate that this guarantee is not flawless..pdf ("The rate of judicial departures following allegations of misbehavior is much higher than either the impeachment or the conviction rate [because judges usually resign rather than face such allegations]. and particularly to the civil law systems of Latin American.. J. See Edgardo Buscaglia.3' The adversarial process in the common law system. WHY JUDGES RESIGN: INFLUENCE ON FEDERAL JUDICIAL SERVICE. United States.
as well as lawyers. and a constitutional 39 court. system depends on the practicing bar to police judicial corruption at the trial level. Civil law use 37 of collegial judicial decision making can also combat cognitive illusions. 35. Frank Cross & Emerson Tiller. the minority judge can serve as a whistleblower by revealing these biasing cognitive shortcuts. 1111 (1990). at 821 ("[Jludges might learn to educate themselves about cognitive illusions so that they can try to avoid the errors that these illusions tend to produce. THE GERMAN LEGAL SYSTEM 129 (1999) ("Each of these jurisdictions is headed by a Federal Court as the highest court of the Federation and as the court of last resort." The most potent device for correcting these errors is training in decision making. but can produce systematic errors. PA.38 The French also have special courts. J. 2174 (1998) ("In short.S.4 " The adoption of separate specialized court systems by an emerging legal system 34. The Germans. A system in which the judges. for example. or "cognitive illusions."). 36. See ANKE FRECKMANN & THOMAS WEGERICH. .S. have five separate court systems. Revesz. Specialized Courts and the Administrative Lawmaking System. 107 YALE L. REV. 138 U. 2155. L. police the judiciary seems more likely to guarantee a degree of judicial integrity. An empirical study found that judges (like everyone else in daily life) use heuristics in judicial decision making. it will frequently concede to the commands of that model. Once the majority can no longer readily rationalize its decision under the legal model. 39. The U. REV.36 The long training and experience of civil law judges as fact finders and decision makers will better serve this purpose.34 Collegiality creates incentives for acting within the institutional norms and a deterrent against judges who might be tempted. supra note 33. Chris Guthrie et al. 805-11 (2001). 86 CORNELL L. See Richard L. at 76-81. only one of which is a general law court. on multi-judge panels. See id. See WEST. 37. See id. scheme generally avoids specialist courts for reasons that might be irrelevant to an emerging legal system. 38.. 40. D.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN level of integrity."). The civil law model is also more likely to alleviate innocent cognitive biases.").JudicialPartisanshipand Obedience to Legal Doctrine:Whistleblowing on the Federal CourtsofAppeals.35 Heuristics are mental shortcuts which are useful. at 826-27. 777. The U. Inside the JudicialMind. Special Courts and the Implicationsfor Judging Established civil law systems have detached certain tasks and created specialized court systems to deal with them. although the common law system could no doubt educate its judges about these dangers once they reach the bench.
KOCH. Reforming legal systems may consider the third reason civil law systems have created special courts. e. protect the customary courts. finance or commerce.sUpra note 14. 80 (1998). rather than geographic. KoCH.. Simply put. jurisdiction to review certain specialized tribunals and even its decisions may be reviewed by the generalist Supreme Court. §§ 9. might enhance expert dispute resolution." U. 3 CHARLES H."). 43. while the civil law reflects a distrust of elitist courts. One reason for specialization is to make the best use of expertise. and expertise. system uses expert tribunals. Civil law systems. usually administrative agencies.supranote 21. Indeed. review of administrative expert judgments is often limited and sometimes precluded. with special jurisdiction. Certain courts may be and often have been created to assure foreign interests a "modern" forum for their brand of conflict. 44. See Fallon. their decisions are ultimately reviewed by a generalist court. and yet the society may continue its indigenous legal tradition in alternative tribunals.44 Civil law jurisprudence generally. See VRANKEN.S.42 In this regard. In those cases in which the U. Such specialization might recommend itself to societies in which technical human resources are in short supply. an emerging legal system might choose between the two strategies depending on the desired dominance of expert decisionmaking. and insulate the regular judiciary from tasks that are considered inappropriate. procedures. much of the division between the civil law and common law results from different perceptions of the courts and the relationship between courts and the "democratic" institutions of government. Specialist courts increase judicial expertise and probably reach more objective judgments based on technical considerations. A second reason emerging legal systems might establish specialized courts is the protection of the indigenous legal culture. Also. A developing society could isolate its "modernization" concession by adopting special court systems. have special commercial courts.CHARLES H.43 Those courts can be separated from the courts that are culturally sensitive and expert in the customary laws. at 917. legal culture finds benefit in at some point having the experts justify themselves to non-experts. JR. whereas in the common law any distrust tended to be directed towards the legislature who was perceived to be encroaching upon the court's territory.2r4]. 1997).g. Underlying the civil law philosophy is a fear of assigning social policy to the judiciary. 13. . for example. especially among those persons who might participate in litigation. the common law grew out of distrust of majorities.S. at 63 ("[O]n the Continent a narrow reading of statutes was advocated out of distrust for the judiciary. RAYMOND FRENCH & GERMAN COMPARATIVE LAW YOUNGS. The only exception in the federal system is the Federal Circuit which has subject matter.1 (2d ed. 42. JR. ADMINISTRATIVE LAW AND PRACTICE. 41. ENGLISH.
See also PHILIP C.").g. THE ORACLES OF THE LAW 431 (1968) ("The chief legacy of the [French] Revolution was not judicial submission to the disciplines of the codes but a deep-seated. CRIMINAL. 23-50 (1998) (noting." Id. T'UNG-TSU CH'0. that this shift might have been because the existing courts were just incapable of dealing with the needs of a modern. & ALBERT SACKS.. 1985). JOHN P. GEORGE N..ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN although not universally. Jr.. 1994) ("The sovereignty of Parliament is a peculiar feature of the British constitution which exerts a constant and powerful influence. & Philip P. grew out of experience that suggests that courts can do at least as much damage as any other institution of government."). "[The gentry] and the local officials together determined the local policy and administration and shared the control of society . ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 29 (7th ed. Frickey eds. Nazi Germany. 46.."). AND LEGAL PRACTICE IN CHINA 15-16 (2001) (describing Chinese drafting of new civil and criminal codes based on the German code). CODE. SFEIR. and Allende's Chile). Fear of the judiciary created the instincts behind the commitment to statutory language and prohibition against judicial law making. it is an ever-present threat to the position of the courts. See RENE DAVID & JOHN BRIERLEY. NATHAN J. CUSTOM. since Parliament is effectively under the executive's control. Still.attitude to the executive. LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN CHINA UNDER THE CH'ING 14-35 (1962). Eskridge. a code regime confines judicial discretion. liberal state rather than that they were the instruments of oppression). AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW IN THE ARAB WORLD . however. See. CATION MODERNIZATION OF THE LAW IN ARAB STATES: AN INVESTIGATION INTO CURRENT CIVIL. the civil law commitment to codes expresses a commitment to language which is not present in the United States. This stability was threatened only when the dissatisfaction of the people was intense enough to culminate in open revolt. and the civil law satisfies this need without ceding too much authority to the judiciary by granting limited authority to courts designed for the purpose. widely-held conviction that judges lacked lawmaking power. at 198-99. "In short. In particular. By confining law making to the legislature. and it naturally inclines the judges towards caution in their. THE RULE OF LAW IN THE ARAB WORLD: COURTS IN EGYPT AND THE GULF 15 (1997) (giving as examples of the use of courts as instruments of oppression: Israeli occupation.C. HUANG.." Id. BROWN. at 14. South African apartheid. e. The specialist court schemes empower some judicial forays into social policy while 45. See HENRY HART. the common law progenitor British judges are confined by the notion of "parliamentary sovereignty.4" Many emerging democracies have experienced the abuse and excesses of the judiciary and hence are drawn to methods that limit its interference in social policy.46 Nonetheless. modern societies need tribunals with law-making responsibility. 1994) ("The body of decisional law announced by the courts in the disposition of these [individual] problems tends always to be the initial and continues to be the underlying body of law governing the society. it is no exaggeration to say that the local administration was in the hands of magistrates." SIR WILLIAM WADE & CHRISTOPHER FORSYTH. The common law system sees judge-made law as the real law. The relevance of a code system for our discussion of the judiciary is the enthusiastic denial of judicial law-making power. While common law systems have many codes. DAWSON. THE LEGAL PROCESS: BASIC PROBLEMS IN THE MAKING AND APPLIOF LAW 163-64 (William N. MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD TODAY: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAW 134-35 (3d ed. JR.
"). the ECJ's procedures were largely modeled after the French Council of State. Like all 47. BELL.. 48.47 Thereby. at 6 ("Another hallmark of civil law systems therefore is their possession of a constitutional court or some such body to hear and determine [whether a particular piece of legislation offends against the fundamental law of the state]. The United States assigns almost all types of issues to one judiciary. 50. The U. The separation between legal responsibility and law making in courts dealing with value-laden societal issues might have advantages for establishing the credibility of a new judiciary.49 In addition to confining judicial authority. Judicial control of dispute resolution is the hallmark of the civil law system. See Louis FAVOREU. many civil law systems have separate administrative courts to handle suits against the government. THE CIVIL LAw GUIDE TO MAKING JUDGES MORE EFFECTIVE AT DISPUTE RESOLUTION The judge's role in civil law litigation provides the second group of valuable lessons for emerging legal systems. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) of the European Union (EU) provides a multi-cultural example of the work of judges in a civil law-rooted process. See also SCHWARTZ. FRENCH ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 266-67 (4th ed. at 370 ("Most civilian countries have separate administrative courts to deal with matters of administrative law .supra note 6. NEVILLE BROWN & JOHN S.. JR. 1993). See Watkin. JURCEN SCHWARZE. II.supra note 6. "). trans." responsible for building the record. the specialist court strategy also protects the regular judiciary from the taint of engaging in political and policy. CONSTITUTIONAL COURTS 4-12 (Alavin A. experience might show emerging legal systems the value of insulating its judiciary from certain types of issues. . civil law systems tend to have a constitutional court separated from those courts handling regular legal business. the parties' control virtually ends and the court takes over. civil law systems satisfy the need for constitutional review of the legislature. al. A special judicial officer is assigned the case and serves as a "judge-rapporteur. EUROPEAN ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 9 (1992) (noting the parallel between the French Council of State and the European Court of Justice whose decisions also have "considerable political repercussions"). 49. Levasseur et. the highest administrative court. KOCH.S. supra note 7.5" After the pleading stage."). Based on the German model. See WATKIN.48 Similarly. sandigan bayan generally protecting democracy from a closed judiciary. 2001). See L.CHARLES H. sensitive controversies. which necessarily raise sensitive policy issues. However. at 11 ("[Council of State's (highest French administrative court)] decisions were swayed just as much by policy as by law.
54. but some perform their "interpretive" function in an activist way. L. (C 325) 123. 25. the civil law makes the judges responsible for the adequacy of the decisional foundation. at 1715." Although the extent to which the court adopts the advocate general's opinion may vary.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN civil law courts. the "record. which can be exercised to the point of creating extremely active lawmakers. Let us look at the value of these strategies. Third. This process also captures the advantages of a mix of written and oral presentation. the trial. civil law judges manage the development of a continuing process whereby the body of information develops over time rather than at a single event." Second. and related. whether or not an Opinion is followed. administrative process also often places considerable responsibility on the administrative judiciary and provides it with similar tools to carry out that responsibility. 52.S. Before the Court itself considers the case. The rapporteur's report will serve as the basis for a decision." prepares an opinion to "assist" the Court. the civil law process assures judges access to their own expert advice and counsel. . particularly for reform of an emerging legal system. Civil law judges are not to make law. the "Advocate General.S. Anthony Arnull observed: "[Miost students of the Court would probably say that it is fairly unusual-although by no means unheard of-for the Court to depart from the Opinion of its Advocate General and there are reasons for believing that.. legal and otherwise. 2002 O. These accommodations to an active administrative judiciary are noted below to demonstrate the advantages of these concepts and that they can exist and perhaps selectively improve adjudication within the common law tradition. THE EUROPEAN UNION AND ITS COURT OF JUSTICE 8 (1999). the judiciary controls fact gathering and obtains independent expert advice. See Consolidated Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Community. Fourth. 2000) ("His title .J. an independent judicial officer. the civil law process is designed for judicial decision making.54 First. he is a member of the Court. the Judges find it helpful. THE COURT OF JUSTICE OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES 64 (5th ed.") (Internal citation omitted)." ANTHONY ARNULL. system incorporates similar notions in the design of administrative adjudications. common law judges have considerable law-making power. See Aman.supra note 9. the U. Administrative law advocates a procedural flexibility which allows it to escape the dogma of traditional Anglo-American procedures and an eclecticism that allows it to incorporate useful alternatives from other legal cultures. 1957.52 Thus. 51. the report is always extremely important. NEVILLE BROWN & TOM KENNEDY. Perhaps led by the civil law system. the ECJ runs the investigation through the rapporteur and has available its own expert advice. since he is really no more an advocate than he is a general.S. Not "activist" in U. The civil law process has developed several useful procedural strategies to allow the judiciary to carry out its active role. 53. terms. On the contrary. Mar.. is something of a misnomer.53 The U.
25[2]. JUDICIAL CONDUCT AND ETHICS 172 (3d ed. see JEFFREY SHAMAN ET AL. responsibility of the civil law judge has much to recommend it to developing nations attempting to improve their litigation processes. various judges contribute to the record and the president of the court assures that the record is complete before it goes to the decisional stage."). American judges are generally permitted only to consider the evidence and testimony that is produced by counsel. the civil law court is responsible for an adequate record. as well as fact finding. KOCH. 2000) ("Unlike the European system.S. §5. in essence. .. but it merely adopts a different vision of the role of the judge. but the agency was established to pay the benefits. administrative law judges (ALJs) must actively assure an adequate record and that approach has been consistently affirmed.supranote 41. 57.58 This system is often criticized by adherents to the adversary process.S. administrative process often places the responsibility for an adequate record on the government.55 In both criminal and civil proceedings. so its position is much like that of the judges: to make sure the claimant should get the benefits. 2 KocH. in which judges have the primary responsibility for the development of litigative facts. In contrast. JR. See MODEL CODE OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT Cannon 3B(7) cmt. Responsibility for developing the record for a denial of SSA benefits rests with the ALJ because no participant in the hearing opposes the grant. The vast majority of these cases involve challenges to the denial of disability benefits under either the federal insurance program or need-based welfare. The U. The civil law makes the public assume much of the cost of litigation. one consistent with the civil law process. By making the development of the record. (2000) ("A judge must not independently investigate facts in a case and must consider only the evidence presented. Indeed. the common law process does not hold the judges responsible for a complete record.CHARLES H. relies on its ALJs to assure an adequate record. First. The fact gathering. one effort to build-in 55.56 The Social Security Administration (SSA)."). representatives. In many programs. a public commitment. In contrast.57 The claimant in an SSA case is not always represented. the common law judge acts negatively to prevent the introduction of certain types of information at the trial stage. a classic example. and in those cases the judge must assure that the claimant's case is sufficiently developed. This approach might be essential to legal systems in which the litigants are likely to have little to spare for dispute resolution. 56. the civil law judicial system makes litigants' resources. and conduct less important to a fair result. The denial is sometimes characterized as the agency's position. U. Judicial control can make the fact gathering affirmatively objective. 58. at 70. with this decision often determined by formalistic rules.
Bowen. 59.S. 1986). 52 Fed. question other witnesses. A major advantage is that the parties can better manage the scheduling of much of the record building. Va. The SSA admitted failure and ended the project. or further examine those witnesses questioned. Federal Old-Age. The extended record building might also take better advantage of scarce attorney time in systems just developing their corps of private litigators. Its explanation was unhelpful.. merely preparation for the trialin which all information is presented and the decision is reached. The common law "pre-trial" is just that. the civil law process seems preferable in a context in which few resources are available for litigation.F..R. The oral proceeding is quite abbreviated. Reg. 60. 1987) (to be codified at 20 C. 641 F. 1062 (W. but a U. Survivors. the civil law record is developed over time. its development is truly a "process. pts. a preparatory judge might go to the witnesses to develop evidence rather than requiring them to be present at a particular time (usually inconvenient) and place (to which transportation may be difficult). observed: "Has the quality of the hearing dispositions improved? The answer . FRANK BLOCH ET AL.6 Second. we conclude that the best SSA "representative" would be a non-adversary Counselor who could help provide the ALJ with a timely and complete record for decision. In a study commissioned by the Social Security Advisory Board. 17.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN adversariness by having someone represent the denial was a failure. INTRODUCING NONADVERSARIAL GOVERNMENT REPRESENTATIVES TO IMPROVE THE RECORD FOR DECISION IN SOCIAL SECURITY DISABILITY ADJUDICATIONS 73-74 (2003) (report on file with the author)." While there is an oral trial at the end. much of formal evidence is gathered and made part of the record prior to the oral proceeding. 404 and 416). . 1046.285 (May 7. The dossiers are constantly available so that a lawyer can manage review of the evidence more efficiently. Indeed. Logistically. and Disabled. lawyers can review the growing record during the course of the investigation and can recommend that the judge seek additional evidence. Discontinuance of the SSA Representation Project. request experts or different experts. in a civil law vein. Supp. and Disability Insurance.59 However. Blind. has to be a resounding no.D." whose responsibility would be to assist the judge in assuring a complete record. Moreover. three administrative law scholars concluded: Given the potential downsides of introducing or experimenting with the adversary process in this setting and our judgment that such a step would fail to advance the crucial need to improve the record development process. largely confined to tying up loose ends and reaching a decision." Sailing v.. district court. enjoining it. one recent study suggested that ALJs use "counselors. Supplemental Security Income for the Aged.
Even in developing countries. supra note 14.3d 1377. and witnesses. See CHRISTIAN DADOMO & SUSAN FARRAN.C. codifies this tradition when it provides: "On appeal from or review of the initial decision. In an emerging legal system in which the breadth of judicial expertise is likely to be thin.g. Overcoming Parochialism: State Administrative Proceduresand Institutional Design. some administrative schemes. writing. administrative process uses the same techniques. 63. he would feel himself to be in an environment that would feel quite strange and. at 59. 1996). 609.H. See VRANKEN. The reliance on written materials makes the proceeding less burdensome for the lawyers. The civil law written process facilitates correction of mistakes of fact and law. as he might think. Increased use of written materials may be making its way into English courts. or even custom and usage information. 129 F. parties.. Administrative Procedure Act (APA). as the administrative process has shown. Reliance on written records allows the civil law system to engage in de novo re62 view of lower court judgments. e.. 1386 (10th Cir.S. Broad discretion to incorporate written procedures was confirmed by the U. 551 (2001).61 Also. KOCH. so that administrative appellate authorities generally have authority to substitute judgment on both law and fact. engineering. administrative appellate review is de novo. Bingham.CHARLES H. The U. un-English. medical. 41 INT'L & COMP. See generally Jim Rossi. 1997) (explaining that a written hearing may satisfy procedural due process under the U. 620-21 (1973) (approving the use of written procedures even when the statute seems to require an oral hearing). the agency has all the powers which it would have in making the initial decision . see also Hoyl v. particularly in the states. 53 ADMIN. the highest French court. whether at first instance or on appeal. The U. Hynson. REV.").Q.. Supreme Court. litigation is likely to revolve around expert information. impose more limited review. It provides the judge with an opportunity to engage in more thoughtful consideration.63 As in the civil law system. U. .S. However. 526 (1992) (speaking of the increased use of written materials: "[Il]f a judge of (say) the immediate post-war period were to return to the courts today. administrative law often captures these same advantages. THE FRENCH LEGAL SYSTEM 189 (2d ed.5 U. while such written procedures might be inconsistent with common law philosophy. "There is a World Elsewhere": The Changing Perspectives of English Law. The Supreme Court of Cassation.S.. Westcott & Dunning. 412 U.. The more efficient the gathering of that evidence the better. See Weinberger v. L. 513. is not strictly a court of appeals because it only reexamines points of law and it may not revise decisions as a court of appeals would.L. This process leads to a decision based largely on a written record.S. § 557(b) (2000).S. this de novo review would promote consistency and accuracy as well as integrity. the statute which sets general procedural norms for all federal agencies. JR.S. Traditionally. Inc. acceptance of a written record validates substitution of judgment 61.. is far superior for introducing expert-type evidence. Babbitt.S. Constitution). Indeed. See T. 62.
"). Constitution states that. a party's ability to husband the available experts may be particularly damaging to fair dispute resolution. That the one who hears the witness is best able to evaluate the testimony is a fundamental assumption of the common law. this assumption may not be supportable in fact. as the normal practice is for a single neutral expert appointed by the court. Blumenthal. system are not allowed to consult their own 64. a reforming system might consider public financing. see also Jeremy A. demeanor evidence [in judging credibility]. See Olin Guy Wellborn. 2 (emphasis added). 68. Still. . REV. 67.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN for that of the presiding official who actually heard the testimony. 66.' The parties can monitor judicial conduct because a lawyer who disagrees with an expert may request another expert... 1075 (1991).. appeal before the trial.S. at 297. the Supreme Court "shall have appellate Jurisdiction. finds that values of consistency and equality of treatment justify independent fact finding by a review tribunal. administrative process. FRENCH LEGAL SYSTEM 129-30 (2000) ("The judge's powers concerning oral evidence are very wide . § 2.S.68 Given the relatively scarce expertise in developing societies. Parties do not normally appoint their own experts. would be called interlocutory appeal. " U.S. successive testing of this 'fundamental' legal precept has repeatedly demonstrated its fallacy. for one thing. both as to Law and Fact . . there is a savings in that they need only pay for experts sufficient to satisfy the judge rather than redundant experts to counteract their opponents' experts. the U. 1159 (1993) ("Social scientists have thus effectively subjected to empirical trial the validity of. The French judge has even greater powers in connection with expert evidence. cl. judges in the U.S. although substitution of judgment on facts by a review authority is felt incompatible with the common law trial. In fact.S. The system polices the judge here by making denial of this request the only one subject to what in the U.. REV. see also WEST ET AL.."). Moreover.64 The administrative process. A Wipe ofthe Hands.76 CORNELL L. Again.. However.65 Third. See WEST ET AL. 1157..67 The publicly financed expert scheme is another way the civil law system levels any inequality in litigant resources. III. Surprisingly.supra note 33. in some instances. the civil law gives its judges the assistance they need to fulfill their extensive responsibility. art. The judge identifies the experts and their loyalty is to the court. has control over and use of expert information. CONST. the argument that this process would violate some fundamental common law principles can be met by reference to the U. Parties are ultimately billed for the cost of the expert.. See CATHERINE ELLIOTT & CATHERINE VERNON. at 297 ("It is for the judge to choose the expert . L. Admittedly. 65.. 72 NEB. A Lick ofthe Lips: The Validity of Demeanor Evidence in Assessing Witness Credibility. The civil law judge.. supra note 33. like the civil law model.Demeanor.
. judges may seek legal advice only. prohibits exparte communication with an "interested person" only. system. JR. § 557(d) (2000). under certain circumstances. The French "government commissioner" advises the adjudicating arm of the Council of State and is not. Fourth."9 However. at Canon 3B(7)(b) ("A judge may obtain the advice of a disinterested expert on the law . but this institution was modeled after similar judicial advisors in the French system. . MODEL CODE OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT. at Canon 3B(7). if the judge gives notice to the parties of the person consulted and the substance of the advice.S. the civil law system is designed around judicial decision-making responsibility. THE FOUNDATIONS OF EuROPEAN COMMUNITY LAW 55 (1998).. many developing countries have a need to assure representation of various groups on their lawmaking tribunals. If providing judges with expert assistants might improve the quality of a developing litigation system. as well as record building. and an advising judge can add uniformity and objectivity. 71. supra note 55."). See also SHAMAN ET AL. such as constitutional courts or the French Council of State. the exception does not extend to experts in other areas. Those tribunals in which law making is permissible. where the primary judges are selected more for their affiliation than their judicial competence. 71 Nothing similar to the advocate general type of jurist exists in the U. Under the Model Code of Judicial Conduct. The common law procedure envisions the judge as a gatekeeper protecting the lay jury by enforcing certain rules that 69. The Model Code of Judicial Conduct does provide a very narrow concession to consultation with legal experts."). as the title implies. The civil law scheme may also provide its judges with experts in decision making. the advocate general.C. 70.CHARLES H. MODEL CODE supra note 55. which covers all U. are supplied with judicial officers whose duty is to advise the court. a representative of the government.S. 70 such as the exparte doctrine. though it is similar to that of a commissairedugouvernementin the French Conseil d'Etat. as well as expertise. the administrative process takes a more liberal approach to supplying judges with expertise. but much recommends it to emerging legal systems that are developing their laws. The EU supplies the most universally recognized example. obtain expert advice concerning the law from disinterested legal experts. this concept would seem inconsistent with the common law procedure designed around the jury. Again.C. HARTLEY.. "Their function has no parallel in the English legal system. supra note 55. experts.72 An advising judicial officer like the EU's advocate general may be beneficial in an emerging legal system in which the quality of the judges may be quite varied. agencies. 72. 5 U.S. Moreover. KOCH. at 173 ("While judges may."T. and affords the parties a reasonable opportunity to respond. administrative law shows that such a system does not necessarily violate common law principles. OF JUDICIAL CONDUCT. The Federal Administrative Procedures Act (APA).
and hence provides the system with experienced judges without litigants paying the price for judicial apprenticeships. at 236.S. Indeed. assuring some independence from their seniors) assures more integrity and perhaps competence especially where competent judges themselves are in short supply.74 Still. Another advantage of the civil law approach. In France. 1172 (9th Cir. In the U. where the decision is likely made by judges. In New York. are not easily distinguishable from fines which are. or often psychologically prepared to serve as decision makers. They are trained as litigators. 74. 15 U. In fact.73 In addition. but also decision makers. e.Y.. 73." which although technically not criminal. It also affects the judging. this affects record building and the tools given the judge. major crimes are judged by a jury composed of nine lay jurors and three judges. United States. JEFFREY ABRAMSON. traffic violations may be heard in administrative adjudications. even in proceedings that are very nearly criminal. either civil or common law (or the United States). Many U. A significant part of their training and experience is designed to make them sound decision makers. 179 F. experienced. supra note 33. WEST ET AL. Most important cases are decided by a panel of judges. Judicial training and selection in civil law systems recognizes that they are not only record guardians..g. This training does prepare them to run the proceeding.75 Thus. An emerging system. 522 U.C. junior judges speak first. do not involve juries. they are not trained. N. this panel approach educates judges as well.g.3 (McKinney 1995). administrative adjudications provide for decisions by the administrative judge. cf.3d 1166. both civil and criminal.)). WE. 93 (1997) (involving double jeopardy.ADVANTAGES OF CIVIL LAW JUDICIAL DESIGN assure the quality of the record. the common law concept is that the trial should be designed to accommodate a jury decision. which would nonetheless suggest itself even to common law systems.P. Noriega-Perez v. agencies have the authority to order "civil penalties. 75. Common law judges "graduate" from litigation.S. See. cases. THE JURY: THE JURY SYSTEM AND THE IDEAL OF DEMOCRACY .S. about 5% of the felony cases and about 1% of the civil cases reach a jury. most U. § 45(1) (1997) (authorizing the Federal Trade Commission to order civil penalties). See 252 (2000). However.A § 102. 1999) (following Hudson v.S. United States. STATE A. is that judges are trained to make decisions. In contrast. might consider training and mentoring designed to make judges good decision makers.S.. the civil law system is designed for decision by judges. As we have seen. the collegial checking and other decisional techniques (e.
J. Jr. Many of these cultures already have in place some version of the civil law models. Since the civil law is judge-oriented. administrative law specialist. These advantages then may be universal and appropriate reform options for any legal culture. common law model has captured some of those advantages in its administrative adjudications. Focusing on better judges and judging has much to recommend it to these cultures. OF ing Fall 2003). (forthcom- . CONCLUSION The common law and the civil law models likely will dominate the development of a global legal culture. it seems useful that I identify instances in which the U. JR. 24 MICH. this global legal culture will affect national law and legal institutions. In all of these. Koch.. the judge is the key to improving their legal system. As a U. 76. Charles H.S. INT'L L. 6 In turn. As I am a common lawyer.CHARLES H. especially in emerging legal systems. others have borrowed from the common law model. The key then is political will. and still others retain their customary or religious legal systems. Many legal cultures are looking to the transatlantic models for guidance in reforming and modernizing their legal systems. there seems to be some value in my identification of the potential benefits of the "competing" model. it has many lessons for reformers around the world.S. or those systems in practice dominate over the borrowed scheme. Envisioninga Global Legal Culture. at least in its first iteration. KOCH.
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