Source: https://m.openjurist.org/532/f2d/697
Timestamp: 2020-01-25 12:20:27
Document Index: 126369211

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 952', '§ 841', '§ 176', '§ 174', '§ 841', '§ 174', '§ 952', '§ 841', '§ 841', '§ 57', '§ 41', '§ 2314', '§ 841', '§ 952', '§ 841', '§ 922', '§ 2314', '§ 371', '§ 371', '§ 922', '§ 173', '§ 1341', '§ 174', '§ 952', '§ 371', '§ 2', '§ 1001', '§ 7206', '§ 2', '§ 331', '§ 174', '§ 841', '§ 152', '§ 287', '§ 152', '§ 173', '§ 174', '§ 841', '§ 568', '§ 57']

532 F2d 697 United States v. Jewell | OpenJurist
532 F. 2d 697 - United States v. Jewell
532 F2d 697 United States v. Jewell
532 F.2d 697
It is undisputed that appellant entered the United States driving an automobile in which 110 pounds of marihuana worth $6,250 had been concealed in a secret compartment between the trunk and rear seat. Appellant testified that he did not know the marijuana was present. There was circumstantial evidence from which the jury could infer that appellant had positive knowledge of the presence of the marihuana, and that his contrary testimony was false.1 On the other hand there was evidence from which the jury could conclude that appellant spoke the truth that although appellant knew of the presence of the secret compartment and had knowledge of facts indicating that it contained marijuana, he deliberately avoided positive knowledge of the presence of the contraband to avoid responsibility in the event of discovery.2 If the jury concluded the latter was indeed the situation, and if positive knowledge is required to convict, the jury would have no choice consistent with its oath but to find appellant not guilty even though he deliberately contrived his lack of positive knowledge. Appellant urges this view. The trial court rejected the premise that only positive knowledge would suffice, and properly so.
The court instructed the jury that "knowingly" meant voluntarily and intentionally and not by accident or mistake.3 The court told the jury that the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant "knowingly" brought the marihuana into the United States (count 1: 21 U.S.C. § 952(a)), and that he "knowingly" possessed the marihuana (count 2: 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1)). The court continued:
The legal premise of these instructions is firmly supported by leading commentators here and in England. Professor Rollin M. Perkins writes, "One with a deliberate antisocial purpose in mind . . . may deliberately 'shut his eyes' to avoid knowing what would otherwise be obvious to view. In such cases, so far as criminal law is concerned, the person acts at his peril in this regard, and is treated as having 'knowledge' of the facts as they are ultimately discovered to be."4 J. Ll. J. Edwards, writing in 1954, introduced a survey of English cases with the statement, "For well-nigh a hundred years, it has been clear from the authorities that a person who deliberately shuts his eyes to an obvious means of knowledge has sufficient mens rea for an offence based on such words as . . . 'knowingly.' "5 Professor Glanville Williams states, on the basis both English and American authorities, "To the requirement of actual knowledge there is one strictly limited exception. . . . (T)he rule is that if a party has his suspicion aroused but then deliberately omits to make further enquiries, because he wishes to remain in ignorance, he is deemed to have knowledge."6 Professor Williams concludes, "The rule that wilful blindness is equivalent to knowledge is essential, and is found throughout the criminal law."7
This is the analysis adopted in the Model Penal Code. Section 2.02(7) states: "When knowledge of the existence of a particular fact is an element of an offense, such knowledge is established if a person is aware of a high probability of its existence, unless he actually believes that it does not exist."8 As the Comment to this provision explains, "Paragraph (7) deals with the situation British commentators have denominated 'wilful blindness' or 'connivance,' the case of the actor who is aware of the probable existence of a material fact but does not satisfy himself that it does not in fact exist."9
The Supreme Court, in Leary v. United States, 395 U.S. 6, 46 n.93, 89 S.Ct. 1532, 1553, 23 L.Ed.2d 57, 87 (1969), applied the Model Penal Code definition of knowledge in determining the meaning of "knowing" in former 21 U.S.C. § 176a. In Turner v. United States, 396 U.S. 398, 416 & n.29, 90 S.Ct. 642, 652, 24 L.Ed.2d 610, 623 (1970), the Court adopted the Model Penal Code definition in defining "knowingly" in 21 U.S.C. § 174.10 The Turner opinion recognizes that this definition of "knowingly" makes actual knowledge unnecessary: "(T)hose who traffic in heroin will inevitably become aware that the product they deal in is smuggled, unless they practice a studied ignorance to which they are not entitled." 396 U.S. at 417, 90 S.Ct. at 653, 24 L.Ed.2d at 624. (footnotes omitted, emphasis added), citing Griego v. United States, 298 F.2d 845, 849 (10th Cir. 1962). Griego remanded a section 174 charge for a new trial, stating, "In the circumstances of this case the jury should be instructed on the tendered defense of no knowledge and told that the defense is not available if the jury finds from all the evidence beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant had a conscious purpose to avoid learning the source of the heroin." 298 F.2d at 849. The Supreme Court again adopted the Model Penal Code definition of knowledge and approved the language of Griego in Barnes v. United States, 412 U.S. 837, 845 & n.10, 93 S.Ct. 2357, 2362, 37 L.Ed.2d 380, 387 (1973).
It is true that neither Leary, Turner, nor Barnes involved a jury instruction. However, United States v. Squires, 440 F.2d 859, 863-64 & n.12 (2d Cir. 1971), and United States v. Jacobs, 475 F.2d 270, 287-88 (2d Cir. 1973), recognize that the Supreme Court's approval of the Model Penal Code definition of knowledge implies approval of an instruction that the requirement of knowledge is satisfied by proof of a "conscious purpose to avoid learning the truth."11 The implication seems inevitable, in view of the approval of Griego in Turner and Barnes.
" Deliberate ignorance" instructions have been approved in prosecutions under criminal statutes prohibiting "knowing" conduct by the Courts of Appeals of the Second, Sixth, Seventh, and Tenth Circuits.12 In many other cases, Courts of Appeals reviewing the sufficiency of evidence have approved the premise that "knowingly" in criminal statutes is not limited to positive knowledge, but includes the state of mind of one who does not possess positive knowledge only because he consciously avoided it.13 These lines of authority appear unbroken. Neither the dissent nor the briefs of either party has cited a case holding that such an instruction is error or that such evidence is not sufficient to establish "knowledge."14
There is no reason to reach a different result under the statute involved in this case. Doing so would put this court in direct conflict with Courts of Appeals in two other circuits that have approved "deliberate ignorance" instructions in prosecutions under 21 U.S.C. § 841(a), or its predecessor, 21 U.S.C. § 174.15 Nothing is cited from the legislative history of the Drug Control Act indicating that Congress used the term "knowingly" in a sense at odds with prior authority. Rather, Congress is presumed to have known and adopted the "cluster of ideas" attached to such a familiar term of art. Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 263, 72 S.Ct. 240, 249, 96 L.Ed. 288, 300 (1952). Congress was aware of Leary and Turner,16 and expressed no dissatisfaction with their definition of the term.
Appellant's narrow interpretation of "knowingly" is inconsistent with the Drug Control Act's general purpose to deal more effectively "with the growing menace of drug abuse in the United States."17 Holding that this term introduces a requirement of positive knowledge would make deliberate ignorance a defense. It cannot be doubted that those who traffic in drugs would make the most of it. This is evident from the number of appellate decisions reflecting conscious avoidance of positive knowledge of the presence of contraband in the car driven by the defendant or in which he is a passenger, in the suitcase or package he carries, in the parcel concealed in his clothing. See notes 12, 13, and 15.
It begs the question to assert that a "deliberate ignorance" instruction permits the jury to convict without finding that the accused possessed the knowledge required by the statute. Such an assertion assumes that the statute requires positive knowledge. But the question is the meaning of the term "knowingly" in the statute. If it means positive knowledge, then, of course, nothing less will do. But if "knowingly" includes a mental state in which the defendant is aware that the fact in question is highly probable but consciously avoids enlightenment, the statute is satisfied by such proof.18
It is worth emphasizing that the required state of mind differs from positive knowledge only so far as necessary to encompass a calculated effort to avoid the sanctions of the statute while violating its substance.19 "A court can properly find wilful blindness only where it can almost be said that the defendant actually knew."20 In the language of the instruction in this case, the government must prove, "beyond a reasonable doubt, that if the defendant was not actually aware . . . his ignorance in that regard was solely and entirely a result of . . . a conscious purpose to avoid learning the truth."21
ANTHONY M. KENNEDY, Circuit Judge, with whom ELY, HUFSTEDLER and WALLACE, Circuit Judges, join (dissenting).
Jewell was convicted and received concurrent sentences on two counts: (1) knowingly or intentionally importing a controlled substance, 21 U.S.C. §§ 952(a), 960(a)(1); (2) knowingly or intentionally possessing, with intent to distribute, a controlled substance, id. § 841(a)(1). We agree with the majority that the jury was not required to find, as to count one, that the defendant knew which controlled substance he possessed. We further agree that the additional state of mind required by count two intent to distribute the substance must be specifically proven as an element of a section 841(a)(1) violation.
At the outset, it is arguable that the "conscious purpose to avoid learning the truth" instruction is inherently inconsistent with the additional mens rea required for count two intent to distribute. It is difficult to explain that a defendant can specifically intend to distribute a substance unless he knows that he possesses it.1 In any event, we would not approve the conscious purpose instruction in this case, because it falls short of the scienter independently required under both counts.2
The majority opinion justifies the conscious purpose jury instruction as an application of the wilful blindness doctrine recognized primarily by English authorities. A classic illustration of this doctrine is the connivance of an innkeeper who deliberately arranges not to go into his back room and thus avoids visual confirmation of the gambling he believes is taking place.3 The doctrine is commonly said to apply in deciding whether one who acquires property under suspicious circumstances should be charged with knowledge that it was stolen.4
One problem with the wilful blindness doctrine is its bias towards visual means of acquiring knowledge. We may know facts from direct impressions of the other senses or by deduction from circumstantial evidence, and such knowledge is nonetheless "actual." Moreover, visual sense impressions do not consistently provide complete certainty.5
Another problem is that the English authorities seem to consider wilful blindness a state of mind distinct from, but equally culpable as, "actual" knowledge.6 When a statute specifically requires knowledge as an element of a crime, however, the substitution of some other state of mind cannot be justified even if the court deems that both are equally blameworthy.7
Finally, the wilful blindness doctrine is uncertain in scope. There is disagreement as to whether reckless disregard for the existence of a fact constitutes wilful blindness or some lesser degree of culpability.8 Some cases have held that a statute's scienter requirement is satisfied by the constructive knowledge imputed to one who simply fails to discharge a duty to inform himself.9 There is also the question of whether to use an "objective" test based on the reasonable man, or to consider the defendant's subjective belief as dispositive.10
The approach adopted in section 2.02(7) of the Model Penal Code clarifies, and, in important ways restricts,11 the English doctrine:
The second defect in the instruction as given is that it did not alert the jury that Jewell could not be convicted if he "actually believed" there was no controlled substance in the car. The failure to emphasize, as does the Model Penal Code, that subjective belief is the determinative factor, may allow a jury to convict on an objective theory of knowledge that a reasonable man should have inspected the car and would have discovered what was hidden inside. One recent decision reversed a jury instruction for this very deficiency failure to balance a conscious purpose instruction with a warning that the defendant could not be convicted if he actually believed to the contrary. United States v. Bright, 517 F.2d 584, 586-89 (2d Cir. 1975).
Third, the jury instruction clearly states that Jewell could have been convicted even if found ignorant or "not actually aware" that the car contained a controlled substance. This is unacceptable because true ignorance, no matter how unreasonable, cannot provide a basis for criminal liability when the statute requires knowledge.12 A proper jury instruction based on the Model Penal Code would be presented as a way of defining knowledge, and not as an alternative to it.
The majority opinion cites three cases, all in the Second Circuit, which approve conscious purpose instructions in prosecutions under the same statute as Jewell was charged. In two of these cases the jury instruction included one of the elements of the Model Penal Code provision which was omitted in the instant case.13 Of course, jury instructions should be considered in context and not subjected to unduly technical analysis. Yet we remain convinced that the instructions given in this case were erroneous; they could have permitted the jury to convict Jewell without being certain beyond a reasonable doubt that he possessed the mens rea required for knowing possession or importation under 21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a) & 960(a).
We do not agree with the majority that we can only reverse if the conscious purpose instruction constituted "plain error." Before the instruction was given, the defense counsel objected "strenuously" on the basis that the jury could convict Jewell for failure to make an adequate attempt to check out the car. When the trial judge rejected this argument, the defense counsel further requested that he "add an addendum" to the charge so the jury would understand it properly. The trial court rejected this suggestion as well, and cut off further argument, saying "The record may show your objection."
Although the defense counsel did not fully anticipate our analysis of the conscious purpose instruction, he came close. (1) He gave a reason for his objection that the instruction would allow conviction without proof of the scienter element. (2) He further suggested adding "an addendum" to warn the jury against misinterpreting the instruction. We believe these objections were sufficient to require reversal on appeal unless the deficiencies in the instruction were harmless error.14
We do not question the sufficiency of the evidence in this case to support conviction by a properly-instructed jury.15 As with all states of mind, knowledge must normally be proven by circumstantial evidence. There is evidence which could support a conclusion that Jewell was aware of a high probability that the car contained a controlled substance and that he had no belief to the contrary. However, we cannot say that the evidence was so overwhelming that the erroneous jury instruction was harmless. Accordingly, we would reverse the judgment on this appeal.
Appellant testified that a week before the incident in question he sold his car for $100 to obtain funds "to have a good time." He then rented a car for about $100, and he and a friend drove the rented car to Mexico. Appellant and his friend were unable to adequately explain their whereabouts during the period of about 11 hours between the time they left Los Angeles and the time they admitted arriving in Mexico
Their testimony regarding acquisition of the load car follows a pattern common in these cases: they were approached in a Tijuana bar by a stranger who identified himself only by his first name "Ray." He asked them if they wanted to buy marihuana, and offered to pay them $100 for driving a car north across the border. Appellant accepted the offer and drove the load car back, alone. Appellant's friend drove appellant's rented car back to Los Angeles.
Both appellant and his companion testified that the stranger identified as "Ray" offered to sell them marihuana and, when they declined, asked if they wanted to drive a car back to Los Angeles for $100. Appellant's companion "wanted no part of driving the vehicle." He testified, "It didn't sound right to me." Appellant accepted the offer. The Drug Enforcement Administration agent testified that appellant stated "he thought there was probably something wrong and something illegal in the vehicle, but that he checked it over. He looked in the glove box and under the front seat and in the trunk, prior to driving it. He didn't find anything, and, therefore, he assumed that the people at the border wouldn't find anything either " (emphasis added). Appellant was asked at trial whether he had seen the special compartment when he opened the trunk. He responded, "Well, you know, I saw a void there, but I didn't know what it was." He testified that he did not investigate further. The Customs agent testified that when he opened the trunk and saw the partition he asked appellant "when he had that put in." Appellant told the agent "that it was in the car when he got it."
R. Perkins, Criminal Law 776 (2d ed. 1969)
Edwards, The Criminal Degrees of Knowledge, 17 Modern L.Rev. 294, 298 (1954). Later in his discussion Mr. Edwards writes, "(N)o real doubt has been cast on the proposition that connivance is as culpable as actual knowledge. We have already seen the diverse fashions in which this state of mind has been defined, ranging from the original expression 'wilful shutting of the eyes' and its closest counterpart 'wilful blindness,' to the less forceful but equally satisfactory formulae 'purposely abstaining from ascertaining' and 'wilfully abstaining from knowing.' " Id. at 302
G. Williams, Criminal Law: The General Part, § 57 at 157 (2d ed. 1961)
Id. at 159. Mr. Williams' concluding paragraph reads in its entirety:
Model Penal Code 27 (Prop. Official Draft 1962)
Model Penal Code 129-30 (Tent. Draft No. 4, 1955). Comment 9 reads in full as follows:
Paragraph (7) deals with the situation British commentators have denominated "wilful blindness" or "connivance," the case of the actor who is aware of the probable existence of a material fact but does not satisfy himself that it does not in fact exist. See Edwards, The Criminal Degrees of Knowledge, 17 Modern L.Rev. 294 (1954); (G. Williams, Criminal Law: The General Part § 41 (1st ed. 1953)). Whether such cases should be viewed as instances of acting recklessly or knowingly presents a subtle but important question.
See also United States v. Freed, 401 U.S. 601, 613 n.5, 91 S.Ct. 1112, 1120, 28 L.Ed.2d 356, 364 (1971) (Brennan, J., concurring)
Jacobs involved convictions under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2314 and 2315 prohibiting dealings in securities "knowing the same to have been stolen." The charge read:
United States v. Dozier, 522 F.2d 224, 226 (2d Cir. 1975) (21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1); upheld the following jury instruction: "If you find from all the evidence beyond a reasonable doubt either that the defendant knew that she was helping in a cocaine transaction, or that she had a conscious purpose to avoid finding out the identity of the substance so as to close her eyes to the facts, you could find sufficient evidence to find her guilty beyond a reasonable doubt"); United States v. Olivares-Vega, 495 F.2d 827, 830 (2d Cir. 1974) (21 U.S.C. §§ 952(a) & 841(a)(1)); United States v. Joly, 493 F.2d 672 (2d Cir. 1974) (21 U.S.C. §§ 841(a)(1), 952(a), 955, 960(a)(1) & (2); United States v. Thomas, 484 F.2d 909, 912-13 (6th Cir. 1973) (18 U.S.C. § 922(a)(6): firearms); United States v. Jacobs, 475 F.2d 270, 287-88 (2d Cir. 1973) (conspiracy to violate 18 U.S.C. §§ 2314 & 2315: stolen securities); United States v. Grizaffi, 471 F.2d 69, 75 (7th Cir. 1972) (18 U.S.C. §§ 371, 1008, 1341; LaBuy Instruction No. 4.05, 33 F.R.D. 553 (1965), approved); United States v. Sarantos, 455 F.2d 877, 880-81 (2d Cir. 1972) (18 U.S.C. §§ 371, 1001, 1546); United States v. Squires, 440 F.2d 859, 864 & n.12 (2d Cir. 1971) (18 U.S.C. § 922(a)(6); Model Penal Code followed jury instruction rejected because it should have included "deliberate ignorance"); United States v. Llanes, 374 F.2d 712, 716 (2d Cir. 1967) (conviction under former 21 U.S.C. §§ 173 & 174; instructions properly refused "since they failed to include the element of 'a conscious purpose to avoid learning the source of the heroin' "); United States v. Joyce, 499 F.2d 9, 23 (7th Cir. 1974) (18 U.S.C. § 1341; LaBuy Instruction No. 4.05 approved); Griego v. United States, 298 F.2d 845, 849 (10th Cir. 1962) (reversal of conviction under former 21 U.S.C. § 174; jury should be given "deliberate ignorance" instruction)
United States v. De Garces, 518 F.2d 1156, 1160 (2d Cir. 1975) (21 U.S.C. §§ 952(a), 960(a)(1)); United States v. Frank, 494 F.2d 145, 152-53 (2d Cir. 1974) (transporting stolen money, 18 U.S.C. §§ 371, 1341-1343, 2314); United States v. Brawer, 482 F.2d 117, 126-27 (2d Cir. 1973) (18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 371 & 2314, transporting stolen securities); United States v. Egenberg, 441 F.2d 441, 444 (2d Cir. 1971) (false statements, 18 U.S.C. § 1001, 26 U.S.C. § 7206(2)); United States v. Abrams, 427 F.2d 86, 91 (2d Cir. 1970) (false statements, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 1001); United States v. Sheiner, 410 F.2d 337, 340-41 (2d Cir. 1969) (18 U.S.C. § 331 and others); Verdugo v. United States, 402 F.2d 599, 604 (9th Cir. 1968) (former 21 U.S.C. § 174); see United States v. Moser, 509 F.2d 1089, 1092-93 (7th Cir. 1975) (specific intent in 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1)); United States v. Yasser, 114 F.2d 558, 560 (3d Cir. 1940) (predecessor of 18 U.S.C. § 152; dicta); cf. United States v. Cooperative Grain & Supply Co., 476 F.2d 47, 59 (8th Cir. 1973) (dicta that guilty avoidance of knowledge can supplant positive knowledge under 18 U.S.C. § 287); Rachmil v. United States, 43 F.2d 878, 881 (9th Cir. 1930) (per curiam) (dicta regarding predecessor to 18 U.S.C. § 152)
The cases cited in appellant's briefs hold only that knowledge that the substance possessed is a narcotic or controlled substance was an element of the particular offenses involved. None holds that such knowledge cannot be established by proof that the possessor was aware of facts making it highly probable that the substance was a narcotic or controlled substance and lacked positive knowledge only because he consciously avoided it
United States v. Dozier, 522 F.2d 224, 226 (2d Cir. 1975); United States v. Olivares-Vega, 495 F.2d 827, 830 (2d Cir. 1974); United States v. Joly, 493 F.2d 672 (2d Cir. 1974); United States v. Llanes, 374 F.2d 712, 716 (2d Cir. 1967) (under former 21 U.S.C. §§ 173 & 174, instruction properly refused because it did not include "deliberate ignorance"); Griego v. United States, 298 F.2d 845, 849 (10th Cir. 1962) (on remand under former 21 U.S.C. § 174, jury should be instructed on "deliberate ignorance"); see United States v. Moser, 509 F.2d 1089, 1092-93 (7th Cir. 1975) (under 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1) sufficiency of evidence of specific intent to possess and distribute LSD)
See, e. g., Drug Abuse Control Amendments 1970, Hearings before the Subcomm. on Public Health & Welfare of the House Comm. on Interstate & Foreign Commerce, 91st Cong., 2d Sess., at 697, 705-06 (1970); 116 Cong.Rec. 33661 (1970) (col. 2)
See, e. g., H.R.No.91-1444, Sept. 10, 1970, 91st Cong., 2d Sess., 3 U.S.Code Cong. & Admin.News 4566, 4567 (1970)
The argument that a "deliberate ignorance" instruction relieves the jury of finding knowledge was rejected in United States v. Olivares-Vega, 495 F.2d 827, 830 (2d Cir. 1974)
As Judge Feinberg said in United States v. Sarantos, 455 F.2d 877, 881 (2d Cir. 1972), the purpose of the "deliberate ignorance" instruction is "to prevent an individual . . . from circumventing criminal sanctions merely by deliberately closing his eyes to the obvious risk that he is engaging in unlawful conduct."
G. Williams, supra note 6, at 159
We do not suggest that the instruction given in this case was a model in all respects. The jury should have been instructed more directly (1) that the required knowledge is established if the accused is aware of a high probability of the existence of the fact in question, (2) unless he actually believes it does not exist
Appellant did not argue below or in this court that the instruction did not require an awareness of a high probability that the controlled substance was present. An objection on this ground would have little merit. The instruction given (that "(appellant's) ignorance in that regard was solely and entirely the result of his having made a conscious purpose to disregard the nature of that which was in the vehicle") suggests that the accused must be aware of facts making the presence of the contraband all but certain. Only if the accused were aware of such facts could his ignorance of the presence of the marihuana be "solely and entirely " the result of his conscious purpose to avoid the truth. Under this instruction, neither reckless disregard nor suspicion followed by failure to make full inquiry would be enough.
"Want of knowledge . . . may disprove the existence of a specific intent. Thus one cannot intend to steal property which he believes to be his own however careless he may have been in coming to that belief." R. Perkins, Criminal Law 778 (2d ed. 1969) (footnote omitted)
The challenged instruction was given for count two only, but it would seem to be applicable as well to the state of mind required for count one. A jury would be easily confused by the apparent difference in standards, at least absent explicit instructions on the point. Therefore we think it would be inappropriate to invoke the concurrent sentence rule to affirm Jewell's conviction on the basis of count one
See, e. g., Bosley v. Davies, (1875) L.R. 1 Q.B. 84
See 2 R. Anderson, Wharton's Criminal Law and Procedure § 568 (1957 & Supp.1975). This situation use of circumstantial evidence to prove a contemporaneous state of mind should be distinguished from the use of one fact to support the inference of a previous event. See McAbee v. United States, 434 F.2d 361, 362-63 (9th Cir. 1970) (permissive inference that possessor of property recently stolen in another state was the thief and had transported it in interstate commerce)
See United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218, 228-29, 87 S.Ct. 1926, 1932, 18 L.Ed.2d 1149, 1158 (1967)
See G. Williams, Criminal Law: The General Part § 57, at 157 (2d ed. 1961) ("To the requirement of actual knowledge there is one strictly limited exception."); Edwards, The Criminal Degrees of Knowledge, 17 Modern L.Rev. 294, 302 (1954) (wilful blindness is "as culpable as actual knowledge)
'Absolute knowledge can be had of very few things,' said the Massachusetts court, and the philosopher might add 'if any.' For most practical purposes 'knowledge' 'is not confined to what we have personally observed or to what we have evolved by our own cognitive faculties.'
This case does not present the question of how far Congress could reduce the requirement of a mens rea for possession of drugs. The statutes use the terms "knowingly or intentionally." It is true that a strict interpretation of the scienter requirement may produce fewer convictions in combating "the growing menace of drug abuse." But the Supreme Court has cautioned that "the purpose of every statute would be 'obstructed' by requiring a finding of intent, if we assume that it had a purpose to convict without it." Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 259, 72 S.Ct. 240, 247, 96 L.Ed. 288, 298 (1952). Here it is clear that Congress intended to require knowledge as an element of these offenses
Compare G. Williams, supra note 6, at 158-59, with Edwards, supra note 6, at 303-06. A "reckless disregard" instruction was approved in one case relied upon by the majority. See United States v. Thomas, 484 F.2d 909, 912-13 (6th Cir. 1973), cert. denied, 415 U.S. 924, 94 S.Ct. 1428, 39 L.Ed.2d 480 (1974)
E. g., Spurr v. United States, 174 U.S. 728, 735, 19 S.Ct. 812, 815, 43 L.Ed. 1150, 1153 (1899). These cases generally involve regulatory statutes, the violation of which is malum prohibitum. Riss & Co. v. United States, 262 F.2d 245, 248-51 (8th Cir. 1958). Yet one case relied upon by the majority regarded Spurr as "comparable" to the former narcotics importation statute. See Griego v. United States, 298 F.2d 845, 849 (10th Cir. 1962)
See R. Perkins, supra note 1, at 778 & n.77; R. Anderson, supra note 4, at 281-82 & nn.6-8
Professor Perkins observes that section 2.02(7) of the Model Penal Code "covers must less than 'knowledge' as it has been interpreted as a mens-rea requirement in the common law." With regard to the receipt of stolen property, he criticizes the Code for not imposing liability in "the case of the man who has no belief one way or the other, but has been put on notice that it may be stolen and 'shuts his eyes' in order not to find out." R. Perkins, supra note 1, at 799
See United States v. Olivares-Vega, 495 F.2d 827, 830 nn.10 & 11 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 419 U.S. 1020, 95 S.Ct. 494, 42 L.Ed.2d 293 (1974) (instruction required acquittal if defendant believed he did not possess controlled substance); United States v. Joly, 493 F.2d 672, 674 (2d Cir. 1974) (conscious purpose to avoid enlightenment when he "had every reason to believe" he possessed a controlled substance). The third case cited by the majority is discussed in note 14 infra
Thus the instant case is distinguishable from United States v. Dozier, 522 F.2d 224 (2d Cir. 1975). There counsel made no objection to the jury charge, and the Second Circuit held the conscious purpose instruction was not so unbalanced as to constitute plain error. Id. at 228
Thus we have no disagreement with the sufficiency-of-evidence cases cited in note 13 of the majority opinion. However, they are not in point for the instant appeal