Source: https://casetext.com/case/ragin-v-harry-macklowe-real-estate-co-3
Timestamp: 2019-11-13 20:56:08
Document Index: 339051490

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3612', '§ 3612', '§ 3613', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3612', '§ 3604', '§ 3613', '§ 804', '§ 3604', '§ 812', '§ 3612', '§ 3612', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 1983', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3612', '§ 3604', '§ 3601', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 3604', '§ 25', '§ 3604', '§ 109', '§ 3604']

Ragin v. Harry Macklowe Real Estate Co, 801 F. Supp. 1213 | Casetext
801 F. Supp. 1213 (S.D.N.Y. 1992)
United States District Court, S.D. New YorkAug 25, 1992
On August 25, 1992, the district court issued an opinion: finding that both HMRE and Macklowe violated the…
Cabrera v. Fischler
The purpose of the Act "is to protect against conduct which, either intentionally or in effect, impedes…
In Ragin we explicitly rejected the argument that a showing of discriminatory intent or discriminatory effect is required to prove a prima facie violation of section 804(c).
regarding individual plaintiffs' claim for compensatory damages for emotional distress caused by discriminatory housing practice: "[d]amages for such an intangible injury are compensable under the [FHA]."
Lefrak Newman Myerson, New York City (Thomas A. Holman, Kerry Alan Scanlon, Marshall Beil, Alla Roytberg, of counsel), for plaintiffs.
Robinson Silverman Pearce Aronsohn Berman, New York City (George B. Yankwitt, Vincent Alfieri, Suzanne M. Berger, Susan B. Teitelbaum, of counsel), for defendants.
This is the first case of its kind to proceed to trial within this circuit, and, as far as it can be determined, only the third to reach this stage within the country. See Fenwick-Schafer v. Sterling Homes, 774 F. Supp. 361 (D.Md. 1991); Saunders v. General Servs. Corp., 659 F. Supp. 1042 (E.D.Va. 1987). It is also one of ten cases filed by the Plaintiffs in this district charging various defendants with violations of § 3604(c) and other sections of the Act on the basis of housing advertisements for which those defendants are allegedly responsible.
On June 23, 1992, the parties stipulated to be bound by a verdict of five jurors if another juror was lost and to a verdict by the court acting with an advisory jury if less than five jurors survived. Upon resumption of the trial with five jurors (the illness of the missing juror's wife having gotten worse rather than better), it was discovered that one of the remaining jurors, a lawyer, had failed to disclose that he had been disbarred. The juror was excused, and the trial thus proceeded before the court with an advisory jury. The advisory jury rendered its verdict on June 29, 1992, finding that HMRE had violated § 3604(c) and that it was liable for compensatory damages of $25,000 to each of the Individual Plaintiffs and $100,000 to the OHC. The advisory jury also found HMRE liable for punitive damages in the amount of $62,500. Macklowe was not found liable.
The Special Verdict Form completed by the advisory jury is attached as Appendix A to this opinion.
Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 52(a) provides that, "[i]n all actions tried upon the facts without a jury or with an advisory jury, the court shall find the facts specially and state separately its conclusions of law thereon. . . ." Thus, although the verdict of the advisory jury may enlighten the court in discharging its ultimate responsibility, the "findings of fact [of the advisory jury] are not binding upon the trial court. Indeed the court is free to adopt its findings in whole or in part or to disregard them altogether." Sheila's Shine Prods., Inc. v. Sheila Shine Inc., 486 F.2d 114, 122 (5th Cir. 1973).
Defendant HMRE is engaged in management, construction and development of real estate. At all relevant times, HMRE was the leasing agent and managing agent for the buildings Riverbank West and Riverterrace, as described infra. The defendant Harry Macklowe is, and at all relevant times has been, the sole owner and president of HMRE. Macklowe is also a general partner of Elfon, originally a defendant in this action, which owned Riverbank West until 1991, and of York 72 Associates, the owner of Riverterrace. Both Riverbank West and Riverterrace continue to be managed by HMRE.
The advertising at issue relates to two luxury rental complexes in Manhattan. The first, "Riverbank West," is located at 555 West 42nd Street and was owned by Elfon at the time the building was promoted. Advertisements for Riverbank West appearing in The New York Times were paid for by Elfon. The second building, "Riverterrace," is located at 515 East 72nd Street, New York and is owned by York 72 Associates, a limited partnership of which Macklowe is general partner. Both buildings were and are managed by HMRE.
In December 1991, the ownership of Riverbank West was transferred to Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company pursuant to a confirmed bankruptcy plan of reorganization.
Jan.-May 1985 Instant Landmark May 11, 1986 HOME Jan. 4, 1987 New Year at 5:15 Feb. 8, 1987 Live It Up at 5:15 Feb. 15, 1987 5:15 is the Time Mar. 22, 1987 5:15 is the Time Apr. 5, 1987 5:15 is the Time
Riverbank West opened during the summer of 1987. Prior to its opening, there was a pre-opening advertising campaign. Two display layouts for that campaign were admitted into evidence. The first was a statement of policy by Elfon subscribed to by Elfon's partners, including the 42nd Street Development Corporation. The second was the "3-D" advertisement, a recreation of a famous, classic Life magazine image of an audience, comprised of 75 individuals wearing 3-D eyeglasses. All of the models in the "3-D" ad were white. All of these individuals were employees of either HMRE or Homer Durham, the advertising agency which created the "3-D" ad. This layout appeared on three occasions: April 26, 1987, May 3, 1987 and May 17, 1987. The first two runs were full-page ads and the third was a half-page ad.
Admitted into evidence were six different layouts of advertisements for Riverbank West published in The New York Times after the building opened in the summer of 1987. The following advertisements for Riverbank West appeared in The New York Times on the following dates as either full-or half-page ads:
Apr. 26, 1987 3-D May 3, 1987 3-D May 17, 1987 3-D Aug. 30, 1987 Lying on Beach Sept. 6, 1987 Lying on Beach Sept. 13, 1987 Beachbag Sept. 20, 1987 Beachbag Sept. 27, 1987 Beachbag Oct. 4, 1987 Beachbag Oct. 11, 1987 Lipstick Oct. 18, 1987 Lipstick Oct. 25, 1987 Lipstick Nov. 1, 1987 Lipstick Nov. 22, 1987 Lipstick Nov. 29, 1987 Lipstick Dec. 6, 1987 Lipstick Feb. 7, 1988 Lipstick Mar. 6, 1988 Skier Mar. 13, 1988 Skier Apr. 17, 1988 Lipstick Apr. 24, 1988 Lying on Beach May 1, 1988 "Get It" May 22, 1988 "Get It" Sept. 25, 1988 Beauty the Best Oct. 2, 1988 Beauty the Best Nov. 6, 1988 Beauty the Best Nov. 20, 1988 Beauty the Best Dec. 11, 1988 Beauty the Best
Each layout contained a single white human image. Specifically, "Lying on the Beach," which ran a total of three times, showed a young white woman basking in the sun beside an image of the building. "Beachbag," which appeared four times, featured a young white woman walking down the beach swinging a bag, with an image of the building rising out of the surf. "Lipstick," which ran a total of nine times, consisted of a photograph of a white woman's lips and fingers applying a lipstick in the shape of the building. "Skier," which was published two times, showed a white man skiing, with the building rising out of the mountains in the distance. "Get It," published twice, featured a white, bathing-suit-clad woman lying in the ocean in front of an image of the building. And "Beauty the Best," which ran five times, depicted a glamorous white woman leaning toward a miniature image of Riverbank West. "Beauty the Best," which ran from September to December 1988 also contained an Equal Housing Opportunity logo.
The advertising agency of Home Durham created the "3-D" ad for Riverbank West. All of the other ads published in The New York Times, as well as certain other promotional material in evidence, were created by the advertising agency of Fisher Jackson Levy Flaxman ("FJLF"). A third advertising agency, McCaffrey and McCall ("M M"), was hired by HMRE in late 1988 or early 1989 and created the last Riverbank West outdoor advertisements. Homer Durham and FJLF are no longer in business.
The advertising campaign for Riverbank West was intended to (i) attract attention to the advertisements by the use of provocative images and (ii) convey the message of affordability and luxury by the use of headlines, information and images and to distinguish the Riverbank West advertisements from the advertisements for other developments also published in The New York Times. Because the layouts were also to be used for outdoor advertising, the arresting nature of the image was particularly significant.
Both the Riverterrace and Riverbank West marketing strategies involved the use of prominent and oversized ads at the sites, direct mail, press releases, classified advertising, brochures, brokers and other promotions including outreach to U.N. missions, consulates, corporations, hospitals and universities — places one could expect to reach prospective tenants such as the Individual Plaintiffs. In discussing its advertising goals with the advertising agencies they employed, neither HMRE nor Macklowe made any request for images of human models of a particular race. HMRE and Macklowe did not select the images used in the layouts presented by the advertising agencies, either from stock photographs or from photographs sent by models' agents. HMRE was not consciously looking at racial features in selecting its images; instead its considerations were form, activity, interest and impact.
Based upon data compiled for trial and not kept in the ordinary course by the Defendants, the racial composition of Riverbank West reflected a greater percentage of non-white, and in particular, black tenants, and a lower percentage of white tenants than would be expected based upon the census data. This data showed that the racial composition of Riverbank West from its opening through February 1989 was 67% white, 9% black, 7% Asian, 6%, hispanic and 16% "unknown."
Between 1986 and 1988, Ms. Cuyler saw a number of advertisements in The New York Times for Riverterrace and Riverbank West. With respect to Riverterrace, she saw the "HOME" ad on one occasion in May 1986 and "5:15 is the Time" on two occasions in the spring of 1987. With respect to Riverbank West, from April 1987 to October 1987, she saw the "3-D" ad on three occasions, "Beachbag" on two occasions, "Lipstick" on two occasions, "Get It" on one occasion and "Beauty the Best" on three occasions.
Dr. Cuyler saw the ads for the buildings on approximately sixteen occasions between 1987 and 1988. With respect to Riverterrace, Dr. Cuyler saw "5:15 is the Time" twice in the spring of 1987. With respect to Riverbank West, Dr. Cuyler saw the "3-D" ad on twice, "Lipstick" twice, "Lying on the Beach" once, "Beachbag" three times and "Beauty the Best" four times. Dr. Cuyler also saw advertisements for the buildings on the sides of New York City buses.
And the annoying thing about it. . . . it began to annoy me to know that over the space of a hundred and four advertisements, not one would bother to show a person of color. . . . So I got the message and the message is irritating for myself. . . .
After the Ragins moved into Castle Village in December of 1986, they continued to keep an active interest in housing opportunities in the New York area and they regularly reviewed the Sunday New York Times' real estate section until (and after) the filing of this action. The evidence establishes that between May 1986 and December 1988, Mr. Ragin saw approximately twenty four ads for Riverterrace and Riverbank West. With respect to Riverterrace, Mr. Ragin saw "HOME" once in May 1986 and "5:15 is the Time" twice in the spring of 1987. With respect to Riverbank West, between 1987 and 1988 Mr. Ragin saw the "3-D" ad twice, "Lying on the Beach" twice, "Beachbag" twice, "Lipstick" nine times, "Skier" twice and "Beauty and the Best" four times.
When Mr. Ragin saw the "3-D" ad for Riverbank West for the first time on April 27, 1987, he was offended that an ad for a property on the west side of Manhattan which depicted so many human models would not have a single person of color. When he saw the same advertisement on the following Sunday, his reaction was exacerbated because it was no longer an isolated occurrence but a repeated publication that "suggest[ed] that there was a campaign of always excluding blacks in the depictions . . . and signalled [to him] that this was not . . . a complex which was . . . desirous of attracting black applications."
Mr. Ragin testified that his reactions "come out of understanding what has been a history in [New York City] and in this country of long-standing housing discrimination and housing segregation." He testified that, "I didn't just wake up in the morning without these advertisements being in some context." In his opinion nearly every black person in the City of New York has had a personal experience with housing discrimination or has a relative or close friend who has had such an experience.
Spiro devoted approximately 150 to 200 hours in investigating the claims underlying this lawsuit, which interfered with the work she normally does for OHC such as counseling clients, updating literature, investigating claims, conducting educational and outreach programs and supervising testing work. As a result of her efforts with respect to the Defendants' advertisements, she has had to turn down meetings, delay working on booklets and postpone other research and client work. The OHC did not send testers to either building and made no investigation as to their rental practices.
I think it did an enormous amount of damage to a fair housing agency whose goal is, on perhaps a more day-to-day level, of looking for housing. This makes it a battle you have to fight, in addition to the regular one, of providing the testers and helping people file complaints or explaining about the law. . . . Before you even set foot out to look for housing, you are receiving a message that there are places you are not welcome. . . . It is essential for people to have racially discriminatory choices that limit them removed. . . . And images that are at them all the time, I think, damage them, and it damages the center because we're always telling people you have a right to live where you want with your money, when in fact a message like that says no, you don't, you're not welcome here. And so it frustrates us in what we're trying to tell our constituency. . . .
In June 1987 the Plaintiffs filed a complaint with the SDHR against The Harry Macklowe Organization alleging that it had engaged in an unlawful discriminatory practice. In addition, the SDHR commenced an administrative proceeding against the Harry Macklowe Organization. The administrative complaints, dated June 15, 1987, asserted that advertisements for Riverterrace and Riverbank West appearing in 1987 violated the New York State Human Rights Law because they did not contain black models. After being advised of the administrative complaint, Macklowe instructed HMRE's then in-house counsel to investigate and to ascertain the requirements of the relevant statutes.
The Harry Macklowe Organization is a trade name and has been dismissed from this litigation.
The pages of The New York Times in evidence indicate that the other real estate advertisements published at the time of the advertisements challenged here also did not use black models and most did not have Equal Housing Opportunity logos. No evidence of intent to discriminate extrinsic to the publication of the advertisements was adduced.
In addition to the testimony of the Ragins, the Cuylers and Spiro, both sides offered expert testimony as to how the ads would be interpreted by the "ordinary reader." No survey evidence was presented by either side. William Allen ("Allen"), Plaintiffs' expert, is an expert in advertising in African-American and Hispanic markets. Based upon his years of experience advertising for those markets, blacks prefer ads that include black human models and may get a different message from advertisements that exclude black models.
The "ordinary reader" is the standard by which a violation of § 3604(c) is to be determined. See infra.
Following the adjournment caused by juror unavailability, the Defendants sought to introduce survey evidence garnered during that period. The proffer was rejected as the population surveyed was limited, improperly in the view of the court, to those having the financial capacity sufficient to become renters in either Riverterrace or Riverbank West.
Section 3604(c) provides that "it shall be unlawful —
42 U.S.C. § 3604(c) (1982). Section 3612(a) provides a private right of action to enforce the rights granted by § 3604(c). See 42 U.S.C. § 3612(a) (1982).
The Act was amended on September 13, 1988, effective March 14, 1989. Section § 3612(a) of the unamended Act, applicable here, has been recodified at § 3613(a) of the amended Act.
The words "ma[d]e, print[ed] or publish[ed] or cause[d] to be made, printed or published" are to be given their ordinary meanings; that is, that a defendant itself, or through its agents, participated in designing, producing, revising, selecting, approving or paying for the advertisements. United States v. Hunter, 459 F.2d 205, 210 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 934, 93 S.Ct. 235, 34 L.Ed.2d 189 (1972). An advertisement "indicates" a preference in violation of the statute if it "suggests to an ordinary reader that a particular race is preferred or dispreferred for the housing in question." Ragin v. New York Times Co., 923 F.2d 995, 999 (2d Cir.) (hereinafter "New York Times") (emphasis added), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 112 S.Ct. 81, 116 L.Ed.2d 54 (1991); see also Housing Opportunities Made Equal, Inc. v. Cincinnati Enquirer, Inc., 943 F.2d 644, 646 (6th Cir. 1991) (hereinafter "HOME"); Fenwick-Schafer v. Sterling Homes Corp., 774 F. Supp. 361, 366 (D.Md. 1991); Hunter, 459 F.2d at 215 (§ 3604(c) violated if "[t]o the ordinary reader the natural interpretations of the advertisements published . . . is that they indicate a racial preference"). The "ordinary reader" is "neither the most suspicious nor the most insensitive of our citizenry. Such a reader does not apply a mechanical test to every use of a model of a particular race." New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1002. Finally, an ad expresses a "preference" if "it would discourage an ordinary reader of a particular race from answering it." Id. at 1000.
Although plaintiffs have urged that the challenged advertisements should be evaluated through the eyes of the "ordinary black reader," there is no authority for this proposition.
Real estate advertisements using human models fall within the ambit of § 3604(c). Reasoning that neither the broadly drafted statute nor its legislative history "suggests that Congress intended to exempt from its proscriptions subtle methods of indicating racial preference," the Second Circuit has held that "in some circumstances" an ad using human models of one race to the exclusion of others may indicate a racial preference violative of § 3604(c), regardless of the absence of any facially discriminatory verbal message. Id.; see also HOME, 943 F.2d at 647-48 n. 4 ("discrimination [under the FHA] may occur through words or pictures, and the use of all-white models could be factor in determining whether an advertisement conveys a discriminatory message. . . ."); Spann v. Colonial Village, Inc., 899 F.2d 24, 34-35 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 111 S.Ct. 508, 112 L.Ed.2d 521 (1990); Fenwick-Schafer, 774 F. Supp. at 364-66; Saunders, 659 F. Supp. at 1058.
Use of human models. Human models in photographs, drawings, or other graphic techniques may not be used to indicate exclusiveness because of race, color. . . . If models are used in display advertising campaigns, the models should be clearly definable as reasonably representing majority and minority groups in the metropolitan area. . . . Models, if used, should portray persons in an equal social setting and indicate to the general public that the housing is open to all without regard to race, color . . ., and is not for the exclusive use of such group.
Proof that the advertiser had a racially discriminatory intent, although possibly relevant to determining the message conveyed, is not necessary: the touchstone is the message naturally inferred by the ordinary reader. New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1000; see also Soules v. United States Dep't of Hous. Urban Dev., 967 F.2d 817 (2d Cir. 1992) (violation of § 3604(c) may be established either by proof that ad indicates impermissible racial preference to ordinary reader or by proof of actual intent to discriminate).
The Plaintiffs also must have proved that at least one ad violative of the statute appeared within 180 days of the commencement of this action. See 42 U.S.C. § 3612(a) (1982) (providing statute of limitations for claims under § 3604 of 180 days after the occurrence of the allegedly discriminatory practice). If it is established that an ad falling within the limitations period is "not just one incident of conduct violative of the Act, but an unlawful practice that continues into the limitation period, the complaint is timely when it is filed within 180 days of the last asserted occurrence of the practice." Havens Realty Corp. v. Coleman, 455 U.S. 363, 381, 102 S.Ct. 1114, 1125, 71 L.Ed.2d 214 (1982).
Pursuant to an amendment to the Act dated September 13, 1988 and effective as of March 14, 1989, the limitations period has been enlarged to two years "after the occurrence or the termination of an alleged discriminatory housing practice." 42 U.S.C. § 3613(a) (1988). However, the Plaintiffs have conceded that, for statute of limitations purposes, this amendment is not retroactive. See Plaintiffs' Points and Authorities on Punitive Damages and Retroactivity at 5 (May 12, 1992).
As noted by the parties in their ample briefing of the retroactivity question, the Supreme Court has established two apparently irreconcilable strains of law with respect to the retroactive application of statutes. The first, as set forth in Bradley v. School Board, 416 U.S. 696, 94 S.Ct. 2006, 40 L.Ed.2d 476 (1974), provides that:
Id. at 711 n. 15, 94 S.Ct. at 2016 n. 15. The second, expressed in Bowen v. Georgetown Univ. Hosp., 488 U.S. 204, 109 S.Ct. 468, 102 L.Ed.2d 493 (1988), provides that "[r]etroactivity is not favored in the law. Thus, congressional enactments and administrative rules will not be construed to have retroactive effect unless their language requires this result." Id. at 208, 109 S.Ct. at 471. See Kaiser Aluminum Chem. Corp. v. Bonjorno, 494 U.S. 827, 110 S.Ct. 1570, 108 L.Ed.2d 842 (1990) (recognizing, but refusing to resolve, tension between Bradley and Bowen).
It is unnecessary to choose sides in the Bradley/Bowen debate, however, because prospective application of the amendments is indicated even under Bradley: the delayed effective date constitutes "statutory direction" that the amendments are to be applied prospectively only. See Ragin v. Harry Macklowe Real Estate Co., 126 F.R.D. 475, 479 n. 1 (S.D.N.Y. 1989); Wong v. Human Resources Admin., 641 F. Supp. 588, 591 n. 2 (S.D.N.Y. 1986); Lewis v. Grinker, 660 F. Supp. 169, 172 n. 5 (E.D.N.Y. 1987); Carl Marks Co. v. U.S.S.R., 665 F. Supp. 323, 336 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), aff'd, 841 F.2d 26 (2d Cir.), cert. denied, 487 U.S. 1219, 108 S.Ct. 2874, 101 L.Ed.2d 909 (1988); Buccino v. Continental Assur. Co., 578 F. Supp. 1518, 1527 (S.D.N.Y. 1983).
Although viewed alone an ad constituting the "last asserted occurrence of the practice" may not violate the statute, once the continuing practice has been established, ads falling without the limitations period that are part of the same practice may be considered in reading the "timely" ads and may form the basis for the Fair Housing claims. See Ragin v. Gilbert Charles Beylen, Inc., No. 89 Civ. 8558 (CSH), slip op. at 6-7, 1990 WL 4008 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 17, 1990) ("advertisements are not regarded as unconnected, 'discrete' acts if they form part of a defendant's advertisement policy or practice. Viewed as a whole, that policy or practice may demonstrate a violation of section 3604(c), even if a particular advertisement viewed alone would not") (emphasis added); Spann, 899 F.2d at 34 n. 6 ("[I]t is highly unlikely that a single ad containing only white models could alone violate § 804(c)." However, where claim rests on "sheer numbers," it is proper to look to "defendant's conduct before the actionable period to show the violative character of defendant's conduct in that period."); cf. New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1001-02 ("close questions of liability will involve advertisers that either use a large number of models and/ or advertise repetitively" (emphasis added)).
The sole requirement for standing to sue under § 3604(c) is "the Art. III minima of injury in fact: that the plaintiff allege that as a result of the defendant's actions he has suffered 'a distinct and palpable injury.'" Havens, 455 U.S. at 372, 102 S.Ct. at 1121 (quoting Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 501, 95 S.Ct. 2197, 2206, 45 L.Ed.2d 343 (1975)); see Gladstone, Realtors v. Bellwood, 441 U.S. 91, 103 n. 9, 109, 99 S.Ct. 1601, 1609 n. 9, 1612, 60 L.Ed.2d 66 (1979). Because "'Congress intended standing under § 812 to extend to the full limits of Article III,'" courts may not "create prudential barriers to standing in suits brought under that section." Havens, 455 U.S. at 372, 102 S.Ct. at 1121 (quoting Gladstone, 441 U.S. at 103 n. 9, 109, 99 S.Ct. at 1609 n. 9, 1612).
Section 3604(c), which by its terms makes it unlawful to engage in certain conduct with respect to real estate advertising, is enforced through § 3612(a). That section states simply that "[t]he rights granted by section . . . 3604 . . . may be enforced by civil actions." 42 U.S.C. § 3612(a) (1982). Read together, these sections establish an enforceable right to nondiscriminatory real estate advertising. Cf. Havens, 455 U.S. at 373, 102 S.Ct. at 1121 (same, with respect to § 3604(d)). By virtue of its failure to limit the category of persons by whom this right may be enforced, Congress has conferred this right on all persons. Cf. id. at 373-74, 102 S.Ct. at 1121-22; Warth, 422 U.S. at 500, 95 S.Ct. at 2206 (injury for purposes of Article III standing "may exist solely by virtue of 'statutes creating legal right, the invasion of which created standing'") (citation omitted); compare 42 U.S.C. § 3604(a) (limiting class of plaintiffs to those in housing market by making it unlawful "[t]o refuse to sell or rent after the making of a bona fide offer" (emphasis added)). Thus, a plaintiff who proves that she read the challenged advertisements and that the advertisements would indicate a racial preference to the ordinary reader "has suffered injury in precisely the form the statute was intended to guard against, and therefore has standing to maintain a claim for damages under the Act's provisions." Id.; see also Warth v. Seldin, 422 U.S. 490, 500, 95 S.Ct. 2197, 2206, 45 L.Ed.2d 343 (1975); Trafficante v. Metropolitan Life Ins. Co., 409 U.S. 205, 209-11, 93 S.Ct. 364, 366-68, 34 L.Ed.2d 415 (1972); New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1005 ("[A] claimant may establish a prima facie case for such damages simply by oral testimony that he or she is a newspaper reader of a race different from the models used and was substantially insulted and distressed by a certain ad.").
This is not to say that the violation of an enforceable statutory right per se is compensable by damages, that is, absent proof of some resultant injury. Cf. Memphis Comm. School Dist. v. Stachura, 477 U.S. 299, 308-10 n. 11, 106 S.Ct. 2537, 2543-45 n. 11, 91 L.Ed.2d 249 (1986) (absent proof of some "actual injury" compensatory damages "based on some undefinable 'value' of infringed rights" not appropriate means of vindicating deprivation of constitutional right actionable under 42 U.S.C. § 1983); Carey v. Piphus, 435 U.S. 247, 266, 98 S.Ct. 1042, 1053-54, 55 L.Ed.2d 252 (1978) (without proof of actual injury, deprivation of right to procedural due process actionable for nominal damages not compensatory damages).
This definition of standing to sue for a violation of § 3604(c) is confirmed by the holding in Havens Realty Corp. v. Coleman, 455 U.S. 363, 102 S.Ct. 1114, in which the Supreme Court analyzed analogous language in § 3604(d) in determining standing under that section. Section 3604(d) makes it unlawful "[t]o represent to any person because of race . . . that any dwelling is not available for inspection, sale or rental when such dwelling is in fact so available." The Court held that, in conjunction with § 3612(a), this section "conferred on all 'persons' a legal right to truthful information about housing." Id. at 373, 102 S.Ct. at 1121. Given Congress's intent, the Court rejected the claim that a plaintiff must be in the market for the subject housing in order to have standing to sue under the statute. Id. at 373-74, 102 S.Ct. at 1121-22. The Court thus held that a "tester," who "may have approached the real estate agent fully expecting that he would receive false information, and without any intention of buying or renting a home," had standing by virtue of her allegation that her statutorily created right to truthful housing information was violated. Id. at 374, 102 S.Ct. at 1121. See also Gladstone, 441 U.S. at 111-15, 99 S.Ct. at 1614-15.
Were the standing inquiry not so confined, prudence would counsel heavily in favor of limiting the class of persons injured under § 3604(c) to those who (1) were in the market for the housing advertised at the time they viewed the challenged advertisements and (2) were deterred from pursuing the housing advertised by the message conveyed by and inferred from the ad.
Such a definition would be consistent with the Act's purpose, which is to protect against conduct which, either intentionally or in effect, impedes integration and/or perpetuates segregation and discrimination in housing. See 42 U.S.C. § 3601 (policy of Act is "to provide, within constitutional limitations, for fair housing throughout the United States"); United States v. Starrett City Assocs., 840 F.2d 1096, 1103 (2d Cir.) (Newman, J., dissenting) ("Congress enacted the Fair Housing Act to prohibit racial segregation in housing."), cert. denied, 488 U.S. 946, 109 S.Ct. 376, 102 L.Ed.2d 365 (1988); Otero v. New York City Housing Authority, 484 F.2d 1122, 1134 (2d Cir. 1973) (goal of Act is to promote "open, integrated residential housing patterns and to prevent the increase of segregation . . . of racial groups"). It seems eminently logical, therefore, to require the Individual Plaintiffs to show that the ad influenced them in some way that adversely affects the racial balance of the housing advertised. Cf. Banks v. Heun-Norwood, 566 F.2d 1073, 1076-77 (8th Cir. 1977) (plaintiff not entitled to bring Title VII claim for employment discrimination absent allegation that she was deterred from responding to job ad).
As it stands, the boundaries of the class of potential plaintiffs are as expansive as a publication's distribution. This assessment is not based on mere conjecture. Shortly after the announcement of the advisory jury verdict, the following letter, dated July 21, 1992, was received in chambers:
An organizational plaintiff such as the OHC can prove standing to sue on its own behalf by demonstrating that it sustained actual or threatened injury in fact that is fairly traceable to the alleged illegal action and likely to be redressed by a favorable court decision. See Havens, 455 U.S. at 378-79, 102 S.Ct. at 1124-25; Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church State, Inc., 454 U.S. 464, 472, 102 S.Ct. 752, 758, 70 L.Ed.2d 700 (1982). Injury in fact can be established by proof that the defendant's "purportedly illegal action increases the resources the group must devote to programs independent of its suit challenging the action," Spann, 899 F.2d at 27; see Havens, 455 U.S. at 379, 102 S.Ct. at 1124, such as "checking or neutralizing the ads' adverse impact," "devot[ing] more time, effort and money to endeavors designed to educate," Spann, 899 F.2d at 27; see HOME, 943 F.2d at 646, or "'devoting significant resources to identify and counteract' [the] allegedly discriminatory advertising practices and . . . such practices . . . frustrated the organization's 'efforts to assist equal access to housing through counselling and other referral services'. . . ." Saunders, 659 F. Supp. at 1052 (quoting Havens, 455 U.S. at 379, 102 S.Ct. at 1125). A simple "setback to the organization's abstract social interests" does not constitute injury. Havens, 455 U.S. at 379, 102 S.Ct. at 1124.
The Limitations Period Ads were part of an advertising campaign for Riverbank West and Riverterrace that began in 1985 and continued into the limitations period. The evidence demonstrates that HMRE managed and arranged for the advertising of both buildings, that Macklowe personally was "actively involved" in the advertising efforts and that all of the ads were designed and produced according to the same concept. Because the evidence thus established that at least one ad appeared within the limitations period and that the Limitations Period Ads were part of an allegedly unlawful continuing advertising practice, it is appropriate to consider pre- and post- limitations period ads both as independent bases of the Plaintiffs' claims and in evaluating the message conveyed by the Limitations Period Ads.
Having reached this conclusion, it is unnecessary to consider the Defendants' contention that the Plaintiffs have failed to state a claim upon which relief can be granted based on the Limitations Period Ads alone.
Without deciding the question, the Defendants' argument might prevail were the Limitations Period Ads the only advertisements under consideration. These single-model, facially neutral ads, appeared only six times and were seen by each of the Plaintiffs no more than three times. Nevertheless, as concluded above, the court may consider all of the ads in evidence which are part of the Defendants' continuing practice.
The testimony of Riverbank West tenant Carol Allen and of Riverterrace tenant Dr. Gayle is of only limited significance in determining whether the ordinary reader would infer a racial preference from the ads because they did not view the same variety or number of ads over the same duration as did the Plaintiffs. Allen, for instance, testified only that she had seen "Lying on the Beach," "Beachbag" and "Get It." Dr. Gayle testified that he saw only two ads for Riverterrace. Moreover, these witnesses' post hoc recollection of their reaction to these ads must be qualified by their obviously positive experiences living in the buildings.
The relative paucity of relevant objective testimony on this question does not, of course, impugn the evidentiary significance of the ads themselves. Furthermore, the verdict of the advisory jury, a body comprised of individuals of both sexes and various "races," "colors" and "national origins," presumed to be ordinary readers, must be given substantial weight.
Indeed, given the extremely fact-specific nature of the inquiry as to whether an advertisement or group of advertisements viewed by a plaintiff would indicate a racial preference to the ordinary reader it seems likely that such evidence will be rare.
Given this pattern, an ordinary reader who had viewed the pre-Limitations Period Ads as frequently as did the Plaintiffs would naturally infer from these ads, the single-model Limitations Period Ads and the post-Limitations Period ads that white individuals were preferred as tenants at Riverterrace and Riverbank West. See New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1002 ("It thus seems inevitable that the close questions of liability will involve advertisers that either use a large number of models and/ or advertise repetitively. In such cases, the advertisers opportunities to include all groups are greater, and the message conveyed by the exclusion of a racial group is stronger."). I therefore conclude that the Plaintiffs have proved by a preponderance of the evidence that the Defendants violated § 3604(c).
The Defendants argue that the OHC lacks standing to sue and thus that its claims must be dismissed. As discussed above, an organization has standing to sue on its own behalf if it proves actual or threatened injury in fact that is fairly traceable to the alleged illegal action and likely to be redressed by a favorable court decision. The Defendants contend that the OHC failed to adduce proof at trial that it has suffered injury in fact as a consequence of Defendants' advertising. I disagree.
Through the testimony of Ms. Spiro, the OHC established that some of its resources were diverted or expended in connection with the Defendants' advertising practice and independent of this lawsuit. Ms. Spiro herself spent 150 to 200 hours engaged in such activities as monitoring and charting ads thought to be discriminatory, including the Defendants', and attending an SDHR conciliation meeting regarding the Defendants' ads. Ms. Hoeber also participated in the monitoring effort, as did an assistant of Ms. Spiro's. The OHC has established that these activities relating to "identify[ing] and counteract[ing]" the Defendants' advertising practices detracted the attention of OHC staff members from their regular tasks at the OHC. Thus, the OHC has established that it was injured by Defendants' advertisements and that it has standing to sue on its own behalf. See Havens, 455 U.S. at 379, 102 S.Ct. at 1125; Saunders, 659 F. Supp. at 1052.
As correctly foreseen by our Court of Appeals, § 3604(c) poses "[t]he potential for large numbers of truly baseless claims for emotional injury . . ., and there appears to be no ready device, other than wholly speculative judgments as to credibility, to separate the genuine from the baseless." New York Times, 923 F.2d 995 at 1005. The Second Circuit has thus recognized the problematic nature of claims under § 3604(c) and has expressed "confiden[ce] that courts will be able to keep such awards within reason." Id. The conclusions reached here represent an effort to justify that confidence.
The Individual Plaintiffs seek compensatory damages for emotional distress caused by the deprivation of their right to nondiscriminatory real estate advertising. Damages for such an intangible injury are compensable under the Act. See Saunders, 659 F. Supp. at 1061 (awarding plaintiff $2500 for "distress" caused by housing brochure); R.G. Schwemm, Housing Discrimination: Law and Litigation § 25.-3(2)(b), at 25-18 n. 84 (1990) (citing cases); cf. New York Times, 923 F.2d at 1005. As in any case, however, an award of such damages must be supported by competent evidence of the injury as well as a causal connection between the defendant's conduct and the injury.
The sole evidence of the emotional distress suffered by the Individual Plaintiffs came from the testimony of the Individual Plaintiffs themselves. Their testimony credibly established that they took offense at the ads and that the indignation, humiliation and distress they suffered was directly attributable, at least in part, to the Defendants' conduct. Nevertheless, in determining whether, and in what amount, compensatory damages are appropriate, the following factors must be taken into consideration.
First, the testimony of Mr. Ragin and Dr. Cuyler revealed that the Individual Plaintiffs' reactions relate to an aggregation of advertisements, only some of which were for the Defendants' buildings. Mr. Ragin testified, for instance, that he first became aware of the Defendants' use of exclusively white models while in London in 1985. However, the only advertisements for Riverterrace appearing in 1985 were those in the "Instant Landmark" series, a campaign that featured no human models. Similarly, Dr. Cuyler testified that "it began to annoy me to know that over the space of a hundred and four advertisements, not one would bother to show a person of color." As found above, the Individual Plaintiffs viewed far fewer than 104 advertisements for the Defendants' buildings.
Riverbank West was not advertised until 1987.
Second, the reactions of the Individual Plaintiffs were based in large part on past experiences and personal sensitivity to racial issues. Ms. Cuyler, for instance, likened the effect of Defendants' ads to "rubbing salt in a wound" — the "wound" having been created by her childhood experiences with racism. Likewise, Ms. Ragin's reaction was augmented by her feelings of exclusion growing up in segregated Cleveland. And Mr. Ragin testified that his reactions "come out of understanding what has been a history in [New York City] and in this country of longstanding housing discrimination and housing segregation. . . . I didn't just wake up in the morning without these advertisements being in some context." These events, while undoubtedly creating pain, were not proximately caused by the Defendants.
As found above, the evidence does not support a finding that the Defendants acted with racially discriminatory intent. To the contrary, evidence such as the racial composition of Riverbank West relative to the eligible percentage of the black population as well as the testimony of Carol Allen and Dr. Gayle tends to negate such a finding. Lacking evidence of intent, a finding of wanton, willful or malicious behavior cannot be supported.
The Plaintiffs have provided no authority, however, for their request that the court direct the specific racial content of future ads published by the Defendants. Indeed, the requirement of proportional racial representation "has been rejected as both . . . unworkable . . . and an unjustifiable interpretation of § 3604(c)." Housing Opportunities Made Equal v. Cincinnati Enquirer, 731 F. Supp. 801, 803-04 (S.D.Ohio 1990). Although "[i]njunctive relief should be structured to achieve the twin goals of insuring that the Act is not violated in the future and removing any lingering effects of past discrimination," Marable v. Walker, 704 F.2d 1219, 1221 (11th Cir. 1983), there is no evidence on this record that proportional racial representation is either necessary to prevent an ad from indicating a racial preference to the ordinary reader or that it will in fact do so. Cf. 24 C.F.R. § 109.30 ("If models are used in display advertising campaigns, the models should be clearly definable as reasonably representing majority and minority groups. . . ."). Finally, the dangers inherent in such an approach seem obvious, particularly in a city so racially, nationally and ethnically diverse as New York. Assuming that proportional representation were the answer, the problem is hardly solved by an injunction addressed only at blacks and whites. By entering such an injunction, it seems, the court itself would become an abettor to discrimination against other groups.
APPENDIX A SPECIAL VERDICT FORM
1. Please indicate beside the name of each respective defendant whether that defendant made, printed or published or caused to be made, printed or published any advertisements of which the plaintiffs complain.
Harry Macklowe Real Estate Company, Inc. YES NO ---- ---- Harry Macklowe YES NO ---- ----
If your answer to Question 1 is "No" with respect to any defendant or defendants, STOP here with respect to that defendant or those defendants. If your answer to Question 1 is "Yes" with respect to any defendant or defendants, proceed to Question 2 with respect to that defendant or those defendants.
2. Please indicate whether any of the defendants as to which you answered "Yes" to Question 1 above made, printed or published or caused to be made, printed or published any advertisement or advertisements on or after February 15, 1988 and before August 12, 1988 that an "ordinary reader" would understand as indicating a racial preference, limitation or discrimination.
YES NO ---- ----
If your answer to Question 2 is "No," STOP and proceed to the STOP instruction at the end of this form.
3. Please indicate whether any of the defendants as to which you answered "Yes" to Question 1 above committed acts after February 15, 1988 and before August 12, 1988 that violated section 3604(c) and caused injury to any of the plaintiffs. Please indicate your answer beside the name of each respective plaintiff.
Luther M. Ragin, Jr. YES NO ---- --- Deborah Fish Ragin YES NO ____ --- Renaye B. Cuyler YES NO ____ --- Jerome F. Cuyler YES NO ---- --- Open Housing Center, Inc. YES NO ---- ---
If your answer to Question 3 is "No" with respect to any plaintiff or plaintiffs, STOP here with respect to that plaintiff or those plaintiffs. If your answer to Question 3 is "Yes" with respect to any plaintiff or plaintiffs, proceed to Question 4 with respect to that plaintiff or those plaintiffs.
4. Please indicate the amount of nominal or actual and compensatory damages, if any, to which each of the plaintiffs is entitled as a consequence of any violation of § 3604(c) either on or after February 15, 1988 or as part of a continuing pattern or practice. You may indicate an amount only for that plaintiff or those plaintiffs for whom you have checked "Yes" in Question 3.
Luther M. Ragin, Jr. $25,000.00. Deborah Fish Ragin $25,000.00. Renaye B. Cuyler $25,000.00. Jerome F. Cuyler $25,000.00. Open Housing Center, Inc. $100,000.00.
5. Are any or all of the plaintiffs entitled to punitive damages against the defendants as to which you answered "Yes" in Question 1?
Harry Macklowe Real Estate Company, Inc. YES NO ----- --- Harry Macklowe YES NO ----- ---
(s) Edward G. Davis Foreman