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CHANGES IN BANK FINANCING PATTERNS - PDF
CHANGES IN BANK FINANCING PATTERNS
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Jasper Bishop
1 CHANGES IN BANK FINANCING PATTERNS April 212
2 CHANGES IN BANK FINANCING PATTERNS APRIL 212 In 212 all publications feature a motif taken from the 5 banknote.
3 European Central Bank, 212 Address Kaiserstrasse Frankfurt am Main Germany Postal address Postfach Frankfurt am Main Germany Telephone Website Fax All rights reserved. Reproduction for educational and non-commercial purposes is permitted provided that the source is acknowledged. ISSN (online)
4 CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 1 INTRODUCTION 6 2 MOTIVATION AND LITERATURE SURVEY 7 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS Data description and set-up of the database Interbank funding Developments in the interbank funding market Interbank funding costs Customer deposits Developments in customer deposits Retail funding costs Debt securities Developments in funding through debt securities Debt securities maturity profile and cost of funding Eurosystem funding Capital and bank leverage 24 4 FINANCIAL STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS 29 REFERENCES 31 ANNEXES 1 Test for significance of a break in trends 33 2 Supplementary charts 35 April 212 3
5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The recent financial crisis has led to changes in banks funding patterns at the global level which have been widely discussed in policy and academic fora. This report aims at identifying and documenting the main changes in the funding patterns of euro area banks. Using statistics for monetary financial institutions (MFIs) domiciled in the euro area from 1999 to the end of 211 on an unconsolidated basis, the report documents changes in five broad categories of bank funding: interbank, customer deposits, debt securities, central bank funding and capital. The analysis identifies a break in the trend of most indicators in the third quarter of 28, supported by an econometric time-series exercise. The main conclusions are reported below. Interbank funding: Interbank liabilities as a proportion of banks total assets fell substantially from the third quarter of 28. This was accompanied by a rise in the share of domestic bank liabilities in total interbank liabilities in the largest euro area economies. Evidence from survey data for the euro area confirms that, in the secured market, there has been a considerable increase in activity cleared through CCPs, with a corresponding decline in the unsecured money market. Rising wholesale funding costs include increasing spreads between unsecured and secured transactions with respect to the pre-crisis period. Customer funding: The overall share of deposit liabilities in total assets started to increase, after declining gradually in the years to 28. At the same time, loan-todeposit ratios decreased from their peak in the third quarter of 28. A broad shift towards deposits at longer maturities can be observed at aggregate level and across countries, marking a clear change in pattern with respect to the pre-crisis period. The growing reliance on retail funding sources led to increased competition, especially in household deposits, rendering them relatively more expensive than corporate deposits. Debt securities: The decline in the ratio of debt securities to assets started in 27 i.e. before the outbreak of the financial crisis. In 211, gross issuance of debt securities by euro area banks roughly halved from its peak observed in 26, with securitisation also falling sharply after 28. Despite the decline in debt issuance, the overall average maturity of debt issued by banks (which was on a declining path before the crisis) has been increasing since the third quarter of 28. The costs of funding through debt securities increased substantially from 28 across all types of securities, including covered bonds. Central bank funding: Recourse to central bank funding increased considerably with respect to the pre-crisis period on account of severe constraints in access to wholesale market funding, which led to the introduction of non-standard Eurosystem refinancing measures. In particular, it increased on account of banks domiciled in countries under financial assistance and in other countries experiencing sovereign tensions. The composition of collateral also changed, reflecting tensions in debt markets, with a sharp decline in unsecured bank bonds and a rise in non-marketable securities with respect to pre-crisis levels. Capital: The proportion of capital and reserves as a share of assets remained broadly unchanged in the pre-crisis period, pointing to growth in capital and reserves being proportional to the growth in assets. The capital-to-assets ratio started growing at the beginning of 29 on account of both the increase in capital and the decline in banks assets. On the basis of these findings for the euro area as a whole, some preliminary considerations on the implications that changes in banks funding patterns may have for financial stability driven by market or regulatory forces are raised in the final section. These include, among others: (i) the increasing importance of secured (or collateralised) funding for both wholesale 4 April 212
6 and central bank funding; (ii) the impact this may have on the composition of assets on banks balance sheets; (iii) the limits collateralisation can pose to bank lending activity and overall bank balance sheet growth; (iv) the effects of greater reliance on retail funding, notably through increased competition; and (v) amid market and regulatory constraints, the extent to which the share of central bank funding in overall funding could return to pre-crisis levels. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 April 212
7 1 INTRODUCTION In the four years to August 27 macro-financial conditions were very favourable on the surface. Economic growth was strong and stable, liquidity in capital markets was abundant, profitability in the financial sector was high, and the prices of a range of assets were rising. In financial markets, implied volatilities in equity markets, bond markets, credit markets and foreign exchange markets were low by historical standards, as were risk premia. The financial market turmoil emerged in the summer of 27 as the deterioration in the US housing market intensified. The complex interplay of valuation and liquidity problems that had been unearthed led to the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 28, setting in motion a severe global financial crisis. In the euro area in particular, the unfolding of the financial crisis and the negative interplay between vulnerabilities in the public sector finances, the financial sector and the weak economic growth that emerged thereafter further intensified strains in the banking sector and in sovereign debt markets. These developments have led to changes in bank funding practices and inspired a vast range of studies of an academic and empirical nature. The Financial Stability Committee (FSC) of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) conducted an analysis on the specific topic of changes in bank financing patterns in the euro area from a structural perspective, which is presented in this report. main bank liabilities: interbank, customer deposits, debt securities, central bank funding and capital. Given the relatively short time span of the study, findings are stated with caution and do not allow for views to be formed about possible trends. A selected set of indicators is used to identify the main changes in the liability structure of banks balance sheets and to capture stylised facts observed at the global level. More than 1 indicators were built on this dataset with a view to obtaining a comprehensive and consistent picture of the trends in bank funding in the euro area over time. While the focus is on the euro area as a whole, the database includes a breakdown by country. The cross-country dimension is traced, reviewing median statistics along with movements in distributions over time. The indicators selected for the analysis cover developments in the composition of bank liabilities, the composition and maturity of bank debt, and developments in equity and overall leverage, as well as the costs of funding. The report is organised in four sections. A short review of the relevant literature is presented in section 2. Section 3 is the core empirical section, where the main findings on the changes in bank funding patterns are identified and interpreted. Section 4 concludes, tentatively pointing to durable changes that are likely to affect the future financial landscape and related financial stability considerations. The report identifies a number of stylised facts observed at global level, in the form of changes in bank funding patterns. It assesses the extent to which they apply to the euro area banking system at large and possible differences with respect to system-wide developments. The analysis is conducted with a view to contributing to a better understanding of the possible implications of these developments for overall stability in the financial system. The report uses official Eurosystem statistics for MFIs over the 1999 to 211 period to identify and document developments concerning the 6 April 212
8 2 MOTIVATION AND LITERATURE SURVEY As argued in the literature, the financial crisis has its roots in the transformation of the banking system over the years, 1 involving changes in banks funding patterns and in their overall business model. Prior to 27 the abundance of liquidity underpinned the build-up of leverage in the financial system. Repurchase agreements (repos) and other forms of secured financing gained considerably in importance. Financial innovation and in particular two important changes played a critical role in this process: (i) the exponential growth in derivatives markets and (ii) the movement of large amounts of loans into capital markets through securitisation and loan sales. Developments in derivatives markets generated a large demand for collateral as a means of offsetting counterparty credit risk. At the same time, securitisation activities created a range of assets that were increasingly used as collateral in repo transactions, while freeing other classes of assets (e.g. government bonds) for use as collateral in derivatives and other transactions, such as those in payment and settlement systems. Securitised products and tranches of structured products increasingly became used in repo transactions, explaining the rise in this market. The crisis developed when the deterioration of subprime fundamentals and related assets progressively led to widespread uncertainty about the solvency of counterparties, the preference for liquid assets, and a general decline in the value of collateral. The resulting protracted malfunctioning of the interbank markets required a considerable deleveraging of the financial system through asset sales in response to a steady increase in haircuts. In the euro area, the unresolved situation in impaired funding markets deteriorated further as concerns about sovereign debt sustainability in some countries engulfed the respective banking sectors, leading to the complete closure of wholesale markets for some countries. Since the start of this crisis the central banking and supervisory community has conducted important fact-finding work on changes and trends in bank financing patterns from an empirical perspective. The Banking Supervision Committee report EU banks funding structures and policies (29) provides an initial assessment of the impact of the crisis on bank funding, including the views of the industry that were expressed in a survey at a time when the crisis was still unfolding. The Committee on the Global Financial System (CGFS) has made a series of relevant contributions from which this report distils broad stylised facts, and against which developments in the euro area subsequent to the default of Lehman Brothers in 28 are assessed. The CGFS paper Funding patterns and liquidity management of internationally active banks (21) identifies an increased reliance on retail funding and more expensive wholesale funding as significant changes in banks funding models. Furthermore, it underlines a greater decentralisation of funding in line with a less wholesale-oriented approach, whereby banks tend to move towards local sourcing or a greater reliance on local deposit bases as opposed to intra-group funding. In addition, the related CGFS paper The function and resilience of cross-border funding markets (21) describes how the difficult conditions in the unsecured market led financial institutions to turn increasingly to secured funding sources. In this regard, it discusses the growing importance of central counterparties (CCPs) in secured funding by allowing market participants to reduce the level of counterparty risk and create a common level, as well as allowing the multilateral netting of exposures. The greater use of CCPs is also documented in the report. The importance of anticipating the new regulatory environment notably the introduction of Basel III liquidity rules in shaping changes in banks funding practices by requiring stronger liquidity buffers, as well as more diversified funding sources, is noted in most papers. Adding to market pressures, the regulatory-driven preference for liquid assets 1 See, for example, Gordon, G., Slapped by the Invisible Hand, Oxford University Press, MOTIVATION AND LITERATURE SURVEY 7 April 212 7
9 and requirement for stronger capital buffers require a reduction in bank leveraging, and pose limits to balance sheet growth. In this respect, the CGFS paper Long-term issues in international banking (21) points to the recently expanded role of international capital markets as a source of corporate financing in relation to some banking sector retrenchment in the provision of credit and higher funding costs. Another CGFS paper, The impact of sovereign credit risk on bank funding conditions (211), looks at the rising concerns about the deterioration in public finances across advanced economies and its impact on funding markets. It finds that the share of funding derived from short-term wholesale debt, cross-border liabilities and retail deposits has generally fallen for banks headquartered in countries with acute sovereign debt concerns. It also underlines the rising wholesale funding costs for European banks at large and discusses the channels through which the deterioration in sovereign creditworthiness may adversely affect banks funding conditions. Losses on banks sovereign portfolios, the reduction in the value of collateral that can be used for wholesale funding, and rising funding costs (through banks credit ratings after downgrades of the sovereign rating) are found to be important in explaining developments in euro area aggregated data observed over the past two years. The financial crisis has also stimulated an important wave of academic research on liquidity and the effects of the lack of it on banks financing conditions and lending behaviour. Recent theoretical work generally distinguishes between funding and market liquidity. Funding liquidity refers to the liability side of banks balance sheets and their ability to raise new external finance, whereas market liquidity relates to the ease with which assets on banks balance sheets are traded in the market or sold, thereby generating cash. borrowing, e.g. via repo operations and securitisation activities (funding through debt securities). Brunnermeier and Pedersen (28) explore the links between market and funding liquidity in a unified framework which is able to explain stylised facts, e.g. the fact that market liquidity can suddenly dry up, the co-movement in the market illiquidity of securities, and the flight-to-quality phenomena when funding becomes scarce. Tirole (211) reviews recent literature on liquidity and proposes modelling approaches to analyse banks demand for liquidity, determinants of aggregate liquidity and market liquidity breakdowns. This analysis is motivated by stylised facts, such as the sharp increase in financial institutions reliance on wholesale funding and vulnerabilities stemming from maturity mismatches. Market liquidity breakdowns in the securitisation and interbank markets are also explained in Dang et al. (29) using information theory. Financing through debt instruments (and securitisation) can be carried out smoothly as long as returns on debt claims are relatively insensitive to additional information (there are no incentives to acquire private information). This is the case when underlying assets pay off as expected, and when borrowers solvency is not in question. Negative news about the quality of assets is not only likely to lower their resale price, but also lead to a fear of adverse selection in secondary markets and their possible freeze. Such mechanisms can explain the rapid switches from a liquid to a freezing market as observed in the financial crisis, as well as the duration of the impaired functioning (e.g. in the repo market and collateralised markets at large) over time. These issues are relevant for the section in the report on bank funding through debt securities. While the focus of the report is primarily on funding liquidity and it is structured along the broad liability components of banks balance market liquidity issues are clearly intertwined when considering secured (collateralised) 8 April 212
10 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS This section contains the main body of the report. It reviews the main components of banks liabilities with a view to identifying changes in euro area bank funding patterns over time. 2 The findings are largely supported by an econometric time-series analysis which confirms that there is a significant break in the statistical properties of almost all selected indicators in the third quarter of 28 (see Annex 1 for a short description and results). Given the consistency of the econometrical evidence, the reference to it is generally omitted except when the break in the time series is of a weaker significance. At the same time, in order to illustrate the overall developments both on average in the euro area and across euro area countries, a number of charts are provided. These plot the weighted and unweighted averages, as well as distributional values of selected aggregated indicators over time. The next section (3.1) starts with a short description of the database, its coverage and properties. The remainder of this chapter is organised in five sections along the main components of bank liabilities: (3.2) wholesale funding through the interbank market; (3.3) customer deposits; (3.4) debt securities; (3.5) central bank funding and (3.6) equity capital, with an analysis on bank leverage and its main drivers. Developments related to the cost of funding and the maturity profile of securities are also discussed in the relevant sections. 3.1 DATA DESCRIPTION AND SET-UP OF THE DATABASE A centralised database was created and a number of indicators (e.g. structural, growth) were constructed to support the analysis in this report, also with a view to making the data suitable for other projects and easily accessible to third parties. Only a selected subset of the data is discussed in the main body of this report. The main sources of information are: MFI balance sheet statistics harmonised statistics of MFIs 3 resident in the euro area. For the purpose of this analysis and throughout the report, the MFI sector excludes the ESCB. Credit institutions (including money market funds) form the largest part of the sector. 4 The data are compiled for the euro area and at a country level at a quarterly frequency. The reporting population consists of the MFIs resident in the territory of the participating Member States. MFIs balance sheet statistics consolidate the business of all banking offices located within the same national territory (the host principle), but without consolidation of non-bank subsidiaries or across national boundaries. These data therefore differ from the financial reporting and supervisory data, which typically require the availability and disclosure of consolidated accounts at the group level (across countries and across sectors) in accordance with international financial reporting standards. Moreover, financial accounting consolidation involves the netting out of transactions and positions between all units within a reporting group. 5 Differences related to the use of unconsolidated or consolidated data should therefore be expected, namely when analysing interbank funding. Discrepancies between statistical and financial (supervisory) reporting also exist with respect to rules concerning the valuation and netting of assets and liabilities (e.g. in MFI statistics, deposits and loans are reported at nominal value without a netting or deduction of provisions), the timing of the recording of transactions, and the recording or not of 2 For a description of the balance sheet structure of monetary financial institutions, see The Supply of Money: Bank behaviour and the implications for monetary analysis, Monthly Bulletin,, October The legal basis for the collection of the statistics is laid down in Regulation /28/32, which is complemented by Guideline /27/9. 4 For the purpose of this analysis, the MFI sector excludes the European System of Central Banks. 5 Consolidated banking data (CBD) on the banking systems of all EU Member States are compiled by the ESCB on a cross-border (data on branches and subsidiaries located outside the domestic market are consolidated with the data reported by the parent institution) and cross-sector basis (branches and subsidiaries of banks that can be classified as other financial institutions are included). Insurance companies, however, are not included. 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS 9 April 212 9
11 certain items on the balance sheet. 6 For the purpose of this report, the richness of the data (breakdowns along bank liabilities), length of the available time series and crosscountry consistency favoured primarily using MFI data. 7 MFI interest rate statistics that cover interest rates that resident MFIs apply to euro-denominated deposits and loans (both outstanding amounts as well as new business) to residents of the euro area. These statistics are reported on a monthly basis. 8 Market data that are mainly used to assess the issuance of debt securities by euro area banks and costs of funding. Dealogic and Bloomberg served as the main data sources on these statistics, which are collected monthly. The selected indicators constructed on MFI statistics are depicted using the euro area series, which corresponds to a weighted average that mostly reflects the developments of the largest countries, as well as unweighted average and median values across euro area countries. In addition, to account for changes in distributions over time, the min-max values and interquartile ranges are displayed in bars. A vertical black line marks the third quarter of INTERBANK FUNDING DEVELOPMENTS IN THE INTERBANK FUNDING MARKET The malfunctioning of the interbank market is generally mentioned as the first symptom of the financial crisis. The rise in counterparty credit risk, as well as heightened uncertainty in money and capital markets, led to liquidity hoarding and affected banking systems in euro area countries, in line with developments at the global level. Chart 1 below depicts developments in the share of interbank liabilities in the total assets of MFIs domiciled in the euro area. A sharp rise in the median values from the end of 27 to the third quarter of 28 where interbank liabilities stood at around 3% of total assets, and over 35% for some countries was followed by a steady drop in this ratio from the fourth quarter of 28, which came to an sudden halt in the second quarter of 21. From mid- 21, all series depicted were below the levels observed in the pre-crisis period. Chart 2 is a graphical illustration of the statistical test for the significance of the changes in the intercept and trend of the values before and after the third quarter of 28, for which the results of all the series reviewed are reported in Annex 1. Using survey data to distinguish between secured and unsecured interbank transactions, it can be observed that, after years of continuous growth, total activity in the unsecured market began to fall in 28, with the first signs of improvement being seen in 211(see Chart 3). 9 After the onset of the crisis, the average daily turnover in unsecured cash borrowing dropped steadily from a peak in 27 to half this level by 29. Heightened credit risk concerns directed banks lending towards borrowers with high credit ratings, who tend to be less active in the interbank market. At the same time, developments were smoother in unsecured lending, possibly since it includes lending by euro area banks to counterparties outside the euro area (see Chart A.3). The preference for lending to shorter maturities (typically one week or less), which carry relatively less risk for the lender, has also persisted since 28 (see Charts 3 and A.3). 6 See Bridging the reporting requirements methodological manual, second edition,, 212 (available on the s website at for the links between the MFI statistics and the supervisory reporting requirements. 7 The legal requirements for MFI interest rate statistics are laid down in Regulation /21/18. 8 The coordinates a centralised securities database (CSDB), which holds complete and consistent information on individual securities relevant for the statistical purposes of the ESCB. However, this database could not have been used for this analysis given the lack of its sufficient time series dimension. 9 See Euro Money Market Study,, December 21, and Euro Money Market Survey,, September April 212
12 Chart 1 Interbank liabilities in total assets (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median unweighted average weighted average Chart 2 The actual values and model fitted values of the ratio of interbank liabilities to total assets (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages) weighted euro area average fitted values IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS 2 2 unweighted euro area average fitted values Source:. The decline in unsecured funding was to some extent offset by an increase in secured funding. The increasing trend resumed in 29 after a drop in 28. Secured transactions enabled banks to limit credit risk exposure, while also alleviating regulatory constraints, such as those resulting from capital adequacy requirements. Although the tightening of conditions in the repo market had started well before the peak of the crisis, it became even more severe in the autumn of 28. After an expansion of the collateral used in these operations in the four years to the crisis, as soon as uncertainty spread about collateral values, securitised products and tranches of structured products ceased to be used in repo transactions, and there was a shift back to government bonds. Volumes in the euro credit repo market remained at levels that were 8-9% below the period before September 28. In addition to the exclusion of eligible collateral, specific counterparties were also being excluded by means of larger haircuts and margin requirements median fitted values Sources: and calculations. Note: see Annex 1 for details. A subsequent move was the increased use of electronic platforms and, in particular, trading facilities with CCPs for secured transactions (see Chart 4). Activity in the secured market cleared through CCPs has increased steadily since the financial crisis emerged and in 211 accounted for about half of total secured market turnover (including bilateral and trilateral repos). The greater use of CCPs can be justified by the wish to further limit counterparty credit risk, the ability to carry out anonymous trading in a risk-averse environment and April 212
13 Chart 3 Maturity breakdown for average daily turnover in unsecured borrowing Chart 4 Total repo market breakdown (22 211; cash borrowing volume in 22 = 1) over 1 year over 3 months and up to 12 months over 1 month and up to 3 months tomorrow/next up to 1 month overnight Source:. Note: The panel comprised 15 credit institutions (23 211; percentages of total) bilateral repos (CCP) bilateral repos (non-ccp) bilateral repos tri-party repos Source:. Notes: The panel comprised 15 credit institutions. Breakdown on bilateral repos only available since the introduction and consolidation of repo platforms across Europe. Banks could easily gain access to major European fixed-income CCPs (such as the British London Clearing House (LCH) and the German Eurex Repo), either as members or through intermediaries. The use of government bonds as eligible collateral for repo operations in these CCPs further contributed to alleviating banks funding pressures. Before the crisis, banks increasingly operated across the euro area as if it were an integrated domestic market. Increasing integration in the banking sector was noticeable via extensive cross-border linkages, cross-border investments, mergers and acquisitions, expansion of businesses and consolidation. Nonetheless, as liquidity dried up in the market, a tendency for a home bias in interbank lending arose. Solvency concerns about banks and uncertainty about the quality of their assets, followed by the negative interplay between banks and sovereign sector strains, came to the fore and intensified for banks domiciled in euro countries facing greater public finance challenges. The nationally based government support schemes may have played, and continue to play, a role in this phenomenon. The evolution of interbank funding in terms of the geographical distribution of counterparties is depicted in Charts 5 and 6, with a view to investigating a potential home bias. The size of the interbank funding very much depends on how developed the domestic interbank market is, as well as on the ownership structure of the banking system and on the level of integration of the domestic banks with banks in other countries (i.e. cross-border banking groups, etc.). Chart 5 shows that, after a steady decline since the end of 24, the share of domestic interbank liabilities in interbank liabilities started rising in the first half of 28. The unweighted average of the ratios across euro area countries later fluctuated around the same levels, though this masks some crosscountry differences. The weighted average share of domestic interbank liabilities in total interbank liabilities in the euro area (factually driven by the largest countries) stood in the upper quartile of the distribution and followed an upward path after the end of 28. On the other hand, a reduction in domestic interbank funding occurred in a few other countries, as reflected in the dispersion of 12 April 212
14 Chart 5 Domestic interbank liabilities in total interbank liabilities (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median unweighted average weighted average Regarding the cross-border interbank liabilities, the share coming from other euro area countries remained broadly stable from the third quarter of 28 (see Chart 6), with a somewhat more noticeable fall in the last quarter of 28. Interbank liabilities coming from non-euro area countries showed a more pronounced tendency to decrease (see Chart A.1 in Annex 2). 1 This may be related to the dynamic of the cost of interbank funding, since the cost of obtaining information about domestic counterparties may be lower than for foreign ones. 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS INTERBANK FUNDING COSTS Source:. ranges and in the median values. There is no evidence that the latter changes are particularly related to the fiscally distressed countries. Chart 6 Other euro area interbank liabilities in total interbank liabilities (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median unweighted average weighted average Conditions in interbank markets are measured by various money market aggregates. Typically, LIBOR-OIS and EURIBOR-OIS spreads indicate the relative stress in the money markets. They can be viewed as signals of banks perception of the creditworthiness of other financial institutions and the general availability of funds. EONIA, EURIBOR and EUREPO and their spreads reflect the costs of funding, as well as tensions in, respectively, unsecured overnight and term funding and collateralised (typically by sovereign debt) term funding in euros. It is noteworthy, though, that these rates do not automatically imply accessibility of funds at these costs. Significant amounts of interbank lending occur over the counter, while the interbank market has been restricted since the onset of the crisis. The outbreak of the financial turmoil in mid- 27 severely affected the interbank market and the market rates, which inevitably led to a growth in banks costs, with restricted financing in the interbank market overall. Before the crisis, banks were able to fund their activities in the interbank market at rates close to the overnight indexed swap (OIS), with reliance on this type of financing consistently growing. However, the outbreak of the US subprime crisis Source:. 1 In the case of the euro area aggregated series, the statistical tests for a significance of the break in the mean (intercept) are weaker. They are, however, fully supported in the case of a break in the trend, as well as both trend and intercept. 13 April 212
15 changed the pattern. In the second half of 27 interbank market funding started to be provided at a higher cost, owing to the increased uncertainty about the borrower s creditworthiness. 11 Nonetheless, the worst spike in the spreads occurred a few weeks after the Lehman Brothers default. By the end of September 28 conditions in the euro area interbank money market became extremely tense (see Charts 7, A.5 and A.6). Banks were increasingly dependent on liquidity operations and overnight borrowing. The Eurosystem took measures to support short-term liquidity, such as extending maturities for the refinancing facilities, providing foreign currency funding and broadening the range of eligible counterparties and collateral, as well as conducting its main refinancing operations in fixed rate tender procedures with full allotment. The unsecured segments of the interbank market rates were impaired in particular. The general aversion to credit risk came about in the reduced amounts of unsecured lending and borrowing, with the secured interbank market being less affected and having higher interest rates. All in all, unsecured transactions became much more costly than collateralised ones (see Chart 8). Central banks reacted by cutting interest rates, and this entailed interbank rates being at lower levels. In May 29 the policy of enhanced credit support enacted by the contributed to market stabilisation, while spreads narrowed. Nevertheless, spreads between unsecured and secured transactions remained far above pre-crisis levels. Finally, the intensification of concerns about the soundness and sustainability of public finances in some euro area countries prompted high tensions in the interbank markets from May 211 onwards. BOR-OIS spreads, as well as spreads between unsecured and secured lending, again widened. Nonetheless, from a funding perspective, the situation during the first semester of 211 was not as severe as in 28, since the interbank market had not dried up. Increased spreads between unsecured and secured transactions changed banks strategies for interbank funding. Secured transactions 11 See Angelini, P. et al. (211) for an analysis of the changes in the interbank market, and determinants of the cost of funds. Chart 7 BOR-OIS one-month spreads Chart 8 EURIBOR-EUREPO spreads by term (January 26 January 212; basis points) (January 26 January 212; basis points) one month EURIBOR-OIS spreads one month USD LIBOR-OIS spreads EURIBOR-EUREPO spreads (both overnight) EURIBOR-EUREPO spreads (both 3 months) EURIBOR-EUREPO spreads (both 12 months) Source: Bloomberg. Source: Bloomberg. 14 April 212
16 became much more sought following the crisis, while the role of central counterparties as a way to reduce counterparty risk and manage collateral has increased. The sovereign debt crisis has impacted on the value of collateral that banks hold. Unlike bank disclosure on subprime exposures, there is more transparency with respect to banks holdings of sovereign debt. This reduced the uncertainty surrounding banks conditions, and may thus far have helped to avoid spreads increasing to the record levels reached after the default of Lehman Brothers, despite the size of sovereign exposures. Nevertheless, the recognition of a system-wide liquidity crisis led the Eurosystem to introduce non-standard central bank refinancing operations offering ample liquidity at a predictable and low cost, which in turn led to an overall increase in the funding of banks by the Eurosystem (see section 3.5). While regarded as a temporary effect of the crisis, on account of the nature of these extraordinary liquidity measures, it may take a considerable amount of time before the secured, and especially unsecured, interbank markets start to function normally again. To sum up, the analysis over time points to clear changes in banks funding via the interbank market: (i) it confirms a substantial fall in interbank liabilities as a proportion of banks total assets, which began in the third quarter of 28; (ii) this is accompanied by a rise in the share of domestic bank liabilities in total interbank liabilities in the largest euro area economies. The latter was mirrored by a decline in crossborder interbank liabilities, with a more pronounced decrease in interbank liabilities coming from non-euro area countries. In line with a global trend, the evidence from survey data for the euro area confirms the increase in activity in the secured market and the corresponding decline in the unsecured money market. Furthermore, the activity in the secured market cleared through CCPs has increased, representing about half the total secured market turnover in 211. The outbreak of the financial turmoil in mid- 27 severely affected market rates, leading to an increase in interbank funding costs. The changes in banks funding strategies reflect the restricted financing conditions overall in the interbank market and the increased spreads between unsecured and secured transactions. 3.3 CUSTOMER DEPOSITS DEVELOPMENTS IN CUSTOMER DEPOSITS As documented in the literature, the financial crisis broke a broad global funding trend characterised by a strong reliance in wholesale funding sources in favour of more stable retail sources of funding. 12 This implies that bank funding strategies needed to be adjusted quickly in order to expand the customer deposit 13 base and reduce the share of wholesale funding. At the same time, the new regulatory framework proposed under Basel III and its anticipation by market participants may also have an impact on funding patterns after the crisis notably by providing incentives to increase customer and other stable types of funding which are likely to be durable. The share of non-bank deposit liabilities has been on a slightly downward trend ever since the euro was introduced, but started picking up as of the third quarter of 28 (see Chart 9) in almost all euro area countries. Median values increased from 38% in the third quarter of 28 to stand at 43.5% at the end of 211. At the same time, cross-country differences in terms of the share of non-bank funding have also become more evident, as reflected by the widening dispersion. Clearly, domestic non-bank deposits account for the largest proportion of banks total deposit liabilities in 12 Stable funding sources can be defined as comprising the deposit holdings of the non-financial private sector and longer-term debt securities held by non-mfis, as well as capital. In turn, volatile funding sources refer primarily to short-term debt securities and short-term deposits provided by financial intermediaries, where cross-border deposits obtained from other banks tend to be an important component. 13 For the purpose of this analysis, customer deposits are all deposit liabilities except interbank liabilities and liabilities to the Eurosystem. Deposits from other non-monetary financial institutions (OFIs), insurance corporations, pension funds and central government are included in customer deposits. 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS 15 April 212
17 Chart 9 Non-bank deposit liabilities in total assets (Q Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) Source:. median unweighted average weighted average the euro area and on average more than 3% of total liabilities (see Chart 1). Banking systems in euro area countries vary widely, however, in terms of the overall size of the customer deposit Chart 1 Domestic non-bank deposit liabilities in total assets (Q Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) Source:. median unweighted average weighted average 33 3 base, and dispersion increased over time, as observed by the widening of the interquartile ranges of the euro area distribution. Greater efforts to expand the customer deposit base after the third quarter of 28, generally implying higher funding costs (see next section), led to slowly decreasing loan-to-deposit ratios. These developments derive not only from an expansion of deposits, but also partly from an overall reduction in lending activity. Chart 11 indicates that, after years of gradually rising loan-to-deposit ratios, the euro area unweighted average value stood at 138% in the autumn of 28 and then decreased considerably to levels around 13%. In general, this fall was to a large extent led by a relatively faster growth in deposits than in lending (with growth in lending even being negative in some countries). Interestingly, the median 14 and unweighted average values in Chart 11 also indicate that the loan-to-deposit ratio started growing again in some countries in 21, with the latter change being driven by slow or negative growth in deposits. 15 A closer look at the composition of (domestic) deposits points to a significant increase in the share of private non-financial deposits with an original maturity of over one year as a share of total term deposits (i.e. all deposits with agreed maturity). Assessed by developments in median values, the shift towards longer term deposits is reflected by an increase in the ratio from just over 15% in mid-28 to around 35% from mid-21. The behaviour of the euro area series strongly driven by developments in large countries reflects this pattern even if lying outside the interquartile range (see Chart 12). This is due to the structurally large proportion of longer term deposits (i.e. those with a maturity 14 A break in the median of the ratio in the third quarter of 28 is statistically significant only when testing for a joint change in an intercept and a slope (see Annex 1). 15 Loans in MFI statistics are reported gross of provisions, whereas loan-to-deposit ratios compiled on the basis of supervisory data also reflect the changes in the loan portfolios due to provisioning (i.e. deleveraging through the provisioning). Differences in loanto-deposit ratios may also derive from adjustments on account of securitisation. MFI loan series exclude securitised loans. 16 April 212
18 Chart 11 Loan-to-deposit ratio (loans to, and deposits from, private non-financial customers) (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) Source:. median unweighted average weighted average Chart 12 Domestic private non-financial deposits with an original maturity of over one year in corresponding total domestic term deposits (Q1 24 Q4 211; percentages; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median unweighted average weighted average between one and two years, and those with an original maturity of over two years) in total term deposits. In terms of banks activities, in line with restricted wholesale funding markets, some refocusing on domestic markets is perceived, especially for banking sectors in countries facing more challenges on account of sovereign debt strains. Market intelligence 16 also points to a tendency towards decentralisation of funding by banks with a significant presence abroad. Banks would aim towards achieving local selfsufficiency with respect to funding with foreign subsidiaries raising funding in each host country to fund local assets. They would thereby reduce their overall reliance on intra-group liquidity. However, the degree of decentralisation varies widely across jurisdictions in the euro area RETAIL FUNDING COSTS Banks funding costs in the retail market are reflected in the interest rates that banks pay on new deposits from households or non-financial corporations. Banks typically set deposit rates somewhat below their reference market rates to operate with positive deposit margins. Therefore, retail market interest rates reasonably reflect the developments in the interbank market with the additional effects stemming from competitive pressures among the banks. The financial turmoil forced banks to turn to retail funding, 17 leading to increased costs due to enhanced competition for deposits. 18 Even though the low levels of retail funding costs currently observed coincide with both low policy rates and extremely low market rates, retail funding became relatively more expensive over time. In the euro area, retail funding costs started to grow in late 25. At the same time, the spreads 3 IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS Source: Interviews and roundtables with market participants (primarily banks) provided input to the CGFS paper Funding patterns and liquidity management of internationally active banks (21). 17 The terms retail funding and customer funding are used interchangeably. 18 In a few countries experiencing sovereign tensions, prudential authorities have implemented measures to mitigate excessive competitive pressures in the retail deposits market. 17 April 212
19 Chart 13 Spread of deposits held at banks over money market rates (January 23 December 211; basis points) overnight deposits from households EONIA overnight deposits from non-financial corporations EONIA up to one-year deposits from households 3M EURIBOR up to one-year deposits from non-financial corporations 3M EURIBOR Chart 14 Average rates of deposits held at banks in the euro area (January 23 December 211; percentages) overnight deposits from households overnight deposits from non-financial corporations up to one-year deposits from households up to one-year deposits from non-financial corporations Source:. Source:. of interest rates for new deposits over the interbank market rates were falling (see Chart 13), in particular for sight deposits. As the subprime crisis hit in the second half of 27, this decline in the spreads came to a halt. After the Lehman Brothers default in autumn 28, the spreads went up sharply, since access to the wholesale market became highly restricted and banks preferences shifted towards retail funding. The positive differential in overnight rates of deposits from non-financial corporations over deposits from households was growing up to late 28 and then practically disappeared (see Chart 14). This was preceded by the slightly higher rate on term deposits of non-financial corporations with respect to households reversing in the first half of 28, with household deposits being priced more expensively ever since. In addition, the dispersion in the rates of term deposits increased substantially across the euro area from early 29 onwards, with higher competition for retail market funding among banks being apparent, in particular in countries subject to sovereign tensions (see Chart 15 and Chart 16). Again, the cross-country differences in household deposit pricing appear to be larger than in the case of deposits from non-financial corporations. The general trend in the overall share of deposit liabilities has changed as a result of the financial crisis. After years of gradual decline, non-bank deposit liabilities in total assets have started to increase a change that may persist, reflecting a preference for stable funding sources. To some extent, this is also being driven by the new regulatory framework (Basel III). Loan-todeposit ratios decreased considerably from their peak in the third quarter of 28. At the same time, a broad shift towards deposits at longer maturities can be observed at aggregate level and across all countries, marking a clear change in pattern with respect to the pre-crisis period. 18 April 212
20 Chart 15 Rates of term deposits up to one year from households across countries in the euro area (January 23 December 211; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median Source:. The growing reliance on the customer deposits point to increased competition, in particular in euro area countries experiencing sovereign tensions, possibly implying pressure on banks net interest margins and overall profitability. The increasing positive differential in rates of deposits from households over deposits from Chart 16 Rates of term deposits up to one year from non-financial corporations across countries in the euro area (January 23 December 211; maximum, minimum and interquartile distribution across euro area countries) median Source: non-financial corporations may point to growing competition in the retail market, especially as regards the more stable household deposits. This phenomenon has led to a wide dispersion in deposit rates across the euro area since early DEBT SECURITIES DEVELOPMENTS IN FUNDING THROUGH DEBT SECURITIES While funding through debt securities is an integral part of most banks funding strategies, its importance in aggregate terms varies substantially across banking systems in the euro area. As Chart 19 shows, financing in the form of debt securities in the euro area accounted for, on average, 16% of total assets at the end of 211, albeit with a wide distribution across countries. The euro area median and unweighted average are considerably lower, reflecting a less representative proportion of debt securities in the balance sheets of banks domiciled in the smaller countries. Funding through debt securities is traditionally negligible in the banking sectors of a few small euro area countries, whereas it has represented almost a quarter of the funding structure (all liabilities) in a number of larger countries over the last decade. Banking sectors in larger countries can more easily finance their activities through issuance of debt instruments on account of having more developed debt markets. In addition, banks in these countries are primarily domestically owned, and debt securities are more often issued at group level. These considerations explain the large min-max ranges. A decline in the ratio of debt securities to assets (see Chart 19) started in 27, i.e. before the outbreak of the financial crisis. Median values show a larger fall, which is also due to smaller countries joining the euro from 28. The weighted euro area average, which predominantly reflects developments in the largest euro area countries, was more stable over time, although it has also remained on a gradual downward path since IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES IN BANK FUNDING PATTERNS 19 April 212
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