Source: http://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/348/272
Timestamp: 2014-08-02 03:20:17
Document Index: 60897575

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 1505', '§ 8', '§ 27', '§ 8', '§ 8', '§ 8', '§ 1', 'art 11']

The TEE-HIT-TON INDIANS, An Identifiable Group of Alaska Indians, Petitioner, v. The UNITED STATES. | LII / Legal Information Institute
Supreme Court aboutsearch liibulletin subscribe previews The TEE-HIT-TON INDIANS, An Identifiable Group of Alaska Indians, Petitioner, v. The UNITED STATES.
348 U.S. 272 (75 S.Ct. 313, 99 L.Ed. 314)
Argued: Nov. 12, 1954.
[HTML] dissent, DOUGLAS, FRANKFURTER
[HTML] See 348 U.S. 965, 75 S.Ct. 521.
The area claimed is said to contain over 350,000 acres of land and 150 square miles of water. The Tee-Hit-Tons, a clan of the Tlingit Tribe, brought this suit in the Court of Claims under 28 U.S.C. 1505, 28 U.S.C.A. § 1505. The compensation claimed does not arise from any statutory direction to pay. Payment, if it can be compelled, must be based upon a constitutional right of the Indians to recover. This is not a case that is connected with any phase of the policy of the Congress, continued throughout our history, to extinguish Indian title through negotiation rather than by force, and to grant payments from the public purse to needy descendants of exploited Indians. The legislation in support of that policy has received consistent interpretation from this Court in sympathy with its compassionate purpose.
Upon petitioner's motion, the Court of Claims under its Rule 38(b), 28 U.S.C.A.,
Only those pertinent to the nature of the petitioner's interest, if any, in the lands are here for review. Substantial evidence, largely documentary, relevant to these legal issues was introduced by both parties before a Commissioner who thereupon made findings of fact. The Court of Claims adopted these findings and held that petitioner was an identifiable group of American Indians residing in Alaska; that its interest in the lands prior to purchase of Alaska by the United States in 1867 was "original Indian title" or "Indian right of occupancy". Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States, 120 F.Supp. 202, 204, 128 Ct.Cl. 82, 85, 87. It was further held that if such original Indian title survived the Treaty of 1867, 15 Stat. 539, Arts. III and VI, by which Russia conveyed Alaska to the United States, such title was not sufficient basis to maintain this suit as there had been no recognition by Congress of any legal rights in petitioner to the land in question. 120 F.Supp. 202, 128 Ct.Cl. at page 92. The court said that no rights inured to plaintiff by virtue of legislation by Congress. As a result of these conclusions, no answer was necessary to questions 2, 5 and 6. The Tee-Hit-Tons' petition was thereafter dismissed.
and the conflict concerning the effect of federal legislation protecting Indian occupation between this decision of the Court of Claims, 120 F.Supp. 202, 128 Ct.Cl., at page 90, and the decision of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Miller v. United States, 159 F.2d 997, 1003, we granted certiorari, 347 U.S. 1009, 74 S.Ct. 864, 98 L.Ed. 1133.
The Alaskan area in which petitioner claims a compensable interest is located near and within the exterior lines of the Tongass National Forest. By Joint Resolution of August 8, 1947, 61 Stat. 920, the Secretary of Agriculture was authorized to contract for the sale of national forest timber located within this National Forest 'notwithstanding any claim of possessory rights.'
The Resolution defines 'possessory rights'
I. Recognition.The question of recognition may be disposed of shortly. Where the Congress by treaty or other agreement has declared that thereafter Indians were to hold the lands permanently, compensation must be paid for subsequent taking.
The petitioner contends that Congress has sufficiently 'recognized' its possessory rights in the land in question so as to make its interest compensable. Petitioner points specifically to two statutes to sustain this contention. The first is § 8 of the Organic Act for Alaska of May 17, 1884, 23 Stat. 24.
The second is § 27 of the Act of June 6, 1900, which was to provide for a civil government for Alaska, 31 Stat. 321, 330.
The Court of Appeals in the Miller case, supra, felt that these Acts constituted recognition of Indian ownership. 159 F.2d 997, 10021003.
There is no particular form for congressional recognition of Indian right of permanent occupancy. It may be established in a variety of ways but there must be the definite intention by congressional action or authority to accord legal rights, not merely permissive occupation. Hynes v. Grimes Packing Co., 337 U.S. 86, 101, 69 S.Ct. 968, 978, 93 L.Ed. 1231.
II. Indian Title.(a) The nature of aboriginal Indian interest in land and the various rights as between the Indians and the United States dependent on such interest are far from novel as concerns our Indian inhabitants. It is well settled that in all the States of the Union the tribes who inhabited the lands of the States held claim to such lands after the coming of the white man, under what is sometimes termed original Indian title or permission from the whites to occupy. That description means mere possession not specifically recognized as ownership by Congress. After conquest they were permitted to occupy portions of territory over which they had previously exercised 'sovereignty,' as we use that term. This is not a property right but amounts to a right of occupancy which the sovereign grants and protects against intrusion by third parties but which right of occupancy may be terminated and such lands fully disposed of by the sovereign itself without any legally enforceable obligation to compensate the Indians.
'Frequent and bloody wars, in which the whites were not always the aggressors, unavoidably ensued. European policy, numbers, and skill, prevailed. As the white population advanced, that of the Indians necessarily receded. The country in the immediate neighbourhood of agriculturists became unfit for them. The game fled into thicker and more unbroken forests, and the Indians followed. The soil, to which the crown originally claimed title, being no longer occupied by its ancient inhabitants, was parcelled out according to the will of the sovereign power, and taken possession of by persons who claimed immediately from the crown, or mediately, through its grantees or deputies.' 8 Wheat. at pages 590591. See Buttz v. Northern Pacific R. Co., 119 U.S. 55, 66, 7 S.Ct. 100, 104, 30 L.Ed. 330; Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 367, 409, 10 L.Ed. 997; Clark v. Smith, 13 Pet. 195, 201, 10 L.Ed. 123.
Recovery was allowed under a jurisdictional Act of 1935, 49 Stat. 801, that permitted payments to a few specific Indian tribes for 'legal and equitable claims arising under or growing out of the original Indian title' to land, because of some unratified treaties negotiated with them and other tribes. The other tribes had already been compensated.
Five years later this Court unanimously held that none of the former opinions in Vol. 329 of the United States Reports expressed the view that recovery was grounded on a taking under the Fifth Amendment. United States v. Tillamooks, 341 U.S. 48, 71 S.Ct. 552, 95 L.Ed. 738. Interest, payable on recovery for a taking under the Fifth Amendment, was denied.
Before the second Tillamook case, a decision was made on Alaskan Tlingit lands held by original Indian title. Miller v. United States, 9 Cir., 159 F.2d 997. That opinion holds such a title compensable under the Fifth Amendment on reasoning drawn from the language of this Court's first Tillamook case.
After the Miller decision, this Court had occasion to consider the holding of that case on Indian title in Hynes v. Grimes Packing Co., 337 U.S. 86, 106, note 28, 69 S.Ct. 968, 979, 981, 93 L.Ed. 1231. We there commented as to the first Tillamook case: 'That opinion does not hold the Indian right of occupancy compensable without specific legislative direction to make payment.' We further declared 'we cannot express agreement with that (compensability of Indian title by the Miller case) conclusion.'
Later the Government used the Hynes v. Grimes Packing Co. note in the second Tillamook case, petition for certiorari, 75 S.Ct. 319, to support its argument that the first Tillamook opinion did not decide that taking of original Indian title was compensable under the Fifth Amendment.
Thereupon this Court in the second Tillamook case, 341 U.S. 48, 71 S.Ct. 552, 553, held that the first case was not 'grounded on a taking under the Fifth Amendment.' Therefore no interest was due. This later Tillamook decision by a unanimous Court supported the Court of Claims in its view of the law in this present case. See Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States, 120 F.Supp. 202, 128 Ct.Cl. 82, 87. We think it must be concluded that the recovery in the Tillamook case was based upon statutory direction to pay for the aboriginal title in the special jurisdictional act to equalize the Tillamooks with the neighboring tribes, rather than upon a holding that there had been a compensable taking under the Fifth Amendment.
This leaves unimpaired the rule derived from Johnson v. McIntosh, 8 wheat. 543, 5 L.Ed. 681, that the taking by the United States of unrecognized Indian title is not compensable under the Fifth Amendment.
In addition to this verbal testimony, exhibits were introduced by both sides as to the land use. These exhibits are secondary authorities but they bear out the general proposition that land claims among the Tlingits, and likewise of their smaller group, the Tee-Hit-Tons, was wholly tribal. It was more a claim of sovereignty than of ownership. The articles presented to the Court of Claims by those who have studied and written of the tribal groups agree with the above testimony. There were scattered shelters and villages moved from place to place as game or fish became scarce. There was recognition of tribal rights to hunt and fish on certain general areas, with claims to that effect carved on totem poles. From all that was presented, the Court of Claims concluded, and we agree, that the Tee-Hit-Tons were in a hunting and fishing stage of civilization, with shelters fitted to their environment, and claims to rights to use identified territory for these activities as well as the gathering of wild products of the earth.
We think this evidence introduced by both sides confirms the Court of Claims' conclusion that the petitioner's use of its lands was like the use of the nomadic tribes of theStates Indians.
The line of cases adjudicating Indian rights on American soil leads to the conclusion that Indian occupancy, not specifically recognized as ownership by action authorized by Congress, may be extinguished by the Government without compensation.
Every American schoolboy knows that the savage tribes of this continent were deprived of their ancestral ranges by force and that, even when the Indians ceded millions of acres by treaty in return for blankets, food and trinkets, it was not a sale but the conquerors' will that deprived them of their land. The duty that rests on this Nation was adequately phrased by Mr. Justice Jackson in his concurrence, Mr. Justice Black joining, in Northwestern Bands of Shoshone Indians v. United States, 324 U.S. 335 at page 355, 65 S.Ct. 690, 700, 89 L.Ed. 985, a case that differentiated 'recognized' from 'unrecognized' Indian title, and held the former only compensable. Id., 324 U.S. at pages 339340, 65 S.Ct. 692, 693. His words will be found at pages 354358 of 324 U.S., at pages 699701, of 65 S.Ct. He ends thus:
First. The first turns on the words of the Act. The general land laws of the United States were not made applicable to Alaska. § 8. No provision was made for opening up the lands to settlement, for clearing titles, for issuing patents, all as explained in Gruening, The State of Alaska (1954), p. 47 et seq. There were, however, at least two classes of claimants to Alaskan landsone, the Indians; the other, those who had mining claims. Section 8 of the Act did not recognize the 'title' of either. Rather, it provided that one group, the miners, should be allowed to 'perfect their title'; while the others, the Indians, were to acquire 'title' only as provided by future legislation. Obviously the word 'title' was used in the conveyancer's sense; and § 8 did service in opening the door to perfection of 'title' in the case of miners, and in deferring the perfection of 'title' in the case of the Indians.
Second. The second proposition turns on the legislative history of § 8. Section 8 of the Act commands that the Indians 'shall not be disturbed in the possession of any lands actually in their use or occupation or now claimed by them'. The words 'or now claimed by them' were added by an amendment offered during the debates by Senator Plumb of Kansas. 15 Cong.Rec. 627628. Senator Benjamin Harrison, in accepting the amendment, said, '* * * it was the intention of the committee to protect to the fullest extent all the rights of the Indians in Alaska and of any residents who had settled there, but at the same time to allow the development of the mineral resources. * * *' Id.
The conclusion seems clear that Congress in the 1884 Act recognized the claims of these Indians to their Alaskan lands. What those lands were was not known. Where they were located, what were their metes and bounds were also unknown. Senator Plumb thought they probably were small and restricted. But all agreed that the Indians were to keep them, wherever they lay. It must be remembered that the Congress was legislating about a Territory concerning which little was known. No report was available showing the nature and extent of any claims to the land. No Indian was present to point out his tribe's domain. Therefore, Congress did the humane thing of saving to the Indians all rights claimed; it let them keep what they had prior to the new Act. The future course of action was made clearconflicting claims would be reconciled and the Indian lands would be put into reservations.
That purpose is wholly at war with the one now attributed to the Congress of reserving for some future day the question whether the Indians were to have any rights to the land.
"1. Is the plaintiff an 'identifiable group of American Indians residing within the territorial limits of * * * Alaska' within the meaning of 28 U.S.C. 1505?'
"5. In the event a decision of an affirmative nature on any of issues 2, 3, or 4, is followed by evidence indicating specific property rights on the part of plaintiff at any of those times, then would the testimony of plaintiff's witness Paul as to recent less intensive use of the areas claimed by plaintiff (Tr. 1314, 2930, 4445, 9697) constitute prima facie evidence of termination or loss of such rights?'
Id., § 1: 'That 'possessory rights' as used in this resolution shall mean all rights, if any should exist, which are based upon aboriginal occupancy or title, or upon section 8 of the Act of May 17, 1884 (
23 Stat. 24), section 14 of the Act of March 3, 1891 (
26 Stat. 1095), or section 27 of the Act of June 6, 1900 (
31 Stat. 321), whether claimed by native tribes, native villages, native individuals, or other persons, and which have not been confirmed by patent or court decision or included within any reservation.'
United States v. Creek Nation, 295 U.S. 103, 109110, 55 S.Ct. 681, 683684, 79 L.Ed. 1331; Shoshone Tribe v. United States, 299 U.S. 476, 497, 57 S.Ct. 244, 251, 81 L.Ed. 360; Chippewa Indians v. United States, 301 U.S. 358, 375376, 57 S.Ct. 826, 833, 81 L.Ed. 1156; United States v. Klamath Indians, 304 U.S. 119, 58 S.Ct. 799, 82 L.Ed. 1219; Sioux Tribe of Indians v. United States, 316 U.S. 317, 326, 62 S.Ct. 1095, 1099, 86 L.Ed. 1501.
23 Stat. 24; see 15 Cong.Rec. 530531; H.R.Rep.No.476, 48th Cong., 1st Sess. 2; 31 Stat. 321; see 33 Cong.Rec. 5966.
The statement concerning the Miller case was needed to meet the Grimes Packing Company argument that Congress could not have intended to authorize the Interior Department to include an important and valuable fishing area, see Hynes v. Grimes Packing Co., 337 U.S. 86, note 10, 69 S.Ct. 968, in a permanent reservation for an Indian population of 57 eligible voters. Actual occupation of Alaskan lands by Indians authorized the creation of a reservation. 337 U.S., at page 91, 69 S.Ct. 968. One created by Congress through recognition of a permanent right in the Indians from aboriginal use would require compensation to them for re-opening to the public. Id., 337 U.S. at pages 103106, 69 S.Ct. 968, 979, 980, 981. It was therefore important to show that there was no right arising from aboriginal occupation.
Krause, Die Tlinkit-Indianer (The Tlinkit Indians), pp. 93115 and 120122; Oberg, The Social Economy of the Tlingit Indians (a dissertation submitted to the University of Chicago, Dept. of Anthropology for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Dec. 1937); Goldschmidt-Haas Report to Commissioner of Indian Affairs on Possessory Rights of the Natives of Southeastern Alaska, pp. i, ii, iv, 125, 3133, 123133, related statements numbered 65, 66, 67, 68 and 69, and chart 11; S.Doc.No.152, 81st Cong., 2d Sess. (Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of the Alaskan Natives); see Johnson v. Pacific Coast S.S. Co., 2 Alaska 224.
Disputes as to the Indian titles in the Pueblos and their position as wards required congressional action for settlement. See Brayer, Pueblo Indian Land Grants of the 'Rio Abajo', New Mexico; Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law, c. 20. These problems were put in the way of solution only by congressional recognition of the Pueblos' title to their land and the decisions of this Court as to their racial character as Indians, subject to necessary federal tutelage. 10 Stat. 308, Creation of Office of Surveyor-General of New Mexico to report area of bona fide holdings; Report of Secretary of the Interior, covering that of the Surveyor-General of New Mexico, S.Exec.Doc.No.5, 34th Cong., 3d Sess. 174, 411; Confirmation of titles for approved Pueblo Land Claims, 11 Stat. 374; S.Doc.No.1117, 37th Cong., 2d Sess. 581582, Report of Secretary of Interior showing New Mexico Pueblos with confirmed titles.
The reading which the Court gives the 1884 Act dispels the slight hope which Ernest Gruening, our foremost Alaskan authority, found in its provisions dealing with the Indians. In The State of Alaska (1954) 355356, Gruening states: