Source: https://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/3d/13/113.html
Timestamp: 2019-09-15 08:24:21
Document Index: 415933651

Matched Legal Cases: ['§ 1151', '§ 352', '§ 21', '§ 407', '§ 13', '§ 402', '§ 500', '§ 21']

Ault v. International Harvester Co. :: :: Supreme Court of California Decisions :: California Case Law :: California Law :: US Law :: Justia
Justia › US Law › Case Law › California Case Law › Cal. 3d › Volume 13 › Ault v. International Harvester Co.
In Bank. (Opinion by Mosk, J., with Wright, C. J., McComb, [13 Cal. 3d 114]
The gear box of the Scout involved in the accident was manufactured of aluminum 380, a material which plaintiff asserts was defective for that purpose. At the trial evidence established that after the accident defendant changed from aluminum 380 to malleable iron in the production of the gear box. A jury returned a verdict of $700,000 in plaintiff's favor. On this appeal from the ensuing judgment, defendant maintains that the trial court erred in several rulings regarding the admission and exclusion of evidence. It places primary reliance upon the admission into evidence of the change to malleable iron in the manufacture of the gear box, contending that the receipt of this evidence violates the prohibition contained in section [13 Cal. 3d 117] 1151 of the Evidence Code. fn. 1 We conclude that the evidence was properly admitted because the provisions of section 1151 do not apply in an action in which the defendant is alleged to be liable under the theory of strict liability.
[1] Defendant asserts that the admission of the evidence it changed from aluminum 380 to malleable iron after the accident violated the proscription of section 1151. In our view, however, the language and the legislative history of section 1151 demonstrate that the section is designed for cases involving negligence or culpable conduct on the part of the defendant, rather than to those circumstances in which a manufacturer is alleged to be strictly liable for placing a defective product on the market. [13 Cal. 3d 118] Furthermore, we are not persuaded that the rationale which impelled the Legislature to adopt the rule set forth in the section for cases involving negligence is applicable to suits founded upon strict liability, and we therefore decline to judicially extend the application of the section to litigation founded upon that theory.
Section 1151 by its own terms excludes evidence of subsequent remedial or precautionary measures only when such evidence is offered to prove negligence or culpable conduct. In an action based upon strict liability against a manufacturer, negligence or culpability is not a necessary ingredient. The plaintiff may recover if he establishes that the product was defective, and he need not show that the defendants breached a duty of due care. (Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. (1963) 59 Cal. 2d 57, 62-63 [27 Cal. Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897, 13 A.L.R.3d 1049].) fn. 2
The history and purpose of section 1151 compel our conclusion that it was not intended to apply to cases found on the theory of strict liability in a products liability action. According to its draftsmen, section 1151 was intended merely to codify "well-settled law." (Law Revision Com. [13 Cal. 3d 119] comment to Evid. Code, § 1151.) The rule excluding evidence of subsequent repairs originally rested on the notion that such repairs were completely irrelevant to the issue of defendant's negligence at the time of the accident. Thus, the first case to adopt this rule in California, Sappenfield v. Main-St. etc. R. R. Co. (1891) 91 Cal. 48, 62 [27 P. 590], stressed that "The negligence of the employer which renders him responsible for the accident depends upon what he did and knew before the accident, and must be established by facts and circumstances which preceded it, and not by acts done by him after the occurrence." (See, e.g., Helling v. Schindler (1904) 145 Cal. 303, 312-315 [78 P. 710].)
On the other hand a number of more recent cases have recognized several exceptions to the rule of exclusion in negligence cases. For example, several decisions acknowledge that evidence of subsequent repairs is relevant to the issue of negligence, for if the changes occur closely in time they may well illustrate the feasibility of the improvement at the time of the accident, one of the normal elements in the negligence calculus. (See e.g., Johnson v. United States (D.Mont. 1958) 163 F. Supp. 388, 395; Baldwin Contracting Co. v. Winston Steel Works, Inc. (1965) 236 Cal. App. 2d 565, 573 [46 Cal. Rptr. 421]; Varas v. Barco Mfg. Co. (1962) 205 Cal. App. 2d 246, 259 [22 Cal. Rptr. 737].)
While the provisions of section 1151 may fulfill this anti-deterrent function in the typical negligence action, the provision plays no comparable role in the products liability field. Historically, the common law rule codified in section 1151 was developed with reference to the usual negligence action, in which a pedestrain fell into a hole in a sidewalk (see, e.g., City of Miami Beach v. Wolfe (Fla. 1955) 83 So.2d 774) or a plaintiff was injured on unstable stairs (see, e.g., Hadges v. New York Rapid Transit Corporation (1940) 259 App. Div. 154 [18 N.Y.S.2d 304]); in such circumstances, it may be realistic to assume that a landowner or potential [13 Cal. 3d 120] defendant might be deterred from making repairs if such repairs could be used against him in determining liability for the initial accident.
This view has been advanced by others. It has been pointed out that not only is the policy of encouraging repairs and improvements of doubtful validity in an action for strict liability since it is in the economic self interest of a manufacturer to improve and repair defective products, but that the application of the rule would be contrary to the public policy of encouraging the distributor of mass-produced goods to market safer products. (Note, Products Liability and Evidence of Subsequent Repairs, 1972 Duke L.J. 837, 845-852.) fn. 4 [13 Cal. 3d 121]
[3] Evidence of other accidents is admissible to prove a defective condition, knowledge, or the cause of an accident, provided that the circumstances [13 Cal. 3d 122] of the other accidents are similar and not too remote. (Kopfinger v. Grand Central Pub. Market (1964) 60 Cal. 2d 852, 861 [37 Cal. Rptr. 65, 389 P.2d 529].) [2b] Here, the expert witnesses had been retained in other litigation to analyze the properties of the gear boxes involved in the other accidents, and had reached the conclusion that they had failed because of metal fatigue. In the trial of the present case, they described the tests they performed, and testified that in their opinion the physical properties of all three gear boxes were similar and that the failure in the present case was also due to metal fatigue. The expert who testified regarding the first accident compared the damaged gear box involved in that accident with the box in the present case, and stated that a blow to the gear box would not have caused the failure in either accident. The other witness' testimony consisted largely of an account of the scientific tests he had performed on aluminum 380 to determine its properties, and the conclusions he had reached from those tests.
[4] Defendant asserts that the trial court also erred in refusing to allow it to introduce evidence that in a prior trial between the parties (in which the jurors were unable to agree on a verdict), plaintiff had alleged in his complaint that the accident was proximately caused by the intoxication of the driver of the vehicle. The action against the driver was dismissed prior to the trial of the previous action. Defendant urges that a superseded pleading is admissible both for purposes of impeachment and as substantive evidence of a prior inconsistent statement under sections 770 and 1235. However, the complaint in which the allegation was made had not been verified by plaintiff, there was no showing that he had seen the pleading or furnished the information on which it was based (Zanotto v. Marogna (1954) 124 Cal. App. 2d 329, 331 [268 P.2d 826]), and defendant refers to no testimony at the present trial by plaintiff with which the allegation in the superseded complaint is inconsistent. Under these circumstances, the trial court correctly refused to admit examination of plaintiff on the basis of the prior pleading.
[5a] During the course of the trial plaintiff read into evidence the testimony of an expert witness from the first trial of this action. In the course [13 Cal. 3d 123] of that reading the witness was asked if he had heard the testimony of another witness named Beckett that an inspection of 20 or 25 Scout vehicles had revealed that 60 percent suffered either pitting of the worm gear or cracks in the box. The expert witness replied that he had, and that his own testimony was consistent with Beckett's finding. Defendant's attorney in the instant case objected to any reference to the Beckett opinion on the ground of hearsay. The trial court overruled the objection on the premise that Beckett would testify in the present case and give essentially the same testimony he had offered at the prior trial. If such testimony was not forthcoming, stated the court, the evidence would be stricken on motion. Thereafter, when Beckett testified, he did not relate the opinion attributed to him in the prior trial. Defendant did not make a motion to strike Beckett's opinion, but moved for a mistrial after plaintiff rested his case on the ground of plaintiff's failure to cure admission into evidence of Beckett's hearsay opinion.
[6] When evidence is adduced upon the theory that it will be properly connected, subject to a motion to strike, and that motion is not subsequently urged, a party is deemed to have waived the objection thereto. (People v. Benenato (1946) 77 Cal. App. 2d 350, 360-361 [175 P.2d 296], disapproved on other grounds in In re Wright (1967) 65 Cal. 2d 650, 654-655 [56 Cal. Rptr. 110, 422 P.2d 998].) [5b] Defendant asserts that it deliberately failed to make the motion because the evidence of Beckett's opinion was too prejudicial to be corrected by a motion to strike and an admonition to the jury would have served only to recall the testimony to the jury's mind.
We do not find this contention to be meritorious. It is evident from the transcript that the trial court had overlooked plaintiff's earlier promise to lay a foundation for the Beckett prior opinion, which was admitted into evidence several days before Beckett testified in the instant case. A motion to strike would have served the purpose of reminding plaintiff of his failure to elicit direct testimony concerning the opinion expressed in the prior trial so that plaintiff would have been afforded the opportunity to supply the necessary foundational testimony. Instead, defendant delayed until plaintiff had rested his case, and then belatedly moved for mistrial. Moreover, the Beckett opinion was not so prejudicial in the context of this trial that an admonition to the jury would have been without effect. It consisted of a single statement by one witness for plaintiff, among a total of eight experts who testified that the gear box was defective. Thus, even if plaintiff had been unable to supply a proper foundation, an appropriate admonition to the jury would have cured the error. [13 Cal. 3d 124]
A manufacturer placing a product in the stream of commerce has a legal duty to prevent defects causing injury. (Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc. (1963) 59 Cal. 2d 57, 63 [27 Cal. Rptr. 697, 377 P.2d 897, 13 A.L.R.3d 1049].) And before a plaintiff may recover on a theory of product liability, he must prove the defendant breached this duty. Thus, by definition, the plaintiff must prove the defendant's conduct "culpable," and in proving such culpability, section 1151 clearly prohibits using evidence of subsequent remedial measures.
The important policy underlying prohibiting evidence of subsequent change is as applicable to product liability actions as to negligence actions. [13 Cal. 3d 125]
There is even less probative value when evidence of subsequent change is offered to prove an admission in product liability cases. Change in a [13 Cal. 3d 126] product is frequently made for reasons unrelated to the remedial nature of the change. Among the motivations for change are the desires to decrease production cost or to increase efficiency or salability. The most striking illustration of lack of probative value is supplied by the automobile industry. Each year hundreds of changes are made in a new model. It is absurd to suggest that each change reflects an admission the modification was made to remedy a defect.
The remaining issue is the application of section 1151 to the evidence that International Harvester changed from aluminum 380 to malleable iron. Section 1151 excludes evidence only when used to prove negligence or culpable conduct. Case law allows evidence of subsequent change to prove issues other than negligence or culpable conduct. For example, evidence of subsequent precautions may properly be admitted when it tends to impeach the testimony of a witness. (Daggett v. Atchison, T. & S. F. Ry. Co. (1957) 48 Cal. 2d 655, 661 [313 P.2d 557]; Hatfield v. Levy Brothers (1941) 18 Cal. 2d 798, 809-810 [117 P.2d 841]; Inyo Chemical Co. v. City of Los Angeles (1936) 5 Cal. 2d 525, 543-544 [55 P.2d 850].)
Consequently, before evidence of subsequent change is received as relevant [13 Cal. 3d 127] to a proper issue, the party introducing the evidence must persuasively satisfy the trial court fn. 2 that the "issue on which it is offered is of substantial importance and is actually, and not merely formally in dispute, that the plaintiff cannot establish the fact to be inferred conveniently by other proof, and consequently that the need for the evidence outweighs the danger of its misuse." (McCormick, Evidence (2d ed. 1972) pp. 668-669; see also, Evid. Code, § 352; Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries (1969) 271 Cal. App. 2d 188, 191 [76 Cal. Rptr. 372]; Jefferson, Cal. Evidence Benchbook (1972) § 21.1; cf. Proposed Fed. Rules of Evid., § 407 and the Practice Comment.)
To improperly admit such evidence to prove issues not actually disputed or easily provable by other evidence judicially repeals the statute. (Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries, supra, 271 Cal. App. 2d 188, 191-193; Pierce v. J. C. Penney Co. (1959) 167 Cal. App. 2d 3, 11 [334 P.2d 117].)
When this three-part test is not applied to evidence of subsequent modification, and the admission of such evidence results in a miscarriage of justice, the case should be reversed. (Hrnjak v. Graymar, Inc. (1971) 4 Cal. 3d 725, 734 [94 Cal. Rptr. 623, 484 P.2d 599, 47 A.L.R.3d 224]; People v. Watson (1956) 46 Cal. 2d 818, 836 [299 P.2d 243]; Cal. Const., art. VI, § 13.)
The record reveals improper introduction of the subsequent modification was highly prejudicial to defendant. The evidence on the critical issue [13 Cal. 3d 128] -- whether the aluminum steering gear box actually caused the injury -- was closely balanced. In the first trial, the jury was unable to reach a verdict. During the second trial, plaintiff's trial tactics included constant emphasis of the subsequent change in the steering gear box, resulting in a plaintiff's verdict. Under these circumstances, it must be concluded the improper admission of evidence substantially affected the verdict, constituting reversible error.
FN 1. Section 1151 provides, "When, after the occurrence of an event, remedial or precautionary measures are taken, which, if taken previously would have tended to make the event less likely to occur, evidence of such subsequent measures is inadmissible to prove negligence or culpable conduct in connection with the event." All statutory references will be to the Evidence Code, unless otherwise noted.
FN 2. The clear theoretical distinction between these two bases of recovery impelled this court in a recent decision to hold that contrary to the Restatement (Rest.2d Torts, § 402a), a plaintiff is not required, in order to prevail on the theory of strict liability, to show that a product is unreasonably dangerous to the user, and that it is sufficient if he demonstrates that it contained a defect which caused him injury. (Cronin v. J.B.E. Olson Corp. (1972) 8 Cal. 3d 121, 135 [104 Cal. Rptr. 433, 501 P.2d 1153].)
FN 3. Another argument of defendant is that unless "culpable conduct" is interpreted to include strict liability, the phrase has no meaning in section 1151 because it would then be synonymous with "negligence." However, there are types of faulty conduct other than negligence which are encompassed within "culpable conduct," such as wanton and reckless misconduct. (Donnelly v. Southern Pacific Co. (1941) 18 Cal. 2d 863, 869 [118 P.2d 465]; Rest.2d Torts, § 500.)
FN 4. In a cogent analysis of the policy considerations underlying the admission of evidence of post-occurrence changes in a products liability context, the author states, "The assumption that the admission of evidence of subsequent repairs discourages defendants from making required repairs may be erroneous. Manufacturers and distributors of mass-produced products may not be so callous to the safety of the consumer as the general exclusionary rule presumes. Furthermore, to the extent that admission of such evidence results in recovery by injured plaintiffs, it can be argued that evidence of subsequent repairs encourages future remedial action. A distributor of mass-produced goods may have thousands of goods on the market. If his products are defective, the distributor would probably face greater total liability by allowing such defective products to remain on the market or by continuing to put more defective products on the market than he would by being adjudged liable in one particular case where evidence of subsequent repairs was introduced. Also, concern on the part of the distributors for consumer protection is promoted by consumer organizations, federal agencies, and mass media exposure of product defects. To some extent, the economic self-interest of product distributors requires that they repair and improve defective products to avoid adverse publicity which might result from future litigation. Since a prior jury finding of product defectiveness is admissible in a subsequent suit when the product causing the second injury is substantially similar to the first, distributors of defective products are under pressure to repair or alter their products to insulate themselves from a finding of defectiveness which may be used against them in subsequent litigation.
FN 5. Our conclusion that the evidence of the change to malleable iron in the manufacture of the gear boxes does not violate section 1151 also answers defendant's assertion that the court erred in admitting evidence that defendant had replaced the aluminum brake pedal on its fire engines with malleable iron. Furthermore, defendant did not object to the admission of evidence of that change.
FN 1. The policy of encouraging modification following an accident may not be viewed as the basis of the section 1151 exclusionary rule when the rule is considered in light of present California law. Section 1151 by its terms only excludes evidence when offered to prove negligence or culpability; the section does not necessarily exclude evidence when it is probative to other relevant issues. (Morehouse v. Taubman Co. (1970) 5 Cal. App. 3d 548, 555 [85 Cal. Rptr. 308]; Sanchez v. Bagues & Sons Mortuaries (1969) 271 Cal. App. 2d 188, 190-191 [76 Cal. Rptr. 372]; Baldwin Contracting Co. v. Winston Steel Works, Inc. (1965) 236 Cal. App. 2d 565, 573 [46 Cal. Rptr. 421].) A party contemplating change in his real property, chattel, or product prior to trial cannot know with certainty that evidence of his change will not be received as relevant on issues other than negligence and culpability, frustrating the policy of encouraging safety modification. Because lack of admissibility is not predictable under the California rules but may only be determined on the basis of issues developed at trial, the goal of encouraging modifications is not substantially furthered by section 1151.
FN 2. The burden of proof established in Hrnjak v. Graymar, Inc. (1971) 4 Cal. 3d 725, 733 [94 Cal. Rptr. 623, 484 P.2d 599, 47 A.L.R.3d 224], should be applied here. Although Hrnjak was concerned with the collateral source rule, a similar issue is presented in this case. (See, Jefferson, Cal. Evidence Benchbook (1972) § 21.1.)
FN 3. For example, feasibility could have been proven by offering evidence that other manufacturers produced vehicles with a malleable iron steering gear box prior to the accident. The plaintiff introduced evidence that International Harvester had installed the malleable iron steering gear box on some vehicles prior to the accident. This evidence was reasonably convenient and could have proven feasibility.