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1 ANNUKKA JOKIPII JOHANNA MIETTINEN (Editors) Contributions to Accounting, Auditing and Internal Control Essays in Honour of Professor Teija Laitinen ACTA WASAENSIA NO 234 BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION 97 ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE UNIVERSITAS WASAENSIS 20112 Reviewers Professor Jaana Sandström Lappeenranta University of Technology School of Business P.O. Box 20 FI LAPPEENRANTA Finland Professor Marko Järvenpää Jyväskylä University School of Business and Economics P.O. Box 35 (MaE) FI UNIVERSITY OF JYVÄSKYLÄ Finland3 TEIJA LAITINEN4 5 V Alkusanat Tämä kirja muodostuu kymmenestä artikkelista, joiden kirjoittamiseen on osallistunut yhteensä viisitoista naistutkijaa laskentatoimen, tilintarkastuksen ja sisäisen valvonnan osa-alueilta. Nämä artikkelit on omistettu Teija Laitiselle hänen 50-vuotispäivänsä kunniaksi. Teija Laitisella on monipuolinen ura tutkijana, opettajana ja asiantuntijana niin yliopistossa kuin liike-elämässä. Tällä artikkelikokoelmalla haluamme onnitella päivänsankaria. Haluamme kiittää artikkelien kirjoittajia siitä, että he ovat olleet mukana tässä ainutlaatuisessa naisten kirjoittamassa kirjahankkeessa omistamassa tutkimuksensa ystävällemme ja kollegallemme. Haluamme kiittää myös artikkelien arvioitsijoita professori Jaana Sandströmiä ja professori Marko Järvenpäätä erinomaisesta työstä. Tarja Salolle kiitokset kirjan viimeistelystä. Vaasa, tammikuu 2011 Annukka Jokipii Johanna Miettinen Forewords This volume consists of 10 papers written by 15 female authors in accounting, auditing and internal control. These articles are dedicated to Teija Laitinen on the occasion of her 50 th birthday. Teija Laitinen has had an outstanding career as a researcher, teacher, university administrator and as an active member of the business and the wider community. This collection gives us an opportunity to express our gratitude to her. We would like to extend our gratitude to the contributors of this volume for joining us in honoring our friend and colleague. We would also like to thank Professor Jaana Sandström and Professor Marko Järvenpää for acting as referees for the volume. We would also like to thank Tarja Salo for her skillful editorial work. Vaasa, January 2011 Annukka Jokipii Johanna Miettinen6 7 VII Teija Laitinen 50 vuotta Teija Laitinen (o.s. Puustinen) syntyi tammikuun 27. päivänä 1961 Kuopiossa. Hän valmistui ylioppilaaksi 1980 Kuopion Yhteiskoulusta ja suoritti kauppatieteiden maisterin tutkinnon 1986 Jyväskylän yliopistossa pääaineena laskentatoimi. Vaasan korkeakoulussa hän suoritti vuonna 1990 kauppatieteiden lisensiaatin tutkinnon ja väitteli Vaasan yliopistossa kauppatieteiden tohtoriksi vuonna 1993 pääaineenaan liiketaloustiede, laskentatoimi. Teija Laitinen aloitti akateemisen uransa Vaasan korkeakoulussa 1987 tutkimusassistenttina Suomen Akatemian tutkimusprojektissa. Vuosina Teija Laitinen hoiti liiketaloustieteen, erityisesti laskentatoimen lehtoraattia ja toimi vuoden 1990 laskentatoimen assistenttina. Hän oli nimitettynä Liiketaloustieteen, erityisesti laskentatoimen lehtoraattiin Vaasan yliopistossa Laskentatoimen vs. yliassistenttina hän toimi , jonka jälkeen hän siirtyi apurahatutkijaksi vuosiksi Suomen Akatemian nuorempana tutkijana Teija Laitinen toimi vuosina sekä tutkijatohtorina Liiketaloustieteen, erityisesti laskentatoimen vs. professorina Teija Laitinen toimi Vaasan yliopistossa välisen ajan, jonka jälkeen hänet nimitettiin Liiketaloustieteen, erityisesti laskentatoimen professorin virkaan vuonna Teija Laitisen julkaisuluettelo sisältää lähes sata julkaisua. Tutkimustyön painopistealueet ovat Laitisella olleet yrityksen tuloslaskenta, tilinpäätösanalyysi ja konkurssin ennustaminen. Tieteellisen uransa alkuaikana Teija Laitinen keskittyi yrityksen tuloslaskentaan, johon liittyen hän laati väitöskirjansa. Sittemmin hän keskittyi konkurssin ennustamiseen, tilinpäätösanalyysiin ja corporate governanceen. Viimeaikaisena kiinnostuksen kohteena hänellä on ollut erityisesti tilintarkastus. Laitisen tutkimustyölle on luonteenomaista laaja yhteistyö tutkijoiden kanssa. Uransa alkuaikoina hänen yhteistyökumppaneinaan toimivat Barbro Back Turun kauppakorkeakoulusta ja Kaisa Sere Kuopion yliopistosta, joiden kanssa Teija Laitinen julkaisi tutkimuksia konkurssin ennustamisesta eri menetelmillä. Vaasan yliopistossa Laitinen on julkaissut Erkki K. Laitisen kanssa useita konkurssin ennustamiseen, tilintarkastukseen ja tilinpäätösalaan liittyviä yhteisartikkeleita. Suuressa arvossa pitämänsä väitöskirjaohjaajansa Reijo Ruuhelan kanssa Teija Laitinen julkaisi Corporate Governance -aihepiiriin liittyvän artikkelin jo luvun loppupuolella. Laitinen on myös julkaissut useita yhteisartikkeleita tohtoriopiskelijoiden kanssa kannustaen nuoria tutkijoita uransa alkuvaiheissa. Lisäksi vuodesta 2005 lähtien kauppatieteitä opiskelemaan pyrkiville Teija Laitinen on tullut tutuksi Suomen kauppatieteellisen alan yhteisvalinnan valtakunnallisen pääsykoekirjan yhtenä kirjoittajista.8 VIII Tieteellisten julkaisujen lisäksi Teija Laitinen on myös tuonut tieteellisiä tuloksia myös ammatissa toimivien tietoisuuteen julkaisemalla useita ammattilehtiartikkeleita muun muassa seuraavissa lehdissä: Tilintarkastus-Revision, Velkakierre, Lakimies, Luottolista, Kuntalehti ja Yrittäjä. Lisäksi hänen julkaisuluettelossaan on lukuisia sanomalehtiartikkeleita. Teija Laitinen tunnetaan myös aktiivisena jatko-opintojen ohjaajana. Hän on osallistunut laskentatoimen ja rahoituksen jatko-opintoseminaareihin antaen lisensiaattityötä ja väitöskirjaa valmisteleville opiskelijoille rakentavia ohjeita töiden edistymiseksi. Lisäksi hän on ennakkoluulottomasti ottanut väitöskirjan tekijöitä ohjattavakseen ja palkannut nuoria tutkijoita johtamiinsa projekteihin. Hänen ohjauksessa onkin valmistunut useita väitöskirjoja ja lisensiaattitöitä. Väitöskirjaohjauksen lisäksi Teija Laitinen on toiminut väitöskirjojen esitarkastajana ja vastaväittäjänä. Lisäksi hän on toiminut asiantuntijana virantäytöissä niin suomalaisissa kuin ulkomaisissa yliopistoissa. Teija Laitinen on toiminut useissa suurissa tutkimusprojekteissa innovaattorina ja johtajana. Näistä mainittakoon Tekesin rahoittamat Sisäinen valvonta pienissä ja keskisuurissa teknologiayrityksissä vuosina ja Solvency and Strategic Management of the Firm vuosina sekä Suomen Akatemian rahoittama The Role of Finnish Business Characteristics in an International Auditing and Internal Control Framework vuosina Teija Laitinen on toiminut myös vaikuttajana Vaasan yliopiston toimielimissä. Hän toimi Vaasan yliopiston assistentti- ja tutkijayhdistyksen puheenjohtajana , Vaasan yliopiston hallituksen jäsenenä , Vaasan yliopiston julkaisutoimikunnan jäsenenä , Vaasan yliopiston kaupallis-teknisen tiedekunnan tiedekuntaneuvoston jäsenenä ja varajäsenenä , Kauppatieteellisen tiedekunnan jäsenenä sekä varajäsenenä ja Laitinen toimi kauppatieteellisen tiedekunnan varadekaanina vuosina Teija Laitinen on aktiivisesti kehittänyt tilintarkastusalaa. Hän on toiminut julkisen hallinnon tilintarkastustutkinnon (JHTT) tentaattorina vuodesta 2007 lähtien ja Julkishallinnon ja -talouden tilintarkastuslautakunnan varapuheenjohtajana syksystä 2010 alkaen. Laitinen on myös panostanut Vaasan yliopiston tilintarkastuksen opetuksen kehittämiseen ja sen tuloksena Vaasan yliopistosta valmistui vuonna 2006 eniten tilintarkastusalan pro gradu -tutkielmia Suomessa. Teija Laitiselle on kertynyt myös useita yhteiskunnallisia luottamustehtäviä. Näistä mainittakoon muutama: Kronvikin kyläyhdistyksen rahastonhoitaja ja varapuheenjohtaja , Sundomin ala-asteen vanhempainyhdistyksen9 IX varapuheenjohtaja , Vaasan ortodoksisen seurakunnan seurakuntaneuvoston jäsen ja Vaasan ortodoksisen seurakunnan seurakuntavaltuuston jäsen Vaikka Teija Laitinen on toiminut monipuolisesti yliopisto- ja yhteiskuntaelämässä, niin hänet tunnetaan myös hevosharrastajien piirissä. Vaasan Ratsastuskeskuksen parikymmentä hevosta ja ponia pitävät Teija Laitisen myös vapaaaikana liikkeellä. Harrastuksen intensiivisyydestä kertoo Laitisen suorittama ratsastuksenohjaajatutkinto vuonna Teija Laitisen laaja panos tieteen, yliopiston, yhteiskunnan ja talouselämän alueilla on mahdotonta sisällyttää vain yhden teoksen puitteisiin, joten tässä kirjassa on keskitytty tieteelliseen lähtökohtaan. Näiden artikkeleiden kautta väitelleet naistutkijat ja heidän tutkimusryhmänsä haluavat onnitella Teija Laitista hänen juhlapäivänään.10 11 XI On the occasion of Professor Teija Laitinen s fiftieth birthday Teija Laitinen (née Puustinen) was born in Kuopio on January 27 th Laitinen completed her Matriculation Examination in the Kuopio Upper Secondary School in 1980, and graduated from the University of Jyväskylä in 1986 with a Master s degree in Science in Economics and Business Administration with Accounting as her major. In the Vaasa School of Economics (later the University of Vaasa) in 1990 Laitinen obtained a Licentiate in Economic Sciences, and in the University of Vaasa in 1993 Laitinen defended her dissertation for Doctor of Science in Economics with Business Economics, Accounting as her subject. Teija Laitinen began her academic career at the Vaasa School of Economics in 1987 as a Research Assistant in a research project with the Academy of Finland. From 1987 to 1989 Laitinen held the position of University Lecturer in Business Economics, particularly in accounting, and acted as Assistant in accounting throughout the year Laitinen was appointed as University Lecturer in Business Economics, particularly in accounting, in the University of Vaasa from 1991 to From 1990 to 1991 Teija Laitinen held the position of Assistant Professor in accounting after which she proceeded to work as a Research Associate from 1992 to Laitinen was a Postdoctoral researcher in the Academy of Finland from 1993 to 1997 and a Postdoctoral Research Fellow from 1997 to In Business Economics, as a acting Professor in Accounting in the University of Vaasa, Teija Laitinen worked from 1999 to 2001 after which she was appointed as the Professor of Accounting and Business Finance in Teija Laitinen s publications list covers nearly a hundred publications. The main focus in Laitinen s reasearch has been on business income concepts, financial statements analysis and bankruptcy prediction. At the beginning of her academic career Teija Laitinen concentrated on the information content of alternative income concepts in predicting corporate failure on which she wrote her doctoral thesis. Afterwards Laitinen proceeded to research bankruptcy prediction, financial statements analysis and corporate governance. Laitinen s most recent research interest has been particularly in auditing. Characteristic for Teija Laitinen s academic research is the extensive cooperation with other researchers. At the beginning of her career Laitinen collaborated with Barbro Back from the Turku School of Economics and Kaisa Sere from the University of Kuopio, both with whom Laitinen published researches on different methods for bankruptcy prediction. With Erkki K. Laitinen in the University of12 XII Vaasa Teija Laitinen has published several articles discussing bankruptcy prediction, auditing and financial statements. Together with her highly valued and respected dissertation director Reijo Ruuhela, Teija Laitinen published an article related to the subject matter of Corporate Governance already in the late 1990s. Laitinen has published also various collaborative articles together with doctoral students thus encouraging and motivating young scholars at the beginning of their career. Additionally, from the year 2005 onwards for the students applying to study Economic Science, Teija Laitinen is known as one of the authors of the nationwide entrance exam book vital for those aspiring to study the science of commerce. In addition to her many scientific publications, Teija Laitinen has brought scientific findings and results also to practitioners by making her articles public, for example, in journals like Tilintarkastus-Revision, Velkakierre, Lakimies, Luottolista, Kuntalehti and Yrittäjä. Laitinen s publications list includes several newspaper articles as well. Teija Laitinen is popularly known also for her active role as a supervisor for postgraduate students. Laitinen has taken part in postgraduate seminars in Accounting and Finance providing licentiate and doctoral students with constructive instruction and helped students proceed in their studies. Futhermore, Professor Teija Laitinen has given guidance to students writing their dissertations and without prejudice employed young researchers in the projects she has managed. Not surprisingly, under Laitinen s guidance a great many students have completed their licentiate and doctoral theses. In addition to dissertation supervision, Teija Laitinen has also acted as pre-examiner and opponent, and worked as a specialist in appointing experts to offices both in Finnish and foreign universities. Professor Laitinen has managed and acted as an innovator in several major research projects. Among many others, these include projects Internal Control in Small and Middle Sized Technology Companies in and Solvency and Strategic Management of the Firm in funded by Tekes (the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation) as well as the research project The Role of Finnish Business Characteristics in an International Auditing and Internal Control Framework in funded by Suomen Akatemia (the Academy of Finland).13 XIII Teija Laitinen has contributed greatly also to the vision of the University of Vaasa. Laitinen acted as the Chairperson in the staff association VYTY in the University of Vaasa from 1994 to 1996, as member of the Board of the University of Vaasa from 1995 to 1998, member of the Publications Committee of the University of Vaasa from , member of the Faculty Council of Economics and Technology in the University of Vaasa from and as the council s deputy member from 1991 to 1994, member of the Faculty Council of Business Studies from 2002 to 2004 and as the council s deputy member from 1999 to 2001 and from 2005 to As the Vice Dean of the Faculty of Business Studies Teija Laitinen worked from 2002 to Professor Teija Laitinen has been actively developing the profession of Auditing. From 2007 onwards, Laitinen has worked as one of the Examiners of chartered public finance auditor (CPFA) examination selected by The Finnish Board for Chartered Public Finance Auditors, and from autumn 2010 onwards, as Deputy Chairman in The Finnish Board for Chartered Public Finance Auditors. Laitinen has also invested her energy into improving the teaching of Auditing, which contributed to the fact that in the year 2006 the University of Vaasa produced more master s theses on auditing than any other university in all of Finland. Teija Laitinen has been entrusted with many other commissions of trust as well. To name a few, these include: Treasurer and Vice Chairperson in Kronvik Village Community Association from 1990 to 1992, Vice Chairperson in Sundom elementary school s Parent-Teacher Association from 1998 to 2000, member of the Vaasa Orthodox Church Parish Board from 1994 to 1996, and a member of the Vaasa Orthodox Parish Council from Although Teija Laitinen is an extremely versatile both in university and community life, she is also familiar to those in the local equestrian circles. Vaasa Riding Center and its nearly twenty horses keep Teija Laitinen active yet in her free time. Laitinen attained riding instructor qualifications in 2007, which truly depicts the intensity of her ethusiasm for horses and equestrian activities. It is quite impossible to try to fit all of Teija Laitinen s contributions to science, academia, society and economic life in merely one volume and thus, in this volume the focus is on the scientific basis of Professor Laitinen s contributions. With this Jubilee Publication and through these articles, PhD female researchers and their research groups would like to congratulate Professor Teija Laitinen on the occasion of her fiftieth birthday.14 15 XV Contents Alkusanat... V Forewords... V Teija Laitinen 50 vuotta... VII On the occasion of Professor Teija Laitinen s fiftieth birthday... XI Sirle Bürkland The Effect of Management Control on Organizational Learning: The Case of Excess Knowledge Exploration... 1 Benita Gullkvist Drivers of Diffusion of Digital Accounting Practice Minna Kallio & Barbro Back The Self-Organizing Map in Selecting Companies for Tax Audit Lili Kihn & Salme Näsi Tilintarkastusta käsittelevien väitöskirjojen tutkimusstrategiset valinnat Ainepiiri ja tutkimusote Merja Koskela & Nina Pilke Tilintarkastukseen ennakoidaan ihmisen johtamisen analyysiä: Ammattikieli yhteiskunnallisen todellisuuden heijastajana ja muovaajana Pirjo Laaksonen & Henna Jyrinki Vapaa-ajan kulutus Kokemukselliset aikakäsitykset hevosharrastuksessa Anja Morton Research-Led Teaching in Accounting Education Emma-Riikka Myllymäki & Annukka Jokipii The Relationship between Internal Control Effectiveness and Operating Performance Mervi Niskanen The Ownership Effects of Cash Holdings in Finnish SMEs Aila Virtanen Corporate Governance and Accountability: Does Gender Matter?16 17 Acta Wasaensia 1 THE EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT CONTROL ON ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING The Case of Excess Knowledge Exploration Sirle Bürkland HEC School of Management, France Dedicated to Teija Laitinen on the occasion of her 50 th birthday Abstract Bürkland, Sirle (2011). The effect of management control on organizational learning: The case of excess knowledge exploration. In: Contributions to Accounting, Auditing and Internal Control. Essays in Honour of Professor Teija Laitinen. Acta Wasaensia No. 234, Eds Annukka Jokipii & Johanna Miettinen. The general assumption of studies of knowledge management and organizational learning is that management control should always encourage learning and knowledge sharing in the organization. The present study shows how interactive management controls and decentralized structure of the organization may lead to the excess knowledge exploration in the firm. The story of a company is presented to show how organizational practices can lead to the situation when there is too much knowledge in the firm, and additional knowledge exploration and sharing activities may become a burden on productivity. The study shows that there are limits of learning and exploring new things, constraining the organization to take productive actions. Change from decentralized organization and interactive management control to a more centralized and diagnostic types of controls may become necessary to reduce knowledge exploration and increase knowledge exploitation activities of the firm. Keywords: Management control, Organizational learning, Knowledge exploration and exploitation, Interactive and diagnostic control Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank the participants of the 2 nd Workshop on Visualising, Measuring and Managing Intangibles and Intellectual Capital, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on previous drafts of this paper.18 2 Acta Wasaensia 1 Introduction Organizational learning and the growth of knowledge is usually something which is highly encouraged in organization. Studies of knowledge management suggest that managerial care is highly necessary to develop knowledge and capabilities of the firm (see e.g. Barney & Spender 1994; Davenport & Prusak 1998; Grant 1996a; Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995; Teece, Pisano & Shuen 1997). Similarly, the literature of intellectual capital outlines the importance of management nurturing the source of competitive advantage and reaching higher levels of organizational performance (Edvinsson & Malone 1997; Edvinsson & Sullivan 1996; e.g. Hudson 1993; Roos & Roos 1997; Stewart 1997; Sullivan 1998; Sveiby 1997). Scholars have suggested that management control plays an important role in affecting the processes of organizational learning. For instance, input control is an important means of acquiring the necessary combination of expertise and skills for the organization (Dewar & Dutton 1986; Snell 1992). Human resource accounting (Flamholtz 1974) has been suggested as the means to intervene in the creation of organizational knowledge. Kloot (1997) has shown in the case study how management control affects the processes of organizational learning. Ditillo (2004) explains the role of management control in processes of knowledge integration. Henri (2006) has pointed out the effects of diagnostic and interactive controls on organizational capabilities. In addition, various managerial frameworks have been proposed to introduce a knowledge-based perspective into management control systems (e.g. Hartmann & Vaassen 2003; Leitner & Warden 2004) and integrate measuring and reporting techniques that would encourage the growth of intellectual capital of the firm (Bontis, Keow & Richardson 2000; Edvinsson & Malone 1997; see e.g. Edvinsson & Sullivan 1996; Lev 2001; Roos, Roos, Dragonetti & Edvinsson 1997; Sullivan 1998; Sveiby 1997; Viedma 2001). The general assumption of these studies is that knowledge and learning is something good and desirable and the role of management control is mainly to encourage the growth of knowledge that would lead to competitive advantages. At the same time, Alvesson and Karreman (2001: 999) argue that knowledge is not necessary functional, useful, and a generally good thing. March (1991) has explained that the excessive efforts of the firm in learning new things may not always be desirable. There are limits of learning and exploring new things, since the excess knowledge exploration may take all the resources, constraining the organization to take productive actions (Weiping 2006). This is very much discussed in theory (see e.g. Gupta, Smith & Shalley 2006; March 1991; Weiping 2006), but we do not know how the balance of knowledge exploration and exploitation is maintained in practice. What does it take to keep this balance in the or-19 Acta Wasaensia 3 ganization? What does it mean in practice when there is too much exploration of new opportunities and knowledge in the organization? Existing studies have mostly directed the attention to the increase of knowledge and intellectual capital of the firm, while the possible situations, where there might be too much knowledge, are not investigated. The present study investigates the management control practices of the firm in managing learning and balancing knowledge exploration and exploitation. The story of a biotech company is presented to show how organizational practices can lead to the situation when there is too much knowledge in the firm. This paper discusses the efforts of the firm in coping with too much knowledge, showing the difficulties and constraints that this situation brings to the firm. It is explained how the decentralized organization structure and interactive management control, along the management of databases, may lead the organization to excess knowledge exploration and pose difficulties to decision-making and productive action. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The next section provides the theoretical background of the study. It discusses organizational learning and the role of management control in existing literature. The third section introduces the research approach and empirical setting. The fourth section gives the story of how interactive use of management control and encouragement of knowledge sharing lead to the excess knowledge exploration in the firm. It shows how managers realized they need to change the system in order to be able to maintain the competitiveness in the market. The final sections of the study provide discussion, draw conclusions and suggest future avenues for research. 2 Theoretical background Organizational learning means exploring new things and being able to apply it in the actions (Argyris 1978). Organizational learning starts as individual level learning with recognizing and intuiting relevant information (Cohen & Levinthal 1990; Crossan, Lane & White 1999). After the step of recognition and intuition of new and relevant information, the processes of acquisition, assimilation, transformation, and exploitation allow organization to build organizational capabilities (Cohen & Levinthal 1990; Zahra & George 2002). Scholars outline that it is important that the new information acquired would be shared among the organizational members, collectively interpreted and transformed into organizational knowledge (Grant 1996a; Sanchez 2001; Zahra & George 2002). Knowledge that is shared and embedded in organizational routines20 4 Acta Wasaensia is most valuable for the competitive advantage, since it cannot be imitated by competitors (Amit & Schoemaker 1993; Barney 1991; Prahalad & Hamel 1990; Teece, Pisano & Shuen 1997). Therefore interorganizational communication and knowledge sharing is particularly encouraged to better integrate knowledge in the firm (Grant 1996a, b). It is possible, however, that the firm may only be able to explore new things but not apply these in the practice. Zahra and Georg (2002) have suggested that knowledge can only remain as potential capacity, when it is not applied in practice. In Penrosian terms, knowledge of potential capacity stays as a mere resource of the firm without generating services that it can potentially render (Penrose, 1959: 25). Knowledge that is turned into action becomes a realized capacity of the firm (Zahra & George 2002). Some of the knowledge processes, such as knowledge exploration, increase only potential capacities, whereas knowledge exploitation builds realized capacities of the firm. Exploitation of knowledge, represents the process in which knowledge is applied in organizational actions. March (1991: 71) describes these processes in the following way, Exploration includes things captured by terms such as search, variation, risk taking, experimentation, play, flexibility, discovery, innovation. Exploitation includes such things as refinement, choice, production, efficiency, selection, implementation, execution. A firm should maintain some kind of balance between these two in a way that it would be able to react to the environmental changes (Daft & Weick 1984; March 1991). It is important that organization should be able to turn new knowledge into action. A mere increase in potential capacities without turning new capacities into actions does not keep the firm competitive in the market. Unbalanced knowledge exploration and exploitation activities may lead the firm into competency traps (Weiping 2006: 149). There are two types of competency traps that may occur. Competency trap I occurs in the case of excessive engagement in exploitation of knowledge, whereas competency trap II occurs in the case of excessive exploration of knowledge, which means the main focus is on exploration of knowledge without its application in productive activities (Weiping 2006: 149). Excess knowledge exploration may hinder organizational learning, since organizational learning requires not only an increase of knowledge but the transfer of knowledge into action (Argyris 1978). Management control can play an important role here affecting the ways organization directs knowledge exploration and exploitation activities. The processes of organizational learning and management controls are highly intertwined. Management controls affect and are affected by organizational learning (Gray 1990;21 Acta Wasaensia 5 Kloot 1997). On the one hand, shared knowledge increases the probability that the individuals act according to the expectations of the organization, enhancing the congruency of activities and strengthening the control of the organization (Sunder 2002). On the other hand, management control is generally considered to enhance communication structures (Simons 1995). The appropriate structures of internal communication make individuals aware of other capabilities of an organization (Cohen & Levinthal 1990) increasing the likelihood of creating more shared knowledge in the organization. Overlapping knowledge and an expectation of behavior also form the basis for organizational culture (Sunder 2002). Further organizational culture and shared knowledge facilitate knowledge integration and support knowledge assimilation and transformation processes (Grant 1996a). Despite the complexity and the indirect nature of the effects that management control may bring to knowledge, several studies have shed more light on the role of management control in affecting organizational learning. Kloot (1997) has studied the relationships between organizational learning and management control in two municipalities in Australia. The case studies show that differences in management control systems influence organizational learning and the success of an organization in implementing organizational change. The role of management control in organizational learning is also suggested to rely in knowledge codification. Codification tools as a part of management control system make knowledge appropriable and store past experiences to inform future actions (Chang & Birkett 2004; Leitner & Warden 2004; Morris & Empson 1998). Management control systems produce various kinds of information, not only to provide a basis for managerial decision-making but in the form of instructions available across the organization, policies and relevant information on technologies stored in databases. Levitt and March (1988) suggest that this kind of information supports organizational learning. Different effects of management control on organizational learning might emerge when using outcome, clan or behavioral controls in the organization (Eisenhardt 1985; Merchant & Van der Stede 2003; Ouchi 1977; Ouchi & Maguire 1975; Snell 1992; Turner & Makhija 2006). Nevertheless, the effects of controls on learning depend on the ways they are applied in the organization. Scholars have studied the effects of diagnostic and interactive use of management controls (Simons 1990; 1991; 1995) on organizational learning (e.g. Henri 2006). Through the involvement of top management, an interactive dialogue is stimulated throughout the organization integrating different levels of managers and specialists into a collective communication and decision-making process. It increases variations in behavior and nurtures learning, especially encouraging knowledge22 6 Acta Wasaensia exploration and integration throughout the organization. It affects the structure of communication processes, encouraging knowledge integration in two ways. Firstly, communication between different managerial levels induces common understandings and interpretations across the organizational hierarchy. Secondly, improved communication enhances the awareness of the capabilities of other employees and departments of the firm, further improving knowledge integration mechanisms (Cohen & Levinthal 1990). At the same time, the common understandings of organizational goals ensure that new knowledge is congruent with organizational strategies. Empirical studies have also shown the positive effect of interactive control systems on organizational capabilities by encouraging dialogue and directing organizational attention onto strategically important domains (see e.g., Henri 2006; Tuomela 2005). Thus, interactive use of management controls can increase and widen organizational level potential capacities by encouraging mechanisms of knowledge integration and the creativity of organizational members. Whereas interactive controls encourage knowledge exploration, the diagnostic types of controls would place more emphasis on exploitation of existing knowledge of the organization. The diagnostic use of management controls involves performance measures that are monitored through management-by-exception, correcting the deviations emerging from the performance measures as mistakes in actors behavior (Simons 1990; 1991; 1995). In this way, the actors behavior is more restricted. It leaves less space for experimenting and exploration, but is focused more on applying the existing capacities of the organization in the best possible way. Especially when the results are defined in the short-term, it minimizes opportunity-seeking and creativity. For instance, Hoskisson, Hitt and Hill (1993) found that an over-emphasis on short-term results of the managers decreases the intensity of R&D investments. Scholar have shown encouraging effect of management control on organizational learning (see e.g. Ditillo 2004; Hartmann & Vaassen 2003; Kloot 1997; Leitner & Warden 2004; Mouritsen & Larsen 2005), but it has not been studied yet, how does the firm maintain the balance of knowledge exploration and exploitation. What does it take to keep this balance in the organization? Therefore, the next section of this paper investigates the management control practices of the firm in managing learning and balancing knowledge exploration and exploitation in the organization. The story of a biotech company is presented to show how the interactive management control practices can lead to the situation when there is too much knowledge in the firm.23 Acta Wasaensia 7 3 Research approach and empirical setting Single case study is conducted in the biotechnology company to investigate management control and organizational learning in practice. The case study is a part of a larger doctoral research project that investigated intellectual capital management in biotechnology companies (see Bürkland 2009). This case study differs from the analysis of doctoral research project by focusing more on the effects of interactive and diagnostic controls on the balance of knowledge exploration and exploitation in the organization. The data collection and analysis are conducted using interpretive research method. The method of the present study is important to the existing literature, since there is a general lack of qualitative case studies about the issues of knowledge and learning in the organization (Marr, Gray & Neely 2003). There are only a few studies that seek to interpret the effects of working practices on knowledge and organizational learning (e.g., Johanson, Mårtensson & Skoog 2001; Kloot 1997; McNamara, Baxter & Chua 2004). Qualitative field research helps to take a deeper look into the management control methods and procedures in practice and better contribute to the theory development (Ahrens & Chapman 2006; Ahrens & Dent 1998; Vaivio 2008). The data was collected during interviews with 13 individuals were conducted, amounting to 22 hours of discussions, from which 18 hours were recorded. In addition to the interviews, various sources of documentary material, such as company reports, internal memos and records, reporting instructions, e- mails and a history of electronic correspondence were gathered (see Table 1). The 10-months time frame of the case study gave a reasonably long period of contact that allowed the researcher to investigate the ongoing processes in the firms. McKinnon (1988: 40) has suggested that the longer the period of interaction, the larger will be the number of events that form the data set for analysis, significantly affecting the validity of the study. In this case study the researcher had an opportunity to discuss several issues from their emergence through to their solution. Several discussions were also held informally without the tape recorder running. The researcher had several lunches and casual talks with the members of the case firms, covering a range of topics from family and educational background of the respondents, through to areas of conflict in the firms, which shed light on the ways in which people work in these organizations. Also knowing the backgrounds, beliefs and concerns of the respondents increased the understanding of the way people work and communicate in the workplace. These discussions24 8 Acta Wasaensia helped the researcher to better connect with respondents, facilitating openness, honesty and spontaneous reactions during the interviews. Data were organized and analyzed along the processes of interviewing. After each case visit the interviews were played back and transcribed. Coding was conducted by carefully reading and analyzing the meaning of the text. The codes were not predetermined but they emerged during the data collection and analysis (Corbin & Strauss 1990: 12; Miles & Huberman 1994: 61 62). Atlas.ti software (Muhr 2004) was applied in organizing and analyzing the case data. The codes were organized into families and networks according to the development of the concepts. The hypertext analysis of Atlas.ti was used to organize the original transcripts around the emerging patterns of the study and support the story telling in writingup procedures. It was also helpful in discovering some inconsistencies in the statements of the interviewees. The conceptual maps were further drawn in Network Editor of Atlas.ti (Muhr 2004) to analyze the patterns of themes of the study, and integrate them into the theory. Table 1. Interviews Respondents Number of interviews Interviews total (hours) Taperecorded (hours) CEO 2 1,95 1,81 Director of R&D 1 1,08 0,99 Director of Product Development 2 1,75 1,53 Director of Material Research 1 0,67 0,43 Division Manager 1 1 0,87 Controller 2 1,42 1,24 IPR Manager 6 7,38 5,01 Marketing Manager 1 1 0,8 Project Manager 3 2,45 2,26 Legal and Human Resource Manager 2 0,84 0,6 Quality Control Manager 2 2 1,69 Scientist of Material Research 1 0,5 0,4 Executive Assistant 2 0,54 0,47 Total: 26 22,58 18,1125 Acta Wasaensia 9 4 Case study 4.1 Overview of the firm InSpineTech Ltd 1 was founded in the late 1990s. It is developing and producing biodegradable medical implants, such as biodegradable plates, screws, pins and membranes that surgeons and other physicians can use in their practices. It employs about 100 employees. In addition to Finland, the company has corporate offices in the United States and Central Europe, and also several research centres and sales forces in other countries around the world. The sector of biomaterials is a very fast-growing segment of the global orthopedics market (Bergeron & Chan 2004). Therefore, InSpineTech has especially been focused on strategy of growth and innovation. Many of its products are still in research and development stage, and many of them already distributed in the market. The firm has developed and launched 10 different product lines in over 40 countries in the fields of surgery, sports medicine and orthopedic traumas. It more than doubled its sales in few years ( ) as a result of new product releases and an increasing demand for its products. 4.2 Management of the firm At the time of the first half of the field visits in the winter of 2005/2006, the company had a flat functional management structure. The seven departments of the company were organized around the main functions of the firm, such as R&D, operations, new business development, finance and administration, marketing and sales, and quality. The management of the organization considers largely the three competing discourses that the firm has to cope with the economic, legal and regulatory. In order to effectively manage organizational actions in considering these discourses, various formal structures are built covering the areas from R&D, manufacturing processes to distribution and marketing. To cope with the economic discourse, a system of strategic and operating planning has been built with budgeting and outcome indicators. Nevertheless, the targets are very flexible and include a great deal of variation which is discussed and monitored each year thorough the organization. 1 Pseudonym is used when referring to the firm.26 10 Acta Wasaensia Legal and regulatory discourses force the firm to adapt its activities to a number of regulatory restrictions. It is important to combine technological and scientific knowledge with the knowledge of quality systems and approval procedures of regulatory affairs. Therefore, the comprehensive quality system provides a significant part of the formal structures that determine the rules of action in most of the departments, especially in the production and R&D departments. The quality system has proved to be effective in gathering professional knowledge and analysis of issues from different fields, such as biology, engineering, marketing and production. It has allowed the firm to bring many products to market (including the regulatory clearances). 4.3 Interactive management controls The management control is highly interactive, comprising numerous monthly meetings and informal every-day communication thorough the organization. Top managers pay special attention to creating an encouraging and motivational environment. There is a highly informal information flow across all managerial levels of the organization. A human touch is visible in the form of continuous reflection and feedback that top managers provide to the organizational members at all levels. There is an open dialogue through the different levels of management and across the functions of the organization. The CEO reveals: People know very well what has been done in the organization and by the top-managers. That is the signal towards the employees that there is a culture of trust and a culture of belief. Interviewees enthusiastically tell how important are the CEO s and other top-level managers comments and advice that they receive face-to-face in brief discussions, through or just in the form of a short comment in some team-room. For instance, such short comments as Great! and Good job! provided by the CEO give organizational members the motivation and confidence to make their own decisions. At the same time the outcome control is applied and metrics used to monitor the performance. Within the targets that are set, organizational members have a large degree of autonomy in choosing their ways of doing things. There is a significant amount of self-regulation and informal lines of communication and action. Managers grant high degrees of autonomy to the employees of research, development, marketing, legal affairs and other departments (the production department being an exception). There is a lot of freedom for people to choose the most appropriate actions.27 Acta Wasaensia 11 Managers explain the autonomy by the need to maintain a motivational environment. As one division managers says, My philosophy has always been if I do not hear anything, then it is running OK! If there is a problem, then middle level managers do not usually load their subordinates with written reports about these bottlenecks, but encourage them to present their problems in a meeting or notify them by . It there is a problem, then information about it is disseminated informally mainly via phone-call, or face-to-face discussion. The Director of R&D explains: The company is still small enough that you can manage it by walking around and it does not take that much time per day to understand. A half an hour just walking and try to keep the finger on the pulse of what is happening. The senior managers are confident that they are always informed about the critical issues. As the director of R&D says: they [indicating his subordinates] will come to me, if there is anything that needs to be resolved. The combination of a high degree of autonomy, encouraging leadership and clear definitions of desired outcomes plays a significant role in building enthusiasm and motivation among staff. A significant goal of management has been to nourish an organizational culture of innovation. It can be seen at all levels of management and in the different functions of the organization that people are very proud of the innovative products of the firm, and happy to provide their skills and capabilities for the success of the firm. People like their organization very much and everybody wants to make a contribution. They are highly inspired and proud of their work, constantly aiming for better outcomes and improvements to organizational processes. This encourages them to explore new information and pursue opportunities. Every member of the organization is eager to find new ways of doing things and communicating ideas to the others. Many interviewees excitedly tell how they have provided new ideas and solutions for the firm and how the motivational environment and good leadership has encouraged them to do so. 4.4 High degree of communication and knowledge sharing Since the desired outcome is often defined for the team not for a single person, people need to communicate a lot. Group level responsibilities and the development of products that span the organizational units force the firm to maintain a large number of meetings to integrate relevant knowledge. In addition, since the results of each department were often dependent on the activities of other depart-28 12 Acta Wasaensia ments, it required even more communication and coordination of activities across different functions of the firm. The organization has a strong culture of communication and knowledge sharing. There are many meetings on a wide array of topics and involving participants with varied backgrounds. In addition to the structured meetings, ad hoc meetings are very common in everyday practice. Each problem will be discussed with others and often a meeting scheduled for wider discussion. In addition, in order to nourish the innovativeness of the firm, there are also meetings that do not aim to solve concrete triggers but which may create new ones. One project manager describes the meetings thus: So, necessarily we do not make any big decisions in that kind of meeting, but rather it is kind of brainstorming environment when we get new questions more than answers, I would say. And all the people might throw in some new ideas and then you need to start solving those problems. Thus, in addition to discussing the existing problems they find more problems in these brainstorming sessions. Thus, there are a number of such meetings that increase the amount of knowledge exploration activities in the firm. To facilitate all that communication and to store important information, special electronic team-rooms have been developed. Team-rooms are integrated groupware environments for electronic communication and information-sharing. These enable the firm to gather and share considerable amount of formal and informal information. All kinds of plans and reports, full accounts of discussions and arguments occurring during decision-making are all saved in the files of the teamroom system. Team-rooms are also used for the kind of decision-making that requires a large amount of information and acceptance from many managers and specialists in the firm. During the discussions, different specialists add their opinion and relevant information to the topic in the form of additional text and attached files. The electronic discussion is open as long as everybody has agreed and approved the documents. In this way, the team-room enables the firm to gather necessary information and knowledge from people to build a package of knowledge about a specific topic. Since managers cannot always be physically around due to the geographical location of the headquarters team-rooms become more and more valuable for communication. The opening of clinical centres in Europe and North America (16 17 centres altogether) has increased the significance of team-rooms in sharing relevant information and coordinating activities.29 Acta Wasaensia 13 Across the organization, strong knowledge codification culture is nurtured. All kinds of databases are built for information storing. All the documents in these databases are signed and shared in electronic form. The structure and application of these databases, as well as application of teamrooms, is flexible, however. Most of information in the databases and teamrooms is in form of narrative. Each department has created its own ways of communicating, restoring and structuring the information. Top managers have left the middle managers to run the databases and team-rooms in the way that is most convenient for them. Therefore, much of the information is stored and structured not according to the detailed content, but following the chronological order of its storage. 4.5 Limits of knowledge exploration and integration At a point in time, however, organization members found that there is too much information and knowledge everywhere. Electronic team-rooms and databases started to become overwhelmed with information. As one of the managers said: databases, team-rooms, there is so much information that I do not think anybody knows in the company, all that is stored there. It is a very safe statement to say that it is in a quality system or it is in a database, because it is most probably there, but whether you can find it, is a different story. Thus, much of information existed in the system but its potential remained unused in building the capacities of the firm. People started to have difficulties finding necessary information. People also started to feel that the growing level of collaboration in the organization starts to hinder the productivity of the firm. Often weekly calendars of organizational members are full of all kinds of meetings to conduct numerous discussions within or across different departments of the firm. During the period of the interviews, the firm was growing rapidly, new people were continuously being hired and new projects started. At the same time the management of the company was still based on a flat organizational structure, and having a culture of sharing and open communication. It seemed that the organization reached a point of having too much knowledge exploration activities, especially activities of knowledge integration that generated enormous amounts of potential capacities at lower management levels. People recognized that there are limits to knowledge exploration and integration activities. There is a limit to the amount of communication in team-rooms, e- mails and meetings that one is able to read and respond to. Most of the interviewees described at least three formal meetings that they regularly attended in addi- Näytä lisää
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