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Timestamp: 2016-12-06 18:33:26
Document Index: 423618269

Matched Legal Cases: ['Art. 51', 'Art. 50', 'Art. 4', 'de lege ferenda', 'Art. 1', 'art 1', 'ART 85']

⭐Fifth Informal Expert Meeting The Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under IHL. Expert Comments & Elements of Response
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1 1 Fifth Informal Expert Meeting The Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under IHL Expert Comments & Elements of Response Concerning the Revised Draft of the Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities International Committee of the Red Cross Geneva, 5 / 6 February 2008 Remark: The present document was prepared by Nils Melzer, Legal Adviser at the Legal Division of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), in a personal capacity and does not express, or intend to express, the institutional position of the ICRC or its Legal Division on any aspect of the topics discussed. The summary of comments, as well as the preliminary elements of response, were written in good faith and to the best of the author s ability, but cannot claim to provide a detailed and complete overview of the opinions held by the experts, or to offer comprehensive and consolidated solutions for the various issues to be resolved.2 2 Introduction The purpose of the present document is to facilitate, focus and streamline the discussions at the Fifth Expert Meeting of 5 / 6 February 2008, which aims to bring this clarification process on the notion of direct participation in hostilities to a conclusion. The document provides an overview of those issues, which continue to raise questions, concerns or disagreement among the experts, based on the written comments received from 26 experts between July and October 2007 on the Revised Draft Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities of 6 July 2007 (unless stated otherwise, all page numbers refer to this draft document). As it will not be possible to comprehensively address all of these issues during the 2008 Expert Meeting, the present document also offers preliminary "elements of response and, where appropriate, proposals as to how the concerns in question could be adequately addressed. For technical reasons, it was not possible to include the editorial and substantive comments made by four experts in track-mode directly in the text of the Draft Interpretive Guidance. However, the primary substantive concerns expressed by these experts were included based on the additional standard text-format comments submitted by them. All expert comments have been re-grouped under the 10 thematic Headings of the Draft Interpretive Guidance, plus an opening section on the Introductory Paragraphs of the Interpretive Guidance and a concluding section on Comments of General, Formal or Editorial Nature. [...] Furthermore, the individual comments have been shortened and, where possible, merged with others in order to make the text more accessible to the reader. Thus, while every effort was made to faithfully capture and reflect the essence and personal character of each comment, the resulting summaries do not constitute textual quotes. Note: In order to exclude misunderstandings and facilitate the discussion, the comments in the original version of this Background Document had been left nominally attributed. As the expert process was conducted under the Chatham House Rule, all names have been replaced by anonymous references in this published version.3 3 Introductory Paragraphs of the Interpretive Guidance Trends Described in the Introduction Terminology: Reference to Secret Service Personnel... 5 I. The Concept of Civilian in International Armed Conflict "Civilians / Combatants" vs. "Civilians / Armed Forces" Mutual Exclusivity between Civilians and Armed Forces Terminology: Describing the Link to a Party to the Conflict Parallel International / Non-International Armed Conflicts... 8 II. The Concept of Civilian in Non-International Armed Conflict Continuous Loss of Protection for Members of Organized Armed Groups Functional Membership Approach Terminology: Reference to Continuous Combat Function The Notion of Irregularly Constituted Armed Forces Police and Armed Forces in Non-International Armed Conflict Armed Groups as Party or Armed Forces of a Party to the Conflict III. Private Contractors and Civilian Employees IV. Direct Participation in Hostilities as a Specific Act V. Constitutive Elements of Direct Participation in Hostilities General Comments Threshold of Harm a) Likely vs Intended Harm b) Qualitative Threshold c) Quantitative Threshold ( Effective Control ) d) Quantitative Threshold (Inter-Civilian Violence) e) Quantitative Threshold (Hostage Taking) Direct Causation Belligerent Nexus Voluntary Human Shields VI. Beginning and End of Direct Participation in Hostilities VII. The Temporal Scope of the Suspension of Civilian Protection VIII. Precautions and Presumptions in Situations of Doubt... 374 4 IX. Restraints on the Use of Force in Direct Attack Rejection of Standards and Concern over Consequences Rejection of Standards and Need for further Discussion Partial Support for the Proposed Standards Full Support for the Proposed Standards Terminology: Reference to Arrest Elements of Response and Proposed Way Forward X. Consequences of Regaining Civilian Protection Comments of General, Formal or Editorial Nature Proposed Disclaimers and General Remarks Structure, Form and Terminology Presentation of Dissenting Opinions etc References to the Israeli Targeted Killing -Judgment Proposed Way Forward... 485 5 Introductory Paragraphs of the Interpretive Guidance 1. Trends Described in the Introduction One expert: The ambiguous situations created by farmers by day and fighters by night has marked situations of occupation and liberation wars throughout recent history. The framework defined for combatants in Article 44 [3] AP I aims to balance military and humanitarian concerns as much as possible. The confusion and uncertainty as to the implementation of the principle of distinction will occur only if the notion of "direct participation in hostilities" is interpreted to extend beyond the "tactical / geographical framework" expressed in Article 44 [3] AP I, for which the temporary loss of immunity set out in Art. 51 [3] AP I was designed. Outside this framework, the focus should be on targeting legitimate military objectives such as drones, computer systems, missile bases, ammunition trucks, the manufacture of weapons etc. and not necessarily the civilians operating these objectives. One expert points out that the shift of military operations into civilian population centers is not a new phenomenon. What is new is deliberate use of urban areas to shield military objectives from attack - and, in particular, use of voluntary or involuntary human shields. Therefore, this issue (of human shields) should be highlighted in the introduction. One expert acknowledges that there is a trend towards more civilian contracting, but clarifies that it is not necessarily the case that there has been a trend towards the civilianization of the armed forces (most notably because the contracted functions do not necessarily amount to direct participation in hostilities). Proposed Way Forward: These comments will be taken into due consideration in the final revision of the Interpretive Guidance. 2. Terminology: Reference to Secret Service Personnel Three Experts: The reference on (p. 4) to "secret service" personnel should be dropped or changed to "civilian intelligence personnel" or paramilitary forces. Generally, the phrase "other civilian government employees" is sufficient. Proposed Way Forward: This comment will be taken into due consideration in the final revision of the Interpretive Guidance.6 6 I. The Concept of Civilian in International Armed Conflict In international armed conflict, all persons who are neither members of an organized armed force, group or unit under a command responsible to a party to the conflict, nor participants in a levée en masse, are civilians and, therefore, are entitled to protection against direct attack unless and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities. 1. "Civilians / Combatants" vs. "Civilians / Armed Forces" Two experts, albeit for different reasons, propose a distinction between combatants and civilians rather than between armed forces and civilians. One expert: The distinction between combatants and civilians better corresponds to the distinction between persons who are and, respectively, are not entitled to protection against direct attack, since some members of the armed forces, namely medical and religious personnel, also remain protected as non-combatants. One expert: The basic dichotomy should not be between civilians (whether peaceful or directly participating in hostilities) on the one hand, and members of armed forces on the other, but between peaceful civilians on the one hand and combatants on the other. The category of combatant should include both lawful (i.e. members of armed forces plus levée en masse) and unlawful (i.e. all others who directly participate in hostilities, including those not belonging to a party to the conflict) combatants. As a compromise approach, he proposes that the distinction should simply be made between persons who are and, respectively, are not subject to attack. Elements of Response: The primary purpose of Section I is not to make a comprehensive distinction between persons who are or, respectively, are not entitled to protection against direct attack but, more precisely, to circumscribe the category of persons who are entitled to protection against attack unless and for such time as they take a direct part in hostilities. In the customary rule expressed in Articles 51 [3] AP I and 13 [3] AP II, this category of persons is described as civilians. While the terms armed forces, combatant and civilian are used and defined in treaty IHL, the term unlawful combatant is not and remains too controversial to serve as a basis for consensus. The view that persons, who are neither members of the armed forces of a party to the conflict nor participants in a levée en masse,7 7 lose civilian status as soon as they directly participate in hostilities contradicts the definition of civilian expressed in Article 50 [1] AP I. Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to retain the wording and argument of the Draft Interpretive Guidance and to reflect dissenting opinions on this point in the footnotes to the Commentary. 2. Mutual Exclusivity between Civilians and Armed Forces Three experts: The proposed interpretation of the categories of civilian and armed forces as both mutually exclusive (i.e. one excludes the other) and absolutely complementary (i.e. tertium non datur) in international armed conflict is not convincing or, at least, could be misunderstood as suggesting that any person not entitled to POW-status under GC III would necessarily have to be protected under GC IV, without taking into account possible exceptions based on nationality, geographic factors, or for reasons set forth in Article 5 GC IV. It is absurd that participants in a levée en masse respecting IHL should not be considered civilians, while those not respecting IHL should be deemed civilians. One expert: It is systematically and politically impossible to separate the question of who is a civilian for the conduct of hostilities (Art. 50 [1] AP I) from the concept of who is a civilian once fallen into the hands of the enemy (Art. 4 GC IV). Elements of Response: It is important not to confuse the status of civilian, which affords protection against direct attack unless and for such time as a civilian directly participates in hostilities, and the status of protected person under GC IV, which affords protection against arbitrary exercise of power. The mutual exclusivity and absolute complementary of the categories of civilian and armed forces (except levée en masse), is expressly stated in Article 50 AP I, which incorporates and builds on the concepts underlying the GC and H IV R. Contrary to what its title suggests, GC IV does not tie its protection to civilian status but simply to the fact that persons are not protected under GC I-III and do not fall under any of the exception clauses provided in GC IV. Therefore, while civilians entitled to POW-status under Article 4 A [4], [5] GC III are not protected under GC IV, the concept of protected persons under Article 4 GC IV is not limited to civilians but may also include members of the armed forces who, for whatever reason, have lost their entitlement to POW-status. Thus, the distinction between civilians and armed forces for the purposes of the conduct of hostilities does not in all aspects correspond to that between protected persons (GC IV) and POW (GC III).8 8 Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to retain the approach chosen in the Draft Interpretive Guidance, as well as the express clarification that, in accordance with the scope given to this clarification process, the Interpretive Guidance focuses on clarifying the notion of direct participation in hostilities for the purposes of the conduct of hostilities only and does not address the status, rights and protections of persons outside the conduct of hostilities, such as those deprived of their liberty for reasons related to their involvement in hostilities (currently p. 8 of the Draft). 3. Terminology: Describing the Link to a Party to the Conflict Four experts: Phrases such as "belonging to", "under command responsible to, in support of and attributability to a party to the conflict each describe a distinct quality or degree of relationship between armed actors and a state. Therefore, in interpreting the notion of civilian, it is necessary to distinguish and employ these phrases accurately Elements of Response: In relation to organized armed forces or groups, the phrases "belonging to" and "under command responsible to, though not necessarily identical in scope, both indicate that such forces conduct hostilities on behalf of a party to the conflict and, therefore, would qualify as its armed forces under the definition expressed in Article 43 [1] AP. It would therefore be difficult to conclude that their conduct is not attributable to that party. 1 The phrase in support of, on the other hand, is an indicator for belligerent nexus, and not for attributability, of the conduct in question. Proposed Way Forward: The Interpretive Guidance will be reviewed with a view to ensuring accuracy and coherence in this respect. 4. Parallel International / Non-International Armed Conflicts Some experts comment on the category of independent armed groups, which resort to violence in a situation of international armed conflict without belonging to a party thereto. 1 See Article 3 H IV: A belligerent party which violates the provisions of the said Regulations shall, if the case demands, be liable to pay compensation. It shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces9 9 According to the Draft Interpretive Guidance, such groups must be regarded as civilians, unless the violence on their part reaches the threshold of non-international armed conflict: One expert: The question whether a non-international armed conflict can exist simultaneously alongside an international armed conflict within the framework of a single armed confrontation (including in occupied territories) is not yet universally recognized, and that some scholars believe that any conflict which is international in nature should be regarded as an international armed conflict exclusively, even in the case of involvement of organized armed groups not belonging to a state party to that conflict. If the latter view were to prevail, provision would have to be made in the Interpretive Guidance that members of such armed groups are not regarded as civilians. One expert: If the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is regarded as an international armed conflict, and Palestinian groups as independent resistance groups in an occupied territory, the question arises as to who is the other party to the international armed conflict. One expert: The earlier stages of the conflict in Afghanistan and, more recently, the conflict between Israel and Hezbollah in south Lebanon, illustrated that sustained military operations can be carried out by and against independent armed groups which are not (necessarily) acting on behalf of a state. It would seem bizarre to qualify such organized armed groups as civilians, or to say that IHL does not accommodate the parallel existence of international and non-international armed conflicts side by side. One expert expresses particular support for the distinction made between the parties to the conflict and their armed forces, the continuous taking into account of law enforcement in situations of armed conflict, and of the conclusion that hostilities with an independent armed group may constitute a separate, additional non-international armed conflict. Elements of Response: Where part of the civilian population engages in organized armed violence without supporting one of the state parties to the surrounding international armed conflict, they can hardly be regarded as "taking part" in pre-existing hostilities between these parties (belligerent nexus). In the absence of belligerent nexus to the existing hostilities, it should be determined whether the intensity of violence reaches the threshold required for a separate non-international armed conflict, and whether the militant segment of the population can be regarded as the armed forces of a party to that conflict. If this is not the case, the conduct in question must be regarded as civilian unrest and would have to be dealt with under standards of law enforcement and self-defense. The alternative concept of continuous direct participation in hostilities may appear more appealing at first sight, because it permits to circumvent the test of whether violence on the part of independent armed actors reaches the threshold required for a non-international armed conflict. In doing so, however, it also removes whatever safeguards IHL may have provided to prevent the10 10 arbitrary use of military force against groups which, for lack of organization, means or belligerent nexus, cannot be regarded as equivalent to the armed forces of a party to the conflict, and whose members should therefore be dealt with in accordance with the standards of law enforcement or individual self-defense, unless and for such time as they actually take a direct part in hostilities (e.g. drug cartels, mafia and other criminal gangs, violent political, religious or anti-globalization protest groups, but also private security personnel). While the parallel existence of international and non-international armed conflict in the same operational context may give rise to a number of questions, which require detailed legal analysis, the phenomenon as such is neither new nor uncommon on a global scale and has not created legal or operational problems which cannot be effectively addressed under the existing frameworks. Proposed Way Forward: In accordance with the elements of response, it is proposed to retain the approach of the Draft Interpretive Guidance and to adequately reflect dissenting opinions and other concerns expressed in the footnotes to the Commentary.11 11 II. The Concept of Civilian in Non-International Armed Conflict In non-international armed conflict, all persons who are not members of state armed forces, dissident armed forces or other organized armed groups under a command responsible to a party to the conflict are civilians and, therefore, are entitled to protection against direct attack unless and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities. Irregularly constituted armed forces or groups comprise only those individuals whose continuous function it is to directly participate in hostilities for a party to the conflict on a regular basis. 1. Continuous Loss of Protection for Members of Organized Armed Groups Several experts have addressed the fact that the Interpretive Guidance conceives members of organized armed groups of parties to non-international armed conflicts as continuous military targets regardless of whether they are, at the time of attack, directly participating in hostilities: One expert: The rationale underlying the Additional Protocols is that members of organized armed groups become a military objective when they distinguish themselves by congregating in a military formation, or by deploying to, or undertaking a military operation. In view of Article 50 [3] AP I, however, "[t]he presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character". Thus, on the micro level, individual members of armed groups present among the civilian population do not constitute a military objective that can be targeted by military means. But they can be pursued through law enforcement means, which are the only ones adapted to a civilian population environment. The approach proposed in the Draft Interpretive Guidance goes against this ratio legis of the Additional Protocols and undoes the delicate balance, which these instruments strove so hard to reach, and which remains the applicable law. One expert: Depending on the character of the non-state party, it may not be adequate for all non-international armed conflicts. Where members of non-state armed groups possess a relatively high degree of military organization and assume functions equivalent to combatants, they should be excluded from civilian protection. Where the non-state party is12 12 less organized, it may be more appropriate to regard every person other than government armed forces as a civilian subject to the rule on direct participation in hostilities. The ensuing problem of reciprocity is inherent in such situations and cannot be resolved. In any case, however, persons who do not belong to an organization of a party to the conflict are always civilians, even if they fight regularly. One expert: The restriction of the Interpretive Guidance to "the analysis and interpretation of IHL only" is problematic in view of the fact that it extends its conclusions to situations that may be regulated primarily by human rights law. For example, the conclusion that members of "groups belonging to a party to the conflict lose civilian protection for the duration of their membership" could be interpreted to allow for those "members" to be shot on sight in situations amounting to extrajudicial executions under human rights law. If the proposed Interpretive Guidance is to be a useful tool in contexts of non-international armed conflict, which are mostly of low intensity or geographically localized within a country, it would therefore be necessary to harmonize the text in this respect. One expert: The exclusion of members of irregular armed groups from the concept of civilians is dangerous and not fully compatible with the letter of the law. More conform to the letter, context and spirit of IHL (or, at least, of AP I and II) is probably the position that everyone who lacks combatant status is a civilian benefiting from the rule on direct participation in hostilities, even though it may raise the practical problems mentioned in the Interpretive Guidance and may contradict the wording of Article 3 GC I-IV. Overall, the approach proposed in the Interpretive Guidance is probably the only viable solution to avoid an extensive interpretation of the direct participation in hostilities rule, which would threaten all other civilians. Three experts express support particularly for the proposed exclusion of members of nonstate armed groups from the civilian category rather than applying the alternative approach of "continuous" direct participation in hostilities, particularly as the alternative approach might not only give rise to legal, practical and operational confusion, but also negatively affect essential standards of humanitarian protection. One expert: Just as in international armed conflict, the dichotomy should not be between civilians and armed forces but between civilians and the category of fighters which, according to the San Remo Manual on non-international armed conflict, excludes any person directly participating in hostilities from the category and protection of civilian. Elements of Response: The structure and logic of IHL strongly suggest a distinction between the organized armed forces or groups of the parties to the conflict, which lose protection against direct attack for as long as they assume that function, and armed actors directly participating in hostilities on a spontaneous, sporadic or unorganized basis, which13 13 lose protection only for the duration of specific acts amounting to such participation. Such a distinction also appears indispensable for the protection of civilians from erroneous, arbitrary or unnecessary attacks. Treaty texts and state practice neither support the extension of the specific acts -approach to all armed actors other than state armed forces, nor the extension of continuous loss of protection to spontaneous, sporadic or unorganized participants. The distinction between organized armed actors with a strong and recognizable military organization and less sophisticated, more loosely organized armed groups would be de lege ferenda but does not seem to have a sufficient basis in the lex lata of IHL. The fact that organized armed actors lose protection for as long as they assume combat function does not dispense those attacking them: (a) from their duty to take all feasible precautions to minimize and, in any event, avoid erroneous or incidental harm to peaceful civilians, particularly in situations where such armed actors intermingle with the civilian population; (b) from the presumption of civilian protection in case of doubt; and (c) from further restrictions that may arise under other applicable normative frameworks of international law. Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to retain the approach chosen in the Draft Interpretive Guidance and to reflect the expressed concerns on this point in the footnotes to the Commentary. 2. Functional Membership Approach Several experts discuss the appropriateness of determining membership in organized armed groups based on individual combat function: Two experts: The determination of group membership based on individual combat function is too narrow and draws upon a questionable analogy with state armed forces to distinguish between the combat arm of non-state groups and support personnel in such groups. Depending upon the nature, structure and purpose of the group, such distinctions may be impractical or unworkable from the perspective of states. While membership should not be presumed based on arbitrary criteria prone to abuse, it should be determined based on a factual analysis, including the individual s specific acts in support of an organized armed group and, where appropriate, demonstrated hostile intent. In addition, as with regular armed forces, the overall function of the organization must be considered when assessing whether the organization includes any individuals who do not have a combat function or whether its supporters have a combat function. The aim should therefore be to accurately define the group and not individual function. Finally, continuous direct participation in hostilities should14 14 be a basis for targeting alternative to membership, because these concepts seem to be very closely linked, and the continuous direct participation approach helpfully permits appropriate weighing of temporal and functional considerations. One expert rejects the "combat function" idea altogether and holds that a cook in an organized armed group should also be regarded as a non-civilian. One expert also favors a group approach rather than one based on individual function. While it is often difficult to determine membership, some groups may wear uniforms or other distinctive signs facilitating their identification. Overall, a more reasonable and operationally practicable approach would be to allow the membership approach but to fall back onto the individual function test in case of doubt. A membership approach would not necessarily have to embrace anyone associated with the group but could be more narrowly defined. If combat function is relied on, the term and its relation to the notion of direct participation in hostilities should be better defined and explained in the text. Two experts express support for the proposed distinction between civilians and members of armed forces or groups based on the functional determination of membership. One of these experts: Persons could even be excluded from the concept of civilians based on combat function alone, but not on membership alone. In other words, while combat function may serve as a guidance to identify membership in case of doubt, even a "fully licensed" member of an armed group with membership card who lacks fighting function (the accountant or the fundraiser) must be regarded as a civilian benefiting from the direct participation in hostilities rule. In order to avoid misunderstandings, the term membership should be used in conjunction with the clarification determined based on the individual s function in the group as often as possible. Particularly where reference is made to a revolving door operating based on "membership" and to loss of protection for the duration of membership, these statements must imperatively be read together with the functional determination of membership. One expert: Membership within an armed group should be determined based on the function performed by the persons in question but emphasizes that, contrary to the statement on p. 20 of the Interpretive Guidance, the performance of an administrative function within an armed group, such as certain logistical functions, may qualify as a combat function. Furthermore, where persons assume functions that include fighting, they are lawful targets regardless of whether they also carry out non-combat support functions. Only where cooks perform a pure support function similar to a civilian contractor for state armed forces, are they not members of the armed group and cannot be individually targeted on that basis. One expert, while not rejecting the functional determination of membership, suggests that it should include not only direct combat or assistance thereto, but also more general activities not necessarily related to concrete acts and operations such as military training (both15 15 instructors and trainees), recruiting of combatants, manufacturing, procuring and storing arms, devising military strategies, etc. Consequently, any activities which are either "securityrelated" or "military" in nature, including all military "capacity-building", should lead to loss of civilian protection. Elements of Response: The objective and reliable determination of membership in organized armed groups belonging to non-state parties to an armed conflict is one of the most difficult and delicate issues to be addressed. Apart from the levée en masse, treaty IHL bases collective and continuous loss of protection against direct attack invariably on membership in organized armed forces or groups belonging to a party to the conflict. In view of the underlying purpose and principles of IHL, the rationale behind the conventional concept of membership must be to distinguish the fighting personnel and military command of non-state armed groups from civilians accompanying or supporting the group in functions which do not amount to direct participation in hostilities. The only relatively reliable criterion for such a distinction, which emerged during the expert process, is whether an individual assumes combat function within the group in question, that is to say, a continuous function which involves activities amounting to direct participation in hostilities on a regular basis. Determining membership based on combat function is not necessarily a more individualized approach than the group approach suggested by some experts. In the end, once the group has been identified, it will still be necessary to decide whether the targeted individuals are, in fact, fighting members of the group or merely civilians accompanying or supporting it without directly participating in hostilities. Depending on the circumstances, this determination may be easy or difficult, may be made based on uniforms, distinctive signs, visible weapons and other context-specific indicators, and it always remains subject to the principle of precaution and the presumption of protection in case of doubt. In any case, however, conduct that would not be sufficient to entail temporary loss of protection if carried out by a civilian on a merely spontaneous, sporadic or unorganized basis should not entail continuous loss of protection merely because it is carried out as part of a function continuously assumed within an organized armed group. Loss of protection in case of such non-combat membership exists exclusively in state armed forces, because it is based on a formal notion of membership that cannot be transposed to non-state armed groups. Finally, accepting the concept of continuous direct participation in hostilities as a basis for targeting in addition to membership would severely undermine the clarity of distinction between members of organized armed forces and groups of the parties to the conflict, who are subject to direct attack for the duration of their combat function, and civilians, who are entitled to protection unless and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities.16 16 Proposed Way Forward: In view of its decisive importance within the Interpretive Guidance, the issue of the "functional membership" approach will be put on the Agenda of the 2008 Expert Meeting. 3. Terminology: Reference to Continuous Combat Function Four experts express concern with regard to the use of the term continuous in relation with combat function. According to the dictionary, the word continuous means without interruption, forming a series with no exceptions or reversals. Therefore, the current wording of the Interpretive Guidance may lead to the misunderstanding that, for example, members of the dissident armed forces might not be considered performing a continuous function when they return to a civilian domestic employment during the day. This would contradict the express rejection of the farmer by day, soldier by night scenario elsewhere in the Interpretive Guidance. An acceptable alternative may be the word primary, or the phrase of lasting integration into the organized armed group used on p. 20 of the Interpretive Guidance. One of these experts: Interpreting "continuous function" only as acts performed on a regular basis raises questions as to the extent of information required until an individual could be positively identified as assuming a "continuous function" and, thus, as a member of an organized armed group. Elements of Response: The word continuous does not refer to the actual fighting, but to the ongoing assumption of a function, even on stand-by, which involves direct participation in hostilities on a regular - but not necessarily continuous - basis. The alternative word primary appears too restrictive, because a person whose "primary" function is to cook for an armed group may, nevertheless, regularly take a direct part in hostilities based on a "secondary", but continuous, combat function. The alternative phrase of lasting integration into the organized armed group may be descriptive for the term membership but does not provide criteria for the distinction between fighting personnel and non-combat supporters. Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to maintain the word continuous in the Interpretive Guidance, but to expressly clarify its meaning in order to avoid misunderstandings.17 17 4. The Notion of Irregularly Constituted Armed Forces One expert: Doubts as to the use of the notion of irregularly constituted armed forces. As far as State Armed Forces (pp. 17 ff.) are concerned, the concept of irregularly constituted armed forces is not of assistance in the context of IHL, because the definition of armed forces depends on functional criteria and rather than regularity under domestic law. Decisive is whether there has been an explicit or implicit authorization to use of methods and means of warfare by the respective government, regardless of whether this occurred in accordance with domestic law. Non-State Armed Forces (pp. 18 ff.), on the other hand, are by their nature irregularly constituted. Therefore, the text should only use organized armed groups. One expert also requests clarification as to the purpose of the definition of irregularly constituted armed forces and as to the consequences of membership therein. Elements of Response: The distinction between regularly and irregularly constituted armed forces or groups is made because of the different concepts of membership on which they are based. Membership in regularly constituted forces is generally based on formal incorporation, regulated in domestic law and evidenced by uniforms, insignia and equipment. These factors can be used to determine membership in regular state armed forces, including incorporated units of police, border guard and similar uniformed forces, as well as in dissident armed forces which maintain their previous (regular) structure after turning against the government. Conversely, membership in irregularly constituted armed forces or groups, whether organized paramilitary or resistance groups belonging to the state or non-state armed groups other than dissident armed forces, generally is not regulated in domestic law, is rarely based on an official act of integration other than taking up a certain function within the group, and is not, or not consistently, expressed through uniforms or other distinctive signs. Therefore, membership in such irregularly constituted armed forces or groups should be determined based on functional, rather than formal, criteria (i.e. combat function). Proposed Way Forward: Experts are invited to further comment / propose alternative terminology for the envisaged distinction between "regularly" and "irregularly" constituted armed forces or groups during the 2008 Expert Meeting, having in mind the provided Elements of Response.18 18 5. Police and Armed Forces in Non-International Armed Conflict One expert: The position on police forces in non-international armed conflict (pp. 17 f.) should be clarified. The proposed text is not clear as to whether all armed police forces should come within the definition of armed forces or only those actually incorporated into the armed forces, and what would be the solution for police forces, which are only armed in specific circumstances, or for (unarmed) police operating alongside an armed response unit. One expert: As far as police forces are concerned, the concept of armed forces is not the same in international and non-international armed conflicts. In international armed conflicts, members of police forces are only combatants if they are incorporated into the armed forces. If not, they are neither authorized to directly participate in hostilities nor subject to lawful attack. In non-international armed conflicts, police forces cannot be prohibited from arresting rebels who, even if they respect IHL, remain criminals under domestic law. Moreover, in international armed conflicts, the distinction between the conduct of hostilities and law enforcement also depends on the status of those targeted. While the police act against civilians, only combatants have the right to act against armed forces. As there is no combatant status in non-international armed conflicts, police forces should not be regarded as civilians, independently of whether or not they are incorporated into the armed forces. Elements of Response: For the purposes of the principle of distinction, where police units have been formally incorporated into the armed forces, or where they de facto have been assigned continuous combat functions exceeding the framework of duties usually fulfilled during peacetime, such units should be regarded as part of the armed forces. In noninternational armed conflict, there clearly is an overlap between law enforcement and the conduct of hostilities. Where the arrest of a criminal suspect (law enforcement) concerns a rebel leader in non-international armed conflict, the arrest simultaneously also qualifies as a military operation aiming to capture a legitimate target (conduct of hostilities). Specific operations, in which the ordinary law enforcement functions of police become part of the conduct of hostilities, should be regarded as sporadic direct participation in hostilities (as opposed to the continuous assumption of combat function) and, therefore, should lead to loss of civilian protection only for the duration of each relevant operation. In sum, members of police units, whether armed or unarmed, lose protection against direct attack only where their conduct, or the continuous function they assume, amounts to direct participation in hostilities. Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to clarify the text of the Interpretive Guidance in accordance with the preceding Elements of Response.19 19 6. Armed Groups as Party or Armed Forces of a Party to the Conflict One expert: While it is understood that Article 3 GC I-IV refers to each Party to a noninternational armed conflict, it remains unclear which entity or group actually constitutes the non-state party. The validity of the statement that the notion of organized armed group cannot be equated with that of a party to the conflict as a whole (p. 22) is doubtful. Where an organized armed group is fighting against the government without being associated to a political wing or any other entity, it is conceivable that this group is identical with the nonstate party. The Interpretive Guidance should clarify which entity/party is the addressee of the responsible command over the armed group in such cases. One expert emphasizes the importance of adequately distinguishing between membership in the political or other part of the movement, which is a party to the armed conflict, and membership in the armed group. While it is difficult to see how anyone could be a member of an armed group and not be a lawful target, someone who supports a political movement or who even supports the armed group is not, therefore, a member of the armed group. The membership in the armed group would be determined largely by the function those persons perform. Of course, this does not exclude that civilians directly participate in hostilities on an individual bases. One expert particularly supports the distinction between the parties to the conflict and their armed forces. Elements of Response: While the distinction between the parties to an armed conflict and their armed forces is indispensable in conceptual terms, it admittedly cannot be excluded that, in exceptional circumstances, a party to the conflict consists exclusively of its own armed forces, for example where dissident armed forces turn against their government without creating a political or civilian wing. 2 The purpose of the distinction between the party and its armed forces is to make clear that persons do not become continuous targets because of their affiliation with, or support for, a party to the conflict, but because of their membership in the armed forces of such a party. Proposed Way Forward: It is proposed to review the text of the Interpretive Guidance with a view to ensuring clarity in this respect. 2 See, for example, the facts underlying the La Tablada (Abella) Case of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (Case , Report No 55/97).20 20 III. Private Contractors and Civilian Employees Private contractors and employees of a party to an armed conflict who qualify as civilians under international humanitarian law are entitled to protection against direct attack unless and for such time as they directly participate in hostilities, even where their activities or location may expose them to an increased risk of incidental death or injury. One expert: The Interpretive Guidance should not speculate as to whether or not the qualification of civilian contractors as mercenaries under Article 47 AP I is "likely to remain rare" (p. 26), but should limit itself to substantive considerations. After all, states party to AP I will simply have to apply Article 47 AP I whenever its conditions are fulfilled. One expert: Private contractors and civilian employees qualifying as civilians accompanying the armed forces under Article 4 [4] GC III or as civilian crew members of the merchant marine or civil aircraft of a party to the conflict under Article 4 [5] GC III are (and not: may be, p. 24) entitled to prisoner of war status in the event of capture. One expert: Unless police action properly so called is in question, private contractors protecting military objectives against crime or violence lacking belligerent nexus should not be described as engaged in law enforcement (p. 24, n 58), but, rather, in self-defense. Elements of Response: In principle, agreement with all three comments. It is doubtful, however, whether civilian contractors who directly participate in hostilities without being authorized to do so by the contracting state would necessarily retain entitlement to POWstatus afforded to them under Article 4 [4] or [5] GC III. Proposed Way Forward: These comments will be taken into due consideration in the final revision of the Interpretive Guidance. The issue of potential loss of entitlement to POWstatus under Article 4 [4] or [5] GC III does not need to be addressed or resolved in the Interpretive Guidance, and it may be sufficient to review the formulation with a view to avoiding misunderstandings. View more
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