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Brazil | Global Warming | General Circulation Model
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PROGRAMS CONTAINING MEASURES TO FACILITATE ADEQUATE ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
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Second National Communication of Brazil
B	PROGRAMS CONTAINING MEASURES TO FACILITATE ADEQUATE ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Because of the limited financial resources available, in the early stages of the implementation of the Convention in the country, the Brazilian government adopted the strategy of placing emphasis on the studies for the prepation of the Brazilian Inventory of Net Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases Not Controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Hence, emphasis was given to the Inventory at the Initial Communication of Brazil to the Convention. In 2000, with the inclusion of the climate change theme in the Multi-Annual Plan – PPA, 2000-2003, studies were initiated on vulnerability to climate change, with and emphasis on health, agriculture and coral bleaching. In elaborating the Second National Communication of Brazil to the Convention, in addition to the Inventory, special attention was also given to studies on vulnerability to the effects of climate change in strategic areas, according to Brazil’s national circumstances. One of the main objectives of the Second National Communication was to elaborate a methodological approach related to evaluating vulnerability and measures for adaptation, which has two results: elaboration of regional modeling of the climate and climate change scenarios; and conducting research and studies on vulnerability and adaptation related to strategic sectors that are vulnerable to the effects associated with climate change in Brazil. The first result is related to the need for downscaling methods (reduced scale with increased resolution) to develop more detailed climate projections for Brazil in the long term, i.e., with spatial resolution that is better than that provided by a global climate model, with a view to applying this to studies on the impacts of global climate change. The first item in this section addresses the efforts made by Brazil in this regard. The second result provides a preliminary analysis of the impacts associated with climate change in the main areas according to Brazil’s national circumstances, especially in those areas where vulnerability is influenced by physical, social and economic factors. This result depends on the development of regional climate models that provide more reliable scenarios for South America in relation to the impacts of climate change both on the average surface temperature and on rainfall patterns.
Thus, studies were conducted on the semi-arid region, urban areas, coastal zones, human health, energy and water resources, forests, agriculture and livestock and prevention of disasters, elaborated under the 2007 management contract signed by the Center for Strategic Studies and Management in Science, Technology and Innovation – CGEE, under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology – MCT. To this end, ten renowned Brazilian scientists in the field were mobilized244,245. Additionally, the regional model runs and the availability of regionalized climate change scenarios until 2100, made it possible to conduct in-depth studies in the areas of health, energy, water resources, agriculture, and coral bleaching areas246.
1	Program for Modeling Future Climate Change Scenarios
According to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007b), in its Technical Summary for Group II, which deals with “Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability”, the main adverse impacts that could affect Brazil in the future as a result of global climate change, and that therefore could require adaptation measures in Brazil, are as follows: (i) Very high probability of arid and semi-arid areas in northeastern Brazil being especially vulnerable to global climate change impacts on water sources, with a reduction in water supply. This scenario is even more important if the expected increase in demand for water as a result of population growth is considered. (ii) High probability that the increase in rainfall in southeastern Brazil will affect crops and other types of land use, as well as increase the frequency and intensity of flooding. A 0.5 oC increase in temperature was reported in Brazil.
244	Carlos A. Nobre (climate change scenarios for South America for the end of the 21st Century); Thelma Krug (Forests); Magda Aparecida de Lima (livestock and farmland); Vanderlei P. Canhos (biodiversity); José A. Marengo (semiarid region); Marcos Aurélio Vasconcelos de Freitas (water and energy resources); Carlos Freitas Neves and Dieter Muehe (coastal zones); Wagner Costa Ribeiro (urban zones); and Ulisses E.C. Confalonieiri (human health). The studies were coordinated by Marcelo Poppe, of the CGEE. 245	The complete articles derived from these studies can be found in the “Revista Parcerias Estratégicas” (Strategic Partners Journal) no 27, December 2008, CGEE, Brasília, 2008. This study is also available on the Internet at: <http:/ / www.cgee.org.br/parcerias/p27.php>. 246	This study is also available from the MCT website: <http:/ /www.mct.gov.br/ clima>.
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(iii) High probability that in the next few decades a considerable number of species in the tropical region of Latin America will become extinct. Gradual replacement of tropical forests with savannahs in the eastern region of the Amazon and some semi-arid areas with arid areas in northeastern Brazil as a result of rising temperatures and dwindling water in the soil. Risk of losses in biodiversity. By 2050, there is a high probability that 50% of farmable lands will be subject to desertification or salinization. The dry season in the Amazon region in 2005 deserves special mention here. (iv) There is a high probability that the expected increase in sea level will affect Brazil’s coastal areas, with adverse impacts on the mangroves as well. Studies indicate great water flow towards the South region of Brazil as a result of the expected increase in sea level. (v) Global climate change could raise rainfall rates, thus exacerbating the impacts caused by erosion. Brazil’s Northeast region is vulnerable because erosion in that region has already caused the sedimentation of reservoirs, and has consequently reduced water storage and supply capacity. Developing countries are especially vulnerable to erosion, especially with regard to the mountain slopes of illegal settlements in metropolitan areas. (vi) In regions that face water shortages, like the Northeast region of Brazil, the population and ecosystems are vulnerable to less frequent and more variable rainfall as a result of global climate change, which could actually jeopardize the population’s supply and the agricultural potential of this region (difficulties in irrigation). (vii) In the analysis made, groundwater recharge diminishes drastically, by 70%, in Brazil’s Northeast region. (viii) There may be global climate change impacts on public
health, with diseases related to flooding, such as diarrhea, having been reported in Brazil. There is also an impact on public health as a result of smoke from burning fields. Global climate change can also have an effect on the increase in cases of schistosomiasis (of the Schistosoma genre). However, it is important to underscore that the analyses of future impacts are based on different scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions until 2100. These scenarios do not assume additional measures to combat climate change or greater adaptive capacity of the systems, sectors and regions under analysis. The most severe impacts projected would only occur in a future scenario (2100) where greenhouse gas emissions have not been mitigated, especially in the case of a significant increase in population and world economic growth with the intensive use of fossil fuels. Thus, the most pessimistic scenarios and their projected impacts may not occur247 if the international community adopts measures to combat climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It must be pointed out that scenarios are not predictions, especially when considering the current state of development of global climate system models, which still pose countless uncertainties. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate these uncertainties, with an emphasis on the discrepancy of results that exists among the different scenarios. The figures also show the climate scenarios for 2071-2100 for 15 different global climate models based on scenario A2248 of greenhouse gas emissions by the IPCC.
247	Many of the studies generally conducted on vulnerability and adaptation were based on the scenario with the greatest emissions, and generally using the Hadley Centre model, from England, which presents the most worrisome results. However, it is important to underscore that this choice is often justified by the fact that Hadley Centre model data are available to all, whereas most data from other models is not made available. 248	Maintenance of greenhouse gas emission standards observed in recent decades; this scenario would imply reaching 2100 with CO2 concentrations that have nearly 850 parts per million in volume (ppmv).
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2008.. 390 english-parte-III-secao-B.indd 390 11/10/10 2:28 PM . 2008.Second National Communication of Brazil Figure 1. Figure 1.2 Projected rainfall (mm/day) anomalies for South America for the period 2071-2099 (Scenario A2) in relation to the base period 1961-1990 for 15 different global climate models available from the IPCC Source: NOBRE et al.1 Projected temperature (oC) anomalies for South America for the period 2071-2099 (Scenario A2) in relation to the base period 1961-1990 for 15 different global climate models available from the IPCC Source: NOBRE et al..
would also increase the degree of uncertainty regarding climate change projections. regarding the issue of deficiencies in identifying risks stemming from climate change in Brazil. Therefore. has been responsible for coordinating regional climate modeling and climate change scenarios for the future. at a relatively low degree of resolution. although a climate model may be capable of reproducing the field of observed precipitation with some success. especially in relation to high order statistics.1	The Eta-CPTEC Model The INPE has been evaluating the different climate change scenarios proposed by the global coupled models of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has been developing downscaling methods for Brazil. The National Institute on Space Research – INPE. This would be greatly useful for studies of the climate change impacts on the management and operation of water resources. which is attached to the MCT. 391 english-parte-III-secao-B. the MCT recognized it is of fundamental importance to develop climate modeling capacity in Brazil by analyzing global and regional models for current and future climate change scenarios. This indicates the need to improve representation of physical processes. on agriculture activities and even on health and the spreading of disease. Current knowledge of regional dimensions of global climate change is still very fragmented. 2008). Climate change scenario projections for the 21st Century were derived from the various global climate models used by the IPCC. in order to elaborate these studies it is necessary to develop longterm climate change models with appropriate spatial resolution for regional analysis. some models suggest an increase in rainfall rates. However. and not with the monthly or seasonal data produced by most global IPCC models. The difference between the anomalies for the different models suggests that a considerable degree of uncertainty in future climate projection scenarios is still the case. with higher spatial resolution than what is provided by a global climate model. Thus. such as standard deviation and extreme values. since extreme events (waves of low humidity. Thus. It also coordinates the relationship between these results and the vulnerability and adaptation research and studies related to strategic sectors that are vulnerable to impacts associated with climate change in Brazil. For example. and it sought to invest in this. which are applied to climate change projections from regional climate change models to 249	The downscaling technique is used to make an “interpolation” from a subgrade scale with less resolution to one with greater resolution. the interpolated time series can be considered inappropriate for current climates. it is probable that it will be less successful in reproducing daily variability. valleys or regions.indd 391 11/10/10 2:28 PM . In this sense. There is also the problem of representation of the physical process using sets of parameters from different models and the correct representation of current climate by climate models. and requires further study.. The downscaling technique consists of projecting large scale information onto a regional scale. introduces a specific amount of uncertainty to these future climate change scenarios. such as those at the watershed level. 1. as well as when implementing measures for adaptation and mitigation.Part 3 It is also clear that there is much variability in the temperature and rainfall anomalies projected under the different models in magnitude and sign of the anomaly until the end of the 21st Century. there is a need for downscaling methods249 that can be applied to climate change scenarios from global models in order to obtain more detailed projections for states. The time scale problem is also crucial. cold or heat and storms) can only be identified with daily data. The state of current science does not make it possible to establish unequivocal scenarios (NOBRE et al. This will provide the enabling conditions for elaborating possible future scenarios of climate change with different concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere and for analyzing the impacts of global climate change on Brazil. Most of the uncertainties in the model’s projections for climate change scenarios can be related to the problem of spatial scale and the representation of extreme climate events in higher spatial scales than those produced by most global climate models. This uncertainty is extremely significant when assessing vulnerability and the impacts of climate change. although it may seem reasonable to adopt a scenario of interpolated temperature starting with the points of a global climate model grade for a specific location. adjusted to meso scale processes. and therefore generate uncertainty in climate change scenarios. it is of fundamental importance to develop climate modeling capacity in Brazil by analyzing global and regional models for current and future climate change scenarios. For the Northeast region of Brazil. For example. on natural ecosystems. it is necessary to seek increased reliability associated with the possible future climate scenarios in the country. for the Amazon Basin some models produced climates with heavier rainfall and other climates relatively drier. Again. This “translation” of a global scale to a regional one and of annual time scales to daily ones. The fact that global climate models use different physical representations of processes.
The objective of this group is to develop research related to climate change. and yet another member displayed slight warming. which is run on supercomputers. INMET. 2008). 2010).” published in August 2008 by EMBRAPA-UNICAMP (ASSAD & PINTO. The Eta model was run on INPE’s NEC-SX6 super computer.unicamp. water resources. ANA. the HadCM3 model underwent slight changes. To this end. with the Secretariat of Climate Change and Air Quality of the MMA. 2008). the INPE has developed the Eta-CPTEC regional model for South America. impact and adaptation studies. the report “Global Warming 250	The results of works conducted by the INPE’s Climate Change Research Group . 2010) and Latin America (CEPAL. The group also works together with Brazil’s National Program of Climate Change of the MCT. Including the results of the HadCM3 model without disruption.usp. To include a measure of uncertainty in the projections. The model was adapted to be used as a Regional Climate Model – MCR. These conditions were provided to the Eta-CPTEC model to generate the current climate. Figure 1. 1961-1990. temperature and rainfall. The Eta-CPTEC regional model recently featured new lateral conditions of the coupled ocean‑atmosphere global model HadCM3 provided by the Hadley Centre. and the study “Climate Change. COPPE-UFRJ among others. These projections may be used in studies of climate change impacts on several socioeconomic sectors (agriculture. with the Climate Network and Fapesp’s Global Climate Change Program. cptec. The results also show an improvement in the simulation of rainfall and temperature using the Eta-CPTEC Regional Model in relation to the HadCM3 global model. as well as national programs from some South American countries. 2009) deserve attention as well.. and it was validated as such (PESQUERO et al. The various impact studies and vulnerability analyses that have used the projections provided by the three regional models include the report “Climate Change and Energy Security in Brazil. Moreover. generating three new realizations or members. while temperatures rise throughout Brazil. 392 english-parte-III-secao-B.br).GPMC is called “Climate Report”. and the anomalies represented by the downscaling show patterns that are similar to those reported (CHOU et al. vulnerability analyses.org... showing increases in rainfall in Brazil’s South region. or disturbances..iag. Eta is a complete regional atmospheric model that has been used by the CPTEC since 1997 for operational and seasonal weather forecasting. which came to comprise INPE’s “Climate Report”250 (MARENGO et al. related to downscaling methods for Brazil was applied to climate change scenarios from the global model HadCM3 to obtain more detailed climate projections (2010-2040. 2008).inpe. integrating atmospheric and oceanic information with capacity for regional modeling. universities. In general.fbds.br).” published in May 2008 by COPPE/UFRJ (SCHAEFFER et al.indd 392 11/10/10 2:28 PM . Fiocruz. from top institutions such as the University of São Paulo-IAG (see http://www. The initial results of regional climate models derived from the global climate model by the Hadley Centre (UK) were made available in 2007. A member had strong warming. with improved spatial resolution from regional models. a total of four members of HadCM3 were used. which can run 768 billion arithmetic operations per floating point per second. This study. Eta CCS and HadRM3P.3 shows the annual projections for 2010-2100 for temperature and rainfall derived from the Eta-CPTEC model for South America.). These members provided the projections for the end of the 21st Century. indicating vulnerability to risks in the form of probabilities. The MCR Eta-CPTEC was used to produce regionalized scenarios for future climate change for the Second National Communication of Brazil to the Convention. HadCM3 conditions underestimate the frequency of El Niño events (warming of Pacific Ocean waters) and La Niña events (cooling of Pacific Ocean waters). with different sensitivities to temperature. the Brazilian Foundation for Sustainable Development (see http:/ / www. Its members include researchers who work in climate change areas. energy. Numerical models generally need great computation and data storage capacity. with collaborations from Federal Government institutions such as Embrapa.. for extreme emission scenarios A2 (high emissions) and B2 (low emissions). etc. 20402070. 2010a). and the New Geography in Agricultural Production in Brazil. health. 2009). with the lateral condition of the atmospheric model HadAM3P. with a resolution of 50 km. all maintaining the same rate of increase of CO2 corresponding to the A1B scenario. The evaluation of the results for the present climate showed that the model generally represents it accurately in relation to winds. and they are higher in the mainland area (MARENGO et al. using 3 regional models: RegCM3. 2070-2100) with improved spatial resolution under scenario A1B. More information is available online at: < http:/ /www. Migration and Health: Scenarios for the Northeast region of Brazil” (CEDEPLAR & FIOCRUZ. ONS. 2007). with the capacity to use numerical models for simulating weather and climate. the reports on the economic impacts of climate change in Brazil (MARCOVITCH et al. another member showed an average warming. as well as state centers of meteorology.br/mudancas_climaticas>. and reductions in rainfall in the Northeast region and the Amazon.br). FBMC and organized civil society. and projections for the period 2011-2100 in detail in the grid for 40km. Aneel. the University of Campinas (see http:/ /www.Second National Communication of Brazil obtain more detailed climate projections. given the need for great processing in real time..
2010a. 40 km from HadCM3’s projections Source: MARENGO et al.Part 3 Figure 1.. 393 english-parte-III-secao-B.3 Projected rainfall (%) and temperature (oC) changes for South America for 2010-2100 (Scenario A1B) in relation to the base period 1961-1990 generated by the Eta-CPTEC model.indd 393 11/10/10 2:28 PM .
2 below). The reports contain the results from models used in digital form (specialized results in an appropriate resolution for analysis. However. with the support of the MCT. Thus. The planned improvements of this version of the MCR Eta include dynamic vegetation and changes in land use. agricultural sector. dynamic vegetation. in the future. specific adaptation projects can be developed with the proper scientific foundation. The work surrounding the MBSCG began with financial resources from Brazil’s government and several Brazilian financing agencies252. but includes more realistic representations of phenomena that act in a broader scale of time: sea-ice transitions. in collaboration with the climate centers in South America. South Africa. Reports were generated with climate scenarios to serve as inputs for studies on vulnerability in the health sector. much still needs to be done. impact and adaptation studies included in the Third National Communication of Brazil to the Convention. CO2 variability and other improvements. Consequently. as appropriate). This level is needed for evaluating impacts. Europe and Asia. The Eta model has also been run thus far only using a few boundary conditions for the global climate model. The MBSCG is based on the main structure of CPTEC’s current climate model (which is used for seasonal climate predictions). water resource.MBSCG The Brazilian Global Climate System Model – MBSCG is in its elaboration phase at INPE. including the Brazilian Global Climate System Model – MBSCG (see item 1. Atmospheric models assume a type of vegetation that is not affected by climate change. which will improve the level of detail in the projections for mountainous regions and valleys. enabling a more rational allocation of public resources. However. and were widely made available. the type and density of vegetation can suffer changes251 capable of exerting considerable influence on local climate modeling. Operation of an improved version of the Eta model is projected.Fapesp. detailed and quantified information about projection uncertainties are limited. India and Europe. reduce margins of error and increase spatial resolution from 40x40 km2 to 20x20 km2.2 The Brazilian Global Climate System Model . with these results. the country should be better equipped to identify more vulnerable regions and sectors with a greater degree of reliability than offered by global models. 251	Vegetation can be affected when climate threshold conditions are exceeded. Although this is an initial effort for regionalizing future climate change scenarios and for conducting vulnerability studies based on them. The efforts in developing the Brazilian Global Climate System Model – MBSCG will be shown in the vulnerability. The regional climate change scenarios will enable a careful analysis of uncertainties using the assembly model technique. or due to adaptation measures that entail changes in land use. vulnerability and adaptation for Brazil. and coastal zones. energy sector. tables.Second National Communication of Brazil It is worth pointing out that regional climate projections were provided to groups of Latin American countries so the scenarios could be developed in national centers by specialists from each country. 252	One part of the Brazilian Global Climate System Model (4 years) was financed by the São Paulo Research Foundation . The INPE. coordinated the preliminary results related to elaboration of the regional climate model and climate change scenarios and the research and studies on vulnerability and adaptation related to strategic sectors that are vulnerable to the impacts associated with climate change in Brazil. graphs. 1. 394 english-parte-III-secao-B. aerosols and atmospheric chemistry. This model will have great potential for generating detailed assessments of climate change effects. The objective of the MBSCG project is to establish a global climate model adapted to long-term climate change projections. The advances in the MBSCG would enable INPE to participate in IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report and the conducting of climate change projections. Climate change scenarios are generated by the supercomputers in operation at CPTEC/INPE.indd 394 11/10/10 2:28 PM . forced with at least four global climate models from world centers in the Americas. flooding and desertification sector. Dynamic modeling makes it possible to include these effects. These results are expected to fill in the gaps from existing scenarios. biodiversity sector (including coral bleaching). diagrams.
NOBRE et al. Impacts on the population can increase with heavier rainfall. which explains the rural poverty in the region. which.temperatures would increase 2 oC to 4 oC and rainfall would drop off 15 to 20% (2-4 mm/day) in the Northeast region by the end of the 21st Century. according to the Water Atlas of the Northeast region (ANA. Historically. there are 18 to 20 years of drought every 100 years. As an example of climate extremes with great impact on the region. and rains in 1924. 1844-45. mining. Brazil’s semi-arid region has always been affected by great droughts or great flooding. and consequently. with growing environmental degradation. 940 thousand km2 of semi-arid land that encompasses nine states of the Northeast and faces a chronic water shortage problem and rainfalls of less than 800 mm per year (MARENGO. 1974. 253	See box “Transposition of the São Francisco River”. The 20th Century was one of the most arid thus far. and HadRM3P . 1877-79. industry. Therefore. the Sobradinho reservoir reached only 15% of its volume when full. 1744-45. These regions are threatened by anthropogenic pressure. The droughts are associated with the region’s climatic characteristics and variabilities in the Pacific and Tropical Atlantic Ocean (MARENGO & SILVA DIAS. 2007. 1777-78. In the 1960s. Indeed. depending on the intensity and duration. The region is an enclave of scarce rainfall that encompasses the coastlines of the states of Ceará and Rio Grande do Norte until the middle of the São Francisco River. since.. The region has low social and health indicators. The poorest population and subsistence farmers would be the most strongly affected. Rainfall alone is not a guarantee that dry farming subsistence crops will be successful. Statistically. In other words. 1824-25. 1736-57.such as agriculture and livestock. In an optimistic scenario. probably increasing displacement of the population to cities or areas where it would be possible to develop irrigated agriculture. intense rains jeopardized 664 thousand people in six states of Brazil’s Northeast and North regions. making it the most densely populated dry region in the world. the impacts could be very negative to the economy and society. The semi-arid region is considered to be Brazil’s most vulnerable region to potential climate change since water availability per capita in a significant portion of the area is already insufficient.000 km2 of the national territory and 59% of its area is covered by the socalled “Drought Polygon” (Polígono das Secas). comprised of many micro climates with different species of vegetation. The increase in Amazon deforestation could also generate adverse in the semi-arid region. and with greater frequency in droughts and intense or excessive rainfall. For example. regardless of integration of the São Francisco watershed to the Northeast region’s northern watershed253. the agriculture sector was responsible for nearly 30% of the Northeast region’s GDP. with Caatinga vegetation. a large part of the workforce still has very low productivity. making it drier. With the possible consequence of a more arid semi-arid region. which also include micro climates with remaining Atlantic Forest areas.600. warming would be between 1 oC and 3 oC and rainfall would decrease 10 to 15% (1-2 mm/day). more than 70% of cities with populations of more than 5. 2008). in November 2007. The semi-arid region frequently has dry periods during the rainy season.000 inhabitants will face crises in water supply for human consumption by 2025. In the state of Paraíba. 2005). 2006). with intense droughts in 1710-11. 395 english-parte-III-secao-B. Years of drought and abundant rains alternate erratically. and they are commonplace. supply problems could hit a large part of the Northeast region’s population.1	Semi-arid Region Brazil’s Northeast region covers 1.indd 395 11/10/10 2:28 PM . According to the aforementioned INPE report. 1723-27. The semi-arid region is heterogeneous. The basis for sustaining human activities . and 2009. those who depend on agricultural activities still represent nearly 30% of the region’s workforce.based on regional models RegCM3. 158 municipalities were in states of emergency motivated by this drought.Part 3 2	Effects of Global Climate Change in Marine and Land Ecosystems 2. 1808-09. in a pessimistic scenario . The population’s vulnerability increases when you add the semi-arid climate to this. Eta CCS. This scenario can worsen with rising temperatures and decreasing rainfall. This situation could occur with greater frequency. 2008). INPE’s “Climate Report” indicated a tendency for draught and extreme rain event scenarios in large areas of Brazil. adverse impacts on the region’s agriculture. The most serious droughts are shown in historical records since the beginning of colonization in the 16th Century. with 27 years of drought. in the first semester of 2009. 1835-37. This percentage is currently around 7%. cause heavy damage to subsistence crops (NAE. 2004-2005. The region also has the highest child mortality rates and the lowest life expectancy in Brazil.would reduce. 1982-83 and 1997-98. However. More than 20 million people live in the semi-arid region. 2006). among the ten lowest Human Development Indexes – HDI in the country. with a growing process of degradation and desertification and with more than 50% of the population living in poverty conditions. hydroenergy and tourism . eight are from states in the Northeast region (MARENGO.
associated with a discrepancy in demographic densities (nearly 10 inhabitants/km2 in the largest part of the São Francisco River watershed and approximately 50 inhabitants/km2 in the northern Northeast) divides Brazil’s Semi-Arid region in two.MI. In years when the Sobradinho reservoir is overflowing. Crato. contributing towards an increase in guaranteed water supply for multiple uses. Pajeú. This irregularity in the internal distribution of water resources. encompassing part of the state of Pernambuco and the states of Paraíba. the captured volume can be expanded up to 127 m2/s.4 m2/s of water. in 2025. to nearly 12 million inhabitants of small. and Rio Grande do Norte. Jaguaribe and Metropolitanas in Ceará. the Integration Project establishes the interconnection of the São Francisco River watershed. with little more than 400m3/inhabitants/year made available from dams built on intermittent rivers and from aquifers with limitations as to quantity and/or quantity. Rio Grande do Norte and Ceará. with 2. and the Northern Northeast’s Semi-Arid. 2010) The Project for the Integration of the São Francisco River with Watersheds of the Northern Northeast is a Federal Government project under the responsibility of the Ministry of National Integration . The Integration Project will also have great reach in supplying the rural population. Integration of the São Francisco River to the temporary river watersheds of the Semi-Arid will be possible with the continuous removal of 26. equivalent to 1. Ceará. Caruaru. In view of this reality.4% of the flow guaranteed by the Sobradinho dam (1850 m2/s) in the river section where this capture will take place. Apodi and Piranhas-Açu in Rio Grande do Norte. which has only 3% of Brazil’s water availability and 28% of its population. Terra Nova. Campina Grande. medium and large cities of the semi-arid region in the states of Pernambuco. Paraíba and Piranhas in Paraíba. with basins in the Northern Northeast with water availability that establishes limitations to the region’s socioeconomic development. Mossoró.Transposition of the São Francisco River (MI. until now almost exclusively polarized by the state’s capitals.indd 396 11/10/10 2:28 PM .000 to 10. Benefits The Project for the Integration of the São Francisco River with watersheds of the Northern Northeast is the most important structuring action. In this sense. 396 english-parte-III-secao-B. The basins that will receive water from the São Francisco River are: Brígida. Moxotó and Basins in Pernambuco’s Agreste. This sum of water will be used for consumption by the urban population of 390 municipalities in Brazil’s Agreste and Sertão regions of four states in the northern Northeast region. Juazeiro do Norte. while guaranteeing long-term supply to large urban centers in the region (Fortaleza. based on water availability of 1500 m3/inhabitant/year established by the UN as the minimum needed to guarantee water supply to a society for its diverse uses. under the National Water Resource Policy. with the objective of guaranteeing water for the socioeconomic development of the states most vulnerable to droughts.Second National Communication of Brazil Box 1 . has great internal irregularity in the distribution of its water resources. strategic under a development deconcentration policy. which has a relative abundance of water (flow of 1850 m2/s guaranteed by the Sobradinho reservoir). Paraíba. from a water supply perspective: the São Francisco watershed’s Semi-Arid. João Pessoa) and to hundreds of small and medium sized cities in the Semi-Arid. since the São Francisco River represents 70% of the region’s entire offer.000 m3/inhabitant/year of water available from a permanent river. The Northeast region. the project benefits inland Northeastern areas with reasonable economic potential. either through hundreds of kilometers of perpetuated channels and river beds or through water mains to serve a set of locations. to ensure water supply.
public and private irrigation. of the MMA. The recent study “Vulnerability of Brazilian Megacities to Climate Change: the metropolitan region of São Paulo” (NOBRE et al. as well as an increase in minimum temperatures (IPCC. However. thus increasing risks 397 english-parte-III-secao-B. This experience involved the creation and development of institutions. It is necessary to establish water supply and basic sanitation policies. “Impacts. research and rural extension in agriculture and reduction in participation in the economy (economic diversification) related to activities dependent on rains. Knowledge about the Caatinga’s ecosystem must be improved. construction of water and transportation infrastructure. 2007) suggest that the Caatinga could be replaced with a vegetation more typical of arid zones. Some of the initiatives implemented include the Brazilian Early Warning System for Droughts and Desertification (INPE/MCT and MMA). studies on vulnerability to climatic events. Long-term environmental policies are also needed. in 2030 the urban sprawl in the metropolitan region of São Paulo will be twice as big in comparison with the current sprawl. accumulation of water in dams and cisterns. conducting emergency actions in periods of drought. as are environmental education programs. Working Group II’s Report. which integrates the different vulnerabilities in various sectors and their causes. The Northeast semi-arid region has a long history of policies for adapting to climatic variability. with possible impacts on health. of the Northeast Development Superintendence . such as bottoms of valleys.. elaboration of a map of risks and possible vulnerabilities of the semi-arid region to global climate change is recommended. especially in tropical cities.Sudene and the Ministry of Integration – MI. within the context of climatic variability as well as climate change. with a great part of its area already greatly altered by the extreme climate conditions reported in recent years. This is one of the most endangered biomes in Brazil. 2010) shows that. while also contributing towards mitigation initiatives geared towards reducing the causes of global climate change. including an instruction guide for planning strategies to adapt to these vulnerabilities. including micro basins. which ended up choosing to live in risky areas. The Brazil’s population is concentrated in megacities and in large and mid-sized cities. 2007b). especially droughts.. 2. 3 million “work front” jobs were created). just as the semi-arid region is vulnerable to climate change. which are subject to increasingly more intense rainfall that can cause landslides and flooding.2	Urban Areas According to IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report. which is home to unique fauna and flora. with many endemic species not found anywhere else on the planet. Each of these situations exposes its inhabitants to dangers caused by adverse and extreme climatic events. Concerted action is needed to cope with the possible adverse effects of climate change in the semi-arid region. Real estate speculation and rural exodus are some of the aspects that generated areas with high concentrations of low-income populations.PAN-Brasil. rehabilitation of watersheds. such as dry farming. management of water resources. especially among the elderly and children up to 5 years of age. with greater intensity and duration. it is also a region with potential that needs to be better known and incorporated to plans for adaptation and regional sustainable development. population increases and conflicts involving the use of natural resources are needed (MARENGO. changes in land use. Examples of adaptation include the creation of emergency jobs in times of drought (in 1983. with a predominance of cactuses by the end of the 21st Century. In order to cope with the challenges in Brazil’s semi-arid region. Brazil’s urbanization is a recent phenomenon when compared to other industrialized countries (RIBEIRO. 2008). and it is potentially very vulnerable to global climate change. the Real Time Climatic Monitoring Program in the Northeast . it should be borne in mind that the Caatinga is the only exclusively Brazilian biome. low grasslands bordering bodies of water and steep cliffs. strengthening society’s.Proclima. or in slums or degraded properties due to lack of maintenance. In this sense.Part 3 In relation to the impacts on biodiversity in the semi-arid region. more frequent heat waves in urban areas are predicted. development of activities less dependent on climate resources. Adaptation and Vulnerability”. the economy’s and the environment’s capacity to adapt. especially in small communities. 2008). Efforts must focus on helping to plan and implement actions that lead to the region’s sustainable development. and the National Action Program to Combat Desertification and Mitigate the Effects of Drought . Deterioration in air quality and an increase in risk areas can also be projected. if the historical pattern of expansion is followed. There is also a need to evaluate food security in the Northeast and develop crops and agricultural systems adapted to the semi-arid region. Results from vegetation modeling experiments associated with climate change scenarios involving high emissions of greenhouse gases (SALAZAR et al.indd 397 11/10/10 2:28 PM .
a phenomenon that could intensify with an increase in global temperatures. and especially the poorest. or a combination of both. material losses and even death. Construction assets can also be affected by climate change. especially in the winter. concentrating the Northeast’s main regional centers. Intense rains and higher temperatures will demand even more attention and resources to maintain the architectural 255	Formed by a narrow strip of land (about 200 kilometers wide) located on the Northeast coast. This impact is more evident in large urban centers. The risks will be magnified by the increasing number of days with heavy rains due to global climate change.AM. in the “Forest Zone” (Zona da Mata)255 (from a portion of the state of Rio Grande do Norte. or due to anthropogenic factors (ex: heat islands. In many cities of the country. which generates property and human losses every year in the country. which has been observed since 1950 (MARENGO. The increase in global temperature could also have significant impacts on human health. as well as the state of Pernambuco.SP and Pelotas .RS. There is large scale agriculture production due to the fertile soil. the water will have greater speed and strength to create wakes and transport sediment. Extreme events result in very intense local problems. hematological. and in fragile areas. Higher temperatures will facilitate appearance of insects on a larger scale. is located. Air pollution generates an increase in hospital admissions (especially those with respiratory problems and heart disease). 2007). but this is also perceptible in cities like Manaus . ophthalmological. traffic jams. Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro. 1985). Salvador. driven by the wind. sugarcane and cocoa properties stand out in the agriculture sector. automobiles. 256	Bahia’s Bay (Recôncavo Baiano) is the geographic region around “Todos os Santos” Bay. especially the cities of Recife and Olinda. It will be necessary to create cam254	It is important to underscore the concentration of pollutants irritates the eyes. especially among the low-income population. in the Bay [Recôncavo] region256). where air pollution is treated as a public health problem (SALDIVA. neonatal deaths. causing and/or accelerating erosion processes. 257	The “Serra da Mantiqueira” is a mountain range that extends through three states of Brazil: São Paulo. This mainly occurs in periods of dry weather. strong rains brought by eastern waves certainly accompanied by powerful breakers that. The region is very rich in oil and sugarcane. Landslides on cliffs and flooding caused by severe storms are two types of natural disaster responsible for a great number of victims in the country.. especially the metropolitan regions of Rio de Janeiro. between 2070 and 2100. 2008). can cause destruction and even greater damage to buildings and road structures along the coast (XAVIER et al. 2006). Climate change could also result in more frequent urban pests. neurological and dermatological problems (COELHO-ZANOTTI. Another possible consequence of global climate change will be the greater frequency of very intense rains. Campinas . in cities in the Southeast and South regions. It is an area with a high level of urbanization. 1992). more intense erosion further contributes towards the silting of bodies of water. This is because this expansion should occur mainly at the outskirts. an average rise in temperature in the area from 2 oC a 3 oC could double the number of days with heavy rainfall (above 10 mm) in the capital of São Paulo. which increase the number of deaths254. especially in large cities. Recife. The highest rates of heating can be detected in the megacities in the Southeast region of Brazil (mainly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro).indd 398 11/10/10 2:28 PM . influenza and colds. paigns to cope with urban pests to avoid their spread to the point of generating difficulties for residents of Brazilian cities or to avoid their becoming vectors for the propagation of disease. Since the rains should be more intense in some regions. The Earth’s atmosphere has been constantly contaminated by substance emitted by industries. encompassing the Metropolitan Region of Salvador. when there is greater frequency of the so-called thermal inversion. These are serious problems because they affect those at the extremes of the population pyramid: children up to 5 years of age and the elderly (RIBEIRO. Erosion can put homes at risk. with great pressure on natural resources. São Paulo. and the Serra do Mar and Mantiqueira257 mountain ranges. generally among inhabitants of risky areas (RIBEIRO. which increases the possibility of flooding in bottoms of valleys. such as floodplains and unstable soils. Heavy rains will worsen the already known flooding of public roads. The “heat island” (LOMBARDO. such as the city of São Paulo. Preliminary studies suggest that. such as flooding of roads. 398 english-parte-III-secao-B. bodies of water were made water resistant and low grasslands were occupied by road systems. 2008). illegal lots and buildings. where the capital of the state of Bahia.MT. losses of housing.Second National Communication of Brazil of floods and landslides in the area. Rising temperatures in Brazilian cities can be the result of natural factors. thermoelectric plants and other sources. The original vegetation in the “Forest Zone” (Zona da Mata) was predominantly Atlantic Forest. frequently found in megacities and large cities. 2008). increasingly affecting the population as a whole. results in thermal discomfort and an increase in energy consumption to cool buildings. to the state of Bahia. the effect of verticalization and the intense use of automobiles in large cities). Salvador. and Belo Horizonte. Large tobacco. such as the heating of the South Atlantic. with a worsening in the health of those with high blood pressure. Along the entire eastern coast of the Northeast region. accelerates development of coughs. Furthermore. Cuiabá .
adaptation of buildings to tropical conditions). 2006). 2004). as in the case of Rio de Janeiro. When considering the extension of the coastline. that extension is approximately 12. mainly affecting river deltas and coastal urban areas. •	development and implementation of urban design plans with a focus on urban and environmental comfort. revegetation.CCP. for example. rising sea levels would increase the risk of flooding in lower coastal areas. IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report (IPCC. along its entire extension.000 km2 (VIDIGAL.RJ (ZANIRATO. The rising sea level can lead to the abandonment of buildings located in low urban areas and to the displacement of the population living along the coast and of service centers installed on beaches (RIBEIRO.indd 399 11/10/10 2:28 PM . Brazil’s coast extends from the equatorial region of the Northern Hemisphere to the subtropical latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. Some cities of the country are already taking measures to mitigate and adapt to global climate change. the risk of coral bleaching and coral mortality and the negative impacts on mangroves and wet coastal areas. 258	See Part III. •	implementation of measures to mitigate rising temperatures (planting trees in cities. compared to 1980-1990.Part 3 heritage of cities and megacities in Brazil. 2008). 2008). along more or less 8. which are not determined by decisions made in the real-estate sector. Another initiative is the Cities for Climate Protection . Another difficulty in coastal cities will be sewage disposal. •	regulation of constructions through the Works Code and Director Plan. including the outline of the main estuaries and islands. subway/railway transport and modal integration. where warning systems for undertows and risks of landslides have already been developed (CIM. with the objective of mobilizing local government actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to strengthen collective international expression of municipal governments in face of national governments and the Convention258. variations between the continent and sea) could increase erosion of coastal areas. and the subtropical climate of the South region. Minas Gerais and Pernambuco. Climate change and rising sea levels (variations in the relative level of the sea. the following stand out: •	offer housing alternatives to low-income population that are currently living in areas of risk. in Ouro Preto . and different geological and geomorphological environments (NEVES & MUEHE. Nearly 20% of Brazil’s population inhabits the municipalities bathed by the sea and along the banks 399 english-parte-III-secao-B.3	Coastal Zone Based on the different scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions.600 km. the Coastal Zone is comprised of a maritime band. which comprise the group of large cities in the world committed to combat climate change. As a consequence. that is. by the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives . Among the measures for adapting to climate change for urban areas. Calculations of the flow of this material were made for sea levels much lower than those projected by global climate change. which should help in mitigation and adaptation. •	greater rigor in compliance with laws of land use and occupation. as has already occurred. and a land band. 2008). especially in coastal cities.000 km washed by the Western Atlantic Ocean. revitalization of watercourses) of urban areas.ICLEI.13. launched in June 1991. The cities of São Paulo and Curitiba are members of the C40. corresponding to a total territorial surface of 535. At the state level. •	reformulation of the road system and sewage collection. São Paulo has also already implemented its Climate Change Plan.MG and Paraty . the State Plan on Climate Change has also been approved in São Paulo. Section 3. In Latin America. on Cities for Climate Protection. which is collected and transported to the sea through underwater emissaries without any prior treatment. •	renaturalization (restoration of micro climates. •	development of knowledge and technical alternatives to mitigate and adapt the population and cities to climate change. adapting to the effects of climate change. 50 km wide from the coastline. 12 nautical miles wide. 2007b) predicts that the combination of water’s thermal expansion and the melting of glaciers located on the continents would result in an average increase in sea level of 18 cm to 59 cm between 2090-2099. For legal purposes. 2. the Coastal Zone crosses different climate environments that vary from the equatorial and tropical humid to the semi-arid in the Northeast region. and •	implementation of mechanisms and policies to stimulate public transportation.
as well as housing. The widespread depletion of internal continental shelf sediment. all of this makes up a socioeconomic and physical-geographic picture that is quite complex for the Brazilian coastal zone.5 beds/1. or as areas of waste discharge. Santa Catarina. along with other factors — such as natural or induced changes of the sediment balance — has caused erosion of various degrees of intensity. mainly concentrated near the state capitals. there must be a minimal investment of R$ 4 billion by 2050 to guarantee a sustainable base for decision-making and the safe assessment of infrastructure needed to tackle the expected changes.indd 400 11/10/10 2:28 PM . In the other states. Other factors can increase vulnerability. such as uncon������ trolled land occupation. the supply is somewhere between 1. 12 were in the coastal zone. It is estimated that due to the estimated value of the property at risk. with the extreme cases being Pernambuco (65% of GDP for 40% of the population).500 km. It is estimated that the material values at risk in the coastal zone. which hit the coast of the state of Santa Catarina.100 km. However. it is clear that.. and Rio Grande do Sul is comparable to the population that resides in the coastal zone. aquaculture. their inability to solve social and environmental problems associated with climate change. greater pressure may appear on the use of water resources in these regions. and Espírito Santo (72% to 48%). Climate change that affects the local wind regime or dunefixing vegetation. which is generally home to activities associated with ports or the oil industry.000 inhabitants. Catarina. there is a stark discrepancy between population percentages (30% to 50%) and GDP (40% to 70%) percentages. just 22 were in the coastal zone. are the main economic activities or types of settlement in the coastal zone. the weakness of the port municipalities to tackle diseases brought by the crews of foreign vessels or other diseases caused by polluted water ballast is also a reality. the unsustainable exploitation of 400 english-parte-III-secao-B. 2010). Ports.5 billion (ROSMAN et al. and. at 1. the supply is less than 3. the supply exceeds 3. it was found that along 6. considering the scenario with the highest rise in sea levels and extreme weather events.000 inhabitants. Grussaí-RJ. in just 800 km. The state of Rio de Janeiro. a rate that is considered desirable by Brazil’s health authorities. the coasts in Brazil’s South and Southeast regions are subject to extratropical cyclones. Since this areas has great economic value and population attraction. and environmental conservation or environmental protection areas. partly due to the lack of rivers capable of supplying the sea with sediment. upon analyzing GDP per capita figures for all Brazilian municipalities. since little is known about some of the most important events. more than 38 million people. only 14 municipalities were in the coastal zone. whether as sources of freshwater. where rainwater is stored. in the presence of sediment availability along the coastal strip. such as the generation of waves and meteorological tide. the region’s relief and the morphology of the inner continental shelf. and mangroves) will be very sensitive to global climate change. out of the 100 lowest figures for GDP per capita in Brazil. Cabo Frio-RJ e Arraial do Cabo-RJ and several locations in the Northeast).5 beds/1. On the other hand.000 inhabitants. Wealth generation in the states of Amapá. tourism. in February 2004 (NEVES & MUEHE. but also the retention of marine sands in the dune fields and the small declivity of the continental shelf.000 km of coastline the number of hospital beds is under 1.).Second National Communication of Brazil of estuaries. this appraisal of impacts and responses to climate change in Brazil’s coastal zone is very uncertain. 2008). However. A method to analyze coastal municipality vulnerability to climate change consists of identifying the percentage of GDP generated there in comparison to state GDP. thus stressing the poor distribution of wealth in the municipalities. Therefore. due to wind transportation of sediment. The geomorphological areas most prone to erosion are in the Northeast region. can cause adverse impacts. 2006). and the difficulty of states to perform coastal management.5 and 2.5 beds/1. as well as sand banks and dunes. São Paulo. along Brazil’s coast (MMA. out of the 50 highest figures.5/1. Paraná. It is also important to be aware of variations in the reach of sea breezes in terms of sea spray on materials and structures. Piauí. range between R$ 136. Paraíba (45% to 28%). In order to check the capacity of coastal municipalities to respond to emergency health events related natural disasters. which amplifies the coast’s adjustment to rising sea levels. which in a unique situation reached hurricane force. etc.5 billion and R$ 207. However. that is. tourism. it is the combined result of the oil industry and various maritime activities (shipyards. along 4. and out of the 100 highest figures. the water balance in coastal regions (including rivers and lagoons. Alagoas (58% to 40%). where just over 80% of the wealth and 70% of the population are in the coastal zone. The wind regime associated with dune deforestation has been a worrisome factor for urban occupation in several spots of Brazil’s seashore (such as Itaúna-BA. exploration of mineral resources.000 inhabitants. As air circulation affects rainfall. Curiously enough.
•	landslides on coasts (or sea cliffs) in the coastal zone. including mineral exploration activities in the continental shelf and slope260. national and international level. education. which includes: •	conducting permanent (long-term). •	implementing effective state policies for coastal management. •	damage to coastal protection works. 259	In ecology and fish sciences. the most recommendable response to the effects of climate change is establishing a strategy of actions for Integrated Coastal Management. where the abyssal plains begin. In summary. environmental monitoring •	proposing municipal legislations for urban land use and stricter enforcement of these. Conceição da Barra . •	structural or operational damage to ports and terminals. (6) planning and control of collections and wealth generated in the coastal zone. 2008): •	coastal erosion. (11) final disposal of solid wastes. at every formal level and as part of informal education (scientific diffusion). •	alteration of the mangrove occupation area. including migratory birds. (5) urbanization of the coastal band and the political arrangement of human occupation. as well as the collection. (3) climate in the coastal zone and proper monitoring programs for diverse uses. which can result in impacts on birds. early warning system. Besides these effects. including for engineering projects.CE. ichthyofauna is the set of fish species that live in a specific biogeographical region. monitoring. as well as construction of coastal protection works with improper technical engineering criteria. (12) energy generation and distribution. •	damage to urbanization works in coastal cities.PR). •	effects of salt spray on concrete structure (buildings and maritime works) and historical monuments. treatment and return of wastewater.PE. accommodation and protection). •	exposure of buried ducts or structural damage to exposed ducts. such as local ichthyofauna259.ES. etc. (15) legislation at the federal.Part 3 sand mines in estuaries and branches of the sea. treating and distributing drinking water. which often trigger rapid erosion processes (such as Fortaleza . (10) coastal zone water. •	saline intrusion in estuaries and aquifers that can affect the capturing of freshwater. could be the following (NEVES & MUEHE.indd 401 11/10/10 2:28 PM . At the moment. •	land use planning. (9) health in the coastal zone. Matinhos . (14) geopolitical foreign relations at a regional. (8) education for the future. 401 english-parte-III-secao-B. (7) integrated analysis of environmental information.and interdisciplinary staff that considers fifteen “dimensions”: (1) integrated cartographic base for the coastal zone (emerged and underwater regions). excluding those that would be common to continental areas (agriculture. 260	In oceanography. •	integrating programs and policies for managing water resources and for coastal management. it is necessary to consider a multi. the projected impacts on the Brazil’s coastal zone as a consequence of global climate change. Olinda . climate change associated with ocean-atmosphere interaction and its possible consequences on various types of settlement of the coastal zone and the Exclusive Economical Zone. (13) food production and distribution. •	directing federal action efforts: legislation. including current infrastructure and political aspects of national migrations and health aspects of international maritime borders (port health). •	damage to ecosystems due to lack of freshwater caused by effects related to salt disequilibrium. the continental slope is the ocean floor with an accentuated slope that lies between the continental shelf and the continental margin. including those aspects related to capturing. (2) continental contour and its vulnerability to various dynamic agents. •	damage to coral reefs. climate. and on the navigation routes in the South Atlantic must also be considered in view of the intensity and frequency of storms. •	structural damage or operational losses to sanitation works. For management and policy decision purposes related to the best response to climate changes that affect the coastal zone. state and municipal levels that needs to be updated and foresees a specific budget for monitoring and adapting to climate change. (4) economic dependence in relation to the sea and coastal activities.). •	planning and prioritizing studies for the classic forms of response (back off.
2007b): •	changes in spatial distribution and intensity of endemic infectious disease transmission. In years of severe drought associated with the El Niño phenomenon. in the absence of seasonal rains — as occurs in periods of drought — the population has historically migrated from rural to urban areas in search of government assistance. making it obligatory for the public system to care for any citizen and where monetary charges of any sort are prohibited. 2007). Intra. This was one of the greatest epidemics of the disease ever reported in the world. Due to Brazil’s geographic location and continental size. •	increased risk of problems in population groups considered most vulnerable. In Brazil’s semi-arid region.RJ. such as malaria. it can be the target of important climate changes that can have socio-environmental impacts. The endemic infectious diseases of greatest importance in Brazil. related to climate change. Adaptation and Vulnerability” recognized the following possible impacts (IPCC. The greatest importance of these problems is mainly related to their incidence and difficulty to control. 4.643 cases were reported. especially in dry tropical regions. etc. 2007). the demographic change factor can become one of the major mediating elements among extreme climate phenomena (in this case. “Impacts.080/1990 and no 8. nation of infectious agents and vectors. such as malaria. among others (MCT. with 1. including those from the Single Health System . in areas already affected by food insecurity.br/portal/saude/visualizar_texto.gov. IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report.SUS261. cfm?idtxt=24627>. as well as worsen food security situations that cause malnutrition.SUS was created by the Federal Constitution of 1988 and regulated by Law no 8. The important outbreaks of leptospirosis that have occurred in Rio de Janeiro are an example. and their incidence can either increase or decrease at the regional level.Second National Communication of Brazil •	elaborating guidelines and technical norms for coastal and maritime works that incorporate possible global climate change impacts on works and constructions. especially those transmitted by vectors. 2. in turn. poor communities in urban zones. a significant increase in children mortality rates caused by diarrheic diseases was ascertained.142/1990. especially in children. For more information. causing spatial redistribution of endemics and increased vulnerability of communities. aimed at reforestation. leishmaniasis. such as persistent humidity and temperatures that lead to the development and dissemi- 402 english-parte-III-secao-B.4	Human Health In terms of future effects of global climate change on human health. indigenous populations and traditional communities. coastal populations and populations that depend directly on natural resources affected by climate variation. From 1975-2006. •	greater risk of diarrhea. which include water shortages. drought) and their effects on the economy and health. infectious diarrhea in children). and who suffer from prolonged periods of drought. such as children and the elderly.saude.indd 402 11/10/10 2:28 PM . hampering their development. Thus. States in the Northeast region are the most vulnerable to climate impacts on health (MCT. •	increase in the risk of cardiorespiratory diseases due to the increase in the concentration of troposphere pollutants (especially ozone) influenced by higher temperatures. as a result of the increase in demand for public services in general. in developing countries. see <http:/ /portal. as a result of worse access to good quality water. dengue fever.. with the purpose of changing the situation of health care inequity for the population.797 confirmed cases (CONFALONIERI & MARINHO. dengue fever.or interregional displacement of drought migrants entails changes in the regional economy and an increase in public security at destination points. Similar problems are found in other great cities of the country. Climate change action mechanisms can be direct. Working Group II’s Report. leishmaniasis and leptospirosis. and in 1996 there was a great epidemic in Jacarepaguá . •	developing techniques for biological improvement of mangroves. Triggering of 261	The Single Health System . capable of affecting the epidemiological scenario of diseases associated to poor hygiene (for example. 2007). help increase in climate-sensitive endemic infectious diseases. which. cholera. and indirect. •	worsening in the nutritional state of children. as well as the known sensitivity to climate factors. Organic Health Laws. such as the human population migration processes triggered by drought. as a result of the precarious sanitation infrastructure and improper urban land use. are malaria and dengue fever.
0 capable of reflecting important causal relations in the context of “drought/agricultural losses/food insecurity/ migrations/health”. The rational behind this study of the Northeast were the following: •	projected increase of aridity in the region according to INPE scenarios. the following values were obtained for each state. based on the Eta-CPTEC runs. SP AP.3 < IVGp<= 0. TO AC. with a composite indicator for each Brazilian state. RS. PB. •	worst health vulnerability rates. For the Second National Communication. according to the Eta-CPTEC model.4 0. PI. shows the following: 403 english-parte-III-secao-B. PA The computation of IVGp shows a predominance of states in the Central-West. Desertification Vulnerability Index – DVI. and with low socioeconomic indicators.3 include two states in the Southeast region. RO. the three states in the South region and the Federal District. schistosomiasis and Chagas’ disease. The General Vulnerability Index was obtained by state for the region through the association of health problem data (Health Vulnerability Index – HVI) capable of being directly or indirectly influenced by climate factors.0 denotes the highest vulnerability): IVGp Values 0. MG. with serious social impacts. SE AL.Part 3 migratory flows can also spatially redistribute chronic as well as infectious diseases such as dengue fever. until 2040). 2007). PR. ES. according to the MCT/ Fiocruz project. SC. These values are arranged in ascending order. The overall vulnerability of states. The analysis instrument was to obtain metrics. as noted in this assessment. the state of Bahia also revealed a high degree of vulnerability (0. For the A1FI scenario (2011-2040). High values for partial Health Vulnerability Index – HVI. if compared with the previous study (MCT. Indexes for both climate change scenarios (A2 and B2) were analyzed by state.0 to 1. The main assumption was that based on projections of an increase in future aridity.0 states DF. PE. •	possibly the region most affected by climate change in Brazil. 2005). as a consequence of global climate change (Socioeconomic Vulnerability Index – SEVI and Climatic Vulnerability Index – CVI). Inclusion of data on desertification was considered important due to the relation this form of soil degradation has with climate (and land use). on the permanence of the population in affected areas. comprising 12 states. with lateral conditions for the global coupled HadCM3 model. MA.indd 403 11/10/10 2:28 PM .0 < IVGp<= 0. RR AM. at national level (CONFALONIERI et al. demographic (population growth in general and population growth for those older than 60. North and Northeast regions in the worst category (values from 0.0). from lowest to highest vulnerability (an IVGp value = 1. it is clear that those with values up to 0. those with the great- est vulnerability in both scenarios were determined to be Ceará and Pernambuco.2 0.5 to 1. in accordance with the “Climate Change Index” (BAETTIG et al.. to a lesser degree. as well as its impact on subsistence farming productivity.75).5 < IVGp<= 0. chalazion. ranging from 0. In the scenario of higher carbon emissions (A2). RJ.2 < IVGp<= 0. RN CE.7 < IVGp<= 1. made up of health sub‑indicators (trends of climate-sensitive endemic infectious diseases). in relation to impacts inferred by regional climate scenarios. MT. which assumes the continuation of intensive use of fossil fuels. Socioeconomic Vulnerability Index – SEVI and. helped develop a composite index of vulnerability.5 0.3 0. As a result. a General Vulnerability Index . and therefore. Regarding the group of states with the lowest IVGp values. water and food shortages will worsen the health scenario and lead to migrations capable of redistributing endemic diseases in the geographic space and increase pressure on health care services in migrant destination areas.IVGp was built (it was prepared by Fiocruz and UFMG’s Department of Demography). an index that fell to 0.. and projected climate anomalies. 2009). in addition to four Northeastern states. •	region historically affected by droughts. A regional study that quantifies the vulnerability of Brazil’s Northeast region. GO. with environmental data (Desertification Vulnerability Index – DVI) and demographic and economic projections obtained from regional climate change scenarios. BA.7 0. Climatic Vulnerability Index – CVI indicators contributed to this.4 < IVGp<= 0.37 in the lower emission scenario (B2). MS.
which is also a vulnerable region. educational and housing policies. especially malaria and dengue fever. In the Amazon. The direction possible modifications in dengue fever epidemiology will take in Brazil will depend on what happens with climate change at the regional or sub-regional level. 2008). electricity and etc. For example. Taking into account the relative contribution of each factor and the cross-cutting nature of climate issues and other environmental and socioeconomic factors that affect human health. •	identification of the impacts of global climate change on human health and its physical and financial quantification. in a comparative manner. Special attention must be given to seashore metropolitan regions that have historically presented greater morbimortality rates. •	creation of early warning systems. the following general measures for adaptation are recommended for the health sector (CONFALONIERI. demographic and geographic characteristics (MCT. 404 english-parte-III-secao-B. as a result of their social. such as ozone. 2005). Coastal impacts resulting from an increase in average sea levels will mainly occur as a result of soil salinization. since this group has states that are in the North. among others (CONFALONIERI. the greatest risk situation would result from exposure to storms and flooding. In these regions. The result is greater incidence of the disease. Small river bank communities were isolated without sufficient water and without any possibility for fishing as a result of the drying up of access bayous (WORLD BANK. information on food production. future scenarios for malaria in the Amazon. the possible impacts of a reduction in rainfall and an increase in temperatures are related to four main aspects: worsening in the access to good quality water. 2008). 2007). such as malaria and leishmaniasis. 2007) all the worst situations were represented by the Northeastern states. With respect to endemic diseases. whose concentrations can increase as a result of higher temperatures (CONFALONIERI. the projected scenarios for the Northeast would not be favorable from an environmental perspective to the dengue fever cycle. by influence of the climate with the forest and most especially with its hydrological cycle (CONFALONIERI. Dengue fever.Second National Communication of Brazil •	There is a general agreement between the two studies in the sense of indicating the Federal District and all Southern states as among the least vulnerable. changes in the cycles of endemic transmissible diseases. in public policies and regional strategies to cope with climate change. among others. •	There is less agreement as regards the lowest IVGp values. 2008). another amply distributed and climate sensitive endemic disease. The effects on health would therefore be indirect. infrastructure due to erosion. In relation to the importance of these studies. including. There may also be damage to sanitation. This is caused due to persistent favorable temperatures and humidity as well as greater exposure of the population at this time of year. exposure to air pollutants. increase in the inhalation of smoke from forest fires. Considering the current set of evidence. 2008): •	improvement of programs to control widely disseminated infectious diseases across the country with high levels of endemicity and that are sensitive to the climate. mainly by critical events). are vulnerable to three main risks: landslides on inhabited cliffs during periods of heavy rains. morbi-mortality and material impacts. This is so because while in the first study (MCT. will depend on what comes to happen. •	reduction of general social vulnerability requirements for the population at risk of suffering health problems (infectious diseases and accidents . currently in the summer. reduction in the abundance of extractive goods for subsistence. because the increase in temper- ature would be accompanied by a reduction in humidity. With greater occurrence of extreme rain events in the South and Southeast regions of the country. in the current assessment this distribution was more heterogeneous. The degree of expected impacts on the environment and on health in central Brazilian Amazon can be illustrated by using the drought of 2005 as an example. especially the marginalized ones.indd 404 11/10/10 2:28 PM . it is necessary to consider the use of these types of composite indexes. considering only the environmental factors. which is unfavorable for its development. Central-West and even Southeast regions. with the loss of farmable areas and deterioration of drinking water reservoirs. endemic infectious disease treatment costs and air pollution. these should be considered when planning climate change adaptation policies. through economic. during flooding. heavy rains and flooding have historically been recorded with fatal victims on diverse occasions. coordinating the prediction of extreme climate events with vulnerability maps and contingency plans that also involve health care assistance. suffers a seasonal influence. in addition to the Northeast region. Urban populations. risk of leptospirosis epidemics in floodable areas poorly served by waste collection.
Populations. the impacts can vary in magnitude and intensity. in relation to the Pacific Ocean. low discharg- 405 english-parte-III-secao-B. Indeed. weather and social. when the El Niño event takes place. production sectors and natural systems can be more or less affected or benefited.5	Energy and Water Resources According to IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report. first. which are low demographic density areas. and therefore. It must be pointed out that if there is an intensification of abnormal heating phenomena of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans’ surface temperatures. with its 14. in the Southeast industrial and urban pollution. “Impacts. which will have an impact on water resources at regional level. with a surface of approximately 6.4%. The change in global temperature can lead to various other changes in the environment. The Paraná river watershed is vitally important for the Brazilian electric system. Indeed. nearly 19. El Niño occurrences have determined extreme events of rain deficiencies. such as irrigation for producing foods. the results for South America do not present coherence in flow projects. supplying water for human consumption and diluting pollutants from urban and industrial sewage. There are also regional challenges associated to water resources. with a possible change in the water regime due to climate change. However. actions that increase efficiency in water resource use for irrigation and improve treatment of urban pollutants should be given priority.000 MW of installed capacity ��� deserves special notice. Adaptation and Vulnerability” (IPCC. including intensification of the global hydrological cycle. the effects of climate evolution on water body flows and recharging of aquifers vary according to the idealized regions and climatic scenarios. Regional changes – notably land use change – have caused alterations in the Amazon’s climate and hydrology. 2008). water needs tend to increase as a result of demographic growth.000 km2. attention must be given to conflicts in water use in Paraná watershed. agricultural and animal production is responsible for hard to control disseminated pollution of surface and underground water bodies. mainly as a result of variations in projected rainfall. which can hamper future use of hydraulic potential. because they could get worse in the future. and most especially. there is a gap between water availability and the location of consumptive and non-consumptive water demands (FREITAS. a reduction could cause a decrease in energy generation throughout the year. Therefore. In relation to climate changes. the Paraná river watershed has been mainly characterized by the risk of flooding with greater frequency in years of abnormal heating of the Pacific Ocean. and consequently. increasing pressure on water resources. It is of enormous importance in the climate dynamics and in the planet’s hydrological cycle. 2007b). Further to the south. as a result of the different projections related to evaporation that can counter-balance the increase in rainfall (Figure 1. Thus. because of the different rainfall projections. conflicts regarding water use could increase. and as a consequence. and second. Even in the planet’s largest watershed. In relation to hydraulic potential.2). according to geographic location. and most of all. Thus. there are problems resulting from demographic expansion and uncontrolled land use. 2003).indd 405 11/10/10 2:28 PM . However. Working Group II’s Report. economic development. This is associated to the fact that the risk for global climate change can alter the hydrological cycle. Some are local. which should be complemented by other sources in the interconnected electric system. economic and environmental conditions and local infrastructure.Part 3 2. such as the pollution of bayous and rivers that bathe urban centers. If droughts are periodic in the Northeast region. the Amazon. around 90% of the waters are found in the Amazonas River and Tocantins River watersheds. limit the generation of electric energy at plants in operation. as well as silting of rivers. and the regime and availability of water in the watersheds. Thus. such as water-transmitted diseases and degradation of water quality in smaller communities during drought periods. this watershed is also the largest in population density. which translate into hydroelectric power generation vulnerabilities that deserve greater attention from the electrical sector and water managers. The Itaipu hydroelectric power plant. both urban and rural. the São Francisco River is mainly characterized by serving the demands of consumptive use. which leads to several conflicts of land and water use. and one of the greatest hydraulic potentials. The continental Amazon basin is world’s largest watershed. rains. In the projections conducted thus far. causes the most concern (FREITAS & SOITO. whereas nearly 90% of the population lives with the remaining 10% of water resources. The impacts of climate change will not be uniformly distributed among regions and populations. The watershed represents approximately 16% of the Earth’s surface freshwater stock. Brazil has the largest surface water reserve on the planet. In relation to Brazil’s main watersheds. The flow of water of hydroelectric power plants has been used to regulate water availability and to manage extreme flooding events.100. with more than 50% of the country’s installed capacity in operation. river flows may be reduced. others are regional in scope. it plays an important role in the rain and evapo‑transpiration regime for South America and the world. In long and mid-term scenarios of water use in Brazilian watersheds.
406 english-parte-III-secao-B. Strong Negative Regional Impacts (N/NE) SCHAEFFER et al. with a reduction in reservoir levels and an increase in demands for thermoelectric energy (MARENGO. climate change can imply in an average drop of 8.6% (scenario A2) to 10. However.ONS and National Water Agency . which would fall 1% in scenario A1 and 2. it was due to an abnormal warming in the tropical portion of the North Atlantic Ocean during summer and autumn in 2005 (MARENGO et al. 2010. the South and Southeast regions hold nearly 59% of all hydroelectric potential in operation or under construction.ANA flow data to investigate the vulnerabilities of the energy sector to the effects of climate change. Source: COPPE/UFRJ. the impact of climate variability on hydrology in the Amazon watershed as a whole is still little known. Great extensions of the Amazon have received below average rainfall since September 1997. show that in the short and medium terms (2011‑2040) the impact on electric power generation in Brazil should not be negative since hydroelectric generation tends to be helped by the climate scenarios produced. however. vulnerable to climate change. Storage of this additional water would mitigate the negative effects of average annual flow reductions.1. Paranapanema and Grande river watershed. On the other hand. at least at the already existing plants.Second National Communication of Brazil es into the region’s rivers. The crisis that occurred between 2001 and 2002 and which affected electric energy supply and distribution.indd 406 11/10/10 2:28 PM . to the opposite direction in terms of the results for longer periods (20702010). that is. In the large Paraná river watershed. 2030 National Energy Plan projections. concerns about vulnerability should mainly focus on the South and Southeast regions. resulting in power interruptions and rationing. Firm Energy (+1420%). 2008). where production would fall 7. comprised of the Paraná river and the Paranaíba. Since there is a regional disequilibrium in water availability. National Electric System Operator . but there the hydroelectric power generation is not well exploited. especially in northeastern Amazon. This had adverse impacts in food security for the riparian populations and in the generation of hydroelectric power.1-3%). or by extreme events that could harm plant operation. serves as a warning. would have the highest flows in the beginning of the rainy season. Table 2. there would be negative effects in total average energy production at the Brazilian hydroelectric power plants. 2007). 2006).1 Comparison of various studies regarding the impact on electric power generation in Brazil based on future climate change scenarios Current Study Scenarios Emission GCM Downscaling Timeframe Hydrological Modeling Energy Modeling Results A1b HadCM3 ETA 2011-2040 Water Balance MSUI Average Energy (+12-16%). the harshest draught over the past 106 years that affected the Amazon in 2005 did not have its root causes associated to El Niño. In other words. On the other hand. Negative Regional Impacts (East Atl. The studies conducted as part of Brazil’s Second National Communication. this indicates that in the short term.. Strong Negative Regional Impacts (N/NE) MAED-MESSAGE Increased Installed Cap.8% (scenario B2) in average annual flow. The “Climate Change and Energy Security in Brazil” study (SCHAEFFER et al. as shown in Table 2. new and old hydroelectric projects are. (2010) A2 and B2 HadCM3 PRECIS 2025-2100* Water/Statistical Balance SUISHI-O Average Energy (.. However. electric power generation in the country is heavily dependent on the watershed’s hydrological regimes (FREITAS & SOITO.7%. 2008).2% in scenario B2. According to preliminary estimates. the North region alone has nearly 52% of the hydroelectric potential under study or estimated (ELETROBRÁS. Adaptation Results - * 2025-2070 timeframe based on interpolation by CPTEC/INPE. If theses drops in average flows are confirmed. an understanding of global climate change and its relations with the North region’s hydraulic potential must be improved. based on downscaling and the EtaCPTEC model. for the future. rather. Due to the great participation of hydroelectric power plants in the Brazilian Electric System. Firm Energy (-29‑ 32%). Recent studies for the sector point. Together. despite the drop in average annual flow. the average annual quantity of water that flows to the plants. to a greater or lesser degree. SCHAEFFER et al. whether by the reduction in average flows in watersheds. 2008) used IPCC scenarios. (2008) A2 and B2 HadCM3 PRECIS 2071-2100 Estatistics SUISHI-O Average Energy (+12-16%). Studies on rainfall also indicate a possible strong impact of a variation in average annual flow in the Amazon. The hydroelectric power plants in the São Francisco river watershed will be the most affected. The most accentuated effect would be felt at the São Francisco river hydroelectric power plants. and Parnaíba) MAED-MESSAGE Decreased Installed Cap.
to the extent that they focus on reducing the system’s vulnerability to weather fluctuations. wind energy. the Brazilian energy system’s vulnerability to global climate change requires a comprehensive investigation. making it a challenge to analyze the role of climate change on the changes reported (KRUG. sugarcane bagasse. despite the uncertainties about climate scenarios. Both the climate and non-climate induction forces affect forest systems. Finally.6	Forests IPCC’s climate models indicate that the most vulnerable regions in South America to climate change. For the middle of this century. with an impact on forests and the forestry sector. However. 407 english-parte-III-secao-B. it takes an ongoing effort to evaluate the sector’s vulnerability while seeking to increase the number of scenarios as well as to improve the methodology in place. 2008). •	promote implementation of the management systems of the instruments stipulated in the National Water Resource Policy. The main developments include use of a greater amount of future climate scenarios in order to be able to reduce uncertainty about the potential impacts of global climate change. It is also very likely262 that natural disorders such as fires. 262	Probability above 90%. The study on vulnerability of the national energy sector should be continually developed and improved. the IPCC projects (IPCC. Despite the cumulative uncertainties that are inherent to studies on global climate change impacts and the associated adaptation. regardless of confirmed future scenarios. as far as socioeconomy and biodiversity are concerned. considering that these are studies based on different methodologies and climate data. 2007a). expanding the meteorological data measurement and monitoring network is a precondition to the evolution of studies on global climate change impacts in Brazil. 2. it is vulnerable to climate change. such as solid urban waste. Thus. are the Amazon and Brazil’s Northeast region (MARENGO. or farmland into urban areas) and modification of land cover (such as through degradation or restoration processes) also affect these systems. 2007a). it is hard to precisely estimate the impact of climate change on these disorders. which can influence the systems either directly or indirectly. Such a comparison of results underscores the need for further studies on the impact of future climate on the energy sector. Some of the possible measures to adapt to global climate change are described below: •	promote the multiple and integrated management of the reservoirs. of adaptation options so that action can be taken in a timely manner. insects and disease will be altered by climate change in frequency and intensity. 2008). Likewise. solar energy and tidal energy. adaptation policies should be designed in such a way that their implementation is beneficial. especially biodiesel. •	integrate water resource plans with hydroelectric power generation planning and operation (and other water uses). •	increase the rational use of energy and energy efficiency. Socioeconomic processes. Therefore. including changes in land use (such as the conversion of forests into farmland. It is also of utmost importance to expand the database on regional climate variables to make it possible to monitor the climate change process and provide better conditions for new studies to be conducted. •	review operational rules for hydroelectric power plants taking into account the possible impacts of global climate change. An understanding of the impact potential of climate change in forest ecosystems is of particular importance to Brazil. because hydroelectric power generation is intrinsically dependent on climate conditions. and •	promote the management of demand and increase in the supply of biofuels. •	develop new institutional and regulatory arrangements for generating hydraulic energy.5 °C above the average pre-industrial era temperature (IPCC. as of now. Significant losses of Amazon Forest are expected as a result of an average increase in temperature of 2. it is important to note that. through its effects on albedo and the soil moisture regime. •	expand the supply of electricity through the use of alternative fuels.indd 407 11/10/10 2:28 PM . that the increase in temperature and associated decrease in water availability in the soil could lead to the gradual replacement of tropical forest with savannah in a part of the Amazon. even if the climate scenario does not materialize.Part 3 It is therefore important that these results are reviewed with caution. •	promote the rational and integrated use of water resources. Nonclimate forces include urbanization and pollution. with a high degree of confidence.
forest policies have an important role in mitigating climate change. which is also associated with a reduction in deforestation. especially in the Amazon and Cerrado. 2006). 408 english-parte-III-secao-B. Preventing forest fragmentation is an early adaptation measure for native forests. the drought caused by El Niño in the north of the country in 1997-1998 was responsible for the large scale forest fire in the state of Roraima. where the former intensifies the impacts of the latter. Cerrado stricto sensu.. COSTA et al. SAMPAIO et al. Fragmented forests are more vulnerable to the periodic damage of droughts caused by El Niño than pristine forest. It is necessary to add climate alterations caused by changes in vegetation cover to those that stem from global warming.Second National Communication of Brazil which holds about 30% of the world’s tropical forests (FAO. it is estimated that negative impacts of climate change will contribute towards forest destruction or degradation. Although the IPCC indicates significant uncertainty in El Niño’s behavior in the future. thus promoting greenhouse gas emissions. and resilience. especially tropical forests. The many studies conducted by the Amazon Environmental Research Institute – IPAM show that in a scenario of global warming and more frequent droughts.5 million km2 (including the Cerradão. but in terms of flora resources. becoming much more vulnerable to fires. and contributes towards increasing the concentration of CO2 in the air. 2006). particularly those currently affected by limitations of their minimum temperature and rainfall requirements.. it also points to the possibility of an intensification of heavy rainfall. among others) covers nearly 2 million km2.indd 408 11/10/10 2:28 PM . Primary forest in the Legal Amazon encompasses an area of approximately 3. a Cerrado biome forest formation that. Cerrado fields. some types of forest can benefit from climate change. there are fewer options for planned adaptation than for more intensely managed forests. which affected a significant portion of its primary forest.. among others. under the Convention. 2007). The other biomes have less significant forest cover. from a profile perspective. 2007. there is an effort to reduce emissions caused by deforestation and degradation in developing countries that. Nowadays. while there is a tendency for an increase in rainfall. drought and flooding extremes. There is a risk of losing more than 40% of the forest in some parts of the Amazon. The Cerrado (including park Cerrado formations. the Amazon’s forests would lose much moisture. On the other hand. also includes components of adaptation. changes in plant phenology and other ecological changes. 2002. On the other hand. it resembles the Cerrado). However. Southeast and South regions of Brazil. Evapotranspiration in the Amazon feeds the rains that flow through the Andes and reach the South Central. The loss of forests diminishes their potential role as a carbon sink and reservoir. 2005) and more than half of its territory is covered by native forest formations. COCHRANE 2003). including reforestation and afforestation. Deforestation could thus reduce rains in these regions. 2008) and during the 2010 dry spell. for those scenarios that include temperature anomalies of more than 3 °C (SCHOLZE et al. Forest fires have also been detected in larger quantities during the 2005 drought (MARENGO et al. reductions in deforestation rates and use of forest products and waste in the production of bioenergy to replace fossil fuels. On the other hand. Studies indicate that forest fires are becoming more common and have strong negative effects on the Amazon’s vegetation (COCHRANE & LAURANCE. This reduction will bring benefits for preventing climate change (mitigation) as well as for adaptation. For example. 1991. increasing the uncertainties regarding their vulnerability to climate change. Studies also indicate that forest loss in the Amazon can change the levels of rainfall in vast areas of South America (MARENGO. distributed across its biomes. for forests with low or no management. For instance. this would counterbalance a reduction in rain due to deforestation and the final result would be more favorable for maintenance of ecosystems and species. throughout Central Brazil. Therefore. reducing the vulnerability of forests to climate change.. the Atlantic Forest has currently less than 7% of its original vegetation cover. or by gains in net productivity as a result of CO2 fertilization (although the magnitude of this effect is still uncertain for some types of systems). and there could be a significant increase in tree mortality with the consequent increase in carbon emissions into the atmosphere. However. Since there is an interplay between deforestation and climate change. actions to reduce deforestation will consequently reduce forest vulnerability to climate change. although it may be understood as an effort for mitigation. since it preserves the wealth of species and continuity of forest ecosystems. There are projections that deforestation of the tropical forest will lead to a hotter and drier climate in the region (NOBRE et al. it is important to underscore that the burning of biomass also increases the quantity of aerosols in the atmosphere. especially around the forests’ rims. Damage caused by droughts in the Amazon includes the high mortality rate of trees. forest management activities. and these have a negative radiation impact at global level. is a forest..
the latter most probably being the most common response in the past (KRUG. economic and political consequences (LIMA & ALVES. region and crop scenarios.Part 3 The adaptation of species to climate change can occur through evolution or migration to more appropriate locations. thus affecting the yields of agricultural systems. maintained by the Federal Government263. The study “Global Warming and New Geography of Agriculture Production in Brazil” (ASSAD & PINTO. In this context.. but also according to their socioeconomic conditions and access to benefits from public policies that focus on reducing their vulnerability. becoming a catalyst for technology. regionalized projections for IPCC scenarios B2 and A2.br>. The IPCC points to a great probability of natural resource degradation. 2007b). the continuous evolution in quality and definition of uncertainties of climatic projections of regional air circulation models can be seen in improved analyses of crop vulnerability. For this analysis. affording greater productivity. The vulnerability of agricultural establishments varies greatly. there are also uncertainties regarding the effect of CO2 fertilization on the productivity of these crops. be assessed both at national and international levels. were used as input for the Climate Risk Zoning models for the crops considered. In addition. As a result of the cumulative effect of spatial and scocioeconomic forces. such as soil and water. Therefore. 2. 263	See: <http:/ /www. the effects of global climate change on agriculture could result primarily in a drop in productivity and reduction in areas for conducting agriculture and livestock activities.7. The results of this study. with negative consequences for agriculture (IPCC. Climate change can also cause losses of organic material in the soil. reducing the production risk for these crops.agritempo. low intensity forest exploitations. maintenance of a diverse genetic bank and identification and protection of functional groups and relevant species. due to changes in temperature and rainfall.2. Some analyses of agriculture vulnerability are presented below. The same methods used in Climate Risk Zoning have been used to analyze the future vulnerability of crops. show great variation in potential low risk areas for developing each crop. changing the balance of nutrient input and output. an analysis of production system vulnerability is of vital importance for planning and adopting adaptation strategies. even when considering the direct effects of an increase in CO2 concentration and the adoption of adaptation measures in production areas.. shown in Table 2. One of the adaptation measures is the use of agroclimatological zoning as a tool to identify the best areas for each type of crop. the impacts of climate change on agriculture should 409 english-parte-III-secao-B. 2008). 2000). which has been done in Brazil since the mid 1990s.gov. This should be done with the best sets of data available rather than waiting for perfect data that makes any decision-making impossible.indd 409 11/10/10 2:28 PM . containing fragmentation and representation of forest types along environmental gradients in reserves. through the Climate Risk Zoning program for Brazil’s main crops. However. granting greater security in public policy making.7	Agriculture and Livestock 2. It also projects a decrease in productivity for many crops. Among the likely land use and management practices to maintain biodiversity and the ecological functions of forests it can be included protection of primary forests. conducted by INPE (MARENGO et al. 2007). 2008). by incorporating regional model input data and running the scenarios defined by the IPCC (NAKICENOVIC et al. whose changes can affect productivity and crop management. which means that its capacity to adopt actions to adapt to climate change vary not only as a result of different climate.1	Infrastructure for Research on Interactions between Climate Change and Agriculture Agriculture is an activity broadly dependent on climate factors. it must be highlighted that the effects of pests and diseases and extreme weather events that could drastically modify the predictions for crop productivity were not considered. 2008) presents an analysis of vulnerability for nine crops to the impact of climate change in Brazil. Due to the need for decision-making and the development of public policies that will rise to projected climate change. with social.
661.62 2050 -14.000 2.75 170. In relation to agriculture. or.640 Value of production R$ 1.526.. coffee.368 457.5. and they show a comparison between adaptation costs and losses that would result from a reduction in crop area in the analyzed scenarios.10 -02.70 -9. aimed at supporting decisionmaking and defining public policies that deal with actions for adapting to climate change impacts on Brazilian agriculture. management of production systems.639.15 138.18 -13.53 -18. The essential factor for growing crops that will be most affected if any projected future climate scenario holds true is water availability.557.58 -10. 2008.26 -17. genetic improvement and irrigation.61 -16.507 4. and 2.32 146. in the case of irrigation.36 -14. it is worth analyzing which measures for adapting to climate change can be taken to reduce the vulnerability of agriculture systems.01 118.13 -29.15 -11. 2. With the exception of sugarcane.373. 2.601 4.310.245.265 Scenario B2 .28 -41. Thus.19 -33.15 2070 -16.2. and 2.17 21.indd 410 11/10/10 2:28 PM .3.791 2. where it is a staple food for the population.493 16.42 -12.6) provides a notion of the advantage of investing in the adaptation or not.66 2070 -15.51 -12. 2.440.744 ----26.790. landscaping for the production of grains and pasture.422 4.48 159. rice. provided it is possible to store water in an efficient manner for use in crop irrigation.806 395.18 -34. direct planting and incentive for a mixed production system.35 -14. 2. if planting of the existing cultivars continued.31 -27.29 -15. Given these future agro-scenarios.3.63 07.559 9.955.156 9. there are significant reductions for cotton.21 -16.169. The “Cost/Loss” column (Tables 2. as well as incentives for the maintenance and expansion of forested areas. such as irrigation.93 -04.47 13.59 2050 -14.98 -23.percent variation re current area or production 2020 -11.75 -18.4. and 2.685 2.3.86 Scenario A2 .1.17 -21. 2. the study “Climate Change Economy in Brazil: Costs and Opportunities” (MARCOVITCH et al.457. beans.07 -09. forest corridors and integrated crop-forest systems. sunflower.percent variation re current area or production 2020 -11.976 619. the water management currently adopted persisted. the greater its value.137. Genetic improvement of plants is key to adapting crops to conditions of stress. presented in Table 2.12 -14. 2.274 4.677 52.Second National Communication of Brazil Table 2. although revealing an increase in area in other regions of Brazil.2 as a means to conduct a simplified cost/benefit analysis.632 ------4.3 -18.721 11.2 Percent variation of potential low risk area for nine Brazilian crops.25 16.6 and in Figures 2.013 42. The analysis in Table 2. has its areas reduced in area in the Northeast region.711 Current area (km2) 4.573.17 -12.61 143.837 4. However.4 have been adapted from that study.5.32 -17.98 -34. Tables 2.48 -15.266 18.470. Genetic improvement or irrigation actions were considered individually and were deemed sufficient to avoid economic losses associated to a reduction in potential lowrisk area for crops.969.454. can contribute more immediately to mitigate the problem. and primarily corn and soy bean. where. Cassava.76 -4. Thus. the less advantageous the investment. 410 english-parte-III-secao-B.650 5.04 -08.71 -14. 2010) shows an analysis of investments in these two options for adapting the production system.188 3. this activity can also be seen as one of the most evident ways for crop management systems to adapt in face of climate change.516 3.2 shows a reduction in low-risk areas for the crop in most cases.029.40 -12.16 -03.381.77 -10.39 Source: Adapted from ASSAD & PINTO.168.305. for scenarios B2 and A2 Crops Cotton Rice Coffee Sugarcane Beans Sunflower Cassava Corn Soy bean Current production (tons) 2.4.56 -06.898.831.01 -16.
000 40.000 378.000 104.indd 411 11/10/10 2:28 PM .4 Estimated annual costs for the genetic adaptation of all cultivars registered at MAPA for 2020. PRECIS RCM.240 1.000 38.00) 610.2070 Cost/Year* (R$ 1.703 1.645.2.00) 368.889 1.404 Cost/ Loss 9% 10% 4% 11% 6% 20% *Estimated annual cost of crop improvement.000 100.307.00) 34.438.000 200.00) 58. scenario A2 400.125 444.192.00) 417. **Estimated losses from production value and changes shown in Table 2.000 369.1 Estimated annual costs for the genetic adaptation of all cultivars registered at MAPA for 2020.958 456.463 155. 2050 and 2070.793 2.00) 58.000 27.000.412 1. Source: Embrapa.000.000.000 250.000 104.209 Cost/ Loss 12% 9% 7% 14% 6% 23% PRECIS RCM A2 .720.000.000 Loss/Year** (R$1.118 5. Figure 2.00) 539.2020 Cost/Year* (R$1. 2050 and 2070.000 327. Table 2.000 51.000 350.357.000 354.000 378.00) 530.640 Cost/ Loss 8% 12% 12% 17% 8% 28% PRECIS RCM A2 .000 44.00) 34.393 473.073.2050 Cost/Year* (R$1.211.2070 Cost/Year* (R$1.749 363.000 104.000 150.2.000 50.000.555 Cost/ Loss 9% 12% 17% 18% 9% 27% PRECIS RCM B2 .596. 2010.000.000. PRECIS.Part 3 Table 2.234 6.705.269 Cost/ Loss 11% 10% 3% 12% 5% 21% *Estimated annual cost of crop improvement.000.000 104.511.112 4.000.555 312.000 Loss/Year** (R$1.486 401.444 407. R$ / Year 411 english-parte-III-secao-B.570.598 6.000 104.747 1. 2010.165 7.478.000.00) 68.000 Loss/Year** (R$1.000.572 628.682 356.000 51.000 337.422 882.000 328.367 1.000 369.000 28.993.027 1.000 378.000 51.000 378.000 0 2020 Rice Cotton Coffee 2050 Beans Soy Bean 2070 Corn Source: Embrapa.2020 Cost/Year* (R$1.000.627 453. 2010.000 Loss/Year** (R$ 1. scenario B2 Crops Rice Cotton Coffee Beans Soy bean Corn PRECIS RCM B2 .191 1.231 Cost/ Loss 11% 10% 6% 14% 7% 22% PRECIS RCM B2 . PRECIS RCM.000 43.000.000.000 38.458 154.00) 616.000 Loss/Year** (R$1.000.000.506. **Estimated losses from production value and changes shown in Table 2. Source: Embrapa.000 354.639 313.401 3.690.3 Estimated annual costs for the genetic adaptation of all cultivars registered at MAPA for 2020.00) 65.000 337.2050 Cost/Year* (R$1. scenario A2 Crops Rice Cotton Coffee Beans Soy bean Corn PRECIS RCM A2 .000.000.000 104.000 55.000.000 Loss/Year** (R$1. 2050 and 2070.000.756 3.000 38.000 300.
000 350.000 300. 2010.000 200.640 Cost/ Loss 13% 66% 6% PRECIS RCM A2 .639 155. beans and corn in municipalities excluded from apt regions in scenarios for 2020. Table 2.00) 530.000.2020 Cost/Year* (R$1.000. scenario A2 700. scenario B2 400.000 300.000. 2050 and 2070.000 R$ / Year 400.234 1.000 150. 2050 and 2070.00) 610.358 72.112 1.3 Estimated annual costs for the irrigation of rice.000.000. PRECIS.00) 197.000.5 Estimated annual costs for the irrigation of rice. Source: Embrapa.00) 264. PRECIS.000.000 R$ / Year 250.000 0 2020 2050 2070 Rice Beans Corn Source: Embrapa.192.000.000.173 660.000.2.269 Cost/ Loss 43% 140% 24% Rice Beans Corn *Estimated annual cost of crop irrigation.000.000 50.000.2 Estimated annual costs for the genetic adaptation of all cultivars registered at MAPA for 2020.000 0 2020 Rice Cotton Coffee 2050 Beans Soy bean 2070 Corn Source: Embrapa. beans and corn in municipalities excluded from apt regions in scenarios for 2020.000.000.001 Loss/ Year** (R$ 1.000 100.000 100.000.000 500.000.209 Cost/ Loss 37% 136% 20% PRECIS RCM A2 .000. 2010. **Estimated losses from production value and changes shown in Table 2. 2010.000.000 200.2050 Cost/Year* (R$1.802 309. Figure 2.444 363.165 1.00) 417. scenario 2 Crops PRECIS RCM A2 .338 Loss/Year** (R$1.00) 56.336 102.511.2070 Cost/Year* (R$1.175 Loss/Year** (R$1.720.000 600.480 493.indd 412 11/10/10 2:28 PM .000. PRECIS.725 409.000. 2050 and 2070.000.Second National Communication of Brazil Figure 2.958 473. 412 english-parte-III-secao-B.
thus seeking to reduce possible impacts on agriculture production as a result of the increase in temperature and water deficiency. and it can noted the need for significant contributions of resources.690. such as Emprapa. part of the estimated investments could be postponed. investment in genetic adaptation that meets the demands of municipalities that will be affected in 2020. **Estimated losses from production value and changes shown in Table 2. studies on the genetic adaptation of plants are being carried out.000 300.1 and 2.242 322. beans and corn in municipalities excluded from apt regions in scenarios for 2020. •	in the case of rice. around 20%.315 539. 2010.271 616. since the annual irrigation cost is greater than annual production loss.000 500.4 Estimated annual costs for the irrigation of rice. In terms of immediate action. with these values dependent on the number of cultivars. especially on soy bean. •	there is the possibility for adaptation to scenarios that could occur later in time.3 and 2. the Agricultural Research Institute of Paraná .000. beans and corn in municipalities excluded from apt regions in scenarios for 2020. prioritized research in the genetic improvement of plants.6 Estimated annual costs for the irrigation of rice.000. which would still be affected in future scenarios.IAPAR and the Santa Catarina Agriculture Research and Rural Extension Company . This statement is not valid for rice and bean crops.00) 40.Part 3 Table 2.4. but only for 15 or 20 years. Source: Embrapa. there is a disadvantage in relation to genetic adaptation of currently existing cultivars. Furthermore.000 100. PRECIS.indd 413 11/10/10 2:28 PM . scenario B2. Tables 2.211. Institutions for agricultural research.598 1.965 Loss/Year** (R$1. scenario B2 600. beans and coffee. •	The difference in investments needed for all crops is little or nonexistent between scenarios A2 and B2. although investing in irrigation is advantageous.333 170. Crops Rice Beans Corn PRECIS RCM B2 . 413 english-parte-III-secao-B. 2050 and 2070. This leads to a very great variation in the ratio between annual adaptation cost with irrigation and annual production loss. The study concluded that: •	there is little time to decide on investments in the genetic adaptation of most crops since the great need of cultivars will occur in the very near future.2070 Cost/Year* Loss/Year** Cost/ (R$1.000.118 1.404 41% 120% 19% *Estimated annual cost of crop irrigation. with genetic adaptation as the only alternative. would already produce 85 to 90% of the cultivars needed to those municipalities.506.00) (R$1. although annual production loss may also depend on area.555 154. according to Tables 2.000. since maximum cost is 43% of the production that would be lost. it incorporates the production differences by area and the prices differences for each crop. which would require new cultivars by 2050.000.2020 Cost/Year* (R$1. and according to these analyses.2 show genetic adaptation costs. Thus.EPAGRI. 2010.2.152 27.000.380 544. Figure 2.3 and 2.00) 368.000.00) Loss 255.00) (R$1.000. where for beans. which maintains values that are small or close to those for genetic adaptation. based on this ratio in the study.000 400.125 435.4 and Figures 2.00) Loss 172. •	investment is disadvantageous in the case of beans.000. PRECIS. for all crops.000.2050 Cost/Year* Loss/Year** Cost/ (R$1.555 Cost/ Loss 11% 60% 2% PRECIS RCM B2 . •	in the case of rice and beans. 2050 and 2070.756 1.000.870 418.000 200.813 92. the following conclusions are drawn: 2050 Beans Corn 2070 R$ / Year •	irrigation is an advantageous means of adaption for corn.1 and 2.000. vary from one crop to another.2 and Figures 2. Irrigation costs by area. especially in scenario A2 for 2020.486 356.000 0 2020 Rice Source: Embrapa. cultivars are already being commercialized that have greater tolerance to high temperatures.231 32% 117% 11% PRECIS RCM B2 .
2005). predominantly characterized by pastures.CLIMAPEST”264 has been focusing on the effects of climate change on pests. Simultaneous to agricultural crop vulnerability studies as a result of alterations caused by global warming. 1994). where Brazil is ranked second worldwide. There are also uncertainties regarding the effects of global climate change on animal production systems. HAHN & MADER. A variation in the rainfall regime can also affect animals as a result of the drying up of reservoirs and impossibility in supplying water for animal consumption. 134 million people suffered from natural disasters in 2006. In relation to the direct effect on animals.8	Readiness for Disasters Natural disasters cause great losses in human life and property throughout the world. From the statistics available for the last two decades. The cattle herd in Brazil. economic losses caused by disasters exceeded US$ 608 billion.macroprograma1.Second National Communication of Brazil Another possible impact is an intensification of outbreaks of pests and diseases as a result of gradual climate changes (through an alteration in invertebrate vectors or increases in temperature and water stress on plants) and greater frequency in uncommon climate events (dry weather tendencies favor insects.. HAHN. and they are sensitive to high temperatures. 2004). 2005). and the already low nutritional value of tropical pastures can further decrease as a consequence of the increase in the carbon/ nitrogen ratio (ZHAO et al. In this specific case. held in 2007 in Geneva. 2005). Brazil is a major exporter of agricultural and forest products. which could affect food security in the country. the largest exporter of meat in the world. CO2 and ultraviolet ray concentrations. Heat stress has a negative effect on milk production and daily cow reproduction.. which is a favorable aspect in relation to thermotolerance. Zebu cattle hairs have properties that increase heat loss and reduce the absorption of solar radiation (HANSEN. especially those of short duration. The seasonal pattern for water availability and low availability of soil nutrients are limiting factors in pasture areas for a good part of the region. such as severe frosts. not on the crops. Adult animals have optimal development at temperatures between 18 °C and 20 °C.embrapa. there was a 4 dollar savings in future costs of reconstruction and rehabilitation. as well as swine fertility (BERMAN. In the 1990s. the intense dry weather led to crop losses in grains of around 20 million tons in Brazil. very high temperatures and persistent dry weather. Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) have advantages over European cattle (Bos taurus) in relation to thermotolerance. the lowest in the past 53 years (BERLATO & CORDEIRO. is predominantly Zebu. project “Global Climate Change Impacts on Phytosanitary Problems . An example in Brazil of impacts related to floods and prolonged droughts occurred in the state of Rio Grande do Sul recently. whereas wet weather favors fungal and bacterial pathogens) (ANDERSON et al. because Zebu animals are better able to regulate body temperature in thermal stress conditions. Heat stress is responsible for big losses in chicken yield. respectively. 1999. indirect impacts must also be considered. 2006).cnptia. Switzerland. four out of every ten harvests were affected by dry weather events. temperature is the most important factor. but rather on their pathogenic agents or competitive species. According to the authors. such as the effects of changes in food availability and grain prices..indd 414 11/10/10 2:28 PM . the effects of the future climate are analyzed – negative in most cases for agriculture – of rising temperatures. Rainfall in the three months of summer of 2004-2005 was less than 200 mm in most of the state. 2004). is projected to be negatively affected by greater variability in rainfall. that is. 414 english-parte-III-secao-B. the document highlighted that for each dollar invested in disaster risk reduction. and resulted in crop losses.br/climapest>. 264	See: <http://www. Furthermore. apud ZHAO et al. the consequences of changes in the frequency of extreme events have not yet been properly assessed. 2. considering a future scenario with higher temperatures. including devastating droughts in China and Africa and extensive flooding in Asia and Africa. on the phytosanitary problems of diverse crops. Besides the direct impacts of climate change. 1997. and it is necessary to increase efforts in evaluating its effects on agriculture and its economic impacts. diseases and weeds in Brazilian crops. Agriculture tends to be more vulnerable to hydrological and temperature extremes. with high mortality rates at ambient temperatures greater than 38 °C. Raising chickens. However. a sum greater than that for the four previous decades put together (DIFD. vectors and viruses. Animal production in Latin America. with a reduction in body weight and increase in mortality (FABRÍCIO. These events were related to the El Niño (warming of Pacific Ocean waters) and La Niña (cooling of Pacific Ocean waters) phenomena. and the high temperatures have less effect on the cells of their bodies compared to European cattle. 1991. at a cost of $35 billion in damages. hail. Furthermore. may also be affected by climate change. As highlighted in the document from the first session of the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction.
Brazil is a country of vast territorial size and it is relatively populous. Section 4. hail.indd 415 11/10/10 2:28 PM . relegating high-risk housing sites to low-income population brackets. it began development of the “TerraLib” library266. Since it was implemented at the end of 1994.CCST/INPE. etc. A recently created application using the “TerraLib” library was the Natural Disaster Monitoring and Warning System – Sismaden267. on the Center for the Earth Science System . torrential rains. forest fires. mudslides and landslides on cliffs.) that can unleash natural disasters. Thus. undertows. due to a lack of early predictions.7. actions by government authorities and organized civil society are only seen after the event that triggered the natural disaster.br/sismaden>. enabling the data to be crossed and analyzed in real time with vulnerability of the region where the system is being used (Figure 2. The proposal of the Sismaden program is to go beyond the meteorological warning in operation at CPTEC. Recently. Furthermore. resulting in cutting losses in human lives and material. Frequently. 265	See Part IV. Good predictions of weather and extreme meteorological events can support effective actions for preventing and mitigating adverse effects of these extremes. CPTEC-INPE has been disseminating weather warnings and alerts to the entire country when there is a prediction of some weather phenomenon with the potential to adversely affect society. droughts and dry weather. As part of its operational routine. a factor that usually worsens the severity of natural disasters. for several decades. which coordinates and integrates all of INPE’s scientific and technological efforts on natural disasters and deals with interdisciplinary issues of the complex interactions between social systems and natural systems. It also develops the capacity for optimized analysis of this information using geoprocessing techniques from environmental databases. due to its variability and its extremes. enabling any user of the program to have the same meteorological data as CPTEC and/or other meteorology institutes. the INPE created the Center for Earth System Science265. INPE has been developing modern technologies for environmental monitoring using space platforms that make it possible. Most of the environmental disasters in the country are climate related.5). CPTEC-INPE developed an information system to support Civil Defense in situations of predicting some extreme weather phenomenon involving intense or prolonged rains. wind storms.Part 3 The vulnerability of populations in developing countries to natural disasters is high. for example. INPE. floods.terralib. vulnerability is also associated with land use change and in income distribution inequities. to raise changes in land use and in vegetation cover. they try to fix the damage already caused because they were unable to properly prevent and mitigate it. within the general policy of the Brazilian government to stimulate the production of open source software. 415 english-parte-III-secao-B. “TerraLib” helps generate geoprocessing applications that integrate space data (images and maps) in database management systems – DBMS and can be used for different applications. Starting in 2002.inpe. as well as environmental protection. the environment and the economy.org> 267	See: <http:/ /www. that is. 266	See: <http:/ /www. The reasons are complex and they are associated to different stages of socioeconomic development in the countries. Furthermore.dpi. it is subject to a variety of natural events (severe storms.
1999). In 2010.Second National Communication of Brazil Figure 2. 4. in every municipality where preventive work was not implemented. deaths were reported.gov.indd 416 11/10/10 2:28 PM . especially when the resources for reducing risks through structural measures are limited.Sismaden Information on Risks and Vulnerability to Environmental Disasters Mapping of Potential Risk Areas Weather. 416 english-parte-III-secao-B.defesacivil..br/download/download. In cities where there was actual preventive work. 269	See: <http:/ /www. Climate and Hydrology Information External Events Crossing of external events.defesacivil.pdf&nome _ arquivo=idc_03. On the other hand. occupation planning. among others. is an example.asp?endereco=/ publicacoes/publicacoes/idc_03. Warning systems are efficient non-structural measures to reduce social losses. It is believed that use of the PPDC has provided most cities involved good organization of their civil defense systems and concern with more definitive measures to attack the risk problem. surveillance of areas.br/desastres/desastres/2009/index. such as works. 3. 268	See: <http:/ /www. From 2007 to August 2010. risk maps and e baselines Analysis and Warnings Users Actions Aditional Information Bases Source: INPE/SISMADEN. It must also be underscored that the preventive work by Brazil’s Civil Defense is of utmost importance to reduce the number of deaths in the case of disasters.299 Brazilian municipalities had Municipal Civil Defense Coordination Offices269.5 General scheme of the monitoring and warning system for natural disasters .pdf>.510 disasters were reported to the Ministry of Integration’s National Secretariat of Civil Defense268. 2010. no deaths were reported (MACEDO et al. The results obtained from applying the Civil Defense Preventive Plan – PPDC.asp>.gov. which has been in operation since 1988.
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