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1 LEGAL AND PROTECTION POLICY RESEARCH SERIES Back to Basics: The Right to Liberty and Security of Person and Alternatives to Detention of Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, Stateless Persons and Other Migrants Alice Edwards Expert Consultant DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION PPLA/2011/01.Rev.1 April 20112 DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR) CP2500, 1211 Geneva 2 Switzerland Website: This background paper was prepared for the Global Roundtable on Alternatives to Detention, to be held May The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the United Nations or UNHCR. This paper may be freely quoted, cited and copied for academic, educational or other non-commercial purposes without prior permission from UNHCR, provided that the source and author are acknowledged. The paper is available online at United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 2011.3 LEGAL AND PROTECTION POLICY RESEARCH SERIES Back to Basics: The Right to Liberty and Security of Person and Alternatives to Detention of Refugees, Asylum-Seekers, Stateless Persons and Other Migrants Alice Edwards Expert Consultant DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION PPLA/2011/01.Rev. 1 April 20114 5 Table of Contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... vii A. INTRODUCTION...1 A. STRUCTURE AND CONTENT...6 B. METHODOLOGICAL CAVEATS...7 C. TERMINOLOGY...8 B. THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK THE RIGHT TO SEEK AND TO ENJOY ASYLUM, OPEN AND HUMANE RECEPTION CONDITIONS, NON- PENALISATION AND FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT The right to seek and enjoy asylum, open and humane reception conditions, and the prohibition on penalisation for illegal entry or stay Article 26, 1951 Convention Lawfully in the territory Standard of treatment: aliens generally STATELESS PERSONS THE RIGHT TO LIBERTY AND SECURITY OF PERSON UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW Right to liberty and security of person under Article 9, ICCPR Detention must be in accordance with and authorised by law Detention must not be arbitrary...20 a) Reasonableness, necessity and proportionality...21 b) Reasons for immigration detention...22 c) Length and extensions of detention...23 d) Obligation to consider less invasive means of achieving the same objective...25 e) Non-discrimination...26 f) Good faith and proper purpose THE RIGHT TO LIBERTY AND SECURITY OF PERSONS UNDER REGIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS The Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights European Union The Americas Africa PROCEDURAL GUARANTEES Informed of reasons for arrest or detention Periodic review Right to challenge detention and possibility for order of release before a court Burden of proof Right to compensation for unlawful or arbitrary detention Independent monitoring and inspection STANDARDS OF TREATMENT IN DETENTION LEADING TO ARBITRARY DETENTION RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT AND CHOICE OF RESIDENCE UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW Lawfully within the territory Limitations on the right to freedom of movement SPECIAL PROTECTIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS Children Persons with mental health or physical illness or disabilities Women The elderly...50 i6 C. ALTERNATIVES TO IMMIGRATION DETENTION: PRACTICAL AND FUNCTIONAL ISSUES...51 D. FIGURE E. FIGURE NO DETENTION OR RELEASE WITHOUT CONDITIONS OR ON OWN RECOGNIZANCE RELEASE ON CONDITIONS RELEASE ON BAIL, BOND, SURETY/GUARANTOR Canada s Toronto Bail Program: Automatic bail hearings and government-funded bail system COMMUNITY-BASED SUPERVISED RELEASE OR CASE MANAGEMENT NGO-run models Australia: bridging visas /temporary lawful stay visas and community-based supervision and support...61 (a) Asylum-Seeker Assistance Scheme (ASAS)...63 (b) Hotham Mission Hong Kong: Release on own recognizance with community support Hybrid government-ngo cooperation or partnership models Australia - Community Assistance Support Programme (CASP) (formerly, Community Care Pilot (CCP)) Government-run models Belgium s Return Houses Glasgow: Family Return Project DESIGNATED RESIDENCE ELECTRONIC TAGGING AND REPORTING, OR SATELLITE TRACKING HOME CURFEW COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES TO ALTERNATIVES TO DETENTION Australia: Community Status Resolution Service (CSRS) Liverpool: Voluntary Sector Key Worker Pilot Risk and needs assessment tools...80 D. LESSONS LEARNED AND THE COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS COMPLIANCE OR COOPERATION RATES...82 F. TABLE 1: COMPLIANCE OR COOPERATION RATES CRUDE COSTS...85 G. TABLE 2: DETENTION VERSUS ALTERNATIVES TO DETENTION COSTS INCREASE IN VOLUNTARY RETURN FOR FAILED ASYLUM-SEEKERS AND OTHER MIGRANTS ESTABLISHING MINIMUM SAFEGUARDS AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS...86 E. CONCLUSION...88 ANNEX A: TABLE OF CASES...90 ii7 Executive Summary The widespread and growing use of immigration detention has come under considerable scrutiny in recent years on pragmatic (practical and functional) as well as human rights/legal grounds. This study articulates the current state of international law governing detention and its alternatives, and provides a critical overview of existing and possible alternatives to detention (A2Ds) options drawn from empirical research. Research visits were conducted to five countries, namely Australia, Belgium, Canada, Hong Kong, and the United Kingdom. This study contributes to the body of work of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) against the detention of refugees, asylum-seekers and stateless persons, and forms one of the background papers for the global roundtable on the same subject. Pragmatically, no empirical evidence is available to give credence to the assumption that the threat of being detained deters irregular migration, or more specifically, discourages persons from seeking asylum. Global migration statistics have been rising regardless of increasingly harsh governmental policies on detention. Except in specific individual cases, detention is largely an extremely blunt instrument to counter irregular migration, not least owing to the heterogeneous character of migration flows. Critically, threats to life or freedom in an individual s country of origin are likely to be a greater push factor for a refugee than any disincentive created by detention policies in countries of transit or destination. More particularly, this research found that less than 10 per cent of asylum applicants abscond when released to proper supervision and facilities (or in other words, up to 90 per cent comply with the conditions of their release). Moreover, alternatives are a significantly cheaper option than detention both in the short and longer term. The legality of the use of detention in the asylum (as well as the broader immigration) context has been tested in various international, regional and national courts. A significant number of cases have reiterated to governments their responsibilities to protect individuals human rights against unlawful deprivations of liberty and other restrictions on freedom of movement. Courts have held, for example, indefinite or prolonged detention or the mandatory and unreviewable detention of asylum-seekers (and other migrants) to be unlawful. Failure to respect established procedural safeguards has also been found to render detention unlawful. The deleterious effects of detention on the health and well-being of detainees, such as psychological damage, has in turn given rise to myriad human rights claims; and the detention of children has been particularly criticized. In relation to alternatives to detention specifically, international case law has affirmed the obligation on states to institute guarantees against arbitrariness, without which detention is likely to be unlawful. Such guarantees necessarily include the availability of less coercive alternatives to detention (or A2Ds), otherwise the principles of proportionality, necessity and reasonableness cannot be tested or met. These principles must be read as requiring detention to be an exceptional measure of last resort; and in this regard, states must show that there were not less intrusive means of achieving the same objective. The ultimate A2D would be no detention at all, or release without conditions. This study iii8 argues that the failure of governments to even trial A2Ds, or to systematise them, puts their detention policies and practices into direct conflict with international law. 1 International law confirms that seeking asylum is not an unlawful act and, therefore, that one cannot be detained for the sole reason of being an asylum-seeker. In addition, there are specific international legal guarantees against penalization for illegal entry or stay, which would include penalties in the form of detention. Detention must therefore be used only as a last resort and only according to a justified purpose other than the status of being an asylum-seeker. Likewise, for de jure as well as de facto stateless persons, their lack of legal status or documentation means that they risk being held indefinitely, which is unlawful under international law. Statelessness cannot be a bar to release, and using the lack of any nationality as an automatic ground for detention would run afoul of non-discrimination principles. Many states have legislated for A2D or require that the availability, effectiveness and appropriateness of alternatives to detention must be considered. 2 There is a range of A2Ds in operation, including reporting or residency requirements, guarantees, sureties or bail, community supervision or case management, electronic monitoring, and home curfew. The ultimate A2D is liberty. Various human rights and other bodies have warned states that any alternatives developed must not function as alternative forms of detention. Many alternatives restrict movement or deprive liberty to greater or lesser degrees in practice and, as such they are regulated also by the prohibition on arbitrary deprivations of liberty, they must only be imposed where they are necessary and proportionate to the objectives in question. In order to satisfy these requirements, the least intrusive alternative must be taken in each individual case. A number of A2Ds are described and examined in Part C of this study. While acknowledging that these alternatives have been designed and tailored to the particular economic, legal, political, and social context in which they operate, and are therefore to some extent sui generis, the study attempts to identify some shared elements or features that could be replicated or modified to other national contexts, and which account for their success or workability. The findings concur with Field and Edwards 2006 conclusions that [refugees or] asylum seekers very rarely need to be detained, or indeed restricted in their movements, prior to a final rejection of their claim or prior to the point at which their removal becomes a practical reality. 3 In fact, the same conclusion is found to apply to rejected asylum-seekers while awaiting deportation or another legal status. A growing body of evidence calls into question the purpose and effectiveness of detention as a policy aimed at deterring irregular migration, preventing absconding, or ensuring persons are available for removal. The policy motivations of governments for detention increasingly fail to map onto the empirical evidence. 4 As already noted, the research found several examples where 90 per cent or more of asylum applicants (as well as persons pending deportation) 1 International law has generated a variety of standards on the issue of immigration detention, outlined in detail in Part B of this study. 2 See, e.g., Sahin v. Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration) [1995] 1 F.C. 214 (T.D.) (Canadian Federal Court) as cited in Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Guideline 2, Guidelines on Detention, Ottawa, Canada, 12 March 1998, p O. Field and A. Edwards, Study on Alternatives to Detention, UNHCR, Legal and Protection Policy Research Series, POLAS/2006/03, 2006, p This study does not deal with the political motivations for why governments pursue detention policies (e.g. issues of control). iv9 comply with release conditions. Much of the evidence presented herein may appear at first to be counter-intuitive, at least in so far as it contradicts assumptions made by many governments about the need for detention. It thus calls on governments to look at the empirical evidence as a basis for policy-making, rather than to base policy decisions on false, albeit long-standing, assumptions about migrant behaviour. Overall, a number of common elements were identified in the pilots and programmes researched that appear to account for higher compliance or cooperation rates, which included: the treatment of refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons and other migrants with dignity, humanity and respect throughout the relevant immigration procedure; the provision of clear and concise information about rights and duties under the A2D and consequences of non-compliance; referral to legal advice, including advice on all legal avenues to stay, especially starting at an early state in the relevant procedure and continuing throughout; access to adequate material support, accommodation and other reception conditions; and individualised coaching or case management services. While the Field and Edwards study identified community or family ties as a factor in improving compliance rates, this study suggests that a lack of community or family ties does not necessarily lower compliance rates if an individual is released to proper supervision and support. The study also notes that properly-functioning A2Ds can lead to knock-on improvements in asylum, reception and migration management systems. v10 vi11 Acknowledgements This study was commissioned by UNHCR. It was undertaken and completed when I was Lecturer in International Refugee and Human Rights Law, Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford. Its content is valid as at December It could not have been completed without the generosity of the time and wisdom of a wide number of persons. Many are listed here, but some also preferred to remain anonymous. In particular I wish to thank Alexander Beck, Anja Klug, Janice Marshall, Jane Rasmussen and Kees Wouters at UNHCR Geneva for the guidance and coordination of this project, as well as my research assistants at the University of Oxford, Vicky Goodban and Marina Sharpe. On Australia, thank you to Colin Briton (Australian Red Cross); Amanda Paxton, Julian Warner, Jennifer Clarke, Justin Green (Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Melbourne); Josef Szwarc (Foundation for Survivors of Torture); and Caz Coleman (Hotham Mission). On Belgium, thank you to Carmen Dupont (Amnesty International Vlaanderen); Tristan Wibault (CBAR); Christophe Renders (JRS); Pieter Stockmans (VwV); the coaching staff at Tubize: Ms. Florence Jacquemin, coordinator, and Ms. Isabelle Dessart and Mr. Youcef Boughrif; Directrice Ms. Isabelle Plumat from FEDASIL; and Frances Nicholson, Madeleine Garlick, Thomas Pauwels, and Blanche Tax (UNHCR). On Canada, thank you to Gloria Natzfiger (Amnesty International Toronto); Reg Williams and Tina Karsakis (Canadian Border Service Agency, Toronto); Perez Oyugi (Canadian Red Cross); Shannon Collins (Legal Aid Office, Refugee Law Program, Canada); Lina Anani and Sheliza Suchak (legal practitioners); Dave Scott (Toronto Bail Program); Fred Franklin (TRAC); and Rana Khan (UNHCR Toronto). On United Kingdom, thank you to Clare Tudor (Scottish Refugee Council); Steve Thomson (UK Border Agency); Catherine Grant (social workers coordinator Glasgow City Council); John Short (IOM Scotland and Northern Ireland); Ryan Nelson (Refugee Action, Liverpool). On Hong Kong, thank you to Brian Barbour (Hong Kong Refugee Advice Centre); Richard Yiu Cheong Tsoi (Society for Community Organization); Mark Daly (Barnes & Daly); Wing Hang Chow and Phidias Tam (The Government of Hong Kong s Special Administrative Region Security Bureau); Adrielle M. Pañares and her staff (International Social Service); Letitia Tan (student, University of Hong Kong); Kelly Loper (University of Hong Kong); Charlotte Sum, Choosin Ngaothepitak and Reuben Liew (UNHCR). I would like to thank several persons who have provided very helpful feedback and comments on this study: Grant Mitchell (International Detention Coalition); Robyn Sampson (La Trobe University, Melbourne); Jerome Phelps (London Detainee Support); Michelle Brané (Women s Commission); Philip Amaral (JRS-Europe); vii12 Amal de Chickera and Stephanie Grant (Equal Rights Trust, London); Adriano Silvestri (European Agency for Fundamental Rights); and Leslie Vélez (Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, US). viii13 A. Introduction Is it a crime to be a foreigner? We do not think so. 1 It is a gross injustice to deprive of his liberty for significant periods of time a person who has committed no crime and does not intend to do so. No civilised country should willingly tolerate such injustices. 2 Cats and dogs enjoy a dedicated statute, right of appeal to an independent board and specific provisions regulating decisions which vary length of detention cats and dogs have more protection than refugees 3 The widespread and increasing use of immigration detention (defined below) has come under considerable scrutiny in recent years. As a means of controlling entry to the territory as well as a form of deterrence, immigration detention is increasingly being questioned on practical and functional, as well as human rights/legal grounds. Politically, too, many countries are facing growing civil opposition to the practice of immigration detention. Pragmatically, there is no empirical evidence that the prospect of being detained deters irregular migration, or discourages persons from seeking asylum. 4 In fact, as the detention of migrants and asylum-seekers has increased in a number of countries, the number of individuals seeking to enter such territories has also risen, or has remained constant. 5 Globally, migration has been increasing regardless of governmental policies on detention. 6 Except in specific individual cases, detention is generally an extremely blunt instrument of government policy-making on immigration. This may be explained by the complexity of the 1 Saadi v. United Kingdom, ECtHR, Applic. No /03, 29 January 2008, per joint partly dissenting opinion of judges Rozakis, Tulkens, Hajiyev, Spielman and Hirvelä (no page or paragraph number). 2 Lord T. Bingham, The Rule of Law (London: Allen Lane, 2010), p M. Daly, Refugee Law in Hong Kong: Building the Legal Infrastructure, (2009) 9 Hong Kong Lawyer 14, p Any reduction in global asylum numbers have been associated with non-entrée policies, including containment in regions of origin and interception/interdiction measures, or can be attributed to large-scale repatriation programmes. 5 For example, Council of Europe Member States have significantly expanded their use of detention as a response to the arrival of asylum seekers and irregular migrants : see, Parliamentary Assembly, Council of Europe, Doc , 11 January 2010, The detention of asylum seekers and irregular migrants in Europe, Rapporteur Mrs Ana Catarina Mendonça, para. 1 (referring in particular to the UK, France and Italy), yet migration into Europe has also surged: European migration figures have increased from an estimated 49 million in 1990 to 58 million in 2000 to 70 million in 2010: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2009). Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision (United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2008), available at: 6 According to the United Nations, the global migration stock has been increasing as follows: between (+1.3%); (+1.5%); (+1.8%); and (+1.8%): In 1990, there was an estimated global migrant stock of 155 million; in 2000, it was estimated to be 178 million and in 2010, this is estimated to be 214 million, constituting 3.1 per cent of the global population: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2009). Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revision (United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2008), available at: 114 choices and the mixed motivations of many migrants, which likely have little to do with the final destination country s migration policies. 7 For refugees, threats to life or freedom in countries of origin are likely to be a greater push factor than any disincentive created by detention policies in countries of destination. 8 The prospect of being detained in one country may however influence an individual s final destination choice, the timing of one s movement, or the route or manner of entry; and it points to the need, at a minimum, to regionalise standards on this issue. 9 Meanwhile there is evidence to show that less than ten per cent of asylum applicants as well as persons awaiting deportation 10 disappear when they are released to proper supervision and facilities. 11 In other words, 90 per cent and more of persons regularly comply with all legal requirements relating to their cases. Furthermore, alternative options present significant cost savings to governments, 12 whereas some governments have paid out millions of dollars in compensation or face unpredictable compensation bills for their unlawful detention policies See, e.g., S. Castles, Towards a Sociology of Forced Migration and Social Transformation (2003) 77(1) Sociology 13-34, at p. 12: Migration policies fail because policy makers refuse to see migration as a dynamic social process linked to broader patterns of social transformation. Ministers and bureaucrats still see migration as something that [can] be turned on and off like a tap through laws and policies. 8 For example, despite Australia s policy of mandatory detention (introduced in 1997), asylum-seekers continued to arrive throughout the 1990s and 2000s. Only with the introduction of comprehensive interception measures in the early-mid-2000s did the numbers of asylum-seekers fall markedly. 9 Belgium, for example, recorded an increase in asylum applications at the border since it began permitting families with children arriving this way to be housed in the community: Verbauwhede, Alternatives to Detention for Families with Minor Children The Belgian Approach, a discussion paper for EU Asylum Conference September 2010, p.2. It is nonetheless too simplistic to attribute this increase to a more generous alternative to detention regime, as asylum application rates have been increasing overall in Belgium. There was no statistical breakdown for asylum applications submitted at the border visa-à-vis those submitted on the territory available at the time of writing. If there are more applications being submitted at the border, this may be a positive development, if it means more persons opting to announce their intention to apply for asylum at the border, rather than to enter Belgium clandestinely and to apply for asylum later, including only after having been arrested for illegal entry or stay. Any increase may also be attributable to altering asylum practices in neighbouring countries (e.g., according to Amnesty International, The Netherlands puts aliens in detention more frequently and for longer periods of time, Harcopy Trouw, 5 November 2010), and this points to the need for an EU-wide discussion on A2D. 10 The term deportation is used synonymously with removal and expulsion for the purposes of this study, unless otherwise indicated. It is noted that the terms may have different usages and meanings in various national and international laws. 11 See, infra. See, also, O. Field and A. Edwards, Study on Alternatives to Detention, UNHCR, Legal and Protection Policy Research Series, POLAS/2006/03, See, infra. 13 The UK, for example, has paid out at least 2 million to 112 individuals over the last three years where it has been proved that immigrants have been wrongly held: see, Medical Justice, Review into ending the detention of children for immigration purposes: Response by Medical Justice, July According to Medical Justice, the 2 million does not include the costs of legal advice, court costs, etc. Successful litigation in Hong Kong that forced the Hong Kong Government to change its detention policy (discussed infra) has, for example, given rise to over 200 pending compensation claims: Interview, Barnes and Daly, Lawyers, Hong Kong, 15 September South Africa s Lawyers for Human Rights has also lodged 90 separate reviews of detention in South Africa: Statement, K. Ramjatham-Keogh, LHR, 17 November For some of the cases, see LHR, Monitoring Immigration Detention in South Africa, Annex, September15 The limits on the permissible uses of detention in the immigration context have also been tested in various international, regional and national courts, leading in many cases to states being directed to release asylum-seekers and other migrants from detention. 14 A leading case held, States legitimate concerns to foil the increasingly frequent attempts to circumvent immigration restrictions must not deprive asylumseekers [and others] of the protection afforded by [human rights law], 15 a position that is mirrored by many other decisions. The mandatory and unreviewable detention of asylum-seekers, for example, has been ruled unlawful under international law, as has indefinite detention. 16 Meanwhile, the prolonged detention of failed asylum-seekers and other migrants who have no right to remain in the territory but who cannot be returned home within a reasonable timeframe has also been held to render detention arbitrary. 17 Detention has consistently been criticised as having deleterious effects on the health and well-being of migrants, causing psychological damage, among other things. 18 This has in turn given rise to myriad human rights claims. 19 Meanwhile, the detention of children has given rise to several successful human rights cases, including finding that detaining children alongside unrelated adults violates their rights to dignity and security of person. 20 At a minimum, there is an obligation on states to institute guarantees against arbitrariness, without which detention is likely to be unlawful. This would necessarily include the availability of alternative non-custodial options to detention (discussed infra). It is a well-established principle of international law that a state s discretion in controlling entry to its territory is subject to limits stemming from international human rights guarantees. 21 These limits include, inter alia, the right to seek and enjoy asylum, the non-penalisation of asylum-seekers and refugees for illegal entry or stay, and the issue of humane reception conditions. In addition, the right to liberty and security of person and the prohibition on arbitrary deprivations of liberty is a fundamental human right that also applies, outlined in detail in Part B. International legal principles of reasonableness, proportionality and necessity require that states justify their use of detention in each case by showing that there were not less intrusive means of achieving the same objective. 22 The principle of proportionality must also be read as requiring detention to be a measure of last resort. 23 The failure of many governments to offer any alternatives to detention, or to fail to pilot them or to systematise them, puts their detention policies and practices into direct conflict with international law. Similarly, in failing to systematize an assessment of the necessity to detain for each individual, the detaining government fails to comply with international 14 See, infra. 15 Amuur v. France, ECtHR, Applic. No /92, 25 June 1996, para See, infra. 17 See, infra. 18 See, infra. 19 See, infra. 20 See, infra. 21 See, e.g., Nationality Decrees issued in Tunis and Morocco Advisory Opinion, 1922 PCIJ Ser. B No. 2, para. 24, in which the Permanent Court of International Justice held, for example, that even the regulation of nationality, which falls within the reserved domain of states, must be consistent with the rules and obligations of international law. See, further, A. Edwards and C. Ferstman, Humanizing Non-Citizens: The Convergence of Human Rights and Human Security, in A. Edwards and C. Ferstman (eds.), Human Security and Non-Citizens: Law, Policy and International Affairs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), ch See, infra. 23 WGAD, Report of the WGAD to 15 th Session, A/HRC/13/130, 15 January 2010, para16 law. International law has generated a comprehensive set of standards on the issue of immigration detention, outlined in detail in Part B, but these have not always filtered into national asylum or return systems. This conflict with international law, coupled with the increasing criticism of the use of immigration detention worldwide, including its high costs, has led in recent years to growing interest in alternatives to detention (A2Ds). The United States announced in 2009 its plan to take substantial steps, effective immediately, to overhaul the immigration detention system 24 and has indicated that it will develop a nationwide A2D program and a related individual risk assessment tool. 25 The United Kingdom s coalition government announced in 2010 its commitment to end the detention of children 26 and has largely done so. Likewise, the government of Japan has taken steps to end the detention of unaccompanied migrant children as well as those in prolonged detention. 27 Following growing public disapproval of the mandatory and indefinite detention of unauthorised entrants to Australia, the Australian government introduced bridging visas for those who, despite their cooperation with the authorities, could not be removed. 28 Alongside conditional release, there are a number of community supervision or case management programmes in operation in Australia. 29 The current government has further committed itself to releasing children and vulnerable families from the Christmas Island detention facilities to community housing. 30 Under pressure from a decision of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) that found Belgium s detention of children unlawful, Belgium has instituted a programme of return houses for families with specialised coaching services. 31 Likewise, further to a number of national court decisions finding Hong Kong s detention practices unlawful, it has instituted a system of release on recognizance supported by social and community services US Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), 2009 Immigration Detention Reform, available at: immigration detention reforms.htm. 25 US ICE, Immigration Detention Overview and Recommendations, by Dr. Dora Schriro, 6 October 2009, p. 20. The individual risk assessment tool is discussed in Part C. 26 The Coalition: Our Programme for Government Freedom, Fairness, Responsibility, May 2010, 17: Immigration, p. 21, available at: 27 On prolonged detention, the Japanese government has issued a statement that from now on persons in prolonged detention will have their cases regularly considered under bail, and regardless of whether an application for bail has been made, their cases will be reviewed, see Ministry of Japan, Immigration Control Department, Re: Bail consideration process for immigration detainees under removal order, 30 July 2010, available at: moj.go.jp/nyuukokukanri/kouhou/nyuukokukanri html. Translation supplied by the International Detention Coalition, 11 October 2010 (on file with the author). 28 Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Fact Sheet 85: Removal Pending Bridging Visa, available at: The visas were introduced on 11 May The visa is however completely discretionary at the hands of the minister. Meanwhile, Australia continues to detain mandatorily other unauthorised entrants. Discussed in Part C. 29 Discussed in Part C. 30 PM softens detention stance, The Australian, 19 October 2010; Joint Statement of the Prime Minister and the Minister for Immigration and Citizenship, Government to move children and vulnerable families into community-based accommodation, 18 October 2010, available at: minister.immi.gov.au/media/media-releases/2010/cb10071.htm. The families and children will remain detained for the purposes of the Migration Act, but will be moved to community housing. Other restrictions may be imposed, such as reporting requirements, etc. In the same press briefing, the government announced an expansion of mainland detention facilities. 31 Discussed in Part C. 32 Discussed in Part C. 417 Meanwhile, many other countries either do not detain asylum applicants at all, 33 or operate long-standing and successful A2Ds. 34 The practices of these states beg the question of how some states can continue to justify the detention of asylum-seekers (and other migrants, such as failed asylum-seekers), while others are able to manage migration and respect the rights to seek asylum and to liberty and security of person, without recourse to detention. While immigration detention is certainly not limited as a practice to industrialised countries, it is however more commonly a routine feature of their migration management and border control strategies. This study therefore speaks broadly to all countries, but more particularly to those countries that employ detention as a dominant component of their asylum or migration management systems. The question of immigration detention and potential alternatives is also now firmly on the international human rights agenda. The United Nations Human Rights Council (UN-HRC) (then Commission) extended the mandate of its Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (WGAD) to include immigration detention in The Working Group has since produced various reports on the issue. 36 In 2007, it recommended that the UN-HRC conduct an in-depth and urgent deliberation to seek effective alternatives to prevent violations of rights of the large numbers of asylum-seekers and irregular migrants in detention around the world. 37 The recommendation is still pending. In 2009, the WGAD indicated that immigration detention would be one of its main priorities in The UN Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants has likewise examined the issue of alternatives to administrative detention generally, 39 as well as relating to children. 40 The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights has made the detention of migrants a priority issue and in that regard, hosted a panel discussion on the issue in The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe and its Special Rapporteur on the Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Irregular Migrants in Europe issued a report, resolution and recommendations in early 2010, in which she called for, inter alia, more empirical research into A2Ds. 42 The European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights 33 E.g., Brazil, the Philippines and South Africa. Other countries detain asylum-seekers only for minimal periods and have a general policy objective to release asylum-seekers as soon as possible from detention: e.g. Canada, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (the exception here is persons undergoing accelerated processes in which detention is automatic). 34 See, e.g., Canada s Toronto Bail Program, discussed infra. 35 Human Rights Commission res.1997/5 (15 April 1997). 36 UN Docs. E/CN.4/1999/63 (1998), E/CN.4/2004/3 (2003), E/CN.4/2006/7 (2005) and A/HRC/10/21 (2008). 37 WGAD, Report to the 10 th Session of the Human Rights Council, A/HRC/10/21, 16 February 2009, para. 80(a). 38 Ibid., para See, Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants, Ms. Gabriela Rodrìguez Pizarro, Report to the 54 th Session of the Commission on Human Rights, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/85, 30 December See, Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants, Mr. Jorge Bustamante, Report to the 11 th Session of the Human Rights Council, UN Doc. A/HRC/11/7, 14 May 2009, paras. 24, 27 and 43 (on children in detention). 41 See, 42 See, Parliamentary Assembly, Council of Europe, Doc , 11 January 2010, The detention of asylum seekers and irregular migrants in Europe, Rapporteur Mrs Ana Catarina Mendonça (CoE Special Rapporteur, Report on Detention), available at: htm. 518 (EU-FRA) recently released a conference edition of a study on state practices in relation to returns, which includes a chapter on detention and A2Ds in that context. 43 With its specific mandate for asylum-seekers, refugees and stateless persons, the UNHCR has long had an interest in A2Ds. Most recently, it organised a side meeting of its Executive Committee (ExCom) on A2D in 2009, which 30 governments attended, 44 and the organisation is in the process of updating its 1999 Guidelines on Applicable Criteria and Standards relating to the Detention of Asylum-Seekers. It also conducted an East Asian roundtable in May 2010 with the governments of Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand and the Republic of South Korea, alongside non-governmental organisations working in those countries. Further regional roundtables are previewed. The ExCom has on many occasions, dating back to 1977, raised concern about detention practices and has recommended that any reception arrangements put in place by states parties must respect human dignity and applicable human rights standards. 45 The Agenda for Protection also calls on states to more concertedly [-] explore alternatives to detention of asylums-seekers and refugees. 46 This study contributes to UNHCR s body of work on detention and alternatives to detention. It articulates the current state of international law governing detention and its alternatives and provides a critical overview of existing and possible A2D options drawn from empirical research. It is one of the background papers for the joint UNHCR-OHCHR Global Roundtable on Alternatives to Immigration Detention held in May 2011 in Geneva. A. Structure and content This paper is divided into two main parts. The first part outlines the general international legal framework relating to deprivations of liberty and other restrictions on freedom of movement for refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons and other migrants (such as rejected asylum-seekers). It addresses both the substantive and procedural guarantees against arbitrary detention. It examines international and regional standards in turn, as well as special measures that need to be taken in relation to specific groups of persons. It does not provide an overview of the international standards relating to care and conditions of treatment within detention. 47 For the purposes of this study, the conditions of detention are relevant only in so far as poor 43 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (EU-FRA), Detention of Third Country Nationals in Return Procedures, 10 November 2010, available at: per year/pub detention en htm. 44 See, 45 See, UNHCR, Thematic Compilation of Executive Committee Conclusions (4 th edition), 2009, pp See, in particular, ExCom Conclusion Nos. 7 (XXVIII) (1977) on custody prior to execution of expulsion order, para. (c), 44 (XXXVII) (1986) on Detention of Refugees and Asylum-Seekers, and 93 (LIII) (2002), on reception of asylum-seekers in individual asylum systems, para. (b)(i). 46 UNHCR, Agenda for Protection, UN Doc. EC/52/SC/CRP.9/Rev.1, 26 June 2002, Part II, Goal 1, Point A number of human rights provisions are specifically relevant to conditions in detention, such as Articles 7 (prohibition against torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment), 10 (right to humane conditions in detention) and 17 (right to family life and privacy) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). See, also, UN Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment, adopted by GA res. 43/173 (9 December 1988). 619 or inadequate conditions render the detention itself unlawful or arbitrary (discussed in Part B). Rather, the study focuses on the legal framework relating to obligations to provide for A2Ds. The second part of the study explores state practice regarding A2Ds from a practical or functional standpoint. It examines these practices via types of alternatives, drawing on specific examples from actual country practices. Empirical research visits were conducted to five countries for the purposes of this study and they, alongside secondary literature, inform the analysis. 48 While noting that the examples studied are in many senses sui generis, tailored to the particular economic, legal, political and social system in question, and therefore they may not be replicable in their existing forms, several features are drawn from these examples to form a list of possible content of alternative arrangements. In this regard, the paper also highlights a number of risks associated with A2Ds if they are pursued without careful planning, proper regulation, and subsequent monitoring and oversight. The paper is particularly interested in A2Ds for asylum-seekers, refugees and stateless persons; however, it also draws on a range of case law, legal standards and practices relating to immigration detention more generally, and in the context of return or deportation. This is because much of the latest international jurisprudence revolves around detention in the return context, rather than upon entry; and several alternative projects that are studied here are either return-oriented or combine asylum and broader migration processes. The case law and practices in the returns context are, therefore, instructive. While asylum-seekers, refugees and stateless persons benefit from rights protection of a number of specific legal instruments, and these are set out in Part B, the right to liberty and security of person and against arbitrary detention is a fundamental human right and applies to all, regardless of immigration or other legal status (or lack thereof). The study does not specifically cover camp confinement 49 or the detention of migrants in relation to criminality or threats of terrorism (explained under Terminology below). B. Methodological caveats This study did not interview individuals (or the direct clients or beneficiaries) released to the various alternatives described. This study cannot therefore speak for the participants in these programmes as to why they complied, what motivated them to cooperate, etc. Had such interviews been possible, it would certainly have added an important dimension to the study; and this aspect certainly warrants further investigation. Nonetheless, interviews were conducted with a wide range of stakeholders in the five countries and each of the various alternative programmes were visited on site. 48 The countries visited were Australia, Belgium, Canada, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom (Scotland) over the period from May to September See, instead, A. Edwards, The Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and the Detention of Refugees (2008) 57 International and Comparative Law Quarterly, p , which includes a section dealing with the legal arguments around camp confinement policies amounting to a deprivation of liberty. 720 C. Terminology This paper uses the term immigration detention to refer to the detention of refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless persons and other migrants, either upon seeking entry to a territory (front-end detention) or pending deportation, removal or return (back-end detention) from a territory. It refers primarily to detention that is administratively authorised, but it also covers judicially sanctioned detention. Immigration detention is to be distinguished from criminal detention and security detention, which refer respectively to detention or other restrictions on liberty of nationals or non-nationals on the grounds of having committed a criminal offence, or for national security or terrorism-related reasons. 50 In the immigration context, there have emerged various definitions of detention. 51 Essentially, detention involves the deprivation of liberty in a confined place, such as a prison or a purpose-built closed reception or holding centre. It is at the extreme end of the spectrum of deprivations of liberty, yet this does not mean that measures short of detention do not implicate guarantees against arbitrary detention. International law is as much concerned with lesser deprivations and other restrictions on movement as it is with total confinement in a closed space. This will be a question of degree, as explained in Part B. Many alternatives to detention involve some form of restriction on movement or deprive an individual of some of his or her liberty and must therefore be subject to human rights safeguards. All restrictions on liberty whether full deprivations via confinement in a closed location or lesser restrictions involving reporting requirements or a designated residence are subject to human rights oversight. This paper positions various A2D practices along a continuum from liberty to restrictions or deprivations on liberty to detention. They are plotted along this continuum in Part C (see Figure 1). The further along the continuum (or, in other words, the greater the loss of or interference with liberty), the more human rights 50 The Equal Rights Trust study on stateless persons contains sections on both these forms of detention: see, ERT, Unravelling Anomaly: Detention, Discrimination and the Protection Needs of Stateless Persons, London, July UNHCR has, for example, defined detention as: confinement within a narrowly bounded or restricted location, including prisons, closed camps, detention facilities or airport transit zones, where freedom of movement is substantially curtailed, and where the only opportunity to leave this limited area is to leave the territory. (UNHCR, Guidelines on Detention of Asylum-Seekers and Refugees, 1999). The Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and Other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (OPCAT) defines place of detention as: where persons are or may be deprived of their liberty, either by virtue of an order given by a public authority or at its instigation or with its consent or acquiescence (Article 4(1)). The OPCAT also defines deprivation of liberty as: any form of detention or imprisonment or the placement of a person in a public or private custodial setting which that person is not permitted to leave at will by order of any judicial, administrative or other authority (Article 4(2)). The emphasis in relation to the OPCAT is on the physical location of detention, rather than deprivation of liberty per se. The European Union Reception Directive, discussed infra, defines detention as confinement of an asylum seeker by a Member State within a particular place, where the applicant is deprived of his or her freedom of movement. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (I-ACmHR) has defined deprivation of liberty as Any form of detention, imprisonment, institutionalization, or custody of a person in a public or private institution which that person is not permitted to leave at will, by order of or under de facto control of a judicial, administrative or any other authority (I-ACmHR, Principles and Best Practices on the Protection of Persons Deprived of Liberty in the Americas, approved by the Commission during its 131 st regular period of sessions, 3-14 March 2008, General Provision). 8 View more
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