File size: 87,531 Bytes
6fa4bc9 |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 |
{
"paper_id": "A92-1010",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T02:03:30.240695Z"
},
"title": "Integrating Natural Language Components into Graphical Discourse",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Stephan",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dilley",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {},
"email": "dilley@darmstadt.gmd.de"
},
{
"first": "John",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bateman",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Ulrich",
"middle": [],
"last": "Thiel",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {},
"email": "thiel@darmstadt.gmd.de"
},
{
"first": "Anne",
"middle": [],
"last": "Tissen",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {},
"email": "tissen@darmstadt.gmd.de"
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "In our current research into the design of cognitively well-motivated interfaces relying primarily on the display of graphical information, we have observed that graphical information alone does not provide sufficient support to users particularly when situations arise that do not simply conform to the users' expectations. This can occur due to too much information being requested, too little, information of the wrong kind, etc. To solve this problem, we are working towards the integration of natural language generation to augment the interaction functionalities of the interface. This is intended to support the generation of flexible natural language utterances which pinpoint possible problems with a user's request and which further go on to outline the user's most sensible courses of action away from the problem. In this paper, we describe our first prototype, where we combine the graphical and interaction planning capabilities of our graphical information system SIC! with the text generation capabilities of the Penman system. We illustrate the need for such a combined system, and also give examples of how a general natural language facility beneficially augments the user's ability to navigate a knowledge base graphically.",
"pdf_parse": {
"paper_id": "A92-1010",
"_pdf_hash": "",
"abstract": [
{
"text": "In our current research into the design of cognitively well-motivated interfaces relying primarily on the display of graphical information, we have observed that graphical information alone does not provide sufficient support to users particularly when situations arise that do not simply conform to the users' expectations. This can occur due to too much information being requested, too little, information of the wrong kind, etc. To solve this problem, we are working towards the integration of natural language generation to augment the interaction functionalities of the interface. This is intended to support the generation of flexible natural language utterances which pinpoint possible problems with a user's request and which further go on to outline the user's most sensible courses of action away from the problem. In this paper, we describe our first prototype, where we combine the graphical and interaction planning capabilities of our graphical information system SIC! with the text generation capabilities of the Penman system. We illustrate the need for such a combined system, and also give examples of how a general natural language facility beneficially augments the user's ability to navigate a knowledge base graphically.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "Natural language interfaces to information systems allow the user to converse with the system in a natural way without being restricted by the syntax of a formal query language. However, users often have difficulties in stating their information need precisely (cf. Brooks et al., 1986) and so a user interface design emphasizing multimedia aspects of information systems may be more appropriate. An object oriented presentation meets this requirement because users are allowed to investigate information items directly. Thus, the distance between the users' intentions and the objects they involve is reduced to a minimum (cf. Hutchins et al., 1986) . However, visual presentations of abslract information items have to be designed carefully to support the user in perceiving them correctly. Often the inherent limitations of available presentation forms, e.g. the number ofdisplayable items, are an impediment to an adequate visualization. These difficulties which are well known in visu-al languages can be attacked by combining the presentation of graphical objects to the user with cooperative system responses in natural languages.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 266,
"end": 286,
"text": "Brooks et al., 1986)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF8"
},
{
"start": 628,
"end": 650,
"text": "Hutchins et al., 1986)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I Introduction",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Our approach to human-computer interaction provides the basis for an integration of different interaction styles, in our case natural language and graphics, in a multi-modal information system. The choice of an appropriate combination of modes is essential for a successful interface design. As there is not yet a complete theory of multi-modal interaction, this question has to be answered experimentally. Therefore, we propose a modular architecture for multi-modal interfaces composed of interaction tools. In this paper, we discuss the addition ot natural language generation to the interaction tools provided. This capability is embodied in the prototype IGiNG (_Integrating Graphics and Natural Language Generation) which combines",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I Introduction",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "\u2022 the graphical information system SIC! (System for Information on Conferences) comprising a dialog manager which is able to track the user's goals and, consequently, to plan system reactions as cooperative responses (Tissen, 1991) , a database access module providing relevant data (Kracker, 1991) and apresentation manager generating visualizations of the retrieved information items (Kerner and Thiel, 1991) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 217,
"end": 231,
"text": "(Tissen, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF38"
},
{
"start": 283,
"end": 298,
"text": "(Kracker, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 386,
"end": 410,
"text": "(Kerner and Thiel, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF20"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I Introduction",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "\u2022 the text generation component KOMET/Penman (Bateman et al., 1991; Penman, 1989) , comprising extensive grammatical, semantic, and text organizational linguistic resources.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 45,
"end": 67,
"text": "(Bateman et al., 1991;",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 68,
"end": 81,
"text": "Penman, 1989)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I Introduction",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The paper is organized as tbllows: first, we describe relate( work and how our approach goes beyond this, second, w~ introduce the basic components of our system and explain hov they can be appropriately interfaced. Then, we go on to discus: the benefits that including a natural language component caJ bring for augmenting the coherence and functionality of~ user's interaction with the system. We offer some examples o helpful responses that the system can make which would bq difficult, if not impossible, to represent graphically in a non a, hoc fashion. Finally, we describe some possible future direc tions.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I Introduction",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "One body of related work has primarily intended to coordinate different modes of expression within a framework of natural communication (cf. Hayes, 1987; Neal and Shapiro, 1988; Cohen et al., 1989, Feiner and McKeown, 1990; Bandyopadhyay, 1990; S tock, 1991; Wahlster et al., 1991) . The principle effort here is to ascertain factors that can motivate the distribution of information across different modes (e.g. Arens and Hovy, 1990) . A further body of related work moves towards problems of interaction by exploring the potential of the combination of natural language and deictic gestures (cf. Allgayer et al., 1989; Moore and Swartout, 1990) . In a similar vein, approaches to flexible graphical interaction based on the conversationalmetaphor (cf. Reichman, 1986 Reichman, , 1989 Thiel, 1990) treat user inputs such as mouse clicks, menu selections, etc. not as invocations of methods that can be executed without regarding the dialog context, but instead as dialog acts expressing a discourse goal of the user. The direct manipulation of an object then becomes itself a part of the dialog of the user with the system, meaning that the system can respond in a more flexible way by taking into account the illocutionary and semantic aspects of the user's input. Related work from generation includes the correction of misconceptions in the work of McCoy (1986) and the explicit representation of information about a system's own knowledge and planning activities that is found in the Explainable Expert Systems system of Swartout and Smoliar (1987) . None of this work, however, addresses the problems of meta-dialog concerning graphically supported interaction.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 141,
"end": 153,
"text": "Hayes, 1987;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
},
{
"start": 154,
"end": 177,
"text": "Neal and Shapiro, 1988;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF29"
},
{
"start": 178,
"end": 208,
"text": "Cohen et al., 1989, Feiner and",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 209,
"end": 223,
"text": "McKeown, 1990;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF11"
},
{
"start": 224,
"end": 244,
"text": "Bandyopadhyay, 1990;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
},
{
"start": 245,
"end": 258,
"text": "S tock, 1991;",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 259,
"end": 281,
"text": "Wahlster et al., 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF39"
},
{
"start": 413,
"end": 434,
"text": "Arens and Hovy, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
},
{
"start": 598,
"end": 620,
"text": "Allgayer et al., 1989;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF0"
},
{
"start": 621,
"end": 646,
"text": "Moore and Swartout, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF27"
},
{
"start": 754,
"end": 768,
"text": "Reichman, 1986",
"ref_id": "BIBREF31"
},
{
"start": 769,
"end": 785,
"text": "Reichman, , 1989",
"ref_id": "BIBREF32"
},
{
"start": 786,
"end": 798,
"text": "Thiel, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF37"
},
{
"start": 1353,
"end": 1365,
"text": "McCoy (1986)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF26"
},
{
"start": 1526,
"end": 1553,
"text": "Swartout and Smoliar (1987)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF35"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Related Work",
"sec_num": "2"
},
{
"text": "In our approach we bring the kind of natural language capabilities required by the first body of related work (i.e., graphical and natural language information functioning together) to bear on the kinds of problems that arise in the second body of related work when the direct manipulation of objects by a user creates goals that the system cannot fulfil. Here we must not only respond to the user's attempt to manipulate an object or the user's deictic gesture as a dialog act, but also be able to en-gage in a meta-interaction to debug that act if it creates a problematic situation. We show that natural language possesses properties that make it preferable over the graphical mode of expression for such meta-interaction and hence natural language generation needs to be supported even in graphics-oriented interfaces.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Related Work",
"sec_num": "2"
},
{
"text": "We demonstrate the combination of graphics ,and natural language output in the context of the SIC! system, SIC[ is implemented using HyperNews (HyperNews, 1989) , a hypermedialike user-interface management system which can be controlled from aLISP-client. SIC! offers information on conferences; its domain consists of abstract information on conferences including workshops, tutorials, persons, institutes, and conference topics. A user who wants to obtain information from SIC! poses a query whereafter he can inspect the data retrieved. This is done by selecting a presentation form. In SIC! we use several cognitively motivated presentation forms (Kemer and Thiel; .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 143,
"end": 160,
"text": "(HyperNews, 1989)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 651,
"end": 668,
"text": "(Kemer and Thiel;",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The SIC!-System",
"sec_num": "3"
},
{
"text": "One of these forms is the ring presentation form (cf. Figure 1 ) which surveys a structure of given data. All items are positioned on a virtual ring structure, the relations between the concepts being presented as single lines. In our example the ring presentation form contains the categories workshop and topic. The concepts of the workshops are on the left side of the figure, those of the topics on the right. However, this presentation form is clearly limited with respect to the quantity of data that can be presented simultaneously.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 54,
"end": 60,
"text": "Figure",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The SIC!-System",
"sec_num": "3"
},
{
"text": "Consider, for example, the following situation: A user asks for a subset of the IJCAI89 workshops and their related topics. SIC! retrieves three workshops and several topics. If the user wants to get an overview of the data's structure, then for this goal the ring is the most adequate presentation form available in SIC! But this causes a problem when the ring form cannot display as many data as SIC! retrieved. There are several ways of solving this problem, depending on the user's main Table presentation form is interested more in the structure of the data, he might change his initial query so that less data are retrieved. But, importantly, the user cannot be aware of the details of the current situation of retrieval and its implications simply from the graphical information displayed. Hence the system has to inform him of the situation and offer possible alternatives. This needs to be done in a way that enables users to grasp the situation and to choose the appropriate alternatives for their purpose. To achieve this, the system has to create a coherent informative act that is concise and yet unambiguous (in context), giving all the information necessary for the user to determine his future actions.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 491,
"end": 514,
"text": "Table presentation form",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The SIC!-System",
"sec_num": "3"
},
{
"text": "Based on work by Feiner and McKeown (1990) on the coordination of text and graphics in explanation generation and by Lombardi (1989) , who examined the assignment of information to media, we assume that text is the appropriate medium for informative acts in meta-dialogs, since a wellconstructed text is not only concise and easy to understand, but also guarantees the necessary flexibility to meet any situation that ,arises. Graphical 'acts' cannot be constructed compositionally to express possibly unforeseen complex circumstances: novel graphics must first be learnt by users--a situation avoided by the generation of situationally appropriate natural language. Thus, generating natural language text, particularly text involving controlled and appropriate deployment of text-forming resources such as rhetorical relations, enhances the total coherence of the user's dialog with the system. Our hypothesis is that the user's understanding of the situation and its implications is increased by the natural language output, which becomes an intermediary between the various possibilities for information presentation.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 17,
"end": 42,
"text": "Feiner and McKeown (1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF11"
},
{
"start": 117,
"end": 132,
"text": "Lombardi (1989)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF22"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Q Int Interfaces",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We are using the KOMET/Penman I system (Mann and Matthiessen, 1983) for generating the natural language output our system requires. KOMET/Penman is a domain-independent text generation system based on systemic-functional grammar (Halliday, 1978) . It consists of extensive grammars of English and German (Matthiessen, 1990; Teich, 1991) , a linguistically motivated ontology, called the Upper Model (Bateman, Kasper, Moore and Whitney, 1989) , a semantic interface that relates the categories of the conceptual ontology with their possible grammatical expressions in English and German (Matthiessen, 1990) , and a basic lexicon containing English and German closed-class items and default lexical realizations for the concepts in the Upper Model ontology. The definition of the lexical items includes morphological information and sets of lexical features that determine the grammatical contexts in which items are to be selected. The Upper Model is the component of the system that is primarily responsible for mediating between the knowledge specific to any given domain and the general lexical and grammatical expressions that are provided by a language. Because it is possible to state how any particular Upper Model concept is to be realized, subordinating domain concepts to particular Upper Model concepts causes those domain concepts to inherit appropriate forms of expression. For example, concepts from the object-class are usually realized as nominal phrases, while concepts from theprocess-class (e.g., mental-process, verbalprocess, action-process, relation-process) are often realized by clauses 2. The relationship between Upper Model and domain model is diagrammed in the context of its application for SIC! in Figure 3 .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 39,
"end": 67,
"text": "(Mann and Matthiessen, 1983)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF23"
},
{
"start": 229,
"end": 245,
"text": "(Halliday, 1978)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF14"
},
{
"start": 304,
"end": 323,
"text": "(Matthiessen, 1990;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF25"
},
{
"start": 324,
"end": 336,
"text": "Teich, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF36"
},
{
"start": 399,
"end": 441,
"text": "(Bateman, Kasper, Moore and Whitney, 1989)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 586,
"end": 605,
"text": "(Matthiessen, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF25"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 1727,
"end": 1735,
"text": "Figure 3",
"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "KOMET/Penman Text Generation System",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "Input to the KOMET/Penman text generation system is given in terms of the Sentence Plan Language (Kasper, 1989) , of which we will see examples below. An SPL expression defines the semantic content of a sentence to be generated; it consists of a set of typed variables and relations defined between those variables. Both the types and the possible relations are defined either by the Upper Model directly or by concepts or relations in the domain model that have been subordinated to the Upper Model. In addition to this information, SPL expressions may also contain direct statements in terms of the gramroar's semantic interface --in practical applications these latter are often abbreviated by use of macros (e.g. :tense present) or are defaulted. ",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 97,
"end": 111,
"text": "(Kasper, 1989)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF19"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "KOMET/Penman Text Generation System",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "To interface SIC! with KOMET/Penman we have to provide several types of knowledge (cf. Figure 3 ) \u2022 A domain model, which is a taxonomy of knowledge specific to our application-domain. We split the domain into two parts: an Information-Domain (I-Domain), which contains concepts related to the information that is shown by SIC!, e.g. workshops and topics (cf. Figure 1 ) , and a Presentation-Domain (P-Domain), which contains concepts related to the way this information is presented by SIC!, e.g. ring, table. By splitting the domain model we increase the adaptability in case of changes in the underlying application domain, e.g. replacing the conference knowledge base with a knowledge base on research projects. Every concept in the domain model has to be linked to some Upper Model concept from which it inherits attributes which enable KOMET/Penman to express the concept in a way that is grammatically correct. The I-Domain concepts can be generated automatically flom the underlying SIC! knowledge bases (cf. Figure 3 ) . Concepts can also be associated to lexical items.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 87,
"end": 97,
"text": "Figure 3 )",
"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
},
{
"start": 360,
"end": 370,
"text": "Figure 1 )",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 1017,
"end": 1027,
"text": "Figure 3 )",
"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Interfacing SIC! with the Text Generation System",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 A domain lexicon, containing the definitions of lexicat items of all the words that may appear in the application domain.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Interfacing SIC! with the Text Generation System",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "6 Creating the Natural Language Output",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Interfacing SIC! with the Text Generation System",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "As stated in our example above, we want to produce text that, in this case, informs the user that not all the information that was requested can be shown because the current presentationform's capacity is limited. Furthermore, we need to offer possible actions which solve this problem. In Figure 4 , we show the semantic input to KOMET/Penman, expressed in SPL, that would cause KOMET/Penman to generate the first sentence that we require: i.e., \"The presentation-form's capacity is exceeded.\" One type of abstract concept that the system requires is the status of a particular entity that may be displayed or used. Possible statuses are, for presentation-forms, exceeded, incomplete. These status concepts can then be attributed to objects by means of the Upper Model relation ascription, which has roles ':domain' and ':range'. They represent the concepts which are related, in our example the presentation-form's capacity and exceeded. In general, ':domain' contains the essential concept of the relation while ':range' contains additional information. The P-Domain concept capacity has been modeled as an object. Figure 5 shows a more complex SPL-plan which demonstrates some of the more advanced possibilities given by KO-MET/Penman. The most interesting aspect in this plan is the use of rhetorical relations based on Rhetorical-Structure-Theory (RST).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 290,
"end": 298,
"text": "Figure 4",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 1118,
"end": 1126,
"text": "Figure 5",
"ref_id": "FIGREF4"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Planning Sentences",
"sec_num": "6.1"
},
{
"text": "RST is a theory of the organization of natural language texts (Mann and Thompson, 1987) . Mann and Thompson studied a wide variety of English texts and observed that there are approximately 25 relations that usually occur between coherent portions of English text. An RST relation consists of two parts, a nucleus and a satellite. The nucleus is that part that is most essential to the speaker's purpose, while the satellite contains additional information. The satellite is more easily replaced than the nucleus because of the nucleus' central role in the thematical progression of the discourse. Even though there are some critics questioning the use of rhetorical relations in discourse structure theory (Grosz and Sidner, 1986) RST relations because they proved to be quite useful when we link portions of information. In KOMET/Penman, RST-relations are treated the same way as other relations, e.g. ascription which we used in the plan shown in Figure 4 .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 62,
"end": 87,
"text": "(Mann and Thompson, 1987)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF24"
},
{
"start": 707,
"end": 731,
"text": "(Grosz and Sidner, 1986)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF13"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 950,
"end": 958,
"text": "Figure 4",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Using Rhetorical Relations",
"sec_num": "6.2"
},
{
"text": "The SPL-plan shown in Figure 5 combines two relations: the ascription-relation, which we used in the SPL-plan in Figure 4 , and the existence-relation. Existence is a so called oneplace-relation, because it contains only a :domain-role but no :range. It is usually realized as \"There is ...\", where :domain defines what exists. We link these two relations via an RSTrelation called rst-nonvolitional-result. This RST-relation implies that the nucleus, which is defined in our :domain-role is a result of the satellite, defined in :range. One possible output is <domain>, because <range>, in our case \"<There are concepts \u2022 ..>, because <... capacity is exceeded>\". Because what is defined in the :domain (\"There are concepts that are not shown\") is not volitional, we use rst-nonvolitional-result instead of rstvolitional-result. The fact that there is data that is not shown by the current presentation-form is essential to our informational purpose. Therefore this fact becomes the nucleus (represented by :domain) of our plan.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 22,
"end": 30,
"text": "Figure 5",
"ref_id": "FIGREF4"
},
{
"start": 113,
"end": 121,
"text": "Figure 4",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Using Rhetorical Relations",
"sec_num": "6.2"
},
{
"text": "RST-relations which ensure the connectivity between our text segments. Pragmatic coherence is supported by the mere fact that we are using text as a medium for meta-dialogs, as these are difficult to understand on a graphical level.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Using Rhetorical Relations",
"sec_num": "6.2"
},
{
"text": "The dialog manager is one of the main components of our interface system (cf. Figure 6 ). It chooses interaction modes (graphic or text) and controls the navigation or exploration in the information space.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 78,
"end": 86,
"text": "Figure 6",
"ref_id": "FIGREF5"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Controlling Multimodal Discourse",
"sec_num": "7"
},
{
"text": "In order to prevent the user from 'being lost in hyperspace', we guide the user by case-based dialog plans (Tissen, 1991) . In a case-based planning system a new plan will be generated by retrieving the plan which is most appropriate to the user's goals and adapting it dynamically during the ongoing dialog. Two types of adaptations can be distinguished: In'st, system-driven modifications using domain dependent background knowledge, and second, corrections of misconceptions, handled interactively in meta-dialogs with the user.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 107,
"end": 121,
"text": "(Tissen, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF38"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Controlling Multimodal Discourse",
"sec_num": "7"
},
{
"text": "The dialog manager detects misconceptions, i.e. situations in which an intended goal cannot be realized, e.g. more items were retrieved than can be displayed in the current presentationform. The corrector operates on knowledge bases of misconceptions and correction rules, e.g. \"if there is a misconception like 'ring presentation: not all requested data can be presented in the ring' and there is no automatic plan modification possible then start a meta-dialog, which informs the user about the situation and offers alternatives.\" Because metadialogs will be handled in text mode, the dialog manager requests the SPL creator to produce SPL plans. Therefore, the dialog manager informs the SPL creator on the current misconception and possible alternatives the user has to choose from to resolve the situation. Then, the SPL creator produces the appropriate SPL plans by combining information on the misconception and possible alternatives with elements from the SPL library. The SPL plans are transformed into natural language text by the KOMET/Penman system. The resulting text is returned to the dialog manager which presents it to the user.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Controlling Multimodal Discourse",
"sec_num": "7"
},
{
"text": "In his work on coherence in multi-modal discourse, Bandyopadhyay (Bandyopadhyay, 1990) states that there are three levels of coherence: syntactic coherence, semantic coherence and pragmatic coherence. Syntactic coherence deals with the immediate connectivity among adjacent segments (in texts this is often called text cohesion). Semantic coherence ensures the wellformed thematic organization of a discourse. Discourse segments are connected by semantic ties (Hobbs, 1983 ). Bandyopadhyay defines a discourse to bepragmatically coherent if it is compatible with the addressees' interpretative ability. In our system syntactic coherence is enhanced by the way we present the natural language output in our graphical environment. Semantic coherence is supported by the use of 8 Controlling utterance selection",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 65,
"end": 86,
"text": "(Bandyopadhyay, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
},
{
"start": 460,
"end": 472,
"text": "(Hobbs, 1983",
"ref_id": "BIBREF16"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Supporting Coherence",
"sec_num": "6.3"
},
{
"text": "The IGiNG system intends to produce user adapted naturaJ language output. It is an object oriented system consisting ol several object classes (cf. Figure 7 ) When IGiNG is requested to produce an utterance it calls th~ utterance's express method, which In'st builds a list ofplan-ob. jects starting from the initial plan-object given by the utterance object. Then, it is determined whether complex or short state. ments are desired. This information is kept in a user-stereotype and determines in which direction the list of plan-objects is tc be traversed. Now IGiNG tests each plan-object's select condi tions. If all conditions are satisfied, the plan-object is selected otherwise IGiNG tries the succeeding plan-object. Finally th4 plan def'med by the plan-object is passed to the KOMET]Pen man system which generates the utterance. IGiNG is requested to express rood-1. It builds a list of possible plan-objects, which is (plan-1 plan-2). As concise statements are desired, plan-1 is tested first. Because con-1 is not satisfied (it demands that user-level is low while the current user level is advanced) plan-1 is rejected. Next, plan-2 is tested. As all conditions are satisfied, the plan given by plan-2 is generated.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 148,
"end": 158,
"text": "Figure 7 )",
"ref_id": "FIGREF6"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Supporting Coherence",
"sec_num": "6.3"
},
{
"text": "When a new situations is to be included, the following steps have to be performed:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Adapting to new situations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A new proposition-instance has to be defined as the successor of an existing proposition-class. If the new proposition is not a part of any of the existing proposition-classes, a new proposition-class should be defined first.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Adapting to new situations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For any of the possible utterances a parameterizable partial sentence plan has to be written, which is stored in a planobject, together with a reference to the plan-object's select-condition-object. Of course, it is possible to use existing plan-objects, if they are suitable for the intended purpose.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Adapting to new situations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Finally the plan-objects have to be linked to select-conditions. As these are domain independent, preexisting selectconditions can be reused.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Adapting to new situations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "These are all the steps necessary for defining new propositions. The new objects inherit from their ancestors all the functionality which is necessary for selection and expression.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Adapting to new situations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We are going to extend the use of natural language output to other situations which seem to be suited for textual information rather than graphics. We are working on a closer examination of what information has to be included in the user-stereotype and how this knowledge can be obtained. We intend to integrate the conversational roles model approach by Sitter and Stein (1991) , so that we are able to track meta-dialogs, and to incorporate the current work on text planning to further improve the dynamic generation of plan-objects. ",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 355,
"end": 378,
"text": "Sitter and Stein (1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF33"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Future Work",
"sec_num": "9"
},
{
"text": "The original Penman system was developed at the Information Science Institute of the University of Southern California; the KOMET system of GMD/IPSI builds on this, working towards multilinguality and enhanced text planning capabilities.z But not always: the existence of, for example, nominalizations motivates the maintenance of two distinct levels of representation,",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF0": {
"ref_id": "b0",
"title": "XTRA: A Natural Language Access System to Expert Systems",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Allgayer",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Harbusch",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kobsa",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Reddig",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "N",
"middle": [],
"last": "Reithinger",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Schmauks",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "Int. J. Man-Machine Studies",
"volume": "31",
"issue": "2",
"pages": "161--195",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Allgayer, J., Harbusch, K., Kobsa, A., Reddig, C., Reithin- ger, N., and Schmauks, D. 1989. XTRA: A Natural Lan- guage Access System to Expert Systems. In: Int. J. Man- Machine Studies, Vol. 31, No. 2, 1989, pp. 161-195",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "How to describe what ? Towards a theory of modality utilization",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Y",
"middle": [],
"last": "Arens",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [
"H"
],
"last": "Hovy",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "twelfth annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "487--94",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Arens, Y. and Hovy, E.H. 1990. How to describe what ? Towards a theory of modality utilization. In: twelfth annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society, pp. 487-94, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1990, July 25-28, 1990, Cambridge, USA",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "Towards an Understanding of Coherence in Multi-Modal Discourse",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bandyopadhyay",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "Deutsches Forschungsinstitut fuer Kuenstliche InteUigenz GmbH",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bandyopadhyay, S. 1990. Towards an Understanding of Coherence in Multi-Modal Discourse, Technical Memo TM-90-01, Deutsches Forschungsinstitut fuer Kuenst- liche InteUigenz GmbH, Saarbruecken, 1990",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF4": {
"ref_id": "b4",
"title": "A general organization of knowledge for natural language processing: the Penman Upper Model. USC/Information Sciences Institute",
"authors": [],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "A general organization of knowledge for natural language processing: the Penman Upper Model. USC/Information Sciences Institute, Technical Report, 1989",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF5": {
"ref_id": "b5",
"title": "Phrasing text in terms the user can understand",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bateman",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Paris",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "Proceedings of IJCAI-89",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bateman, J. and Paris, C. 1989. Phrasing text in terms the user can understand. In: Proceedings of IJCAI-89",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF7": {
"ref_id": "b7",
"title": "Towards an Architecture for Situated Text Generation, i International Conference on Current Issues in Compul tional Linguistics",
"authors": [],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Towards an Architecture for Situated Text Generation, i International Conference on Current Issues in Compul tional Linguistics, Penang, Malaysia, 1991",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF8": {
"ref_id": "b8",
"title": "/q search on Information Interaction and Intelligent lnforrr tion Provision Mechanisms",
"authors": [
{
"first": "H",
"middle": [
"M"
],
"last": "Brooks",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Daniels",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "N",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Belkin",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "J. of Information Scienl",
"volume": "12",
"issue": "",
"pages": "37--44",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Brooks, H.M., Daniels, P.J. and Belkin, N.J. 1986./q search on Information Interaction and Intelligent lnforrr tion Provision Mechanisms. In: J. of Information Scienl Vol. 12, 1986, pp. 37--44",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF10": {
"ref_id": "b10",
"title": "Synergistic Use of Direct Manipulation and Natural Lc guage",
"authors": [],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "Proceedings CHI '89",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "227--233",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Synergistic Use of Direct Manipulation and Natural Lc guage. In: Bice, K., and Lewis, C. (eds): Proceedings CHI '89, (Austin, Texas, April 30 -May 4, 1989), Nq York: ACM, 1989, pp. 227-233",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF11": {
"ref_id": "b11",
"title": "Coordinating T, and Graphics in Explanation Generation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [
"K"
],
"last": "Feiner",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [
"R"
],
"last": "Mckeown",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Feiner, S.K. and McKeown, K.R. 1990. Coordinating T, and Graphics in Explanation Generation. In: AAAI -c.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF12": {
"ref_id": "b12",
"title": "Proc. 8th Nat. Conf. on Artificial Intelligence",
"authors": [
{
"first": "I",
"middle": [
"Menlo"
],
"last": "Park",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Proc. 8th Nat. Conf. on Artificial Intelligence. July 1990-Aug. 3, 1990. Vol. I. Menlo Park et al.: AAAI Pre: The MIT Press, 1990, pp. 442 ,149.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF13": {
"ref_id": "b13",
"title": "Attention, Intention, and the Structure of Discourse",
"authors": [
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Grosz",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [
"L"
],
"last": "Sidner",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "Computational Linguistics",
"volume": "12",
"issue": "3",
"pages": "175--204",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Grosz, B.J. and Sidner, C.L. 1986.Attention, Intention, and the Structure of Discourse, Computational Linguistics, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 175-204, 1986",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF14": {
"ref_id": "b14",
"title": "Language as Social",
"authors": [
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Halliday",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1978,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Halliday, 1978. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Ed- ward Arnold.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF15": {
"ref_id": "b15",
"title": "Steps towards Integrating Natural Language and Graphical Interaction for Knowledge-Based Systems",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Philip",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Hayes",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1987,
"venue": "Advances in Artificial Intelligence --II. (Proc. ECAI-86)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "543--552",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Hayes, Philip J. 1987. Steps towards Integrating Natural Language and Graphical Interaction for Knowledge- Based Systems. In: Boulay, B. du / Hogg, D. / Steels, L. (eds): Advances in Artificial Intelligence --II. (Proc. ECAI-86), Amsterdam et al.: North-Holland, 1987, pp. 543--552",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF16": {
"ref_id": "b16",
"title": "Why is Discourse Coherent ?",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hobbs",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1983,
"venue": "Coherence in Natural Language Texts",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Hobbs, J. 1983. Why is Discourse Coherent ? In: Neubauer (Editor), Coherence in Natural Language Texts, Buske, 1983",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF17": {
"ref_id": "b17",
"title": "Di-rectManipulation Interfaces",
"authors": [
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [
"L"
],
"last": "Hutchins",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"D"
],
"last": "Hollan",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [
"A"
],
"last": "Norman",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "87--124",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Hutchins, E.L., Hollan, J.D. and Norman, D.A. 1986. Di- rectManipulation Interfaces. In: Norman, D.A,, and Drap- er, S.W. (eds): User Centered System Design: New Per- spectives on Human-Computer Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ & London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986, pp. 87--124",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF18": {
"ref_id": "b18",
"title": "HyperNeWS User's Guide",
"authors": [],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "The Turing Institute",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "HyperNews 1989. HyperNeWS User's Guide, Hoff, Arthur van (Editor), The Turing Institute, Glasgow, UK, 1989",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF19": {
"ref_id": "b19",
"title": "A flexible interface for linking applications to Penman's sentence generator",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kasper",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "Proceedings of the DARPA Workshop on Speech and Natural Language",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kasper, R. 1989. A flexible interface for linking applica- tions to Penman's sentence generator. Proceedings of the DARPA Workshop on Speech and Natural Language.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF20": {
"ref_id": "b20",
"title": "Graphical Support for Users' Inferences within Retrieval Dialogues",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kerner",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "U",
"middle": [],
"last": "Thiel",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "211--216",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kerner, A. and Thiel, U. 1991. Graphical Support for Users' Inferences within Retrieval Dialogues. In: Proceed- ings of the IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages 1991, pp.211-216,",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF21": {
"ref_id": "b21",
"title": "Unscharfes assoziativesBegriffswissen zur Unterstiitzung der Formulierung von Datenbankabfragen, Dissertation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kracker",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kracker, M. 1991. Unscharfes assoziativesBegriffswissen zur Unterstiitzung der Formulierung von Datenbankabfra- gen, Dissertation, TU Wien, April 1991. Title in English: Fuzzy Associative Conceptual Knowledge for Supporting Query Formulation.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF22": {
"ref_id": "b22",
"title": "Experiments for Determining the Assignment of Information to Media in COMET",
"authors": [
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lombardi",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lombardi, C. 1989. Experiments for Determining the As- signment of Information to Media in COMET, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., USA, 1989",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF23": {
"ref_id": "b23",
"title": "Nigel: A Systemic Grammar for Text Generation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [
"C"
],
"last": "Mann",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Matthiessen",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1983,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Mann W.C. and Matthiessen C. 1983. Nigel: A Systemic Grammar for Text Generation, Technical Report RR-83-105, USC/Information Sciences Institute, 1983",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF24": {
"ref_id": "b24",
"title": "Rhetorical Structure Theory: A Theory of Text Organization",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [
"C"
],
"last": "Mann",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [
"A"
],
"last": "Thompson",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "N",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Norwood",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1987,
"venue": "The Structure of Discourse",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Mann, W.C. and Thompson, S.A. 1987. Rhetorical Struc- ture Theory: A Theory of Text Organization. In: Polanyi, L. (Editor): The Structure of Discourse, Ablex Publishing Company, Norwood, N.J., 1987. Also available as US C/In- formation Sciences Institute Technical Report Number RS-87-190",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF25": {
"ref_id": "b25",
"title": "Lexicogrammatical Cartography: the systems of English. Expanding ongoing draft. Department of Linguistics",
"authors": [
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [
"M I M"
],
"last": "Matthiessen",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. 1990. Lexicogrammatical Cartog- raphy: the systems of English. Expanding ongoing draft. Department of Linguistics, Uni- versity of Sydney, Australia.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF26": {
"ref_id": "b26",
"title": "The ROMPER system: responding to object-related misconceptions using perspective. Proceedings of the 24th. Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics",
"authors": [
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [
"F"
],
"last": "Mccoy",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "McCoy, K.F. 1986. The ROMPER system: responding to object-related misconceptions using perspective. Pro- ceedings of the 24th. Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, New York.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF27": {
"ref_id": "b27",
"title": "Pointing: A Way Toward Explanation Dialogue",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"D"
],
"last": "Moore",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"R"
],
"last": "Swartout",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "AAAI-90: Proc. 8th",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Moore, J.D. and Swartout, J.R. 1990. Pointing: A Way Toward Explanation Dialogue. In: AAAI-90: Proc. 8th",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF28": {
"ref_id": "b28",
"title": "on Artificial Intelligence",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Nat",
"middle": [],
"last": "Conf",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "; I. Menlo",
"middle": [],
"last": "Park",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "457--464",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Nat. Conf. on Artificial Intelligence. July 29, 1990--Aug. 3, 1990. Vol. I. Menlo Park et al.: AAAI Press / The MIT Press, 1990, pp. 457~464",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF29": {
"ref_id": "b29",
"title": "Intelligent Multi-Media Interface Technology",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"G"
],
"last": "Neal",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [
"C"
],
"last": "Shapiro",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1988,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Workshop on Architectures for Intelligent Interfaces: Elements and Prototypes",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "69--91",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Neal, J.G. and Shapiro S.C. 1988. Intelligent Multi-Media Interface Technology. In: Sullivan, J.W./Tyler, S.W. (eds): Proceedings of the Workshop on Architectures for Intelli- gent Interfaces: Elements and Prototypes. ACM/Addison- Wesley, 1989, pp. 69--91",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF30": {
"ref_id": "b30",
"title": "The Penman Project: The Penman Primer, User Guide and Nigel Manual. USC / Information Sciences Institute",
"authors": [],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Penman 1989. The Penman Project: The Penman Primer, User Guide and Nigel Manual. USC / Information Sciences Institute, Marina del Rey, CA, 1989",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF31": {
"ref_id": "b31",
"title": "Communication Paradigms for a Window System",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Reichman",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "285--313",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Reichman, R. 1986. Communication Paradigms for a Win- dow System. In: Norman, D.A. / Draper, S.W. (eds): User Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human- Computer Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ & London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986, pp. 285--313",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF32": {
"ref_id": "b32",
"title": "Integrated Interfaces Based on a Theory of Context and Goal Tracking",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Reichman",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Amsterdam",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1989,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "209--228",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Reichman, R. 1989. Integrated Interfaces Based on a Theory of Context and Goal Tracking. In: Taylor, M.M. / Neel, F. / Bouwhuis, D.G. (eds): The Structure of Multimo- dal Dialogue. Amsterdam et al.: North-Holland, 1989, pp. 209---228",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF33": {
"ref_id": "b33",
"title": "Modeling the lllocutionary Aspects of Information-Seeking Dialogues",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sitter",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Stein",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Arbeitspapiere der Gesellschaft fuer Mathematik und Datenverarbeitung",
"volume": "515",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sitter, S. and Stein, A. 1991. Modeling the lllocutionary Aspects of Information-Seeking Dialogues, Arbeitspa- piere der Gesellschaft fuer Mathematik und Datenverar- beitung 515, 1991",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF34": {
"ref_id": "b34",
"title": "Natural Language and the Exploration of an Information Space: the ALFresco Interactive System",
"authors": [
{
"first": "O",
"middle": [],
"last": "Stock",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "",
"volume": "91",
"issue": "",
"pages": "972--978",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Stock, O. 1991. Natural Language and the Exploration of an Information Space: the ALFresco Interactive System. IJCAI91, Sydney. pp972-978.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF35": {
"ref_id": "b35",
"title": "Explaining the link between causal reasoning and expert behavior",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [
"R"
],
"last": "Swartout",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Smoliar",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1987,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Symposium on Computer Applications in Medical Care",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Swartout, W.R. and Smoliar, S. 1987. Explaining the link between causal reasoning and expert behavior. In: Pro- ceedings of the Symposium on Computer Applications in Medical Care. Washington, D.C.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF36": {
"ref_id": "b36",
"title": "A Systemic Grammar of German for Text Generation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Teich",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Advances in Systemic Linguistics: Recent Theory and Practice",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Teich, E. 1991. A Systemic Grammar of German for Text Generation, to appear in: Davies, M., L. Ravelli, Advances in Systemic Linguistics: Recent Theory and Practice, in progress.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF37": {
"ref_id": "b37",
"title": "Konversationale graphische lnteraktion mit lnformationssystemen: Ein sprechakttheoretischer Ansatz. Dissertation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "U",
"middle": [],
"last": "Thiel",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "Conversational Graphical Interaction with Information-Systems. An approach based on Speechact Theory",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Thiel, U. 1990. Konversationale graphische lnteraktion mit lnformationssystemen: Ein sprechakttheoretischer An- satz. Dissertation, Universitat Konstanz. Title in English: Conversational Graphical Interaction with Information- Systems. An approach based on Speechact Theory.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF38": {
"ref_id": "b38",
"title": "A Case-Based Architecture for a Dialogue Manager for Information-Seeking Processes",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Tissen",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Procceedings of SIGIR '91",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Tissen, A. 1991. A Case-Based Architecture for a Dia- logue Manager for Information-Seeking Processes. In: Procceedings of SIGIR '91, October 13-16, 1991, Chica- go, USA",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF39": {
"ref_id": "b39",
"title": "Designing illustrated texts: how language production is influenced by the graphics generation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wahlster",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Andrt",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Graf",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rist",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 5th Conference of the European Chapter",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Wahlster, W., Andrt, E., Graf, W., and Rist, T. 1991. De- signing illustrated texts: how language production is in- fluenced by the graphics generation. Proceedings of the 5th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics.",
"links": null
}
},
"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": ". If he wants to see all the data he might select a presentation form that can show unlimited amounts of information, e.g. the table presentation form (cf.Figure 2). If he",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF1": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "~i~i;i::iiiii--i;i;:~::. ::::::::iiii#ii~:~::;~iiiiii. :i. :i~. :. :~j::: I !ii 7.",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF2": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "Interfacing SIC! with KOMET/Penman on the Knowledge Level",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF3": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "(a / ascription :domain (c / capacity :owned-by (p / presentation-form)) :range (e / exceeded)) Fig. 4 : SPL-Plan for \"The presentation-form's capacity is exceeded.\"",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF4": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "SPL-Plan for \"There are concepts that are not shown, because the presentation-form's capacity is exceeded\".",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF5": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "Integrating SIC! and KOMET/Penman Example: Let us consider the IGiNG-objects given in Figure 7.",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF6": {
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "IGiNG object hierarchy and sample instances",
"uris": null
}
}
}
} |